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= Europa Barbarorum = Europa Barbarorum ( Latin : Europe of the Barbarians ) , or EB , is a modification of the PC game Rome : Total War ( RTW ) based on the desire to provide Rome : Total War players with a more historically accurate game experience . The basic gameplay mechanics of the original game remain the same . The player controls an empire with the goal of conquering as much territory as possible and eliminating rival factions , which are controlled by the computer , or AI . The main campaign is split between two gameplay modes : a turn @-@ based strategy map for moving whole armies and managing the empire , and a real @-@ time battle map for fighting battles on the ground between two or more armies . The two game modes are linked , with success or failure in one game mode influencing the chances of success or failure in the other . Although set in a similar historical period and geographical area to the unmodified game ( covering a timespan of 272 BC to 14 AD , compared to the original game 's 270 BC to 14 AD ) , Europa Barbarorum is a total conversion modification as it replaces all the aspects of the original Rome : Total War game that can be replaced , such as unit models , statistics and the musical score . The modification has received favourable reviews in a number of computer gaming magazines . PC Gamer magazine ranks Europa Barbarorum as the best mod for any of the seven Total War games released for the PC at that time . = = Gameplay = = In the original Rome : Total War the player took control of an empire , or " faction " , of classical Europe , North Africa or the Middle East , with the aim of expanding their faction 's territory and eliminating rival empires through military conquest and city @-@ building . Europa Barbarorum retains this basic gameplay mechanic and sets itself in a similar time period and geographical area to the original game . However , as a total conversion the mod replaces the particular factions , military units , buildings , and other elements present in the original game , and adds a new soundtrack and several brand @-@ new gameplay mechanics not present in the original , such as the installation of puppet rulers . The modification 's development team 's stated aim in making the changes that they have to Rome : Total War is to make the player 's experience of the ancient world more historically accurate . For this reason , numerous parameters of the game at the start of the campaign in 272 BC , such as generals ' names , the diplomatic relations between factions , and the particular understanding of the outside world that each faction has , have been set to correspond to the actual political situation in that year . Also for reasons of historical verisimilitude , factions , provinces on the campaign map and factions ' family members have been given vernacular names in Europa Barbarorum , rather than having Latinised or Anglicised ones , as in Rome : Total War . So , for instance , the original game 's Armenia faction is known as Hayasdan in Europa Barbarorum , and Germania as the Sweboz . Instead of having to play one 's first campaign as a Roman faction and only subsequently unlock playable campaigns as non @-@ Romans by defeating them in the Roman campaign , all twenty of Europa Barbarorum 's playable factions can be accessed by the player from the start . Furthermore , the one unplayable and three playable Roman factions of the original have been combined into a single playable faction in Europa Barbarorum , the Romani . Dissatisfied with the homogeneity of the factions of the original Rome : Total War , the Europa Barbarorum development team have sought to differentiate the playing experiences of the game 's different factions . So , for example , Rome : Total War 's trait @-@ acquisition system , where the player 's faction 's family members acquire certain characteristics and talents which make them more or less adept at certain tasks such as city management or military leadership , has been made more faction @-@ specific in Europa Barbarorum , with Hellenic characters ' traits , for instance , being based on Theophrastos ' Characters and Aristotle 's teachings on the Golden Mean , and Romans ' traits being partially based on the moral tales of Valerius Maximus . There are sometimes additional requirements for a family member to be able to gain a new trait : in order for them to compete in one of the Panhellenic Games , for instance , the player must ensure that they are stationed in the appropriate city on the campaign map in the year that the competition is scheduled to take place . One reviewer has commented that Europa Barbarorum 's expansions upon the original Rome : Total War 's trait system have served to add a role @-@ playing element to the game . = = = Campaign = = = As in the original Rome : Total War , Europa Barbarorum 's strategic campaign sees the player take control of a particular faction and then compete for territory and resources against all the other factions , which are controlled by the game 's artificial intelligence . The player is presented with a map of Europe , North Africa and the Near East in which territory is divided into 200 provinces , each of which contains a province capital , which will at any given point be controlled either by the player 's faction , a rival playable faction , or the non @-@ playable Eleutheroi faction , which represents the world 's minor kingdoms , regional powers and rebel states . If a faction should at any point find itself not in control of any provinces , it is eliminated from the game . Gameplay is turn @-@ based , each turn representing the passage of three months on the campaign map ( unlike the six months of the original Rome : Total War ) and alternating between the player managing their empire and the artificial intelligence making all the other factions ' moves . A key game mechanic of the campaign map is the annexation of territory , which is done province @-@ by @-@ province , either by successfully besieging the province capital , or by acquiring it from another faction through diplomacy . Once a faction has acquired a province , they may construct buildings in the province capital which either enable the recruitment of certain military units or grant various bonuses to the city such as greater resilience during a siege or a decreased likelihood of the province rebelling . Provided the city contains the appropriate buildings , the player may recruit military units in the city at the same time as undertaking construction projects . The aim of the game is to acquire a specified number of provinces and / or eliminate specified rival factions ( in Europa Barbarorum particular victory conditions differ for each faction ) , whilst avoiding being eliminated by the other factions . The campaign map itself of Europa Barbarorum covers a wider geographical area than that of Rome : Total War , expanding into areas such as the Arabian Peninsula , India , Central Asia , and Scandinavia . Relief , province boundaries , snow boundaries , vegetation types , coastlines and areas prone to natural disaster in 272 BC have all been researched and implemented into the campaign map . The Nile – Red Sea canal linking the Indian Ocean and Mediterranean Sea has been added to the map , as have the great trade routes of the ancient world , such as the Amber and Silk Roads , which can be captured and exploited by the player or by the artificial intelligence . The selection of factions present in the original Rome : Total War has been overhauled in Europa Barbarorum . The original game 's Gaul faction has been replaced with two new factions , the Aedui and the Arverni . The Scythia faction has been replaced by the Sauromatae , and the Greek Cities faction ( which included various city @-@ states ) has been replaced by the Koinon Hellenon ( Ancient Greek : League of the Greeks ) , a faction which represents the Chremonidean League of Athens , Sparta and Rhodes . Entirely new factions include Baktria , a Central Asian Hellenic empire , and Epeiros , a western Greek faction famous for producing Pyrrhos of Epiros . On the other hand , the Numidia faction of Rome : Total War was removed entirely . The way in which factions enhance the provinces they own through the construction of new buildings in their province capitals has changed in Europa Barbarorum . The process of assimilating a newly conquered province into one 's empire has become more differentiated in the modification than it was in the original game through the introduction of so @-@ called " government buildings " and military – industrial complexes . Government buildings represent different degrees of central State intervention in a province , and range from a homeland government , which can only be built in a faction 's traditional ethnic homeland and represents the highest possible degree of central State control , to an allied state government , which makes the province in question semi @-@ autonomous and installs a puppet ruler to govern it on the controlling faction 's behalf . The choice of government building in a province affects what other buildings can be constructed there : the greater the degree of autonomy granted to a province , the greater the shift in the make @-@ up of the pool of buildings available for construction from the controlling faction 's own buildings to native buildings ; that is , buildings which are more closely associated with the faction that would make its traditional home in the province in question , rather than the one currently occupying it . Nomadic , desert- and steppe @-@ dwelling factions have their own government buildings , which some say has helped differentiate between Europa Barbarorum 's factions and make the differences between Europa Barbarorum and the original Rome : Total War more than just cosmetic . These government buildings also affect unit recruitment options in a province , through the mod 's introduction of military – industrial complex ( " MIC " ) buildings . The original Rome : Total War 's system of constructing and subsequently upgrading different types of building in order to recruit different types of soldier ( stables for horses , ranges for archers , and so on ) has been replaced in Europa Barbarorum by the " factional MIC " , which enables the recruitment of all the province @-@ controlling faction 's units , and the " regional MIC " , which enables the recruitment of native types of soldier . How far the two types of complexes can be upgraded depends on the government of the province : the greater the autonomy of the province , the more the native MIC may be upgraded , and the less the factional MIC may be upgraded ; and vice versa . In addition to buildings which can be constructed by the player , Europa Barbarorum also introduces a number of unique buildings or " wonders " which can either be man @-@ made structures or features of the landscape and which provide unique bonuses to the province . = = = Warfare = = = If , during their turn on the campaign map , the player should engage one of their armies in combat with another faction 's army , or if their troops should be engaged by another faction during the AI 's turn , the player then has the option of fighting a real @-@ time battle or siege . In this gameplay mode , the player directs the troops they had brought with them on the campaign map to the engagement , ordering them to manoeuvre and attack the enemy 's troops on a three @-@ dimensional battlefield . Troops can either be killed outright on the battlefield or made to rout and flee the field if their morale falls below a certain threshold . Reviewers have noted of Rome : Total War that , during a battle , troop numbers do not outweigh all other considerations ; other factors such as individual unit types ' strengths and soldiers ' morale and fatigue at the point of fighting are also taken into account . A battle is won when one side kills or routs the entire enemy army ; a siege may be won by the attacking side through either dispatching the opposing forces or gaining control of the besieged city 's central plaza for a certain number of minutes , and by the defending side either by killing the attackers or by destroying their siege equipment before they have managed to breach the city 's defences . The make @-@ up of the game 's units is one of the areas in which the most change can be seen going from the original game to the mod . Reviewers have commented that the differences between Europa Barbarorum and its parent game are " immediate " and " striking " and that the modification is different from its parent game " in look and in play " . Another reviewer described the mod as having a more " gritty , realistic look " than the original Rome : Total War . All the units that were present in the original game have been removed and replaced in Europa Barbarorum . Specific examples include the removal of several units that the Europa Barbarorum team considered to be historically doubtful or only marginally used in warfare , such as Arcani , incendiary pigs and Celtic head @-@ hurlers from the original Rome : Total War . Nor was the modding team happy with the way more conventional forces were portrayed in the original game , for instance calling Rome : Total War 's Egyptian soldiers " Mummy Returns Egyptians " and hence creating a new unit roster for the Egyptian faction in the game ( named Egypt in the original Rome : Total War and the Ptolemaioi in Europa Barbarorum ) , in order to better correspond with the Ptolemaic period of history . The mod also features new custom battle formations in order to encourage more realistic behaviour from the AI . = = Audio = = Europa Barbarorum features its own soundtrack , distinct from that of Rome : Total War . Some of its tracks were composed especially by Morgan Casey and Nick Wylie ; others are examples of authentic music , the Celtic factions ' tracks , for example , having been recorded by early music ensemble Prehistoric Music Ireland . Europa Barbarorum also includes its own " voicemod " , an attempt by the developers to replace the English cries of Rome : Total War 's soldiers with ones in their native languages , which include classical Latin , Celtic , and ancient Greek . = = Development = = The Europa Barbarorum project began in January 2004 , eight months before Rome : Total War 's release , when the Europa Barbarorum development team who were following the game 's development became concerned that its " barbarian " factions such as the Gauls were being portrayed inaccurately . The Europa Barbarorum team felt that such factions ' representations in Rome : Total War conformed more to a Hollywood stereotype than to historical fact , and wished to see a more realistic portrayal of such factions in the game . The modding team tried to convince the Creative Assembly ( CA ) , the developers of Rome : Total War , to alter their depiction of the period in line with the team 's research , but the developers failed to take them up on their offer . Having exhausted this avenue for change , the Europa Barbarorum members then resolved to modify the game themselves upon its release . = = Release = = Europa Barbarorum was first released to the public as an open beta in December 2005 . After several more minor releases throughout 2006 which mostly fixed bugs and made small adjustments to the modification , the next major release of Europa Barbarorum was version 0 @.@ 80 in December 2006 . Its changes included the addition of the Sabaean faction , new music , and the inclusion of a new military – industrial complex system . There were three more 0 @.@ 8 @-@ series releases during the first half of 2007 which primarily made minor adjustments to the modification and fixed bugs . In total , over 135 @,@ 000 downloads of the 0 @.@ 80 – 0 @.@ 81 versions were tracked . The next major release was version 1 @.@ 0 , which was released in October 2007 and included new units , new government options for the Pahlava and Hayasdan factions , the addition of a new type of wall to the battle map and new music from prehistoric music group Prehistoric Music Ireland . The 1 @.@ 0 version was downloaded over 90 @,@ 000 times in the six months following its release . This was followed by version 1 @.@ 1 , which was released in April 2008 and included new battle map landscapes , new units , the addition of the Pahlavi voicemod and the inclusion of an introduction video for the Saka Rauka faction . The current release is version 1 @.@ 2 , which contains the addition of the Punic voicemod and bug fixes ; the development team had previously stated that future releases of Europa Barbarorum for the Rome : Total War engine will not include any major gameplay changes . Europa Barbarorum has seen some significant changes to its campaign over the course of its development . The Yuezhi faction , included in early releases of the modification , was subsequently dropped . Earlier releases of Europa Barbarorum also featured player alerts representing the major stages of the breakup of the Seleukid faction , if that collapse occurred in the game . However , such features became impossible to implement after the SPQR faction of the original game , used in Europa Barbarorum for scripting purposes , was removed from the mod in exchange for the kingdom of Saba . Following the main modification 's release , a number of customisations of Europa Barbarorum have been created , such as porting it to run using the Rome : Total War : Barbarian Invasion executable , or Feral Interactive 's Mac OS X version of Rome : Total War . There had been plans to release a version of the mod for the PC game Europa Universalis : Rome , but no Europa Barbarorum mod has yet been released for the strategy title . = = = Europa Barbarorum II = = = The Europa Barbarorum development team also developed a new version of the modification for the Medieval II : Total War : Kingdoms engine which was named Europa Barbarorum II . The modification was designed to take advantage of the improved graphics of Medieval II : Total War and of its engine 's additional features , such as the possibility for different soldiers within the same unit to have different appearances , as opposed to the " clones " criticised by some reviewers of Rome : Total War . Europa Barbarorum II includes new government , unit recruitment and trait systems , and new playable factions such as the kingdom of Gandhara , which has its own Sanskrit voicemod . An initial version of Europa Barbarorum II v2.0 was released on August 25 , 2014 , with a second version ( v2.01 ) released on September 12 , 2014 . On December 21 , 2015 a third version ( 2.1b ) was released and provided a number of improvements , such as remodelled battle map settlements , battle map vegetation , and new units with military reforms for various factions . = = Reception = = Europa Barbarorum was featured and reviewed in a number of video game magazines . It has been reviewed in PC Gamer ( UK ) twice , in March 2005 and February 2008 . The 2008 review was overwhelmingly positive , saying that " EB feels like a whole new Total War game " , and going on to praise the modification 's " stunning " scope and the " striking " extent of the differences between it and Rome : Total War . The review was somewhat critical of the modification 's graphical user interfaces which " [ occasionally ] " had a " home @-@ made " feel to them , as well as its lack of accessibility and steep learning curve , although it adds that the second point is not a large problem as the modification is largely a " master 's challenge for accomplished Rome players " . The review finished on a positive note , summing Europa Barbarorum up as a " superior game " . In 2010 the same magazine 's website named Europa Barbarorum the best mod of any Total War game . A number of non @-@ English language magazines have also reviewed Europa Barbarorum . The Italian PC Gaming magazine Giochi per il mio computer reviewed the modification in April 2005 and March 2008 . The 2005 review reported that the modification , whose development team included two historians , was to replace the " economic system , [ soldiers ' ] equipment and the provinces " of Rome : Total War ; the latter review praised the mod for having " altered and deepened " the gameplay of the original title , and wrote that Europa Barbarorum was the best substitute for a Rome 2 : Total War game prior to the actual release of such a title . Dutch magazine PC Gameplay , reviewing the mod in March 2008 , also wrote that the mod was " perhaps the best candidate for the title Rome : Total War II " " until the official announcement " and went on to note that the list of changes that the modification had made to the original game almost constituted " a history book of its own " . The German magazine GameStar wrote in April 2007 that the Europa Barbarorum team had " banned all historical mistakes from the game " ; in January 2011 , another German publication , PC Games , also noted the mod 's historical accuracy , singling out its " more realistic , more [ challenging ] " battles for praise , although it did note that the mod was squarely aimed at experienced Rome : Total War players . Reviewing version 0 @.@ 74 of the mod in November 2006 , Romanian publication LeveL concurred that the mod was aimed at experienced players , adding that the modified version of the game put greater demands on the player 's computer than the original Rome : Total War , requiring 512 MB of RAM , up from the original 's 256 . Despite this , the reviewer praised the mod 's complexity , the " painstaking detail " that went into making the units and the mod 's soundtrack . Europa Barbarorum has also received several online reviews . The modification received a review early into its development process on gaming website HeavenGames , which said that it was an " ambitious " project and praised its commitment to historical accuracy , even stating that the Europa Barbarorum development team was going to use satellite imagery and climate change statistics to accurately portray the world as it was in 272 BC . Later , in 2008 , the modification has been reviewed on Boomtown , which praised the modification 's " incredibly well @-@ researched and -devised " unit stats system , as well as its " legion of historians " . The modification has sometimes been mentioned as a recommended complement to Rome : Total War in reviews of the original title – for instance , by Norwegian gaming website Gamereactor in 2007 . In addition , Europa Barbarorum was singled out for praise by the Creative Assembly themselves in 2011 , when they called the mod " breathtaking " in an official statement .
= Harriet Arbuthnot = Harriet Arbuthnot ( 10 September 1793 – 2 August 1834 ) was an early 19th @-@ century English diarist , social observer and political hostess on behalf of the Tory party . During the 1820s she was the " closest woman friend " of the hero of Waterloo and British Prime Minister , the 1st Duke of Wellington . She maintained a long correspondence and association with the Duke , all of which she recorded in her diaries , which are consequently extensively used in all authoritative biographies of the Duke of Wellington . Born into the periphery of the British aristocracy and married to a politician and member of the establishment , she was perfectly placed to meet all the key figures of the Regency and late Napoleonic eras . Recording meetings and conversations often verbatim , she has today become the " Mrs. Arbuthnot " quoted in many biographies and histories of the era . Her observations and memories of life within the British establishment are not confined to individuals but document politics , great events and daily life with an equal attention to detail , providing historians with a clear picture of the events described . Her diaries were themselves finally published in 1950 as The Journal of Mrs Arbuthnot . = = Early life = = Harriet Arbuthnot was born Harriet Fane , the daughter of the Hon. Henry Fane , second son of Thomas Fane , 8th Earl of Westmorland . As a young man , Henry Fane had been described as " very idle and careless and spending much time in the country " . However , he found time to be the Member of Parliament for Lyme and in 1772 was appointed Keeper of the King 's Private Roads . In 1778 , he married Arbuthnot 's mother , Anne Batson , an heiress , the daughter of Edward Buckley Batson . The couple had 14 children : nine sons and five daughters . The young Harriet spent much of her childhood at the family home at Fulbeck Hall in Lincolnshire , sited high on the limestone hills above Grantham . The house , which had been given to Henry Fane by his father , was a not over @-@ large modern mansion at the time of Arbuthnot 's childhood . It was rebuilt following a fire in 1733 , and further extended and modernised in 1784 by Henry Fane . At Fulbeck Harriet and her 13 siblings enjoyed a comfortable and reasonably affluent rural childhood . Harriet Fane 's father died when she was nine years old , but the family fortunes improved considerably in 1810 when her mother inherited the Avon Tyrrell estate in Hampshire and the Upwood Estate in Dorset . This yielded the widowed Mrs Fane an income of £ 6 @,@ 000 per annum ( £ 380 @,@ 000 per year as of 2016 ) , a large income by the standards of the day . With 14 children and a position in society to maintain , however , the money was fully utilised . = = Marriage = = Harriet Fane married Rt Hon Charles Arbuthnot , member of Parliament , at Fulbeck on 31 January 1814 . Born in 1767 , her husband was 26 years older than she was , an age difference which had initially caused her family to object to the marriage . Another of the principal obstacles to finalising the arrangements for the marriage was financial . Her widowed mother delegated the arrangements for the marriage of her 20 @-@ year @-@ old daughter to her elder son Vere , a 46 @-@ year @-@ old widower who was considered qualified in these matters as he worked at Child 's Bank . It seems that Vere Fane and his mother were not initially prepared to settle enough money on his sister to satisfy her future husband , causing the prospective bridegroom to write to his fiancée : " How can you and I live upon £ 1000 or £ 1200 and Fane [ her mother ] finds it so impossible to live upon her £ 6000 that she can offer you no assistance whatsoever ? " Charles Arbuthnot was a widower with four children ; his son Charles was a mere nine years junior to his new wife . His first wife Marcia , a lady in waiting to the notorious Princess of Wales , had died in 1806 . Like the other two men his second wife so admired , Viscount Castlereagh and Wellington , Charles Arbuthnot was a member of the Anglo @-@ Irish aristocracy . He had been a member of parliament since 1795 , when he became the member for East Looe . At the time of his marriage to Fane , he was the member for St Germans . He had briefly interrupted his political career to become Ambassador Extraordinary to the Ottoman Empire between 1804 and 1807 . Marriage to such a pillar of the establishment as Charles Arbuthnot opened all doors to his young new wife , who , as one of the 14 children of a younger son of an aristocratic family possessed of no great fortune , would otherwise have been on the periphery of the highest society . However , as the debate and wrangling over her dowry proved , money was tight . Throughout her marriage , Mrs Arbuthnot , the former Harriet Fane , formed close friendships with powerful older men . She described Castlereagh as her " dearest and best friend " until his death in 1822 , when she transferred her affections to the other great 19th @-@ century Anglo @-@ Irish peer , the Duke of Wellington . All social commentators of the time , however , agree that her marriage was happy ; indeed , her husband was as close a friend of Wellington 's as was his wife . Married to a politician , she was fascinated by politics and enjoyed success as a political hostess while exerting her energies to promote Tory causes . However , while she was the dominant partner , her conservative outlook ensured her continued favour among her elderly Tory admirers . During the early part of her marriage , her husband served as an Under @-@ Secretary at the Treasury . Later , in 1823 , he was given the Department of Woods and Forests , a position which gave him charge of the Royal parks and gardens . The subsequent access to the Royal family this allowed increased not only his status but also that of his wife . When remarking in her diaries on other women who shared their affections with great men of the day , Arbuthnot displayed a sharp , ironic wit . Of Wellington 's one @-@ time mistress Princess Dorothea Lieven , wife to the Imperial Russian ambassador to London from 1812 to 1834 , she wrote " It is curious that the loves and intrigues of a femme galante should have such influence over the affairs of Europe . " Arbuthnot obviously failed to realise she was regarded by some in London society as a femme galante in a similar situation herself . Her political observations are clearly written from her own Tory viewpoint . However , her detailed description of the rivalry for power between the Tories and Liberals which took place between 1822 and 1830 is one of the most authoritative accounts of this struggle . = = Relationship with Wellington = = It is likely that Arbuthnot first came to the attention of Wellington during 1814 in the re @-@ opened salons of Paris following the exile of Napoleon to Elba . Wellington had been appointed the British Ambassador to the Court of the Tuileries , and the city was crowded with English visitors anxious to travel on the continent and socialise after the Napoleonic Wars . Amongst those sampling the rounds of entertainment in this lively environment were the newly married Arbuthnots . Charles Arbuthnot was known to Wellington , as he had been a strong supporter of Wellington 's younger brother Henry during his divorce , and it is possible Wellington had met , or at least heard of , Mrs Arbuthnot — she was a first cousin to his favourites the Burghersh family . However , it was only after the death of Castlereagh in 1822 that the Wellington – Arbuthnot friendship blossomed . It is unlikely any close friendship developed before this time . Wellington , ensconced in the Hotel de Charost ( recently vacated by Napoleon 's sister Princess Pauline Borghese ) and fêted by the whole of Restoration Paris , had already found himself a close female companion , Giuseppina Grassini . This woman , known , due to her close friendship with Napoleon as " La Chanteuse de l 'Empereur " , scandalised Parisian society both English and French by appearing on Wellington 's arm , especially after the arrival in Paris of the Duchess of Wellington . The story of a " ménage à trois " between Mrs Arbuthnot , her husband Charles , and Wellington , widely speculated upon , has been rejected by some biographers . However , it has been said that the unhappily married Duke enjoyed his relationship with Mrs Arbuthnot because he found in her company " the comfort and happiness his wife could not give him . " Arbuthnot was certainly the Duke 's confidante in all matters , especially that of his marriage . He confided to her that he only married his wife because " they asked me to do it " and that he was " not the least in love with her . " In fact , Wellington had not seen his wife for ten years before their wedding day . Following the marriage , the bride and groom found they had little if anything in common . Despite producing two sons , they led mostly separate lives until the death of the Duchess of Wellington in 1831 . Harriet had a rather poor opinion of the Duchess , although she disagreed with Wellington when he said that his wife cared nothing for his comfort : in Harriet 's view the Duchess longed to make her husband happy , but had no idea how to go about the task . As a consequence of his unsatisfactory marriage , Wellington formed relationships with other women , but it was for Arbuthnot that " he reserved his deepest affection . " Her husband at this time was working at The Treasury and Arbuthnot in effect became what would today be termed Wellington 's social secretary during his first term of premiership between January 1828 and November 1830 . It has been suggested that the Duke of Wellington allowed her " almost unrestricted access to the secrets of the cabinet " . Whatever her knowledge and access , however , it appears she was unable to influence the Duke , but even his refusal to bring her husband into the Cabinet in January 1828 failed to shake the intimacy of the trio . Wellington made no attempts to conceal his friendship with Arbuthnot . An indication that their relationship was platonic and accepted as such in the highest echelons of society can be drawn from the Duchess of Kent permitting Wellington to present Arbuthnot to her infant daughter , the future Queen Victoria , in 1828 . Arbuthnot noted that the young princess was " the most charming child I ever saw " and that " the Duchess of Kent is a very sensible person , who educates her ( Victoria ) remarkably well . " Arbuthnot 's impressions of the Duchess were less than candid , and not shared by Wellington and other establishment figures . However , had Arbuthnot 's own character not been judged respectable an audience with the infant princess would not have been permitted . Many references in Arbuthnot 's diary , however , are less respectful than those she accorded to the Duchess of Kent . Wellington and Arbuthnot often travelled together , and a visit to Blenheim Palace they shared in 1824 provoked a scathing entry in her journal concerning Wellington 's fellow duke the 5th Duke of Marlborough , of whom she wrote : " The family of the great General is , however , gone sadly to decay , and are but a disgrace to the illustrious name of Churchill , which they have chosen this moment to resume . The present Duke is overloaded with debt , is very little better than a common swindler " . When Wellington and the Tories fell from power in November 1830 , Arbuthnot lost interest in her diary , writing : " I shall write very seldom now , I dare say , in my book , for , except the Duke , none of the public men interest me . " Her account of the break @-@ up of the Tory party is a thoroughly partisan narration , accurate as to happenings outside the Tory inner circle , but on a broader scale and not so completely political as that of Henry Hobhouse . = = Legacy = = Arbuthnot died suddenly of cholera at a farmhouse near the Arbuthnots ' seat , Woodford House , near Kettering in Northamptonshire , in the summer of 1834 . Immediately after her death an express message was sent to Apsley House . The messenger , however , had to divert to Hatfield House where Wellington was dining with the Marquess and Marchioness of Salisbury . After her death , it was revealed she had been on a civil list pension of £ 936 per annum ( £ 76 @,@ 000 per year as of 2016 ) since January 1823 . The exact nature of Arbuthnot 's relationship with Wellington has always been a subject for conjecture . Fuel was added to the speculations when Wellington was immediately pursued by female admirers following her death . One was a Miss Jenkins who , from the moment of Arbuthnot 's death , pursued him " body and soul . " Another , who resurfaced from his past , was Arbuthnot 's own cousin , the eccentric Lady Georgiana Fane , who constantly pestered Wellington with threats to publish intimate letters he had once sent her , and to sue him for , allegedly , reneging on a promise to marry her . It seems most likely that in addition to assisting Wellington with his social life , Harriet 's presence at his side protected him from the advances of other women . The Duke certainly kept mistresses during the period he knew Arbuthnot , but it has never been proven that Harriet was one of them . The tour at Apsley House , the Duke 's London residence , asserts that she merely served as his hostess at political dinners . After her death , Charles left Woodford House and lived with his close friend Wellington . Charles died at Apsley House in 1850 , aged 83 . During their time together the two elderly men mourned the loss of Arbuthnot and bemoaned the splits developing within the Tory party . Wellington lived on for another two years and was buried with due pomp and circumstance in St Paul 's Cathedral . Harriet Arbuthnot had been buried with the Fane family at St Nicholas ' parish church , Fulbeck .
= Battle of Iron Works Hill = The Battle of Iron Works Hill , also known as the Battle of Mount Holly , was a series of minor skirmishes that took place on December 22 and 23 , 1776 , during the American War of Independence . They took place in Mount Holly , New Jersey , between an American force mostly composed of colonial militia under Colonel Samuel Griffin and a force of 2 @,@ 000 Hessians and British regulars under Carl von Donop . While the American force of 600 was eventually forced from their positions by the larger Hessian force , the action prevented von Donop from being in his assigned base at Bordentown , New Jersey and in a position to assist Johann Rall 's brigade in Trenton , New Jersey when it was attacked and defeated by George Washington after his troops crossed the Delaware on the night of December 25 – 26 . = = Background = = In July 1776 forces of Great Britain under the command of General William Howe landed on Staten Island . Over the next several months , Howe 's forces , which were British Army regulars and auxiliary German troops usually referred to as Hessian , chased George Washington 's Continental Army out of New York City and across New Jersey . Washington 's army , which was shrinking in size due to expiring enlistments , and desertions due to poor morale , took refuge in Pennsylvania on the western shore of the Delaware River in November , removing all the available watercraft to deny the British any opportunity to cross the wide river . General Howe established a chain of outposts across New Jersey , and ordered his troops into winter quarters . The southernmost outposts were located at Trenton and Bordentown . The Trenton outpost was manned by about 1 @,@ 500 men of a Hessian brigade under the command of Johann Rall , and the Bordentown outpost was manned by Hessians and the British 42nd Regiment contingents , about 2 @,@ 000 troops in all , under the command of the Hessian Colonel Carl von Donop . Bordentown itself was not large enough to house all of von Donop 's force . While he had hoped to quarter some troops even further south at Burlington , where there was strong Loyalist support , floating gun batteries from the Pennsylvania Navy threatened the town , and Donop , rather than expose Loyalist allies to their fire , was forced to scatter his troops throughout the surrounding countryside . As the troops of von Donop and Rall occupied the last outposts , they were often exposed to the actions of rebel raids and the actions of Patriot militia forces that either arose spontaneously or were recruited by Army regulars . These actions frayed the nerves of the troops , as the uncertainty of when and where such attacks would take place , and by what size force , put the men and their commanders on edge , leading them to jump up to investigate every rumored movement . Rall went so far as to order his men to sleep " fully dressed like [ they were ] on watch . " One militia force that rose in December 1776 was a company under the command of Virginia Colonel Samuel Griffin . Griffin ( whose name is sometimes misspelled " Griffith " ) was the adjutant to General Israel Putnam , who was responsible for the defense of Philadelphia . Griffin 's force , whose exact composition is uncertain , probably included some Virginia artillerymen , Pennsylvania infantry , and New Jersey militia , and numbered five to six hundred . By mid @-@ December he had reached Moorestown , about ten miles southwest of Mount Holly . By December 21 , Griffin had advanced to Mount Holly and established a rough fortification atop a hill near an iron works , south of the Rancocas Creek and the village center . Von Donop sent a Loyalist to investigate , who reported a force of " not above eight hundred , nearly one half boys , and all of them Militia a very few from Pennsylvania excepted " . Thomas Stirling , who commanded a contingent of the 42nd positioned about seven miles north of Mount Holly at Blackhorse ( present @-@ day Columbus ) , heard rumors that there were 1 @,@ 000 rebels at Mount Holly and " 2 @,@ 000 more were in the rear to support them " . When von Donop asked Stirling for advice , he replied , " You sir , with the troops at Bordentown , should come here and attack . I am confident we are a match for them . " = = Battle = = On December 21 , about 600 of Griffin 's troops overwhelmed a guard outpost of the 42nd located about one mile south of Blackhorse at Petticoat Bridge . On the evening of December 22 , Washington 's adjutant , Joseph Reed , went to Mount Holly and met with Griffin . Griffin had written to Reed , requesting small field pieces to assist in their actions , and Reed , who had been discussing a planned attack on Rall 's men in Trenton with Washington , wanted to see if Griffin 's company could participate in some sort of diversionary attack . Griffin was ill , and his men poorly equipped for significant action , but they apparently agreed to some sort of actions the next day . On the morning of December 23 , von Donop brought about 3 @,@ 000 troops ( the 42nd British ( Highland ) Regiment and the Hessian Grenadier battalions Block and Linsing ) to Petticoat Bridge where they overwhelmed Griffin 's men . Griffin 's troops retreated to Mount Holly where von Donop reported scattering about 1 @,@ 000 men near the town 's meeting house . Jäger Captain Johann Ewald reported that " some 100 men " were posted on a hill " near the church " , who " retired quickly " after a few rounds of artillery were fired . Griffin , whose troops had occupied Mount Holly , slowly retreated to their fortified position on the hill , following which the two sides engaged in ineffectual long @-@ range fire . = = Aftermath = = Von Donop 's forces bivouacked in Mount Holly on the night of December 23 , where , according to Ewald , they plundered the town , breaking into alcohol stores of abandoned houses and getting drunk . Von Donop himself took quarters in the house that Ewald described as belonging to an " exceedingly beautiful widow of a doctor " , whose identity is uncertain . The next day , December 24 , they moved in force to drive the militia from the hill , but Griffin and his men had retreated to Moorestown during the night . For whatever reason , von Donop and his contingents remained in Mount Holly , 18 miles ( 29 km ) and a full day 's march from Trenton , until a messenger arrived on December 26 , bringing the news of Rall 's defeat by Washington that morning . News of the skirmishes at Mount Holly was often exaggerated . Published accounts of the day varied , including among participants in the battle . One Pennsylvanian claimed that sixteen of the enemy were killed , while a New Jersey militiaman reported seven enemy killed . Both Donop and Ewald specifically denied any British or German casualties occurred during the first skirmish on December 22 , while the Pennsylvania Evening Post reported " several " enemy casualties with " two killed and seven or eight wounded " of the militia through the whole action . Some reporters , including Loyalist Joseph Galloway , assumed that Griffin had been specifically sent to draw von Donop away from Bordentown , but von Donop 's decision to attack in force was apparently made prior to Reed 's arrival . Reed noted in his journal that " this manouver [ sic ] , though perfectly accidental , had a happy effect as it drew off Count Donop .... " The planning for Washington 's crossing of the Delaware did include sending a militia force to Griffin in an attack on von Donop at Mount Holly ; this company failed to cross the river . = = Legacy = = The hill that Griffin 's militia occupied is located at Iron Works Park in Mount Holly . The battle is reenacted annually .
= Bare @-@ tailed woolly opossum = The bare @-@ tailed woolly opossum ( Caluromys philander ) is an opossum from South America . It was first described by Swedish zoologist Carl Linnaeus in 1758 . The bare @-@ tailed woolly opossum is characterized by a gray head , brown to gray coat , orange to gray underside and a partially naked tail . It is nocturnal ( active mainly at night ) and solitary ; there is hardly any social interaction except between mother and juveniles and in mating pairs . The opossum constructs nests in tree cavities , and its litter size ranges from one to seven . Gestation lasts 25 days , and the juveniles exit the pouch after three months ; weaning occurs a month later . The bare @-@ tailed woolly opossum inhabits subtropical forests , rainforests , secondary forests and plantations ; its range extends from northern Venezuela to northeastern and southcentral Brazil . The IUCN classfies this opossum as least concern . = = Taxonomy = = The bare @-@ tailed woolly opossum is one of the three members of Caluromys , and is placed in the family Didelphidae in the marsupial order Didelphimorphia . It was first described by Swedish zoologist Carl Linnaeus as Didelphis philander in the 10th edition of Systema Naturae ( 1758 ) . It was given its present binomial name , Caluromys philander , by American zoologist Joel Asaph Allen in 1900 . A 1955 revision of marsupial phylogeny grouped Caluromys , Caluromysiops , Dromiciops ( monito del monte ) and Glironia ( bushy @-@ tailed opossum ) under a single subfamily , Microbiotheriinae , noting the dental similarities among these . A 1977 study argued that these similarities are the result of convergent evolution , and placed Caluromys , Caluromysiops and Glironia in a new subfamily , Caluromyinae . In another similar revision in 2009 , the bushy @-@ tailed opossum was placed in its own subfamily , Glironiinae . The following four subspecies are recognized : C. p. affinis Wagner , 1842 : Occurs in Mato Grosso ( Brazil ) and Bolivia . C. p. dichurus Wagner , 1842 : Occurs in eastern and southeastern Brazil . C. p. philander Linnaeus , 1758 : Occurs to the east of Rio Negro in Brazil , the Guianas , and to the south of the Orinoco River in Venezuela . C. p. trinitatis Thomas , 1894 : Occurs in Trinidad and to the north of the Orinoco River in Venezuela . The cladogram below , based on a 2016 study , shows the phylogenetic relationships of the bare @-@ tailed woolly opossum . = = Description = = The bare @-@ tailed woolly opossum is characterized by a brown to gray coat , gray head , orange to gray underside and a partially naked tail furry at the base . A distinctive , narrow dark brown stripe runs between the eyes and the ears , from the tip of the nose to the back of the ears . Similar but broad streaks run from brown rings around either eye . Grayish fur separates these stripes from one another . Ears are large and almost always hairless . The coat is thick , soft and woolly ; the flanks may be grayer than the back . The dorsal hairs continue up to 5 – 7 centimetres ( 2 @.@ 0 – 2 @.@ 8 in ) onto the tail , after which it is naked , as the name suggests . The tail is dark brown towards the end , spotted with white and dark brown , terminating in a white or yellowish white tip . The size appears to decrease from Venezuela to Suriname ; the mean weight is 170 grams ( 6 @.@ 0 oz ) in Venezuela and 250 grams ( 8 @.@ 8 oz ) in Suriname . The head @-@ and @-@ body length is typically between 16 and 26 centimetres ( 6 @.@ 3 and 10 @.@ 2 in ) . The ears measure 3 to 3 @.@ 5 centimetres ( 1 @.@ 2 to 1 @.@ 4 in ) , the tail 25 to 36 centimetres ( 9 @.@ 8 to 14 @.@ 2 in ) and the hind feet 3 @.@ 2 to 3 @.@ 9 centimetres ( 1 @.@ 3 to 1 @.@ 5 in ) . The dental formula is 5 @.@ 1 @.@ 3 @.@ 44 @.@ 1 @.@ 3 @.@ 4 – typical of didelphids . = = Ecology and behavior = = The bare @-@ tailed woolly opossum is nocturnal ( active mainly at night ) , and thus difficult to observe or capture . Nevertheless , it is one of the very few opossums that have been successfully studied in detail . A study showed that activity of bare @-@ tailed woolly opossums can be affected by the extent of moonlight . While activity in males dropped from new moon to full moon ( that is , with increasing exposure to moonlight ) , activity in females remained largely unaffected . The opossum is arboreal ( tree @-@ living ) and a good climber . A study showed that the tail , being prehensile , can act as an additional limb for locomotion , avoiding falls and carrying leaves to build nests . It builds nests with dry leaves in tree cavities . Individuals tend to be aggressive to one another ; hisses , grunts and even distress calls accompany agonistic behavior . Largely solitary , the only interactions observed are between mother and juveniles and in a mating pair . In a primary forest of French Guiana , the mean home range size was calculated as 3 hectares ( 0 @.@ 012 sq mi ) . Ranges of both sexes overlapped extensively . The size of home ranges is influenced by environmental factors such as forage availability and individual needs . ' Click 's are a common vocalization , produced by the young as well as adults . Bare @-@ tailed woolly opossums , like other Caluromys species , will bite on being handled or to escape predators . Predators include the jaguarundi and margay . = = = Diet = = = An omnivore , the bare @-@ tailed woolly opossum feeds on fruits , vegetables , gum , nectar , small birds and reptiles . A study of the foraging behavior of the bare @-@ tailed woolly opossum and the sympatric kinkajou showed that both feed on a variety of plants , choose plants by their abundance , show similar preferences , and favor certain plant parts at certain times of the year . A notable difference between the two was that while the kinkajou focused on plants with a wide distribution , the bare @-@ tailed woolly opossum also fed on less common plants . = = = Reproduction = = = In French Guiana , females mate successfully after they are a year old . Females can have three litters a year , unless food is scarce . Gestation lasts 25 days – the longest among didelphomorphs ; the young come out of the pouch at three months and weaning occurs at four months . A study in French Guiana showed that development of the offspring is slow for the first 40 days , and then accelerates during the last 40 days . The litter size ranges from one to seven . Newborn weigh 200 milligrams ( 0 @.@ 0071 oz ) , and their weight increases to 11 grams ( 0 @.@ 39 oz ) after weaning . After exiting the pouch , offspring are sheltered in nests , where the mother regularly visits them for nursing . = = Distribution and status = = The bare @-@ tailed woolly opossum inhabits subtropical forests , rainforests , secondary forests and plantations ; it prefers dense cover , though it can be seen on canopies as well . It can occur up to an altitude of 1 @,@ 200 – 1 @,@ 800 metres ( 3 @,@ 900 – 5 @,@ 900 ft ) above the sea level . The range extends from northern Venezuela eastward to northeastern and southcentral Brazil , and includes Guiana , French Guiana , Margarita Island , Trinidad , and Suriname . The IUCN classifies the bare @-@ tailed woolly opossum as least concern , due to its wide distribution and presumably large population . The survival of this opossum is threatened by deforestation and habitat loss .
= Dark Magus = Dark Magus is a live double album by American jazz composer and trumpeter Miles Davis . It was recorded on March 30 , 1974 , at Carnegie Hall in New York City . Davis ' group at the time included bassist Michael Henderson , drummer Al Foster , percussionist James Mtume , saxophonist Dave Liebman , and guitarists Pete Cosey and Reggie Lucas . He also used the show to audition saxophonist Azar Lawrence and guitarist Dominique Gaumont . Dark Magus was produced by Teo Macero and featured four two @-@ part recordings titled after Swahili names for the numbers one through four . Dark Magus was released after Davis ' 1975 retirement , upon which his label , Columbia Records , issued several albums of various outtakes . After releasing the live recordings Agharta ( 1975 ) and Pangaea ( 1976 ) , Columbia decided that they did not approve of the albums and released Dark Magus only in Japan . It was issued in 1977 by CBS @-@ Sony . The label 's A & R executive Tatsu Nosaki suggested the album 's title , which referred to the Magus from the Zoroastrian religion . Along with Davis ' other records during the 1970s , Dark Magus was received ambivalently by contemporary music critics , but it inspired noise rock acts during the late 1970s and the experimental funk artists of the 1980s . The album was not released in the United States until July 1997 , when it was reissued by Sony Records and Legacy Records . In retrospective reviews , critics praised its jazz @-@ rock aesthetic and the group members ' performances , and some believed certain parts foreshadowed jungle music . = = Background = = Davis was 47 years old when he was asked to play Carnegie Hall in 1974 , which followed four years of relentless touring . He had played the venue numerous times before and recorded a live album there in 1961 . By 1974 , Davis had been dealing with depression , cocaine and sex addictions , and several health problems , including osteoarthritis , bursitis , and sickle @-@ cell anemia . He had also lost respect with both critics and his contemporaries because of his musical explorations into more rock- and funk @-@ oriented sounds . Influenced by Karlheinz Stockhausen , Davis wanted to avoid individual songs and instead record extended movements that developed into a different composition . He played his trumpet sparsely and became less of the focal point for his band , whom he allowed more freedom to improvise and with whom he rarely rehearsed , so that the young musicians he enlisted would be tested to learn and play together onstage . The March 30 , 1974 , concert featured an ethnically and age @-@ diverse audience that included young hippies and old , wealthy attendees . According to Magnet magazine 's Bryan Bierman , " the hip , ' with it ' kids [ sat ] side @-@ by @-@ side with middle @-@ aged tuxedoed couples , expecting to hear ' My Funny Valentine . ' " Although he lived 15 minutes away , Davis arrived at the venue more than an hour late . When the band walked out onstage , he followed with his back turned to the audience . He casually strolled onstage while the band was setting up and began to play , to which they responded by playing a dense rhythm in unison . Saxophonist Dave Liebman , who wrote the liner notes for Dark Magus , later said of how the show began : " It is his whim .. That 's the thing ! ... Miles can do that and have three thousand musicians follow him . Right ? So what I learned in that respect from Miles was to be able to watch him and be on his case " . Davis also used the show to audition two new members — tenor saxophonist Azar Lawrence and guitarist Dominique Gaumont . Lawrence was the most highly regarded young saxophonist at the time ; Davis enlisted Gaumont in response to incumbent guitarist Reggie Lucas 's demand for a pay raise . Although it was unexpected , Liebman later characterized the move as typical of Davis : " What he was doing — which he often does at big kinda gigs like that — is change the shit up , by doing something totally out . Totally unexpected . I mean , we had been a band together on the road for a year ... And then , suddenly , a live date , New York City , Carnegie Hall , the cat pulls two cats who never even saw each other . I mean , you gotta say , ' Is the man mad or is he – he 's either mad or extremely subtle . " = = Composition and performance = = Dark Magus features four two @-@ part compositions with an average length of 25 minutes each . The album 's music was unrehearsed and eschewed melody for improvisations around funk rhythms and grooves . According to AllMusic 's Thom Jurek , rhythms , colors , and keys " would shift and change on a whim from Davis . " Davis eschewed his previous performances ' keyboardists for a three @-@ guitar line @-@ up of Reggie Lucas , Dominique Gaumont , and Pete Cosey , who had a penchant for guitar wails and pedal effects . Davis often stopped the band with hand signals and created empty spaces , which were longer than traditional jazz breaks , and encouraged the soloists to fill them with exaggerated cadenzas . Davis only soloed intermittently or played his Yamaha organ . He played trumpet on " Moja " and both trumpet and organ on the other pieces . The second half of " Moja " is distinguished by a long ballad sequence introduced by Liebman and continued by Lucas and Davis . " Moja " also included a theme from " Nne " . On " Tatu " , Gaumont followed Lucas 's solo with a long passage characterized by fuzzy wah @-@ wah effects , and Lawrence played briefly with Liebman in a duet before his own disjointed solo . " Tatu " ended with a rendition of " Calypso Frelimo " . During the first part of " Nne " , they played the Davis @-@ penned composition " Ife " . Near the end of " Nne " , Davis played a short blues . Robert Christgau described the aesthetic on Dark Magus as a culmination of Davis ' previous albums and " bifurcated , like jazz @-@ rock again " . He argued that Davis left the two elements — jazz and rock — " distinct and recognizable " , whereas " pure funk " would have subsumed them both " in a new conception , albeit one that " favors rock . Christgau attributed the album 's jazz input to Lawrence 's " Coltranesque " saxophone , and the rock elements to guitarists Lucas and Gaumont , who " wah @-@ riff [ ed ] the rhythm " , and Pete Cosey , who produced " his own wah @-@ wah @-@ inflected noise into the arena @-@ rock stratosphere . " Erik Davis compared Davis ' trumpet sound to " a mournful but pissed @-@ off banshee " , and Cosey , Lucas , and Gaumont to " somewhere between and beyond James Brown and Can " , amid " quiet percussion passages [ that ] emerge like moonlit clearings " . = = Release and reception = = Dark Magus was released after Davis ' retirement , when his label , Columbia Records , issued several albums of various outtakes . They released his live albums Agharta ( 1975 ) and Pangaea ( 1976 ) , but ultimately did not approve of Davis ' live recordings and chose to issue Dark Magus only in Japan . It was released in 1977 by CBS @-@ Sony , who used several engineering fades in the album 's production to shorten the original concert for the final release . The album 's four tracks were titled after Swahili names for the numbers one through four . Its title was suggested by Tatsu Nosaki , an A & R executive from CBS @-@ Sony , who were producing the album . According to Nosaki , " Magus ... is the founder of the ancient Persian religion , Zoroastrianism . " The album was not released in the United States until July 1997 , when it was reissued by Sony Records and Legacy Records . It was part of the labels ' reissue of five two @-@ disc live albums by Davis , including Black Beauty : Miles Davis at Fillmore West ( 1970 ) , Miles Davis at Fillmore ( 1970 ) , Live @-@ Evil ( 1971 ) , and In Concert ( 1973 ) . The reissued albums featured liner notes written by his sidemen . Along with Davis ' other 1970s records , Dark Magus was received ambivalently by contemporary critics but became an inspiration to late 1970s noise rock acts and the experimental funk artists of the 1980s . Its 1997 reissue was ranked by Christgau as the 10th best album of the year in his list for The Village Voice 's annual Pazz & Jop critics ' poll . In 2001 , Q named it one of the " 50 Heaviest Albums of All Time " and called it " a maelstrom of uncut improvisational fury ... arguably the furthest out Miles ever got " . David Keenan placed it on his all @-@ time 105 best albums list for the Sunday Herald and said by ornamenting heavy grooves with tribal percussive instruments , wah @-@ wah effects , and otherworldly trumpet bursts , Davis had instinctively fused the most advanced elements of modern African @-@ American music . According to CODA critic Greg Masters , Davis created among the most darkest and radical auras , feelings , and moods in 20th @-@ century music on Dark Magus . In a retrospective review for JazzTimes , Tom Terrell said that the album 's kind of music would never be heard again and described it as " tomorrow 's sound yesterday ... a terrifyingly exhilarating aural asylum of wails , howls , clanks , chanks , telltale heartbeats , wah wah quacks , white noise and loud silences . " According to Down Beat , the frantic burbles of congas on " Moja " and " Tatu " predated oldschool jungle by 20 years , while Spin magazine 's Erik Davis found its anguished , ferocious music extremely impressive , especially when listened to loud . He contended that the group improvisation on tracks such as " Wili " foreshadowed the drum ' n ' bass genre : " Miles was invoking the primordial powers of the electronic urban jungle " . In The Penguin Guide to Jazz ( 1998 ) , Richard Cook and Brian Morton wrote that each performance comprises only " shadings and sanations of sound , and as one gets to know these recordings better one becomes almost fixated on the tiniest inflexions . " Pitchfork Media critic Jason Josephes viewed it as a highly valued Davis album that invokes a sense of coolness in listeners : Just when you think the shit can 't get much higher , Miles comes in and hits the wah @-@ wah down hard on the horn and the next thing you know , you 're slappin ' five to the man upstairs ... By the rite of Dark Magus , I can fake the cool in no time flat . In The Rolling Stone Album Guide ( 2004 ) , J. D. Considine wrote that Dark Magus expressed the band 's surging rhythms better than In Concert and offered a balance between their affinity for improvisation amidst their desire to rock . Jeff McCord of The Austin Chronicle found the performances impassioned , enduring , and highlighted by effectively competitive playing between each duo of saxophonists and guitarists . According to John Szwed , it has moments when all three guitarists and two saxophonists are " in dense and exalted free improvisation together , and Pete Cosey 's tunings , effects , excess , and sheer inventiveness took the guitar to the point where Hendrix , free jazz , and rhythm and blues proudly merged together . " By contrast , Don Heckman of the Los Angeles Times found the funk rhythms repetitive and Davis ' playing both limited and unexceptional . He panned the presence of tablas , electric sitar , and multiple guitars , and the music 's similarity to Hendrix , Sly Stone , and James Brown . AllMusic 's Thom Jurek called it an exaggerated and excessive showcase of Davis ' disoriented psyche and felt that , although the rhythm section is historically captivating , the other musicians ' playing is inconsistent , albeit enthralling . = = Track listing = = = = = Original double LP = = = All tracks were composed by Miles Davis . Record one " Dark Magus – Moja " – 25 : 24 " Dark Magus – Wili " – 25 : 08 Record two " Dark Magus – Tatu " – 25 : 20 " Dark Magus – Nne " – 25 : 32 = = = CD reissue = = = Disc one " Moja ( Part 1 ) " – 12 : 28 " Moja ( Part 2 ) " – 12 : 40 " Wili ( Part 1 ) " – 14 : 20 " Wili ( Part 2 ) " – 10 : 44 Disc two " Tatu ( Part 1 ) " – 18 : 47 " Tatu ( Part 2 ) ( ' Calypso Frelimo ' ) " – 6 : 29 " Nne ( Part 1 ) ( ' Ife ' ) " – 15 : 19 " Nne ( Part 2 ) " – 10 : 11 = = Personnel = = Pete Cosey – electric guitar Miles Davis – electric trumpet with wah @-@ wah , Yamaha organ ( " Wili " , " Tatu " , and " Nne " ) Al Foster – drums Dominique Gaumont – electric guitar ( " Tatu " , " Nne " ) Michael Henderson – electric bass Azar Lawrence – tenor saxophone ( " Tatu " , " Nne " ) Dave Liebman – soprano saxophone , tenor saxophone Reggie Lucas – electric guitar Teo Macero – production James Mtume – percussion
= Tuvix = " Tuvix " is the 40th episode ( 24th in the second season ) of the science fiction television program Star Trek : Voyager . The episode originally aired on May 6 , 1996 , and tells the story of Tuvok and Neelix being merged into a unique third character named Tuvix . The episode was substantially rewritten from its original incarnation as a lighthearted story to a more somber tale with serious moral and ethical implications . Tom Wright guest stars as Tuvix to lend more credence to a unique new character that consists of equal parts Tuvok and Neelix . Both director Cliff Bole and Wright himself had reservations about the latter 's take on the character , and despite a perceived lack of support , Wright still praised the Voyager cast and crew . Both the story and performances of " Tuvix " were lauded by the production team and critics alike . Researchers and critics found " Tuvix " teeming with technical and philosophical content , including thematic ties to other episodes in the Star Trek canon , real @-@ world logical and metaphysical ramifications , and scientific concessions for the story . " Tuvix " was well received by fans and television critics , earning approval ratings between 75 – 80 % ; the Tuvix character and Janeway 's forced separation of the same were particularly polarizing among the episode 's audience and distinguishes the episode for the copious feedback it generated . = = Plot = = On stardate 49655 @.@ 2 , Lieutenant Commander Tuvok ( Tim Russ ) and Neelix ( Ethan Phillips ) are sent to collect botanical samples from a discovered Class M planet . When beamed back aboard Voyager , the two men and the orchidaceae they collected are merged at the molecular level to become a single lifeform which names himself Tuvix ( Tom Wright ) . After ruling out transporter malfunction , the crew discovers that when demolecularized in the matter stream , the genetic material of the alien orchids acted as a symbiogenetic catalyst and is the culprit for the combination of the two crewmembers . Unfortunately , the process cannot be reversed , and Tuvix is accepted as a member of the crew with the rank of lieutenant , functioning as chief tactical officer in Tuvok 's stead . Kes ( Jennifer Lien ) reacts poorly to Tuvix as his existence deprives her of both Tuvok and Neelix , her mentor and boyfriend respectively . Her displeasure lessens over the course of the episode , but never completely goes away . Captain Janeway ( Kate Mulgrew ) accepts Tuvix in his role as an excellent chief tactical officer and " an able advisor , who skillfully uses humor to make his points " . Tuvix himself , having the combined memories and personalities of his constituents , melds the previously intractable qualities of both and improves upon them , flexing either muscle as the situation requires : " Chief of security or head chef , take your pick ! " Two weeks after the accident , the Doctor ( Robert Picardo ) develops a contemporary equivalent to barium sulfate ( BaSO4 ) radiocontrasting using a custom radioisotope with which he can identify the disparate DNAs of the two original crewmen and use the transporter to disentangle the two . Tuvix denounces the procedure however . He argues that he has rights and that he doesn 't want to die , for to restore the two lost crewmen would require his execution . After discussing the situation with Commander Chakotay ( Robert Beltran ) , Kes , and Tuvix himself , Janeway ultimately decides to proceed with the separation , acting in absentia to protect the rights of the two original men . Tuvix makes a final emotive plea for support from the crew , but finds no supporters . After the Doctor refuses to take Tuvix 's life in compliance with the medical precept of doing no harm , Janeway performs the procedure herself and succeeds in restoring both Tuvok and Neelix . = = Production = = = = = Writing = = = " Tuvix " was formerly known as " Untitled Tuvok / Neelix " , " One " , and " Symbiogenesis " , with the third of these persisting through the episode 's development and shooting . The episode and its teleplay were written by Kenneth Biller ; the story is credited to Andrew Shepard Price and Mark Gaberman . Though described by Biller as " high @-@ concept " , the original story by Price and Gaberman was much more light @-@ hearted and tended more towards slapstick . Biller and Brannon Braga felt the tone of the episode was so akin to a 1960s sitcom , the two of them even wrote a theme song for it . Biller re @-@ wrote the episode to focus more on the serious philosophical questions raised by the episode and especially the inevitable separation of Tuvix back into the series regulars . In Biller 's original treatment , Tuvix recognized that the needs of the many outweigh the needs of the few and consented to his fissure . However , after a discussion with executive producer Michael Piller , Biller began to " [ poke ] at the audience " by throwing up roadblocks to the episode 's foregone conclusion ; first Tuvix was re @-@ written to object to the procedure and then the Doctor 's refusal was added to force Captain Janeway to put truth to action . Piller later described Biller as " the poet laureate of Star Trek " , highlighting his work on " Tuvix " and " Lifesigns " as examples . = = = Casting = = = Director Cliff Bole and the episode 's producers originally considered having series regular Ethan Phillips ( Neelix ) portray Tuvix , but decided against it fearing that he was too identifiable and would have difficulty integrating an equal amount of Tuvok 's character into his performance . Casting for " Tuvix " was done by Junie Lowry @-@ Johnson , C.S.A. , and Ron Surma . The only non @-@ recurring guest star in " Tuvix " is the eponymous fusion of two main characters . Though guest stars have occasionally played major recurring characters — e.g. , Sandra Smith as Captain Kirk in the original Star Trek 's " Turnabout Intruder " and David Birkin as Captain Picard in Star Trek : The Next Generation 's " Rascals " — Tom Wright is the first to portray two in the same episode . When contacted by his talent agent , Wright jumped at the opportunity to create a character wholly unique to the Star Trek franchise . When he auditioned for the role of Tuvix , Wright had never seen Star Trek : Voyager and was completely unfamiliar with the characterizations of Tuvok and Neelix . Instead , he drew upon his prior experiences with the characters ' actors , Tim Russ and Ethan Phillips respectively , to successfully vie for the role . Executive producer Jeri Taylor was pleased with the casting of Wright , marveling at his ability to bring credibility to the prospect of two characters in one . After securing the role , Wright was provided video of Tuvok and Neelix from previous episodes from which he refined the character . Instead of portraying Tuvix as simply a vessel for two separate consciousnesses , Wright blended the two characters to form a unique third . Wright focused on juxtaposing the contrary physical and emotional natures of the two characters in his performance ; in scenes where Neelix 's persona is more prominent , Wright played up Tuvok 's composed physicality , and in scenes where Tuvok 's skills and experience were needed , Wright leaned more heavily on Neelix 's exuberant mannerisms . Wright also worked hard to exhibit the intrinsic warmth of both characters and make Tuvix as likable and sympathetic a character as possible . Author David McIntee ( Delta Quadrant ) felt that Tuvix expressed more of Neelix 's mannerisms than Tuvok 's . He also noted that Tuvix adopted Neelix 's right @-@ handedness as opposed to Tuvok 's left @-@ handedness . = = = Costuming and makeup = = = McIntee hypothesizes that the modified Starfleet uniform Tuvix initially wears after his creation was influenced by the orchids which were also transported . He called it " an illogical but subtle and attractive stylistic touch " and praised its design suggesting they all be modified duly . Robert Blackman served as costume designer for " Tuvix " . In an interview with The Official Star Trek Voyager Magazine in 1998 , director Cliff Bole spoke highly of guest star Tom Wright , saying he was a " good actor [ who ] prides himself on being Shakespearian " , but felt that he was in over his head working on Star Trek , particularly underestimating the rigors of working under the requisite makeup . Bole detailed a four @-@ hour , 4 a.m. process to apply the glue , mask , and prostheses before the actor even began delivering his lines for what was an all @-@ day shoot ; all of these " subtract from [ the ] performance " of actors unaccustomed to them . Bole tempered himself explaining that he had seen " really competent actors " suffer from the same trials and simple exhaustion that he saw in Wright 's performance . For his part , Wright compared the trials of the " heavy makeup " and contact lenses required to play Tuvix with his previous roles on Creepshow 2 and Tales from the Crypt . Tuvix 's makeup was designed and supervised by Michael Westmore . = = = Filming = = = Tom Wright described working on " Tuvix " as an exercise in forcing himself to work outside his known comfort areas and confessed he was unsure of the quality of the end product . The actor complained about what he saw as a lack of support and guidance from the Voyager team , saying he felt adrift and unsure as to what was expected of his performance , especially since his portrayal reflected two of the starring characters . However , he also conceded that it may have been intentional in an effort to evoke a genuine sense of off @-@ balancedness in the character . Either way , though he was unaccustomed to the environment , Wright expressed his willingness to revisit Tuvix or even work on any Star Trek again if the opportunity arose . In interviews , Wright specifically fondly recalled his time working with Jennifer Lien ( Kes ) , Kate Mulgrew ( Captain Janeway ) , and director Cliff Bole . In a 1997 interview , Wright explained how the episode 's dialogue posed a challenge in that not only did he have to take great care to adhere to the vernacular of Star Trek and not sound too contemporary or " too 1997 " , but he had to take several days to accommodate himself to the episode 's " treknobabble " with the assistance of Robert Duncan McNeill ( Tom Paris ) . Director Cliff Bole later praised Wright for his ability to improvise , but explained that it was to the actor 's detriment as " Star Trek is not an ad @-@ lib format " , and he felt Wright assumed he could wing some of it . Mulgrew also bemoaned the technobabble in " Tuvix " when asked by Starlog for her " most memorable line of technobabble " ; " When did he cease to be a transporter accident and start to be an individual ? " Bole heaped praise on the episode 's final scene in which Janeway " stalks " into the corridor outside sickbay after performing the procedure which restores Tuvok and Neelix . He extolled , " That last shot I did with Kate [ Mulgrew ] , as she 's walking into the camera , she told the whole story with her face . She gave a great performance . I only asked for a few things ; she brought that look and emotion to work with her . " In his book The Meaning of Star Trek , author Thomas Richards also credited Mulgrew in this scene . Richards saw Janeway troubled by her difficult decision between two undesirable options and how " she must live with the choice . [ A ] death has cast a shadow over the ship , and for the first time in the series the Federation has put to death one of its own . " In a 1996 interview with Cinefantastique , Robert Picardo reminisced that as the Doctor he had " a substantial amount " to do in " Tuvix " . Picardo would also look back on the episode , and the scene in which he " countermand [ s ] the captain " especially , as a turning point in the Doctor 's and Janeway 's relationship , calling it an " interesting moment for both characters " . Ethan Phillips would also remember being excited reading the script for " Tuvix " as an opportunity to discover more about his character . The science lab set in the first act is a redress of the isolation chamber in sickbay , but with a blue background as opposed to the yellow . = = Analysis = = Elaine L. Graham 's book Representations of the Post / Human uses " Tuvix " to contrast Star Trek : Voyager with Star Trek : The Next Generation ; " Tuvix " is an example of how the former series tended to incorporate stories that touched on moral and ethically ambiguous situations and decisions . Graham notes how the character of Tuvix was written to encourage audience sympathies , yet was still effectively sentenced to death in contravention of what she describes as the " exemplary Star Trek values [ of ] sentience , self @-@ determination , and personhood " . Thomas Richards ' The Meaning of Star Trek also focused on the morality of decisions in " Tuvix " as compared to the original Star Trek and The Next Generation ; more than Star Trek : Deep Space Nine , the Voyager is far from the United Federation of Planets and " must address every value of the Federation [ ... ] in a universe in which those values may no longer apply . " Richards describes the episode as " truly remarkable " for its depiction of Janeway 's sentence of capital punishment and her performing the very first execution in all of Star Trek . Not only is this shocking for the audience in comparison to episodes and series past , but even the fictional Voyager crew are stunned . In 2000 , David McIntee pointed to these themes and plot points as having made " Tuvix " the most debated episode in Star Trek fandom yet , and one of Star Trek : Voyager 's " most thought @-@ provoking , and [ ... ] single most discussed , episode . " In her book American Science Fiction TV , Jan Johnson @-@ Smith noted that " Tuvix " is one of a recurring type of Star Trek episodes concerned with issues of individuality and self . She thematically tied this episode to Star Trek : The Original Series ' episode " The Enemy Within " where the transporter rends Captain Kirk into two separate representations of his psyche , Star Trek : Voyager 's episode " Faces " where hybrid Human / Klingon character B 'Elanna Torres is split along her bloodline into two separate species , and Star Trek : Deep Space Nine 's character of Jadzia Dax who is of a conjoined species ( Trill ) that repeatedly goes through a conjoining process when the host organism dies . When asked regarding accusations of " Tuvix " and other Voyager episodes simply aping previous Star Trek series in this way , executive producer Michael Piller called out Time magazine for their comments on the matter before conceding , " [ Y ] ou 've got to keep new people coming in and pitching because otherwise you 're going to be retreading an old ground . " Seven years later , when writing Star Trek : Enterprise 's " Similitude " , Manny Coto would take pains to write that episode to be dissimilar to " Tuvix " . In his paper published in the Polish Journal of Philosophy , University of Sussex professor Murali Ramachandran examines the combination of Tuvok and Neelix into a single individual for its implications to modal logic . Mr. Ramachandran , though forced to disregard the metaphysical considerations imposed by " the very nature of tele @-@ transportation " , promotes a " Kripkean counterpart theory " using this study of the characters . Athena Andreadis ' book To Seek Out New Life : The Biology of Star Trek attempts and fails to legitimize the episode 's biologic science , even accepting all other technologies presented . Not only does the synthesis of Tuvix violate the law of conservation of mass , but the separation poses the problem of differentiating the two species ' genes , a significant hurdle when science of the 1990s couldn 't differentiate between humans and chimpanzees . After detailing the combination of the Talaxian and Vulcan species , the cellular chromosomal pairing , and the " synaptic coherence of two brains / minds within one skull " , Andreadis finds the whole proposition laughable from a scientific standpoint , comparing it to the 1986 film The Fly as an example of bad science . Ultimately , she comes down against the transporter regarding its fictional capacity to do that which is claimed . = = = Tuvix ( character ) = = = Tom Wright spoke on his interpretation of the character in 1997 ; he felt the two constituent halves of Tuvix " represent [ ed ] the left and the right side of the brain — where one is weak the other is strong , and vice versa . " In his 2005 book , Teleportation : The Impossible Leap , David J. Darling notes that while Tuvix was well @-@ liked by other characters , his fate was in fact ultimately determined not by his arguments or the decision of the captain , but by the " [ e ] nsemble casting and contractual arrangements " of the show . Wright also felt the separation of Tuvix was inevitable from a perspective of dramatic necessity . The UPN promotional video for the episode played on expectations of the audience to like Tuvix at the cost of the Tuvok and Neelix characters . = = Reception = = In an interview with Cinefantastique , writer Kenneth Biller said that he received a " lot of mail " regarding " Tuvix " and that Janeway 's tough decisions in the episode generated a lot of discussion and really moved a lot of people . Director Cliff Bole felt the episode was " well @-@ accepted " , and both he and the producers liked it . Actor Tom Wright explained the episode 's popularity saying it resounded with viewers because it had no outright moralizations or specific good and evil characters ; the episode deals with a no @-@ win scenario . Writer Thomas Richards concurred with Wright in agreeing that the episode 's frank depiction without any judgments was a significant strength in its favor . Cinefantastique 's Dale Kutzera gave " Tuvix " three out of four stars , Nikki Harper for STAR TREK : The Official Monthly Magazine gave the episode four out of five stars , and Bill Florence for The Official Star Trek Voyager Magazine called it one of Voyager 's " strongest episodes to date " . In his book Delta Quadrant : The unofficial guide to Voyager , David McIntee was impressed by the episode 's capacity to rise above its " appallingly silly " premise ; McIntee attributes this to the casting of Tom Wright as Tuvix , whose acting he saw as a guide to the tempo of the episode , keeping it from proceeding too slowly . He gave the episode an 8 / 10 rating . In a list of the top 100 episodes of the Star Trek franchise , " Tuvix " was placed in 56th place by Charlie Jane Anders at io9 .
= Pe ̍ h @-@ ōe @-@ jī = Pe ̍ h @-@ ōe @-@ jī ( pronounced [ peʔ ˩ ue ˩ dzi ˨ ] , abbreviated POJ , literally vernacular writing , also known as Church Romanization ) is an orthography used to write variants of Southern Min Chinese , particularly Taiwanese Southern Min and Amoy Hokkien . Developed by Western missionaries working among the Chinese diaspora in Southeast Asia in the 19th century and refined by missionaries working in Xiamen and Tainan , it uses a modified Latin alphabet and some diacritics to represent the spoken language . After initial success in Fujian , POJ became most widespread in Taiwan and , in the mid @-@ 20th century , there were over 100 @,@ 000 people literate in POJ . A large amount of printed material , religious and secular , has been produced in the script , including Taiwan 's first newspaper , the Taiwan Church News . In Taiwan under Japanese rule ( 1895 – 1945 ) its use was suppressed and Pe ̍ h @-@ ōe @-@ jī faced further countermeasures during the Kuomintang martial law period ( 1947 – 1987 ) . In Fujian , use declined after the establishment of the People 's Republic of China ( 1949 ) and in the early 21st century the system was not in general use there . Taiwanese Christians , non @-@ native learners of Southern Min , and native @-@ speaker enthusiasts in Taiwan are among those that continue to use Pe ̍ h @-@ ōe @-@ jī . Full native computer support was developed in 2004 , and users can now call on fonts , input methods , and extensive online dictionaries . Rival writing systems have evolved , and there is ongoing debate within the Taiwanese mother tongue movement as to which system should be used . Versions of pe ̍ h @-@ ōe @-@ jī have been devised for other Chinese varieties , including Hakka and Teochew Southern Min . = = Name = = The name pe ̍ h @-@ ōe @-@ jī ( Chinese : 白話字 ; pinyin : Báihuà zì ) means " vernacular writing , " written characters representing everyday spoken language . The name vernacular writing could be applied to many kinds of writing , romanized and character @-@ based , but the term pe ̍ h @-@ ōe @-@ jī is commonly restricted to the Southern Min romanization system developed by Presbyterian missionaries in the 19th century . The missionaries who invented and refined the system used , instead of the name pe ̍ h @-@ ōe @-@ jī , various other terms , such as " Romanized Amoy Vernacular " and " Romanized Amoy Colloquial . " The origins of the system and its extensive use in the Christian community have led to it being known by some modern writers as " Church Romanization " ( 教會羅馬字 ; Jiàohuì Luōmǎzì ; Kàu @-@ hōe Lô @-@ má @-@ jī ) and is often abbreviated in POJ itself to Kàu @-@ lô . ( 教羅 ; Jiàoluō ) There is some debate on whether " pe ̍ h @-@ ōe @-@ jī " or " Church Romanization " is the more appropriate name . Objections to " pe ̍ h @-@ ōe @-@ jī " are that it can refer to more than one system and that both literary and colloquial register Southern Min appear in the system and so describing it as " vernacular " writing might be inaccurate . Objections to " Church Romanization " are that some non @-@ Christians and some secular writing use it . One commentator observes that POJ " today is largely disassociated from its former religious purposes . " The term " romanization " is also disliked by some , who see it as belittling the status of pe ̍ h @-@ ōe @-@ jī by identifying it as a supplementary phonetic system instead of a fully @-@ fledged orthography . Sources disagree on which of the two is more commonly used . = = History = = The history of Peh @-@ oe @-@ ji has been heavily influenced by official attitudes towards the Southern Min vernaculars and the Christian organizations that propagated it . Early documents point to the purpose of the creation of POJ as being pedagogical in nature , closely allied to educating Christian converts . = = = Early development = = = The first people to use a romanized script to write Southern Min were Spanish missionaries in Manila in the 16th century . However , it was used mainly as a teaching aid for Spanish learners of Southern Min , and seems not to have had any influence on the development of pe ̍ h @-@ ōe @-@ jī . In the early 19th century , China was closed to Christian missionaries , who instead proselytized to overseas Chinese communities in South East Asia . The earliest origins of the system are found in a small vocabulary first printed in 1820 by Walter Henry Medhurst , who went on to publish the Dictionary of the Hok @-@ këèn Dialect of the Chinese Language , According to the Reading and Colloquial Idioms in 1832 . This dictionary represents the first major reference work in POJ , although the romanization within was quite different from the modern system , and has been dubbed Early Church Romanization by one scholar of the subject . Medhurst , who was stationed in Malacca , was influenced by Robert Morrison 's romanization of Mandarin Chinese , but had to innovate in several areas to reflect major differences between Mandarin and Southern Min . Several important developments occurred in Medhurst 's work , especially the application of consistent tone markings ( influenced by contemporary linguistic studies of Sanskrit , which was becoming of more mainstream interest to Western scholars ) . Medhurst was convinced that accurate representation and reproduction of the tonal structure of Southern Min was vital to comprehension : Respecting these tones of the Chinese language , some difference of opinion has been obtained , and while some have considered them of first importance , others have paid them little or no intention . The author inclines decidedly to the former opinion ; having found , from uniform experience , that without strict attention to tones , it is impossible for a person to make himself understood in Hok @-@ këèn . The system expounded by Medhurst influenced later dictionary compilers with regard to tonal notation and initials , but both his complicated vowel system and his emphasis on the literary register of Southern Min were dropped by later writers . Following on from Medhurst 's work , Samuel Wells Williams became the chief proponent of major changes in the orthography devised by Morrison and adapted by Medhurst . Through personal communication and letters and articles printed in The Chinese Repository a consensus was arrived at for the new version of POJ , although Williams ' suggestions were largely not followed . The first major work to represent this new orthography was Elihu Doty 's Anglo @-@ Chinese Manual with Romanized Colloquial in the Amoy Dialect , published in 1853 . The manual can therefore be regarded as the first presentation of a pre @-@ modern POJ , a significant step onwards from Medhurst 's orthography and different from today 's system in only a few details . From this point on various authors adjusted some of the consonants and vowels , but the system of tone marks from Doty 's Manual survives intact in modern POJ . John Van Nest Talmage has traditionally been regarded as the founder of POJ among the community which uses the orthography , although it now seems that he was an early promoter of the system , rather than its inventor . In 1842 the Treaty of Nanking was concluded , which included among its provisions the creation of treaty ports in which Christian missionaries would be free to preach . Xiamen ( then known as Amoy ) was one of these treaty ports , and British , Canadian and American missionaries moved in to start preaching to the local inhabitants . These missionaries , housed in the cantonment of Gulangyu , created reference works and religious tracts , including a bible translation . Naturally , they based the pronunciation of their romanization on the speech of Xiamen , which became the de facto standard when they eventually moved into other areas of the Hokkien Sprachraum , most notably Taiwan . The 1858 Treaty of Tianjin officially opened Taiwan to western missionaries , and missionary societies were quick to send men to work in the field , usually after a sojourn in Xiamen to acquire the rudiments of the language . = = = Maturity = = = Quanzhou and Zhangzhou are two major varieties of Southern Min , and in Xiamen they combined to form something " not Quan , not Zhang " – i.e. not one or the other , but rather a fusion , which became known as Amoy Dialect or Amoy Chinese . In Taiwan , with its mixture of migrants from both Quanzhou and Zhangzhou , the linguistic situation was similar ; although the resulting blend in the southern city of Tainan differed from the Xiamen blend , it was close enough that the missionaries could ignore the differences and import their system wholesale . The fact that religious tracts , dictionaries , and teaching guides already existed in the Xiamen tongue meant that the missionaries in Taiwan could begin proselytizing immediately , without the intervening time needed to write those materials . Missionary opinion was divided on whether POJ was desirable as an end in itself as a full @-@ fledged orthography , or as a means to literacy in Chinese characters . William Campbell described POJ as a step on the road to reading and writing the characters , claiming that to promote it as an independent writing system would inflame nationalist passions in China , where characters were considered a sacred part of Chinese culture . Taking the other side , Thomas Barclay believed that literacy in POJ should be a goal rather than a waypoint : Soon after my arrival in Formosa I became firmly convinced of three things , and more than fifty years experience has strengthened my conviction . The first was that if you are to have a healthy , living Church it is necessary that all the members , men and women , read the Scriptures for themselves ; second , that this end can never be attained by the use of the Chinese character ; third , that it can be attained by the use of the alphabetic script , this Romanised Vernacular . A great boon to the promotion of POJ in Taiwan came in 1880 when James Laidlaw Maxwell , a medical missionary based in Tainan , donated a small printing press to the local church , which Thomas Barclay learned how to operate in 1881 before founding the Presbyterian Church Press in 1884 . Subsequently the Taiwan Prefectural City Church News , which first appeared in 1885 and was produced by Barclay 's Presbyterian Church of Taiwan Press , became the first printed newspaper in Taiwan . As other authors made their own alterations to the conventions laid down by Medhurst and Doty , pe ̍ h @-@ ōe @-@ jī evolved and eventually settled into its current form . Ernest Tipson 's 1934 pocket dictionary was the first reference work to reflect this modern spelling . Between Medhurst 's dictionary of 1832 and the standardization of POJ in Tipson 's time , there were a number of works published , which can be used to chart the change over time of pe ̍ h @-@ ōe @-@ jī : Competition for POJ was introduced during the Japanese era in Taiwan ( 1895 – 1945 ) in the form of Taiwanese kana , a system designed as a teaching aid and pronunciation guide , rather than an independent orthography like POJ . From the 1930s onwards , with the increasing militarization of Japan and the Kōminka movement encouraging Taiwanese people to " Japanize " , there were a raft of measures taken against native languages , including Taiwanese . While these moves resulted in a suppression of POJ , they were " a logical consequence of increasing the amount of education in Japanese , rather than an explicit attempt to ban a particular Taiwanese orthography in favor of Taiwanese kana " . The Second Sino @-@ Japanese War beginning in 1937 brought stricter measures into force , and along with the outlawing of romanized Taiwanese , various publications were prohibited and Confucian @-@ style shobō ( Chinese : 書房 ; pinyin : shūfáng ; Pe ̍ h @-@ ōe @-@ jī : su @-@ pâng ) – private schools which taught Classical Chinese with literary Southern Min pronunciation – were closed down in 1939 . The Japanese authorities came to perceive POJ as an obstacle to Japanization and also suspected that POJ was being used to hide " concealed codes and secret revolutionary messages " . In the climate of the ongoing war the government banned the Taiwan Church News in 1942 as it was written in POJ . = = = After World War II = = = Initially the Kuomintang government in Taiwan had a liberal attitude towards " local dialects " ( i.e. non @-@ Mandarin varieties of Chinese ) . The National Languages Committee produced booklets outlining versions of Bopomofo for writing the Taiwanese tongue , these being intended for newly arrived government officials from outside Taiwan as well as local Taiwanese . The first government action against native languages came in 1953 , when the use of Taiwanese or Japanese for instruction was forbidden . The next move to suppress the movement came in 1955 , when the use of POJ for proselytizing was outlawed . At that point in time there were 115 @,@ 000 people literate in POJ in Taiwan , Fujian , and southeast Asia . Two years later , missionaries were banned from using romanized bibles , and the use of " native languages " ( i.e. Taiwanese Hakka , Hakka , and the non @-@ Sinitic Formosan languages ) in church work became illegal . The ban on POJ bibles was overturned in 1959 , but churches were " encouraged " to use character bibles instead . Government activities against POJ intensified in the late 1960s and early 1970s , when several publications were banned or seized in an effort to prevent the spread of the romanization . In 1964 use of Taiwanese in schools or official settings was forbidden , and transgression in schools punished with beatings , fines and humiliation . The Taiwan Church News ( printed in POJ ) was banned in 1969 , and only allowed to return a year later when the publishers agreed to print it in Chinese characters . In 1974 , the Government Information Office banned A Dictionary of Southern Min , with a government official saying : " We have no objection to the dictionary being used by foreigners . They could use it in mimeographed form . But we don 't want it published as a book and sold publicly because of the Romanization it contains . Chinese should not be learning Chinese through Romanization . " Also in the 1970s , a POJ New Testament translation known as the " Red Cover Bible " ( Âng @-@ phoê Sèng @-@ keng ) was confiscated and banned by the Nationalist regime . Official moves against native languages continued into the 1980s , the Ministry of Education and the Ministry of the Interior decided in 1984 to forbid missionaries to use " local dialects " and romanizations in their work . With the ending of martial law in 1987 , the restrictions on " local languages " were quietly lifted , resulting in growing interest in Taiwanese writing during the 1990s . For the first time since the 1950s , Taiwanese language and literature was discussed and debated openly in newspapers and journals . There was also support from the then opposition party , the Democratic Progressive Party , for writing in the language . From a total of 26 documented orthographies for Taiwanese in 1987 ( including defunct systems ) , there were a further 38 invented from 1987 to 1999 , including 30 different romanizations , six adaptations of bopomofo and two hangul @-@ like systems . Some commentators believe that the Kuomintang , while steering clear of outright banning of the native language movements after the end of martial law , took a " divide and conquer " approach by promoting Taiwanese Language Phonetic Alphabet ( TLPA ) , an alternative to POJ , which was at the time the choice of the majority inside the nativization movement . Native language education has remained a fiercely debated topic in Taiwan into the 21st century and is the subject of much political wrangling . = = Current system = = The current system of pe ̍ h @-@ ōe @-@ jī has been stable since the 1930s , with a few minor exceptions ( detailed below ) . There is a fair degree of similarity with the Vietnamese alphabet , including the 〈 b / p / ph 〉 distinction and the use of 〈 ơ 〉 in Vietnamese compared with 〈 o ͘ 〉 in POJ . POJ uses the following letters and combinations : Chinese phonology traditionally divides syllables in Chinese into three parts ; firstly the initial , a consonant or consonant blend which appears at the beginning of the syllable , secondly the final , consisting of a medial vowel ( optional ) , a nucleus vowel , and an optional ending ; and finally the tone , which is applied to the whole syllable . In terms of the non @-@ tonal ( i.e. phonemic ) features , the nucleus vowel is the only required part of a licit consonant in Chinese varieties . Unlike Mandarin but like other southern varieties of Chinese , Taiwanese has final stop consonants with no audible release , a feature that has been preserved from Middle Chinese . There is some debate as to whether these stops are a tonal feature or a phonemic one , with some authorities distinguishing between 〈 -h 〉 as a tonal feature , and 〈 -p 〉 , 〈 -t 〉 , and 〈 -k 〉 as phonemic features . Southern Min dialects also have an optional nasal property , which is written with a superscript 〈 ⁿ 〉 and usually identified as being part of the vowel . A legitimate syllable in Hokkien takes the form ( initial ) + ( medial vowel ) + nucleus + ( stop ) + tone , where items in parenthesis indicate optional components . The initials are : Vowels : Coda endings : POJ has a limited amount of legitimate syllables , although sources disagree on some particular instances of these syllables . The following table contains all the licit spellings of POJ syllables , based on a number of sources : = = = Tone markings = = = In standard Amoy or Taiwanese Hokkien there are seven distinct tones , which by convention are numbered 1 – 8 , with number 6 omitted ( tone 6 used to be a distinct tone , but has long since merged with tone 2 ) . Tones 1 and 4 are both represented without a diacritic , and can be distinguished from each other by the syllable ending , which is a vowel , 〈 -n 〉 , 〈 -m 〉 , or 〈 -ng 〉 for tone 1 , and 〈 -h 〉 , 〈 -k 〉 , 〈 -p 〉 , and 〈 -t 〉 for tone 4 . Southern Min dialects undergo considerable tone sandhi , i.e. changes to the tone depending on the position of the syllable in any given sentence or utterance . However , like pinyin for Mandarin Chinese , POJ always marks the citation tone ( i.e. the original , pre @-@ sandhi tone ) rather than the tone which is actually spoken . This means that when reading aloud the reader must adjust the tone markings on the page to account for sandhi . Some textbooks for learners of Southern Min mark both the citation tone and the sandhi tone to assist the learner . There is some debate as to the correct placement of tone marks in the case of diphthongs and triphthongs , particularly those which include 〈 oa 〉 and 〈 oe 〉 . Most modern writers follow six rules : If the syllable has one vowel , that vowel should be tone @-@ marked ; viz . 〈 tī 〉 , 〈 láng 〉 , 〈 chhu ̍ t 〉 If a diphthong contains 〈 i 〉 or 〈 u 〉 , the tone mark goes above the other vowel ; viz . 〈 ia ̍ h 〉 , 〈 kiò 〉 , 〈 táu 〉 If a diphthong includes both 〈 i 〉 and 〈 u 〉 , mark the 〈 u 〉 ; viz . 〈 iû 〉 , 〈 ùi 〉 If the final is made up of three or more letters , mark the second vowel ( except when rules 2 and 3 apply ) ; viz . 〈 goán 〉 , 〈 oāi 〉 , 〈 khiáu 〉 If 〈 o 〉 occurs with 〈 a 〉 or 〈 e 〉 , mark the 〈 o 〉 ; viz . 〈 òa 〉 , 〈 thóe 〉 If the syllable has no vowel , mark the nasal consonant ; viz . 〈 m ̄ 〉 , 〈 ǹg 〉 , 〈 mn ̂ g 〉 = = = Hyphens = = = A single hyphen is used to indicate a compound . What constitutes a compound is controversial , with some authors equating it to a " word " in English , and others not willing to limit it to the English concept of a word . Examples from POJ include 〈 sì @-@ cha ̍ p 〉 " forty " , 〈 bé @-@ hì @-@ thôan 〉 " circus " , and 〈 hôe @-@ ho ̍ k 〉 " recover ( from illness ) " . The rule @-@ based sandhi behaviour of tones in compounds has not yet been clearly defined by linguists . A double hyphen 〈 -- 〉 is used when POJ is deployed as an orthography ( rather than as a transcription system ) to indicate that the following syllable should be pronounced in the neutral tone . It also marks to the reader that the preceding syllable does not undergo tone sandhi , as it would were the following syllable non @-@ neutral . Morphemes following a double hyphen are often ( but not always ) grammatical function words . = = = Audio examples = = = = = = Regional differences = = = In addition to the standard syllables detailed above , there are several regional variations of Hokkien speech which can be represented with non @-@ standard or semi @-@ standard spellings . In the Zhangzhou dialect , spoken in Zhangzhou and parts of Taiwan close to it , particularly the northeastern coast around Yilan City , the final 〈 ng 〉 is replaced with 〈 uiⁿ 〉 , for example in " egg " 〈 nuiⁿ 〉 and " cooked rice " 〈 puiⁿ 〉 . = = Texts = = Due to POJ 's origins in the church , much of the material in the script is religious in nature , including several Bible translations , books of hymns , and guides to morality . The Tainan Church Press , established in 1884 , has been printing POJ materials ever since , with periods of quiet when POJ was suppressed in the early 1940s and from around 1955 to 1987 . In the period to 1955 , over 2 @.@ 3 million volumes of POJ books were printed , and one study in 2002 catalogued 840 different POJ texts in existence . Besides a Southern Min version of Wikipedia in the orthography , there are teaching materials , religious texts , and books about linguistics , medicine and geography . Lán ê Kiù @-@ chú Iâ @-@ so ͘ Ki @-@ tok ê Sin @-@ iok ( 1873 translation of the New Testament ) Lāi @-@ goā @-@ kho Khàn @-@ hō ͘ -ha ̍ k , by George Gushue @-@ Taylor , 1917 Chinese – English dictionary of the vernacular or spoken language of Amoy , by Carstairs Douglas , 1873 Lear Ông , translation of King Lear by Tē Hūi @-@ hun = = Computing = = POJ was initially not well supported by word @-@ processing applications due to the special diacritics needed to write it . Support has now improved and there are now sufficient resources to both enter and display POJ correctly . Several input methods exist to enter Unicode @-@ compliant POJ , including OpenVanilla ( OS X and Microsoft Windows ) , the cross @-@ platform Tai @-@ lo Input Method released by the Taiwanese Ministry of Education , and the Firefox add @-@ on Transliterator , which allows in @-@ browser POJ input . When POJ was first used in word @-@ processing applications it was not fully supported by the Unicode standard , thus necessitating work @-@ arounds . One employed was encoding the necessary characters in the " Private Use " section of Unicode , but this required both the writer and the reader to have the correct custom font installed . Another solution was to replace troublesome characters with near equivalents , for example substituting 〈 ä 〉 for 〈 ā 〉 or using a standard 〈 o 〉 followed by an interpunct to represent 〈 o ͘ 〉 . With the introduction into Unicode 4 @.@ 1 @.@ 0 of the combining character COMBINING DOT ABOVE RIGHT ( U + 0358 ) in 2004 , all the necessary characters were present to write regular POJ without the need for workarounds . However , even after the addition of these characters , there are still relatively few fonts which are able to properly render the script , including the combining characters . Some of those which can are Charis SIL , DejaVu , Doulos SIL , Linux Libertine , and Taigi Unicode . = = Han @-@ Romanization mixed script = = One of the most popular modern ways of writing Taiwanese is by using a mixed orthography called Hàn @-@ lô ( simplified Chinese : 汉罗 ; traditional Chinese : 漢羅 ; pinyin : Hàn @-@ Luó ; literally Chinese @-@ Roman ) , and sometimes Han @-@ Romanization mixed script , a style not unlike written Japanese or ( historically ) Korean . In fact , the term Hàn @-@ lô does not describe one specific system , but covers any kind of writing in Southern Min which features both Chinese characters and romanization . That romanization is usually POJ , although recently some texts have begun appearing with Tâi @-@ lô spellings too . The problem with using only Chinese characters to write Southern Min is that there are many morphemes ( estimated to be around 15 percent of running text ) which are not definitively associated with a particular character . Various strategies have been developed to deal with the issue , including creating new characters , allocating Chinese characters used in written Mandarin with similar meanings ( but dissimilar etymology ) to represent the missing characters , or using romanization for the " missing 15 % " . There are two rationales for using mixed orthography writing , with two different aims . The first is to allow native speakers ( almost all of whom can already write Chinese characters ) to make use of their knowledge of characters , while replacing the missing 15 % with romanization . The second is to wean character literates off using them gradually , to be replaced eventually by fully romanized text . Examples of modern texts in Hàn @-@ lô include religious , pedagogical , scholarly , and literary works , such as : Chang Yu @-@ hong . Principles of POJ . Babuja A. Sidaia . A @-@ Chhûn . = = Adaptations for other Chinese varieties = = POJ has been adapted for several other varieties of Chinese , with varying degrees of success . For Hakka , missionaries and others have produced a Bible translation , hymn book , textbooks , and dictionaries . Materials produced in the orthography , called Pha ̍ k @-@ fa @-@ sṳ , include : Hak @-@ ngi Sṳn @-@ kin , Sin @-@ yuk lau Sṳ @-@ phien : Hien @-@ thoi Thoi @-@ van Hak @-@ ngi Yit @-@ pun ( Hakka Bible , New Testament and Psalms : Today 's Taiwan Hakka Version ) . Bible Society . 1993 . Phang Tet @-@ siu ( 1994 ) . Thai @-@ ka Loi Hok Hak @-@ fa ( Everybody Learn Hakka ) . Taipei : Southern Materials Center . ISBN 957 @-@ 638 @-@ 017 @-@ 0 . Phang Tet @-@ siu ( 1996 ) . Hak @-@ ka @-@ fa Fat @-@ yim Sṳ @-@ tien ( Hakka Pronunciation Dictionary ) . Taipei : Southern Materials Center . ISBN 957 @-@ 638 @-@ 359 @-@ 5 . Hak @-@ ka Sṳn @-@ sṳ ( Hakka Hymns ) . Tainan : PCT Press . 1999 . ISBN 957 @-@ 8349 @-@ 75 @-@ 0 . A modified version of POJ has also been created for Teochew . = = Current status = = Most native Southern Min speakers in Taiwan are unfamiliar with POJ or any other writing system for the variety , commonly asserting that " Taiwanese has no writing " , or , if they are made aware of POJ , considering romanization as the " low " form of writing , in contrast with the " high " form ( Chinese characters ) . For those who are introduced to POJ alongside Han @-@ lo and completely Chinese character @-@ based systems , a clear preference has been shown for all @-@ character systems , with all @-@ romanization systems at the bottom of the preference list , likely because of the preexisting familiarity of readers with Chinese characters . POJ remains the Taiwanese orthography " with the richest inventory of written work , including dictionaries , textbooks , literature [ ... ] and other publications in many areas " . A 1999 estimate put the number of literate POJ users at around 100 @,@ 000 , and secular organizations have been formed to promote the use of romanization among Taiwanese speakers . Outside Taiwan , POJ is rarely used . For example , in Fujian , Xiamen University uses a romanization known as Bbánlám pìngyīm , based on Pinyin . In other areas where Hokkien is spoken , such as Singapore , the Speak Mandarin Campaign is underway to actively discourage people from speaking Hokkien or other non @-@ Mandarin varieties in favour of switching to Mandarin instead . In 2006 , Taiwan 's Ministry of Education chose an official romanization for use in teaching Southern Min in the state school system . POJ was one of the candidate systems , along with Daighi tongiong pingim , but a compromise system , the Taiwanese Romanization System or Tâi @-@ Lô , was chosen in the end . Tâi @-@ Lô retains most of the orthographic standards of POJ , including the tone marks , while changing the troublesome 〈 o ͘ 〉 character for 〈 oo 〉 , swapping 〈 ts 〉 for 〈 ch 〉 , and replacing 〈 o 〉 in diphthongs with 〈 u 〉 . Supporters of Taiwanese writing are in general deeply suspicious of government involvement , given the history of official suppression of native languages , making it unclear whether Tâi @-@ Lô or POJ will become the dominant system in the future .
= Homs = Homs ( / hɔːms / ; Arabic : حمص / ALA @-@ LC : Ḥimṣ ) , previously known as Emesa ( Greek : Ἔμεσα Emesa ) , is a city in western Syria and the capital of the Homs Governorate . It is 501 metres ( 1 @,@ 644 ft ) above sea level and is located 162 kilometres ( 101 mi ) north of Damascus . Located on the Orontes River , Homs is also the central link between the interior cities and the Mediterranean coast . Before the Syrian war , Homs was a major industrial centre , and with a population of at least 652 @,@ 609 people in 2004 , it was the third largest city in Syria after Aleppo to the north and the capital Damascus to the south . Its population reflects Syria 's general religious diversity , composed of Sunni and Alawite and Christian . There are a number of historic mosques and churches in the city , and it is close to the Krak des Chevaliers castle , a world heritage site . Homs did not emerge into the historical record until the 1st century BCE at the time of the Seleucids . It later became the capital of a kingdom ruled by the Emesani dynasty who gave the city its name . Originally a center of worship for the sun god El @-@ Gabal , it later gained importance in Christianity under the Byzantines . Homs was conquered by the Muslims in the 7th century and made capital of a district that bore its current name . Throughout the Islamic era , Muslim dynasties contending for control of Syria sought after Homs due to the city 's strategic position in the area . Homs began to decline under the Ottomans and only in the 19th century did the city regain its economic importance when its cotton industry boomed . During French Mandate rule , the city became a center of insurrection and , after independence in 1946 , a center of Baathist resistance to the first Syrian governments . In the ongoing Syrian civil war , Homs became an opposition stronghold and the Syrian government launched a military assault against the city in May 2011 . The fighting left much of the city completely destroyed and thousands dead . = = Etymology = = The origin of the city 's modern name is that it is an Arabic form of the city 's Latin name " Emesus " , derived from the Greek " Emesa " or " Emesos " . The name " Emesa " seems to derive from the nomadic Arab tribe , called Emesenoi by the Greeks and the Romans , that inhabited the region prior to Roman influence in the area . " Emesa " was shortened to " Homs " or " Hims " by its Arab inhabitants , many of whom settled there prior to the Muslim conquest of Syria . This name has been preserved throughout the period of Islamic rule continuing to the present day . It was known as " la Chamelle " by the Crusaders , although they never ruled the city . = = History = = For approximately 2 @,@ 000 years , Homs has served as a key agricultural market , production site and trade center for the villages of northern Syria . It has also provided security services to the hinterland of Syria , protecting it from invading forces . Excavations at the Citadel of Homs indicate that the earliest settlement at the site dates back to around 2300 BCE . Biblical scholars have identified the city with Zobah mentioned in the Bible . In 1274 BCE , a battle took place between the forces of the Egyptian Empire under Ramesses II and the Hittite Empire under Muwatalli II at the city of Kadesh on the Orontes River near Homs . It was possibly the largest chariot battle ever fought , involving perhaps 5 @,@ 000 – 6 @,@ 000 chariots . = = = Emesani dynasty and Roman rule = = = Homs itself may have been founded by Seleucus I Nicator who established the Seleucid Empire upon the death of Alexander the Great , although the city did not emerge in the light of history until the 1st @-@ century BCE . At this time , Greek philosopher Strabo spoke of a tent @-@ dwelling tribe called the " Emesani " living in the area around the Orontes and south of the Apamea region . They were an Arab tribe in the area and settled in Emesa — which derived its name from them . Upon Pompey 's incorporation of the Seleucid state of Syria into the Roman Empire in 64 BCE , the Emesani dynasty were confirmed in their rule as client kings of the Romans for aiding their troops in various wars . Their chief at the time , Sampsiceramus I , gained the status as King of Emesa , but their capital was at Arethusa , a city north of Emesa , also along the Orontes River . At its greatest extent , the kingdom 's boundaries extended from the Bekaa Valley in the west to the border with Palmyra in the east , and from Yabrud in the south to al @-@ Rastan ( Arethusa ) in the north . The kingdom of Sampsiceramus I , was the first of Rome 's Arab clients on the desert fringes . The city of Emesa grew to prominence after the new @-@ found wealth of the Emesani dynasty , governed first by one of the sons of Sampsiceramus I , Iamblichus I who made it the kingdom 's capital . The Emesani proved their loyalty to Rome once more when they aided Gaius Julius Caesar in his siege of Alexandria in 48 BCE , by sending him army detachments . Subsequently , they became embroiled in the Roman Civil War between the rebelling Mark Antony and the pro @-@ Caesar Octavian . Iamblichus I took the side of Octavian , and so upon encouragement from Antony , Iamblichus 's brother Alexio I usurped the throne and put Iamblichus I to death in 31 BCE . Octavian 's forces prevailed in the war , however , and as a result the kingdom 's throne was reverted to Iamblichus II ( the son of Iamblichus I ) after Alexio I was executed for treason . Under the stable rule of Iamblichus II , emerged a new era of peace from 20 BCE to 14 , known as Emesa 's " Golden Age . " In 32 , Heliopolis and the Beqaa Valley came under the kingdom 's control . Relations with the Roman government grew closer when King Sohaemus inherited the kingship . Under him , Emesa sent the Roman military a regular levy of archers and assisted them in their siege of Jerusalem in 70 . Sohaemus had died in 73 and was succeeded by his son , Alexio II . Despite the fact that the Emesani dynasty were loyal allies to Rome , for unknown reasons the Roman state reduced the autonomous rule of the Emesani dynasty . Alexio II and his priest king successors had only ceremonial authority . It remains unclear why this occurred to the Emesani dynasty . Alexio II died in 78 and he was succeeded by his son Sampsiceramus III . The generations after Alexio II , are not recorded sufficiently to accurately present a pedigree . The integration of client states was actively pursued under the Flavians . Perhaps as early as 72 , but certainly before 78 , Sampsigeramus of Emesa was deposed and his principality incorporated into the province . Under the Romans , Emesa began to show attributes of a Greek city @-@ state and traces of Roman town planning still remain . Its transformation into a major city was completed under the reign of Emperor Antoninus Pius ( 138 – 161 ) when Emesa began to mint coins . By the 3rd @-@ century , it grew prosperous and well integrated into the Roman Orient . This was partly due to the marriage of Emperor Lucius Septimius Severus to a woman from a family of notables based in Emesa . It attained the coveted status as a Roman colonia by Severus , and two other emperors of Severan Dynasty were raised in Emesa . One of them was Elagabalus who served as the high priest at the Temple of El @-@ Gebal , the local sun god . He brought the image of this god , a conical black stone , to the Elagabalium in Rome . Emesa also grew wealthy because it formed a link in the eastern trade funneled through Palmyra , however , this dependence also caused the city 's downfall when Palmyra sank to insignificance in the 4th @-@ century . Nonetheless , Emesa at this time had grown to rank with the important cities of Tyre , Sidon , Beirut , and Damascus . It also continued to retain local significance , because it was the market center for the surrounding villages . The city remained a strong center of paganism , because of the Temple of El @-@ Gabal . After one of his victories over Zenobia , Emperor Aurelian visited the city to pay thanks to the deity . Due to the strength of the pagan sun cult in Emesa , Christians initially did not settle in the city . Eusebius writes that Silvanus , the city 's first bishop , had no jurisdiction over the city , but the surrounding villages . He was executed by Emperor Julian and succeeded by Bishop Antonius — the first bishop to settle Emesa . By the 5th @-@ century , Christianity was well established under the Byzantine Empire ; however , few ancient Christian inscriptions exist in Homs today . Under the Byzantines , the city became an important center for Eastern Christianity . Initially a diocese , Homs was given the status of ecclesiastical metropolis after the discovery of John the Baptist 's head in a nearby area in 452 . = = = Arab Caliphate = = = Prior to the Muslim conquest of Syria , Arab tribes , particularly the Banu Kalb settled around Emesa , ensuring its position as an important Yamani center . The Byzantine emperor Heraclius abandoned the city — which served as his headquarters — after the his army 's defeat by the Rashidun Muslims under Caliph Umar ibn al @-@ Khattab during the Battle of Yarmouk in southern Syria . In 637 CE , the Rashidun army led by Khalid ibn al @-@ Walid captured Emesa peacefully because its inhabitants agreed to pay a substantial ransom of 71 @,@ 000 to 170 @,@ 000 dinars . The caliph Umar established Homs as the capital of Jund Hims , a district of the province of Bilad al @-@ Sham , encompassing the towns of Latakia , Jableh , and Tartus along the coast , Palmyra in the Syrian Desert and the territory in between , including the town of Hama . Homs was likely the first city in Syria to have a substantial Muslim population . The Muslims transformed half of St. John 's Church into the city 's Friday Mosque ( Great Mosque of al @-@ Nuri ) and Homs soon became a centre of Islamic piety since some 500 companions of Muhammad settled there after its conquest . The tombs of Khalid ibn al @-@ Walid , his son Abd al @-@ Rahman , and Ubaid Allah , the son of Caliph Umar are located in the city . During the conflict between the Umayyads and Ali , the inhabitants of Homs allied themselves with Ali and when the latter was defeated , the Umayyad caliph Mu 'awiyah hived the northern half of Jund Hims to form a separate district , Jund Qinnasrin , apparently as punishment . Ali 's oratory ( mash @-@ had ' Ali ) was located in the city , and Islamic tradition claims his fingerprints are engraved on it . Despite repression by the Umayyads , Homs remained a center of Shia Islam for a while longer . As a stronghold of the Banu Kalb , the city became involved in the latter 's conflicts with the Qais tribal faction . The last Umayyad caliph , Marwan II , enjoyed the support of the Qais and subsequently razed the city walls in response to a rebellion by the Banu Kalb . In 750 the Abbasids wrested control of Syria , including Homs , from the Umayyads , and the Arab tribes revolted . Despite the prosperity Homs experienced during this era , Abbasid rule was generally not welcomed nevertheless . During and after the reign of caliph Harun al @-@ Rashid ( 796 @-@ 809 ) , the Abbasid authorities sent numerous punitive expeditions against Homs . Under the reign of al @-@ Mutawakkil , in October 855 , the Christian population revolted in response to additional taxation . The caliph put down the revolt by expelling Christians from the city , burning down their churches and executing members of their leadership . With Abbasid rule over the Caliphate weakening in the mid 9th @-@ century , Homs became sought after by rebel dynasties contending for control of Syria due to the city 's strategic position . Initially , the Egypt @-@ based Tulunids came into control of it , but they were forced out by the Aleppo @-@ based Hamdanids who were briefly succeeded by the Qarmatians , after their Turkish rebel ally Aftakin invaded northern Syria and established Homs as his base . In 891 Muslim geographer al @-@ Yaqubi noted that Homs was situated along a broad river which served as a source of drinking water for the inhabitants . It was one of the largest cities in Syria and had several smaller districts surrounding it . In 944 the Hamdanids took definitive control of the city , dominating it until 1016 . Arab geographer al @-@ Mas 'udi claimed in the early 10th @-@ century that Homs was " noted for the personal beauty of its inhabitants . " In 985 al @-@ Muqaddasi noted that Homs was the largest city in all of Syria , but it had suffered " great misfortunes " and was " threatened with ruin . " He stated that when the city was conquered by the Muslims they turned half of its church into a mosque . For around thirty years during the 10th @-@ century , Homs was raided by the Byzantines and its inhabitants were subject to slaughter and plunder while the city 's mosque was briefly restored as a church . Throughout most of the 11th @-@ century , the Byzantine raids receded greatly and the Mirdasids of the Banu Kalb tribe ruled over Homs , replacing the Hamdanids . Inclined towards Shia Islam , they did not oppose the Shia Fatimid Caliphate of Egypt which was aiming to extend its rule into northern Syria and Iraq at the time . This precipitated a Sunni Muslim reaction led by the Seljuk Turks who occupied Homs under the leadership of Aq Sunqur al @-@ Hajib in 1090 . = = = Seljuk , Ayyubid , and Mamluk rule = = = The First Crusade was launched in 1096 , and in 1098 , the Crusaders captured Antioch to the northwest , looted Ma 'arat al @-@ Numan , and finally besieged Homs itself . Although they managed to cut the city off from its main port Tartus , they failed in taking the city . Soon after , Homs came under the control of the Seljuk ruler of Damascus who transformed it into a large , fortified camp and key fortress effectively preventing the Crusaders from penetrating deeper into Muslim territory . Immune from attack , Homs became a point where the Muslims could marshal their forces and launch raids against Crusader holdings along the Mediterranean coast . In the early 12th @-@ century , the Seljuks engaged in internal fighting , during which Homs was often a prize . In 1149 the Mosul @-@ based Zengids under Nur al @-@ Din captured the city . Muslim geographer Al @-@ Idrisi noted in 1154 that Homs was populous , had paved streets , possessed one of the largest mosques in Syria , contained open markets , and was frequented by travelers attracted to its " products and rarities of all kinds . " He also reported that its residents were " pleasant ; living with them is easy , and their manners are agreeable . The women are beautiful and are celebrated for their fine skin . " A series of earthquakes in 1157 inflicted heavy damage upon Homs and its fortress , then in 1170 , a minor quake finished off the latter . However , because of its strategic importance , being opposite of the Crusader County of Tripoli , the city and its fortifications were soon restored . In 1164 Nur al @-@ Din awarded Homs to Asad ad @-@ Din Shirkuh as a fief , but reclaimed it five years later following Shirkuh 's death . The latter 's nephew , Saladin , gained control of the city in 1175 and in 1179 , after reorganizing his territories in northern Syria , restored the fief to his Ayyubid dynasty . Shirkuh 's descendants retained Homs for nearly a century until 1262 with the death of al @-@ Ashraf Musa . In 1225 Arab geographer Yaqut al @-@ Hamawi mentioned that Homs was large , celebrated and walled , having a strongly fortified castle on its southern hill . Towards the end of Ayyubid rule , Homs remained a centrepiece of the wars between them and the Crusaders , as well as internecine conflicts with the Mongol Empire and the Mamluks . The first battle between the Mongols and the Mamluks took place on December 10 , 1260 , ending in a decisive Mamluk victory . A second battle was fought on October 29 , 1281 , also ending in a Mamluk victory . The Mamluks were finally defeated in the Battle of Wadi al @-@ Khazandar , also known as the " Third Battle of Homs , " in 1299 . Homs declined politically after falling to the Mamluks under Baibars because their campaigns effectively drove out the Crusaders and the Mongols from the entirety of Syria . At the beginning of the 14th @-@ century , the city was merely the capital of the smallest province of Syria and was often attached to the province of Damascus . Ibn Batuta visited Homs in 1355 , writing that it had fine trees , good markets , and a " fine Friday Mosque , " noting that all of its inhabitants were Arabs . Timur seized the city in 1400 , and later in the 15th @-@ century as Mamluk weakness had brought insecurity to the countryside , Homs was ravaged by Bedouin raids ; In 1510 a powerful tribe led by al @-@ Fadl bin Nu 'ayr was sent on an expedition by the governor of Damascus to loot the city markets as Homs had failed to pay compensation for his " services . " = = = Ottoman rule = = = In 1516 Homs was incorporated into the Ottoman Empire and consequently suffered a greater political eclipse , but it continued to thrive as an economic center , processing the agricultural and pastoral products that flowed to it from surrounding districts . Homs was particularly well known for silk and wool weaving , especially the alaja , which was mottled muslin run through with gold threads and used in feminine apparel . This silk was exported as far as the Ottoman capital Istanbul . In addition to weaving industries , there were olive oil presses and water mills for wheat and sesame , while grapes and rice , grown in the surrounding marshlands from the 16th @-@ century , were found in abundance in the city 's markets . Moreover , the markets of Homs were the center of a trade in livestock , where flocks of sheep and goats coming from Aleppo met camels and cattle moving north from Damascus . The coming of the Ottomans brought administrative changes to Homs , as it became the capital city of sanjak ( " district " ) of Homs , attached to the eyalet ( " province " ) of Tripoli — its old rival . At this time , a French visitor noted that the city walls and citadel were in good repair , but all within was in decay and only its covered markets " retained their beauty . " In 1785 French traveler , Volney wrote of the city 's once great importance and its current " miserable " condition . He described it as a large , but ruined village administratively dependent on Damascus . The Ottomans did little to revitalize Homs or ensure its security against Bedouin raids . Tribal unrest throughout the 17th and 18th centuries resulted in the sacking of its markets on several occasions . Security was even more hampered , when in the 18th @-@ century , the Ottomans tore down the gates of the city 's walls . The countryside of Homs saw an increase in Bedouin raids in the first half of the 19th @-@ century , interrupted by its occupation by Muhammad Ali 's Egypt led by Ibrahim Pasha between 1832 and 1840 . The city rebelled against Egyptian rule and consequently , the citadel was destroyed when the Egyptians suppressed the revolt . Ottoman rule was soon restored and up to the 1860s , Homs was large enough to form a discrete economic unit of trade and processing of agricultural products from its satellite villages and the neighboring Bedouin tribes . The local economy was stimulated when the Ottoman government extended security to the city and its surrounding areas ; new villages were established and old ones were resettled . However , Homs found itself faced with European economic competition since Ottoman rule was restored . Homs ' economic importance was boosted again during the depression of the 1870s , as its cotton industry boomed due to a decline European textile production . The quality and design of cotton goods from Homs satisfied both the lower and upper classes of the local , Ottoman , and foreign markets . There were around 5 @,@ 000 looms in Homs and nearby Hama , and one British consul referred to Homs as the " Manchester of Syria . " = = = Modern era = = = Throughout the 20th @-@ century Homs held high political importance in the country and was home to several heads of state and other high @-@ ranking government officials . During the French mandate , Homs was part of the State of Damascus . In Autumn 1925 , the city joined Damascus and the southern Druze chieftains in a full @-@ blown revolt against French rule . In 1932 the French moved their military academy from Damascus to Homs , and it remained the only military academy in Syria until 1967 . The French authorities had created a unit of Special Forces in which the Alawites were given privileged positions . The military academy in Homs served as a stronghold for these Special Forces . The Homs Military Academy played a major role in the years following Syria 's independence , as many of its graduates went on to become high @-@ ranking officers in the Syrian Army , many of them taking part in the series of coup d 'états that were to follow . An important example was Hafez al @-@ Assad who became the president of Syria from 1971 until his death in 2000 . An oil pipeline between Tripoli and Kirkuk was built in Homs in the early 1930s and it followed an ancient caravan route between Palmyra and the Mediterranean . In 1959 , an oil refinery was built to process some of this oil for domestic consumption . The city 's oil refinery was bombed by the Israeli Air Force ( IAF ) during the 1973 Yom Kippur War . = = = = Syrian civil war = = = = Homs is one of many cities in Syria where large anti @-@ government demonstrations have been held , part of the wider Syrian civil war . It has been referred to as the " Capital of the revolution . " Thousands to tens of thousands gathered in the city 's main square on 17 – 18 April 2011 in a sit @-@ in protesting the government of current president Bashar al @-@ Assad . At least 62 people were killed by government security forces in armed clashes against local anti @-@ government militants . Starting on 6 May 2011 , the city has been under siege by the Syrian Army and security forces . The Syrian government claims it is targeting " armed gangs " and " terrorists " in the area . According to the Syrian opposition , Homs has since become a " blighted city , " where authorities regularly block deliveries of medicine , food and fuel to the inhabitants of certain districts . By June , there were near @-@ daily confrontations between protesting residents and Syrian forces . As a result of these circumstances , there have been more deaths in Homs and its vicinity than in other areas of Syria . Homs was the first Syrian city where images of al @-@ Assad and his family were routinely torn down or defaced and the first place where Syrian forces used artillery during the uprising . The Center for Documenting Violations in Syria claims that at least 1 @,@ 770 people have been killed in Homs since the uprising began . In February 2012 , Syrian Armed Forces carried out a major attack on Homs to regain control over the city which was turned into an operation center for the Free Syrian Army , a collection of anti @-@ government fighters and army defectors . Ten days of operations resulted in the deaths of about 700 people in the city according to the Local Coordination Committees . On 1 March 2012 , the Syrian Army had gained control over the Baba Amr district while lesser clashes continued in other neighborhoods . On 9 December 2015 , under a UN @-@ negotiated deal , the remnants of anti @-@ government forces and their families , that had been under siege the al @-@ Wair district for three years , began to evacuate from the city . = = Geography = = The Governorate of Homs is the largest in Syria . Homs , the governorate 's capital , is located in central western Syria , situated along the east bank of the Orontes River in a particularly fertile area . The city is in between the southern outliers of the Coastal Mountain Range located to the west and Mount Lebanon , overlooking the Homs Gap . Because of the gap , the area around Homs receives much more rainfall than interior regions to its north and south . To the east of Homs , is the Syrian Desert . Lake Homs , impounded by a huge dam of Roman origins , is to the southwest , lying some 125 kilometers ( 78 mi ) south of Aleppo and 34 kilometers ( 21 mi ) south of Hama , halfway on the road between the capital Damascus and Aleppo . The Orontes River splits the city into two main sections : To the east , on a flat land lies the city center and the main neighborhoods ; to the west , lies the more recent and modern suburb of al @-@ Waer . The city spans an area of 4 @,@ 800 hectares ( 19 sq mi ) . Homs is located 162 kilometres ( 101 mi ) north of Damascus , 193 kilometres ( 120 mi ) south of Aleppo , 47 kilometres ( 29 mi ) south of Hama , and 186 kilometres ( 116 mi ) southeast of Latakia on the Mediterranean coast . Nearby towns and villages include al @-@ Rayyan to the southeast , Maskanah , al @-@ Nuqayrah , Abil and Kafr Aya to the south , al @-@ Qusayr , Qattinah and al @-@ Buwaydah al @-@ Sharqiyah to the southwest , Khirbet Tin Nur to the west , al @-@ Dar al @-@ Kabirah to the northwest , al @-@ Ghantu , Teir Maalah , al @-@ Mukhtariyah and Talbiseh to the north , al @-@ Mishirfeh to the northeast and Fairouzeh and Zaidal to the east . = = = Old City and subdivisions = = = The Old City is the most condensed area of Homs , and it includes the neighborhoods of Bab Tadmur , Bab al @-@ Dreib , Bab Hud and the immediate vicinity of the citadel , covering an area of 1 @.@ 2 square kilometres ( 0 @.@ 46 sq mi ) . Little remains of the Old City ; its walls and gates were demolished in the Ottoman era , but a short section of fortified wall with a circular corner tower still exists . Half a kilometer to the south , a large earth mound marks the site where the citadel once stood . To the north of the citadel lies the Christian Quarter , known as " al @-@ Hamidiyah " . This neighborhood is one of the few areas of Homs that retains its older look , with most of the alternating black @-@ and @-@ white stone buildings dating from the Mamluk era . They are still used as shops and dwellings , and there has been recent renovation . At the time of the Abbasids , Homs was known for its seven gates . They were Bab al @-@ Souq ( Gate of the Market ) , Bab Tadmur ( Gate of Palmyra ) , Bab al @-@ Dreib ( or Bab al @-@ Deir ) , Bab al @-@ Sebaa ( Gate of the Lions ) , Bab al @-@ Turkman ( Gate of the Turkmen ) , Bab al @-@ Masdoud ( Closed Door ) , and Bab Hud ( The Gate of Hud ) . Only two gates — Bab Tadmor and Bab al @-@ Dreib — remain today . The oldest of Homs ' mosques and churches are located in the Old City . Homs consists of several subdivisions outside the Old City . The large neighbourhood of Khaldiyah spreads along its northern edge , while the more modern neighbourhoods of al @-@ Sabil , al @-@ Zahra , and Jub al @-@ Jandali are situated to the east of the Old City . South of it are the neighborhoods of Bab al @-@ Sebaa , al @-@ Mreijeh , al @-@ Nezha , Akrama and beyond them lay the Karm al @-@ Zaytoun and Karm al @-@ Loz neighbourhoods . The modern commercial centre lies to the west in the neighbourhood of Jouret al @-@ Shayyah , and further west are the upscale neighbourhoods of Qusoor , al @-@ Mahatta and al @-@ Ghouta . The suburb of al @-@ Waer is located even further west , separated from the city by areas of farmland called al @-@ Basatin and the Orontes River forming a green belt where it is forbidden to build anything . The Baath University complex and dormitories are located on the western @-@ southern edge of the city next to the neighborhood of Akrama . = = = Climate = = = Homs ' location ensures that it receives softening influences and breezes from the Mediterranean . As a result , the city has a much milder climate than nearby Hama , with higher average rainfall of 18 inches ( 460 mm ) instead of 14 inches ( 360 mm ) , but it also experiences greater winds . = = Demographics = = Homs was one of the largest cities in Syria in the 12th @-@ century with a population of 7 @,@ 000 . In 1785 , the inhabitants of Homs numbered more than 2 @,@ 000 and the population was divided almost evenly between Eastern Orthodox Christians and Muslims . The 1860s saw a rise in the population to 15 @,@ 000 – 20 @,@ 000 . By 1907 , Homs had roughly 65 @,@ 000 inhabitants , of which two thirds were Muslims and the remainder Christians . In the 1981 census , the population stood at 346 @,@ 871 , rising to 540 @,@ 133 in 1994 . According to the 2004 census by Syria 's Central Bureau of Statistics , Homs had a population of 652 @,@ 609 of which 51 @.@ 5 % were male and 48 @.@ 5 % female . In an independent 2005 estimate the city had 750 @,@ 000 residents , and as of 2008 the population was estimated at about 823 @,@ 000 . Today , Homs ' population reflects Syria 's general religious diversity , and is made up primarily of Sunni Muslims , with minorities of Alawite Muslims , Eastern Orthodox Christians and Syriac Orthodox Christians . In addition to Catholics , Evangelists and Maronites . In the 1880s , the Survey of Western Palestine noted that there were 5 @,@ 500 Greek Orthodox Christians and 1 @,@ 500 Syriac Orthodox Christians . The Syriac Patriarchate was transferred to Homs from Mardin in 1933 , but relocated once more to Damascus in 1959 . During the Armenian Genocide in the early 20th @-@ century , about 20 @,@ 000 Armenians immigrated to Homs and the surrounding villages . A small Greek community also exists in the city . = = Economy = = After long periods of stagnation under Ottoman rule , Homs started to flourish again in the 20th @-@ century . Its geographic and strategic location has made it a centre of agriculture and industry . The " Homs Irrigation Scheme " , the first of its kind in modern Syria , brought prosperity to cultivators and the long @-@ established enterprises involved in the processing of agricultural and pastoral products . Crops grown in Homs include , wheat , barley , lentils , sugar beets , cotton , and vines , as well as serving as a point of exchange between the sedentary zone and the desert . Moreover , because of easy access to the Mediterranean , Homs has attracted overland trade from the Persian Gulf and Iraq . Homs is also home to several large public heavy industries , such as the oil refinery west of the city which opened in 1959 . A fertilizer plant was built in 1971 to process phosphates from their deposits near Palmyra ; the fertilizer is for domestic consumption and export . A growing private industrial sector has flourished in the past decade and many small to medium @-@ sized enterprises occupy the industrial zones northwest and south of the city . A new sugar refinery is being built by a Brazilian company , and an automobile plant is under construction by Iran Khodro . Also a new phosphate plant and oil refinery are being built east of the city . Homs is also the hub of an important road and rail network , it is the central link between the interior cities and the Mediterranean coast . A major industrial project was the establishment of a new industrial city in Hisyah , 47 kilometers ( 29 mi ) south of the city of Homs . Spreading across some 2 @,@ 500 hectares ( 25 km2 ) , the city covers four main industrial sectors : textiles , food , chemical , engineering and vocational . In all , the facilities are designed to accommodate up to 66 @,@ 000 workers and their families . Moreover , a free zone has been established within the city . The hinterland of Homs is well known for its grapes which are used in Syria 's liqueur industry , particularly in producing arak , nectar wine , and red wine . The city is considered a good base for day trips and excursions to the many historical and touristic sights nearby . Popular destinations include Krak des Chevaliers , Qatna , Talkalakh and Marmarita . Homs has several hotels ; Safir Hotel is considered one of Syria 's best five @-@ star hotels and the only one of that status in the city . An @-@ Nasr al @-@ Jedid Hotel is built in a 100 @-@ year @-@ old mansion and is labeled by tour guides as the " best budget hotel in Homs " . Other hotels include Hotel al @-@ Mimas , Ghazi Hotel , and Hotel Khayyam . = = Culture = = = = = Cuisine = = = Although people in Homs eat the same foods common in Levantine cuisine , the city is well known throughout Syria for its own cuisine . A prominent dish is Batarsh , a type of baba ghanouj made with yogurt and garlic instead of tahini . Homs is also home to a variety of kibbeh mishwiyyeh or " grilled kibbeh " . It consists of two pancakes of kibbeh stuffed with ground lamb , cooked with lamb fat and various spices . Batata mahshi ( " stuffed potatoes " ) is native dish in Homs and is made of baby potatoes stuffed with minced lamb , pine nuts and pomegranate molasses . The city specializes in cooking a type of okra meal , known as bamya bi @-@ l zayt ( " okra with olive oil " ) . Homs has an array of restaurants , some of the most highly acclaimed are those within the Safir Hotel : Mamma Mia and Mersia . The former specializes in Italian cuisine , while the latter serves Arabic food . For the local population , popular restaurants include Prince Restaurant which acts as a type of fast @-@ food place , serving shawarma , grilled chicken , and other common Syrian foods , as well as homemade juices . In the Old City , low @-@ price restaurants are grouped together along Shoukri al @-@ Quwatly Street and sell similar foods , such as hummus , falafel , various salads ( mezze ) , shish kebab and chicken dishes . Restaurants and coffeehouses typically offer hookahs and are a common place for men to gather and smoke . Other notable restaurants include Broasted Kreish , a local favorite for shish taouk and shawarma on the Korniche St just south of the Ghouta ; the Rawda , a garden lounge located by the New Clock Tower which is known by locals for its Homsi @-@ style fatteh and for the atmosphere created by its divided men and family areas , providing an area for men to gather to play cards , smoke and watch soccer games and for families to have a drink and dessert on late downtime . Homs also recently emerged as the restaurant scene in pre @-@ civil @-@ war Syria after completing its Malab St. Hamra development . The Hamra Street in the Malab area was home to a strip of highly rated restaurants including La Luna , a shisha lounge ; Chez Moi , serving a few French dishes along with the typical local food ; Mia Casa , an Italian restaurant ; Troy , an American @-@ Latin @-@ Syrian mashup ; and Quattro , another Italian restaurant . Like in Damascus and Aleppo , many houses in the Old City of Homs have been renovated and transformed into restaurants specializing in Levantine cuisine . Most notable of these is Beit al @-@ Agha restaurant , situated in a renovated palace that dates back to the mid 19th @-@ century with Ottoman and Mamluk architecture , and Julia Dumna Restaurant , which has been described as the best example of traditional Homsi houses , with its white and black stones . = = = Museums = = = There are two main museums in Homs , both located in the central part of the city . Azze Hrawe Palace , a former Mamluk @-@ era palace belonging to Ali ibn Abi al @-@ Fadl al @-@ Azzhari , a subordinate of Baibars , the Mamluk sultan , is now the National Folklore Museum . Outside the building is a courtyard , occupied on one side by a large terraced liwan with a conch shell semi @-@ dome . In the opposite wall , there is a carving of two lions , a symbol of Baibars . The first museum built in the city is located along Shoukri al @-@ Quwatly Street and contains a selection of artifacts from the Homs region , covering the time between the prehistoric and Islamic eras . = = = Festivals = = = Homs has several festivals , and the city annually co @-@ hosts the Desert Folk Festival and the Al @-@ Badiya Festival with Palmyra . The Desert Folk Festival is an annual festival of the ancient traditions and costumes of the Badiya ( Syrian Desert ) and it includes exhibitions and concerts between Homs and Palmyra . The festival is held in the first week of May . The Al @-@ Badiya Festival , which is held mainly in Palmyra with some events in Homs , draws approximately 60 @,@ 000 tourists during the last week of May . Activities include horse , camel and car races , horse contests , music and theatre shows , antique exhibitions and a crafts market . Other festivals include the al @-@ Nasarah Festival and the Festival of Krak des Chevaliers and the Valley . An annual festival is held at the Church of Saint Elian , attracting large numbers of pilgrims . = = = Sports = = = Homs is home to two football clubs . The Al @-@ Karamah Sports Club was founded in 1928 and is one of the oldest sports clubs in Syria . Al @-@ Karamah is widely acclaimed on the regional and national levels , having won eight Syrian League titles , and eight Syrian Cup titles . Al @-@ Karamah was a runner @-@ up in the 2006 AFC Champions League . The second sports club of the city is Al @-@ Wathba Sports Club , which was founded in 1937 . The Khaled Ibn Al Walid Stadium has a 35 @,@ 000 @-@ person capacity and is home to both football clubs . Homs has produced a number of well @-@ known sportsmen , including footballers Firas Al Khatib and Jehad Al Hussain . = = Government = = Homs is the capital of the Homs District , and the capital of the Homs Governorate — the largest governorate in Syria , and houses the seat of its governor , appointed by the president . The city of Homs is governed by a city council and is home to the Executive Office . The latter consists of nine elected members , in addition to the president of the city council . The Office aids the Governor in making management decisions related to the Governorate , while the city council is responsible for decisions specific to the city of Homs . It is headed by a president , Nadia Kseibi , and is responsible for the day @-@ to @-@ day management of the city . The council 's organizational structure is composed of the top leadership , consisting of the president , vice president , and secretary , and the lower leadership , made up of the directors of seventeen city branches : Administrative Affairs , Finance , Technical Affairs , Health Affairs , Legal Affairs , the Fire Department , Mechanisms , Parks , Hygiene , Property , Provisional Register , Services and Maintenance , Works , IT , Planning and Statistics , Culture , and Internal Oversight Service . = = Education = = Homs is home to the Al @-@ Baath University , one of four major universities in Syria was founded in 1979 . A specialist engineering foundation , the university has one of the largest student bodies . It houses several faculties including medicine , engineering , liberal arts , and sciences and a number of two @-@ year career ( vocational ) institutions . It is the only university in the country to have departments in petroleum engineering and veterinary medicine . The German University at Wadi al @-@ Nasarah opened in 2004 and is located 30 kilometers ( 19 mi ) west of the city . In 2005 , the International School of Choueifat opened a school outside the city . Al @-@ Andalus University for Medical Sciences was established in 2005 near Homs , and is constructing one of its University Hospitals in the city . There are 1 @,@ 727 schools and 15 @,@ 000 kindergartens in the Homs Governorate , most of which are public facilities . In 2007 , 375 @,@ 000 students in the governorate were enrolled in elementary schools ( 6 – 15 years ) , 36 @,@ 000 in high schools ( 15 – 18 years ) , and around 12 @,@ 000 in vocational training schools . = = Local infrastructure = = = = = Transportation = = = Homs is considered a transportation hub in Syria , by virtue of its central location between the coastal cities and the interior . The main bus terminal is Karnak , situated along Hama Street , 1 @.@ 5 kilometers ( 0 @.@ 93 mi ) north of the city centre on the outskirts . The terminal offers connections to most Syrian cities and Beirut , Lebanon . It also has international bus connections to Lebanon , Jordan , Saudi Arabia and Turkey . A second " luxury " bus station is located a little further north . Minibuses operate from Karnak station with destinations to Tartus , Palmyra , and Hama in northern Syria , as well as Baalbek , Tripoli , and Beirut in Lebanon . Newer microbuses that mostly travel to Hama are also based in Karnak and are mostly used for quick transportation . Homs has a large railway station , with two Chemins de Fer Syriens operated daily departures to Damascus and Aleppo . The nearest airports are Bassel Al @-@ Assad International Airport in Latakia to the west , Damascus International Airport to the south , Aleppo International Airport to the north , and Palmyra Airport in the Syrian Desert to the east . Hama Street starts at the Old Clock Square in the city center and crosses Homs from south to north , where it continues along the neighborhood of al @-@ Khaldiyah on to the Karnak station , and turns into the Homs @-@ Hama @-@ Aleppo highway . Quwatli Street , named after former president Shukri al @-@ Quwatli , is a short but vital street that connects the Old Clock Square and Quwatli Square in Downtown Homs . It branches into several smaller streets on its western end , one of which is al @-@ Dablan Street which is the main commercial block in the city , and the other continues west to connect with the Homs @-@ Tripoli highway . On the eastern end , al @-@ Quwatli street continues as al @-@ Hamidiyah Street which crosses the old Christian quarter and continues to the eastern edge of the city . The Homs @-@ Damascus highway crosses the city from the south and reaches the city center in Quwatli Square . = = = Landmarks = = = The city itself is famous its historic mosques and churches . It is also well recognized by its twin clock towers . The older one , facing al @-@ Hamidiya Street , was built by the French in the early 1930s , and the newer one in al @-@ Quwatli Square facing al @-@ Dablan street . Homs is well known for its historical roofed souks . These consist of a complex maze of narrow streets and covered commercial alleys extending from the south and east from the Great Mosque towards the ancient citadel . The souks — lined with grocery and clothing stores , and workshops for carpenters , artisans , cobblers , metalworkers and knife @-@ sharpeners — are busiest in the evening . Homs and the surrounding countryside bear many landmarks , including a world heritage site , the Krak des Chevaliers and Citadel of Salah Ed @-@ Din . Other landmarks include the Great Mosque of al @-@ Nuri . Originally a pagan temple dedicated to El @-@ Gabal , it was consecrated as the Church of Saint John the Baptist under the Byzantines . Later , it was established as a Friday mosque during the Islamic Arab rule of Homs . The Khalid ibn al @-@ Walid Mosque has been considered " the only edifice of any real note " in Homs , and was built in the last few years of Ottoman rule in Syria during the 1900s . The mosque is named after early Arab general Khalid ibn al @-@ Walid , whose tomb is located within the building . The Um al @-@ Zennar Church ( " Church of the Virgin 's Girdle " ) was built in 1852 atop an earlier church dating back to the 4th @-@ century , and perhaps 59 CE . The other prominent church in Homs is the 5th @-@ century Church of Saint Elian , built in honor of Christian martyr Saint Elian , whose tomb is located in the crypt . The Citadel of Homs is situated on one of the largest urban tells of Syria . It has been archaeologically neglected because of military occupation until recent years . The tell dates back at least to the Early Bronze Age . The extant Islamic @-@ style walls were built during the Ayyubid period and the Mamluk sultan Baybars subsequently carried out restorations . All of this work is testified by inscriptions although without exception , they are lost . In 1994 , a joint Syrian @-@ British team studied the Citadel of Homs , recording the remains of the walls and towers . = = Twin towns – Sister cities = = Belo Horizonte , Brazil ( 2001 ) Kayseri , Turkey Yazd , Iran = = Gallery = =
= Romblon = Romblon ( / rɒmˈbloʊn / rom @-@ BLOHN ) is an archipelagic province of the Philippines located in the Mimaropa region . Its main islands include Tablas , the largest , which covers nine municipalities , Sibuyan with its three towns , as well as the smaller island municipalities of Corcuera , Banton , Concepcion , San Jose , and Romblon , the provincial capital . The province lies south of Marinduque and Quezon , east of Oriental Mindoro , north of Aklan and Capiz , and west of Masbate . According to the 2015 census , it has a total population of 292 @,@ 781 . Romblon has been inhabited by aboriginal Filipinos prior to the arrival of the Spanish in 1569 . Archaeological artifacts recovered by the National Museum in 1936 indicate that the aborigines of Romblon already have a rich and advanced culture . Under Spanish colonial rule , Romblon was initially administered under the newly established province of Arevalo , until 1716 , when it was transferred to the jurisdiction of the newly created province of Capiz . With arrival of the Americans in 1901 , Romblon was declared a province and placed under civilian rule . It lost its provincial status for a short while between 1907 and 1945 , but regained it in 1946 , just after World War II . The inhabitants of Romblon are divided into three ethnolinguistic groups : Romblomanon , Onhan and Asi . These groups occupy specific islands in the province and have their own language and customs . Romblomanon is mainly spoken in the town of Romblon , in all of three towns of Sibuyan Island , and the towns of San Andres and San Agustin in Tablas Island . Onhan is mainly spoken in the municipalities in the southern part of Tablas Island ( Alcantara , Looc , Ferrol , Santa Fe and Santa Maria ) well as in the island municipality of San Jose . The northwestern part of Tablas Island ( in Odiongan and Calatrava , as well as the islands municipalities of Corcuera , Banton , and Concepcion , speak the Asi language . Currently , the province relies on agriculture , particularly rice and copra farming as well as fishing , for its livelihood . It also has a lucrative marble industry due to an abundance of Italian @-@ quality marble , hence , its moniker as the " Marble Capital of the Philippines . " In recent years , the province has also become an ecotourism destination , with several white sand beaches , diving spots , mountains and rainforests that tourists visit annually . = = Etymology = = According to legend , the name " Romblon " was derived from the Romblomanon word Nagalumyom , which pertains to a chicken in the act of sitting on its eggs on a nest . This eventually evolved to Lomlom , and later on to Donblon , the name reported by Spanish chronicler Miguel de Loarca in his book Relacion de las Islas Filipinas in 1582 , before finally evolving to Romblon . Meanwhile , local historians Roland Madeja and Evelyn Reyes relate the origin of the name " Romblon " to the shape of Romblon Island . Madeja claims that the name was derived from the Spanish word ronblon , another term for tornillo , meaning " screw . " According to him , the Spanish claimed to have observed the screw @-@ like shape of Romblon Island . Meanwhile , Reyes claims Romblon originated from " doubloon " , which refers to the Spanish coin used by Moro pirates in paying dowries for their brides @-@ to @-@ be . The Spanish might have named the island after the shape of the coin . = = History = = = = = Early history = = = Romblon 's aboriginal inhabitants were the Negritos from Panay and Mangyans from Mindoro , who settled in the islands during the precolonial period . Ancient wooden coffins discovered in the Guyangan Cave System of Banton Island in 1936 signify a rich ancient civilization and culture in the province before the arrival of the Spaniards in 1569 . These artifacts are currently on display at the National Museum in Manila . Remnants of Negrito and Mangyan aborigines now live in the mountains of Tablas and Sibuyan after they were displaced by the influx of Hiligaynon , Aklanon , Bicolano and Tagalog migrants as early as 1870 . = = = Spanish period = = = According to historians Emma Helen Blair and James Alexander Robertson , the Spanish arrived in Romblon in 1569 led by conquistador Martin de Goiti who was dispatched by Miguel López de Legazpi to explore the western and northern portion of the Visayas region including Romblon and Mindoro . The islands were later organized into three encomiendas and were administered from Arevalo . De Loarca visited Romblon in 1582 and conducted the first census of the islands . In 1635 , Recollect missionaries arrived in Romblon to establish Catholic missions and settlements . They helped the Spanish authorities establish peace and order in the islands . In 1637 , they established seven missionary centers at Romblon , Badajoz ( San Agustin ) , Cajidiocan , Banton , Looc , Odiongan and Magallanes ( Magdiwang ) . They also built massive forts , churches and watchtowers in the province , such as Fort San Jose in Banton and Fort San Andres in Romblon , following a Dutch attack in 1646 which destroyed the capital town and to repulse recurring Moro raids . Romblon was separated from the jurisdiction of Arevalo and annexed to Capiz , when the province was created in 1716 . More than a century later in 1850 , the inhabitants of the province began using Spanish family names after governor @-@ general Narciso Clavería decreed on 21 November 1849 the use of surnames from the Catálogo alfabético de apellidos . Asi @-@ speaking natives were assigned the letter F , Romblomanon speakers were assigned the letter M , speakers of the Sibuyanon style of Romblomanon were assigned the letter R , while Onhan @-@ speaking natives were assigned the letter G. In 1853 , the islands were organized into a politico @-@ military commandancia ( " sub @-@ province " in English ) administered from Capiz and continued to be so until the end of the Spanish rule in 1898 . As a sub @-@ province , Romblon was under an army officer with the rank of captain . The town of Romblon was its capital and the other municipalities were Azagra , Badajos ( now San Agustin ) , Banton , Cajidiocan , Corcuera , Looc , Magallanes ( now Magdiwang ) , Odiongan , Despujols ( now San Andres ) and Santa Fe . = = = Revolutionary period = = = In 1898 , amid the Philippine Revolution , Katipunan leader Emilio Aguinaldo sent his generals to several provinces in the Visayas to expand the recognition of his revolutionary government in the central and southern Philippines . The Katipunan general Mariano Riego de Dios and his forces liberated Romblon , while generals Ananias Diocno and Leandro Fullon proceeded to Panay . On 25 July the same year , Riego de Dios took the Romblon capital and captured Spanish officials . Four days later , the Spanish politico @-@ military governor Don Carlos Mendoza formally signed the surrender of Romblon ’ s district government , ending more than three hundred years of Spanish rule in the archipelagic province . Later , Don Wenceslao Molo , a local from Romblon town , was appointed governor and became responsible for the collection of a total amount of ₱ 22 @,@ 765 @.@ 21 , Romblon ’ s share to the war expenditures of the Revolutionary Government from 31 May 1898 to 28 February 1899 . A local election was also held in Romblon town for its ministers of justice and barrio officials . However , Molo ’ s term was a brief transition to another era as the Americans arrived in the province a few months later . = = = American period = = = Upon the restoration of peace and order in the province following the Philippine @-@ American War , the Americans established civilian government in the islands on 16 March 1901 . Romblon was created as a regular province in the same year but due to insufficient income , it became a sub @-@ province of Capiz again in 1907 until 7 December 1917 when Act No. 2724 reestablished the province . Under Commonwealth Act No. 581 , enacted without executive approval on June 8 , 1940 , the province was reorganized with four towns or municipalities , namely : Tablas ( embracing Odiongan as the seat and center of the special municipality during which the municipalities of Ferrol and San Andres ( Despujol ) were still part of ; Looc during which Santa Fe , San Jose and Alcantara were still part of ; and Badajos during which Calatrava and Santa Maria were still part of ) , Romblon ( comprising Logbon , Cobrador and Alad ) , Banton ( involving Banton , Simara , and Maestre de Campo also known as Sibale ) , and Sibuyan ( with the towns of Cajidiocan , Magdiwang and San Fernando ) . = = = Japanese period = = = During World War II , the Japanese Imperial Forces established a garrison in Romblon on 21 March 1942 which they maintained until the end of the war . The islands became one of the centers of resistance movement against the Japanese . The movement was led by the Free Panay Guerilla Forces composed of members from the 6th Military District under the direction of Col. Macario Peralta , Jr . One of the major naval engagements during the Battle of Leyte Gulf , the Battle of Sibuyan Sea , happened off the waters of Romblon on 23 – 24 October 1944 between Japanese Admiral Kurita ’ s fleet from Singapore and Admiral Halsey 's carrier planes from the US Third Fleet then stationed east of the Philippines . Units from Company C of the 19th Infantry Regiment , 24th Infantry Division landed on Sawang , Romblon on the night 11 March 1945 . By 18 March , the province was liberated from Japanese forces . = = = Modern period = = = On 1 October 1946 , Romblon regained her provincial status through the passage of Republic Act No. 38 , sponsored by Cong . Modesto Formilleza . In the decades that followed , the province saw the creation of new municipalities , such as Alcantara ( 1961 ) from Looc , Calatrava ( 1969 ) from San Agustin , Ferrol ( 1978 ) from Odiongan , and Santa Maria ( 1984 ) from San Agustin . = = Geography = = Romblon is strategically situated at the center of the Philippine archipelago . It is composed of three major islands ( Tablas , Sibuyan and Romblon ) and 17 smaller islands . It is surrounded by deep waters , and is bounded by Masbate in the east , Mindoro in the west , Marinduque in the north and Panay in the south . It is approximately 187 nautical miles ( 346 km ) and 169 miles ( 272 km ) south of Manila . The islands are dispersed and accessible only via sea transportation except for Tablas Island where a domestic airport is located in the municipality of Alcantara . = = = Topography = = = The province has a total land area of approximately 1 @,@ 533 @.@ 45 square kilometres ( 592 sq mi ) representing about 5 @.@ 3 percent of the total land area of Region IV @-@ B ( MIMAROPA ) . It is generally mountainous with about 40 percent of its land area having an inclination of more than 50 percent . Only four percent of the total area has an inclination of three to eight percent , while a sparse 10 percent has an inclination of three to zero percent . Narrow strips of coastal lowlands , low hills and plains typify the topography of some of the islands . Romblon Island is hilly with a maximum elevation of about 400 metres ( 1 @,@ 300 ft ) above sea level . Tablas Island shows varied relief characteristics . The western coastal areas are level to undulating while the eastern coastal areas are rough to rugged . The southern section covering Santa Fe and the mid @-@ western portion maybe described as having rolling to rough terrain . Extremely rugged areas can be found in the central section of the island . The highest elevation is almost 500 metres ( 1 @,@ 600 ft ) above sea level . Sibuyan Island is a thickly forested mountain mass . The western portion of the island maybe characterized as extensively rugged , having ascents of 60 percent or more while the eastern section is relatively undulating to rolling . The highest elevation , the peak of Mt . Guiting @-@ Guiting , reaches about 2 @,@ 058 meters ( 6 @,@ 750 feet ) above sea level . The major areas that are highly productive and buildable are basically in Tablas and Sibuyan . These include Odiongan , San Andres , Looc and Santa Fe in Tablas Island . All three municipalities in Sibuyan Island , on the other hand , have substantial level to gently sloping lands . Overall , good developable lands represent about 13 percent of the province ’ s total area . = = = Flora and fauna = = = Romblon , particularly Sibuyan Island , is among the few places in the Philippines with a well @-@ preserved natural environment . Uninterrupted rainforest covers 75 percent of the island . It is also home to the country 's cleanest inland body of water , the Cantigas River , as well as 34 waterfalls . Sibuyan is commonly known the country as the " Galapagos of Asia " because of its many endemic plant and animal species , some of which have just been discovered recently . Among these endemic species are nine mammals , seven lizards , two amphibians , three birds and 112 vascular plants , such as the Nepenthes argentii , Nepenthes sibuyanensis , Nepenthes armin , Sibuyan striped shrew rat , Sibuyan shrew , Philippine tube @-@ nosed fruit bat , indigo @-@ banded kingfisher , and the Romblon hawk @-@ owl . In Tablas Island , at least two endemic bird species can be found : the Tablas drongo and Tablas fantail . = = = Administrative divisions = = = Romblon comprises 17 municipalities . Of these , nine are located in Tablas Island ( San Agustin , Calatrava , San Andres , Odiongan , Ferrol , Santa Fe , Looc , Alcantara and Santa Maria ) , three in Sibuyan Island ( Magdiwang , Cajidiocan and San Fernando ) and five ( Romblon , San Jose , Banton , Concepcion and Corcuera ) are island municipalities . † Provincial capital = = = Climate = = = Romblon falls under Type III of the Corona climatic classification system which was devised in 1920 . It is characterized by no pronounced wet and dry seasons . Generally , the wet season is from June to November and sometimes extends up to December when the southwest monsoon is predominant . The dry season is from January to May but is sometimes interrupted by erratic rainfall . The annual mean temperature is 27 ° C ( 81 ° F ) , with February as the coldest month with temperatures dropping to 20 ° C ( 68 ° F ) , and May as the warmest month with temperatures reaching up to 35 ° C ( 95 ° F ) . Habagat monsoon winds pass through the province from June to October while northeasterly winds or Amihan blows through the islands from December to February . = = Demographics = = The population of Romblon in the 2015 census was 292 @,@ 781 people , with a density of 190 inhabitants per square kilometre or 490 inhabitants per square mile . It ranks fourth among the five provinces of the MIMAROPA Region in terms of population and represents 9 @.@ 9 percent of the region ’ s population . San Jose and Romblon are the two most @-@ densely populated municipalities in the province at 490 / km2 and 450 / km2 , respectively . Cajidiocan is the least densely populated municipality at 110 / km2 . Males outnumber females in the province with a sex ratio of 102 : 100 according to the 2010 census . Of the province ’ s 283 @,@ 482 household population , males accounted for 144 @,@ 091 or 50 @.@ 8 percent while females comprised 139 @,@ 391 or 49 @.@ 2 percent . The voting @-@ age population ( 18 years old and over ) accounted for 56 @.@ 6 percent of the household population of the province in 2010 , up from 52 @.@ 7 percent in 2000 . There were more females ( 50 @.@ 2 percent ) than males ( 49 @.@ 8 percent ) among the voting age population . = = = Language = = = The languages of Romblon , as well as all languages native to the Philippines , belong to the Austronesian language family , the second largest language family in the world with 1 @,@ 257 known languages , second only to the Niger @-@ Congo family 's 1 @,@ 538 languages . All of the languages of the Philippines , except Samalan , are classified as Philippine languages under the Western Malayo @-@ Polynesian branch of Austronesian . The Philippine language group has three main branches : Northern , Southern and Central , the latter of which is composed of the Visayan , Bikol and Tagalog languages . Unlike other islands or provinces in the Philippines where all local languages are classifiable under the same subgroup of languages , each of the three languages of Romblon — Romblomanon , Onhan and Asi — actually belongs to a different subgroup of the Visayan language group . Romblomanon belongs to the Central Visayan subgroup , which spans from Waray @-@ Waray in Samar and Leyte , through Masbatenyo and Bisakol , and as far west as Hiligaynon and Capiznon on Panay . It is spoken in Romblon and Sibuyan Islands , as well as in San Agustin town in Tablas Island . Onhan , on the other hand , belongs to the Western Visayan subgroup , which includes Kinaray @-@ a and Aklanon as well as several minor languages spoken on Mindoro , Palawan , and some small islands in between . Its speakers are mainly from the southern portion of Tablas Island , in the municipalities of San Andres , Santa Maria , Alcantara , Ferrol , Looc , and Santa Fe , as well as in the municipality of San Jose in Carabao Island . Finally , Asi is not classified under any specific subgroup of Visayan , and instead makes up its own immediate branch of Visayan . David Paul Zorc , a linguist from the Australian National University whose expertise is on Philippine languages , notes that Asi speakers may have been the first Visayan speakers in the region . He also suggests that Asi may have a Cebuano substratum and that many of its words may have been influenced by the later influx of other languages such as Romblomanon . It is spoken in the island municipalities of Banton , Corcuera and Concepcion , as well as in Odiongan and Calatrava in Tablas . = = = Religion = = = The people of the province are predominantly Roman Catholic . In 2012 , the UP School of Economics reported that in recent years , at least 75 percent were Catholics , around five to nine percent were Muslims , and around three to five percent belonged to Iglesia ni Cristo . = = Economy = = = = = Agriculture = = = Agriculture is the main industry in Romblon . Coconut is the most cultivated crop with a total planted area of 58 @,@ 270 @.@ 44 hectares ( 224 @.@ 9834 sq mi ) . San Agustin has the most extensive area with coconut plants followed by Romblon and Cajidiocan . Rice is the next crop , cultivated particularly in Odiongan , Looc , Cajidiocan and Santa Fe . Other crops grown include root crops , vegetables and fruits . Odiongan , Banton and Magdiwang have the greatest areas planted with root crops and correspondingly , have the highest volume of production . Vegetable production is mostly for home consumption and grown in small scale . Livestock development and poultry production is a viable small scale enterprise for farmers in the province . The provincial government maintains breeding facilities in strategic locations province @-@ wide to encourage farmers to engage in livestock and poultry production to augment their income . Livestock and poultry management training and seminars is provided to interested clients . Due to the geographical condition of the province , crops and livestock production is generally deficient as compared to the food requirements of Romblon population . To meet the rice requirements , Romblon relies on imports from the neighboring provinces while vegetables , poultry meat , vegetables and fruits are supplied mostly by Luzon . = = = Marine resources = = = Fishing industry is a major enterprise as Romblon is surrounded by water on all sides . The fishing grounds of Romblon are a migratory path of fish from Sulu and Visayan Seas passing Tablas Strait , Sibuyan Sea and Romblon Pass . The waters also abound with demersal fish due to the coral reefs surrounding the islands . Because the province has a great potential for aqua @-@ marine development , the province implemented a coastal and resource management program . Each municipality established a fish sanctuary and passed laws on fishery . The use of air compressors in the municipal waters was regulated and banned altogether in some municipalities . = = = Mineral resources = = = Marble is the most significant mineral deposit of Romblon and is the most renowned product of the province . Based on statistics , Romblon is the second biggest provincial marble producer of the country next to Bulacan . Romblon marble is of very high quality and comes in shades of white , green , pink , red and black . The Mines and Geosciences Bureau has estimated that Romblon is endowed with about 150 million metric tons of marble . At current rates of extraction , the supply may last for three more centuries . Tablas Island is also believed to have vast reserves of marble . Marble quarrying and processing are major activities in Romblon . Among the most common marble products are categorized into the following : novelty items ( gifts , ashtray , table bars ) , furniture ( dining tables , baptismal fonts ) and construction materials ( tiles , balusters , marble chips ) . Other mineral resources with considerable quantity include nickel ore and gold mostly to be found in Sibuyan Island . Gold panning and small @-@ scale mining is a lucrative undertaking in Magdiwang . = = Tourism = = = = = Natural attractions = = = Being an archipelago , Romblon has several beaches and dive sites . Among its best white sand beaches are Bonbon , Cobrador and Tiamban Beach in Romblon , Macat @-@ ang , Tabunan and Tambak Beach in Banton , Lunas and Bignay Beach in San Jose , and Cresta del Gallo in San Fernando . The sea surrounding Cresta del Gallo is a famous diving site teeming with marine life . Romblon is also home to the only known blue hole in the Philippines in the town of San Agustin . The entrance to the blue hole is a 6 @-@ metre ( 20 ft ) wide volcanic chimney , which drops for 20 metres ( 66 ft ) before opening up into the massive chamber below with a total depth of 32 to 40 metres ( 105 – 131 ft ) . Mount Guiting @-@ Guiting in Sibuyan , the province 's tallest mountain , is considered as one of the most difficult climbs in the Philippines , and is thus a major destination of local mountain climbers because of its steep and jagged summit . Another a suitable place for hiking and trekking is Mount Payaopao is Tablas . Meanwhile , Banton 's Guyangan Cave System , an Important Cultural Treasure , is where the Banton Cloth — the earliest known warp ikat textile in Southeast Asia — was found in 1936 . = = = Heritage sites = = = Aside from the precolonial Guyangan Cave System in Banton , the province also has several heritage sites built during the Spanish colonial period . In Romblon town , the forts of San Andres and Santiago served as fortifications against Muslim pirates in the 17th century , while the St. Joseph Cathedral and Belfry houses a centuries @-@ old image of the Santo Niño de Cebú or the Holy Child . Both heritage sites were declared National Cultural Treasures by the National Museum . The town also has two Spanish @-@ era bridges that were declared Important Cultural Treasures . A similar fort in Banton , the centuries @-@ old Fort San Jose and Banton Church , were built in the 1600s and was also used as defenses against Muslim pirates . = = = Festivals = = = Every second week of January , Romblon town celebrates the feast of the Santo Niño de Cebú , also known as the Biniray Festival . In that week , a fluvial parade featuring the image of the Santo Niño goes around Romblon Bay in order to bring good luck to the villages . A mardi gras is also held in the town with various street dancing , food , drinks and music . A similar Biniray Festival also occurs in Banton every 10 September in commemoration of the island 's patron , San Nicolas de Tolentino . Other festivals include the Saginyogan Festival in Alcantara , the Sanrokan Festival in Banton , and the Talabukon Festival in Looc . = = Government = = = = = Executive = = = Just like any other province in the Philippines , Romblon ’ s chief executive and head is the provincial governor . Elected to a term of three years and limited to three consecutive terms , he or she appoints the directors of each provincial department , which include the office of administration , engineering office , information office , legal office , and treasury office . As of April 2016 , the incumbent governor of Romblon is Eduardo C. Firmalo , from the Liberal Party . He first assumed office on 30 June 2010 , following his victory in the May 2010 gubernatorial elections . He was reelected in 2013 for a second term which will expire in 2016 . The provincial vice governor performs duties as acting governor in the absence of the provincial governor . He or she also automatically succeeds as governor upon the death of the provincial governor . The provincial vice governor also convenes the Provincial Board or Sangguniang Panlalawigan , the provincial legislative body . The incumbent provincial vice governor of Romblon is Jose Riano from the Liberal Party . He first assumed office on 30 June 2013 after defeating former vice governor Manuel Madrid . = = = Legislative = = = The province , which is a lone congressional district , is represented in the Philippine House of Representatives by longtime congressman Eleandro Jesus " Budoy " Madrona from the Nacionalista Party . He first assumed office from 1992 to 2001 , serving three terms . Following two terms wherein Perpetuo Ylagan and Eduardo Firmalo respectively represented the district in Congress , Madrona ran and won again in 2007 . His third and last term will expire in 2016 . Within the province , the Provincial Board or Sangguniang Panlalawigan crafts all provincial ordinances , performs appropriation of provincial funds , issues franchises and permits , impose fees on provincial services , and exercise other duties and powers as stipulated by the Local Government Code of 1991 . Romblon , being a third @-@ class province in terms of income , is entitled to a Provincial Board composed of eight members , four each from the province ’ s two board districts . As of 2013 , the incumbent board members from the province ’ s two districts are : ( First District ) Samuel Romero , Anthony Rugas , Abner Perez , Nelson Lim ; ( Second District ) Felix Ylagan , Juliet Fiel , Venizar Maravilla , and Andres Fondevilla . = = Infrastructure = = = = = Transportation = = = Romblon province is connected by a network of national and provincial roads . National roads form much of this network , with a total length of 311 @.@ 046 kilometres ( 193 @.@ 275 mi ) . Provincial roads , meanwhile , total 239 @.@ 005 kilometres ( 148 @.@ 511 mi ) in length . Municipal and barangay roads in far @-@ flung villages and island municipalities are not part of these figures . The primary modes of land transportation in the province are jeepneys , passenger motorcycles , minibuses and tricycles that serve inter @-@ municipal movements and linkages . Sea transportation is the primary mode of transportation linking Romblon with Luzon and islands in the Visayas . Inter @-@ island ferries , RORO , and cargo ships from Manila , the southern Luzon ports of Batangas City , Lucena City in Quezon province , Roxas , Oriental Mindoro , and Roxas City in Capiz province are the primary modes of transportation linking the province to the rest of the country . Montenegro Lines , 2GO , and Romblon Shipping Lines all have ferry service from Manila to the main ports of entry of Odiongan and the capital town of Romblon and vice versa . From Romblon , Montenegro also serves Magdiwang in Sibuyan , while Romblon Shipping Lines also serves Cajidiocan . Pump boats and wooden launches also link the province to the towns of Buenavista , Marinduque and Pinamalayan , Oriental Mindoro . These pump boats are also used in going to barangays where there are no existing road networks or between municipalities in the province that do not have existing ferry service . Tugdan Airport in Alcantara is the only airport in the province and is less than an hour away from Metro Manila via flights thrice a week ( Sunday , Wednesday and Friday as of December 2015 on PR2077 / 2078 ) by PAL Express . There is also a small airstrip in Barangay Azagra , San Fernando in Sibuyan Island that caters to tourism and general aviation . = = = Electricity = = = Power supply in Romblon is generated by the National Power Corporation ( NPC ) and serviced by two electric cooperatives . Tablas Island Electric Cooperatives ( TIELCO ) serves the power needs of Tablas Island including San Jose . It operates a 5 @.@ 070 MW diesel power plant in Odiongan and 1 @.@ 740 MW power barge in San Agustin . The electric cooperative serves a total of 21 @,@ 097 house connections . Romblon Electric Cooperative ( ROMELCO ) supplies the capital town of Romblon through a 1 @.@ 720 MW diesel power plant and a 1 @.@ 30 MW power barge . It also serves Sibuyan Island using a 3 @.@ 006 MW diesel power plant in San Fernando . ROMELCO has 5 @,@ 288 house connections in Romblon and 5 @,@ 150 house connections in the three municipalities located in Sibuyan Island or a total of 10 @,@ 438 house connections in their franchise area . Additionally , ROMELCO installed in 2010 a mini hydro power plant in Cantigas , San Fernando , producing 900 kW of power . Meanwhile , Banton , Concepcion and Corcuera are attended to by the National Power Corporation ( NPC ) thru their municipal governments . = = = Water supply = = = Out of 17 municipalities , 14 have Level III water supply systems serving 18 @,@ 590 households or about 32 @.@ 57 percent of the total provincial households . Level III has a reservoir with house @-@ to @-@ house connections . 5 @,@ 252 households were serviced by Level II water systems and 24 @,@ 700 households by Level I water system . Level I category is a common facility where the community members get their water supply from deep wells and shallow wells , while Level II has a reservoir with communal faucet . Based on the report from the Provincial Health Office in 2007 , a total of 48 @,@ 542 households out of the 57 @,@ 079 or 85 @.@ 04 percent have access to safe drinking water . = = = Telecommunications = = = The province has several operating telecommunication exchanges , namely Kayumanggi , Romblontel , Odiongan Telephone Corporation ( OTELCO ) , the Telecommunication Office ( TELOF ) , telegram system , Liberty Telecom , public calling stations under the DOTC and the Provincial Communication System ( PCS ) radio transceivers and receivers . Smart Communications , Sun Cellular and Globe Telecom already have relay stations in Romblon , Odiongan and Cajidiocan , enabling most areas province @-@ wide connected through cellphones , except on some area where the signal is weak or non @-@ existent because of mountains that block the signal . The Triple Peak in Santa Maria has a relay station for PLDT and Liberty Telecom . = = Media = = There are three radio stations in the province , two of which are operated by the Radyo Natin Network and the other , Charm FM 100 @.@ 5 MHz , by the Polytechnic Foundation of Cotabato and Asia . Radyo Natin Network operates the call sign DZRH at 91 @.@ 3 MHz on AM radio from Looc , as well as the call sign DZVG 101 @.@ 3 MHz on FM radio from Odiongan . As for print media , Romblon Text and Romblon Sun are the two major newspapers circulating in the province , aside from broadsheet and tabloid newspapers from Manila . Romblon News , meanwhile , provides provincial and national news and information via the web and social media . A relay station for GMA Network in Santa Maria allows the province to access television shows broadcast by the network from Manila . There are also existing cable providers and local cable stations operating in several municipalities in the province , namely Romblon Cable Corporation ( Romblon ) , Accutronics System Inc . ( Odiongan ) , San Agustin Cable Antenna Corp. ( San Agustin ) , Countryside Satellite Television System Inc . ( Looc ) , Gateway Cable TV Network ( Calatrava ) , San Andres CATV Service Coop . ( San Andres ) , Josefa J. Martinez CATV Services ( Alcantara ) , Magdiwang Cable Television ( Magdiwang ) , and Sibuyan Cable TV ( San Fernando and Cajidiocan ) . Aside from these cable stations , there are also distributors of direct @-@ to @-@ home ( DTH ) satellite TV such as Cignal Digital TV , Dream Satellite TV , and G Sat who provide television services for its subscribers . = = Education = = The Division of Romblon of the Department of Education ( DepEd ) supervises and oversees the delivery of education and operations of public schools in the province . It is composed of 13 districts , where there are 228 elementary schools , 216 of which are public and 12 are private . Of the 216 public elementary schools , 162 offer preschool education , while 20 of the private schools have the same offering . There are also 10 private preschools offering pre @-@ elementary . For secondary level , a total of 44 schools offer secondary education , of which 37 are public schools and seven are private institutions . There are 13 vocational schools in the province , while tertiary education is offered by privately owned Romblon College and the Romblon State University ( RSU ) , one of the oldest state universities in the Philippines . RSU , which was founded in 1915 , is the oldest agricultural university in the Philippines and has campuses in Romblon , Odiongan , Cajidiocan , Calatrava , San Agustin , San Andres , San Fernando , Santa Fe , and Santa Maria . = = Notable people = = Florante Condes , Filipino professional boxer and a former IBF Minimumweight World Champion . Jose Dalisay , Jr . , writer , poet , playwright and screenwriter who won 16 Palanca Awards Gabriel Fabella , co @-@ founder and first president of the Philippine Historical Association ; Father of June 12 Independence Day ; and sole representative of Romblon in the First National Assembly ( 1935 – 1938 ) . Ephraim Fajutagana , current Obispo Máximo or Supreme Bishop of the Philippine Independent Church . Nicon Fameronag , current undersecretary of the Department of Labor and Employment . Julius Fortuna , student leader and political prisoner in ' 70s during the Marcos regime ; journalist for the Philippine Daily Globe , The Manila Chronicle , The Philippine Post , People 's Journal and The Manila Times . Roilo Golez , member of the Philippine House of Representatives representing the Second District of Parañaque City . N. V. M. Gonzalez , writer , Palanca Award winner , and National Artist for Literature . Elma Muros @-@ Posadas , former track and field athlete who specialized in long jump and won a total of 15 gold medals in several Southeast Asian Games . Rodne Galicha , environmentalist , recipient of national individual award called Gawad Bayani Kalikasan given by the Center for Environmental Concerns and Department of Environment and Natural Resources , currently Philippine country manager of The Climate Reality Project . Nene Tamayo , grand winner of ABS @-@ CBN 's Pinoy Big Brother ( season 1 ) .
= Thelephora palmata = Thelephora palmata ( commonly known as the stinking earthfan or the fetid false coral ) is a species of clavarioid fungus in the family Thelephoraceae . The fruit bodies are leathery and coral @-@ like , with branches that are narrow at the base before widening out like a fan and splitting into numerous flattened prongs . The wedge @-@ like tips are whitish when young , but darken as the fungus matures . The common names of the fungus refers to its pungent odor , likened to fetid garlic . A widely distributed but uncommon species , it is found in Asia , Australia , Europe , North America , and South America , where it fruits on the ground in both coniferous and mixed forest . = = Taxonomy = = The species was first described in 1772 by Italian naturalist Giovanni Antonio Scopoli , as Clavaria palmata . Elias Fries transferred it to the genus Thelephora in 1821 . The species has several synonyms , resulting from several generic transfers in its taxonomic history , including Ramaria by Johan Theodor Holmskjold in 1790 , Merisma by Christian Hendrik Persoon in 1822 , and Phylacteria by Narcisse Théophile Patouillard in 1887 . Other historical synonyms are Merisma foetidum , published by Christian Hendrik Persoon in 1797 , and Pier Andrea Saccardo 's 1888 Clavaria schaefferi . Persoon also published a species with the name Thelephora palmata in 1822 , but because the name was already in use , it is an illegitimate homonym ; this species is now known as Thelephora anthocephala . Despite its coral @-@ like appearance , Thelephora palmata is closely related to some fungi with a distinctly bracket @-@ like appearance , such as T. terrestris and T. caryophyllea . The specific epithet palmata is derived from Latin , and means " having the shape of a hand " . It is known by the common names " stinking earthfan " and " fetid false coral " . Samuel Frederick Gray called it the " stinking branch @-@ ear " in his 1821 work A Natural Arrangement of British Plants . = = Description = = The fruit body of T. palmata is a coral @-@ like tuft that is repeatedly branched from a central stalk , reaching dimensions of 3 @.@ 5 – 6 @.@ 5 cm ( 1 @.@ 4 – 2 @.@ 6 in ) tall . The branches of the fruit body end in spoon- to fan @-@ shaped tips that are frequently fringed or grooved . The branches of the fruit body are initially whitish in color , but gradually turn gray to lilac @-@ brown in maturity ; the tips , however , remain whitish , or paler than the lower parts . The flesh is tough and leathery . The hymenium ( fertile , spore @-@ bearing tissue ) is amphigenous , that is , it occurs on all surfaces of the fruit body . The odor of the fruit body is quite unpleasant , resembling fetid garlic , " old cabbage water " , or " overripe cheese " . It has been called " a candidate for stinkiest fungus in the forest " . The unpleasant odor intensifies after drying . Fruit bodies are not edible . In deposit , the spores are purple @-@ brown to brown . Viewed with a microscopic , the spores appear purple , angular with lobes , and warted , with fine spines measuring 0 @.@ 5 – 1 @.@ 5 µm long ; the overall dimensions of the elliptic spores are 8 – 12 by 7 – 9 µm . They contain one or two oil drops . The basidia ( spore @-@ bearing cells ) measure 70 – 100 by 9 – 12 µm , and have sterigmata that are 2 – 4 µm thick by 7 – 12 µm long . The flesh stains deep blue when a drop of potassium hydroxide solution is applied . The fungus contains the pigment thelephoric acid . Thelephora anthocephala is somewhat similar in appearance , but can be distinguished by branches that taper upward , branch tips that are flattened ( instead of spoon @-@ like ) , and the lack of a fetid odor . The North American species T. vialis has smaller spores and a more variable color . Darker Ramaria species are distinguished by their non @-@ leathery flesh texture and pointy branch tips . = = Habitat and distribution = = Thelephora palmata is an ectomycorrhizal species , forming mutualistic associations with conifers . Fruit bodies grow singly , scattered , or in groups on the ground in both coniferous and mixed forest and grassy fields . A preference has been noted for moist ground , and locations along woodland paths . An uncommon species , fruit bodies can be difficult to see because they blend well into their surroundings . The species is found in Asia ( including China , Iran , Japan , Siberia Turkey , and Vietnam ) , Europe , North America , and South America ( Brazil and Colombia ) . It has also been recorded from Australia and Fiji . Fruit bodies are consumed by the springtail species Ceratophysella denisana . = = Uses = = Fruit bodies of Thelephora palmata can be used for mushroom dyeing . Depending on the mordant used , colors ranging from blackish @-@ brown to dark grayish @-@ green to greenish @-@ brown can be obtained from the dyeing process ; without a mordant , a light brown color is produced .
= Lutetium = Lutetium is a chemical element with symbol Lu and atomic number 71 . It is a silvery white metal , which resists corrosion in dry , but not in moist air . It is considered the first element of the 6th @-@ period transition metals and the last element in the lanthanide series , and is traditionally counted among the rare earths . Lutetium was independently discovered in 1907 by French scientist Georges Urbain , Austrian mineralogist Baron Carl Auer von Welsbach , and American chemist Charles James . All of these men found lutetium as an impurity in the mineral ytterbia , which was previously thought to consist entirely of ytterbium . The dispute on the priority of the discovery occurred shortly after , with Urbain and Welsbach accusing each other of publishing results influenced by the published research of the other ; the naming honor went to Urbain , as he had published his results earlier . He chose the name lutecium for the new element , but in 1949 the spelling of element 71 was changed to lutetium . In 1909 , the priority was finally granted to Urbain and his names were adopted as official ones ; however , the name cassiopeium ( or later cassiopium ) for element 71 proposed by Welsbach was used by many German scientists until the 1950s . Lutetium is not a particularly abundant element , though significantly more common than silver in the earth 's crust ; it has few specific uses . Lutetium @-@ 176 is a relatively abundant ( 2 @.@ 5 % ) radioactive isotope with a half @-@ life of about 38 billion years , and so used to determine the age of meteorites . Lutetium usually occurs in association with the element yttrium and is sometimes used in metal alloys and as a catalyst in various chemical reactions . 177Lu @-@ DOTA @-@ TATE is used for radionuclide therapy ( see Nuclear medicine ) on neuroendocrine tumours . Lutetium has the highest Brinell hardness of any lanthanide , at 890 – 1300 MPa . = = Characteristics = = = = = Physical properties = = = A lutetium atom has 71 electrons , arranged in the configuration [ Xe ] 4f145d16s2 . When entering a chemical reaction , the atom loses its two outermost electrons and the single 5d @-@ electron ; this is unusual since reactions of the other lanthanides invariably involve f @-@ shell electrons . The lutetium atom is the smallest among the lanthanide atoms , due to the lanthanide contraction , and as a result lutetium has the highest density , melting point , and hardness of the lanthanides . Some of these properties can be explained by its position in the d @-@ block , which gives the metal properties of some heavier transition metals . Occasionally , lutetium is classified as a transition metal on this basis , although the IUPAC classifies it as a lanthanide . = = = Chemical properties and compounds = = = Lutetium 's compounds always contain the element in the oxidation state + 3 . Aqueous solutions of most lutetium salts are colorless and form white crystalline solids upon drying , with the common exception of the iodide . The soluble salts , such as nitrate , sulfate and acetate form hydrates upon crystallization . The oxide , hydroxide , fluoride , carbonate , phosphate and oxalate are insoluble in water . Lutetium metal is slightly unstable in air at standard conditions , but it burns readily at 150 ° C to form lutetium oxide . The resulting compound is known to absorb water and carbon dioxide , and may be used to remove vapors of these compounds from closed atmospheres . Similar observations are made during reaction between lutetium and water ( slow when cold and fast when hot ) ; lutetium hydroxide is formed in the reaction . Lutetium metal is known to react with the four lightest halogens to form trihalides ; all of them ( except the fluoride ) are soluble in water . Lutetium dissolves readily in weak acids and dilute sulfuric acid to form solutions containing the colorless lutetium ions , which are coordinated by between seven and nine water molecules , the average being [ Lu ( H2O ) 8 @.@ 2 ] 3 + . 2 Lu + 3 H2SO4 → 2 Lu3 + + 3 SO2 – 4 + 3 H2 ↑ = = = Isotopes = = = Lutetium occurs on the Earth in form of two isotopes : lutetium @-@ 175 and lutetium @-@ 176 . Out of these two , only the former is stable , making the element monoisotopic . The latter one , lutetium @-@ 176 , decays via beta decay with a half @-@ life of 3 @.@ 78 × 1010 years ; it makes up about 2 @.@ 5 % of natural lutetium . To date , 32 synthetic radioisotopes of the element have been characterized , ranging in mass from 149 @.@ 973 ( lutetium @-@ 150 ) to 183 @.@ 961 ( lutetium @-@ 184 ) ; the most stable such isotopes are lutetium @-@ 174 with a half @-@ life of 3 @.@ 31 years , and lutetium @-@ 173 with a half @-@ life of 1 @.@ 37 years . All of the remaining radioactive isotopes have half @-@ lives that are less than 9 days , and the majority of these have half @-@ lives that are less than half an hour . Isotopes lighter than the stable lutetium @-@ 175 decay via electron capture ( to produce isotopes of ytterbium ) , with some alpha and positron emission ; the heavier isotopes decay primarily via beta decay , producing hafnium isotopes . The element also has 42 nuclear isomers , with masses of 150 , 151 , 153 – 162 , 166 – 180 ( not every mass number corresponds to only one isomer ) . The most stable of them are lutetium @-@ 177m , with half @-@ life of 160 @.@ 4 days and lutetium @-@ 174m , with half @-@ life of 142 days ; this is longer than half @-@ lives of the ground states of all radioactive lutetium isotopes , except only for lutetium @-@ 173 , 174 , and 176 . = = History = = Lutetium , derived from the Latin Lutetia ( Paris ) , was independently discovered in 1907 by French scientist Georges Urbain , Austrian mineralogist Baron Carl Auer von Welsbach , and American chemist Charles James . They found it as an impurity in ytterbia , which was thought by Swiss chemist Jean Charles Galissard de Marignac to consist entirely of ytterbium . The scientists proposed different names for the elements : Urbain chose neoytterbium and lutecium , whereas Welsbach chose aldebaranium and cassiopeium ( after Aldebaran and Cassiopeia ) . Both of these articles accused the other man of publishing results based on those of the author . The International Commission on Atomic Weights , which was then responsible for the attribution of new element names , settled the dispute in 1909 by granting priority to Urbain and adopting his names as official ones , based on the fact that the separation of lutetium from Marignac 's ytterbium was first described by Urbain ; after Urbain 's names were recognized , neoytterbium was reverted to ytterbium . Until the 1950s , some German @-@ speaking chemists called lutetium by Welsbach 's name , cassiopeium ; in 1949 , the spelling of element 71 was changed to lutetium . However , Welsbach 's 1907 samples of lutetium had been pure , while Urbain 's 1907 samples only contained traces of lutetium . This later misled Urbain into thinking that he had discovered element 72 , which he named celtium , which was actually very pure lutetium . Charles James , who stayed out of the priority argument , worked on a much larger scale and possessed the largest supply of lutetium at the time . Pure lutetium metal was first produced in 1953 . = = Occurrence and production = = Found with almost all other rare @-@ earth metals but never by itself , lutetium is very difficult to separate from other elements . The principal commercially viable ore of lutetium is the rare earth phosphate mineral monazite : ( Ce , La , etc . ) PO4 which contains 0 @.@ 0001 % of the element . The abundance of lutetium in the Earth crust is only about 0 @.@ 5 mg / kg . The main mining areas are China , United States , Brazil , India , Sri Lanka and Australia . The world production of lutetium ( in the form of oxide ) is about 10 tonnes per year . Pure lutetium metal is very difficult to prepare . It is one of the rarest and most expensive of the rare earth metals with the price about US $ 10 @,@ 000 per kilogram , or about one @-@ fourth that of gold . Crushed minerals are treated with hot concentrated sulfuric acid to produce water @-@ soluble sulfates of rare earths . Thorium precipitates out of solution as hydroxide and is removed . After that the solution is treated with ammonium oxalate to convert rare earths into their insoluble oxalates . The oxalates are converted to oxides by annealing . The oxides are dissolved in nitric acid that excludes one of the main components , cerium , whose oxide is insoluble in HNO3 . Several rare earth metals , including lutetium , are separated as a double salt with ammonium nitrate by crystallization . Lutetium is separated by ion exchange . In this process , rare @-@ earth ions are sorbed onto suitable ion @-@ exchange resin by exchange with hydrogen , ammonium or cupric ions present in the resin . Lutetium salts are then selectively washed out by suitable complexing agent . Lutetium metal is then obtained by reduction of anhydrous LuCl3 or LuF3 by either an alkali metal or alkaline earth metal . 2 LuCl3 + 3 Ca → 2 Lu + 3 CaCl2 = = Applications = = Because of the rarity and high price , lutetium has very few commercial uses . However , stable lutetium can be used as catalysts in petroleum cracking in refineries and can also be used in alkylation , hydrogenation , and polymerization applications . Lutetium aluminium garnet ( Al5Lu3O12 ) has been proposed for use as a lens material in high refractive index immersion lithography . Additionally , a tiny amount of lutetium is added as a dopant to gadolinium gallium garnet ( GGG ) , which is used in magnetic bubble memory devices . Cerium @-@ doped lutetium oxyorthosilicate ( LSO ) is currently the preferred compound for detectors in positron emission tomography ( PET ) . Lutetium is used as a phosphor in LED light bulbs . Aside from stable lutetium , its radioactive isotopes have several specific uses . The suitable half @-@ life and decay mode made lutetium @-@ 176 used as a pure beta emitter , using lutetium which has been exposed to neutron activation , and in lutetium – hafnium dating to date meteorites . The synthetic isotope lutetium @-@ 177 bound to octreotate ( a somatostatin analogue ) , is used experimentally in targeted radionuclide therapy for neuroendocrine tumors . Indeed , lutetium @-@ 177 is seeing increasing use as a radionuclide , in neuroendrocine tumor therapy and bone pain palliation . Lutetium tantalate ( LuTaO4 ) is the densest known stable white material ( density 9 @.@ 81 g / cm3 ) and therefore is an ideal host for X @-@ ray phosphors . The only denser white material is thorium dioxide , with density of 10 g / cm3 , but the thorium it contains is radioactive . = = Precautions = = Like other rare @-@ earth metals , lutetium is regarded as having a low degree of toxicity , but its compounds should be handled with care nonetheless : for example , lutetium fluoride inhalation is dangerous and the compound irritates skin . Lutetium nitrate may be dangerous as it may explode and burn once heated . Lutetium oxide powder is toxic as well if inhaled or ingested . Similarly to other group 3 elements and lanthanides , lutetium has no known biological role , but it is found even in humans , concentrating in bones , and to a lesser extent in the liver and kidneys . Lutetium salts are known to occur together with other lanthanide salts in nature ; the element is the least abundant in the human body of all lanthanides . Human diets have not been monitored for lutetium content , so it is not known how much the average human takes in , but estimations show the amount is only about several micrograms per year , all coming from tiny amounts taken by plants . Soluble lutetium salts are mildly toxic , but insoluble ones are not .
= Tropical Storm Rachel ( 1990 ) = Tropical Storm Rachel was the only tropical cyclone to make landfall during the 1990 Pacific hurricane season . The twenty @-@ fourth tropical depression and eighteenth named storm , Rachel developed on September 27 from a tropical wave southwest of mainland Mexico . After becoming a tropical depression , the system tracked slowly southwestward and eventually curved northwestward . The depression intensified into a tropical storm after three days and was named Rachel by the National Hurricane Center . Rachel continued to steadily strengthen , and peaked as a strong 65 mph ( 100 km / h ) tropical storm on October 2 . After attaining peak intensity , Rachel re @-@ curved to make a landfall in southern Baja California Sur and again in the Mexican Mainland on October 3 . The storm produced heavy rainfall across northern Mexico and the Southwestern United States . Thousands of people were left homeless and 18 fatalities were reported . = = Meteorological history = = The origins of Rachel can be traced back to a tropical wave that moved off the west coast Africa in mid @-@ September 1990 . It moved westward into the Caribbean Sea without significant development . Poorly organized , the wave entered the Eastern Pacific on overnight September 22 . The thunderstorm activity became more concentrated two days later . Dvorak classifications , a technique used to estimate a tropical cyclone 's intensity , began late September 25 . Early on September 27 , the twenty @-@ fourth tropical depression of the season had developed ; however , operationally it was not warned upon until the system was located 540 mi ( 870 km ) south of Baja California Sur on September 30 . Post @-@ analysis later confirm that Rachel was already a minimal tropical storm by that time . Although convection initially remained displaced from the center , Rachel steadily intensified . Early on September 30 , the National Hurricane Center ( NHC ) operationally upgraded the depression into Tropical Storm Rachel . While intensifying , an upper @-@ level trough over California allowed Rachel to re @-@ curve towards Mexico . On October 2 , it reached its peak intensity of 65 mph ( 100 km / h ) and a minimum pressure of 994 mbar ( hPa ; 29 @.@ 35 inHg ) . After maintaining its intensity for 24 hours , Rachel made landfall at peak intensity near the southern tip of Baja California Sur . Strong wind shear prevented additional intensification , despite moving into the warm waters of the Gulf of California . After weakening slightly , Rachel made a second landfall midway between Las Mochis and Culiacán . Upon moving inland , the system rapidly weakened as the forward speed increased . Rachel dissipated several hours later on October 3 . By that time , the winds had decreased to 30 mph ( 45 km / h ) . The remnants of Rachel entered the United States , and were last noted over Texas . = = Preparations and impact = = Prior to the arrival of Rachel , the Mexican government issued a tropical storm watch for southern Baja California Sur , encompassing areas south of La Paz on October 1 . As Rachel moved closer to the area , the watch was replaced with a tropical storm warning . In the mainland , a tropical storm watch was issued for the state of Sinaloa south of Los Mmochis . Six hours later , the watches was replaced with a tropical storm warning . By the end of October 2 , all the watches and warnings were discontinued . The two highest rainfall totals were 9 @.@ 85 in ( 250 mm ) and 6 @.@ 5 in ( 170 mm ) at Santa Anita and San Jose Del Cobe , near the southern tip of Baja California Sur . Two weather stations in Mexico reported barometric pressure of 1005 and 1006 mbar ( hPa ; 29 @.@ 68 and 29 @.@ 71 inHg ) during the passage of Rachel . In all , precipitation was measured at 996 different places across the country . Throughout northern Mexico , significant flooding was reported with the worst effects felt in the states of Nuevo Leon , Coahuila and Durango . Thousands were homeless , and 18 people died . In Monterrey , rescue workers freed dozens of trapped people . The moisture associated with the Rachel and a cold front produced rainfall in Arizona , New Mexico , and western Texas , while it was located southwest of Baja California Sur . After Rachel had dropped heavy rains , a flash flood watch was issued for several counties in New Mexico on October 1 , where rainfall had reportedly been 2 in ( 51 mm ) since the last day of September . The remnants of the storm produced additional precipitation across the state . Heavy rains fell on almost all of western Texas , and a flash flood warning had been issued after some areas experienced rainfall over 1 in ( 25 mm ) . With heavy rains falling in the western portion of Texas , some roads were washed out , especially in Big Bend National Park and Lubbock ; several car accidents were also reported on the roads . Several locations in Texas measured at least 0 @.@ 5 in ( 13 mm ) of rain , and the highest amount of rainfall was 1 @.@ 5 in ( 38 mm ) in Lubbock .
= Batman Returns = Batman Returns is a 1992 American superhero film , directed and produced by Tim Burton , based on the DC Comics character Batman . It is the second installment of Warner Bros. ' initial Batman film series , with Michael Keaton reprising the title role of Bruce Wayne / Batman . The film introduces the characters of Max Shreck ( Christopher Walken ) , a business tycoon who teams up with the Penguin ( Danny DeVito ) to take over Gotham City , as well as the character of Catwoman ( Michelle Pfeiffer ) . Burton originally did not want to direct another Batman film because of his mixed emotions toward the previous film in 1989 . Warner Bros. developed a script with writer Sam Hamm which had the Penguin and Catwoman going after hidden treasure . Burton agreed to return after they granted him more creative control and replaced Hamm with Daniel Waters . Wesley Strick did an uncredited rewrite , removing the characters of Harvey Dent and Robin and rewriting the climax . Annette Bening was originally cast as Catwoman but became pregnant and was replaced with Pfeiffer . Filming for Batman Returns started in June 1991 at Warner Bros. Studios in Burbank , California . Batman Returns was released on June 19 , 1992 . The film was nominated for Academy Awards for Best Visual Effects and Best Makeup , as well as two BAFTA awards . Batman Returns 's budget was an estimated $ 65 million , grossing $ 266 @,@ 822 @,@ 354 worldwide , making the film a financial success . Warner Bros. , however , was disappointed as it was still substantially less than the first film . Burton was asked to restrict himself to the role of producer for the third film , Batman Forever , which led to Keaton vacating the role of Batman . = = Plot = = Tucker and Esther Cobblepot throw their deformed infant child into Gotham River , fearing he would become a menace to society after attacking their pet cat . The child 's crib floats to an abandoned zoo and is found by a flock of penguins who raise him as one of their own . 33 years later , during the lighting of Gotham City 's Christmas tree , a villainous gang of carnival performers stage a riot . While Batman subdues the criminals , corrupt businessman Max Shreck is abducted and brought to the underground lair of the grotesque crime boss known as The Penguin . A former sideshow freak , The Penguin explains his desire to become a respected citizen of Gotham and blackmails Shreck into helping him . Meanwhile , Shreck 's mousy secretary , Selina Kyle , inadvertently discovers her boss 's plan to illegally monopolize Gotham 's supply of electricity . To protect his secrets , Shreck pushes her out of his office window . Falling through several canopies , Selina miraculously survives but lies unconscious in an alley . A group of cats swarm around her , and while attempting to eat her , they revive her . Traumatized , Selina develops dissociative identity disorder and , after trashing her apartment , she fashions a black vinyl costume and whip , becoming the formidable Catwoman . Shreck arranges for one of Penguin 's men to kidnap the Mayor 's infant son , allowing the Penguin to " rescue " him . As a reward , the Penguin is given access to the Gotham City Archives , where he learns his real name , Oswald Cobblepot , and that he is the last surviving member of his family . Meanwhile , the Mayor , persuaded by billionaire Bruce Wayne , refuses to give Shreck a construction permit for his power plant . The Penguin orders his gang to attack downtown Gotham , ruining the Mayor 's reputation and giving Shreck the opportunity to propose Penguin as a replacement . Batman confronts the Penguin , but Catwoman appears while firebombing Shreck 's department store , and Penguin escapes . After a fight in which Batman knocks her off a building , Catwoman survives by landing in a sand truck . Catwoman agrees to help Penguin with a plan to discredit Batman by framing him for the abduction of Gotham 's " Ice Princess " beauty queen . Distracted by Catwoman , Batman is unable to stop Penguin from murdering the Princess using a swarm of captive bats . When Catwoman rejects the Penguin 's amorous advances , he tries to kill her using his motorized helicopter umbrella . As the umbrella takes her up into the sky , Catwoman narrowly cheats death again as she falls into a rooftop greenhouse . Fleeing from the police , Batman realizes that the Penguin is remotely controlling the Batmobile , taking it on a rampage through Gotham . Batman disables the control device , but not before recording the Penguin 's mocking insults about how gullible the people of Gotham are . At a press conference for Penguin organized by Shreck , Batman broadcasts the recording , destroying the Penguin 's public image . Enraged , the Penguin flees to the sewers and orders his gang to kidnap all of the first born sons of Gotham 's citizens . At a masquerade ball hosted by Shreck , Bruce and Selina deduce each other 's secret identities . The Penguin invades the party and reveals his intention to drown the kidnapped children , including Shreck 's son Chip , prompting Shreck to offer himself instead . Batman defeats the kidnappers , forcing Penguin to unleash an army of penguin soldiers to destroy Gotham with missiles . Piloting the Batboat through the sewers , Batman redirects the penguins to instead fire on Penguin 's hideout . The Penguin attacks Batman in a rage , but ends up falling through the ceiling of his lair . Catwoman ambushes Shreck to kill him , but Batman stops her and unmasks himself . Before Bruce can reason with her , Shreck shoots him and Selina , but runs out of bullets . Putting a taser to her lips , she kisses Shreck while grabbing hold of an exposed power cable , causing a fiery explosion . Bruce digs though the rubble but finds only Shreck 's charred corpse . Mortally injured , the Penguin tries to take his umbrella to kill Batman , but collapses dead before he can finish . His penguin family carries out a makeshift funeral , pushing his body into the water . Afterwards , as Alfred drives Bruce home , Bruce spots a shadow outside . He finds a stray black cat and decides to take it home . As he leaves , the Bat @-@ Signal lights up in the night sky as Catwoman watches from afar . = = Cast = = Michael Keaton as Batman / Bruce Wayne Danny DeVito as The Penguin / Oswald Cobblepot Michelle Pfeiffer as Catwoman / Selina Kyle Christopher Walken as Max Shreck Michael Gough as Alfred Pennyworth Pat Hingle as Commissioner James Gordon Michael Murphy as Mayor of Gotham City Vincent Schiavelli as The Organ Grinder Andrew Bryniarski as Chip Shreck Cristi Conaway as The Ice Princess Rick Zumwalt as The Tattooed Strongman Anna Katarina as The Poodle Lady Paul Reubens as Tucker Cobblepot ( Penguin 's Father ) Diane Salinger as Esther Cobblepot ( Penguin 's Mother ) = = Production = = = = = Development = = = After the success of Batman , Warner Bros. was hoping for a sequel to start filming in May 1990 at Pinewood Studios . They spent $ 250 @,@ 000 storing the sets from the first film . Tim Burton had mixed emotions about directing another film in the franchise after his experiences with the previous film . " I will return if the sequel offers something new and exciting " , he said in 1989 . " Otherwise it 's a most @-@ dumbfounded idea . " Burton decided to direct Edward Scissorhands for 20th Century Fox . Meanwhile , Sam Hamm from the previous film delivered the first two drafts of the script , while Bob Kane was brought back as a creative consultant . Hamm 's script had Penguin and Catwoman going after hidden treasure . Burton was impressed with Daniel Waters ' work on Heathers ; Burton originally brought Waters aboard on a sequel to Beetlejuice . Warner Bros. then granted Burton a large amount of creative control , demoting producers Jon Peters and Peter Guber to executive producers . Dissatisfied with the Hamm script , Burton commissioned a rewrite from Waters . Waters " came up with a social satire that had an evil mogul backing a bid for the Mayor 's office by the Penguin " , Waters reported . " I wanted to show that the true villains of our world don 't necessarily wear costumes . " The subplot of Penguin running for Mayor came from the 1960s TV series episodes " Hizzoner the Penguin " and " Dizzoner the Penguin " . Waters wrote a total of five drafts . On the characterization of Catwoman , Waters explained " Sam Hamm went back to the way comic books in general treat women , like fetishy sexual fantasy . I wanted to start off just at the lowest point in society , a very beaten down secretary . " Harvey Dent appeared in early drafts of the script , but was deleted . His disfiguring appearance of Two @-@ Face would have appeared in the climax when Catwoman kisses him with a taser to the face , which was replaced with Max Shreck . Waters quoted , " Sam Hamm definitely planned that . I flirted with it , having Harvey start to come back and have one scene of him where he flips a coin and it 's the good side of the coin , deciding not to do anything , so you had to wait for the next movie . " In early scripts Max Shreck was the " golden boy " of the Cobblepot family , whereas Penguin was the deformed outsider . It turned out that Shreck would be the Penguin 's long @-@ lost brother . Max Shreck was also a reference to actor Max Schreck , known for his role as Count Orlok in Nosferatu . = = = Pre @-@ production = = = Burton hired Wesley Strick to do an uncredited rewrite . Strick recalled , " When I was hired to write Batman Returns ( Batman II at the time ) , the big problem of the script was Penguin 's lack of a ' master plan ' . " Warner Bros. presented Strick with warming , or freezing Gotham City , a plot point they would later use in Batman & Robin . Strick gained inspiration from a Moses parallel that had Penguin killing the firstborn sons of Gotham . A similar notion was used when the Penguin 's parents threw him into a river as a baby . Robin appeared in the script , but was deleted because Waters felt the film had too many characters . Waters called Robin " the most worthless character in the world , especially with [ Batman as ] the loner of loners . " Robin started out as a juvenile gang leader , who becomes an ally to Batman . Robin was later changed to a black teenage garage mechanic . Waters explained , " He 's wearing this old @-@ fashioned garage mechanic uniform and it has an ' R ' on it . He drives the Batmobile , which I notice they used in the third film ! " Marlon Wayans was cast , and signed for a sequel . The actor had attended a wardrobe fitting , but it was decided to save the character for a third installment . Michael Keaton returned after a significant increase in his salary to $ 10 million . Annette Bening was cast as Catwoman after Burton saw her performance in The Grifters , but she dropped out due to pregnancy . Raquel Welch , Jennifer Jason Leigh , Madonna , Ellen Barkin , Cher , Bridget Fonda , Lorraine Bracco , Jennifer Beals and Susan Sarandon were then in competition for the role . Sean Young , who was originally chosen for Vicki Vale in the previous film , believed the role should have gone to her . Young visited production offices dressed in a homemade Catwoman costume , demanding an audition . Burton was unfamiliar with Michelle Pfeiffer 's work , but was convinced to cast her after one meeting . Pfeiffer received a $ 3 million salary , $ 2 million more than Bening , and a percentage of the box office . The actress undertook kickboxing lessons for the role . Kathy Long served as Pfeiffer 's body double . On Danny DeVito 's casting , Waters explained , " I kind of knew that DeVito was going to play The Penguin . We didn 't really officially cast it , but for a short nasty little guy , it 's a short list . I ended up writing the character for Danny DeVito . " = = = Filming = = = In early 1991 , two of Hollywood 's largest sound stages ( Stage 16 at Warner Bros. and Stage 12 at Universal Studios ) were being prepared for the filming of Batman Returns . Filming started in June 1991 . Stage 16 held Gotham Plaza , based on Rockefeller Center . Universal 's Stage 12 housed Penguin 's underground lair . A half @-@ a @-@ million gallon tank filled with water was used . Burton wanted to make sure that the penguins felt comfortable . Eight other locations on the Warner Bros. lot were used , over 50 % of their property was occupied by Gotham City sets . Animal rights groups started protesting the film after finding out that penguins would have rockets strapped on their backs . Richard Hill , the curator of the penguins , explained that Warner Bros. was very helpful in making sure the penguins were comfortable . " On the flight over the plane was refrigerated down to 45 degrees " , recalls Hill . " In Hollywood , they were given a refrigerated trailer , their own swimming pool , half @-@ a @-@ ton of ice each day , and they had fresh fish delivered daily straight from the docks . Even though it was 100 degrees outside , the entire set was refrigerated down to 35 degrees . " The streets of Gotham City use the old Brownstone Street and Hennessy Street on the Warners ’ backlot . Warner Bros. devoted a large amount of secrecy for Batman Returns . The art department was required to keep their office blinds pulled down . Cast and crew had to have photo ID badges with the movie 's fake working title Dictel to go anywhere near the sets . Kevin Costner was refused a chance to visit the set . An entertainment magazine leaked the first photos of Danny DeVito as the Penguin ; in response Warner Bros. employed a private investigator to track down the accomplice . $ 65 million was spent during the production of Batman Returns , while $ 15 million was used for marketing , coming to a total cost of $ 80 million . The final shot of Catwoman looking at the Bat @-@ Signal was completed during post @-@ production and was not part of the shooting script . After Batman Returns was completed Warner Bros. felt it was best for Catwoman to survive , saving more characterizations in a future installment . Pfeiffer was unavailable and a body double was chosen . = = = Design and effects = = = Bo Welch , Burton 's collaborator on Beetlejuice and Edward Scissorhands , replaced Anton Furst as production designer , since Furst was unable to return for the sequel due to contractual obligations . Welch blended " Fascist architecture with World 's fair architecture " for Gotham City . He also studied Russian architecture and German Expressionism . An iron maiden was used for Bruce Wayne 's entry into the Batcave . Stan Winston , who worked with Burton on Edward Scissorhands , designed Danny DeVito 's prosthetic makeup , which took two hours to apply . DeVito had to put a combination of mouthwash and red / green food coloring in his mouth " to create a grotesque texture of some weird ooze . " More than 60 Catsuits were designed in the six @-@ month shoot at $ 1 @,@ 000 each . The Batsuit was updated , which was made out of a thinner , slightly more flexible foam rubber material than the suit from Batman . DeVito was uncomfortable with his costume , but this made it easy for him to get into character . J. P. Morgan 's wardrobe was used for inspiration on Max Shreck 's costume design . The bats were entirely composed of computer @-@ generated imagery since it was decided directing real bats on set would be problematic . The Penguin 's " bird army " was a combination of CGI , robotic creatures , men in suits and even real penguins . Robotic penguin puppets were commissioned by Stan Winston . In total 30 African penguins and 12 king penguins were used . A miniature effect was used for the exteriors of the Cobblepot Mansion in the opening scene and for Wayne Manor . The same method was used for the Bat Ski @-@ boat and the exterior shots of the Gotham Zoo . = = = Music = = = Danny Elfman had great enthusiasm for returning because " I didn 't have to prove myself from the first film . I remember Jon Peters was very skeptical at first to hire me . " Elfman 's work schedule was 12 hours a day , 7 days a week . " When completing this movie I realized it was something of a film score and an opera . It was 95 minutes long , twice the amount of the average of film score . " Burton allowed Elfman to be more artistic with the sequel score , such as the " scraping " on violins for the cat themes . Under the pressure of finishing the score , however , the relationship between the two strained , which — along with further " creative differences " on The Nightmare Before Christmas — led Burton to use Howard Shore to score his next film Ed Wood . The musician co @-@ orchestrated " Face to Face " , which was written and performed by Siouxsie and the Banshees . The song can be heard in one scene during the film and during the end credits . = = Release = = = = = Box office = = = Batman Returns was released in America on June 19 , 1992 , earning $ 45 @.@ 69 million in 2 @,@ 644 theaters on its opening weekend . This was the highest opening weekend in 1992 and the highest opening weekend of any film up to that point . The film went on to gross $ 162 @.@ 83 million in North America , and $ 104 million in foreign countries , coming to a worldwide total of $ 266 @.@ 83 million . Batman Returns was the third highest grossing film in America of 1992 , and sixth highest in worldwide totals . The film was declared a financial success , but Warner Bros. felt the film should have been more successful . = = = Critical reception = = = Batman Returns has received very positive critical reception . Based on 70 reviews collected by Rotten Tomatoes , 80 % of critics enjoyed the film , with an average rating of 6 @.@ 7 / 10 . Much of the critics gave praise toward Tim Burton 's visual style , Danny Elfman 's musical score , accompanied by production designer Bo Welch , as well as the casting of Michelle Pfeiffer , Danny DeVito and Christopher Walken in supporting roles to complement Keaton 's portrayal of Batman , though the consistently dark and violent tone received mixed reviews . Janet Maslin in The New York Times thought that " Mr. Burton creates a wicked world of misfits , all of them rendered with the mixture of horror , sympathy and playfulness that has become this director 's hallmark . " She described Michael Keaton as showing " appropriate earnestness " , Danny DeVito as " conveying verve " , Christopher Walken as " wonderfully debonair " , Michelle Pfeiffer as " captivating ... fierce , seductive " , Bo Welch 's production design as " dazzling " , Stefan Czapsky 's cinematography as " crisp " , and Daniel Waters 's screenplay as " sharp . " Peter Travers in Rolling Stone wrote : " Burton uses the summer 's most explosively entertaining movie to lead us back into the liberating darkness of dreams . " He praised the performances : " Pfeiffer gives this feminist avenger a tough core of intelligence and wit ; she 's a classic dazzler ... Michael Keaton 's manic @-@ depressive hero remains a remarkably rich creation . And Danny DeVito 's mutant Penguin — a balloon @-@ bellied Richard III with a kingdom of sewer freaks — is as hilariously warped as Jack Nicholson 's Joker and even quicker with the quips . " Desson Howe in The Washington Post wrote : " Director Burton not only re @-@ creates his one @-@ of @-@ a @-@ kind atmosphere , he one @-@ ups it , even two @-@ ups it . He 's best at evoking the psycho @-@ murky worlds in which his characters reside . The Penguin holds court in a penguin @-@ crowded , Phantom of the Opera @-@ like sewer home . Keaton hides in a castlelike mansion , which perfectly mirrors its owner 's inner remoteness . Comic strip purists will probably never be happy with a Batman movie . But Returns comes closer than ever to Bob Kane 's dark , original strip , which began in 1939 . " He described Walken as " engaging " , DeVito as " exquisite " and Pfeiffer as " deliciously purry . " Todd McCarthy in Variety wrote that " the real accomplishment of the film lies in the amazing physical realization of an imaginative universe . Where Burton 's ideas end and those of his collaborators begin is impossible to know , but the result is a seamless , utterly consistent universe full of nasty notions about societal deterioration , greed and other base impulses . " He praised the contributions of Stan Winston , Danny Elfman , Bo Welch and cinematographer Stefan Czapsky , and in terms of performances , opined that " the deck is stacked entirely in favor of the villains " , calling DeVito " fascinating " and Pfeiffer " very tasty . " Conversely , Roger Ebert of the Chicago Sun @-@ Times gave the film two stars out of four , writing : " I give the movie a negative review , and yet I don 't think it 's a bad movie ; it 's more misguided , made with great creativity , but denying us what we more or less deserve from a Batman story . No matter how hard you try , superheroes and film noir don 't go together ; the very essence of noir is that there are no more heroes . " He compared the Penguin negatively with the Joker of the first film , writing that " the Penguin is a curiously meager and depressing creature ; I pitied him , but did not fear him or find him funny . The genius of Danny DeVito is all but swallowed up in the paraphernalia of the role . " Jonathan Rosenbaum called DeVito " a pale substitute for Jack Nicholson from the first film " and felt that " there 's no suspense in Batman Returns whatsoever " . Batman comic book writer / artist Matt Wagner was quoted as saying : " I hated how Batman Returns made Batman little more than just another costumed creep , little better than the villains he 's pursuing . Additionally , Burton is so blatantly not an action director . That aspect of both his films just sucked . " Ty Burr in Entertainment Weekly gave the film a B- ; he wrote that " Burton still hasn 't figured out how to tell a coherent story : He 's more interested in fashioning pretty beads than in putting them on a string .... Yet for all the wintry weirdness , there 's more going on under the surface of this movie than in the original . No wonder some people felt burned by Batman Returns : Tim Burton just may have created the first blockbuster art film . " A " parental backlash " criticized Batman Returns with violence and sexual references that were unsuitable for children . McDonald 's shut down their Happy Meal promotion for the film . Burton responded , " I like Batman Returns better than the first one . There was this big backlash that it was too dark , but I found this movie much less dark . " In 2016 , James Charisma of Playboy ranked the film number fourteen on a list of 15 Sequels That Are Way Better Than The Originals . = = = Accolades = = = American Film Institute recognition : AFI 's 100 Years ... 100 Heroes and Villains : Catwoman ( Selina Kyle ) — Nominated Villain The Penguin ( Oswald Cobblepot ) — Nominated Villain = = Legacy = = Batman Returns would be the last film in the Warner Bros. Batman film series that featured Burton and Michael Keaton as director and leading actor . With Batman Forever , Warner Bros. decided to go in a " lighter " direction to be more mainstream in the process of a family film . Burton had no interest in returning to direct a sequel , but was credited as producer . With Warner Bros. moving on development for Batman Forever in June 1993 , a Catwoman spin @-@ off was announced . Michelle Pfeiffer was to reprise her role , with the character not to appear in Forever because of her own spin @-@ off . Burton became attached as director , while producer Denise Di Novi and writer Daniel Waters also returned . In January 1994 , Burton was unsure of his plans to direct Catwoman or an adaptation of " The Fall of the House of Usher " . On June 6 , 1995 , Waters turned in his Catwoman script to Warner Bros. , the same day Batman Forever was released . Burton was still being courted to direct . Waters joked , " Turning it in the day Batman Forever opened may not have been my best logistical move , in that it 's the celebration of the fun @-@ for @-@ the @-@ whole @-@ family Batman . Catwoman is definitely not a fun @-@ for @-@ the @-@ whole @-@ family script . " In an August 1995 interview , Pfeiffer re @-@ iterated her interest in the spin @-@ off , but explained her priorities would be challenged as a mother and commitments to other projects . The film labored in development hell for years , with Pfeiffer replaced by Ashley Judd . The film ended up becoming the critically panned Catwoman ( 2004 ) , starring Halle Berry . = = = Film analysis = = = From Comic To Pfeiffer 's Cat Batman @-@ Online.com 's in @-@ depth analysis on Tim Burton 's Catwoman 's comic origins Possible Comic Influences On Batman Returns Batman @-@ Online.com 's in @-@ depth analysis on possible comic book influences of Batman Returns ' plotline
= Grammy Award for Best Performance Music Video = The Grammy Award for Best Performance Music Video was an honor presented to recording artists at the 30th Grammy Awards in 1988 and the 31st Grammy Awards in 1989 for quality performance music videos . The Grammy Awards , an annual ceremony that was established in 1958 and originally called the Gramophone Awards , are presented by the National Academy of Recording Arts and Sciences of the United States to " honor artistic achievement , technical proficiency and overall excellence in the recording industry , without regard to album sales or chart position " . Beginning in 1982 , the Academy began to honor quality music videos with the Video of the Year category . This category was discontinued with the establishment of the MTV Video Music Awards in 1984 and was replaced by awards for Best Video , Short Form and Best Video Album . Criteria changes for the 1988 and 1989 ceremonies resulted in the Best Performance Music Video award being presented alongside the award for Best Concept Music Video . Best Performance Music Video award recipients were Anthony Eaton as the video producer of The Prince 's Trust All @-@ Star Rock Concert , a recording of a benefit concert for The Prince 's Trust , and the Irish rock band U2 for " Where the Streets Have No Name " . The Academy returned to the previous format in 1990 , though the categories are now known as Best Short Form Music Video and Best Long Form Music Video . = = Background = = The National Academy of Recording Arts and Sciences began to honor quality music videos with the Video of the Year category in 1982 . The first two award recipients were former member of The Monkees , Michael Nesmith for the hour @-@ long video Elephant Parts ( also known as Michael Nesmith in Elephant Parts ) as well as Olivia Newton @-@ John for Olivia Physical . The Video of the Year category was discontinued with the establishment of the MTV Video Music Awards in 1984 , the top award of which is also presented for Video of the Year . The Academy replaced the category with the awards for Best Video , Short Form and Best Video Album beginning with the 26th Grammy Awards . For the awards held in 1988 and 1989 , the criteria changed and honors were presented for the categories Best Concept Music Video and Best Performance Music Video . The Academy returned to the previous format in 1990 , though the categories were renamed Best Music Video , Short Form and Best Music Video , Long Form . In 1998 , the categories were retitled Best Short Form Music Video and Best Long Form Music Video , respectively . = = Recipients = = For the 30th Grammy Awards ( 1988 ) , Best Performance Music Video nominees included Anthony Eaton for producing The Prince 's Trust All @-@ Star Rock Concert ( a recording of a benefit concert for The Prince 's Trust ) , Russian American pianist Vladimir Horowitz for Horowitz in Moscow , Cyndi Lauper for Cyndi Lauper in Paris , Bobby McFerrin for Spontaneous Inventions , and Barbra Streisand for One Voice . Directed by Brian Large , Horowitz in Moscow was a recording of Horowitz 's first concert appearance in Russia since 1925 and features compositions by Chopin , Mozart , Rachmaninoff , Schubert and other composers . Cyndi Lauper in Paris was filmed at Zénith de Paris on March 12 , 1987 , the final date of her world tour . Produced by John Diaz and directed by Andy Morahan , the recording features Sterling Campbell on drums , Rick Derringer on guitar , Sue Hadjopoulas on percussion , Kevin Jenkins on bass , and David Rosenthal on keyboards . Ferrin 's Spontaneous Inventions , directed by Bud Schaetzle , is an hour @-@ long recording of a 1986 performance in Hollywood . Streisand 's video One Voice , directed by Dwight Hemion , is a companion piece to her 1987 live album of the same name . Originally broadcast as an HBO special , the September 6 , 1986 concert recording marked her first " official " live performance since 1972 , held in part as a protest against the nuclear arms race during Ronald Reagan 's presidency . The concert was filmed in Streisand 's backyard and features special appearances by Burt Bacharach , Barry Gibb , Richard Marx , Carole Bayer Sager and comedian Robin Williams . The award was presented to Eaton as the producer of the concert recording , which included appearances by Elton John , Sting , Tina Turner and others . Nominees for the 31st Grammy Awards were English musician David Bowie for Glass Spider , Canadian musician and producer David Foster for The Symphony Sessions , American singer @-@ songwriter John Cougar Mellencamp for " Check It Out " , Stevie Nicks for Stevie Nicks : Live at Red Rocks , and the Irish rock band U2 for " Where the Streets Have No Name " . Glass Spider was a recording of a live two @-@ hour concert filmed in Sydney , Australia in November 1987 . The Symphony Sessions included ten compositions by Foster presented as a " collage of video images " in performance with the Vancouver Symphony Orchestra . Recorded over a period of five nights in Vancouver , Foster wrote , arranged , produced and played piano for the project ( which included a recording of the theme for the 1988 Winter Olympics ) with the assistance of Jeremy Lubbock , David Paich , and Lee Ritenour . The music video for " Check It Out " , a song that appears on Mellencamp 's 1987 album The Lonesome Jubilee , was filmed live at Market Square Arena in Indianapolis , Indiana on December 11 , 1987 . Directed by Marty Callner , Stevie Nicks : Live at Red Rocks is an hour @-@ long recording of a live concert filmed at Red Rocks Amphitheatre in Morrison , Colorado with special guests Mick Fleetwood and Peter Frampton . The music video for U2 's " Where the Streets Have No Name " was filmed on the roof of a Los Angeles liquor store . During the filming process , police ordered the band to stop the shoot " due to fears the crowd was getting out of hand " . Awards were presented to members of U2 ( Bono , Adam Clayton , The Edge , Larry Mullen , Jr . ) as the performing group , along with Meiert Avis as the video director and Ben Dossett and Michael Hamlyn as the video producers .
= DeSmogBlog = The DeSmogBlog , founded in January 2006 , is a blog that focuses on topics related to global warming . The site describes itself as " the world 's number one source for accurate , fact based information regarding Global Warming misinformation campaigns . " DeSmogBlog opposes what it describes as " a well @-@ funded and highly organized public relations campaign " that it says is " poisoning " the climate change debate . Since its inception , the site has received several mentions in the media regarding its involvement in global warming issues . The site was co @-@ founded by James Hoggan , president of a public relations firm based in Vancouver , Canada . The website was recognized in December 2007 with an award by a trade organization for its standards and content . = = Content = = = = = Mission and audience = = = The blog was co @-@ founded in January 2006 by James Hoggan , president of the public relations firm Hoggan and Associates . In a February 2007 interview with the Vancouver Sun , Hoggan conveys his anger at industry interests who he believes mislead the public about the scientific understanding of global warming . He referred to this alleged misrepresentation of the facts as , " public relations at its sleaziest " . Hoggan used his public relations skills to start a blog that would " clear the PR pollution that clouds the science of climate change " and expose organizations and individuals which he considered to be unethical . DeSmogBlog says it reports on the credibility of experts who appear to misrepresent the science of global warming in the media by investigating their scientific background , funding sources , and industry interests . The site originally targeted a Canadian audience but is now involved in global climate change coverage . Contributors to the site assist in researching organizations that the site 's staff believe are phony , grassroots organizations , or astroturf groups sponsored directly or indirectly by industries seeking to thwart climate change @-@ related legislation . Organizations alleged by the blog to be astroturfs include Friends of Science , Natural Resources Stewardship Project , Global Climate Coalition , and International Climate Science Coalition . Individuals that the site has identified as pushing an anti @-@ climate change point of view are listed in the site 's " Denial Database " , with accompanying information about their industry affiliations and professional biographies . In a Financial Post column , Canadian environmentalist Lawrence Solomon stated that the organization was , in Solomon 's words , " specifically created for the purpose of discrediting skeptics . " In a report in the Globe and Mail , Hoggan stated that the most frequent visitors to the site came from Calgary , Ottawa , and Washington D.C .. = = = Notable issues or media mentions = = = In one instance , the site responded to a 2006 open letter opposing the Canadian Government 's climate @-@ change plans , claimed to be signed by " accredited experts in climate and related scientific disciplines " , by analyzing the list of the signatories . The site concluded that those checked had few peer @-@ reviewed publications on the topic and / or had fossil @-@ fuel industry connections . DeSmogBlog has criticized Financial Post editor and columnist Terence Corcoran , claiming he impedes progress on climate change and environmental protection legislation in Canada . In turn , Corcoran has criticized Hoggan and his website , accusing both of serving the interests of large corporations hoping to make money on emissions trading . The blog has been referenced in The Guardian by George Monbiot , who most recently cited a study by the website showing that in 2008 " the number of internet pages proposing that man @-@ made global warming is a hoax or a lie more than doubled " . In another column , Monbiot noted that DeSmogBlog posted a video critical of Anthony Watts 's blog Watts Up With That that Watts had deleted from YouTube for copyright reasons . Monbiot has also mentioned DeSmogBlog 's efforts to expose efforts by oil , coal , and electricity companies to manipulate media views on climate change . = = = Heartland Institute documents = = = In February 2012 , DeSmogBlog posted a number of internal documents purportedly from The Heartland Institute , a libertarian think tank . According to a statement posted on the Heartland Institute website , " Some of these documents were stolen from Heartland , at least one is a fake , and some may have been altered ... the authenticity of those documents has not been confirmed . " Days after the document posting , blogger and journalist Megan McArdle wrote on The Atlantic website of a comment to a blog post that suggested that one of the documents , a memo titled " 2012 Heartland Climate Strategy , " was likely a fake based on the document being a scan which included metadata with a US west coast time zone . DeSmogBog responded that they had " no evidence supporting Heartland 's claim that the Strategic document is fake " and then included a number of references to McArdle 's first piece on the topic . McArdle then said of the DeSmogBlog response that " The first two links are to my post , and they are an egregious misrepresentation of what I said , " and goes on to note that " the stubborn willingness to ignore obvious problems becomes the story . " On February 20 , 2012 , Peter Gleick issued a statement in the Huffington Post explaining that he had received an anonymous document in the mail that seemed to contain details on the climate program strategy of The Heartland Institute . He admitted to soliciting and receiving additional material from the Institute " under someone else 's name , " calling his actions " a serious lapse of my own and professional judgment and ethics . " = = Founder and staff = = The site 's co @-@ founder , James Hoggan , is President of the Vancouver @-@ based public relations firm James Hoggan & Associates , chair of the David Suzuki Foundation , a trustee of the Dalai Lama Center for Peace and Education , and an executive member of the Urban Development Institute . He is the author ( with Richard Littlemore ) of the 2009 book Climate Cover @-@ Up : The Crusade to Deny Global Warming ( ISBN 978 @-@ 1553654858 ) , which criticizes global warming denial and conspiracy theories . The sources do not identify the site 's other co @-@ founder . The website names John Lefebvre as a benefactor . Frequent contributors to the blog include Ross Gelbspan and Richard Littlemore . Littlemore is a science writer who formerly worked for the Vancouver Sun . The site 's project manager was Kevin Grandia , who left to become the Director of Online Strategy at Greenpeace . The site is now managed by Brendan DeMelle . = = Awards = = The site was recognized in December 2007 by three British Columbia chapters of the Canadian Public Relations Society , the Vancouver , Victoria ( CPRS @-@ vi ) and Northern Lights in Prince George , with an award for demonstrating " The highest ethical and professional standards while performing outstanding work " . In a CPRS press release which accompanied the award , Hoggan stated that the site had been viewed by 520 @,@ 000 people over its history , had been cited as a source by 24 media outlets , and mentioned in more than 4 @,@ 500 other blogs . According to the press release , the blog was selected for the award by a panel of journalists and public relations professionals in Victoria , Vancouver , and Prince George . DeSmogBlog was also listed by Time magazine as one of the " best blogs of 2011 " in June , 2011 .
= Mein Herze schwimmt im Blut , BWV 199 = Mein Herze schwimmt im Blut ( English : My heart swims in blood ) BWV 199 , is a church cantata by Johann Sebastian Bach . He composed the solo cantata for soprano in Weimar between 1711 and 1714 , and performed it on the eleventh Sunday after Trinity , 12 August 1714 . The text was written by Georg Christian Lehms and published in Darmstadt in 1711 in the collection Gottgefälliges Kirchen @-@ Opffer , on the general topic of a looking for redemption . The librettist wrote a series of alternating recitatives and arias , and included as movement 6 of 8 the third stanza of Johann Heermann 's hymn " Wo soll ich fliehen hin " . It is not known when Bach composed the work , but he performed it as part of his monthly cantata productions on the eleventh Sunday after Trinity , 12 August 1714 . The solo voice is accompanied by a chamber orchestra of oboe , strings and continuo . The singer expresses in a style similar to Baroque opera the dramatic development from feeling like a " monster in God 's eyes " to being forgiven . Bach revised the work for later performances , leading to three different editions in the Neue Bach @-@ Ausgabe . = = History and words = = On 2 March 1714 Bach was appointed concertmaster of the Weimar court orchestra ( Kapelle ) of the co @-@ reigning dukes Wilhelm Ernst and Ernst August of Saxe @-@ Weimar . As concertmaster , he assumed the principal responsibility for composing new works , specifically cantatas for the Schlosskirche ( palace church ) , on a monthly schedule . He performed the cantata on the eleventh Sunday after Trinity as the fifth cantata of the series , following Weinen , Klagen , Sorgen , Zagen , BWV 12 . The prescribed readings for the Sunday were from the First Epistle to the Corinthians , on the gospel of Christ and his ( Paul 's ) duty as an apostle ( 1 Corinthians 15 : 1 – 10 ) , and from the Gospel of Luke , the parable of the Pharisee and the Tax Collector ( Luke 18 : 9 – 14 ) . The text , which concerns a sinner seeking and finding redemption , was written by Georg Christian Lehms . Lehms was based in Darmstadt , and it is not known whether Bach knew him personally , but he may well have had access to Lehms 's 1711 publication Gottgefälliges Kirchen @-@ Opffer , which includes this text and that of another solo cantata , Widerstehe doch der Sünde , BWV 54 , performed the month before . The third stanza of Johann Heermann 's hymn " Wo soll ich fliehen hin " is integrated as movement 6 . The text in the first person shows the dramatic change of a person initially feeling as " a monster in God 's eyes " to finally feeling accepted as God 's child . The cantata text was set to music in 1712 by Christoph Graupner in Darmstadt . It is not known if Bach knew of Graupner 's composition . The text has no specific relation to the prescribed readings , therefore it is possible that Bach may have already composed the work before his promotion to concert master with regular Sunday services , like the other cantata on a text by Lehms . Bach first performed the cantata on 12 August 1714 . When he performed it again in Leipzig on the eleventh Sunday after Trinity in 1723 ( 8 August ) it was the first solo cantata and the most operatic work which he had presented to the congregation up to that point . He made revisions for that performance , such as transposing it from C minor to D minor and changing the obbligato viola to violoncello piccolo . In the same service , he also performed a new work , Siehe zu , daß deine Gottesfurcht nicht Heuchelei sei , BWV 179 : one before and one after the sermon . The Neue Bach @-@ Ausgabe recognises three distinct versions : the Weimar version , a Köthen version , and the Leipzig version . = = Scoring and structure = = The cantata , structured in eight movements , is scored as chamber music for a solo soprano voice ( S ) , oboe ( Ob ) , violins ( Vl ) , viola ( Va ) , and basso continuo ( Bc ) including bassoon ( Fg ) and violone ( Vo ) . In the Weimar version , it is in C minor , with a viola as the obbligato instrument in movement 6 . The title page of the parts for this version reads : " Geistliche Cantate / Mein Herze schwimt im Blut / â / Soprano solo / 1 Hautb . / 2 Viol . / Viola / e / Basso / di / J.S.Bach " . In the Leipzig version , it is in D minor , with an obbligato violoncello piccolo instead of the viola . In the following table of the movements , the scoring follows the Neue Bach @-@ Ausgabe . The keys and time signatures are taken from Alfred Dürr , using the symbol for common time ( 4 / 4 ) . The continuo , playing throughout , is not shown . = = Music = = Although limited to one soprano voice , Bach achieves a variety of musical expression in the eight movements . All but one recitative are accompanied by the strings ( accompagnato ) , and only movement 5 is secco , accompanied by the continuo only . The solo voice is treated to dramatic declamation , close to contemporary opera . = = = 1 = = = A recitative sets the scene , " Mein Herze schwimmt im Blut " ( " My heart swims in blood " ) . The musicologist Julian Mincham explains that it " drips with the self @-@ obsessed agonies of sin , pain and abandonment ... with the torment of an abandoned soul swamped by its own sin and sorrow . Its finely wrought contours portray dramatically the vacillating emotions ranging from horror and terror to lonely and dispirited resignation . " = = = 2 = = = The first aria , a da capo aria , " Stumme Seufzer , stille Klagen " ( Mute sighs , silent cries ) , is accompanied by the oboe . The theme of the ritornello is present throughout the movement . The middle section begins with a dissonance to stress the sorrowful image of " Und ihr nassen Tränenquellen " ( " And you , moist springs of tears " ) . It ends with a passage set as a secco recitative , described by Mincham : " Time almost appears to stand still with this final expression of misery " . = = = 3 = = = The following recitative , " Doch Gott muss mir genädig sein " ( " But God must be gracious to me " ) , ends in a statement of repentance . = = = 4 = = = The second aria , " Tief gebückt und voller Reue " ( " Deeply bowed and filled with regret " ) , is dominated by rich string sound . An adagio passage leads to the da capo . The aria expresses repentance in a " civilised and refined minuet " . = = = 5 = = = A short secco recitative , " Auf diese Schmerzensreu " ( " Upon this painful repentance " ) , introduces the following hymn stanza . It begins with " a musical echo of the torments of the heart swimming in blood " . = = = 6 = = = The only chorale stanza of the work is " Ich , dein betrübtes Kind " ( " I , Your troubled child " ) , the third stanza of Johann Heermann 's " Wo soll ich fliehen hin " ( " Where should I flee " ) , published in 1630 . Its term " troubled child " is a good summary of the position of the human being in relation to God . The wording of its conclusion , " In deine tiefen Wunden , da ich stets Heil gefunden " ( " into Your deep wounds , where I have always found salvation " ) leads to the following recitative . The voice is accompanied by an obbligato viola ( violoncello piccolo in the Leipzig version ) in a lively figuration . Bach used a rather unusual melody by Caspar von Stieler , whereas he based his later chorale cantata on this hymn on the melody by Jacob Regnart . The hymn is treated as in a chorale fantasia , with string ritornellos between the verses . = = = 7 = = = The last recitative , " Ich lege mich in diese Wunden " ( " I lay myself on these wounds " ) , introduces a different mood ; the final measures are a " soaring melisma " , a " joyously uplifting prelude " to the last movement . = = = 8 = = = The final aria , " Wie freudig ist mein Herz " ( " How joyful is my heart " ) , expresses joy as a cheerful gigue , with a long coloratura on " fröhlich " ( joyful ) . It is comparable to the gigues in Bach 's French Suites . Mincham concludes : This cantata , expressed throughout in the first person , is highly personal . It makes a clear and dramatic journey from the cesspools of sinful misery to the euphoria of redemption and salvation . It has no trumpets , horns or drums to drive its message home ; they are not needed within this highly private context . " = = Selected recordings = = The work has been recorded often , both by Bach specialists and others . The sortable listing is taken from the selection provided by Aryeh Oron on the Bach @-@ Cantatas website , which lists 54 recordings as of 2015 . A red background colour roughly designates a large orchestra , green an ensemble playing on period instruments in historically informed performance .
= Blanche Lazzell = Blanche Lazzell ( October 10 , 1878 – June 1 , 1956 ) was an American painter , printmaker and designer . Known especially for her white @-@ line woodcuts , she was an early modernist American artist , bringing elements of Cubism and abstraction into her art . Born in a small farming community in West Virginia , Lazzell traveled to Europe twice , studying in Paris with French artists Albert Gleizes , Fernand Léger , and André Lhote . In 1915 , she began spending her summers in the Cape Cod art community of Provincetown , Massachusetts and eventually settled there permanently . She was one of the founding members of the Provincetown Printers , a group of artists who experimented with a white @-@ line woodcut technique based on the Japanese ukiyo @-@ e woodblock prints . = = Biography = = = = = Early life and education = = = Nettie Blanche Lazzell was born October 10 , 1878 on a farm near Maidsville , West Virginia to Mary Prudence Pope and Cornelius Carhart Lazzell . Her father was a direct descendant of Reverend Thomas and Hannah Lazzell , pioneers who settled in Monongalia County after the American Revolutionary War . The Lazzells were devout Methodists , attending the Bethel Methodist Episcopal Church . The ninth of ten children , she was nicknamed " Pet " by her older brother Rufus , a name that her family would continue to use throughout her life . She grew up on the 200 acre ( 0 @.@ 81 km2 ) family farm , attending a one @-@ room schoolhouse on the property where students from the first through eighth grades were taught from October through February . Her mother died when she was twelve . When Lazzell was fifteen , she enrolled in the West Virginia Conference Seminary ( now West Virginia Wesleyan College ) in Buckhannon . Probably sometime prior to her entering the Seminary she became partially deaf , although the exact origin of her condition is unclear . In 1894 she sought treatment from a Baltimore doctor who blamed her deafness on catarrh . In 1899 , Lazzell enrolled in the South Carolina Co @-@ educational Institute . Upon graduation later that year , she became a teacher at the Red Oaks School in Ramsey , South Carolina . In spring of 1900 , she returned to Maidsville , where she tutored her younger sister , Bessie . Lazzell was matriculated into the West Virginia University ( WVU ) in 1901 and decided to study fine art . While her education was paid for by her father , she kept a strict account of her expenditures and took a job coloring photographs at Frieds , a studio in Morgantown . She took drawing and art history classes from William J. Leonard and studied with Eva E. Hubbard . In June 1905 Lazzell was graduated , earning her degree in fine arts . She continued to study at WVU off and on until 1909 , furthering her art studies and twice substituting as a painting teacher for Hubbard . During this time she learned ceramics , gold etching , and china decoration . She enrolled in the Art Students League of New York in 1908 where she studied under painters Kenyon Cox and William Merritt Chase . Georgia O 'Keeffe attended the league during the same period , but it is not clear whether the two attended classes together . In 1908 , Lazzell 's father died and she left the Art Students League . = = = Travels to Europe = = = Lazzell boarded the SS Ivernia on July 3 , 1912 bound for Europe on a summer tour arranged by the American Travel Club . The tour began in England and continued through the Netherlands , Belgium , and Italy , where Lazzell studied the architecture of churches . In August she left the tour and traveled to Paris , where she stayed at a pension in Montparnasse on the Left Bank . She attended lectures by Florence Heywood and Rossiter Howard , avoided the cafe life , and joined the Students Hostel on Boulevard Saint @-@ Michel . While in Paris , Lazzell took classes at the Académie de la Grande Chaumière , Académie Julian , and Académie Delécluse , eventually settling in at the Académie Moderne where she studied with post @-@ impressionist painter Charles Guérin and David Rosen . Lazzell felt most comfortable at the Moderne , which was associated with the Parisian avant @-@ garde . She embarked upon a six @-@ week sketching tour of Italy with four other young women in February 1913 . The quintet returned to Paris via Germany where Lazzell partook in her first glass of beer in Munich . In April she visited an ear specialist who removed a growth from the back of her throat , resulting in what she characterized as " a slight improvement " in her hearing . She continued to study with Guérin , who recognized Lazzell 's inclination for landscape art . Lazzell extended her stay in France and attended lectures at the Louvre concerning Flemish paintings , Dutch art and the Italian Renaissance . She returned to the United States at the end of September , sailing from London on the SS Arabic of the White Star Line . Upon returning to Morgantown , Lazzell focused on painting and lived with her sister Bessie . She held a solo exhibition in December 1914 that included her sketches and paintings . Lazzell rented a studio where she taught art while supporting herself through the sales of hand @-@ painted china . = = = Provincetown = = = Lacking artistic stimulation in Morgantown , Lazzell journeyed to Provincetown , Massachusetts in 1915 . Already an artists ' colony , Provincetown was a mecca for European artists escaping World War I. Stella Johnson and Jessie Fremont Herring , two of Lazzell 's companions from her tour in Italy , were already in Provincetown and Lazzell stayed with Johnson 's mother . Lazzell took a morning outdoor painting class that summer from Charles Webster Hawthorne at his Cape Cod School of Art where she was exposed to Fauvist color and technique . She returned to Morgantown in the autumn and held an exhibition in her studio that October . Lazzell returned to Provincetown the following summer and requested that painting instructor , Oliver Chaffee , teach her the white @-@ line woodcut technique innovated by Arthur Wesley Dow and adopted by a group of artists who had spent the previous winter in Provincetown . The white @-@ line woodcuts were inspired by Japanese ukiyo @-@ e woodblock prints , but only used a single block of wood . Designs were etched into the surface of woodblocks , with the incised lines separating sections of the blocks . The sections were individually painted and printed onto paper with the carved portions forming white lines . Lazzell and other artists specializing in the white @-@ line technique formed the Provincetown Printers , an artist collective that later would earn national recognition . Toward the close of 1916 she traveled to Manhattan where she studied with Homer Boss and did an analysis of color with William E. Schumacher . Two of her pieces in the white @-@ line style were exhibited in the Provincetown Art Association 's annual show in 1917 . Originality , Simplicity , Freedom of Expression , and above all Sincerity , with a clean cut block , are characteristics of a good wood block print . In the summer of 1917 , she spent time at Byrdcliffe Colony , an artists ' colony in Woodstock , New York . There she studied with William Schumacher , under whom she made her first color woodcut . She also studied with William Zorach and Andrew Dasburg . In the summer of 1918 Lazzell moved to Provincetown permanently , converting an old fish house overlooking the Provincetown Harbor into a studio . She spent the winters in Morgantown and Manhattan until 1922 , always returning to Provincetown for the summer . In addition to her involvement with the Provincetown Printers , Lazzell was a member of the Provincetown Art Association and the Sail Loft Club , Provincetown 's women 's art club . Although the bohemian atmosphere of Provincetown contrasted with Lazzell 's church @-@ going conservative demeanor , she wove herself into a tight circle of friends , including Ada Gilmore , Agnes Weinrich , and Otto Karl Knaths . She became close to Simeon C. Smith , a former WVU English professor who had retired to Provincetown . She spent Thanksgiving with his family in 1918 and while the couple became romantically entangled , they never married . In 1919 Lazzell was featured in an exhibition in Manhattan at the Touchstone Gallery alongside Weinrich , Mary Kirkup , and Flora Schoenfeld . Later that year , the Provincetown Printers were featured at the Detroit Institute of Arts exhibition " Wood Block Prints in Color by American Artists " . That show included Lazzell 's depiction of the Monongahela River in Morgantown The Monongahela , which was cut at Byrdcliffe in William E. Schumacher 's studio . Critics and galleries associated the Provincetown Printers with modernist schools of painting and the artist collective continued to receive national exposure over the next few years with exhibitions in Chicago , Los Angeles , Philadelphia , Baltimore , and New Orleans . Lazzell turned her old fish shack into a personal space and built large flower boxes around her studio , allowing morning glory and Madeira vines to grow up to the roof . Her studio 's garden became a local attraction and she hosted teas for which she made homemade candy . During this time Lazzell produced white @-@ line prints and flower monoprints and she taught painting and block printing classes . = = = Return to Europe = = = Lazzell returned to Europe in 1923 with Tannahill and Kaesche , touring Italy and spending two months in Cassis before settling in Paris late that summer . Her friend Flora Schoenfeld convinced her to dye her hair red in the fashion of many women in their circle . While in Paris Lazzell studied Cubism and geometric abstraction alongside Fernand Léger , André Lhote , and Albert Gleizes . Lazzell 's work was exhibited at the Salon d 'Automne and the American Women 's Club in 1923 . She returned to Morgantown in August 1924 after her sister Bessie had given birth to a son . = = = Later years = = = Lazzell grew close to her niece , Frances Reed , for whom she was a mentor and role model . For six years she served on the committee of selection for the Annual Modern Exhibition . After her return to Provincetown in 1926 , Lazzell tore down her studio and had a new building constructed , as the fish house was too cold during the winter . She participated in a show called " Fifty Prints of the Year " where she debuted her compositions The Violet Jug and Trees . She was particularly influenced by Gleizes and produced a series of abstract Synthetic cubist paintings based on the golden ratio , including Painting VIII . Lazzell was a member of the international arts group Société Anonyme and was asked by artist and patron Katherine Dreier to be on its board of directors in 1928 . Lazzell later joined the New York Society of Women Artists and the Society of Independent Artists . Lazzell began incorporating abstract designs into her woodblocks and created designs for hooked rugs toward the end of the decade . She returned to Morgantown in the winter of 1929 and offered art lessons . Among her students was Ella Sophonisba Hergesheimer . In 1934 , Lazzell was one of two West Virginians who received Federal Art Project grants through the Works Progress Administration . That same year she created a mural for a court room in the Monongalia County Courthouse entitled , Justice . The mural took fourteen weeks to complete . The mural is currently displayed at the Art Museum of West Virginia University in Morgantown , WV . She continued experimenting with woodprints and , in 1935 , studied with the renowned German abstract expressionist Hans Hofmann in Provincetown . Hofmann 's push / pull spatial theory is evident in the asymmetry of her later works . Lazzell 's studies of flowers were inspired by her lavish potted gardens , such as Star Phlox ( 1931 ) . Her 1948 floral print , Red and White Petunia , won first prize at the American Color Print Society exhibition . A collection of her prints are housed at the Art Museum of West Virginia University . In 1956 , Lazzell 's health began to fail and she was hospitalized in Bourne , Massachusetts toward the end of May for a suspected stroke . After suffering a documented stroke , Lazzell died on June 1 . She is interred next to her father in Bethel Cemetery in Maidsville . = = Artistic style = = While Lazzell is most well known for her white @-@ line woodcuts , she also created ceramics , hooked rugs , paintings , and gouache studies . The subjects of her paintings and prints included landscape scenery and harbor scenes in Provincetown as well as flowers and still lifes . These and her abstract works incorporated elements of both Synthetic and Analytic cubism and frequently comprised arrangements of vibrantly colored geometric shapes . She was among the earliest women artists in the United States to work in a modernist style . Lazzell 's paintings demonstrated a rich and nuanced use of color . She preferred French watercolor pigments that , alongside the grain of the woodblocks , created embossed lines and striated patterns . Typically the woodblocks she created were made from cherry or basswood and she only pulled three or four prints from each woodblock . From 1916 to 1955 , Lazzell created 138 woodblocks . Modern exhibitions of Lazzell 's artworks have included the woodblocks themselves . Although she was a pioneer in the white @-@ line woodcut technique and played a role in the development of abstract art in the United States , Lazzell 's work faded into obscurity for a time . With a resurgence of interest in the modern print , and especially the white @-@ line woodcut , Lazzell 's popularity has surged lately . On August 3 , 2012 Lazzell 's print ' Sail Boat ' reached a staggering $ 106 @,@ 200 at auction .
= German destroyer Z9 Wolfgang Zenker = Z9 Wolfgang Zenker was a Type 1934A @-@ class destroyer built for Nazi Germany 's Kriegsmarine in the mid @-@ 1930s . Several days after the start of World War II , she unsuccessfully attacked , together with another destroyer , Polish ships anchored at the naval base on the Hel Peninsula . In early 1940 the ship made two successful minelaying sorties off the English coast that claimed six merchant ships . Wolfgang Zenker participated in the early stages of the Norwegian Campaign by transporting troops to the Narvik area in early April 1940 . The ship fought in both naval Battles of Narvik several days later and had to be scuttled after she exhausted her ammunition . = = Design and description = = Wolfgang Zenker had an overall length of 119 meters ( 390 ft 5 in ) and was 114 meters ( 374 ft 0 in ) long at the waterline . The ship had a beam of 11 @.@ 30 meters ( 37 ft 1 in ) , and a maximum draft of 4 @.@ 23 meters ( 13 ft 11 in ) . She displaced 2 @,@ 171 metric tons ( 2 @,@ 137 long tons ) at standard and 3 @,@ 110 metric tons ( 3 @,@ 060 long tons ) at deep load . The Wagner geared steam turbines were designed to produce 70 @,@ 000 metric horsepower ( 51 @,@ 000 kW ; 69 @,@ 000 shp ) which would propel the ship at 36 knots ( 67 km / h ; 41 mph ) . Steam was provided to the turbines by six high @-@ pressure Benson boilers with superheaters . Wolfgang Zenker carried a maximum of 752 metric tons ( 740 long tons ) of fuel oil which was intended to give a range of 4 @,@ 400 nmi ( 8 @,@ 100 km ; 5 @,@ 100 mi ) at 19 knots ( 35 km / h ; 22 mph ) , but the ship proved top @-@ heavy in service and 30 % of the fuel had to be retained as ballast low in the ship . The effective range proved to be only 1 @,@ 530 nmi ( 2 @,@ 830 km ; 1 @,@ 760 mi ) at 19 knots ( 35 km / h ; 22 mph ) . Wolfgang Zenker carried five 12 @.@ 7 cm SK C / 34 guns in single mounts with gun shields , two each superimposed , fore and aft . The fifth gun was carried on top of the rear deckhouse . Her anti @-@ aircraft armament consisted of four 3 @.@ 7 cm SK C / 30 guns in two twin mounts abreast the rear funnel and six 2 cm C / 30 guns in single mounts . The ship carried eight above @-@ water 53 @.@ 3 @-@ centimeter ( 21 @.@ 0 in ) torpedo tubes in two power @-@ operated mounts . A pair of reload torpedoes were provided for each mount . Four depth charge throwers were mounted on the sides of the rear deckhouse and they were supplemented by six racks for individual depth charges on the sides of the stern . Enough depth charges were carried for either two or four patterns of 16 charges each . Mine rails could be fitted on the rear deck that had a maximum capacity of 60 mines . ' GHG ' ( German : Gruppenhorchgerät ) passive hydrophones were fitted to detect submarines . = = Career = = The ship was ordered on 9 January 1935 and laid down at Germania , Kiel on 22 March 1935 as yard number G535 . She was launched on 27 March 1936 and completed on 2 July 1937 . Wolfgang Zenker participated in the August 1938 Fleet Review as part of the 6th Destroyer Division and the following fleet exercise . On the morning of 3 September 1939 , after the start of World War II , the destroyers Leberecht Maass and Wolfgang Zenker , under the command of Rear Admiral Günther Lütjens , attacked the Polish destroyer Wicher and the minelayer Gryf as they laid anchored in the naval base on the Hel Peninsula . The German ships opened fire at a range of 12 @,@ 700 meters ( 13 @,@ 900 yd ) . The Polish ships , as well as a coast defense battery of 15 @-@ centimeter ( 5 @.@ 9 in ) replied effectively and forced the German destroyers to make evasive maneuvers and to lay a smoke screen to throw off the aim of the Polish gunners . A 15 @-@ centimeter shell struck Leberecht Maass , killing four men and disabling one gun . Admiral Lutjens ordered the action broken off 40 minutes later as the German fire was ineffective . Although the other destroyers were busy escorting the German heavy ships and laying minefields off the British coast , Wolfgang Zenker played no part of any of these operations until the night of 10 / 11 January 1940 when she laid a minefield off Cromer with her sisters Bruno Heinemann and Erich Koellner . Three ships totaling 11 @,@ 155 Gross Register Tons ( GRT ) were sunk by this minefield . The same three ships made another sortie on the night of 9 / 10 February into the same area and laid 157 mines that claimed three ships totaling 11 @,@ 855 GRT . Wolfgang Zenker suffered ice damage in mid @-@ February and was forced to return prematurely when she was escorting the battleships Gneisenau and Scharnhorst when they attempted to intercept British convoys to Scandinavia . Wolfgang Zenker was allocated to Group 1 for the Norwegian portion of Operation Weserübung . The group 's task was to transport the 139th Mountain Infantry Regiment ( 139 . Gebirgsjäger Regiment ) and the headquarters of the 3rd Mountain Division ( 3 . Gebirgs @-@ Division ) to seize Narvik . The ships began loading troops on 6 April and set sail the next day . When they arrived at the Ofotfjord , west of Narvik , on the early morning of 9 April , the three ships of the 4th Flotilla , under the command of Commander Erich Bey , were ordered to land their troops in the Herjangsfjord ( a northern branch of the Ofotfjord ) in order to capture a Norwegian Army armory at Elvegårdsmoen . The troops encountered little resistance , but off @-@ loading them was slow because there was only a single wooden pier available . Wolfgang Zenker was able to partially refuel during the following night , but returned to the Herjansfjord well before dawn . Shortly before dawn on 10 April , the five destroyers of the British 2nd Destroyer Flotilla surprised the German ships in Narvik harbor . They torpedoed two destroyers and badly damaged the other three while suffering only minor damage themselves . As they were beginning to withdraw they encountered the three destroyers of the 4th Flotilla which had been alerted when the British began their attack . The Germans opened fire first , but the gunnery for both sides was not effective due to the mist and the smoke screen laid by the British as they retreated down the Ofotfjord . The German ships had to turn away to avoid a salvo of three torpedoes fired by one of the destroyers in Narvik . Commander Bey 's other two ships were very low on fuel and all three were running low on ammunition , so he decided not to continue the pursuit of the British ships since they were being engaged by the last two destroyers of Group 1 . Commander Bey was ordered during the afternoon of 10 April to return to Germany with all seaworthy ships that evening . Only Wolfgang Zenker and her sister Erich Giese were ready for sea and they slipped out of the Ofotfjord and turned south . Visibility was good that evening and they spotted the light cruiser HMS Penelope and her two escorting destroyers and Commander Bey decided to turn back even though his ships had not been spotted by the British . Three other destroyers refuelled and completed their repairs on 11 April , but Bey decided against another breakout attempt despite the fog and poor visibility that night . While at anchor , Wolfgang Zenker briefly grounded during the night and damaged her port propeller , which limited her speed to 20 knots ( 37 km / h ; 23 mph ) . Bey made no attempt to breakout during the night of 12 / 13 April . That night he received word to expect an attack the following day by British capital ships escorted by a large number of destroyers and supported by carrier aircraft . Wolfgang Zenker was still under repair , although her torpedoes had been replenished from the damaged destroyers . The battleship HMS Warspite and nine destroyers duly appeared on 13 April , although earlier than Commander Bey had expected , and caught the Germans out of position . The five operable destroyers , including Wolfgang Zenker , charged out of Narvik harbor and engaged the British ships . Although no hits were scored , they did inflict splinter damage on several of the destroyers . Wolfgang Zenker was able to make a torpedo attack on Warspite before being driven off , but her torpedoes all missed . Lack of ammunition forced the German ships to retreat to the Rombaksfjorden ( the easternmost branch of the Ofotfjord ) , east of Narvik , where they might attempt to ambush pursuing British destroyers . Wolfgang Zenker had exhausted her ammunition and she was beached at the head of the fjord . Her crew placed demolition charges and abandoned the ship . By the time the British reached the ship she had rolled over onto her side .
= Jimi Hendrix = James Marshall " Jimi " Hendrix ( born Johnny Allen Hendrix ; November 27 , 1942 – September 18 , 1970 ) was an American rock guitarist , singer , and songwriter . Although his mainstream career spanned only four years , he is widely regarded as one of the most influential electric guitarists in the history of popular music , and one of the most celebrated musicians of the 20th century . The Rock and Roll Hall of Fame describes him as " arguably the greatest instrumentalist in the history of rock music " . Born in Seattle , Washington , Hendrix began playing guitar at the age of 15 . In 1961 , he enlisted in the US Army and trained as a paratrooper in the 101st Airborne Division ; he was granted an honorable discharge the following year . Soon afterward , he moved to Clarksville , Tennessee , and began playing gigs on the chitlin ' circuit , earning a place in the Isley Brothers ' backing band and later with Little Richard , with whom he continued to work through mid @-@ 1965 . He then played with Curtis Knight and the Squires before moving to England in late 1966 after being discovered by Linda Keith , who in turn interested bassist Chas Chandler of the Animals in becoming his first manager . Within months , Hendrix had earned three UK top ten hits with the Jimi Hendrix Experience : " Hey Joe " , " Purple Haze " , and " The Wind Cries Mary " . He achieved fame in the US after his performance at the Monterey Pop Festival in 1967 , and in 1968 his third and final studio album , Electric Ladyland , reached number one in the US ; it was Hendrix 's most commercially successful release and his first and only number one album . The world 's highest @-@ paid performer , he headlined the Woodstock Festival in 1969 and the Isle of Wight Festival in 1970 before his accidental death from barbiturate @-@ related asphyxia on September 18 , 1970 , at the age of 27 . Hendrix was inspired musically by American rock and roll and electric blues . He favored overdriven amplifiers with high volume and gain , and was instrumental in utilizing the previously undesirable sounds caused by guitar amplifier feedback . He helped to popularize the use of a wah @-@ wah pedal in mainstream rock , and was the first artist to use stereophonic phasing effects in music recordings . Holly George @-@ Warren of Rolling Stone commented : " Hendrix pioneered the use of the instrument as an electronic sound source . Players before him had experimented with feedback and distortion , but Hendrix turned those effects and others into a controlled , fluid vocabulary every bit as personal as the blues with which he began . " Hendrix was the recipient of several music awards during his lifetime and posthumously . In 1967 , readers of Melody Maker voted him the Pop Musician of the Year , and in 1968 , Rolling Stone declared him the Performer of the Year . Disc and Music Echo honored him with the World Top Musician of 1969 and in 1970 , Guitar Player named him the Rock Guitarist of the Year . The Jimi Hendrix Experience was inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame in 1992 and the UK Music Hall of Fame in 2005 . Rolling Stone ranked the band 's three studio albums , Are You Experienced , Axis : Bold as Love , and Electric Ladyland , among the 100 greatest albums of all time , and they ranked Hendrix as the greatest guitarist and the sixth greatest artist of all time . = = Ancestry and childhood = = Jimi Hendrix was of African @-@ American descent . Both his mother Lucille and father Al were African @-@ Americans . His paternal grandmother , Zenora " Nora " Rose Moore , was African @-@ American and one @-@ quarter Cherokee . Hendrix 's paternal grandfather , Bertran Philander Ross Hendrix ( born 1866 ) , was the result of an extramarital affair between a woman named Fanny , and a grain merchant from Urbana , Ohio or Illinois , one of the wealthiest men in the area at that time . On June 10 , 1919 , Hendrix and Moore had a son they named James Allen Ross Hendrix ; people called him Al . In 1941 , Al met Lucille Jeter ( 1925 – 1958 ) at a dance in Seattle ; they married on March 31 , 1942 . Al , who had been drafted by the U.S. Army to serve in World War II , left to begin his basic training three days after the wedding . Johnny Allen Hendrix was born on November 27 , 1942 , in Seattle , Washington ; he was the first of Lucille 's five children . In 1946 , Johnny 's parents changed his name to James Marshall Hendrix , in honor of Al and his late brother Leon Marshall . Stationed in Alabama at the time of Hendrix 's birth , Al was denied the standard military furlough afforded servicemen for childbirth ; his commanding officer placed him in the stockade to prevent him from going AWOL to see his infant son in Seattle . He spent two months locked up without trial , and while in the stockade received a telegram announcing his son 's birth . During Al 's three @-@ year absence , Lucille struggled to raise their son . When Al was away , Hendrix was mostly cared for by family members and friends , especially Lucille 's sister Delores Hall and her friend Dorothy Harding . Al received an honorable discharge from the US Army on September 1 , 1945 . Two months later , unable to find Lucille , Al went to the Berkeley , California home of a family friend named Mrs. Champ , who had taken care of and had attempted to adopt Hendrix ; this is where Al saw his son for the first time . After returning from service , Al reunited with Lucille , but his inability to find steady work left the family impoverished . They both struggled with alcohol , and often fought when intoxicated . The violence sometimes drove Hendrix to withdraw and hide in a closet in their home . His relationship with his brother Leon ( born 1948 ) was close but precarious ; with Leon in and out of foster care , they lived with an almost constant threat of fraternal separation . In addition to Leon , Hendrix had three younger siblings : Joseph , born in 1949 , Kathy in 1950 , and Pamela , 1951 , all of whom Al and Lucille gave up to foster care and adoption . The family frequently moved , staying in cheap hotels and apartments around Seattle . On occasion , family members would take Hendrix to Vancouver to stay at his grandmother 's . A shy and sensitive boy , he was deeply affected by his life experiences . In later years , he confided to a girlfriend that he had been the victim of sexual abuse by a man in uniform . On December 17 , 1951 , when Hendrix was nine years old , his parents divorced ; the court granted Al custody of him and Leon . = = First instruments = = At Horace Mann Elementary School in Seattle during the mid @-@ 1950s , Hendrix 's habit of carrying a broom with him to emulate a guitar gained the attention of the school 's social worker . After more than a year of his clinging to a broom like a security blanket , she wrote a letter requesting school funding intended for underprivileged children , insisting that leaving him without a guitar might result in psychological damage . Her efforts failed , and Al refused to buy him a guitar . In 1957 , while helping his father with a side @-@ job , Hendrix found a ukulele amongst the garbage that they were removing from an older woman 's home . She told him that he could keep the instrument , which had only one string . Learning by ear , he played single notes , following along to Elvis Presley songs , particularly Presley 's cover of Leiber and Stoller 's " Hound Dog " . By the age of thirty @-@ three , Hendrix 's mother Lucille had developed cirrhosis of the liver , and on February 2 , 1958 , she died when her spleen ruptured . Al refused to take James and Leon to attend their mother 's funeral ; he instead gave them shots of whiskey and instructed them that was how men were supposed to deal with loss . In mid @-@ 1958 , at age 15 , Hendrix acquired his first acoustic guitar , for $ 5 . He earnestly applied himself , playing the instrument for several hours daily , watching others and getting tips from more experienced guitarists , and listening to blues artists such as Muddy Waters , B.B. King , Howlin ' Wolf , and Robert Johnson . The first tune Hendrix learned how to play was the theme from Peter Gunn . Soon after he acquired the acoustic guitar , Hendrix formed his first band , the Velvetones . Without an electric guitar , he could barely be heard over the sound of the group . After about three months , he realized that he needed an electric guitar in order to continue . In mid @-@ 1959 , his father relented and bought him a white Supro Ozark . Hendrix 's first gig was with an unnamed band in the basement of a synagogue , Seattle 's Temple De Hirsch , but after too much showing off , the band fired him between sets . He later joined the Rocking Kings , which played professionally at venues such as the Birdland club . When someone stole his guitar after he left it backstage overnight , Al bought him a red Silvertone Danelectro . In 1958 , Hendrix completed his studies at Washington Junior High School , though he did not graduate from Garfield High School . = = Military service = = Before Hendrix was 19 years old , law enforcement authorities had twice caught him riding in stolen cars . When given a choice between spending time in prison or joining the Army , he chose the latter and enlisted on May 31 , 1961 . After completing eight weeks of basic training at Fort Ord , California , he was assigned to the 101st Airborne Division and stationed at Fort Campbell , Kentucky . He arrived there on November 8 , and soon afterward he wrote to his father : " There 's nothing but physical training and harassment here for two weeks , then when you go to jump school ... you get hell . They work you to death , fussing and fighting . " In his next letter home , Hendrix , who had left his guitar at his girlfriend Betty Jean Morgan 's house in Seattle , asked his father to send it to him as soon as possible , stating : " I really need it now . " His father obliged and sent the red Silvertone Danelectro on which Hendrix had hand @-@ painted the words " Betty Jean " , to Fort Campbell . His apparent obsession with the instrument contributed to his neglect of his duties , which led to verbal taunting and physical abuse from his peers , who at least once hid the guitar from him until he had begged for its return . In November 1961 , fellow serviceman Billy Cox walked past an army club and heard Hendrix playing guitar . Intrigued by the proficient playing , which he described as a combination of " John Lee Hooker and Beethoven " , Cox borrowed a bass guitar and the two jammed . Within a few weeks , they began performing at base clubs on the weekends with other musicians in a loosely organized band called the Casuals . Hendrix completed his paratrooper training in just over eight months , and Major General C. W. G. Rich awarded him the prestigious Screaming Eagles patch on January 11 , 1962 . By February , his personal conduct had begun to draw criticism from his superiors . They labeled him an unqualified marksman and often caught him napping while on duty and failing to report for bed checks . On May 24 , Hendrix 's platoon sergeant , James C. Spears , filed a report in which he stated : " He has no interest whatsoever in the Army ... It is my opinion that Private Hendrix will never come up to the standards required of a soldier . I feel that the military service will benefit if he is discharged as soon as possible . " On June 29 , 1962 , Captain Gilbert Batchman granted Hendrix an honorable discharge on the basis of unsuitability . Hendrix later spoke of his dislike of the army and falsely stated that he had received a medical discharge after breaking his ankle during his 26th parachute jump . = = Music career = = = = = Early years = = = In September 1963 , after Cox was discharged from the Army , he and Hendrix moved to Clarksville , Tennessee and formed a band called the King Kasuals . Hendrix had watched Butch Snipes play with his teeth in Seattle and by now Alphonso ' Baby Boo ' Young , the other guitarist in the band , was performing this guitar gimmick . Not to be upstaged , Hendrix learned to play with his teeth . He later commented : " The idea of doing that came to me ... in Tennessee . Down there you have to play with your teeth or else you get shot . There 's a trail of broken teeth all over the stage . " Although they began playing low @-@ paying gigs at obscure venues , the band eventually moved to Nashville 's Jefferson Street , which was the traditional heart of the city 's black community and home to a thriving rhythm and blues music scene . They earned a brief residency playing at a popular venue in town , the Club del Morocco , and for the next two years Hendrix made a living performing at a circuit of venues throughout the South who were affiliated with the Theater Owners ' Booking Association ( TOBA ) , widely known as the Chitlin ' Circuit . In addition to playing in his own band , Hendrix performed as a backing musician for various soul , R & B , and blues musicians , including Wilson Pickett , Slim Harpo , Sam Cooke , and Jackie Wilson . In January 1964 , feeling he had outgrown the circuit artistically and frustrated by having to follow the rules of bandleaders , Hendrix decided to venture out on his own . He moved into the Hotel Theresa in Harlem , where he befriended Lithofayne Pridgon , known as " Faye " , who became his girlfriend . A Harlem native with connections throughout the area 's music scene , Pridgon provided him with shelter , support , and encouragement . Hendrix also met the Allen twins , Arthur and Albert . In February 1964 , Hendrix won first prize in the Apollo Theater amateur contest . Hoping to secure a career opportunity , he played the Harlem club circuit and sat in with various bands . At the recommendation of a former associate of Joe Tex , Ronnie Isley granted Hendrix an audition that led to an offer to become the guitarist with the Isley Brothers ' back @-@ up band , the I.B. Specials , which he readily accepted . = = = First recordings = = = In March 1964 , Hendrix recorded the two @-@ part single " Testify " with the Isley Brothers . Released in June , it failed to chart . In May , he provided guitar instrumentation for the Don Covay song , " Mercy Mercy " . Issued in August by Rosemart Records and distributed by Atlantic , the track reached number 35 on the Billboard chart . Hendrix toured with the Isleys during much of 1964 , but near the end of October , after growing tired of playing the same set every night , he left the band . Soon afterward , Hendrix joined Little Richard 's touring band , the Upsetters . During a stop in Los Angeles in February 1965 , he recorded his first and only single with Richard , " I Don 't Know What You Got ( But It 's Got Me ) " , written by Don Covay and released by Vee @-@ Jay Records . Richard 's popularity was waning at the time , and the single peaked at number 92 , where it remained for one week before dropping off the chart . Hendrix met singer Rosa Lee Brooks while staying at the Wilcox Hotel in Hollywood , and she invited him to participate in a recording session for her single , which included the Arthur Lee penned " My Diary " as the A @-@ side , and " Utee " as the B @-@ side . Hendrix played guitar on both tracks , which also included background vocals by Lee . The single failed to chart , but Hendrix and Lee began a friendship that lasted several years ; Hendrix later became an ardent supporter of Lee 's band , Love . In July 1965 , on Nashville 's Channel 5 Night Train , Hendrix made his first television appearance . Performing in Little Richard 's ensemble band , he backed up vocalists Buddy and Stacy on " Shotgun " . The video recording of the show marks the earliest known footage of Hendrix performing . Richard and Hendrix often clashed over tardiness , wardrobe , and Hendrix 's stage antics , and in late July , Richard 's brother Robert fired him . He then briefly rejoined the Isley Brothers , and recorded a second single with them , " Move Over and Let Me Dance " backed with " Have You Ever Been Disappointed " . Later that year , he joined a New York @-@ based R & B band , Curtis Knight and the Squires , after meeting Knight in the lobby of a hotel where both men were staying . Hendrix performed with them for eight months . In October 1965 , he and Knight recorded the single , " How Would You Feel " backed with " Welcome Home " and on October 15 , Hendrix signed a three @-@ year recording contract with entrepreneur Ed Chalpin . While the relationship with Chalpin was short @-@ lived , his contract remained in force , which later caused legal and career problems for Hendrix . During his time with Knight , Hendrix briefly toured with Joey Dee and the Starliters , and worked with King Curtis on several recordings including Ray Sharpe 's two @-@ part single , " Help Me " . Hendrix earned his first composer credits for two instrumentals , " Hornets Nest " and " Knock Yourself Out " , released as a Curtis Knight and the Squires single in 1966 . Feeling restricted by his experiences as an R & B sideman , Hendrix moved to New York City 's Greenwich Village in 1966 , which had a vibrant and diverse music scene . There , he was offered a residency at the Cafe Wha ? on MacDougal Street and formed his own band that June , Jimmy James and the Blue Flames , which included future Spirit guitarist Randy California . The Blue Flames played at several clubs in New York and Hendrix began developing his guitar style and material that he would soon use with the Experience . In September , they gave some of their last concerts at the Cafe au Go Go , as John Hammond Jr . ' s backing group . = = = The Jimi Hendrix Experience = = = By May 1966 , Hendrix was struggling to earn a living wage playing the R & B circuit , so he briefly rejoined Curtis Knight and the Squires for an engagement at one of New York City 's most popular nightspots , the Cheetah Club . During a performance , Linda Keith , the girlfriend of Rolling Stones guitarist Keith Richards , noticed Hendrix . She remembered : " [ His ] playing mesmerised me " . She invited him to join her for a drink ; he accepted and the two became friends . While he was playing with Jimmy James and the Blue Flames , Keith recommended Hendrix to Stones manager Andrew Loog Oldham and producer Seymour Stein . They failed to see Hendrix 's musical potential , and rejected him . She then referred him to Chas Chandler , who was leaving the Animals and interested in managing and producing artists . Chandler liked the Billy Roberts song " Hey Joe " , and was convinced he could create a hit single with the right artist . Impressed with Hendrix 's version of the song , he brought him to London on September 24 , 1966 , and signed him to a management and production contract with himself and ex @-@ Animals manager Michael Jeffery . On September 24 , Hendrix gave an impromptu solo performance at The Scotch of St James , and later that night he began a relationship with Kathy Etchingham that lasted for two and a half years . Following Hendrix 's arrival in London , Chandler began recruiting members for a band designed to highlight the guitarist 's talents , the Jimi Hendrix Experience . Hendrix met guitarist Noel Redding at an audition for the New Animals , where Redding 's knowledge of blues progressions impressed Hendrix , who stated that he also liked Redding 's hairstyle . Chandler asked Redding if he wanted to play bass guitar in Hendrix 's band ; Redding agreed . Chandler then began looking for a drummer and soon after , he contacted Mitch Mitchell through a mutual friend . Mitchell , who had recently been fired from Georgie Fame and the Blue Flames , participated in a rehearsal with Redding and Hendrix where they found common ground in their shared interest in rhythm and blues . When Chandler phoned Mitchell later that day to offer him the position , he readily accepted . Chandler also convinced Hendrix to change the spelling of his first name from Jimmy to the exotic looking Jimi . On September 30 , Chandler brought Hendrix to the London Polytechnic at Regent Street , where Cream was scheduled to perform , and where Hendrix and Eric Clapton met . Clapton later commented : " He asked if he could play a couple of numbers . I said , ' Of course ' , but I had a funny feeling about him . " Halfway through Cream 's set , Hendrix took the stage and performed a frantic version of the Howlin ' Wolf song " Killing Floor " . In 1989 , Clapton described the performance : " He played just about every style you could think of , and not in a flashy way . I mean he did a few of his tricks , like playing with his teeth and behind his back , but it wasn 't in an upstaging sense at all , and that was it ... He walked off , and my life was never the same again " . = = = = UK success = = = = In mid @-@ October 1966 , Chandler arranged an engagement for the Experience as Johnny Hallyday 's supporting act during a brief tour of France . Thus , the Jimi Hendrix Experience performed their very first show on October 13 , 1966 , at the Novelty in Evreux . Their enthusiastically received 15 @-@ minute performance at the Olympia theatre in Paris on October 18 marks the earliest known recording of the band . In late October , Kit Lambert and Chris Stamp , managers of the Who , signed the Experience to their newly formed label , Track Records , which released the Experience 's first single on October 23 . " Hey Joe " , which included a female chorus provided by the Breakaways , was backed by Hendrix 's first songwriting effort after arriving in England , " Stone Free " . In mid @-@ November , they performed at the Bag O 'Nails nightclub in London , with Clapton , John Lennon , Paul McCartney , Jeff Beck , Pete Townshend , Brian Jones , Mick Jagger , and Kevin Ayers in attendance . Ayers described the crowd 's reaction as stunned disbelief : " All the stars were there , and I heard serious comments , you know ' shit ' , ' Jesus ' , ' damn ' and other words worse than that . " The successful performance earned Hendrix his first interview , published in Record Mirror with the headline : " Mr. Phenomenon " . " Now hear this ... we predict that [ Hendrix ] is going to whirl around the business like a tornado " , wrote Bill Harry , who asked the rhetorical question : " Is that full , big , swinging sound really being created by only three people ? " Hendrix commented : " We don 't want to be classed in any category ... If it must have a tag , I 'd like it to be called , ' Free Feeling ' . It 's a mixture of rock , freak @-@ out , rave and blues " . After appearances on the UK television shows Ready Steady Go ! and the Top of the Pops , " Hey Joe " entered the UK charts on December 29 , 1966 , peaking at number six . Further success came in March 1967 with the UK number three hit " Purple Haze " , and in May with " The Wind Cries Mary " , which remained on the UK charts for eleven weeks , peaking at number six . On March 31 , 1967 , while the Experience waited to perform at the London Astoria , Hendrix and Chandler discussed ways in which they could increase the band 's media exposure . When Chandler asked journalist Keith Altham for advice , Altham suggested that they needed to do something more dramatic than the stage show of the Who , which involved the smashing of instruments . Hendrix joked : " Maybe I can smash up an elephant " , to which Altham replied : " Well , it 's a pity you can 't set fire to your guitar " . Chandler then asked road manager Gerry Stickells to procure some lighter fluid . During the show , Hendrix gave an especially dynamic performance before setting his guitar on fire at the end of a 45 @-@ minute set . In the wake of the stunt , members of London 's press labeled Hendrix the " Black Elvis " and the " Wild Man of Borneo " . = = = = Are You Experienced = = = = After the moderate UK chart success of their first two singles , " Hey Joe " and " Purple Haze " , the Experience began assembling material for a full @-@ length LP . Recording began at De Lane Lea Studios and later moved to the prestigious Olympic Studios . The album , Are You Experienced , features a diversity of musical styles , including blues tracks such as " Red House " and " Highway Chile " , and the R & B song " Remember " . It also included the experimental science fiction piece , " Third Stone from the Sun " and the post @-@ modern soundscapes of the title track , with prominent backwards guitar and drums . " I Don 't Live Today " served as a medium for Hendrix 's guitar feedback improvisation and " Fire " was driven by Mitchell 's drumming . Released in the UK on May 12 , 1967 , Are You Experienced spent 33 weeks on the charts , peaking at number two . It was prevented from reaching the top spot by the Beatles ' Sgt. Pepper 's Lonely Hearts Club Band . On June 4 , 1967 , Hendrix opened a show at the Saville Theatre in London with his rendition of Sgt. Pepper 's title track , which was released just three days previous . Beatles manager Brian Epstein owned the Saville at the time , and both George Harrison and Paul McCartney attended the performance . McCartney described the moment : " The curtains flew back and he came walking forward playing ' Sgt. Pepper ' . It 's a pretty major compliment in anyone 's book . I put that down as one of the great honors of my career . " Released in the U.S. on August 23 by Reprise Records , Are You Experienced reached number five on the Billboard 200 . In 1989 , Noe Goldwasser , the founding editor of Guitar World magazine , described Are You Experienced as " the album that shook the world ... leaving it forever changed " . In 2005 , Rolling Stone called the double @-@ platinum LP Hendrix 's " epochal debut " , and they ranked it the 15th greatest album of all time , noting his " exploitation of amp howl " , and characterizing his guitar playing as " incendiary ... historic in itself " . = = = = Monterey Pop Festival = = = = Although popular in Europe at the time , the Experience 's first U.S. single , " Hey Joe " , failed to reach the Billboard Hot 100 chart upon its release on May 1 , 1967 . The group 's fortunes improved when McCartney recommended them to the organizers of the Monterey Pop Festival . He insisted that the event would be incomplete without Hendrix , whom he called " an absolute ace on the guitar " , and he agreed to join the board of organizers on the condition that the Experience perform at the festival in mid @-@ June . Introduced by Brian Jones as " the most exciting performer [ he had ] ever heard " , Hendrix opened with a fast arrangement of Howlin ' Wolf 's song " Killing Floor " , wearing what author Keith Shadwick described as " clothes as exotic as any on display elsewhere . " Shadwick wrote : " [ Hendrix ] was not only something utterly new musically , but an entirely original vision of what a black American entertainer should and could look like . " The Experience went on to perform renditions of " Hey Joe " , B.B. King 's " Rock Me Baby " , Chip Taylor 's " Wild Thing " , and Bob Dylan 's " Like a Rolling Stone " , as well as four original compositions : " Foxy Lady " , " Can You See Me " , " The Wind Cries Mary " , and " Purple Haze " . The set ended with Hendrix destroying his guitar and tossing pieces of it out to the audience . Rolling Stone 's Alex Vadukul wrote : When Jimi Hendrix set his guitar on fire at the 1967 Monterey Pop Festival he created one of rock 's most perfect moments . Standing in the front row of that concert was a 17 @-@ year @-@ old boy named Ed Caraeff . Caraeff had never seen Hendrix before nor heard his music , but he had a camera with him and there was one shot left in his roll of film . As Hendrix lit his guitar , Caraeff took a final photo . It would become one of the most famous images in rock and roll . Caraeff stood on a chair next to the edge of the stage while taking a series of four monochrome pictures of Hendrix burning his guitar . Caraeff was close enough to the fire that he had to use his camera as a shield to protect his face from the heat . Rolling Stone later colorized the image , matching it with other pictures taken at the festival before using the shot for a 1987 magazine cover . According to author Gail Buckland , the fourth and final frame of " Hendrix kneeling in front of his burning guitar , hands raised , is one of the most famous images in rock . " Author and historian Matthew C. Whitaker wrote : " Hendrix 's burning of his guitar became an iconic image in rock history and brought him national attention . " The Los Angeles Times asserted that , upon leaving the stage , Hendrix " graduated from rumor to legend " . Author John McDermott commented : " Hendrix left the Monterey audience stunned and in disbelief at what they 'd just heard and seen . " According to Hendrix : " I decided to destroy my guitar at the end of a song as a sacrifice . You sacrifice things you love . I love my guitar . " The performance was filmed by D. A. Pennebaker , and later included in the concert documentary Monterey Pop , which helped Hendrix gain popularity with the U.S. public . Immediately after the festival , the Experience were booked for a series of five concerts at Bill Graham 's Fillmore , with Big Brother and the Holding Company and Jefferson Airplane . The Experience outperformed Jefferson Airplane during the first two nights , and replaced them at the top of the bill on the fifth . Following their successful West Coast introduction , which included a free open @-@ air concert at Golden Gate Park and a concert at the Whisky a Go Go , the Experience were booked as the opening act for the first American tour of the Monkees . They requested Hendrix as a supporting act because they were fans , but their young audience disliked the Experience , who left the tour after six shows . Chandler later admitted that he engineered the tour in an effort to gain publicity for Hendrix . = = = = Axis : Bold as Love = = = = The second Experience album , Axis : Bold as Love , opens with the track " EXP " , which innovatively utilized microphonic and harmonic feedback . It also showcased an experimental stereo panning effect in which sounds emanating from Hendrix 's guitar move through the stereo image , revolving around the listener . The piece reflected his growing interest in science fiction and outer space . He composed the album 's title track and finale around two verses and two choruses , during which he pairs emotions with personas , comparing them to colors . The song 's coda features the first recording of stereo phasing . Shadwick described the composition as " possibly the most ambitious piece on Axis , the extravagant metaphors of the lyrics suggesting a growing confidence " in Hendrix 's songwriting . His guitar playing throughout the song is marked by chordal arpeggios and contrapuntal motion , with tremolo @-@ picked partial chords providing the musical foundation for the chorus , which culminates in what musicologist Andy Aledort described as " simply one of the greatest electric guitar solos ever played " . The track fades out on tremolo @-@ picked thirty @-@ second note double stops . The scheduled release date for Axis was almost delayed when Hendrix lost the master tape of side one of the LP , leaving it in the back seat of a London taxi . With the deadline looming , Hendrix , Chandler , and engineer Eddie Kramer remixed most of side one in a single overnight session , but they could not match the quality of the lost mix of " If 6 Was 9 " . Bassist Noel Redding had a tape recording of this mix , which had to be smoothed out with an iron as it had gotten wrinkled . During the verses , Hendrix doubled his singing with a guitar line which he played one octave lower than his vocals . Hendrix voiced his disappointment about having re @-@ mixed the album so quickly , and he felt that it could have been better had they been given more time . Axis featured psychedelic cover art that depicts Hendrix and the Experience as various forms of Vishnu , incorporating a painting of them by Roger Law , from a photo @-@ portrait by Karl Ferris . The painting was then superimposed on a copy of a mass @-@ produced religious poster . Hendrix stated that the cover , which Track spent $ 5 @,@ 000 producing , would have been more appropriate had it highlighted his American Indian heritage . He commented : " You got it wrong ... I 'm not that kind of Indian . " Track released the album in the UK on December 1 , 1967 , where it peaked at number five , spending 16 weeks on the charts . In February 1968 , Axis : Bold as Love reached number three in the U.S. While author and journalist Richie Unterberger described Axis as the least impressive Experience album , according to author Peter Doggett , the release " heralded a new subtlety in Hendrix 's work " . Mitchell commented : " Axis was the first time that it became apparent that Jimi was pretty good working behind the mixing board , as well as playing , and had some positive ideas of how he wanted things recorded . It could have been the start of any potential conflict between him and Chas in the studio . " = = = = Electric Ladyland = = = = Recording for the Experience 's third and final studio album , Electric Ladyland , began at the newly opened Record Plant Studios , with Chandler as producer and engineers Eddie Kramer and Gary Kellgren . As the sessions progressed , Chandler became increasingly frustrated with Hendrix 's perfectionism and his demands for repeated takes . Hendrix also allowed numerous friends and guests to join them in the studio , which contributed to a chaotic and crowded environment in the control room and led Chandler to sever his professional relationship with Hendrix . Redding later recalled : " There were tons of people in the studio ; you couldn 't move . It was a party , not a session . " Redding , who had formed his own band in mid @-@ 1968 , Fat Mattress , found it increasingly difficult to fulfill his commitments with the Experience , so Hendrix played many of the bass parts on Electric Ladyland . The album 's cover stated that it was " produced and directed by Jimi Hendrix " . During the Electric Ladyland recording sessions , Hendrix began experimenting with other combinations of musicians , including Jefferson Airplane 's Jack Casady and Traffic 's Steve Winwood , who played bass and organ , respectively , on the fifteen @-@ minute slow @-@ blues jam , " Voodoo Chile " . During the album 's production , Hendrix appeared at an impromptu jam with B.B. King , Al Kooper , and Elvin Bishop . Electric Ladyland was released on October 25 , and by mid @-@ November it had reached number one in the U.S. , spending two weeks at the top spot . The double LP was Hendrix 's most commercially successful release and his only number one album . It peaked at number six in the UK , spending 12 weeks on the chart . Electric Ladyland included Hendrix 's cover of Bob Dylan 's song , " All Along the Watchtower " , which became Hendrix 's highest @-@ selling single and his only U.S. top 40 hit , peaking at number 20 ; the single reached number five in the UK . " Burning of the Midnight Lamp " , which was his first recorded song to feature the use of a wah @-@ wah pedal , was added to the album . It was originally released as his fourth single in the UK in August 1967 and reached number 18 in the charts . In 1989 , Noe Goldwasser , the founding editor of Guitar World magazine , described Electric Ladyland as " Hendrix 's masterpiece " . According to author Michael Heatley , " most critics agree " that the album is " the fullest realization of Jimi 's far @-@ reaching ambitions . " In 2004 , author Peter Doggett commented : " For pure experimental genius , melodic flair , conceptual vision and instrumental brilliance , Electric Ladyland remains a prime contender for the status of rock 's greatest album . " Doggett described the LP as " a display of musical virtuosity never surpassed by any rock musician . " = = = Break @-@ up of the Experience = = = In January 1969 , after an absence of more than six months , Hendrix briefly moved back into his girlfriend Kathy Etchingham 's Brook Street apartment , which was next door to the Handel House Museum in the West End of London . During this time , the Experience toured Scandinavia , Germany , and gave their final two performances in France . On February 18 and 24 , they played sold @-@ out concerts at London 's Royal Albert Hall , which were the last European appearances of this line @-@ up . By February 1969 , Redding had grown weary of Hendrix 's unpredictable work ethic and his creative control over the Experience 's music . During the previous month 's European tour , interpersonal relations within the group had deteriorated , particularly between Hendrix and Redding . In his diary , Redding documented the building frustration during early 1969 recording sessions : " On the first day , as I nearly expected , there was nothing doing ... On the second it was no show at all . I went to the pub for three hours , came back , and it was still ages before Jimi ambled in . Then we argued ... On the last day , I just watched it happen for a while , and then went back to my flat . " The last Experience sessions that included Redding — a re @-@ recording of " Stone Free " for use as a possible single release — took place on April 14 at Olmstead and the Record Plant in New York . Hendrix then flew bassist Billy Cox to New York ; they started recording and rehearsing together on April 21 . The last performance of the original Experience line @-@ up took place on June 29 , 1969 , at Barry Fey 's Denver Pop Festival , a three @-@ day event held at Denver 's Mile High Stadium that was marked by police using tear gas to control the audience . The band narrowly escaped from the venue in the back of a rental truck , which was partly crushed by fans who had climbed on top of the vehicle . Before the show , a journalist angered Redding by asking why he was there ; the reporter then informed him that two weeks earlier Hendrix announced that he had been replaced with Billy Cox . The next day , Redding quit the Experience and returned to London . He announced that he had left the band and intended to pursue a solo career , blaming Hendrix 's plans to expand the group without allowing for his input as a primary reason for leaving . Redding later commented : " Mitch and I hung out a lot together , but we 're English . If we 'd go out , Jimi would stay in his room . But any bad feelings came from us being three guys who were traveling too hard , getting too tired , and taking too many drugs ... I liked Hendrix . I don 't like Mitchell . " Soon after Redding 's departure , Hendrix began lodging at the eight @-@ bedroom Ashokan House , in the hamlet of Boiceville near Woodstock in upstate New York , where he had spent some time vacationing in mid @-@ 1969 . Manager Michael Jeffery arranged the accommodations in the hope that the respite might encourage Hendrix to write material for a new album . During this time , Mitchell was unavailable for commitments made by Jeffery , which included Hendrix 's first appearance on U.S. TV — on The Dick Cavett Show — where he was backed by the studio orchestra , and an appearance on The Tonight Show where he appeared with Cox and session drummer Ed Shaughnessy . = = = Woodstock = = = By 1969 , Hendrix was the world 's highest @-@ paid rock musician . In August , he headlined the Woodstock Music and Art Fair that included many of the most popular bands of the time . For the concert , he added rhythm guitarist Larry Lee and conga players Juma Sultan and Jerry Velez . The band rehearsed for less than two weeks before the performance , and according to Mitchell , they never connected musically . Before arriving at the engagement , he heard reports that the size of the audience had grown to epic proportions , which gave him cause for concern as he did not enjoy performing for large crowds . He was an important draw for the event , and although he accepted substantially less money for the appearance than his usual fee he was the festival 's highest @-@ paid performer . As his scheduled time slot of midnight on Sunday drew closer , he indicated that he preferred to wait and close the show in the morning ; the band took the stage around 8 : 00 a.m. on Monday . By the time of their set , Hendrix had been awake for more than three days . The audience , which peaked at an estimated 400 @,@ 000 people , was now reduced to 30 – 40 @,@ 000 , many of whom had waited to catch a glimpse of Hendrix before leaving during his performance . The festival MC , Chip Monck , introduced the group as the Jimi Hendrix Experience , but Hendrix clarified : " We decided to change the whole thing around and call it Gypsy Sun and Rainbows . For short , it 's nothin ' but a Band of Gypsys " . Hendrix 's performance featured a rendition of the U.S. national anthem , " The Star @-@ Spangled Banner " , during which he used copious amounts of amplifier feedback , distortion , and sustain to replicate the sounds made by rockets and bombs . Although contemporary political pundits described his interpretation as a statement against the Vietnam War , three weeks later Hendrix explained its meaning : " We 're all Americans ... it was like ' Go America ! ' ... We play it the way the air is in America today . The air is slightly static , see " . Immortalized in the 1970 documentary film , Woodstock , his guitar @-@ driven version would become part of the sixties Zeitgeist . Pop critic Al Aronowitz of The New York Post wrote : " It was the most electrifying moment of Woodstock , and it was probably the single greatest moment of the sixties . " Images of the performance showing Hendrix wearing a blue @-@ beaded white leather jacket with fringe , a red head @-@ scarf , and blue jeans are widely regarded as iconic pictures that capture a defining moment of the era . He played " Hey Joe " during the encore , concluding the 3 ½ -day festival . Upon leaving the stage , he collapsed from exhaustion . In 2011 , the editors of Guitar World placed his rendition of " The Star @-@ Spangled Banner " at Woodstock at number one in their list of his 100 greatest performances . = = = Band of Gypsys = = = A legal dispute arose in 1966 regarding a record contract that Hendrix had entered into the previous year with producer Ed Chalpin . After two years of litigation , the parties agreed to a resolution that granted Chalpin the distribution rights to an album of original Hendrix material . Hendrix decided that they would record the LP , Band of Gypsys , during two live appearances . In preparation for the shows he formed an all @-@ black power @-@ trio with Cox and drummer Buddy Miles , formerly with Wilson Pickett , the Electric Flag , and the Buddy Miles Express . Critic John Rockwell described Hendrix and Miles as jazz @-@ rock fusionists , and their collaboration as pioneering . Others identified a funk and soul influence in their music . Concert promoter Bill Graham called the shows " the most brilliant , emotional display of virtuoso electric guitar " that he had ever heard . Biographers have speculated that Hendrix formed the band in an effort to appease members of the Black Power movement and others in the black communities who called for him to use his fame to speak @-@ up for civil rights . Hendrix had been recording with Cox since April and jamming with Miles since September , and the trio wrote and rehearsed material which they performed at a series of four shows over two nights on December 31 and January 1 , at the Fillmore East . They used recordings of these concerts to assemble the LP , which was produced by Hendrix . The album includes the track " Machine Gun " , which musicologist Andy Aledort described as the pinnacle of Hendrix 's career , and " the premiere example of [ his ] unparalleled genius as a rock guitarist ... In this performance , Jimi transcended the medium of rock music , and set an entirely new standard for the potential of electric guitar . " During the song 's extended instrumental breaks , Hendrix created sounds with his guitar that sonically represented warfare , including rockets , bombs , and diving planes . The Band of Gypsys album was the only official live Hendrix LP made commercially available during his lifetime ; several tracks from the Woodstock and Monterey shows were released later that year . The album was released in April 1970 by Capitol Records ; it reached the top ten in both the U.S. and the UK . That same month a single was issued with " Stepping Stone " as the A @-@ side and " Izabella " as the B @-@ side , but Hendrix was dissatisfied with the quality of the mastering and he demanded that it be withdrawn and re @-@ mixed , preventing the songs from charting and resulting in Hendrix 's least successful single ; it was also his last . On January 28 , 1970 , a third and final Band of Gypsys appearance took place ; they performed during a music festival at Madison Square Garden benefiting the anti @-@ Vietnam War Moratorium Committee titled the " Winter Festival for Peace " . American blues guitarist Johnny Winter was backstage before the concert ; he recalled : " [ Hendrix ] came in with his head down , sat on the couch alone , and put his head in his hands ... He didn 't move until it was time for the show . " Minutes after taking the stage he snapped a vulgar response at a woman who had shouted a request for " Foxy Lady " . He then began playing " Earth Blues " before telling the audience : " That 's what happens when earth fucks with space " . Moments later , he briefly sat down on the drum riser before leaving the stage . Both Miles and Redding later stated that Jeffery had given Hendrix LSD before the performance . Miles believed that Jeffery gave Hendrix the drugs in an effort to sabotage the current band and bring about the return of the original Experience lineup . Jeffery fired Miles after the show and Cox quit , ending the Band of Gypsys . = = = Cry of Love Tour = = = Soon after the abruptly ended Band of Gypsys performance and their subsequent dissolution , Jeffery made arrangements to reunite the original Experience line @-@ up . Although Hendrix , Mitchell , and Redding were interviewed by Rolling Stone in February 1970 as a united group , Hendrix never intended to work with Redding . When Redding returned to New York in anticipation of rehearsals with a reformed Experience , he was told that he had been replaced with Cox . During an interview with Rolling Stone 's Keith Altham , Hendrix defended the decision : " It 's nothing personal against Noel , but we finished what we were doing with the Experience and Billy 's style of playing suits the new group better . " Although the lineup of Hendrix , Mitchell , and Cox became known as the Cry of Love band , after their accompanying tour , billing , advertisements , and tickets were printed with the New Jimi Hendrix Experience or occasionally just Jimi Hendrix . During the first half of 1970 , Hendrix sporadically worked on material for what would have been his next LP . Many of the tracks were posthumously released in 1971 as The Cry of Love . He had started writing songs for the album in 1968 , but in April 1970 he told Keith Altham that the project had been abandoned . Soon afterward , he and his band took a break from recording and began the Cry of Love tour at the L.A. Forum , performing for 20 @,@ 000 people . Set @-@ lists during the tour included numerous Experience tracks as well as a selection of newer material . Several shows were recorded , and they produced some of Hendrix 's most memorable live performances . At one of them , the second Atlanta International Pop Festival , on July 4 , he played to the largest American audience of his career . According to authors Scott Schinder and Andy Schwartz , as many as 500 @,@ 000 people attended the concert . On July 17 , they appeared at the New York Pop Festival ; Hendrix had again consumed too many drugs before the show , and the set was considered a disaster . The American leg of the tour , which included 32 performances , ended at Honolulu , Hawaii , on August 1 , 1970 . This would be Hendrix 's final concert appearance in the U.S. = = = Electric Lady Studios = = = In 1968 , Hendrix and Jeffery jointly invested in the purchase of the Generation Club in Greenwich Village . They had initially planned to reopen the establishment , but after an audit revealed that Hendrix had incurred exorbitant fees by block @-@ booking lengthy sessions at peak rates they decided that the building would better serve them as a recording studio . With a facility of his own , Hendrix could work as much as he wanted while also reducing his recording expenditures , which had reached a reported $ 300 @,@ 000 annually . Architect and acoustician John Storyk designed Electric Lady Studios for Hendrix , who requested that they avoid right angles where possible . With round windows , an ambient lighting machine , and a psychedelic mural , Storyk wanted the studio to have a relaxing environment that would encourage Hendrix 's creativity . The project took twice as long as planned and cost twice as much as Hendrix and Jeffery had budgeted , with their total investment estimated at $ 1 million . Hendrix first used Electric Lady on June 15 , 1970 , when he jammed with Steve Winwood and Chris Wood of Traffic ; the next day , he recorded his first track there , " Night Bird Flying " . The studio officially opened for business on August 25 , and a grand opening party was held the following day . Immediately afterwards , Hendrix left for England ; he never returned to the States . He boarded an Air India flight for London with Cox , joining Mitchell for a performance as the headlining act of the Isle of Wight Festival . = = = European tour = = = When the European leg of the Cry of Love tour began , Hendrix was longing for his new studio and creative outlet , and was not eager to fulfill the commitment . On September 2 , 1970 , he abandoned a performance in Aarhus after three songs , stating : " I 've been dead a long time " . Four days later , he gave his final concert appearance , at the Isle of Fehmarn Festival in Germany . He was met with booing and jeering from fans in response to his cancellation of a show slated for the end of the previous night 's bill due to torrential rain and risk of electrocution . Immediately following the festival , Hendrix , Mitchell , and Cox travelled to London . Three days after the performance , Cox , who was suffering from severe paranoia after either taking LSD or being given it unknowingly , quit the tour and went to stay with his parents in Pennsylvania . Within days of Hendrix 's arrival in England , he had spoken with Chas Chandler , Alan Douglas , and others about leaving his manager , Michael Jeffery . On September 16 , Hendrix performed in public for the last time during an informal jam at Ronnie Scott 's Jazz Club in Soho with Eric Burdon and his latest band , War . They began by playing a few of their recent hits , and after a brief intermission Hendrix joined them during " Mother Earth " and " Tobacco Road " . His performance was uncharacteristically subdued ; he quietly played backing guitar , and refrained from the histrionics that people had come to expect from him . He died less than 48 hours later . = = Drugs and alcohol = = In July 1962 , after Hendrix was discharged from the U.S. Army , he entered a small club in Clarksville , Tennessee . Drawn in by live music , he stopped for a drink and ended up spending most of the $ 400 he had saved . He explained : " I went in this jazz joint and had a drink . I liked it and I stayed . People tell me I get foolish , good @-@ natured sometimes . Anyway , I guess I felt real benevolent that day . I must have been handing out bills to anyone that asked me . I came out of that place with sixteen dollars left . " According to the authors Steven Roby and Brad Schreiber : " Alcohol would later be the scourge of his existence , driving him to fits of pique , even rare bursts of atypical , physical violence . " While Roby and Schreiber assert that Hendrix first used LSD when he met Linda Keith in late 1966 , according to the authors Harry Shapiro and Caesar Glebbeek , the earliest that Hendrix is known to have taken it was in June 1967 , while attending the Monterey Pop Festival . According to Hendrix biographer Charles Cross , the subject of drugs came up one evening in 1966 at Keith 's New York apartment ; when one of Keith 's friends offered Hendrix acid , a street name for lysergic acid diethylamide , Hendrix asked for LSD instead , showing what Cross described as " his naivete and his complete inexperience with psychedelics " . Before that , Hendrix had only sporadically used drugs , his experimentation was significantly limited to cannabis , hashish , amphetamines and occasionally cocaine . After 1967 , he regularly smoked cannabis and hashish and used LSD and amphetamines , particularly while touring . According to Cross , by the time of his death in September 1970 , " few stars were as closely associated with the drug culture as Jimi " . = = = Substance abuse and violence = = = Hendrix would often become angry and violent when he drank too much alcohol or when he mixed alcohol with drugs . His friend Herbie Worthington explained : " You wouldn 't expect somebody with that kind of love to be that violent ... He just couldn 't drink ... he simply turned into a bastard " . According to journalist and friend Sharon Lawrence , Hendrix " admitted he could not handle hard liquor , which set off a bottled @-@ up anger , a destructive fury he almost never displayed otherwise " . In January 1968 , the Experience travelled to Sweden for a one @-@ week tour of Europe . During the early morning hours of the first day , Hendrix became engaged in a drunken brawl in the Hotel Opalen , in Gothenburg , smashing a plate @-@ glass window and injuring his right hand , for which he received medical treatment . The incident culminated in his arrest and release , pending a court appearance that resulted in a large fine . After the 1969 burglary of a house Hendrix was renting in Benedict Canyon , California and while he was under the influence of drugs and alcohol , he punched his friend Paul Caruso and accused him of the theft . He then chased Caruso away from the residence while throwing stones at him . A few days later , one of Hendrix 's girlfriends , Carmen Borrero , required stitches after he hit her above her eye with a vodka bottle during a drunken , jealous rage . = = = Canadian drug charges and trial = = = On May 3 , 1969 , while Hendrix was passing through customs at Toronto International Airport , authorities detained him after finding a small amount of what they suspected to be heroin and hashish in his luggage . Four hours later , he was formally charged with drug possession and released on $ 10 @,@ 000 bail . He was required to return on May 5 for an arraignment hearing . The incident proved stressful for Hendrix , and it weighed heavily on his mind during the seven months that he awaited trial . For the Crown to prove possession they had to show that Hendrix knew the drugs were there . During the jury trial , which took place in December , he testified that a fan had given him a vial of what he thought was legal medication , which he put in his bag not knowing what was in it . He was acquitted of the charges . Mitchell and Redding later revealed that everyone had been warned about a planned drug bust the day before flying to Toronto ; both men also stated that they believed that the drugs had been planted in Hendrix 's bag . = = Death , post @-@ mortem , and burial = = Although the details of Hendrix 's last day and death are widely disputed , he spent much of September 17 , 1970 , in London with Monika Dannemann , the only witness to his final hours . Dannemann said that she prepared a meal for them at her apartment in the Samarkand Hotel , 22 Lansdowne Crescent , Notting Hill , sometime around 11 p.m. , when they shared a bottle of wine . She drove Hendrix to the residence of an acquaintance at approximately 1 : 45 a.m. , where he remained for about an hour before she picked him up and drove them back to her flat at 3 a.m. Dannemann said they talked until around 7 a.m. , when they went to sleep . She awoke around 11 a.m. , and found Hendrix breathing , but unconscious and unresponsive . She called for an ambulance at 11 : 18 a.m. ; they arrived on the scene at 11 : 27 a.m. Paramedics then transported Hendrix to St Mary Abbot 's Hospital where Dr. John Bannister pronounced him dead at 12 : 45 p.m. on September 18 , 1970 . To determine the cause of death , coroner Gavin Thurston ordered a post @-@ mortem examination on Hendrix 's body , which was performed on September 21 by Professor Robert Donald Teare , a forensic pathologist . Thurston completed the inquest on September 28 , and concluded that Hendrix aspirated his own vomit and died of asphyxia while intoxicated with barbiturates . Citing " insufficient evidence of the circumstances " , he declared an open verdict . Dannemann later revealed that Hendrix had taken nine of her prescribed Vesparax sleeping tablets , 18 times the recommended dosage . After Hendrix 's body had been embalmed by Desmond Henley , it was flown to Seattle , Washington , on September 29 , 1970 . After a service at Dunlop Baptist Church on October 1 , it was interred at Greenwood Cemetery in Renton , Washington , the location of his mother 's gravesite . Hendrix 's family and friends traveled in twenty @-@ four limousines and more than two hundred people attended the funeral , including several notable musicians such as original Experience members Mitch Mitchell and Noel Redding , as well as Miles Davis , John Hammond , and Johnny Winter . = = Unauthorized and posthumous releases = = By 1967 , as Hendrix was gaining in popularity , many of his pre @-@ Experience recordings were marketed to an unsuspecting public as Jimi Hendrix albums , sometimes with misleading later images of Hendrix . The recordings , which came under the control of producer Ed Chalpin of PPX , with whom Hendrix had signed a recording contract in 1965 , were often re @-@ mixed between their repeated reissues , and licensed to record companies such as Decca and Capitol . Hendrix publicly denounced the releases , describing them as " malicious " and " greatly inferior " , stating : " At PPX , we spent on average about one hour recording a song . Today I spend at least twelve hours on each song . " These unauthorized releases have long constituted a substantial part of his recording catalogue , amounting to hundreds of albums . Some of Hendrix 's unfinished material was released as the 1971 title The Cry of Love . Although the album reached number three in the U.S. and number two in the UK , producers Mitchell and Kramer later complained that they were unable to make use of all the available songs because some tracks were used for 1971 's Rainbow Bridge ; still others were issued on 1972 's War Heroes . Material from The Cry of Love was re @-@ released in 1997 as First Rays of the New Rising Sun , along with the other tracks that Mitchell and Kramer had wanted to include . In 1993 , MCA Records delayed a multimillion @-@ dollar sale of Hendrix 's publishing copyrights because Al Hendrix was unhappy about the arrangement . He acknowledged that he had sold distribution rights to a foreign corporation in 1974 , but stated that it did not include copyrights and argued that he had retained veto power of the sale of the catalogue . Under a settlement reached in July 1995 , Al Hendrix prevailed in his legal battle and regained control of his son 's song and image rights . He subsequently licensed the recordings to MCA through the family @-@ run company Experience Hendrix LLC , formed in 1995 . In August 2009 , Experience Hendrix announced that it had entered a new licensing agreement with Sony Music Entertainment 's Legacy Recordings division which would take effect in 2010 . Legacy and Experience Hendrix launched the 2010 Jimi Hendrix Catalog Project , starting with the release of Valleys of Neptune in March of that year . In the months before his death , Hendrix recorded demos for a concept album tentatively titled Black Gold , which are now in the possession of Experience Hendrix LLC ; as of 2013 no official release date has been announced . = = Equipment = = = = = Guitars and amplifiers = = = Hendrix played a variety of guitars throughout his career , but the instrument that became most associated with him was the Fender Stratocaster . He acquired his first Stratocaster in 1966 , when a girlfriend loaned him enough money to purchase a used one that had been built around 1964 . He thereafter used the model prevalently during performances and recordings . In 1967 , he described the instrument as " the best all @-@ around guitar for the stuff we 're doing " ; he praised its " bright treble and deep bass sounds " . With few exceptions , Hendrix played right @-@ handed guitars that were turned upside down and restrung for left @-@ hand playing . This had an important effect on the sound of his guitar ; because of the slant of the bridge pickup , his lowest string had a brighter sound while his highest string had a darker sound , which was the opposite of the Stratocaster 's intended design . In addition to Stratocasters , Hendrix also used Fender Jazzmasters , Duosonics , two different Gibson Flying Vs , a Gibson Les Paul , three Gibson SGs , a Gretsch Corvette , and a Fender Jaguar . He used a white Gibson SG Custom for his performances on The Dick Cavett Show in September 1969 , and a black Gibson Flying V during the Isle of Wight festival in 1970 . During 1965 and 1966 , while Hendrix was playing back @-@ up for soul and R & B acts in the U.S. , he used an 85 @-@ watt Fender Twin Reverb amplifier . When Chandler brought Hendrix to England in October 1966 , he supplied him with 30 @-@ watt Burns amps , which Hendrix thought were too small for his needs . After an early London gig when he was unable to use his preferred Fender Twin , he asked about the Marshall amps that he had noticed other groups using . Years earlier , Mitch Mitchell had taken drum lessons from the amp builder , Jim Marshall , and he introduced Hendrix to Marshall . At their initial meeting , Hendrix bought four speaker cabinets and three 100 @-@ watt Super Lead amplifiers ; he would grow accustomed to using all three in unison . The equipment arrived on October 11 , 1966 , and the Experience used the new gear during their first tour . Marshall amps were well @-@ suited for Hendrix 's needs , and they were paramount in the evolution of his heavily overdriven sound , enabling him to master the use of feedback as a musical effect , creating what author Paul Trynka described as a " definitive vocabulary for rock guitar " . Hendrix usually turned all of the amplifier 's control knobs to the maximum level , which became known as the Hendrix setting . During the four years prior to his death , he purchased between 50 and 100 Marshall amplifiers . Jim Marshall said that he was " the greatest ambassador " his company ever had . = = = Effects = = = One of Hendrix 's signature effects was the wah @-@ wah pedal , which he first heard used with an electric guitar in Cream 's " Tales of Brave Ulysses " , released in May 1967 . In July of that year , while playing gigs at the Scene club in New York City , Hendrix met Frank Zappa , whose band , the Mothers of Invention were performing at the adjacent Garrick Theater . Hendrix was fascinated by Zappa 's application of the pedal , and he experimented with one later that evening . He used a wah pedal during the opening to " Voodoo Child ( Slight Return ) " , creating one of the best @-@ known wah @-@ wah riffs of the classic rock era . He can also be heard using the effect on " Up from the Skies " , " Little Miss Lover " , and " Still Raining , Still Dreaming " . Hendrix consistently used a Dallas Arbiter Fuzz Face and a Vox wah pedal during recording sessions and live performances , but he also experimented with other guitar effects . He enjoyed a fruitful long @-@ term collaboration with electronics enthusiast Roger Mayer , whom he once called " the secret " of his sound . Mayer introduced him to the Octavia , an octave doubling effect pedal , in December 1966 , and he first recorded with the effect during the guitar solo to " Purple Haze " . Hendrix also utilized the Uni @-@ Vibe , which was designed to simulate the modulation effects of a rotating Leslie speaker by providing a rich phasing sound that could be manipulated with a speed control pedal . He can be heard using the effect during his performance at Woodstock and on the Band of Gypsys track " Machine Gun " , which prominently features the Uni @-@ vibe along with an Octavia and a Fuzz Face . His signal flow for live performance involved first plugging his guitar into a wah @-@ wah pedal , then connecting the wah @-@ wah pedal to a Fuzz Face , which was then linked to a Uni @-@ Vibe , before connecting to a Marshall amplifier . = = Influences = = As an adolescent during the 1950s , Hendrix became interested in rock and roll artists such as Elvis Presley , Little Richard , and Chuck Berry . In 1968 , he told Guitar Player magazine that electric blues artists Muddy Waters , Elmore James , and B.B. King inspired him during the beginning of his career ; he also cited Eddie Cochran as an early influence . Of Muddy Waters , the first electric guitarist of which Hendrix became aware , he said : " I heard one of his records when I was a little boy and it scared me to death because I heard all of these sounds . " In 1970 , he told Rolling Stone that he was a fan of western swing artist Bob Wills and while he lived in Nashville , the television show the Grand Ole Opry . Cox stated that during their time serving in the U.S. military he and Hendrix primarily listened to southern blues artists such as Jimmy Reed and Albert King . According to Cox , " King was a very , very powerful influence " . Howlin ' Wolf also inspired Hendrix , who performed Wolf 's " Killing Floor " as the opening song of his U.S. debut at the Monterey Pop Festival . The influence of soul artist Curtis Mayfield can be heard in Hendrix 's guitar playing , and the influence of Bob Dylan can be heard in Hendrix 's songwriting ; he was known to play Dylan 's records repeatedly , particularly Highway 61 Revisited and Blonde on Blonde . = = Legacy = = The Experience 's Rock and Roll Hall of Fame biography states : " Jimi Hendrix was arguably the greatest instrumentalist in the history of rock music . Hendrix expanded the range and vocabulary of the electric guitar into areas no musician had ever ventured before . His boundless drive , technical ability and creative application of such effects as wah @-@ wah and distortion forever transformed the sound of rock and roll . " Musicologist Andy Aledort described Hendrix as " one of the most creative " and " influential musicians that has ever lived " . Music journalist Chuck Philips wrote : " In a field almost exclusively populated by white musicians , Hendrix has served as a role model for a cadre of young black rockers . His achievement was to reclaim title to a musical form pioneered by black innovators like Little Richard and Chuck Berry in the 1950s . " Hendrix favored overdriven amplifiers with high volume and gain . He was instrumental in developing the previously undesirable technique of guitar amplifier feedback , and helped to popularize use of the wah @-@ wah pedal in mainstream rock . He rejected the standard barre chord fretting technique used by most guitarists in favor of fretting the low 6th string root notes with his thumb . He applied this technique during the beginning bars of " Little Wing " , which allowed him to sustain the root note of chords while also playing melody . This method has been described as piano style , with the thumb playing what a pianist 's left hand would play and the other fingers playing melody as a right hand . Having spent several years fronting a trio , he developed an ability to play rhythm chords and lead lines together , giving the audio impression that more than one guitarist was performing . He was the first artist to incorporate stereophonic phasing effects in rock music recordings . Holly George @-@ Warren of Rolling Stone commented : " Hendrix pioneered the use of the instrument as an electronic sound source . Players before him had experimented with feedback and distortion , but Hendrix turned those effects and others into a controlled , fluid vocabulary every bit as personal as the blues with which he began . " Aledort wrote : " In rock guitar , there are but two eras — before Hendrix and after Hendrix . " While creating his unique musical voice and guitar style , Hendrix synthesized diverse genres , including blues , R & B , soul , British rock , American folk music , 1950s rock and roll , and jazz . Musicologist David Moskowitz emphasized the importance of blues music in Hendrix 's playing style , and according to authors Steven Roby and Brad Schreiber , " [ He ] explored the outer reaches of psychedelic rock " . His influence is evident in a variety of popular music formats , and he has contributed significantly to the development of hard rock , heavy metal , funk , post @-@ punk , and hip hop music . His lasting influence on modern guitar players is difficult to overstate ; his techniques and delivery have been abundantly imitated by others . Despite his hectic touring schedule and notorious perfectionism , he was a prolific recording artist who left behind numerous unreleased recordings . More than 40 years after his death , Hendrix remains as popular as ever , with annual album sales exceeding that of any year during his lifetime . Hendrix has influenced numerous funk and funk rock artists , including Prince , George Clinton , John Frusciante , formerly of the Red Hot Chili Peppers , Eddie Hazel of Funkadelic , and Ernie Isley of the Isley Brothers . Hendrix 's influence also extends to many hip hop artists , including De La Soul , A Tribe Called Quest , Digital Underground , Beastie Boys , and Run – D.M.C. Miles Davis was deeply impressed by Hendrix , and he compared Hendrix 's improvisational abilities with those of saxophonist John Coltrane . Hendrix also influenced industrial artist Marilyn Manson , blues legend Stevie Ray Vaughan , Metallica 's Kirk Hammett , instrumental rock guitarist Joe Satriani , and heavy metal virtuoso Yngwie Malmsteen , who said : " [ Hendrix ] created modern electric playing , without question ... He was the first . He started it all . The rest is history . " = = = Recognition and awards = = = Hendrix received several prestigious rock music awards during his lifetime and posthumously . In 1967 , readers of Melody Maker voted him the Pop Musician of the Year . In 1968 , Rolling Stone declared him the Performer of the Year . Also in 1968 , the City of Seattle gave him the Keys to the City . Disc & Music Echo newspaper honored him with the World Top Musician of 1969 and in 1970 , Guitar Player magazine named him the Rock Guitarist of the Year . Rolling Stone ranked his three non @-@ posthumous studio albums , Are You Experienced ( 1967 ) , Axis : Bold as Love ( 1967 ) , and Electric Ladyland ( 1968 ) among the 500 Greatest Albums of All Time . They ranked Hendrix number one on their list of the 100 greatest guitarists of all time , and number six on their list of the 100 greatest artists of all time . Guitar World 's readers voted six of Hendrix 's solos among the top 100 Greatest Guitar Solos of All Time : " Purple Haze " ( 70 ) , " The Star @-@ Spangled Banner " ( 52 ; from Live at Woodstock ) , " Machine Gun " ( 32 ; from Band of Gypsys ) , " Little Wing " ( 18 ) , " Voodoo Child ( Slight Return ) " ( 11 ) , and " All Along the Watchtower " ( 5 ) . Rolling Stone placed seven of his recordings in their list of the 500 Greatest Songs of All Time : " Purple Haze " ( 17 ) , " All Along the Watchtower " ( 47 ) " Voodoo Child ( Slight Return ) " ( 102 ) , " Foxy Lady " ( 153 ) , " Hey Joe " ( 201 ) , " Little Wing " ( 366 ) , and " The Wind Cries Mary " ( 379 ) . They also included three of Hendrix 's songs in their list of the 100 Greatest Guitar Songs of All Time : " Purple Haze " ( 2 ) , " Voodoo Child " ( 12 ) , and " Machine Gun " ( 49 ) . A star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame was dedicated to Hendrix on November 14 , 1991 , at 6627 Hollywood Boulevard . The Jimi Hendrix Experience was inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame in 1992 , and the UK Music Hall of Fame in 2005 . In 1999 , readers of Rolling Stone and Guitar World ranked Hendrix among the most important musicians of the 20th century . In 2005 , his debut album , Are You Experienced , was one of 50 recordings added that year to the United States National Recording Registry in the Library of Congress , " [ to ] be preserved for all time ... [ as ] part of the nation 's audio legacy " . The blue plaque identifying his former residence at 23 Brook Street , London ( next door to the former residence of George Frideric Handel ) was the first one issued by English Heritage to commemorate a pop star . A memorial statue of Hendrix playing a Stratocaster stands near the corner of Broadway and Pine Streets in Seattle . In May 2006 , the city renamed a park near its Central District , Jimi Hendrix Park , in his honor . In 2012 , an official historic marker was erected on the site of the July 1970 Second Atlanta International Pop Festival near Byron , Georgia . The marker text reads , in part : “ Over thirty musical acts performed , including rock icon Jimi Hendrix playing to the largest American audience of his career . ” Hendrix 's music has received a number of Hall of Fame Grammy awards , starting with a Lifetime Achievement Award in 1992 , followed by two Grammys in 1999 for his albums Are You Experienced and Electric Ladyland ; Axis : Bold as Love received a Grammy in 2006 . In 2000 , he received a Hall of Fame Grammy award for his original composition , " Purple Haze " , and in 2001 for his recording of Dylan 's " All Along the Watchtower " . Hendrix 's rendition of " The Star @-@ Spangled Banner " was honored with a Grammy in 2009 . The United States Postal Service issued a commemorative postage stamp honoring Hendrix in 2014 . = = Discography = = = = Documentaries = =
= Robert Deniston Hume = Robert Deniston Hume ( October 31 , 1845 – November 25 , 1908 ) was a cannery owner , pioneer hatchery operator , politician , author , and self @-@ described " pygmy monopolist " who controlled salmon fishing for 32 years on the lower Rogue River in U.S. state of Oregon . Born in Augusta , Maine , and reared by foster parents on a farm , Hume moved at age 18 to San Francisco to join a salmon @-@ canning business started by two of his brothers . They later re @-@ located to Astoria on the Columbia River , where they prospered . After the death of his first wife and their two young children , Hume moved again and started anew in Gold Beach , at the mouth of the Rogue . In 1877 Hume bought rights to a Rogue River fishery , then built a salmon cannery and many other structures and acquired all of the tidelands bordering the lower 12 miles ( 19 km ) of the river . He remarried , invested in a small fleet of ships and a salmon hatchery and expanded his business interests to include a store , hotel , newspaper , and many other enterprises in Gold Beach and in the nearby community of Wedderburn , which he founded . Canning , shipping , and selling hundreds of tons of salmon over the years , he became known as the Salmon King of Oregon . Hume often wrote editorials , engaged in litigation , appealed to legislators , and waged political campaigns to protect his business interests . Running as a Republican , he was twice elected , in 1900 and 1902 , to represent Coos and Curry counties in the Oregon House of Representatives . According to his biographer , he voted self @-@ interest first and conservative positions second , resisting Populist ideas in vogue at the time . Among his publications were a series of articles about fish management , collected and reprinted as Salmon of the Pacific Coast in 1893 . Despite his efforts to maintain a steady fish supply through egg @-@ collecting and fish @-@ rearing , salmon catches on the Rogue , rising in some years and falling in others , generally declined over time . Seventeen years after Hume 's death in 1908 , the state closed the river to commercial fishing . = = Early life = = Robert Hume , the youngest surviving boy in a family of 12 children , was born in Augusta , Maine , on October 31 , 1845 . Because his parents , William and Elizabeth Hume , had little money , he was adopted by the Robert Denistons when he was four years old . After growing up on the Deniston farm , he went to San Francisco at the age of 18 to work in a cannery operated by two of his brothers . In 1867 , when Hume was 22 , he and his brothers , who had moved north to Oregon , opened the first cannery on the Columbia River near Astoria . In 1869 he married Celia Bryant , with whom he had two children . The first , a girl , died while still a baby . The second , a boy , died at age 4 in 1875 , and Celia Hume died shortly thereafter . Celia and the two children were buried in Lone Fir Cemetery in Portland . Although Hume had prospered , buying several Columbia River canneries between 1872 and 1876 , when his wife and children died , he sold most of his holdings and returned to San Francisco . There he bought a steamer , the Alexander Duncan , and searching for new purpose in life , traveled north along the Oregon coast . While visiting Ellensburg ( later renamed Gold Beach ) , he decided to buy a salmon fishery near the mouth of the Rogue River in Curry County . There in late 1876 , " he took up his career once again in one of the most isolated and desolate sections of the Pacific Coast " . = = Lower Rogue empire = = After building a cannery , warehouse , bunkhouse , mess hall , and other buildings and hiring fishermen , Hume opened his salmon business in 1877 . He acquired ownership of all the tidelands along both sides of the lowermost 12 miles ( 19 km ) of the river ; this gave him virtual control of fish populations migrating between the ocean and spawning beds upstream . Over the next 32 years , Hume 's company caught , processed , and shipped hundreds of tons of salmon from the Rogue . Meanwhile , he remarried and expanded his business interests to include a store , hatchery , hotel , saloon , and sawmill , and other enterprises involving shipping , a newspaper ( the Gold Beach Gazette ) , real estate , and ranching . After a fire destroyed the hatchery and several other Hume buildings in 1893 , he moved many of his holdings to the opposite side of the river , where he founded the city of Wedderburn in 1895 , naming it " in honor of the ancestral castle of the Humes of Scotland " . Floating some of his unburned buildings to Wedderburn from Ellensburg , he added a new hatchery , offices , a new home , many other buildings , and a horse @-@ racing track . He started another newspaper , the Wedderburn Radium , and applied successfully for a post office , which opened in 1898 and was run by a Hume employee in Hume 's general store . As his businesses grew , he added to his fleet of ships , big ones to ship salmon to San Francisco and smaller ones for shallow waters and for towing larger ships in and out of the Rogue mouth . In 1879 he bought the steamer Varuna and the tug Mary Hume and started a shipyard at Ellensburg . In 1880 he added the steam schooner Mary D. Hume , the tug Pelican in 1883 , the schooner Berwick in 1887 , the steamer Thistle in 1888 , and replacement craft in subsequent years . Returning ships brought goods for Hume 's general store . Throughout his career , the store was one of the central components of his business . It was a center of supplies and news for the people of the Rogue , who awaited the arrival of the fall provision ship with anticipation and anxiety , for this vessel was the only source of winter provisions . It provided Hume , the employer of the great majority of the citizens of Gold Beach and Wedderburn , with a means of repossessing the wages of his employees and of profiting on the exchange . Hume became known as the Salmon King of Oregon and referred to himself as a " pygmy monopolist " in an autobiography published in the Radium between 1904 and 1906 . = = Politician = = According to Hume 's biographer , Gordon B. Dodds , Hume " entered politics both as officeholder and as lobbyist to protect his realm from the assaults of anti @-@ monopolists " . Between 1890 and 1910 in Oregon , Populist – Progressive coalitions led by W.S. U 'Ren and Governor Sylvester Pennoyer , a Democrat , battled business @-@ oriented Republican factions based in Portland . In 1892 , John H. Upton , the Populist candidate for the state legislature from Coos and Curry counties campaigned mainly in opposition to Hume 's monopoly on the Rogue . Political threats like the one posed by Upton as well as threats from the Alaska Packers ' Association ( APA ) , which had begun fishing the Rogue , led Hume to write political editorials , file lawsuits , endorse candidates , petition the legislature , and eventually to run for office himself . In 1894 , Hume , hoping for a seat in the state legislature , campaigned in support of Populist demands such as unlimited coinage of silver , more regulation of large corporations ( like the APA ) , and large @-@ scale government spending for internal improvements . Dodds says that this approach " illustrates Hume 's view of the purpose of a political campaign : The program advocated should be one that would win , and not necessarily the program that the party or the candidate believed in . " After losing this election , Hume went to Salem , the state capital , in 1895 to lobby for bills that might favor his business interests . In 1896 Hume , switching to the Republican Party , used his newspaper , the Wedderburn Gazette , to support Republican William McKinley for the U.S. presidency . In 1900 Hume , running as a Republican , narrowly won election to represent Coos and Curry counties in the state legislature . Shortly after taking office , Hume helped scuttle a bill to repeal a law passed in 1899 that gave the owner of tidelands the exclusive right to fish the waters in front of them . Since Hume owned all the tidelands on the Rogue , the law gave him a monopoly on fishing its lower reaches . On issues unrelated to his business interests , Hume generally voted conservative . He won re @-@ election in 1902 , garnering 934 votes — less than half of the total cast — to the Democrat 's 807 , the Socialist 's 219 , and the Prohibition Party 's 142 . During his second term , Hume fought to keep the tidelands law intact and continued to support laissez @-@ faire government and low taxes . Hume attempted but failed to win nomination for a seat in the state Senate in 1904 , a seat in the state House of Representatives in 1906 , and a seat in the state Senate in 1908 . Dodds sums up Hume 's political career by saying : His accomplishments as a legislator were slight ; only one of his bills ever passed . On the other hand , he spoke and voted against many measures that were defeated and his credo of legislative decision was , first , his own interests and , second , support of a conservative position . In the midst of the Progressive era he remained a " stalwart among the stalwarts " , although during the Populist regime he had expediently yielded for a time to free silver . = = Hatcheries = = Although Hume had shown no early interest in salmon conservation on the Columbia and elsewhere , on the Rogue he tried to protect the fish supply . Disappointed with his company 's catch in 1877 , he built a hatchery in Ellensburg , and in all but 7 of his 32 years on the river he operated hatcheries along the Rogue . Through his newspapers , lawsuits , lobbying , and speeches made while a member of the Oregon Legislature , Hume tried to influence public opinion about artificial fish propagation . In 1893 , he published a series of articles , later reprinted as Salmon of the Pacific Coast , that summarized his ideas about ichthyology . In 1897 , Hume persuaded the United States Fish Commission to run an egg @-@ collecting station at Elk Creek 150 miles ( 240 km ) from the mouth of the Rogue . Hume built the station , and the government paid the salaries of the workers who collected the eggs and shipped them to Hume 's hatchery in Wedderburn . Although his observations on salmon were well received in some quarters , they " often conflicted with the opinions of other pioneers in the field " , and his attempts to control upriver fishing and dams met with resistance and with arguments that he was overfishing the river at its mouth . Despite Hume 's attempts to preserve the fishery , fish runs , oscillating from year to year for a variety of reasons , trended downward over time . The total reported Rogue River salmon catch in 1877 , Hume 's first year on the Rogue , was 531 @,@ 000 pounds ( 241 @,@ 000 kg ) ; the peak catch was 1 @,@ 632 @,@ 000 pounds ( 740 @,@ 000 kg ) in 1890 , and the catch in 1908 , the year of Hume 's death , was 476 @,@ 000 pounds ( 216 @,@ 000 kg ) . As fish runs continued to diminish , the state legislature closed the river to commercial fishing in 1935 . = = Family life , death , and legacy = = In December 1877 , the year after his move to Ellensburg , Hume married Mary Duncan , the 19 @-@ year @-@ old daughter of a former New Zealander , George Duncan , who had lost his fortune in the stock market and hoped to make another by canning salmon in the U.S. According to Dodds , Mary led a relatively secluded life , working in her flower garden , writing letters , and talking to friends , and occasionally selecting clothing for Hume 's store or acting as his secretary when he was sick . Although business occupied Hume most of the time , he seemed to value his wife 's help , Dodds says , and " events indicated their mutual affection " . In October 1908 Hume was traveling on the schooner Osprey , which was towing another ship , Enterprise , when a storm arose . The Enterprise was wrecked , but Osprey rescued its crew and arrived safely in Wedderburn . Hume , who had been exposed to wet and cold , grew ill , rallied briefly , then died on November 17 . According to Dodds , " His dying wish was that he be buried at Hunt Rock overlooking his empire on the Rogue . " In 1912 , after she had sold the Hume holdings in Curry County , Mary Hume had Hume 's body moved to San Francisco . Opinions vary about Hume 's fish theories and practices , which influenced state and federal salmon management for many decades after his death . " Hume was ahead of his time " , Dodds says , " in his belief in hatcheries , in his practice of retaining fry [ immature fish ] in feeding ponds , and in his belief in the home @-@ stream theory of salmonology . " Another writer says that " Robert Hume 's efforts to restock the Rogue with hatchery fish were an early glimmer in the dawning of a new era on the river and in the nation at large " even though " his motives may have been suspect , and the practice a less @-@ than @-@ perfect solution " . An environmental historian says that while many Oregonians regarded Hume as a salmon expert , " his reputation often exceeded his results " . A late 20th @-@ century fisheries scientist sees Hume as " a keen observer of the salmon 's natural history , although he did not always interpret his observations correctly . "
= Country Grammar = Country Grammar is the debut studio album by American rapper Nelly . It was released on June 27 , 2000 , by Universal Records ( who released the album after listening to demos by Nelly , before signing a record deal with the rapper in 1999 ) . The production on the album was handled by Jason " Jay E " Epperson , with additional production by C @-@ Love , Kevin Law , City Spud , Steve " Blast " Wills and Basement Beats . Nelly contributed to all lyrics on the album , with Epperson and City Spud also contributing . The album introduced a unique Saint Louis , Midwestern sound , and introduces Nelly 's vocal style of pop @-@ rap singalongs and Midwestern , Missouri twang . It was supported four successful singles : " Country Grammar ( Hot Shit ) " , " E.I. " , " Ride wit Me " and " Batter Up " . Its lead single , " Country Grammar ( Hot Shit ) " , peaked at number 7 on the Billboard Hot 100 and UK Singles Chart . " E.I. " charted at number 16 , number 12 and number 11 on the Hot 100 , UK Singles Chart and ARIA Singles Chart , respectively . " Ride wit Me " peaked within the top five on the Hot 100 , ARIA Singles Chart , Irish Singles Chart and UK Singles Chart . The album 's fourth and final single , " Batter Up " featuring Murphy Lee and Ali , achieved moderate chart success . Country Grammar received positive reviews , with critics praising Nelly 's vocal style and the album 's production . It topped the US Billboard 200 chart for five consecutive weeks , and the US Top R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Albums chart for six consecutive weeks . It peaked in the top five on the New Zealand Albums Chart and Australian Albums Chart , as well as the top ten on the Canadian Albums Chart and Dutch Albums Chart . The album was certified three times platinum by the Recording Industry Association of New Zealand ( RIANZ ) and Music Canada ( MC ) , denoting shipments of 45 @,@ 000 and 300 @,@ 000 copies , respectively . As of July 26 , 2016 , Country Grammar has sold 10 million copies , according to Nielsen SoundScan , ranking it as the ninth best @-@ selling rap album of all time in the United States . It was certified nine times platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) , making it one of the highest certified albums in the US history . Its commercial success secured Nelly 's status as one of the most successful hip hop acts of the 2000s decade . On Billboard 's decade @-@ end chart , Nelly ranked as the third most successful act of the 2000s decade , largely in part to the success of Country Grammar and his follow @-@ up album Nellyville ( 2002 ) . = = Background and production = = In his early years , Nelly frequently moved locations within the US , before residing in the city of St. Louis . It was there where he discovered rap artists synonymous within the city ; in his teenage years , Nelly moved to University City , where he shifted his aspirations from becoming a baseball player to producing stories and rhymes . Along with some high school friends — Ali Jones , Torhi Harper , Kyjuan and Lavell Webb — Nelly formed the group St. Lunatics in 1993 . Frustrated by the lack of attention from record companies , the group formed the consensus to allow Nelly to pursue a solo career , with the rest possibly releasing their own solo albums . Nelly produced demos , which were sent to national labels , eventually gaining attention from Universal Records who signed a record deal with Nelly and the St. Lunatics in 1999 , with Universal releasing the former 's debut album , Country Grammar , in 2000 . All songs on Country Grammar were recorded by Steve Eigner , and mixed by Rich Travali . Kenny Dystra provided recording assistance and Jason Standard assisted in mixing . Mastering was performed by Herb Powers , with A & R directed by Kevin Law and Coordinated by Craig Yoskowitz . Management was provided by Tony Davis and Courtney Benson , with legality handled by Todd Rubenstein . Creative direction was handled by Sandra Brummels , with design and photography done so by BENTO Design and Jonathen Mannion , respectively . = = Composition = = Much of Nelly 's rap style draws from his origins , as it contains Southern drawl with Midwestern , Missouri twang , that incorporates both country and urban styles . In conjunction , Nelly approaches a pop @-@ rap singalong vocal style , which Allmusic 's Jason Birchmeier notes present within Country Grammar 's tracks including " Ride wit Me " and " E.I. " . Peter Shapiro described Nelly 's vocals as using " unforgettable hooks based on schoolyard songs , double @-@ dutch chants , and nonsense rhymes " . Much of Country Grammar 's tracks are bass @-@ heavy , that are primarily Southern hip @-@ hop based and minimalistic . In the album 's self @-@ titled track , Nelly 's vocals are slurred and slow , and are a " smooth , slippery @-@ fast instrument " with " reggae inflections " . Rolling Stone found the song 's lyrics to depict Nelly " riding around town in an expensive SUV with an assault weapon " . " Ride wit Me " is rap , pop crossover , that samples composition from DeBarge 's 1982 " I Like It " , and its lyrics feature Nelly introspecting . Rolling Stone found the chorus of " E.I. " to contain the vocal style of rapper The Notorious B.I.G .. " Luven Me " samples " Don 't Stop ( Ever Loving Me ) " and " Whatever You Want " from bands One Way and Tony ! Toni ! Toné ! , respectively . NME interpreted " Luven Me " as a " virtual rewrite " of rapper Tupac Shakur 's 1995 " Dear Mama " . = = Singles = = " Country Grammar ( Hot Shit ) " was released as the album 's first single on February 29 , 2000 in the US . The song was written by Nelly and Jason " Jay E " Epperson , and produced by the latter . Its lyrics are based off the children clapping game Down Down Baby . " Country Grammar ( Hot Shit ) " peaked at number seven on the US Billboard Hot 100 and the UK Singles Chart . It also reached number ten and twenty on the Canadian Hot 100 and ARIA Singles Chart , respectively . The song was certified gold by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) and Australian Recording Industry Association ( ARIA ) . The second single , " E.I. " , was written by Nelly and Epperson and produced by the latter . It reached number sixteen on the Hot 100 , number eleven on the UK Singles Chart and number twelve on the ARIA Singles Chart . It was certified gold by the ARIA . Written by Nelly and Epperson and produced by the latter , " Ride wit Me " was released as Country Grammar 's third single . The track features City Spud , and reached number three on the Hot 100 , the highest charting song from Country Grammar in the US . It also peaked at number three on the UK Singles chart , number four on the ARIA Singles Chart , Irish Singles Chart , number five on the Dutch Singles Chart and number seven on the Norwegian Singles Chart . It was certified gold by the RIAA and platinum by the ARIA . " Batter Up " was released as the fourth and final single from the album . It features Murphy Lee and Ali , and was written by Nelly , Epperson and Steve " Blast " Wills , while being produced by Wills . " Batter Up " peaked at number eight on the Belgian Singles Chart ( Flanders ) and number nineteen on the ARIA Singles Chart . = = Critical reception = = Country Grammar was well received by music critics . NME lauded the album , praising Nelly 's utilization of vocal characteristics from other rap artists , including Tupac Shakur and Cypress Hill . The magazine described the album as a " rarity " , noting stand @-@ out tracks such as the " seductive rap / pop crossover " " Ride wit Me " , while likening " Batter Up " to " DMX with a humour infusion " . NME closed their review declaring Country Grammar as " album of the year " . Giving the album a B – , Entertainment Weekly 's David Browne wrote the album demonstrates that " tiresome rap topics " are not restricted to " the coasts " . Though what salvages the album is Nelly 's " smooth , slippery @-@ fast " voice , which contains " reggae inflections " . Browne describes the album 's content as minimalistic , with " introspective moments " such as " Ride wit Me " . In Robert Christgau 's Consumer Guide review , he wrote that Nelly presents an " easy mix of N.O. Bounce , Cleveland thug harmony , and L.A. tweedle @-@ twaddle " , noting Nelly 's heavy accent which makes his hedonism more accessible . People noted that Nelly implements his own " laid @-@ back charm " to Country Grammar 's southern hip hop . Despite Nelly showing " limited thematic vocabulary " he articulates escapism to compensate for this . Allmusic 's Jason Birchmeier praised the album 's " tongue @-@ twisting " self @-@ titled track as " infectious " , noting other tracks to contain the same elements , including " Ride wit Me " and " E.I. " . Birchmeier wrote that the album transcends regional styles such as southern hip hop to appeal to rap @-@ pop audiences , while praising producer Jason " Jay E " Epperson 's contribution to the album . Rolling Stone explained that the album 's " liquid bass bumps " interlopes well with Nelly 's " wordplay @-@ heavy sing @-@ song rhyme @-@ flow " , while declaring Country Grammar to be the best thing to come out of St. Louis since comedian Redd Foxx . At the 2001 Soul Train Music Awards , Country Grammar earned Nelly the award for Best R & B / Soul or Rap New Artist . Nelly was nominated for four awards at the Online Hip @-@ Hop Awards , for Favorite Music Video , Song of the Year ( both for " E.I. " ) , Album of the Year ( for Country Grammar ) and Outstanding Graphic Design for his official website . He won the awards for Song of the Year and Artist of the Year . ? = = Commercial performance = = Country Grammar entered the Billboard 200 on the week of July 15 , 2000 , at number 3 , selling 235 @,@ 000 copies . The album remained within the top ten for several weeks before topping it on the week of August 17 , 2000 , selling 235 @,@ 000 copies and passing 1 @.@ 5 million in sales that week . Entertainment Weekly put the album 's sales down to its support by its lead single , " Country Grammar ( Hot Shit ) " , as well as the lack of releases from other music artists during that period . The album sold 235 @,@ 000 copies again the following week , continuing to stay atop the Billboard 200 . Country Grammar topped US Top R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Albums chart for six consecutive weeks . On October 30 , 2000 , the album had sold three million copies , and was certified three @-@ times platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) , denoting shipments of three million copies . On June 29 , 2002 , Country Grammar had sold 7 @.@ 7 million copies , according to Nielsen SoundScan . The album was certified nine @-@ times platinum by the RIAA on April 27 , 2004 , denoting shipments of nine million copies . As of June 2014 , Country Grammar had sold 8 @,@ 561 @,@ 000 copies in the United States . Country Grammar entered the New Zealand Albums Chart on the week of September 24 , 2000 , at number 5 . It reached its peak at number 3 , for twenty @-@ eight weeks after its debut on the chart , where it remained there for two non @-@ consecutive weeks . It stayed on the chart for forty @-@ two weeks before dropping out . The album was certified three times platinum by the Recording Industry Association of New Zealand ( RIANZ ) for shipments of 45 @,@ 000 units . On the Australian Albums Chart , Country Grammar debuted at number 45 . It re @-@ entered the chart five times , and reached its peak at number 4 on the week of October 7 , 2001 . The album remained on the chart for thirty @-@ three weeks , and was certified three times platinum by the Australian Recording Industry Association ( ARIA ) . Country Grammar reached at number 7 on the Canadian Albums Chart , and stayed on the chart for twenty @-@ five weeks before dropping out . It was certified three times platinum by Music Canada ( MC ) , denoting shipments of 300 @,@ 000 copies . On the Dutch Albums Chart , the album peaked at number 8 . On the UK Albums Chart , Country Grammar reached at number 14 , and stayed on it for thirty @-@ one weeks . It was certified gold by the British Phonographic Industry ( BPI ) , for shipments of 100 @,@ 000 units . The album peaked within the top thirty on the Belgian Albums Chart ( Flanders ) , Finnish Albums Chart and Danish Albums Chart . It reached at number 45 on the German Albums Chart , remaining on it for forty @-@ three weeks . It peaked on the Swiss Albums Chart and French Albums Chart at number 90 and number 109 , respectively . Country Grammar topped the US Top R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Albums year @-@ end chart in 2000 . = = Legacy = = Country Grammar 's success cemented Nelly 's position as one of the most successful hip hop acts of the emerging decade . Vibe emphasized Nelly 's expeditious fame , writing that the rapper debuted without the benefit of " guest spots or Pen and Pixel produced teasers on his CD cover " . The magazine continued to note the rapper 's absence of being associated with a notable group , " he just came out and sold two million records in less than a month " . Nelly 's success helped in making St. Louis more notable for emerging hip hop acts , increasing the city 's general reputation . Country Grammar experienced commercial success , topping the US Billboard 200 chart for five weeks in 2000 , eventually going on to sell over 9 million copies in the US , making it the ninth best @-@ selling rap album of all time in the country . It is one of the highest certified albums in the US history , being certified nine times platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) . Nelly ranked third on the Billboard 2000 – 2009 decade @-@ end chart , due to the success of Country Grammar as well as his follow @-@ up album Nellyville ( 2002 ) . The latter album went on to sell 6 @,@ 488 @,@ 000 copies in the US . = = Track listing = = All songs were written by Nelly ( Cornell Haynes , Jr . ) , additional writers listed below . Notes " Ride wit Me " contains a portion of composition from DeBarge 's 1982 's " I Like It " . " Batter Up " contains a portion of composition from Primal Scream 's " Movin ' on Up " . " Luven Me " samples elements from One Way 's 1984 " Don 't Stop ( Ever Loving Me ) " . It also samples elements from Tony ! Toni ! Toné ! ' s 1990 's " Whatever You Want " . = = Personnel = = Credits adapted from liner notes . Steve Eigner – recording Kenny Dykstra – recording , assistant Rich Travali – mixing Jason Standard – mixing , assistant Herb Powers – mastering Kevin Law – A & R directing Craig Yoskowitz – A & R coordinating Tony Davis – management Courtney Benson – management Todd Rubenstein – legal Sandra Brummel – creative directing BENTO Design – design Jonathen Mannion – photography = = Charts = = = = Certifications = = = = Release history = =
= AFVG = The AFVG ( standing for Anglo @-@ French Variable Geometry ) was a supersonic multi @-@ role combat aircraft with a variable @-@ geometry wing , being jointly developed by British Aircraft Corporation in the United Kingdom and Dassault Aviation of France . The project was cancelled in June 1967 , when the French Government withdrew from participation . BAC modified the specification to solely satisfy Royal Air Force needs , reconfiguring the design as the UKVG and sought out new partners to procure the aircraft , which ultimately emerged as the tri @-@ national consortium @-@ funded MRCA Panavia Tornado , a variable @-@ geometry wing fighter aircraft . = = Development = = = = = Background = = = The AFVG project followed on from the earlier BAC P.45 design study for a variable @-@ geometry strike / trainer / fighter aircraft for the Royal Air Force ; one of a number of proposed designs to meet AST.362. = = = Anglo @-@ French collaboration = = = Discussions took place in 1964 between France and Great Britain on collaborative military aviation programs with Handel Davies , the co @-@ chairman of an Anglo @-@ French committee , and his French counterpart , Ingénieur @-@ General Lecamus , negotiating the launch of two new military combat aircraft . The French would take the lead role in a light ground @-@ attack / trainer , while the British assumed the leadership of a swing @-@ wing multirole fighter project . On 17 May 1965 , after the cancellation of the BAC TSR @-@ 2 , the British and French governments signed agreements for the two joint projects ; one based on the Breguet Aviation Br.121 ECAT ( " Tactical Combat Support Trainer " ) proposal ; this would later evolve , after the cancellation of AFVG , to become the SEPECAT Jaguar . The other was the AFVG , a larger , variable @-@ geometry carrier @-@ capable fighter aircraft for the French Navy ( Aéronavale ) as well as fulfilling interceptor , tactical strike and reconnaissance roles for the Royal Air Force . = = = Design specifications = = = In RAF service , the AFVG was originally intended as a fighter , replacing the English Electric Lightning . However , following the RAF 's decision to procure the F @-@ 4 Phantom II instead , the AFVG 's expected role changed in 1966 to supplementing the F @-@ 111K strike aircraft in replacing the English Electric Canberra and the V bomber force . The AFVG was to be powered by two SNECMA / Bristol Siddeley M45G turbofans , fed by Mirage @-@ style half @-@ shock cone inlets . The engine development programme contract was to be issued by the French government to a SNECMA / Bristol Siddeley joint venture company registered in France . = = = Cancellation = = = For Marcel Dassault , the founder of the firm that bore his name , relinquishing leadership on a major project , essentially taking a subordinate position to BAC on the AFVG threatened his company 's long @-@ term objective of becoming a premier prime contractor for combat aircraft . After less than a year , Dassault began to actively undermine the AFVG project , working on two competing " in @-@ house " projects : the variable @-@ geometry Mirage G and the Mirage F1 . In June 1967 , the French government announced their withdrawal from the AFVG project ostensibly on grounds of cost . The unilateral French decision led to a censure debate in the House of Commons . By 1967 when the French withdrew from the AFVG programme , the Air Ministry was faced with a dilemma stemming from the imminent prospect of cancelling the F @-@ 111K , a decision that was taken in November 1967 , to be formalized on 20 March 1968 . = = Redesign = = With the prospect of no operational aircraft available to fulfill the RAF 's strike role , BAC revamped the AFVG design , eliminating the carrier capabilities that were no longer necessary , into a larger , more strike @-@ oriented VG aircraft , renamed UKVG . While funding for the UKVG in the United Kingdom was seriously restricted , the government sought partners in NATO to create a common NATO strike aircraft . This eventually led to the Multi @-@ Role Combat Aircraft ( MRCA ) project , later to become the Panavia Tornado . = = Specifications = = Data from Project Cancelled : The Disaster of Britain 's Abandoned Aircraft Projects General characteristics Crew : Two Length : 57 @.@ 19 ft ( 17 @.@ 43 m ) Wingspan : 42 @.@ 6 ft ( unswept ) ( 12 @.@ 98 m ) Height : 17 @.@ 68 ft ( 5 @.@ 39 m ) Loaded weight : 30 @,@ 000 to 50 @,@ 000 lb ( 13 @,@ 608 to 22 @,@ 680 kg ) Powerplant : 2 × SNECMA / Bristol Siddeley M45G Performance Maximum speed : Mach 2 @.@ 5 ( 1 @,@ 875 mph , 3 @,@ 017 km / h ) Range : 3 @,@ 500 nm ( ferry ) ( 6 @,@ 486 km ) Service ceiling : 60 @,@ 000 ft ( 18 @,@ 290 m ) Armament 2 × 30 @-@ millimetre ( 1 @.@ 2 in ) autocannon 2 @,@ 500 lb ( 1 @,@ 134 kg ) tactical nuclear weapon
= Turning Tables = " Turning Tables " is a song by British singer Adele and the last single from her second studio album , 21 . Conceived after an altercation with her former lover , the song was co @-@ written by Adele and singer @-@ songwriter Ryan Tedder , whilst the production was completed by Jim Abbiss . " Turning Tables " is a pop ballad with a soulful sound ; its instrumentation consists of piano , " Broadway @-@ worthy " strings and guitar . Lyrically , the song describes a domestic dispute in which its narrator assumes a defensive stance against a manipulative ex @-@ lover . XL Recordings sent the song to UK mainstream radio on 5 November 2011 as fifth single from 21 along with " Rumour Has It " . " Turning Tables " received acclaim from music critics , who praised Adele 's vocals and its production . The song reached the top @-@ twenty of the singles charts in four countries , including Belgium , Italy and the Netherlands . It also peaked at number 62 on the UK Singles Chart and 63 on the US Billboard Hot 100 chart . It was certified gold by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) for selling over 500 @,@ 000 digital downloads . Adele performed " Turning Tables " on television shows such as Late Night with David Letterman in the US and The Jonathan Ross Show in the UK and included it on the Adele Live concert tour . American actress and singer Gwyneth Paltrow performed a cover of the single in the Glee episode " A Night of Neglect " . = = Background = = In April 2009 , 20 @-@ year @-@ old Adele , who had recently embarked on her first serious relationship with a man 10 years her senior , began composing the follow @-@ up to her 2008 debut album 19 . In response to the media 's typecasting her as an " old soul " due to the vintage production and sentimental nature of her songs , Adele decided on a more upbeat and contemporary second album . However , studio sessions were generally unproductive and , after two weeks , yielded only one song recorded to the singer 's satisfaction — the Jim Abbiss @-@ produced " Take It All " , a lovelorn piano ballad not unlike the songs on 19 . Disillusioned with her lack of inspiration and the slow progress of the studio sessions , she cancelled the remaining recording dates . Adele had written " Take It All " during a difficult moment in her relationship . When she played the song for her boyfriend , the two got into a bitter argument that culminated in the end of their 18 @-@ month relationship . Heartbroken but musically stimulated , the singer channelled her rush of emotions into her music , crafting songs that examined her failed relationship from the perspectives of vengeful ex @-@ lover , heartbroken victim , and nostalgic old flame . After several recording sessions with writers and producers like Paul Epworth , Fraser T Smith and Rick Rubin , Adele got enough material for creating a full LP . She released her second studio album on 19 January 2011 under the title 21 . Adele first intended to title the album Rolling in the Deep , her adaptation of the slang phrase " roll deep " , which summarises how she felt about her relationship ; in her loose translation , the phrase refers to having someone " that has your back " and always supports you . However , the singer later deemed the title too confusing for some of her audiences . Although she had wanted to avoid the number motif of her debut , Adele considered " 21 " the most fitting title as it represented her age at the time of the album 's composition , serving as an autobiographical period piece , and symbolised the personal maturity and artistic evolution since her debut . = = Writing , production and release = = " Turning Tables " was written by American singer @-@ songwriter and frontman of pop @-@ rock band OneRepublic , Ryan Tedder and Adele herself . The production of the song was helmed by Jim Abbiss . When the demos to two songs were completed , Adele approached Tedder , who was in London at the time for a radio show . Tedder had expressed interest in collaborating with the singer after they met at the 2009 Grammy Awards ceremony in February . He arrived four hours early to their first studio session held at Sphere Studios in London , buying time to better familiarise himself with some of her previous work . Although unaware of Adele 's personal predicament , he composed the opening piano sequence and first few lines of " Turning Tables " . Coincidentally , it perfectly captured the experience of the singer , who arrived at the studio moments after another altercation with her former lover . Angry and unfocused , she denounced her ex @-@ lover 's tendency to " turn the tables " on her during their arguments , an expression that Tedder decided to reference in the song 's lyrics . Adele recorded the demo with Abbis the following day . " Turning Tables " was mixed by Abbiss and Ian Dowling . Neil Cowley played the piano in the song , while the string arrangement was made by Chris Elliot . The strings were played by Patrick Kernan , Stephen Morris , Tom Pigott @-@ Smith , Julian Leaper , Boguslaw Kostecki , Bruce White , Peter Lale , Rachel Stephanie Bolt , David Danels , Caroline Dale , Warren Zelnski , Jackie Shave , Chris Laurence , Rita Manning , Cathy Thompson , Emlyn Singleton and Chris Worsey . XL Recordings serviced the song to UK mainstream radio on 5 November 2011 as fifth single from 21 alongside " Rumour Has It " . On 14 December 2011 , the song was sent for airplay to Italian radio stations . = = Composition = = " Turning Tables " is a pop ballad with a soulful sound that lasts for four minutes and 10 seconds . John Murphy of musicOMH recognized the single as a fragile piano ballad which shows off Adele 's voice to its best effect . Sputnikmusic 's Joseph Viney described the song as a delicate ballad that possesses an astonishing beauty . Its instrumentation consists of piano , " Broadway @-@ worthy " strings and guitar . According to the digital sheet music published by Sony / ATV Music Publishing , " Turning Tables " is written in the key of C minor and set in common time , with 78 beats per minute . Adele 's vocal range spans from the low note of G3 to the high note of C5 . Lyrically , " Turning Tables " is a song of domestic dispute , where its narrator assumes a defensive stance against a manipulative ex @-@ lover . Reconciling herself with the termination of a contentious relationship , she vows emotional distance to shield herself from future heartbreak . Bryan Boyd of The Irish Times likened the singer to 1980s Welsh rocker Bonnie Tyler in delivering the vocals with a mixture of anger , pain and pathos . According to Paste magazine , cinematic strings " serve as fitting counterpoint to [ the song 's ] heartbroken , hollowed @-@ out lyrics . " " Turning Tables " opens with a piano sequence after which Adele sings the first lines : " Close enough to start a war / All that I have is on the floor " . The chorus consists of the lyrics : " So I won ’ t let you close enough to hurt me , No , I won ’ t ask you , you to just desert me , I can 't give you what you think you gave me , It ’ s time to say goodbye to turning tables . " = = Reception = = = = = Critical = = = " Turning Tables " received acclaim from music critics . Ian Walker of the website AbsolutePunk commented that the song " contains some of the album 's greatest vocal moments , further cementing Adele 's reputation as a competent vocalist showing no signs of stopping . " A writer from the Daily Herald said that Adele sounds " epic " on the song . Entertainment Weekly 's Leah Greenblatt found a " scorned @-@ woman balladry " in the song . Greg Kot of the Chicago Tribune found a " piano @-@ based melancholy " in the song . A reviewer of HauteThought wrote that " Adele 's natural ease and original tone shines in Turning Tables . The song allows her to explore her upper register without ignoring the lower , soulful sound she always seems able create . " Lily Moayeri stated that on the " barely contained ' Turning Tables ' , Adele lets forth her formidable lungpower . " Ryan Reed of Paste called the single " tearjerking " , while Margaret Wappler of Los Angeles Times labeled the song as " softly sentimental " . = = = Commercial = = = " Turning Tables " debuted at its peak of number 63 on the US Billboard Hot 100 for the issue dated 7 May 2011 . The next week , the song dropped 21 places to number 85 and became the biggest fall of the week . The single stayed on the chart for total of three weeks and was certified gold by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) for selling over 500 @,@ 000 digital copies . As of May 2015 " Turning Tables " has sold 883 @,@ 000 digital downloads in the US alone . On the Canadian Hot 100 , the song debuted at number 60 for the issue dated 7 May 2011 . It fell to number 91 the next week becoming the biggest fall of the week . " Turning Tables " was certified gold by Music Canada for selling over 40 @,@ 000 digital copies of the song . In the UK , it entered the singles chart at its peak of number 62 on 14 May 2011 . On 21 May 2011 " Turning Tables " dropped to number 80 , before falling of the chart the next week . On 17 September 2011 the song re @-@ entered the UK Singles Chart at number 68 . It was more successful on Belgium Ultratip singles chart where it reached number two in Wallonia and number four in Flanders . " Turning Tables " debuted at number nine on the Italian Singles Chart on 19 January 2012 . After three weeks on the chart , the song reached its peak of number eight on 16 February 2012 . = = Live performances and covers = = Adele performed " Turning Tables " at Live at Largo in Los Angeles on 9 February 2011 . Robie Daw of Idolator recognized the performance as " intimate " and commented that it featured Adele 's soulful vocals simply accompanied by " haunting " piano chords . She performed the single on VH1 Unplugged on 3 March 2011 . Adele performed the song at Late Night with David Letterman ; the performance was later uploaded to her Vevo account on YouTube . On 4 September 2011 , the singer performed " Turning Tables " at the premiere of the The Jonathan Ross Show and was also interviewed . " Turning Tables " was part of the set list on Adele 's second concert tour entitled Adele Live ( 2011 ) . On 22 November 2011 , Adele unveiled a video of her performance of the song from the concert held at the Royal Albert Hall in London . The performance was later included in her first video album Live at the Royal Albert Hall which was released on 25 November 2011 . Adele described the concert as the most special show that she would ever play . Adele performed the song on 27 January 2012 at Live from the Artists Den . During the performance the singer stated : " Nothing in life moves me as much as being on stage does . I love the closeness of playing in small rooms , and this room was lovely and simple , just beautiful . " " Turning Tables " was covered by American actress and singer Gwyneth Paltrow , in the " A Night of Neglect " episode of the Fox Broadcasting Company television show Glee . Her performance of the song was considered inferior to the original . Erica Futterman of Rolling Stone named it her least @-@ favorite of Paltrow 's covers to date and said that her vocals " lacked the texture that made Adele 's version so heartbreaking . " Sandra Gonzalez of Entertainment Weekly gave it her lowest grade of the episode , a " B – " , and Aly Semigran of MTV opined that while Paltrow is " a nice enough singer , " she " in no way has the chops " the song requires . Whilst The Wall Street Journal 's Raymund Flandez called it a " scene @-@ stealing turn " and commended it visually and vocally , he noted that Paltrow lacks Adele 's veracity . Released as a single , this version peaked at number 66 on US Billboard Hot 100 and Canadian Hot 100 . As of 2 July 2012 , the Glee version had sold 113 @,@ 000 paid downloads in the US alone . Co @-@ writer of the song Ryan Tedder performed the song at Denver 's Acoustic Christmas ( a charity concert hosted by all Colorado artists ) with his band OneRepublic in 2011 . = = Credits and personnel = = Recording Recorded at Sphere Studios , London , United Kingdom Personnel Credits adapted from the liner notes of 21 , XL Recordings . = = Charts = = = = Certifications = = = = Release history = =
= French ironclad La Galissonnière = La Galissonnière was lead ship of a class of wooden @-@ hulled , armored corvettes built for the French Navy during the 1870s . She was named after the victor of the Battle of Minorca in 1756 , Marquis de la Galissonnière . She bombarded Sfax in 1881 as part of the French occupation of Tunisia and was present in Alexandria shortly before the British bombarded it before the beginning of the 1882 Anglo @-@ Egyptian War . The ship participated in a number of battles during the Sino @-@ French War of 1884 – 85 . La Galissonnière was condemned in 1894 . = = Design and description = = The La Galissonnière @-@ class ironclads were designed as faster , more heavily armed versions of the Alma @-@ class armored corvettes by Henri Dupuy de Lôme . They used the same central battery layout as their predecessors , although the battery was lengthened 4 meters ( 13 ft 1 in ) to provide enough room to work the larger 240 @-@ millimeter ( 9 @.@ 4 in ) guns . A two @-@ propeller layout was adopted in an unsuccessful attempt to reduce the ship 's draft . La Galissonnière measured 76 @.@ 62 meters ( 251 ft 5 in ) between perpendiculars , with a beam of 14 @.@ 84 meters ( 48 ft 8 in ) . She had a mean draft of 6 @.@ 55 meters ( 21 ft 6 in ) and displaced 4 @,@ 654 metric tons ( 4 @,@ 580 long tons ) . The ship had a metacentric height of .926 meters ( 3 ft 0 @.@ 5 in ) . Her crew numbered between 352 and 382 officers and men . = = = Propulsion = = = La Galissonnière had two Wolf vertical compound steam engines , each driving a single 3 @.@ 8 @-@ meter ( 12 ft 6 in ) propeller . Her engines were powered by four oval boilers . On sea trials the engines produced a total of 2 @,@ 370 indicated horsepower ( 1 @,@ 770 kW ) and the ship reached 13 @.@ 08 knots ( 24 @.@ 22 km / h ; 15 @.@ 05 mph ) . La Galissonnière carried 500 metric tons ( 490 long tons ) of coal which allowed the ship to steam for 3 @,@ 240 nautical miles ( 6 @,@ 000 km ; 3 @,@ 730 mi ) at a speed of 10 knots ( 19 km / h ; 12 mph ) . She was ship @-@ rigged with three masts and had a sail area around 1 @,@ 707 square meters ( 18 @,@ 370 sq ft ) . = = = Armament = = = The ship mounted four of her six 240 @-@ millimeter Modèle 1870 guns in the central battery on the battery deck . The other two 240 @-@ millimeter guns were mounted in barbettes on the upper deck , sponsoned out over the sides of the ship , abaft the funnel . La Galissonnière 's secondary armament of four 120 @-@ millimeter ( 4 @.@ 7 in ) guns was also mounted on the upper deck . They were replaced by six 100 @-@ millimeter ( 3 @.@ 9 in ) guns in 1880 . The armor @-@ piercing shell of the 19 @-@ caliber 240 @-@ millimeter gun weighed 317 @.@ 5 pounds ( 144 @.@ 0 kg ) while the gun itself weighed 15 @.@ 41 long tons ( 15 @.@ 66 t ) . It had a muzzle velocity of 1 @,@ 624 ft / s ( 495 m / s ) and was credited with the ability to penetrate a nominal 14 @.@ 4 inches ( 366 mm ) of wrought iron armour at the muzzle . The guns could fire both solid shot and explosive shells . The ship received four 37 @-@ millimeter ( 1 @.@ 5 in ) Hotchkiss 5 @-@ barrel revolving guns in 1878 . They fired a shell weighing about 500 g ( 1 @.@ 1 lb ) at a muzzle velocity of about 610 m / s ( 2 @,@ 000 ft / s ) to a range of about 3 @,@ 200 meters ( 3 @,@ 500 yd ) . They had a rate of fire of about 30 rounds per minute . La Galissonnière also received several towed Harvey torpedoes . = = = Armor = = = La Galissonnière had a complete 150 @-@ millimeter ( 5 @.@ 9 in ) wrought iron waterline belt , approximately 2 @.@ 4 meters ( 7 @.@ 9 ft ) high laid over 650 millimeters ( 26 in ) of wood . The sides of the battery itself were armored with 120 millimeters ( 4 @.@ 7 in ) of wrought iron backed by 520 millimeters ( 20 in ) of wood and the ends of the battery were closed by bulkheads of the same thickness . The barbette armor was 120 millimeters ( 4 @.@ 7 in ) thick . The unarmored portions of their sides were protected by thin iron plates . = = Service = = La Galissonnière was laid down at Brest on 22 June 1868 and launched on 7 May 1872 . While the exact reason for such prolonged construction time is not known , the budget for the French Navy was cut after the Franco @-@ Prussian War of 1870 – 71 and the French dockyards had not been reformed with working practices more suitable for the industrial age . The ship began her sea trials on 20 April 1874 and was not commissioned until 18 July 1874 . She became flagship of the Pacific Squadron on 16 May 1874 under the command of Rear Admiral Perigot . She return to Brest on 19 March 1877 , having circumnavigated the world via the Suez Canal . The ship was placed in reserve upon her return until she recommissioned on 15 August 1878 in preparation for a commission as flagship of the Caribbean Squadron which began on 6 October under Rear Admiral Peyron . Two years later she sailed to Cherbourg and was reduced to reserve on 13 May 1880 . La Galissonnière became the flagship of the Levant Squadron ( French : Division Navale du Levant ) under Rear Admiral Alfred Conrad on 27 May 1881 . Shortly afterward she bombarded the Tunisian port of Sfax in July 1881 as part of the French occupation of Tunisia . In early 1882 La Galissonnière was present in Alexandria shortly before the British bombarded it before the beginning of the 1882 Anglo @-@ Egyptian War . The ship remained in the Mediterranean through 1883 . La Galissonnière relieved her half @-@ sister Victorieuse in April 1884 as the flagship of the Far East Squadron , under the command of Vice Admiral Amédée Courbet , just in time to participate in the Sino @-@ French War of 1884 – 85 . The ship fought in the late stages of the Battle of Fuzhou in August 1884 when she tried to pass a Chinese fort ( known to the French as Fort Kimpaï ) defending the entrance to the Min River . La Galissonnière failed to destroy the fort and was lightly damaged by a shell that struck her bow . It damaged her steam capstan and killed one man . The ship supplied landing parties during the Battle of Tamsui in October 1884 , but they were forced to retreat by Chinese troops , although only nine men were killed . Nothing is known of any further participation by La Galissonnière in the war . She was ordered home in February 1886 and laid up for the last time in Cherbourg upon her return . The ship was condemned on 24 December 1894 .
= Beck 's Bolero = " Beck 's Bolero " is a rock instrumental recorded by English guitarist Jeff Beck in 1966 . It is Beck 's first solo recording and has been described as " one of the great rock instrumentals , epic in scope , harmonically and rhythmically ambitious yet infused with primal energy " . " Beck 's Bolero " features a prominent melody with multiple guitar parts propelled by a rhythm inspired by Ravel 's Boléro . The recording session brought together a group of musicians , including Jimmy Page , Keith Moon , John Paul Jones , and Nicky Hopkins , who later agreed that the line up was a first attempt at what became Led Zeppelin . However , there is an ongoing disagreement over the composer as well as producer credits . Despite being credited solely to Page , Beck claims that he made significant contributions to the composition . Likewise , Page and Simon Napier @-@ Bell each claim to have produced it , while Mickie Most received the credit . " Beck 's Bolero " was not released until ten months after recording and then only as the B @-@ side to Beck 's first single . When it finally received greater exposure on Beck 's debut album Truth in the latter part of 1968 , it was still considered quite advanced even though it was over two years old . Beck continues to perform it and several renditions have been recorded by other musicians . = = Background = = The recording session for " Beck 's Bolero " was conceived of as a side project for Jeff Beck while he was a member of the Yardbirds . " It was decided that it would be a good idea for me to record some of my own stuff ... partly to stop me moaning about the Yardbirds " , Beck recalled . Also , the Yardbirds ' management was encouraging individual band members to bring attention to the band through success in solo projects . Studio time was booked for May 1966 at the IBC Studios in London . To prepare for the session , Beck called on long @-@ time friend and studio guitarist Jimmy Page , who had recommended Beck as Eric Clapton 's replacement in the Yardbirds , to work up some ideas for songs to record . Although there is a disagreement over credits for the composition , both Beck and Page agree that Page began by playing some chords on a twelve @-@ string guitar using a rhythm based on Boléro . Boléro is a one @-@ movement orchestral piece composed by Maurice Ravel in 1928 and is " built on a persistent , repeating motif supported by a snare drum ... re @-@ creating the Spanish ' bolero ' dance pattern for full orchestra " , according to Beck biographer Martin Power . A melody line for guitar was developed along with a middle section to break up the rhythm , reminiscent of the Yardbirds ' arrangements for " For Your Love " and " Shapes of Things " . With at least the outline of one song and Page on board to play guitar , Beck approached Keith Moon of the Who , whom he considered one of his favourite drummers . Moon was unhappy with the Who at the time and readily agreed to participate . To avoid a confrontation with Pete Townshend and Kit Lambert , the Who 's manager , Moon wished to do so incognito . He recommended bandmate John Entwistle , who was similarly discontented with the Who , to provide the bass . = = Recording = = The recording session took place at IBC Studios on 16 and 17 May 1966 ( although a date after Beck left the Yarbirds in November 1966 has also been suggested ) . Moon arrived at the studio disguised in sunglasses and a Russian cossack hat . When Entwistle did not show , studio musicians John Paul Jones and Nicky Hopkins were brought in at the last minute to provide bass and piano . Although there is an unsubstantiated account that Ritchie Blackmore may have been somehow involved at the studio , his participation has not been acknowledged by Beck , Page , or the others at the session . Napier @-@ Bell , the Yardbird 's producer who had originally promoted the idea , was present for the recording . For the guitar parts , Beck used a Gibson Les Paul played through a Vox AC30 amplifier and Page played a Fender Electric XII twelve @-@ string electric guitar . Half way through the song , Moon smashed the drum microphone with his stick – " You can actually hear him screaming as he does it " , Beck remembered , " so all you can hear from then on is cymbals ! " After Moon and Napier @-@ Bell left , Beck and Page added overdubs and sound treatments to complete the track . According to Beck , two or three songs were recorded at the session , but " Beck 's Bolero " was the only track released . = = Composition = = " Beck 's Bolero " is roughly divided into three parts . The first begins with a reworking of Ravel 's two @-@ chord progression , transposed to the key of A. Power points out that by using a 12 @-@ string guitar , Page is able to take advantage of the instrument 's " rich chiming quality to emulate the distinct , orchestral ' bolero ' sound " . Beck then introduces the melody line on electric guitar with a fuzz @-@ tone effect producing indefinite sustain ; alternating between major and minor modes , it is described as " haunting " by Power and as a " distinctive piercing , sinister tone " by critic Richie Unterberger . In the second section , the piano , bass , and drums come in and the tension builds . Unterberger describes the third section as " suddenly set [ ting ] off from the main motif into a beautiful serene section highlighting slide @-@ glissando guitars " , with Beck 's echo @-@ laden slide sounding similar to a steel guitar . The fourth section returns to the main melody with overlaid drawn @-@ out descending slide . According to Beck , " the phasing was Jimmy 's idea ... I played a load of waffle and he reversed it " . The tension mounts as Moon adds drum flourishes , climaxing with a break . The second part begins with Moon 's simultaneous drum break and scream and launches in different , hard rock direction . " It was my idea to cut off in the middle , Yardbirds @-@ style " , Beck commented , " Keith upped the tempo and gave it an extra kick . It 's like a bit of the Who , a bit of the Yardbirds and a bit of me " . The amply @-@ distorted guitar provides " a thick @-@ toned , descending riff " , according to Power . He also describes the break , inspired by the Yardbirds ' rave @-@ up technique , as " eerily presag [ ing ] the coming era of hard rock and heavy metal " . The third part returns to the main motif with added guitar fills . The melody line is abandoned in the second section and replaced with multiple interwoven takes of guitar effects , including phasing , echo , and controlled feedback . It concludes with a few bars of hard blues rock @-@ style lead guitar and an abrupt ending . = = Releases = = The record release of " Beck 's Bolero " was delayed for ten months , when Jeff Beck began his solo career after leaving the Yardbirds . It appeared as the B @-@ side of his first single , " Hi Ho Silver Lining " , which was released on 10 March 1967 in the UK ( Columbia DB 8151 ) and 3 April 1967 in the US ( Epic 5 – 10157 ) . The initial UK pressing of the single listed the title as " Bolero " with Jeff Beck as the composer , while later pressings showed " Beck 's Bolero " and " J. Page " . The single reached number fourteen in the UK Singles Chart , and number 123 in the US Billboard 's Bubbling Under Hot 100 Singles chart . " Hi Ho Silver Lining " was ignored by American underground FM radio , but " Beck 's Bolero " became a staple of the new radio format . In 1968 , the instrumental gained wider exposure when it was included on the Jeff Beck Group debut album , Truth . Released in the US in July , the album reached number 15 in the Billboard 200 album chart one month later . Truth was issued in October in the UK , but it did not appear in the album charts . On the British monaural releases , " Beck 's Bolero " has a fifteen @-@ second backwards guitar coda . This version is included as a bonus track on the 2006 remastered Truth CD and on the Sundazed Records reissue of the original mono vinyl album . The original album liner notes do not list the personnel for " Beck 's Bolero " – Jones ' and Hopkins ' contributions are noted for other songs along with " Timpani by ' You Know Who ' " , the " Who " being Moon . " Beck 's Bolero " remains one of Beck 's favourites pieces and he has performed it numerous times , often as his opening number . A live version in 2008 appears on his Live at Ronnie Scott 's album and video . On 4 April 2009 , Page formally inducted Beck into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame and together they performed " Beck 's Bolero " at the induction ceremony , with Page playing the original 1965 Fender XII electric twelve @-@ string guitar which he used for the 1966 recording session . = = Disagreement over credits = = = = = Production = = = Beck 's later producer , Mickie Most , the Yardbirds ' producer , Simon Napier @-@ Bell , and Jimmy Page have each claimed to be the recording 's producer . At the time of the release of " Beck Bolero " , Beck was under contract to producer Most . Although he was not involved in the recording , under the terms of the contract , Most received a " mandated production credit " and it is his name that appears on the single and album credits . Napier @-@ Bell , who was at least present for the recording , has claimed that his involvement was substantial : I produced it , but I was naive about ' Bolero ' . When Mickie Most took Jeff , he asked if there were any productions knocking around and I said ' Yes , we 've got ' Bolero ' . ' So it eventually came out as a Mickie Most production , which has always pissed me off because it was such a great record . My fault , no one else 's . However , according to Jimmy Page , " the track was done and then the producer , Simon Napier @-@ Bell , just disappeared ... [ he ] just sort of left me and Jeff to do it . Jeff was playing and I was [ at the recording console ] . " Page asserts that he in fact was the instrumental 's actual producer . = = = Composition = = = The initial Columbia Records pressing of the single listed the title as " Bolero " and " Jeff Beck " as the composer . However , Jimmy Page filed for the composer credit for " Beck 's Bolero " and it is his name that appears on the credits for all but the initial release . Nonetheless , Beck has claimed credit for his contributions to the composition . Both Beck and Page agree that Page came up with the Boléro @-@ influenced chords and rhythm . However , Beck specifically claims that key features of the instrumental — the haunting melody line and the second part " hard @-@ rock " break — are his . Beck adds that the break contains " the first heavy metal riff ever written and I wrote it " . While not addressing the specifics , Page asserts " I wrote it , played on it , produced it ... and I don 't give a damn what [ Jeff ] says . That 's the truth " , but adds " the slide bits are his " . Beck later put it behind him , " No , I didn 't get a songwriting credit , but you win some and lose some down the years " . Over the years , he and Page have made several appearances together in concerts and for interviews . = = Legacy = = Beck , Page , Hopkins , Jones , and Moon were pleased with the outcome of the recording session and there was talk of forming a working group and additional recordings . This led to the famous quip , " Yeah , it 'll go down like a lead zeppelin " , which Page later used , with a slight spelling change , for his new group . Page ascribed it to Moon , while Beck 's and Led Zeppelin 's later manager Peter Grant claimed Moon used the phrase " go down like a lead balloon " , to which Entwistle added " more like a lead zeppelin " . Entwistle , on the other hand , insists that he came up with the name independently along with the idea of using an image of " a Zeppelin going down in flames " for an album cover . Led Zeppelin biographer Keith Shadwick notes that forming an actual group at the time " was never a realistic option " , due to existing contractual obligations . For all their attempts at secrecy , Townshend learned of Moon 's move . Beck recalled , " I remember [ Pete ] Townshend looking daggers at me when he heard it ... because it was a bit near the mark . He didn 't want anybody meddling with that territory [ his band , the Who ] at all " . Townshend also took to referring to Beck and Page as " flashy little guitarists of very little brain " for their perceived subterfuge ( Page responded with " Townshend got into feedback because he couldn 't play single notes " ) . In a later interview , Townshend explained The thing is when Keith did Beck 's ' Bolero ' , that wasn 't just a session , that was a political move . It was at a point when the group was very close to breaking up . Keith was very paranoid and going through a heavy pills thing . He wanted to make the group plead for him because he 'd joined Beck . Differences with Moon were resolved and he returned to the Who shortly after the recording . One month later , Page joined the Yardbirds and together with Beck became one of the first dual @-@ lead guitar teams in popular rock . In 1968 , Hopkins became a member of the Jeff Beck Group and for performances of " Beck 's Bolero " during their first US tour in June , singer Rod Stewart played the rhythm guitar part . Also in 1968 , Page started Led Zeppelin with Jones . Page incorporated some of the melody line and bolero rhythm into the medley portion of " How Many More Times " for the Led Zeppelin debut album . " Beck 's Bolero " appears on various " best of " lists and in Guitar Masters : Intimate Portraits , Alan di Perna describes it as " one of the great rock instrumentals , epic in scope , harmonically and rhythmically ambitious yet infused with primal energy " . The May 1966 recording pre @-@ dated other mid @-@ 1960s hard rock / psychedelic rock milestones , such as the formation of Cream , Jimi Hendrix 's arrival in England , the Beatles ' Revolver album , and the rise of the San Francisco Sound . Guitarist Mike Bloomfield recalled that " Beck 's Bolero " had a " significant impact on Jimi Hendrix , who named it among his favorite tracks " . Beck recalled performing a live version with Hendrix on lead guitar , but a recording has not been forthcoming . According to Paul Hornsby , who played with Duane Allman in Hour Glass in 1967 – 1968 before the Allman Brothers Band , " Beck 's Bolero " inspired Allman to take up slide guitar . After hearing Beck 's record , Allman " loved that slide part and told me he was going to learn to play it " , Hornsby recalled . In 1970 , Joe Walsh adapted the slide @-@ guitar section of " Beck 's Bolero " for a James Gang song . Titled " The Bomber " , the multi @-@ part suite also includes a rendition of Ravel 's Boléro and appears on the James Gang Rides Again album . Several artists have recorded renditions of " Beck 's Bolero " , including SRC , the Posies , Les Fradkin , Eric Johnson , and Return to Forever .
= Operation Labrador = Operation Labrador was a false flag operation carried out by the Yugoslav Air Force 's Counterintelligence Service ( KOS ) in the Croatian capital city of Zagreb during the early stages of the Croatian War of Independence . It was devised as a series of terrorist attacks intended to create an image of Croatia as a pro @-@ fascist state . Two bombings were carried out on 19 August 1991 , with one at the Jewish Community Centre and a second near Jewish graves at the Mirogoj Cemetery ; there were no casualties . Additional attacks targeted the national railway network and were designed to implicate the Croatian President . Operation Labrador was complemented by Operation Opera — a propaganda campaign devised by the KOS to feed disinformation to the media . Further activities of Operation Labrador were abandoned in September , after Croatian authorities captured the Yugoslav Air Force regional headquarters in Zagreb , and confiscated documents related to the operation . The authorities took nearly a month to analyze the captured documents , allowing time for the principal agents involved in the bombings to flee . Fifteen others were arrested in connection with the attack , but they were subsequently released in a prisoner exchange . Five KOS agents involved in Operation Labrador were tried in the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia on terrorism charges and acquitted . Croatian authorities captured two KOS agents who were part of the operation and tried them along with seven other agents who were tried in absentia . Those in custody were acquitted , while those tried in absentia were convicted . The existence of Operation Labrador was further confirmed through the testimony of a former KOS agent , Major Mustafa Čandić , during the trial of Slobodan Milošević at the International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia in 2002 . = = Background = = In August 1990 , an insurrection took place in Croatia centering in the predominantly Serb @-@ populated areas of the Dalmatian hinterland near Knin , the Lika , Kordun , and Banovina regions , and eastern Croatia . The areas were subsequently named SAO Krajina ( Serb Autonomous Oblast ) and , after local leaders announced their intention to integrate SAO Krajina with Serbia , the Government of Croatia declared the SAO Krajina secession movement a rebellion . By March 1991 , the conflict had escalated into the Croatian War of Independence . In June 1991 , Croatia declared its independence as Yugoslavia disintegrated . A three @-@ month moratorium followed , after which the declaration came into effect on 8 October 1991 . The SAO Krajina , renamed Republic of Serbian Krajina ( RSK ) on 19 December 1991 , responded with a campaign of ethnic cleansing against Croatian civilians . With the Yugoslav People 's Army ( JNA ) lending support to SAO Krajina leadership and the Croatian Police unable to cope with the situation , the Croatian National Guard ( ZNG ) was formed in May 1991 . The development of the military of Croatia was hampered by a UN arms embargo introduced in September , while the military conflict in Croatia continued to escalate . The JNA maintained substantial forces in the Croatian capital , Zagreb , throughout 1991 . = = Bombings = = In August 1991 , the Yugoslav Air Force 's Counterintelligence Service ( KOS ) executed a series of activities , codenamed Operation Labrador , aimed at discrediting the new Croatian government . Operation Labrador was planned to include several terrorist attacks that would go hand @-@ in @-@ hand with the activities of Operation Opera — a propaganda campaign devised to feed disinformation to the media . The two operations were intended to portray Croatia as a pro @-@ fascist state . An alternative name for Operation Opera was Operation Opera @-@ Orijentalis , or Operation Opera Orientalis . Operation Labrador was headed by Colonel General Slobodan Rakočević , head of the Yugoslav Air Force branch of the KOS , based in Zemun . In Zagreb , operational control of Labrador was assigned to Lieutenant Colonel Ivan Sabolović , and Major Čedo Knežević . Lieutenant Colonel Radenko Radojčić was tasked with the storage of a substantial quantity of explosives in Zagreb and its surrounding areas and the subsequent planting of explosive devices in designated locations . The explosives and other munitions were stored across several sites . On 19 August , the Jewish Community Centre in Palmotićeva Street in Zagreb , and Jewish graves at the Mirogoj Cemetery , were bombed as a part of Operation Labrador . The explosions caused property damage , but resulted in no casualties . There were no public claims of responsibility for the attack . Aside from the two explosions in Zagreb , agents assigned to Operation Labrador were thought to also be responsible for bombing the Zagreb – Belgrade railway near Vinkovci and a railway line between Glina and Vojnić . The railway attacks have also been ascribed to Operation Opera . = = Aftermath = = In the immediate aftermath of the bombings in Zagreb , Josip Manolić , who had just been appointed head of the Croatian intelligence service , claimed Croatian right @-@ wing extremists were responsible . Operation Labrador was abandoned after the ZNG and the Croatian police captured the Yugoslav Air Force headquarters in Zagreb on 15 September 1991 , during the Battle of the Barracks . The materials captured inside the facility included codes and computer disks related to Operation Labrador , as well as Sabolović 's notes . Sabolović turned the materials over to his immediate superior at headquarters , Mirko Martić , but Martić failed to destroy them . In response , Sabolović fled Zagreb . Croatian police took almost a month to analyze the captured materials properly and uncover Operation Labrador . Sabolović later claimed that only a part of the Operation Labrador network was dismantled , but he was contradicted by KOS Major Mustafa Čandić who was posted at the Zemun headquarters of KOS . In autumn of 1991 , Croatian intelligence services launched Operation Janissary ( Operacija Janjičar ) aimed at dismantling the remaining KOS network in Croatia . The operation was a joint operation of all Croatian intelligence services . It was authorized by Ivan Vekić and Gojko Šušak , then interior and defence ministers , and initially headed by Josip Perković . Fifteen suspects were arrested by the end of 1991 ; they were subsequently exchanged for Anton Kikaš , who was captured by the JNA while smuggling a plane @-@ load of weapons to Croatia . The operation also produced a list of suspected KOS operatives in Croatia containing 1 @,@ 789 names and pseudonyms . Rakočević , Sabolović , Radojčić and two other former KOS agents were tried in Belgrade in 1993 . The five were charged with instigation of terrorism and other crimes , but all were acquitted . Radojčić was arrested again in Zagreb in late 1993 . The second Trial of Radojčić and eight other suspects charged in connection with Operations Labrador and Opera , held in Zagreb , ended with the acquittal of Radojčić and Ratomir Mažibrada , who were in custody , and the convictions of the other defendants who were all tried in absentia . Testifying at the Trial of Slobodan Milošević at the International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia in 2002 , Čandić stated that all Operation Labrador agents left Zagreb and took the remaining documents with them . He also said that the KOS had an extensive network of informants within Croatian intelligence services and the ruling Croatian Democratic Union in 1991 . Čandić also testified that the railway bombing near Vinkovci was intended to implicate Croatian President Franjo Tuđman . Bomb damage to the Jewish Community Centre was repaired between February and September 1992 , using government funds .
= Delaware Route 82 = Delaware Route 82 ( DE 82 ) is a state highway in the northwest suburbs of Wilmington in New Castle County , Delaware . The route runs 5 @.@ 51 miles ( 8 @.@ 87 km ) from DE 52 near Greenville to the Pennsylvania border near Yorklyn , where it continues as Pennsylvania Route 82 ( PA 82 ) . The route runs through areas of woods and fields in northern New Castle County , with much of the route paralleling the Red Clay Creek . The entire route is a part of the Red Clay Scenic Byway , created in 2005 . DE 82 was first numbered by 1952 on its current alignment . In 2010 , DelDOT had proposed eliminating the route number , but the plan fell through due to public opposition . = = Route description = = DE 82 heads to the west of DE 52 near Greenville as two @-@ lane undivided Campbell Road . East of DE 52 , the road continues to DE 100 as Kirk Road . The road passes through wooded areas with some fields and homes before crossing over the Hoopes Reservoir . A short distance after the reservoir , DE 82 makes a left turn onto New London Road to head to the south . The route passes through woodland , curving to the west as it follows a winding alignment . The road reaches an intersection with Mt . Cuba Road in the community of Mount Cuba. where it heads northwest on Creek Road and parallels the Red Clay Creek and the Wilmington and Western Railroad . It continues on a winding alignment and passes over the creek twice before crossing the railroad two times . Along this stretch , the road passes through the community of Ashland and by the Ashland Nature Center . The route reaches the community of Yorklyn , where it turns southwest briefly . After making a turn to the northwest to continue on Creek Road , DE 82 continues north alongside the Red Clay Creek with the Wilmington and Western Railroad heading to the southwest . A short distance past Yorklyn , the route reaches the Pennsylvania border , where it becomes PA 82 and continues toward Kennett Square , Pennsylvania . The entire length of DE 82 is a part of the Red Clay Scenic Byway , a designation given to several roads in the Red Clay Creek valley . The Red Clay Scenic Byway is a part of the Delaware Byways system . DE 82 has an annual average daily traffic count ranging from a high of 4 @,@ 682 vehicles at the southern terminus at DE 52 to a low of 197 vehicles at Mt . Cuba Road . None of DE 82 is part of the National Highway System . = = History = = When Delaware started numbering state highways in the 1930s , what is now DE 82 was originally an unnumbered road . By 1952 , DE 82 was created on its current alignment to connect PA 82 to DE 52 near Greenville . DE 82 was incorporated into the Red Clay Scenic Byway , the second scenic byway in Delaware , in 2005 . In 2010 , DelDOT considered removing the DE 82 designation in order to preserve the route as a scenic byway . After a public workshop on the proposed designation removal was held , DelDOT decided in April 2010 to keep the DE 82 designation due to strong opposition from area residents on the plan . = = Major intersections = = Mileposts run from north to south . The entire route is in New Castle County .
= Samuel Lightfoot Flournoy ( West Virginia lawyer ) = Samuel Lightfoot Flournoy ( January 17 , 1886 – May 17 , 1961 ) was an American lawyer and politician in the U.S. state of West Virginia . He was a prominent lawyer in Charleston , where he practiced law for over 50 years . Born in Romney in 1886 , Flournoy was the son of West Virginia State Senator Samuel Lightfoot Flournoy . Flournoy was a grandson of Hampshire County Clerk of Court John Baker White and a nephew of West Virginia Attorney General Robert White and West Virginia Fish Commission President Christian Streit White . He was also a relative of Thomas Flournoy , United States Representative from Virginia . Flournoy relocated with his family to Charleston in 1890 during his father 's second West Virginia Senate term . Flournoy was educated at Fishburne Military School , Hampden – Sydney College , and West Virginia University College of Law . He was admitted to the Kanawha County bar in 1911 and at various times during his law career , Flournoy was appointed special master , arbitrator , or commissioner for several high @-@ profile court cases . In 1935 , Flournoy was an unsuccessful Democratic candidate for an at @-@ large seat on the Charleston City Council . In 1937 , Flournoy was selected by Governor Homer A. Holt as a member of the Charleston Civil Service Board , which regulated the appointments of police and fire personnel . Flournoy served as an incorporator of the New Homes Corporation of Charleston in 1931 and was later president of the Mortgage Exchange Corporation . He was involved in the establishment of a local mortgage business association in 1952 . Flournoy died in Charleston in 1961 . = = Early life and education = = Samuel Lightfoot Flournoy was born on January 7 , 1886 , in Romney , West Virginia . He was the son of West Virginia State Senator Samuel Lightfoot Flournoy and his wife Frances " Fannie " Ann Armstrong White . Through his mother , Flournoy was a grandson of Hampshire County Clerk of Court John Baker White and a nephew of West Virginia Attorney General Robert White and West Virginia Fish Commission President Christian Streit White . Through his father , he was a relative of Thomas Flournoy , United States Representative from Virginia . Flournoy was of English and French ancestry through his father , and of Scottish and Swiss ancestry through his mother . In 1890 , during his father 's second term in the West Virginia Senate , Flournoy and his family relocated from Romney to Charleston , where his father continued practicing law after his resignation from the senate . Flournoy received his primary education at Fishburne Military School in Waynesboro , Virginia . Following his graduation from the military school , he received his secondary education at his father 's alma mater Hampden – Sydney College in Hampden Sydney , Virginia , and went on to study jurisprudence at the West Virginia University College of Law in Morgantown , West Virginia . Flournoy was a member of the Chi Phi fraternity . = = Career = = = = = Law career = = = Flournoy became a member of the Kanawha County bar in 1911 and commenced the practice of law in Charleston . Flournoy was a partner in the Charleston law firm of Flournoy and Porter , where he practiced law for over 50 years . At various times during his law career , Flournoy was appointed special master , arbitrator , or commissioner for several high @-@ profile court cases . In 1932 , Flournoy was appointed special master in a suit involving the estate of Mercy J. Keller , the widow of Benjamin Franklin Keller , a judge for the United States District Court for the Southern District of West Virginia . Flournoy authored a report allowing for the distribution of funds to Keller 's heirs and beneficiaries from Charleston National Bank . In December 1932 , Flournoy provided mediation for several business and home owners who sued the city of Charleston over the widening of Virginia Street between Summers and Capitol Streets . He was unable to attend one of the lawsuit mediation conferences due to an ankle injury . In addition to his role as a special master and mediator , Flournoy was also selected to serve as a special commissioner in several Charleston lawsuits . Flournoy continued to expand his law practice by winning large contracts . In March 1933 , he offered the lowest bid of $ 3 @,@ 745 for a contract that supplied certificates of land title in Kanawha and Fayette counties within the Huntington federal engineering district . The lands within the federal engineering district were to be utilized by the Federal government for river work . = = = Political career = = = In 1935 , Flournoy was a West Virginia Democratic Party candidate for an at @-@ large seat on the Charleston City Council . Flournoy actively campaigned for the at @-@ large seat , and spoke to several local organizations , including the First Ward Negro Democratic Club and Beck 's Mission on Charleston 's West Side . Flournoy was ultimately unsuccessful in his bid for election to the at @-@ large city council seat . During a controversial re @-@ indexing of Kanawha County records by Works Progress Administration officials in 1935 and 1936 , Flournoy served as chairman of the Charleston Bar Association 's Re @-@ Indexing Committee , which completed an independent investigation of the re @-@ indexing progress , as ordered by the bar association 's executive committee . Under Flournoy 's leadership , the committee completed its review in January 1936 . In 1937 , Flournoy was appointed by West Virginia Governor Homer A. Holt as an at @-@ large member of Charleston 's Civil Service Board , which had been empowered by an act of the West Virginia Legislature to regulate the appointment of police and fire personnel in Charleston . While serving on the board , Flournoy was its president and spokesperson . = = = Business career = = = On July 14 , 1931 , Flournoy was an incorporator of the New Homes Corporation of Charleston , a building and construction firm , which was headquartered in the Davidson Building and was chartered with a capital stock value of $ 50 @,@ 000 . Flournoy was later president of the Mortgage Exchange Corporation of Charleston . In his role as president of the Mortgage Exchange Corporation , Flournoy was involved in the establishment of a local association of mortgage businesspeople in February 1952 . Flournoy was named by the association as one of three men appointed to the by @-@ laws committee . = = Later life and death = = At the time of his appointment to the Charleston Civil Services Board , Flournoy resided at 8 California Avenue near the West Virginia Capitol Complex in Charleston . He later relocated to 4100 Kanawha Avenue SE in Charleston 's Kanawha City neighborhood , where he resided at the time of his death . Flournoy died of idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis at the age of 75 on May 17 , 1961 , at Kanawha Valley Memorial Hospital in Charleston following a prolonged illness . He was survived by his wife , his son , and his sister Frances Flournoy Preston . Flournoy 's funeral services were held at the Barlow @-@ Bonsall Funeral Home and his family requested that memorial donations be made to Marmet Hospital in his honor . He was interred at Spring Hill Cemetery in Charleston on May 19 , 1961 . At the opening of the September 1961 term of the Kanawha County Circuit Court , Flournoy was eulogized by Kanawha County Bar Association member Roy M. Sams . = = Personal life = = Flournoy married Sarah Katharine Cotton in Charleston in 1913 . He and Katharine had two children , one son and one daughter : Samuel Lightfoot Flournoy , Jr . ( March 23 , 1924 – December 27 , 2014 ) , married Virginia McManaway Cox of Thaxton , Virginia on June 14 , 1964 Nancy Margaret Cotton Flournoy Moore , married Webster Hamilton Moore of Greensboro , North Carolina , on December 3 , 1949 Flournoy was a practicing Presbyterian and was a member of the Ruffner Memorial Presbyterian Church in Charleston .
= History of cardistry = Cardistry is a portmanteau of cards and artistry . The art form of card flourishing , commonly referred to as cardistry , grew out of simple flourishes used in close @-@ up magic by magicians in the 1990s to early 2000s . Chris Kenner 's notable two @-@ handed Sybil cut from his 1992 publication Totally Out of Control has carried great influence and gave birth to a series of advanced flourishes which today represents the foundation of the performance art . Sleight of hand pioneers Dan and Dave popularized cardistry on the world stage with their instructional DVD releases from 2004 and 2007 . Journalist Kevin Pang of Vanity Fair characterized the art of card flourishing as , " It 's yo @-@ yo tricks performed by cardsharps with the street cred of a Parkour video . There 's a name for it : cardistry . " = = Roots in magic = = When conjuring tricks with playing cards became popular around the 19th century , magicians would often include card flourishes in their performances to demonstrate their sleight of hand abilities . Unlike tricks , flourishes were intended to be visually impressive and appear difficult to perform . Some of the first flourishes to be documented include the Charlier Cut , Riffle Shuffle and Thumb Fan . Several sleight of hand bestsellers , such as S. W. Erdnase 's The Expert at the Card Table from 1902 ( which shared roots in gambling and cheating at cards ) , emphasized the importance of incorporating flourishes into tricks . Up until the 2000s , card flourishing were considered a mere subsection of close @-@ up magic and not an independent performance art . Cardistry is a portmanteau of " card " and " artistry " . It involves the use of hands to create cuts , displays , fans , patterns and sequences through the use of playing cards . Various armspreads , cuts , shuffles and springs can be used . The intent is to create a captivating motion and beautiful display . The effects are limited only by the types of cars used , the imagination , and the degree of manual dexterity of the performer . The presentation is typically neither " illusionary " nor purportedly " magic " . At least in part , the color and form of cards affect visual perceptions of the act . The visual style of the art form is often associated or compared to juggling , hackey @-@ sack , mimes and even skateboarding . = = Five Faces of Sybil = = In 1992 , American magician and David Copperfield producer Chris Kenner published Totally Out of Control , a successful instructional book explaining magic effects with playing cards and other household objects . Among the many sleights featured was a two @-@ handed card flourish on page 125 called " The Five Faces of Sybil " . Using all fingers , Sybil ends with the deck divided into five distinct packets . Kenner himself describes Sybil in his book as " a quick cut flourish to demonstrate skill and dexterity " . The flourish spawned a cycle of two @-@ handed cut creations and formed the cornerstone of what is now known as cardistry . Journalist Kevin Pang of Vanity Fair magazine noted that " every cardist can deftly perform Sybil the way guitarists can run through a blues progression " . = = An art form = = Los Angeles @-@ based magician Brian Tudor was one of many performers heavily influenced by Sybil . In 1997 , he released a three @-@ volume VHS tape dubbed Show Off , one of the first instructional products made by a known magician to only feature flourishes . Tudor 's tape was well received , with some critics describing the flourishes and cuts taught as " eye @-@ popping " . The most notable invention from Show Off was the one @-@ handed Revolution Cut , a variation of the common Charlier , where the top packet spins an additional 180 degrees . In 2001 , twin brothers and Sybil enthusiast Daniel and David Buck ( known as Dan and Dave ) released Pasteboard Animations , another flourish @-@ only instructional VHS tape . Although produced as a low @-@ fi home video and relatively short compared to Show Off , it sold hundreds of copies at hotel lobbies and magic conventions at a cost of $ 25 . In a Genii magazine review of the Magic Live convention in August 2001 , the twins flourishes and Pasteboard Animations tape received mixed responses . Renowned magic historian Jamy Ian Swiss remarked : " It was an excellent show , though opinion was definitely mixed about the Buck boys , who sat and stared at their hands while oddly racing through flourishes . It serves no function except as eye candy . It 's juggling , and juggling and magic are two separate things . Nevertheless , it 's fucking cool to watch . Cool is cool is cool , capital C cool . And magic is traditionally uncool . It 's always been the geeky kids . " In spite of the mixed responses from the traditional magic scene , Dan and Dave continued with their cardistry creations . In 2004 , with the help of Kenner , the twins released an instructional DVD on cardistry named The Dan and Dave System . The System is perceived as having officially separated advanced card flourishing from card magic and defined the style of cardistry . Filmed with digital movie cameras at film studios and professional edited , the critically praised $ 30 DVD inspired thousands of sleight of hand artists all over the world to embark on cardistry . Four years later , the twins released a three @-@ disc DVD set known as The Trilogy , showcasing some of the most comprehensive and difficult flourishes ever created . Retailing at $ 85 per copy , The Trilogy is the bestselling cardistry release of all time , having sold more than 25 @,@ 000 units . Pang wrote that just about every cardist lists either the System or The Trilogy as the reason they got into card flourishing . In a 2015 interview , Singaporean cardist Kevin Ho mentioned that cardistry grew in popularity during the 2000s because of promotion through social media and journalistic coverage . Another cardist from Singapore , Huron Low , explained : " A lot of new doors are opening . Earphone companies and watch companies want to see product placements [ in our videos ] . And there 's a lot of focus now on cardistry as a lifestyle brand — caps , T @-@ shirts . " = = Cardistry convention = = In response to the growing cardistry community , Dan and Dave organized the first cardistry convention and interactive conference to promote the performance art in 2014 , called Cardistry @-@ Con. The convention saw interviews , panel discussions , live performances , exclusive video screenings , workshops , contests and giveaways . The 2015 convention was attended by journalists from magazines such as Vanity Fair and Wired as well as television stations , all of which helped further popularize cardistry as an art . Its growth has been associated with its availability with the availability of videos , lessons and podcasts , which tend to make the art more transparent and available to all who are interested . = = Tools = = Decks of playing cards are an essential part of the cardist 's tools . Ordinary playing cards will do . However , they are not fungible goods ; and some have the opinion that those chosen should be particularly adapted to the task , even though they can be rare and relatively expensive – flexibility , stickiness , colors and decorations ( both front and back ) vary . However , older grimier cards , sometimes called " poop decks " , are preferred by others . = = Gender imbalance = = It is no secret that cardistry , like magic generally , is populated mainly by males . Some have observed that the split is roughly 9 to 1 , male @-@ to @-@ female . The reasons and remedies , if any , are subject to dispute . = = List of notable practitioners or creators = =
= Zero Patience = Zero Patience is a 1993 Canadian musical film written and directed by John Greyson . The film examines and refutes the urban legend of the alleged introduction of HIV to North America by a single individual , Gaëtan Dugas . Dugas , better known as Patient Zero , was tagged in the popular imagination with the blame in large measure because of Randy Shilts 's history of the early days of the AIDS epidemic , And the Band Played On . The film tells its story against the backdrop of a romance between a time @-@ displaced Sir Richard Francis Burton and the ghost of " Zero " ( the character is not identified by Dugas ' name ) . Produced in partnership with the Canadian Film Centre , the Canada Council , Telefilm Canada and the Ontario Film Development Corporation , Zero Patience opened to mixed reviews but went on to win a number of prestigious Canadian film awards . The film has been the subject of critical attention in the context of both film theory and queer theory and is considered part of the informal New Queer Cinema movement . = = Plot summary = = Victorian adventurer and sexologist Sir Richard Francis Burton ( John Robinson ) , following an " unfortunate encounter " with the Fountain of Youth in 1892 , is 170 years old and living in Toronto , Canada . Burton , now living and working as the chief taxidermist at a Museum of Natural History , is searching for a centerpiece display for an exhibit in his Hall of Contagion . He comes up with the idea of featuring AIDS and the Patient Zero hypothesis . Accepting the popular belief that Zero introduced the virus to North America , Burton sets out to collect video footage from those who knew Zero to support the hypothesis . When Zero 's doctor ( Brenda Kamino ) , mother ( Charlotte Boisjoli ) and former airline colleague Mary ( Dianne Heatherington ) , who is now with ACT UP , all refuse to demonize Zero , Burton manipulates the footage to make it appear as if they do and includes doctored photographs of Zero showing signs of Kaposi 's sarcoma . He presents this preliminary version to the press . The ghost of Zero ( Normand Fauteux ) materializes at a local gay bathhouse . No one can see or hear him , until Zero runs into Burton while Burton is spying on Zero 's friend George . Zero realizes that Burton can see him , although Zero does not show up on Burton 's video camera . The two strike a deal ; Zero agrees to help Burton with his Patient Zero exhibit if Burton finds a way to make Zero appear . The two return to the museum where Burton makes a ridiculous attempt to seduce Zero to ensure his participation . Rejecting his advances , Zero examines some of the other exhibits ( including displays on Typhoid Mary and the Tuskegee syphilis study ) before finding an African green monkey , another suspected early AIDS vector . The monkey ( Marla Lukofsky ) angrily denounces Zero for scapegoating her just as he has been scapegoated . Zero turns to Burton and they make love . Under pressure from his director and the exhibit 's drug manufacturer sponsor , Burton steals Zero 's medical records in hopes of discovering new information . Zero and Burton examine an old blood sample of Zero 's under a microscope and discover Miss HIV ( Michael Callen ) , who points out that the original study that was used to label Patient Zero as the first person to bring HIV to North America did not prove any such thing , but instead helped prove that HIV was sexually transmitted , leading to the development of safer sex practices . Under this interpretation , Zero could be lauded as a hero for his candor in participating in that original study . As Burton ponders this , an unknown fluid squirts from the eye pieces of the microscope , drenching Zero and making him appear on video . He joyously declares his innocence on tape but the effect only lasts five minutes before he fades away again . Zero angrily accuses Burton of not caring for him at all and only wanting to use him for the exhibit , then storms out . Burton fails to complete the revised Patient Zero exhibit before its scheduled opening date . The museum curator substitutes the original presentation instead over Burton 's protests , leading to a renewed rush of press scapegoating Zero . The night after the exhibit opens , Mary and other ACT UP members break into the Hall of Contagion and trash the exhibit . Zero returns and Burton explains that he tried to stop the exhibit . Zero forgives Burton but says he wants to disappear again completely . Zero merges with his disfigured video image and , smoking a cigarette inside the video , sets off the fire alarm . The sprinklers destroy the video player and Zero vanishes . A major subplot involves George ( Richardo Keens @-@ Douglas ) , a French teacher and former intimate of Zero 's . George is losing his sight to cytomegalovirus and is taking a drug that is manufactured by a company that , as a member of ACT UP , George is protesting . George struggles through the film to resolve his conflicted feelings over this , his guilt over abandoning Zero during the final days of his illness and his fear that the same thing will happen to him . = = Cast = = John Robinson as Sir Richard Burton Normand Fauteux as Zero Dianne Heatherington as Mary Richardo Keens @-@ Douglas as George Charlotte Boisjoli as Maman , Zero 's mother Brenda Kamino as Dr. Cheng , Zero 's doctor Michael Callen as Miss HIV Marla Lukofsky as African Green Monkey Von Flores as Ray ( ACT UP member ) Scott Hurst as Michael ( ACT UP member ) Duncan McIntosh as Ross ( ACT UP member ) Real @-@ life television journalist Ann Medina has a brief role as a television reporter . Co @-@ producer Louise Garfield makes a cameo appearance playing a virus , co @-@ producer Anna Stratton appears as a drug company executive and composer Glenn Schellenberg plays a bathhouse attendant . = = Production = = John Greyson became interested in offering a counterpoint to the Patient Zero story as early as 1987 , when the Patient Zero meme began entering the public consciousness following the publication of Randy Shilts 's book And the Band Played On . The book described the cluster study which led to the popular identification of flight attendant Gaëtan Dugas as the vector through which HIV was first brought to North America . It should be noted , however , that Shilts himself never claimed that Dugas was the first . In early 1991 Greyson was given a development grant for the script from the Canadian Film Centre , of which Greyson is an alumnus . Over the next year Greyson , in collaboration with Film Centre partners Louise Garfield and Anna Stratton , continued to develop the script , eventually presenting it with producer Alexandra Raffé in a workshop format . During the first half of 1992 , the production team secured additional development funding from the Canada Council , Telefilm Canada and the Ontario Film Development Corporation . By June of that year the script and the songs were completed and that autumn , with funds from the Telefilm Canada and OFDC grants along with revenue from the sale of British broadcast rights to Channel 4 , pre @-@ production and casting got underway . Principal photography began in November 1992 and wrapped after five weeks . Sneak previews took place at the Seattle International Film Festival and a number of LGBT film festivals across the United States before its official debut in September 1993 at Toronto 's Festival of Festivals . In dedicating the film 's soundtrack album to performer and AIDS activist Michael Callen and other friends they had lost to the disease , Greyson , composer Glenn Schellenberg and producers Garfield and Stratton explained their reasons for making the film . " We wanted to explode the opportunistic myth of Patient Zero .... More importantly , we wanted to celebrate the courage and sass of an international AIDS activist movement that has tirelessly fought for the rights of people living with AIDS . " = = Critical reception = = Zero Patience garnered mixed critical reaction . The mainstream Austin Chronicle cited a " murky plot , frequently weak acting and often mediocre music " while still praising the film 's " spunk , humor , enthusiasm and wit . " The Washington Post compared Zero Patience unfavorably to Hollywood 's big @-@ budget , big @-@ star AIDS @-@ themed film , Philadelphia , claiming that the latter 's protagonist , Andrew Beckett , " looked sick , dealt with his illness and allowed the audience to sympathize , " unlike the " healthy hoofers " of the musical who , because they didn 't look sick enough , " [ seem ] to deny some of the grim realities " of the disease . In a contrary favorable opinion , London 's Time Out Film Guide praised the film for " slyly inverting popular wisdom " to " offer a sassy commentary on the epidemic of blame " and calling Zero Patience " a film which engages your mind as much as your heart , and leaves you laughing . " Similarly , The New York Times lauded the film 's " loopy buoyancy , " praising the songs as a " bouncy stylistic hybrid of Gilbert and Sullivan , Ringo Starr , The Kinks and the Pet Shop Boys . " Zero Patience was honored as the Best Canadian Film and Best Ontario Feature at the 1993 Cinéfest and was awarded a Special Jury Citation as Best Canadian Feature Film at the 1993 Festival of Festivals . Greyson dedicated his award to the memory of Jay Scott , the influential film critic who had died of AIDS a few months earlier . Director Greyson and composer Glenn Schellenberg were nominated for a 1993 Genie Award for Best Original Song for the film 's theme song , " Zero Patience . " = = = Queer theory = = = In examining the film from a queer theory perspective , author Michele Aaron cites Zero Patience as definitional of one of the New Queer Cinema 's central attitudes , the " def [ iance ] of cinematic convention in terms of form , content and genre . " Aaron goes on to cite the film 's musical format as " further subvert [ ing ] the ways we might expect to be ' entertained ' by such serious matters as AIDS , media representation , and the legacy of moralism and sexuality . " Feminist academic and AIDS video producer Alexandra Juhasz puts forth the film as " an effective critique of the silly sensationalism used in much reportage of AIDS science [ that ] fights melodrama and tabloid journalism -- with melodrama and tabloid journalism . " Not all such critical commentary has been positive , with openly gay film scholar Robin Wood ( who saw the film when someone very close to him was in the final stages of AIDS ) calling the film " misguided on the levels both of conception and execution . " = = Soundtrack = = The Zero Patience soundtrack was released in 1994 . Produced by John Switzer , it includes all of the songs and several pieces of incidental music , along with two remixes of the film 's title song . = = = Track listing = = = Zero Patience [ Moulton Lava Club Remix ] Arabian Nights - Instrumental Just Like Scheherazade - Zero Culture of Certainty - Richard Burton Pop @-@ A @-@ Boner - Bathhouse trio Control - Mary and ACT UP George 's Theme - Instrumental Pop @-@ A @-@ Boner [ Reprise # 1 ] - Bathhouse trio Butthole Duet - Richard Burton and Zero Positive - George and schoolchildren Drowning Sailors ' Theme - Instrumental Love Theme - Instrumental Contagious - African Green Monkey Pop @-@ A @-@ Boner [ Reprise # 2 ] - Bathhouse trio Scheherazade ( Miss HIV ) - Miss HIV Six or Seven Things - Richard Burton and Zero Zero Patience - Principal cast Scheherazade ( Tell a Story ) - Principal cast Zero Patience [ Extended Burn Remix ]
= Cat Daddy = " Cat Daddy " is a 2011 song by American Hip hop group The Rej3ctz . It is based on a dance of the same name and is from the 2010 mixtape TheFUNKtion vs theKICKback . " Cat Daddy " was a MTV Jams " Jam Of The Week " in January 2011 . It was released for digital download on February 16 , 2011 on iTunes and subsequently charted on several Billboard charts , including the Hot R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Songs chart , where it spent fourteen weeks and eventually peaked at number 77 , after being re @-@ released on June 27 , 2011 . Chris Brown performed the Cat Daddy dance during the 106 & Park 10th Anniversary special in October 2010 . Brown was the featured dance performer on the song 's official video , which as of November 12 , 2015 has over 99 million YouTube views . A Cat Daddy 2 @.@ 0 video by Mario Van Peebles preceded the re @-@ release of the song and was associated with the movie We the Party . Several notable celebrities have been filmed doing the dance , including Justin Bieber and Selena Gomez . The dance is described as a combination of buckling a seatbelt and rolling a wheelchair . The song and dance became a viral video in May 2012 when then @-@ current Sports Illustrated Swimsuit Issue cover model Kate Upton posted a video of her bikini @-@ clad rendition of the dance on YouTube , causing YouTube to temporarily ban the video . The propriety of the YouTube ban was hotly debated with articles in many top @-@ tier publications including the Los Angeles Times , The Washington Post and the Daily News as well as leading news services such as ABC News and Fox News . Her video has about 25 @.@ 7 million YouTube views , as of November 12 , 2015 . = = Release = = The " Cat Daddy " dance was originated by The Rej3ctz group member Reject Sam before the group linked it to the song . The song came from a 2010 mixtape entitled TheFUNKtion vs theKICKback , which is sometimes just referred to as The FUNKtion . In late 2010 and 2011 , Chris Brown popularized the Cat Daddy dance after performing it in the official video . On October 6 , 2010 , Brown performed the Cat Daddy on 106 & Park for their 10 @-@ year anniversary show . Then , the Rej3ctz released a video of the song , featuring Brown dancing , that was produced at Venice Beach on or before August 2010 . The song was released February 16 , 2011 as a music download on iTunes . According to Thomas Clayton of The Daily Rind , the song had 14 @,@ 000 downloads on iTunes in its first week and the video had 9 million pageviews at the time . By April 20 , 2011 , the official video had 21 million pageviews . As of November 12 , 2015 the original December 2 , 2010 upload of the official video has over 81 @.@ 9 million YouTube views , while an alternate March 9 , 2011 upload of the video has an additional 17 @.@ 4 million plus views . In April 2011 , Mario Van Peebles produced a " Cat Daddy 2 @.@ 0 " video that included appearances of several artist playing parody roles of themselves like actor and singer Quincy , rapper YG and entertainer Carlos Olivero . The video was associated with the release of Van Peebles ' movie We the Party and the story behind The Rej3ctz ' audition for it . The video shows how The Rej3ctz anticipated succeeding in their auditions , but realized that the competition was stiffer than expected . They were rejected until Van Peebles ' kids got Mario to ask them to perform their song and dance . The video was Van Peebles ' first music video . The song was re @-@ released on iTunes on June 27 , 2011 . = = = Reception = = = Billboard described the song as a " low @-@ slung " . MostlyJunkFood.com described the song and video as " another one of those weak on lyrical content , but making up for it with a bangin beat and some standard Chris Breezy dancin ’ abouts " . In January 2011 , the song was recognized by MTV Jams as the " Jam Of The Week " . Although the song only spent one week on the Billboard Hot 100 , peaking at number 97 on June 18 , 2011 , it spent fourteen weeks on the Hot R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Songs chart peaking at 77 on July 16 , 2011 and was listed on the Top Heatseekers list for eleven weeks , peaking at number 12 on June 18 , 2011 . = = = Production background = = = The original video was directed by Alex Nazari . TheFUNKtion vs theKICKback mixtape that included " Cat Daddy " was produced by JHawk . = = Kate Upton videos = = Kate Upton , who in February 2012 was the cover model for the Sports Illustrated Swimsuit Issue , recorded a video of the Dougie that went viral and garnered over 5 million hits in April 2011 . She announced her intention to release a video performance of the Cat Daddy when she served as grand marshal for the 2012 Daytona 500 . The video of Upton dancing on a break between photo shots was posted online on April 30 . After garnering close to 1 million hits in the first 24 hours , YouTube banned Kate Upton 's version of the dance from their site for being too risqué . After some deliberation about whether it " violated the website ’ s rules on nudity and sexual content " the video was restored to their website . Upton 's Cat Daddy video clip was a part of Terry Richardson 's vlog . Richardson has a reputation for " raunchy " artwork . According to the Los Angeles Times the video was removed on May 1 , 2012 while the Daily News reported its removal was May 2 . Both agree that the video was restored late on May 2 , although Fox News reports that it was initially restored with an age restriction . During the YouTube ban , Upton 's Cat Daddy gained exposure at Vimeo when Richardson uploaded it there in response to the ban . As of November 12 , 2015 , her version of the dance has received about 25 @.@ 7 million YouTube views . Following Upton 's April 30 rendition , The Rej3ctz were impressed enough with Upton that they attempted to contact her regarding future collaboration ( s ) . On the June 21 , 2012 edition of Late Night with Jimmy Fallon she performed a fully clothed rendition of the " Cat Daddy " alongside Fallon . Prior to performing the dance she described the movements of the dance as buckling a seatbelt and rolling a wheelchair . YouTube now hosts videos of numerous celebrities doing the Cat Daddy including Selena Gomez and Justin Bieber . = = Track listing = = = = Chart performance = = = = Release history = =
= Siege of Szigetvár = The Siege of Szigetvár or Battle of Szigeth ( pronunciation : [ ˈsiɡɛtvaːr ] Hungarian : Szigetvár ostroma , Croatian : Bitka kod Sigeta or Sigetska bitka , Turkish : Zigetvar Kuşatması ) was a siege of the fortress of Szigetvár , Kingdom of Hungary , that blocked Suleiman 's line of advance towards Vienna in 1566 AD . The battle was fought between the defending forces of the Habsburg Monarchy under the leadership of Nikola Šubić Zrinski ( Hungarian : Zrínyi Miklós ) , former Ban of Croatia , and the invading Ottoman army under the nominal command of Sultan Suleiman the Magnificent ( Ottoman Turkish : سليمان Süleymān ) . After the Battle of Mohács in 1526 , which resulted in the end of the independent Kingdom of Hungary , Ferdinand I was elected King by the nobles of both Hungary and Croatia . This was followed by a series of conflicts with the Habsburgs and their allies , fighting against the Ottoman Empire . In the Little War in Hungary both sides exhausted themselves after sustaining heavy casualties . The Ottoman campaign in Hungary ceased until the offensive against Szigetvár . In January 1566 Suleiman went to war for the last time . The siege of Szigetvár was fought from 5 August to 8 September 1566 and , though it resulted in an Ottoman victory , there were heavy losses on both sides . Both commanders died during the battle — Zrinski in the final charge and Suleiman in his tent from natural causes . More than 20 @,@ 000 Turks had fallen during the attacks and almost all of Zrinski 's 2 @,@ 300 man garrison was killed , with most of the final 600 men killed on the last day . Although the battle was an Ottoman victory , it stopped the Ottoman push to Vienna that year . Vienna was not threatened again until the Battle of Vienna in 1683 . The importance of the battle was considered so great that the French clergyman and statesman Cardinal Richelieu was reported to have described it as " the battle that saved civilization . " The battle is still famous in Croatia and Hungary and inspired both the Hungarian epic poem The Siege of Sziget and the Croatian opera Nikola Šubić Zrinski . = = Background = = On 29 August 1526 the forces of the Kingdom of Hungary led by King Louis II were defeated at the Battle of Mohács by Ottoman forces led by Sultan Suleiman the Magnificent . Louis died in the battle which resulted in the end of the independent Kingdom of Hungary , as he died without an heir . Both Hungary and Croatia became disputed territories with claims from both the Habsburg and Ottoman empires . Ferdinand I from the House of Habsburg , brother of Holy Roman Emperor Charles V , married the sister of Louis II and was elected King by the nobles of both Hungary and Croatia . The throne of Hungary became the subject of a dynastic dispute between Ferdinand and John Zápolya from Transylvania . Suleiman had promised to make Zápolya the ruler of all Hungary . Ferdinand set out to enforce his claim on Hungary and captured Buda from John Zápolya in 1527 , only to relinquish his hold on it in 1529 when an Ottoman counter @-@ attack stripped Ferdinand of all his territorial gains during 1527 and 1528 . The Siege of Vienna in 1529 was the first attempt by Suleiman the Magnificent to capture the Austrian capital . This siege signalled the pinnacle of Ottoman power and the maximum extent of Ottoman expansion in central Europe . = = = Little War = = = The years from 1529 to 1552 were known as the " Little War " . Following Suleiman 's unsuccessful siege of Vienna in 1529 Ferdinand launched a counter @-@ attack in 1530 to regain the initiative . An assault on Buda was driven off by John Zápolya , although Ferdinand was successful elsewhere — capturing Gran ( Esztergom ) and other forts along the Danube river , a vital strategic frontier . Suleiman 's response came in 1532 when he led a massive army of over 120 @,@ 000 troops to besiege Vienna again . Ferdinand withdrew his army , leaving only 700 men with no cannons and a few guns to defend Güns ( Koszeg ) although Ibrahim Pasha , the Grand Vizier of the Ottomans , did not realize how poorly defended Koszeg was . Suleiman came to join him shortly after the siege had started . For more than twenty five days Croatian captain Nikola Jurišić and his garrison of 800 Croats held out against nineteen full @-@ scale assaults and an incessant bombardment by the Ottomans . As a result , the city was offered a surrender on favourable terms and , although the offer was rejected , the Ottomans retreated leading to a peace treaty between Ferdinand and Suleiman . John Zápolya was recognized as the King of Hungary by the Habsburgs , although as an Ottoman vassal . The treaty did not satisfy either John Zápolya or Ferdinand and their armies began skirmishes along the borders . In 1537 Ferdinand attacked John ’ s forces at Osijek in violation of the treaty . The siege was a disaster of similar magnitude to that of Mohács , with an Ottoman relief army smashing the Austrians . Rather than attack Vienna again Suleiman attacked Otranto in southern Italy . Nonetheless , an Ottoman victory at the naval Battle of Preveza ( 1538 ) gave the Habsburg @-@ led coalition another defeat . John Zápolya died in 1540 and was succeeded by his infant son John II Sigismund Zápolya . For much of his reign the country was governed by his mother Isabella Jagiellon , with continued support from Suleiman . John II remained as nominal King of Hungary until he abdicated in 1570 and returned the country to Habsburg rule . A further humiliating defeat was inflicted on the Habsburgs in the Siege of Buda ( 1541 ) when the Ottomans responded to a request for help from Isabella Jagiellon . In April 1543 Suleiman launched another campaign in Hungary , taking back Bran and other forts so that much of Hungary returned to Ottoman control . In August 1543 the Ottomans succeeded in the Siege of Esztergom ( 1543 ) which was followed by the capture of three Hungarian cities : Székesfehérvár , Siklós and Szeged , offering better security for Buda . Another peace agreement between the Habsburgs and the Ottomans lasted until 1552 when Suleiman decided to attack Eger . The siege proved futile and the Habsburg victory reversed a period of territorial losses in Hungary . The survival of Eger gave the Austrians good reason to believe that Hungary was still a contested ground and the Ottoman campaign in Hungary ceased , until its revival in 1566 . = = Campaign of 1566 = = In January 1566 Sultan Suleiman I had ruled the Ottoman Empire for 46 years and went to war for the last time . He was 72 years old and , although having gout to the extent that he was carried on a litter , he nominally commanded his thirteenth military campaign . On 1 May 1566 the Sultan left Constantinople at the head of one of the largest armies he had ever commanded . His opposite number , Count Nikola Šubić Zrinski , was one of the largest landholders in the Kingdom of Croatia , a seasoned veteran of border warfare , and a Ban ( Croatian royal representative ) from 1542 to 1556 . In his early life he distinguished himself in the Siege of Vienna and pursued a successful military career . Suleiman 's forces reached Belgrade on 27 June after a forty @-@ nine @-@ day march . Here he met with John II Sigismund Zápolya who he earlier promised to make the ruler of all Hungary . Learning of the Zrinski 's success in an attack upon a Turkish encampment at Siklós , Suleiman decided to postpone his attack on Eger ( German : Erlau ) and instead attack Zrinski 's fortress at Szigetvár to eliminate him as a threat . = = = Siege = = = The advanced guard of the Turks arrived at on 2 August 1566 and the defenders made several successful sorties causing considerable loss to the Turks . The Sultan arrived with the main force on 5 August and his big war tent was erected on the Similehov hill , giving him a view of the battle . The Sultan had to stay in his camp where he received verbal battle progress reports from his Grand Vizier Sokollu Mehmed Pasha , the real operational commander of the Ottoman forces . Count Zrinski found himself besieged by a hostile army of at least 150 @,@ 000 soldiers with powerful artillery . Zrinski had assembled a force of around 2 @,@ 300 Croatian and Hungarian soldiers prior to the siege . These consisted of his personal forces and those of his friends and allies . The majority of the defenders were Croatian , with a significant Hungarian contingent represented in both the men @-@ at @-@ arms and the leadership . Szigetvár was divided into three sections divided by water : the old town , the new town and the castle — each of which was linked to the next by bridges and to the land by causeways . Although it was not built on particularly high ground the inner castle , which occupied much of the area of today 's castle , was not directly accessible to the attackers . This was because two other baileys had to be taken and secured before a final assault on the inner castle could be launched . When the Sultan appeared before the Fortress he saw the walls hung with red cloth , as though for a festive reception , and a single great cannon thundered once to greet the mighty warrior monarch . The siege began on 6 August when Suleiman ordered a general assault on the ramparts , although the attack was successfully repulsed . Despite being undermanned , and greatly outnumbered , the defenders were sent no reinforcements from Vienna by the imperial army . After over a month of exhausting and bloody struggle the few remaining defenders retreated into the old town for their last stand . The Sultan tried to entice Zrinski to surrender , ultimately offering him leadership of Croatia under Ottoman influence , Count Zrinski did not reply and continued to fight . The fall of the castle appeared inevitable but the Ottoman high command hesitated . On 6 September Suleiman died in his tent and his death was kept secret at great effort with only the Sultan 's innermost circle knowing of his demise . This was because the Ottomans feared that their soldiers would give up the battle if they knew that their leader died , so his death was kept secret for 48 days . A courier was dispatched from the camp with a message for Suleiman 's successor , Selim . The courier may not even have known the content of the message he delivered to distant Asia Minor within a mere eight days . = = = Final battle = = = The final battle began on 7 September , the day after Suleiman 's demise . By this time , the fortress walls had been reduced to rubble by mining with explosives and wood fueled fires at the corners of the walls . In the morning an all @-@ out attack began with fusillades from small arms , " Greek fire " , and a concentrated cannonade . Soon the castle , the last stronghold within Szigetvár , was set ablaze and cinders fell into the apartments of the count . The Ottoman army swarmed through the city , drumming and yelling . Zrinski prepared for a last charge addressing his troops : Zrinski did not allow the final assault to break into the castle . As the Turks were pressing forwards along a narrow bridge the defenders suddenly flung open the gate and fired a large mortar loaded with broken iron , killing 600 attackers . Zrinski then ordered a charge and led his remaining 600 troops out of the castle . He received two musket wounds in his chest and was killed shortly afterwards by an arrow to the head . Some of his force retired into the castle . The Turks took the castle and most of the defenders were slain . A few of the captured defenders were spared by Janissaries who had admired their courage , with only seven defenders managing to escape through the Ottoman lines . Zrinski 's corpse was beheaded and his head taken to the new Sultan while his body received an honourable burial by a Turk who had been his prisoner , and well treated by him . = = = Powder magazine explosion = = = Before leading the final sortie by the castle garrison , Zrinski ordered a fuse be lit to the powder magazine . After cutting down the last of the defenders the besiegers poured into the fortress . The Ottoman Army entered the remains of Szigetvár and fell into the booby trap , thousands perished in the blast when the castle 's magazine exploded . The Vizier Ibrahim 's life was saved by one of Zrinski 's household who warned him of the trap when the Vizier and his troops searched for treasure and interrogated the survivors . While inquiring about treasure the prisoner replied that it had been long expended , but that 3 @,@ 000 lbs of powder were under their feet to which a slow match had been attached . The Vizier and his mounted officers had just enough time to escape but 3 @,@ 000 Turks perished in the explosion . = = Aftermath = = Almost all of Zrinski 's garrison was wiped out after the final battle . Ottoman casualties were also heavy . Three pashas , 7 @,@ 000 Janissaries and 28 @,@ 000 other soldiers are said to have perished . Sources vary on the exact number with estimates ranging from 20 @,@ 000 – 35 @,@ 000 . After the battle the Grand Vizier forged bulletins in the Sultan 's name , proclaiming victory . These announced that the Sultan regretted that his current state of health prevented him from continuing with the successful campaign . His body was returned to Constantinople while the inner circle of officials pretended to keep up communication with him . Turkish sources state that the illusion was maintained for three weeks and that even the Sultan 's personal physician was strangled as a precaution . It is likely that the long journey and the siege had a detrimental effect on the Sultan 's health . His death meant that any advances were postponed as the Grand Vizier had to return to Constantinople for the succession of the new Sultan , Selim II . Even if Suleiman had lived his army could not have achieved much in the short time that remained between the fall of Szigeth and the onset of winter . The prolonged resistance at Szigeth delayed the Ottoman push to Vienna . Two ambasadors were sent by Emperor Maximilian : Croatian Antun Vrančić and Styrian Christoph Teuffenbach . They arrived in Istanbul on 26 August 1567 and were well received by Sultan Selim II . An agreement ending the war between the Austrian and Ottoman empires was reached on 17 February 1568 , after five months of negotiations with Sokollu Mehmed Pasha ( also known as Mehmed @-@ paša Sokolović , being originally from Bosnia ) . The Treaty of Adrianople was signed on 21 February 1568 . Sultan Selim II agreed to an eight @-@ year truce , although the agreement brought 25 years of ( relative ) peace between the Empires until the Long War . The truce was conditional and Maximilian agreed to pay an annual tribute of 30 @,@ 000 ducats . = = Depictions in art = = The Croatian Renaissance poet and writer Brne Karnarutić , from Zadar , wrote The Conquest of the City of Sziget ( Croatian : Vazetje Sigeta grada ) sometime before 1573 . His work was posthumously published in 1584 in Venice . This is the first Croatian historical epic dealing with national history and the Battle of Szigetvár . It was inspired by Marko Marulić 's Judita . The battle was also immortalized in the Hungarian epic poem Szigeti Veszedelem ( " Peril of Sziget " ) , written in fifteen parts by Zrinski 's great @-@ grandson Nicholas VII of Zrin ( also a Ban of Croatia ) in 1647 and published in 1651 . This was one of the first such epics in the Hungarian language and was also inspired by Marulić 's Judita . Kenneth Clark 's renowned history Civilisation lists the Szigeti Veszedelem as one of the major literary achievements of the 17th century . In spite of the author and other members of Zrinski family being fierce enemies of the Turks , the poem never demonizes them . The Turks are portrayed as human beings and a love story between Deliman the Tatar and the Sultan 's daughter Cumilla is interwoven into the main plot . Petar Zrinski ( Hungarian : Zrínyi Péter ) , the brother of Nikola VII Zrinski , published Opsida Sigecka ( 1647 / 8 ) in the Croatian language — not surprising since the Zrinski family were bilingual . Another Croatian nobleman warrior @-@ poet Pavao Ritter Vitezović ( 1652 – 1713 ) wrote about the battle . His poem Odiljenje sigetsko ( " The Sziget Farewell " ) , first published in 1684 , reminisces about the event without rancour or crying for revenge . The last of the four cantos is titled " Tombstones " and consists of epitaphs for the Croatian and Turkish warriors who died during the siege , paying equal respect to both . Ivan Zajc 's 1876 opera Nikola Šubić Zrinski is his most famous and popular work in Croatia . This recounts the heroic defiance of the Croats towards the Turks , as a metaphor for their later nationalist impulses within the Habsburg monarchy . Zrinski is depicted in the plot as a 16th @-@ century Croatian hero who defeated the Turks a couple of times before perishing sacrificially , along with his family and close supporters , in the siege of Szigeth castle . The opera is patriotic with a famous aria " U boj , u boj " .
= Tiberius Julius Alexander = Tiberius Julius Alexander ( fl . 1st century ) was an equestrian governor and general in the Roman Empire . Born into a wealthy Jewish family of Alexandria but abandoning or neglecting the Jewish religion , he rose to become procurator of Judea ( c . 46 – 48 ) under Claudius . While Prefect of Egypt ( 66 – 69 ) , he employed his legions against the Alexandrian Jews in a brutal response to ethnic violence , and was instrumental in the Emperor Vespasian 's rise to power . In 70 , he participated in the Siege of Jerusalem as Titus ' second @-@ in @-@ command . = = Early life = = Tiberius Julius Alexander was probably born early in the reign of the Emperor Tiberius ( 14 – 37 ) . His father was Alexander , an Alexandrian Jew who held the office of Alabarch ; the exact meaning of this term is debated , but it may have denoted a senior customs official . The older Alexander enjoyed Roman citizenship , a rare privilege among the Jews of Alexandria , and therefore passed it to his sons . He also had business connections both with Agrippa , grandson of Herod the Great , and with Antonia , mother of the emperor Claudius . Another prominent member of Tiberius Alexander 's family was his uncle , the philosopher Philo . Tiberius ' younger brother Marcus Julius Alexander would follow their father into business , becoming a partner in an import @-@ export firm . Marcus Julius Alexander was the first husband of Herodian Princess Berenice . Marcus died in 43 or 44 , leaving no children . Tiberius himself decided differently , setting out upon a military and administrative career in the service of the Roman Empire . When introducing Tiberius , the Jewish historian Josephus condemns him for his impiety and explains that he " did not remain in his ancestral customs " . This has traditionally been taken to mean that he became an apostate from Judaism at an early age , a view which finds some support in his appearance as a character in two of Philo 's philosophical dialogues , making arguments against divine providence which Philo attempts to refute . However , some more recent scholars believe that Josephus is criticizing Alexander simply for his decision to take up the service of Rome , placing the interests of the Empire above the Jewish religion . He nevertheless continued to benefit from his family 's connections , which were enhanced after the Emperor Claudius came to power in 41 . Agrippa had helped to secure Claudius ' accession after the assassination of Caligula , and was appointed king of Judea . Tiberius ' father , who had been imprisoned by Caligula , was released on Claudius ' orders , and his younger brother Marcus became first husband to Agrippa 's daughter Berenice . = = Career until 63 = = Despite the disadvantages posed by his Alexandrian and Jewish origin , Tiberius Alexander was evidently well enough connected for an equestrian career in Roman public life . The first position he is known to have held , beginning in about 42 , was that of epistrategus of the Thebaid , one of the three regions into which the Roman province of Egypt was divided . This was an administrative and judicial post involving no military command . He could have maintained contact with his brother Marcus , who was trading in the same area until his premature death in 43 or 44 . A promotion came in c . 46 , when Alexander was appointed procurator of Judea by Claudius . The province had returned to direct Roman rule only after the death of Agrippa in 44 , and the tenure of Alexander 's predecessor Cuspius Fadus had been marked by unrest , so Alexander 's Jewish background may have marked him as a more acceptable governor . Less trouble is attested during his office , although he did condemn James and Simon , sons of an earlier rebel named Judas of Galilee , to crucifixion . It was also at this time that Judea was afflicted by a severe famine . In 48 he was succeeded by Ventidius Cumanus . Alexander 's subsequent activities are unknown until the reign of Nero , when he served as a staff officer under the prominent general Gnaeus Domitius Corbulo during campaigns against Parthia . In 63 he was dispatched along with Corbulo 's son @-@ in @-@ law to escort the Armenian king Tiridates to the Roman camp , on the first stage of his journey to receive the status of client king from Nero . = = Prefecture of Egypt = = In May 66 , Nero appointed Alexander as Prefect of Egypt , one of the two most prestigious posts available to an equestrian along with Prefect of the Praetorian Guard . He may have benefitted from a philhellenic tendency in equestrian appointments under Nero , but his experience of Egypt must also have commended him . However , any hope that he would be able to quell the recurring conflicts in his province between Greek and Jewish populations proved to be short @-@ lived . The year he assumed office saw the outbreak of the First Jewish @-@ Roman War in Judea , and aggression inevitably spilled over into the large Jewish community of Alexandria . An outbreak of ethnic violence during a Greek assembly escalated when the Greeks took prisoners , leading the Jewish side to threaten to burn the assembled Greeks to death . Alexander sent mediators to calm the Jews , warning he would have to use the Roman legions if violence continued . The threat was ineffective , and Josephus describes the outcome : A less violent side to Alexander 's government is demonstrated by other evidence . Over a century after his time , his administrative decisions were still being cited as precedents . Some of these are known from a surviving edict issued on July 6 , 68 , less than a month after Nero 's death . This denounces , and introduces measures against , a variety of abuses including inaccurate tax assessments , malicious prosecutions and the imprisonment of debtors by private creditors . The edict 's only allusion to the chaotic political situation comes as a call for trust in the benevolence of the new Emperor , Galba , and his ability to put right the wrongs of the past . Alexander was making representations to Galba on behalf of the provincials , presumably representing the desired reforms as the price of loyalty from this vital grain @-@ producing province . Neither Galba nor his successor Otho survived long in office . In April 69 , Vitellius was recognized as Emperor by the Roman Senate , but his opponents were beginning to rally behind Vespasian , commander of the Roman forces conducting the war in Judea . The loyalties of Alexander , who commanded two legions and had control of the grain shipments from Alexandria to Rome , were of crucial importance . Fortunately for Vespasian , Alexander was willing to correspond with him secretly ; go @-@ betweens suspected by modern historians include Berenice ( soon to be lover of Vespasian 's son Titus ) , and an Egyptian official named Basilides . On July 1 Alexander became the first to make a decisive move against Vitellius : on receipt of a letter from Vespasian , he instructed his forces to take the oath of allegiance to Vespasian as Emperor . His lead was followed by legions throughout the eastern Empire , and the anniversary of Vespasian 's accession was later celebrated on this date . = = Siege of Jerusalem = = Vespasian moved rapidly to Egypt , leaving the Jewish war under the command of Titus . At the same time Alexander , as a proven commander with experience of Jewish affairs , was sent by Vespasian to join Titus as his chief of staff and adviser , second only to Titus himself . By April 70 , Jerusalem was under siege by four legions , and even after the city walls were overcome , the defenders held out in the Temple . Alexander , the offspring of a pious Jewish family , whose own father had donated the gold and silver for the Temple gates , now found himself in a position of command against his former brothers in that very sanctuary . Despairing of any siege operation against the Temple 's massive walls , Titus had the gates burnt down . At the ensuing council of war , when it was debated whether to destroy the entire Temple , Alexander voted with the majority who favored preservation . In the event , this made no difference ; as the fighting raged on the following day , a Roman soldier hurled a burning brand into a chamber of the Temple itself . The Temple was consumed by the flames . = = Later career = = By this time , Vespasian 's position in Rome was secure . The details of Alexander 's career under the new emperor remain unclear . A damaged papyrus refers to Alexander as holding the position of " Praetorian Prefect " , which is open to two interpretations . It could indicate his rank during Titus ' campaign in 70 , which would mean that he held his own independent imperium ( commanding authority ) . According to another view , it means that he became Prefect of the Praetorian Guard at Rome , which in later years became a common position for former Prefects of Egypt . In either case , Alexander attained a position in the Roman Empire that was unparalleled for a man of Jewish birth , not to mention one who suffered from the further stigma of an Egyptian origin . The xenophobic speaker of Juvenal 's first Satire , composed in the late 1st or early in the 2nd century AD , complains of passing the Forum 's triumphal statues , " where some Egyptian Arabarch 's had the nerve to set up his titles . At his image it 's right to do more than piss ! " This is very likely a reference to Alexander . = = = Ancient = = = = = = Modern = = =
= Japanese battleship Kashima = Kashima ( 鹿島 ( 戦艦 ) , Kashima ( senkan ) ) was the second ship of the two Katori @-@ class pre @-@ dreadnought battleships built for the Imperial Japanese Navy ( IJN ) in the first decade of the 20th century , the last to be built by British shipyards . Ordered just before the start of the Russo @-@ Japanese War of 1904 – 05 , the ship was completed a year after its end . She saw no combat during World War I , although the ship was present when Japan joined the Siberian Intervention in 1918 . Kashima was disarmed and scrapped in 1923 – 24 in accordance with the terms of the Washington Naval Treaty of 1922 . = = Design and description = = The Katori @-@ class ships were ordered just before the start of the Russo @-@ Japanese War in 1904 as improved versions of the Royal Navy ’ s King Edward VII @-@ class battleships . Kashima was 473 feet 7 inches ( 144 @.@ 3 m ) long overall and had a beam of 78 feet 2 inches ( 23 @.@ 8 m ) . She had a full @-@ load draught of 26 feet 4 inches ( 8 @.@ 0 m ) and normally displaced 16 @,@ 400 long tons ( 16 @,@ 700 t ) and had a crew of 864 officers and enlisted men . The ship was powered by two vertical triple @-@ expansion steam engines using steam generated by 20 Niclausse boilers . The engines were rated at 15 @,@ 800 indicated horsepower ( 11 @,@ 800 kW ) , using forced draught , and were designed to reach a top speed of 18 @.@ 5 knots ( 34 @.@ 3 km / h ; 21 @.@ 3 mph ) . Kashima , however , reached a top speed of 19 @.@ 24 knots ( 35 @.@ 63 km / h ; 22 @.@ 14 mph ) from 17 @,@ 280 indicated horsepower ( 12 @,@ 890 kW ) on her sea trials on 4 April 1906 . She carried a maximum of 2 @,@ 200 long tons ( 2 @,@ 200 t ) of coal and 750 long tons ( 760 t ) of fuel oil which was sprayed on the coal to increase their power . This allowed her to steam for 12 @,@ 000 nautical miles ( 22 @,@ 000 km ; 14 @,@ 000 mi ) at a speed of 11 knots ( 20 km / h ; 13 mph ) . The ship 's main battery consisted of four 12 @-@ inch guns mounted in two twin @-@ gun turrets , one forward and one aft . The secondary armament consisted of four 10 @-@ inch guns mounted in four single @-@ gun turrets positioned on each side of the superstructure . Katori also carried 12 quick @-@ firing ( QF ) six @-@ inch guns , mounted in casemates on the sides of the hull and in the superstructure . A number of smaller guns were carried for defence against torpedo boats . These included a dozen QF 12 @-@ pounder guns and three 47 @-@ millimetre ( 1 @.@ 9 in ) 3 @-@ pounder Hotchkiss guns . She was also armed with five submerged 18 @-@ inch torpedo tubes , two on each broadside and one in the stern . Kashima 's waterline armour belt consisted of Krupp cemented armour and was 3 @.@ 5 – 9 inches ( 89 – 229 mm ) thick . The armour of her main gun turrets had a maximum thickness of 9 in ( 229 mm ) and her deck ranged from 2 to 3 inches ( 51 to 76 mm ) in thickness . = = Construction and career = = Kashima , named for a Shinto shrine in Kashima , Ibaraki , was ordered in January 1904 from Armstrong Whitworth . The ship was laid down at their Elswick shipyard on 29 February 1904 as yard number 755 . She was launched on 22 March 1905 , and completed on 23 May 1906 . Kashima departed Britain on 31 May on her maiden voyage and shakedown cruise and arrived at Yokosuka on 4 August 1906 . Whilst conducting gunnery training in Hiroshima Bay on 16 September 1907 , brown powder propellant in Kashima 's starboard rear 10 @-@ inch ( 250 mm ) gun mount ignited when it came in contact with burning residue from the previous shot . The fire killed seven officers and 27 enlisted men and wounded two officers and six enlisted men . When World War I began , Kashima was in a refit at Maizuru Naval Arsenal that lasted until March 1915 . The ship was assigned to the 2nd Battleship Squadron when her refit was completed and became the squadron 's flagship in 1916 . Kashima joined her sister ship Katori in the 5th Battleship Squadron as its flagship in 1918 and both ships covered the landing of Japanese troops in Siberia in August of that year as Japan intervened in the Russian Civil War . On 3 March 1921 , Katori , escorted by Kashima , departed Yokohama bound for Great Britain carrying Crown Prince Hirohito , the first Japanese crown prince to travel abroad . The ships arrived at Portsmouth on 9 May and Hirohito disembarked to tour Europe ; they returned home several months later . To comply with the terms of the Washington Naval Treaty the ship was disarmed in April 1922 , stricken from the Navy List on 20 September 1923 and the removal of her armor was completed by February 1924 . Mitsubishi won the public auction conducted 26 – 27 April with a price of 238 @,@ 900 yen and had to pay an additional 35 @,@ 000 yen to have her towed to Nagasaki for scrapping . The company finished the job on 24 November . Kashima 's main gun turrets were re @-@ used in coastal artillery batteries around Tokyo Bay and on Iki Island in the Strait of Tsushima .
= Objections to evolution = Scholars , theologians and lay @-@ people have raised objections to evolution since evolutionary ideas came to prominence in the 19th century . When Charles Darwin published his 1859 book On the Origin of Species , his theory of evolution ( the idea that species arose through descent with modification from a single common ancestor in a process driven by natural selection ) initially met opposition from scientists with different theories , but eventually came to receive overwhelming acceptance in the scientific community . The observation of evolutionary processes occurring ( as well as the modern evolutionary synthesis explaining that evidence ) has been uncontroversial among mainstream biologists since the 1940s . Since then , most criticisms and denials of evolution have come from religious sources , rather than from the scientific community . Although many religions , such as those advocating theistic evolution , have accepted the occurrence of evolution , some religious beliefs reject evolutionary explanations in favor of creationism ( the belief that a deity created the universe and life through the application of supernatural processes ) . The resultant U.S.-centered creation – evolution controversy has become a focal point of recent perceived conflict between religion and science . Modern creationism features movements such as creation science , neo @-@ creationism , and intelligent design , which argue that the idea of life being directly designed by a god or intelligence is at least as scientific as evolutionary theory , and should therefore be taught in public education . Such arguments against evolution have become widespread and include objections to evolution 's evidence , methodology , plausibility , morality , and scientific acceptance . The scientific community , however , does not recognize such objections as valid , citing detractors ' misinterpretations of such things as the scientific method , evidence , and basic physical laws . = = History = = Various evolutionary ideas came to prominence around the start of the 19th century , in particular the transmutation of species theory put forward by Jean @-@ Baptiste Lamarck . These were opposed on scientific grounds , most notably by Georges Cuvier , as well as encountering political and religious objections . These ideas that natural laws controlled the development of nature and society gained vast popular audiences with George Combe 's The Constitution of Man of 1828 and the anonymous Vestiges of the Natural History of Creation of 1844 . When Charles Darwin published his 1859 book On the Origin of Species , he convinced most of the scientific community that new species arose through descent through modification in a branching pattern of divergence from common ancestors , but while most scientists accepted that natural selection was a valid and empirically testable hypothesis , Darwin 's view that it was the primary mechanism of evolution was generally rejected . The earliest objections to Darwinian evolution were both scientific and religious . Darwin 's contemporaries eventually came to accept the transmutation of species based upon fossil evidence ; the X Club was formed to defend evolution against the church and wealthy amateurs , although the specific evolutionary mechanism which Darwin provided — natural selection — was actively disputed in favour of alternative theories such as Lamarckism and orthogenesis . Darwin 's gradualistic account was also opposed by saltationism and catastrophism . Lord Kelvin led scientific opposition to gradualism on the basis of his thermodynamic calculations that the Earth was between 24 and 400 million years old , an estimate strongly disputed by geologists . These figures were corrected in 1907 when radioactive dating of rocks showed that the Earth was billions of years old . Kelvin 's own views favoured a version of theistic evolution accelerated by divine guidance . The specific hereditary mechanism Darwin provided , pangenesis , lacked any supporting evidence . Although evolution was unchallenged , uncertainties about the mechanism in the eclipse of Darwinism persisted from the 1880s until the 1930s inclusion of Mendelian inheritance and the rise of the modern evolutionary synthesis . The modern synthesis rose to universal acceptance among biologists with the help of new evidence , such as genetics , which confirmed Darwin 's predictions and refuted the competing theories . Protestantism , especially in America , broke out in " acrid polemics " and argument about evolution from 1860 to the 1870s — with the turning point possibly marked by the death of Louis Agassiz in 1873 — and by 1880 a form of " Christian evolution " was becoming the consensus . In Britain , while publication of The Descent of Man by Darwin in 1871 reinvigorated debate from the previous decade , Sir Henry Chadwick notes a steady acceptance of evolution " among more educated Christians " between 1860 and 1885 . As a result , evolutionary theory was " both permissible and respectable " by 1876 . Frederick Temple 's lectures on The Relations between Religion and Science ( 1884 ) on how evolution was not " antagonistic " to religion highlighted this trend . Temple 's appointment as Archbishop of Canterbury in 1896 demonstrated the broad acceptance of evolution within the church hierarchy . For decades the Roman Catholic Church avoided official refutation of evolution . However , it would rein in Catholics who proposed that evolution could be reconciled with the Bible , as this conflicted with the First Vatican Council 's ( 1869 – 70 ) finding that everything was created out of nothing by God , and to deny that finding could lead to excommunication . In 1950 , the encyclical Humani generis of Pope Pius XII first mentioned evolution directly and officially . It allowed one to enquire into the concept of humans coming from pre @-@ existing living matter , but not to question Adam and Eve or the creation of the soul . In 1996 , Pope John Paul II said that evolution was " more than a hypothesis " and acknowledged the large body of work accumulated in its support , but reiterated that any attempt to give a material explanation of the human soul was " incompatible with the truth about man . " Muslim reaction ranged from those believing in literal creation from the Quran to many educated Muslims who subscribed to a version of theistic or guided evolution in which the Quran reinforced rather than contradicted mainstream science . This occurred relatively early , as medieval madrasahs taught the ideas of Al @-@ Jahiz , a Muslim scholar from the 9th century , who proposed concepts similar to natural selection . However , acceptance of evolution remains low in the Muslim world , as prominent figures reject evolution 's underpinning philosophy of materialism as unsound to human origins and a denial of Allah . Further objections by Muslim authors and writers largely reflect those put forward in the Western world . Regardless of acceptance from major religious hierarchies , early religious objections to Darwin 's theory are still used in opposition to evolution . The ideas that species change over time through natural processes and that different species share common ancestors seemed to contradict the Genesis account of Creation . Believers in Biblical infallibility attacked Darwinism as heretical . The natural theology of the early 19th century was typified by William Paley 's watchmaker analogy , an argument from design still used by the creationist movement . Natural theology included a range of ideas and arguments from the outset , and when Darwin 's theory was published , ideas of theistic evolution were presented in which evolution is accepted as a secondary cause open to scientific investigation , while still holding belief in God as a first cause with a non @-@ specified role in guiding evolution and creating humans . This position has been adopted by denominations of Christianity and Judaism in line with modernist theology which views the Bible and Torah as allegorical , thus removing the conflict between evolution and religion . However , in the 1920s Christian fundamentalists in the United States developed their literalist arguments against modernist theology into opposition to the teaching of evolution , with fears that Darwinism had led to German militarism and was a threat to religion and morality . This opposition developed into the creation – evolution controversy involving Christian literalists in the United States objecting to the teaching of evolution in public schools . Although early objectors dismissed evolution as contradicting their interpretation of the Bible , this argument was legally invalidated when the Supreme Court ruled in Epperson v. Arkansas in 1968 that forbidding the teaching of evolution on religious grounds violated the Establishment Clause . Since then creationists have developed more nuanced objections to evolution , alleging variously that it is unscientific , infringes on creationists ' religious freedoms or that the acceptance of evolution is a religious stance . Creationists have appealed to democratic principles of fairness , arguing that evolution is controversial , and that science classrooms should therefore " Teach the Controversy . " These objections to evolution culminated in the intelligent design movement in the 1990s and early 2000s that unsuccessfully attempted to present itself as a scientific alternative to evolution . = = Defining evolution = = One of the main sources of confusion and ambiguity in the creation – evolution debate is the definition of evolution itself . In the context of biology , evolution is genetic changes in populations of organisms over successive generations . However , the word has a number of different meanings in different fields , from evolutionary computation to molecular evolution to sociocultural evolution to stellar and galactic evolution . It can even refer to metaphysical evolution , spiritual evolution , or any of a number of evolutionist philosophies . When biological evolution is conflated with other evolutionary processes , this can cause errors such as the claim that modern evolutionary theory says anything about abiogenesis or the Big Bang . In colloquial contexts , evolution can refer to any sort of progressive development or gradual improvement , and evolution is understood as a process that results in greater quality or complexity . When misapplied to biological evolution this common meaning leads to frequent misunderstandings . For example , the idea of devolution ( " backwards " evolution ) is a result of erroneously assuming that evolution is directional or has a specific goal in mind ( cf. orthogenesis ) . In reality , the evolution of an organism has no " objective " and is only showing increasing ability of successive generations to survive and reproduce in its environment ; and increased suitability is only defined in relation to this environment . Biologists do not consider any one species , such as humans , to be more highly evolved or advanced than another . Certain sources have been criticized for indicating otherwise due to a tendency to evaluate nonhuman organisms according to anthropocentric standards rather than more objective ones . Evolution also does not require that organisms become more complex . Although the history of life shows an apparent trend towards the evolution of biological complexity ; there is a question if this appearance of increased complexity is real , or if this conclusion comes from neglecting the fact that the majority of life on Earth has always consisted of prokaryotes . In this view , complexity is not a necessary consequence of evolution ; rather , it is a consequence of the specific circumstances of evolution on Earth , which frequently made greater complexity advantageous , and thus naturally selected for . Depending on the situation , organisms ' complexity can either increase , decrease , or stay the same , and all three of these trends have been observed in evolution . Creationist sources frequently define evolution according to a colloquial , rather than scientific , meaning . As a result , many attempts to rebut evolution do not address the findings of evolutionary biology ( see straw man argument ) . This also means that advocates of creationism and evolutionary biologists often simply speak past each other . = = Scientific acceptance = = Recent objections to evolutionary theory have focused on its scientific validity , or attempting to come up with alternative ideas such as creationism to debate its findings . = = = Status as a theory = = = Critics of evolution assert that evolution is " just a theory , " which emphasizes that scientific theories are never absolute , or misleadingly presents it as a matter of opinion rather than of fact or evidence . This reflects a difference of the meaning of theory in a scientific context : whereas in colloquial speech a theory is a conjecture or guess , in science a theory is an explanation whose predictions have been verified by experiments or other evidence . Evolutionary theory refers to an explanation for the diversity of species and their ancestry which has met extremely high standards of scientific evidence . An example of evolution as theory is the modern synthesis of Darwinian natural selection and Mendelian inheritance . As with any scientific theory , the modern synthesis is constantly debated , tested , and refined by scientists , but there is an overwhelming consensus in the scientific community that it remains the only robust model that accounts for the known facts concerning evolution . Critics also state that evolution is not a fact . In science , a fact is a verified empirical observation ; in colloquial contexts , however , a fact can simply refer to anything for which there is overwhelming evidence . For example , in common usage theories such as " the Earth revolves around the Sun " and " objects fall due to gravity " may be referred to as " facts , " even though they are purely theoretical . From a scientific standpoint , therefore , evolution may be called a " fact " for the same reason that gravity can : under the scientific definition , evolution is an observable process that occurs whenever a population of organisms genetically changes over time . Under the colloquial definition , the theory of evolution can also be called a fact , referring to this theory 's well @-@ established nature . Thus , evolution is widely considered both a theory and a fact by scientists . Similar confusion is involved in objections that evolution is " unproven , " since no theory in science is known to be absolutely true , only verified by empirical evidence . This distinction is an important one in philosophy of science , as it relates to the lack of absolute certainty in all empirical claims , not just evolution . Strict proof is possible only in formal sciences such as logic and mathematics , not natural sciences ( where terms such as " validated " or " corroborated " are more appropriate ) . Thus , to say that evolution is not proven is trivially true , but no more an indictment of evolution than calling it a " theory . " The confusion arises , however , in that the colloquial meaning of proof is simply " compelling evidence , " in which case scientists would indeed consider evolution " proven . " = = = Degree of acceptance = = = An objection is often made in the teaching of evolution that evolution is controversial or contentious . Unlike past creationist arguments which sought to abolish the teaching of evolution altogether , this argument makes the weaker claim that evolution should be presented alongside alternative views since it is controversial , and students should be allowed to evaluate and choose between the options on their own . This objection forms the basis of the " Teach the Controversy " campaign by the Discovery Institute , a think tank based in Seattle , Washington , to promote the teaching of intelligent design in U.S. public schools . This goal was a part of the Institute 's " wedge strategy , " an attempt to gradually undermine evolution and ultimately to " reverse the stifling dominance of the materialist worldview , and to replace it with a science consonant with Christian and theistic convictions . " Several subsequent attempts were made to insert intelligent design or creationism into the U.S. public school curriculum , including the failed Santorum Amendment in 2001 . Scientists and U.S. courts have rejected this objection on the grounds that science is not based on appeals to popularity , but on evidence . The scientific consensus of biologists , not popular opinion or fairness , determines what is considered acceptable science , and although evolution is controversial in the public arena , it is entirely uncontroversial among experts in the field . In response , creationists have disputed the level of scientific support for evolution . The Discovery Institute has gathered over 761 scientists as of August 2008 to sign A Scientific Dissent From Darwinism in order to show that there are a number of scientists who dispute what they refer to as " Darwinian evolution . " This statement did not profess outright disbelief in evolution , but expressed skepticism as to the ability of " random mutation and natural selection to account for the complexity of life . " Several counter @-@ petitions have been launched in turn , including A Scientific Support for Darwinism , which gathered over 7 @,@ 000 signatures in four days , and Project Steve , a tongue @-@ in @-@ cheek petition that has gathered the signatures of 1 @,@ 393 ( as of May 24 , 2016 ) evolution @-@ supporting scientists named " Steve " ( or any similar variation thereof — Stephen , Stephanie , Esteban , etc . ) . Creationists have argued for over a century that evolution is a " theory in crisis " that will soon be overturned , based on objections that it lacks reliable evidence or violates natural laws . These objections have been rejected by most scientists , as have claims that intelligent design , or any other creationist explanation , meets the basic scientific standards that would be required to make them scientific alternatives to evolution . It is also argued that even if evidence against evolution exists , it is a false dilemma to characterize this as evidence for intelligent design . A similar objection to evolution is that certain scientific authorities — mainly pre @-@ modern ones — have doubted or rejected evolution . Most commonly , it is argued that Darwin " recanted " on his deathbed , a false anecdote originating from Lady Hope 's story . These objections are generally rejected as appeals to authority . = = Scientific status = = A common neo @-@ creationist objection to evolution is that evolution does not adhere to normal scientific standards — that it is not genuinely scientific . It is argued that evolutionary biology does not follow the scientific method and therefore should not be taught in science classes , or at least should be taught alongside other views ( i.e. , creationism ) . These objections often deal with the very nature of evolutionary theory , the scientific method , and philosophy of science . = = = Religious nature = = = Creationists commonly argue against evolution on the grounds that " evolution is a religion ; it is not a science . " The purpose of this criticism is to undermine the higher ground biologists claim in debating creationists , and to reframe the debate from being between science ( evolution ) and religion ( creationism ) to being between two equally religious beliefs — or even to argue that evolution is religious while intelligent design is not . Those that oppose evolution frequently refer to supporters of evolution as " evolutionists " or " Darwinists . " The arguments for evolution being a religion generally amount to arguments by analogy : it is argued that evolution and religion have one or more things in common , and that therefore evolution is a religion . Examples of claims made in such arguments are statements that evolution is based on faith , that supporters of evolution revere Darwin as a prophet , and that supporters of evolution dogmatically reject alternative suggestions out @-@ of @-@ hand . These claims have become more popular in recent years as the neo @-@ creationist movement has sought to distance itself from religion , thus giving it more reason to make use of a seemingly anti @-@ religious analogy . In response , supporters of evolution have argued that no scientist 's claims , including Darwin 's , are treated as sacrosanct , as shown by the aspects of Darwin 's theory that have been rejected or revised by scientists over the years , to form first neo @-@ Darwinism and later the modern evolutionary synthesis . The claim that evolution relies on faith , often based on the creationist belief that evolution has never been observed , is likewise rejected on the grounds that evolution has strong supporting evidence , and therefore does not require faith . In general , the argument that evolution is religious has been rejected on the grounds that religion is not defined by how dogmatic or zealous its adherents are , but by its spiritual or supernatural beliefs . Evolutionary supporters point out evolution is neither dogmatic nor based on faith , and they accuse creationists of equivocating between the strict definition of religion and its colloquial usage to refer to anything that is enthusiastically or dogmatically engaged in . United States courts have also rejected this objection : Assuming for the purposes of argument , however , that evolution is a religion or religious tenet , the remedy is to stop the teaching of evolution , not establish another religion in opposition to it . Yet it is clearly established in the case law , and perhaps also in common sense , that evolution is not a religion and that teaching evolution does not violate the Establishment Clause . A related claim is that evolution is atheistic ( see the Atheism section below ) ; creationists sometimes merge the two claims and describe evolution as an " atheistic religion " ( cf. humanism ) . This argument against evolution is also frequently generalized into a criticism of all science ; it is argued that " science is an atheistic religion , " on the grounds that its methodological naturalism is as unproven , and thus as " faith @-@ based , " as the supernatural and theistic beliefs of creationism . = = = Unfalsifiability = = = A statement is considered falsifiable if there is an observation or a test that could be made that would demonstrate that the statement is false . Statements that are not falsifiable cannot be examined by scientific investigation since they permit no tests that evaluate their accuracy . Creationists such as Henry M. Morris have claimed that any observation can be fitted into the evolutionary framework , so it is impossible to demonstrate that evolution is wrong and therefore evolution is non @-@ scientific . However , evolution is considered falsifiable because it can make predictions that , were they contradicted by the evidence , would falsify evolution . Several kinds of evidence could falsify evolution , such as the fossil record showing no change over time , confirmation that mutations are prevented from accumulating , or observations showing organisms being created supernaturally or spontaneously . Many of Darwin 's ideas and assertions of fact have been falsified as evolutionary science has developed and has continued to confirm his central concepts . Despite this , creationism consists largely of unsubstantiated claims that evolution has been falsified . In contrast , creationist explanations involving the direct intervention of the supernatural in the physical world are not falsifiable , because any result of an experiment or investigation could be the unpredictable action of an omnipotent deity . In 1976 , the philosopher Karl Popper said that " Darwinism is not a testable scientific theory but a metaphysical research programme . " He later changed his mind and argued that Darwin 's " theory of natural selection is difficult to test " with respect to other areas of science . The most direct evidence that evolutionary theory is falsifiable may be the original words of Charles Darwin who , in chapter 6 of On the Origin of Species wrote : " If it could be demonstrated that any complex organ existed , which could not possibly have been formed by numerous , successive , slight modifications , my theory would absolutely break down . " If empirical evidence supported this instance , it would be affirmation of the creationist argument in favor of irreducible complexity . In response to the unfalsifiability criticism of evolutionary theory , numerous examples of potential ways to falsify evolution have been proposed . J. B. S. Haldane , when asked what hypothetical evidence could disprove evolution , replied " fossil rabbits in the Precambrian era . " Numerous other potential ways to falsify evolution have also been proposed . For example , the fact that humans have one fewer pair of chromosomes than the great apes offered a testable hypothesis involving the fusion or splitting of chromosomes from a common ancestor . The fusion hypothesis was confirmed in 2005 by discovery that human chromosome 2 is homologous with a fusion of two chromosomes that remain separate in other primates . Extra , inactive telomeres and centromeres remain on human chromosome 2 as a result of the fusion . The assertion of common descent could also have been disproven with the invention of DNA sequencing methods . If true , human DNA should be far more similar to chimpanzees and other great apes , than to other mammals . If not , then common descent is falsified . DNA analysis has shown that humans and chimpanzees share a large percentage of their DNA ( between 95 % to 99 @.@ 4 % depending on the measure ) . Also , the evolution of chimpanzees and humans from a common ancestor predicts a ( geologically ) recent common ancestor . Numerous transitional fossils have since been found . Hence , human evolution has passed several falsifiable tests . A related claim is that natural selection is tautological . Specifically , it is often argued that the phrase " survival of the fittest " is a tautology , in that fitness is defined as ability to survive and reproduce . However , this phrase , first used by Herbert Spencer in 1864 , is rarely used by biologists . Additionally , fitness is more accurately defined as the state of possessing traits that make survival more likely ; this definition , unlike simple " survivability , " avoids being trivially true . Similarly , it is argued that evolutionary theory is circular reasoning , in that evidence is interpreted as supporting evolution , but evolution is required to interpret the evidence . An example of this is the claim that geological strata are dated through the fossils they hold , but that fossils are in turn dated by the strata they are in . However , in most cases strata are not dated by their fossils , but by their position relative to other strata and by radiometric dating , and most strata were dated before the theory of evolution was formulated . In his 1982 book , Abusing Science : The Case Against Creationism , philosopher of science Philip Kitcher specifically addresses the " falsifiability " question by taking into account notable philosophical critiques of Popper by Carl Gustav Hempel and Willard Van Orman Quine that reject his definition of theory as a set of falsifiable statements . As Kitcher points out , if one took a strictly Popperian view of " theory , " observations of Uranus when first discovered in 1781 would have " falsified " Isaac Newton 's celestial mechanics . Rather , people suggested that another planet influenced Uranus ' orbit — and this prediction was indeed eventually confirmed . Kitcher agrees with Popper that " there is surely something right in the idea that a science can succeed only if it can fail . " But he insists that we view scientific theories as consisting of an " elaborate collection of statements , " some of which are not falsifiable , and others — what he calls " auxiliary hypotheses , " which are . According to Kitcher , good scientific theories must have three features — unity , fecundity , and independent testability of auxiliary hypotheses : Unity " A science should be unified .... Good theories consist of just one problem @-@ solving strategy , or a small family of problem @-@ solving strategies , that can be applied to a wide range of problems " ( 1982 : 47 ) . Fecundity " A great scientific theory , like Newton 's , opens up new areas of research ... Because a theory presents a new way of looking at the world , it can lead us to ask new questions , and so to embark on new and fruitful lines of inquiry ... Typically , a flourishing science is incomplete . At any time , it raises more questions than it can currently answer . But incompleteness is no vice . On the contrary , incompleteness is the mother of fecundity ... A good theory should be productive ; it should raise new questions and presume that those questions can be answered without giving up its problem @-@ solving strategies " ( 1982 : 47 – 48 ) . Auxiliary hypotheses that are independently testable " An auxiliary hypothesis ought to be testable independently of the particular problem it is introduced to solve , independently of the theory it is designed to save " ( 1982 : 46 ) ( e.g. the evidence for the existence of Neptune is independent of the anomalies in Uranus 's orbit ) . Like other definitions of theories , including Popper 's , Kitcher makes it clear that a good theory includes statements that have ( in his terms ) " observational consequences . " But , like the observation of irregularities in Uranus 's orbit , falsification is only one possible consequence of an observation . The production of new hypotheses is another possible — and equally important — observational consequence . Kitcher 's account of a good theory is based not only on his understanding of how physical sciences work . He is also taking into account the way the life sciences work . From Kitcher 's point of view , Darwinian theory not only meets the three conditions for a good scientific theory ; it is without question an extraordinarily successful theory : The heart of Darwinian evolutionary theory is a family of problem @-@ solving strategies , related by their common employment of a particular style of historical narrative . A Darwinian history is a piece of reasoning of the following general form . The first step consists in a description of an ancestral population of organisms . The reasoning proceeds by tracing the modification of the population through subsequent generations , showing how characteristics were selected , inherited , and became prevalent . Reasoning like this can be used to answer a host of biological questions . The same kind of story can be told again and again to answer all sorts of questions about all sorts of living things . Evolutionary theory is unified because so many diverse questions ... can be addressed by advancing Darwinian histories . Moreover , these narratives constantly make claims that are subject to independent check . Darwin not only provided a scheme for unifying the diversity of life . He also gave a structure to our ignorance . After Darwin , it was important to resolve general issues about the presuppositions of Darwinian histories . The way in which biology should proceed had been made admirably plain , and it was clear that biologists had to tackle questions for which they had , as yet , no answers . = = Evidence = = Objections to the evidence that evolution occurs tend to be more concrete and specific , often involving direct analysis of evolutionary biology 's methods and claims . = = = Lack of observation = = = A common claim of creationists is that evolution has never been observed . Challenges to such objections often come down to debates over how evolution is defined ( see the Defining evolution section above ) . Under the conventional biological definition of evolution , it is a simple matter to observe evolution occurring . Evolutionary processes , in the form of populations changing their genetic composition from generation to generation , have been observed in different scientific contexts , including the evolution of fruit flies , mice , and bacteria in the laboratory , and of tilapia in the field . Such studies on experimental evolution , particularly those using microorganisms , are now providing important insights into how evolution occurs , especially in the case of antibiotic resistance . In response to such examples , creationists specify that they are objecting only to macroevolution , not microevolution : most creationist organizations do not dispute the occurrence of short @-@ term , relatively minor evolutionary changes , such as that observed even in dog breeding . Rather , they dispute the occurrence of major evolutionary changes over long periods of time , which by definition cannot be directly observed , only inferred from microevolutionary processes and the traces of macroevolutionary ones . However , as biologists define macroevolution , both microevolution and macroevolution have been observed . Speciations , for example , have been directly observed many times , despite popular misconceptions to the contrary . Additionally , the modern evolutionary synthesis draws no distinction in the processes described by the theory of evolution when considering macroevolution and microevolution as the former is simply at the species level or above and the latter is below the species level . An example of this is ring species . Additionally , past macroevolution can be inferred from historical traces . Transitional fossils , for example , provide plausible links between several different groups of organisms , such as Archaeopteryx linking birds and dinosaurs , or the recently discovered Tiktaalik linking fish and limbed amphibians . Creationists dispute such examples , from asserting that such fossils are hoaxes or that they belong exclusively to one group or the other , to asserting that there should be far more evidence of obvious transitional species . Darwin himself found the paucity of transitional species to be one of the greatest weaknesses of his theory : Why then is not every geological formation and every stratum full of such intermediate links ? Geology assuredly does not reveal any such finely graduated organic chain ; and this , perhaps , is the most obvious and gravest objection which can be urged against my theory . The explanation lies , as I believe , in the extreme imperfection of the geological record . Darwin appealed to the limited collections then available , the extreme lengths of time involved , and different rates of change with some living species differing very little from fossils of the Silurian period . In later editions he added " that the periods during which species have been undergoing modification , though very long as measured by years , have probably been short in comparison with the periods during which these same species remained without undergoing any change . " The number of clear transitional fossils has increased enormously since Darwin 's day , and this problem has been largely resolved with the advent of the theory of punctuated equilibrium , which predicts a primarily stable fossil record broken up by occasional major speciations . As more and more compelling direct evidence for inter @-@ species and species @-@ to @-@ species evolution has been gathered , creationists have redefined their understanding of what amounts to a " created kinds , " and have continued to insist that more dramatic demonstrations of evolution be experimentally produced . One version of this objection is " Were you there ? , " popularized by young Earth creationist Ken Ham . It argues that because no one except God could directly observe events in the distant past , scientific claims are just speculation or " story @-@ telling . " DNA sequences of the genomes of organisms allow an independent test of their predicted relationships , since species which diverged more recently will be more closely related genetically than species which are more distantly related ; such phylogenetic trees show a hierarchical organization within the tree of life , as predicted by common descent . In fields such as astrophysics or meteorology , where direct observation or laboratory experiments are difficult or impossible , the scientific method instead relies on observation and logical inference . In such fields , the test of falsifiability is satisfied when a theory is used to predict the results of new observations . When such observations contradict a theory 's predictions , it may be revised or discarded if an alternative better explains the observed facts . For example , Newton 's theory of gravitation was replaced by Albert Einstein 's theory of general relativity when the latter was observed to more precisely predict the orbit of Mercury . = = = Unreliable evidence = = = A related objection is that evolution is based on unreliable evidence . This objection goes further than the less substantial " evolution isn 't proven " arguments , claiming that evolution isn 't even well @-@ evidenced . Typically , this is either based on the argument that evolution 's evidence is full of frauds and hoaxes , that current evidence for evolution is likely to be overturned as some past evidence has been , or that certain types of evidence are inconsistent and dubious . Arguments against evolution 's reliability are thus often based on analyzing the history of evolutionary thought or the history of science in general . Creationists point out that in the past , major scientific revolutions have overturned theories that were at the time considered near @-@ certain . They thus claim that current evolutionary theory is likely to undergo such a revolution in the future , on the basis that it is a " theory in crisis " for one reason or another . Critics of evolution commonly appeal to past scientific hoaxes such as the Piltdown Man forgery . It is argued that because scientists have been mistaken and deceived in the past about evidence for various aspects of evolution the current evidence for evolution is likely to also be based on fraud and error . Much of the evidence for evolution has been accused of being fraudulent at various times , including Archaeopteryx , peppered moth melanism , and Darwin 's finches ; these claims have been subsequently refuted . It has also been claimed that certain former pieces of evidence for evolution which are now considered out @-@ of @-@ date and erroneous , such as Ernst Haeckel 's 19th @-@ century comparative drawings of embryos , used to illustrate his recapitulation theory ( " ontogeny recapitulates phylogeny " ) , were not merely errors but frauds . Molecular biologist Jonathan Wells criticizes biology textbooks by alleging that they continue to reproduce such evidence after it has been debunked . In response , the National Center for Science Education notes that none of the textbooks reviewed by Wells makes the claimed error , as Haeckel 's drawings are shown in a historical context with discussion about why they are wrong , and the accurate modern drawings and photos used in the textbooks are misrepresented by Wells . = = = Unreliable chronology = = = Creationists claim that evolution relies on certain types of evidence that do not give reliable information about the past . For example , it is argued that radiometric dating technique of evaluating a material 's age based on the radioactive decay rates of certain isotopes generates inconsistent and thus unreliable results . Radiocarbon dating based on the carbon @-@ 14 isotope has been particularly criticized . It is argued that radiometric decay relies on a number of unwarranted assumptions such as the principle of uniformitarianism , consistent decay rates , or rocks acting as closed systems . Such arguments have been dismissed by scientists on the grounds that independent methods have confirmed the reliability of radiometric dating as a whole ; additionally , different radiometric dating methods and techniques have independently confirmed each other 's results . Another form of this objection is that fossil evidence is not reliable . This is based on a much wider range of claims . These include that there are too many " gaps " in the fossil record , that fossil @-@ dating is circular ( see the Unfalsifiability section above ) , or that certain fossils , such as polystrate fossils , are seemingly " out of place . " Examination by geologists have found polystrate fossils to be consistent with in situ formation . It is argued that certain features of evolution support creationism 's catastrophism ( cf . Great Flood ) , rather than evolution 's gradualistic punctuated equilibrium , which some assert is an ad hoc theory to explain the fossil gaps . = = Plausibility = = Some of the oldest and most common objections to evolution dispute whether evolution can truly account for all the apparent complexity and order in the natural world . It is argued that evolution is too unlikely or otherwise lacking to account for various aspects of life , and therefore that an intelligence , such as God of the Abrahamic religions , must at the very least be appealed to for those specific features . = = = Improbability = = = A common objection to evolution is that it is simply too unlikely for life , in its complexity and apparent " design , " to have arisen " by chance . " It is argued that the odds of life having arisen without a deliberate intelligence guiding it are so astronomically low that it is unreasonable not to infer an intelligent designer from the natural world , and specifically from the diversity of life . A more extreme version of this argument is that evolution cannot create complex structures ( see the Creation of complex structures section below ) . The idea that it is simply too implausible for life to have evolved is often wrongly encapsulated with a quotation that the " probability of life originating on Earth is no greater than the chance that a hurricane , sweeping through a scrapyard , would have the luck to assemble a Boeing 747 " — a claim attributed to astrophysicist Fred Hoyle and known as Hoyle 's fallacy . Hoyle was a Darwinist , atheist and anti @-@ theist , but advocated the theory of panspermia , in which abiogenesis begins in outer space and primitive life on Earth is held to have arrived via natural dispersion . Views superficially similar , but unrelated to Hoyle 's , are thus invariably justified with arguments from analogy . The basic idea of this argument for a designer is the teleological argument , an argument for the existence of God based on the perceived order or purposefulness of the universe . A common way of using this as an objection to evolution is by appealing to the 18th @-@ century philosopher William Paley 's watchmaker analogy , which argues that certain natural phenomena are analogical to a watch ( in that they are ordered , or complex , or purposeful ) , which means that , like a watch , they must have been designed by a " watchmaker " — an intelligent agent . This argument forms the core of intelligent design , a neo @-@ creationist movement seeking to establish certain variants of the design argument as legitimate science , rather than as philosophy or theology , and have them be taught alongside evolution . This objection is fundamentally an argument by lack of imagination , or argument from incredulity : a certain explanation is seen as being counterintuitive , and therefore an alternate , more intuitive explanation is appealed to instead . Supporters of evolution generally respond by arguing that evolution is not based on " chance , " but on predictable chemical interactions : natural processes , rather than supernatural beings , are the " designer . " Although the process involves some random elements , it is the non @-@ random selection of survival @-@ enhancing genes that drives evolution along an ordered trajectory . The fact that the results are ordered and seem " designed " is no more evidence for a supernatural intelligence than the appearance of complex natural phenomena ( e.g. snowflakes ) . It is also argued that there is insufficient evidence to make statements about the plausibility or implausibility of abiogenesis , that certain structures demonstrate poor design , and that the implausibility of life evolving exactly as it did is no more evidence for an intelligence than the implausibility of a deck of cards being shuffled and dealt in a certain random order . It has also been noted that arguments against some form of life arising " by chance " are really objections to nontheistic abiogenesis , not to evolution . Indeed , arguments against " evolution " are based on the misconception that abiogenesis is a component of , or necessary precursor to , evolution . Similar objections sometimes conflate the Big Bang with evolution . Christian apologist and philosopher Alvin Plantinga , a supporter of intelligent design , has formalized and revised the improbability argument as the evolutionary argument against naturalism , which asserts that it is irrational to reject a supernatural , intelligent creator because the apparent probability of certain faculties evolving is so low . Specifically , Plantinga claims that evolution cannot account for the rise of reliable reasoning faculties . Plantinga argues that whereas a God would be expected to create beings with reliable reasoning faculties , evolution would be just as likely to lead to unreliable ones , meaning that if evolution is true , it is irrational to trust whatever reasoning one relies on to conclude that it is true . This novel epistemological argument has been criticized similarly to other probabilistic design arguments . It has also been argued that rationality , if conducive to survival , is more likely to be selected for than irrationality , making the natural development of reliable cognitive faculties more likely than unreliable ones . = = = Unexplained aspects of the natural world = = = Biochemist Michael Behe has argued that current evolutionary theory cannot account for certain complex structures , particularly in microbiology . On this basis , Behe argues that such structures were " purposely arranged by an intelligent agent . " In addition to complex structures and systems , among the phenomena that critics variously claim evolution cannot explain are consciousness , hominid intelligence , instincts , emotions , metamorphosis , photosynthesis , homosexuality , music , language , religion , morality , and altruism ( see altruism in animals ) . Most of these , such as hominid intelligence , instinct , emotion , photosynthesis , language , and altruism , have been well @-@ explained by evolution , while others remain mysterious , or only have preliminary explanations . However , supporters of evolution contend that no alternative explanation has been able to adequately explain the biological origin of these phenomena either . Creationists argue against evolution on the grounds that it cannot explain certain non @-@ evolutionary processes , such as abiogenesis , the Big Bang , or the meaning of life . In such instances , evolution is being redefined to refer to the entire history of the universe , and it is argued that if one aspect of the universe is seemingly inexplicable , the entire body of scientific theories must be baseless . At this point , objections leave the arena of evolutionary biology and become general scientific or philosophical disputes . Astronomers Fred Hoyle and Chandra Wickramasinghe have argued in favor of cosmic ancestry , and against abiogenesis and evolution . = = Impossibility = = This class of objections is more radical than the above , claiming that a major aspect of evolution is not merely unscientific or implausible , but rather impossible , because it contradicts some other law of nature or is constrained in such a way that it cannot produce the biological diversity of the world . = = = Creation of complex structures = = = Living things have fantastically intricate features — at the anatomical , cellular and molecular level — that could not function if they were any less complex or sophisticated . The only prudent conclusion is that they are the products of intelligent design , not evolution . Modern evolutionary theory posits that all biological systems must have evolved incrementally , through a combination of natural selection and genetic drift . Both Darwin and his early detractors recognized the potential problems that could arise for his theory of natural selection if the lineage of organs and other biological features could not be accounted for by gradual , step @-@ by @-@ step changes over successive generations ; if all the intermediary stages between an initial organ and the organ it will become are not all improvements upon the original , it will be impossible for the later organ to develop by the process of natural selection alone . Complex organs such as the eye had been presented by William Paley as exemplifying the need for design by God , and anticipating early criticisms that the evolution of the eye and other complex organs seemed impossible , Darwin noted that : [ R ] eason tells me , that if numerous gradations from a perfect and complex eye to one very imperfect and simple , each grade being useful to its possessor , can be shown to exist ; if further , the eye does vary ever so slightly , and the variations be inherited , which is certainly the case ; and if any variation or modification in the organ be ever useful to an animal under changing conditions of life , then the difficulty of believing that a perfect and complex eye could be formed by natural selection , though insuperable by our imagination , can hardly be considered real . Similarly , ethologist and evolutionary biologist Richard Dawkins said on the topic of the evolution of the feather in an interview for the television program The Atheism Tapes : There 's got to be a series of advantages all the way in the feather . If you can 't think of one , then that 's your problem not natural selection 's problem ... It 's perfectly possible feathers began as fluffy extensions of reptilian scales to act as insulators ... The earliest feathers might have been a different approach to hairiness among reptiles keeping warm . Creationist arguments have been made such as " What use is half an eye ? " and " What use is half a wing ? " . Research has confirmed that the natural evolution of the eye and other intricate organs is entirely feasible . Creationist claims have persisted that such complexity evolving without a designer is inconceivable , however , and this objection to evolution has been refined in recent years as the more sophisticated irreducible complexity argument of the intelligent design movement , formulated by Michael Behe . Irreducible complexity is the idea that certain biological systems cannot be broken down into their constituent parts and remain functional , and therefore that they could not have evolved naturally from less complex or complete systems . Whereas past arguments of this nature generally relied on macroscopic organs , Behe 's primary examples of irreducible complexity have been cellular and biochemical in nature . He has argued that the components of systems such as the blood clotting cascade , the immune system , and the bacterial flagellum are so complex and interdependent that they could not have evolved from simpler systems . In fact , my argument for intelligent design is open to direct experimental rebuttal . Here is a thought experiment that makes the point clear . In Darwin 's Black Box ( Behe 1996 ) I claimed that the bacterial flagellum was irreducibly complex and so required deliberate intelligent design . The flip side of this claim is that the flagellum can 't be produced by natural selection acting on random mutation , or any other unintelligent process . To falsify such a claim , a scientist could go into the laboratory , place a bacterial species lacking a flagellum under some selective pressure ( for mobility , say ) , grow it for ten thousand generations , and see if a flagellum--or any equally complex system--was produced . If that happened , my claims would be neatly disproven . In the years since Behe proposed irreducible complexity , new developments and advances in biology , such as an improved understanding of the evolution of flagella , have already undermined these arguments . The idea that seemingly irreducibly complex systems cannot evolve has been refuted through evolutionary mechanisms , such as exaptation ( the adaptation of organs for entirely new functions ) and the use of " scaffolding , " which are initially necessary features of a system that later degenerate when they are no longer required . Potential evolutionary pathways have been provided for all of the systems Behe used as examples of irreducible complexity . = = = = Cambrian explosion complexity argument = = = = The Cambrian explosion was the relatively rapid appearance around 542 million years ago of most major animal phyla as demonstrated in the fossil record , and many more phyla now extinct . This was accompanied by major diversification of other organisms . Prior to the Cambrian explosion most organisms were simple , composed of individual cells occasionally organized into colonies . Over the following 70 or 80 million years , the rate of diversification accelerated by an order of magnitude and the diversity of life began to resemble that of today , although they did not resemble the species of today . The basic problem with this is that natural selection calls for the slow accumulation of changes , where a new phyla would take longer than a new class which would take longer than a new order , which would take longer than a new family , which would take longer than a new genus would take longer than emergence of a new species but the apparent occurrence of high @-@ level taxa without precedents is perhaps implying unusual evolutionary mechanisms . There is general consensus that many factors helped trigger the Cambrian explosion , but there is no generally accepted consensus about the combination and the Cambrian explosion continues to be an area of controversy and research over why so rapid , why at the phylum level , why so many phyla then and none since , and even if the apparent fossil record is accurate . An example of opinions involving the commonly cited rise in oxygen Great Oxidation Event from biologist PZ Myers summarizes : " What it was was environmental changes , in particular the bioturbation revolution caused by the evolution of worms that released buried nutrients , and the steadily increasing oxygen content of the atmosphere that allowed those nutrients to fuel growth ; ecological competition , or a kind of arms race , that gave a distinct selective advantage to novelties that allowed species to occupy new niches ; and the evolution of developmental mechanisms that enabled multicellular organisms to generate new morphotypes readily . " The increase in molecular oxygen ( O2 ) also may have allowed the formation of the protective ozone layer ( O3 ) that helps shield Earth from lethal UV radiation from the Sun . = = = Creation of information = = = Another new , and increasingly common , objection of creationists to evolution is that evolutionary mechanisms such as mutation cannot generate new information . Creationists such as William A. Dembski , Werner Gitt , and Lee Spetner have attempted to use information theory to dispute evolution . Dembski has argued that life demonstrates specified complexity , and that evolution without an intelligent agent cannot account for the generation of information that would be required to produce specified complexity . These claims have been widely rejected by the scientific community ; new information is regularly generated in evolution , whenever a novel mutation or gene duplication arises . Dramatic examples of entirely new , unique traits arising through mutation have been observed in recent years , such as the evolution of nylon @-@ eating bacteria , which developed new enzymes to efficiently digest a material that never existed before the modern era . In fact , when an organism is considered together with the environment it evolved in , there is no need to account for the creation of information . The information in the genome forms a record of how it was possible to survive in a particular environment . It is not created , but rather gathered from the environment through research — by trial and error , as mutating organisms either reproduce or fail . A related argument against evolution is that most mutations are harmful . However , the vast majority of mutations are neutral , and the minority of mutations which are beneficial or harmful are often situational ; a mutation that is harmful in one environment may be helpful in another . = = = Violation of the second law of thermodynamics = = = Another objection is that evolution violates the second law of thermodynamics . Though the law applies to all systems , in the case of a closed one it states , " the entropy of an isolated system not in equilibrium will tend to increase over time , approaching a maximum value at equilibrium " . In other words , an ideal isolated system 's entropy ( a measure of the dispersal of energy in a physical system so that it is not available to do mechanical work ) will tend to increase or stay the same , not decrease . Creationists argue that evolution violates this physical law by requiring a decrease in entropy , or disorder , over time . This claim is based on a manifestation of the law only applicable to isolated systems , which do not exchange matter or energy with their surroundings . Organisms , in contrast , are open systems , as they constantly exchange energy and matter with their environment : for example animals eat food and excrete waste , and radiate and absorb heat . Similarly , the Earth absorbs energy from the Sun and emits energy back into space . The Sun @-@ Earth @-@ space system does not violate the second law , because the enormous increase in entropy due to the Sun and Earth radiating into space dwarfs the local decrease in entropy caused by the existence and evolution of self @-@ organizing life . Since the second law of thermodynamics has a precise mathematical definition , this argument can be analyzed quantitatively . This was done by physicist Daniel F. Styer , who concluded : " Quantitative estimates of the entropy involved in biological evolution demonstrate that there is no conflict between evolution and the second law of thermodynamics . " In a published letter to the editor of The Mathematical Intelligencer titled " How anti @-@ evolutionists abuse mathematics , " mathematician Jason Rosenhouse stated : The fact is that natural forces routinely lead to local decreases in entropy . Water freezes into ice and fertilised eggs turn into babies . Plants use sunlight to convert carbon dioxide and water into sugar and oxygen , but [ we do ] not invoke divine intervention to explain the process [ ... ] thermodynamics offers nothing to dampen our confidence in Darwinism . = = Moral implications = = Other common objections to evolution allege that evolution leads to objectionable results , including bad beliefs , behaviors , and events . It is argued that the teaching of evolution degrades values , undermines morals , and fosters irreligion or atheism . These may be considered appeals to consequences ( a form of logical fallacy ) , as the potential ramifications of belief in evolutionary theory have nothing to do with its objective empirical reality . = = = Humans as animals = = = In biological classification humans are animals , a basic point which has been known for more than 2 @,@ 000 years . The creationist J. Rendle @-@ Short asserted in Creation magazine that if people are taught evolution they can be expected to behave like animals : since animals behave in all sorts of different ways , this is meaningless . In evolutionary terms , humans are able to acquire knowledge and change their behaviour to meet social standards , so humans behave in the manner of other humans . = = = Social effects = = = In 1917 , Vernon Kellogg published Headquarters Nights : A Record of Conversations and Experiences at the Headquarters of the German Army in France and Belgium , which asserted that German intellectuals were totally committed to might @-@ makes @-@ right due to " whole @-@ hearted acceptance of the worst of Neo @-@ Darwinism , the Allmacht of natural selection applied rigorously to human life and society and Kultur . " This strongly influenced the politician William Jennings Bryan , who saw Darwinism as a moral threat to America and campaigned against evolutionary theory ; his campaign culminated in the Scopes Trial , which effectively prevented teaching of evolution in most public schools until the 1950s . Some creationists claim that perceived social ills like crime , teenage pregnancies , homosexuality , abortion , immorality , wars , and genocide are caused by a belief in evolution . R. Albert Mohler , Jr . , president of the Southern Baptist Theological Seminary in Louisville , Kentucky , wrote August 8 , 2005 , in NPR 's Taking Issue essay series , that " Debates over education , abortion , environmentalism , homosexuality and a host of other issues are really debates about the origin — and thus the meaning — of human life . ... evolutionary theory stands at the base of moral relativism and the rejection of traditional morality . " Henry M. Morris , engineering professor and founder of the Creation Research Society and the Institute of Creation Research , claims that evolution was part of a pagan religion that emerged after the Tower of Babel , was part of Plato 's and Aristotle 's philosophies , and was responsible for everything from war to pornography to the breakup of the nuclear family . Rev. D. James Kennedy of The Center for Reclaiming America for Christ and Coral Ridge Ministries claims that Darwin was responsible for Adolf Hitler 's atrocities . In Kennedy 's documentary , and the accompanying pamphlet with the same title , Darwin 's Deadly Legacy , Kennedy states that " To put it simply , no Darwin , no Hitler . " In his efforts to expose the " harmful effects that evolution is still having on our nation , our children , and our world , " Kennedy also states that , " We have had 150 years of the theory of Darwinian evolution , and what has it brought us ? Whether Darwin intended it or not , millions of deaths , the destruction of those deemed inferior , the devaluing of human life , increasing hopelessness . " The Discovery Institute 's Center for Science and Culture fellow Richard Weikart has made similar claims , as have other creationists . The claim was central to the documentary film Expelled : No Intelligence Allowed ( 2008 ) promoting intelligent design creationism . The Anti @-@ Defamation League describes such claims as outrageous misuse of the Holocaust and its imagery , and as trivializing the " ... many complex factors that led to the mass extermination of European Jewry . Hitler did not need Darwin or evolution to devise his heinous plan to exterminate the Jewish people , and Darwin and evolutionary theory cannot explain Hitler 's genocidal madness . Moreover , anti @-@ Semitism existed long before Darwin ever wrote a word . " Young Earth creationist Kent Hovind blames communism , socialism , World War I , World War II , racism , the Holocaust , Stalin 's war crimes , the Vietnam War , and Pol Pot 's Killing Fields on evolution , as well as the increase in crime , unwed mothers , and other social ills . Hovind 's son Eric Hovind claims that evolution is responsible for tattoos , body piercing , premarital sex , unwed births , sexually transmitted diseases ( STDs ) , divorce , and child abuse . Supporters of evolution dismiss such criticisms as counterfactual , and some argue that the opposite seems to be the case . A study published by the author and illustrator Gregory S. Paul found that religious beliefs , including belief in creationism and disbelief in evolution , are positively correlated with social ills like crime . The Barna Group surveys find that Christians and non @-@ Christians in the U.S. have similar divorce rates , and the highest divorce rates in the U.S. are among Baptists and Pentecostals , both sects which reject evolution and embrace creationism . Michael Shermer argued in Scientific American in October 2006 that evolution supports concepts like family values , avoiding lies , fidelity , moral codes and the rule of law . He goes on to suggest that evolution gives more support to the notion of an omnipotent creator , rather than a tinkerer with limitations based on a human model , the more common image subscribed to by creationists . Careful analysis of the creationist charges that evolution has led to moral relativism and the Holocaust yields the conclusion that these charges appear to be highly suspect . Such analyses conclude that the origins of the Holocaust are more likely to be found in historical Christian anti @-@ Semitism than in evolution . Evolution has been used to justify Social Darwinism , the exploitation of " lesser breeds without the law " by " superior races , " particularly in the nineteenth century . Strong , typically European , nations successfully expanded their empires , and as such , these strong nations could be said to have " survived " in the struggle for dominance . With this attitude , Europeans , with the exception of Christian missionaries , seldom adopted the customs and languages of local people under their empires . = = = Atheism = = = Another charge leveled at evolutionary theory by creationists is that belief in evolution is either tantamount to atheism , or conducive to atheism . It is commonly claimed that all proponents of evolutionary theory are " materialistic atheists . " On the other hand , Davis A. Young argues that creation science itself is harmful to Christianity because its bad science will turn more away than it recruits . Young asks , " Can we seriously expect non @-@ Christians to develop a respect for Christianity if we insist on teaching the brand of science that creationism brings with it ? " However , evolution neither requires nor rules out the existence of a supernatural being . Philosopher Robert T. Pennock makes the comparison that evolution is no more atheistic than plumbing . H. Allen Orr , professor of biology at University of Rochester , notes that : Of the five founding fathers of twentieth @-@ century evolutionary biology — Ronald Fisher , Sewall Wright , J. B. S. Haldane , Ernst Mayr , and Theodosius Dobzhansky — one was a devout Anglican who preached sermons and published articles in church magazines , one a practicing Unitarian , one a dabbler in Eastern mysticism , one an apparent atheist , and one a member of the Russian Orthodox Church and the author of a book on religion and science . In addition , a wide range of religions have reconciled a belief in a supernatural being with evolution . Molleen Matsumura of the National Center for Science Education found that " of Americans in the twelve largest Christian denominations , 89 @.@ 6 % belong to churches that support evolution education . " These churches include the " United Methodist Church , National Baptist Convention USA , Evangelical Lutheran Church in America , Presbyterian Church ( USA ) , National Baptist Convention of America , African Methodist Episcopal Church , the Roman Catholic Church , the Episcopal Church , and others . " A poll in 2000 done for People for the American Way found that 70 % of the American public felt that evolution was compatible with a belief in God . Only 48 % of the people polled could choose the correct definition of evolution from a list , however . One poll reported in the journal Nature showed that among American scientists ( across various disciplines ) , about 40 percent believe in both evolution and an active deity ( theistic evolution ) . This is similar to the results reported for surveys of the general American public . Also , about 40 percent of the scientists polled believe in a God that answers prayers , and believe in immortality . While about 55 % of scientists surveyed were atheists , agnostics , or nonreligious theists , atheism is far from universal among scientists who support evolution , or among the general public that supports evolution . Very similar results were reported from a 1997 Gallup Poll of the American public and scientists . Traditionalists still object to the idea that diversity in life , including human beings , arose through natural processes without a need for supernatural intervention , and they argue against evolution on the basis that it contradicts their literal interpretation of creation myths about separate " kinds . " However , many religions , such as Catholicism , have reconciled their beliefs with evolution through theistic evolution .
= I 'm Going to Tell You a Secret ( album ) = I 'm Going to Tell You a Secret is the first live album by American singer @-@ songwriter Madonna , containing songs from the documentary of same name . The film chronicled the behind @-@ the @-@ scenes of Madonna 's Re @-@ Invention World Tour ( 2004 ) , and was directed by Jonas Åkerlund . The album was released on June 20 , 2006 , in a two @-@ disc format , a CD with 13 songs from the show plus a demo from her tenth studio album Confessions on a Dance Floor ( 2005 ) , and a DVD with the documentary film . The documentary and the album were also released as digital download to the iTunes Store . The live CD consisted of two pre @-@ recorded tracks , " The Beast Within " and " Hollywood " while extras on the DVD included 12 deleted scenes from the documentary . The release received positive response from critics and was nominated for a Grammy Award at the 2007 show in the category of Best Long Form Music Video . It peaked within the top @-@ ten of the album charts in Belgium , Canada , France , Germany , Italy and Switzerland , while the DVD topped the video charts in Australia , Spain and the United States . = = Background and release = = The Re @-@ Invention World Tour was the sixth concert tour by Madonna . It supported her ninth studio album American Life , and visited North America and Europe . Madonna was inspired to create the tour , after taking part in an art installation called X @-@ STaTIC PRo = CeSS , directed by photographer Steven Klein . She incorporated the images from the installation in the tour , whose name was in reality a dig at Madonna 's critics . A number of songs were rehearsed for the tour , with twenty @-@ four of them making the final setlist . The tour was divided into five segments : French Baroque @-@ Marie Antionette Revival , Military @-@ Army , Circus @-@ Cabaret , Acoustic and Scottish @-@ Tribal . The tour garnered positive reception from contemporary critics . The tour was chronicled in the documentary titled I 'm Going to Tell You a Secret . Originally called The Re @-@ Invented Process in reference to the world tour it documents and the exhibition , it was filmed during Madonna 's visit to North America and Europe during May 24 to September 14 , 2004 , and was directed by Jonas Åkerlund . Critical response towards the documentary was mixed , with one group of reviewers complimenting the live performances from the tour and the scenes involving her children and family , while others criticized the self @-@ indulgent nature of the documentary and the preaching nature of Madonna 's commentary in the film . I 'm Going to Tell You a Secret the album was released on June 20 , 2006 , in a two @-@ disc format , a CD with 14 songs from the show and a DVD with the documentary film . The album includes the original demo version of " I Love New York " , a track later found on her 2005 album Confessions on a Dance Floor in a dance form . The track was originally recorded as a rock song before being re @-@ recorded . The documentary and the album was also released as digital download to the iTunes Store . Originally , Warner Bros. announced that the " American Life " director 's cut music video would be included as an extra with the documentary , with the press release also including this information . The music video was not included and no reason was given for the omission . The DVD was shot in an aspect ratio of 1 @.@ 78 : 1 on a single sided , double layered disc , with the image being enhanced for 16 × 9 televisions . The black @-@ and @-@ white visuals had mixed a lot of visual styles according to Jacobson , and had grains and erratic focus . The non @-@ concert color sequences followed the same style , but the performance sequences were in high definition . Backgrounds were dark and Jacobson noted that the color black appeared taut and full , while the few low @-@ light bits came across well . The 5 @.@ 1 surround sound was mostly utilized during the live performance sequences . The live CD consisted of two pre @-@ recorded tracks , " The Beast Within " and " Hollywood " . There are 12 deleted scenes , spanning a total of 15 minutes and 38 seconds ; scenes include Madonna on a bike , working with vocal coach Joan Leder , affinity for French and comical sequences featuring Price and musician Steve Sidelnyk . The cover was a shot of Madonna from her performance of " Frozen " on the show , and the packaging included a 20 page booklet . = = Commercial performance = = In the United States , the release debuted at number 33 on the Billboard 200 with 25 @,@ 000 copies sold in its first week . It also debuted at number three on the Top Soundtracks chart , number 13 on the Top Internet Albums chart and debuted atop the Top Music Videos chart . The next week , the album slipped down to number 107 on the Billboard 200 , while holding atop the Top Music Videos chart . According to Nielsen SoundScan , the album has sold 85 @,@ 000 copies in the US as of August 2010 . In Canada , the album debuted and peaked at number four on the Canadian Albums Chart . The CD + DVD version of I 'm Going to Tell You a Secret was eligible to chart on both albums and DVD charts . However , in some countries , both versions were combined and appeared on just one chart , as in Australia , where all versions counted towards the DVD chart and the release was ineligible for the albums chart . On the Australian DVD Chart , the album debuted at the top of the chart for the issue dated June 26 , 2006 , and was certified platinum by the Australian Recording Industry Association ( ARIA ) for shipment of 15 @,@ 000 copies of the release . It held the top spot for another week . In New Zealand it debuted at number eight on the RIANZ Music DVD Chart , next week falling off . In the United Kingdom , I 'm Going to Tell You a Secret debuted at number 18 on the UK Albums Chart , with first week sales of 14 @,@ 449 copies . It was Madonna 's 17th release to chart there , all previous releases having achieved top @-@ five placement on the album chart . The release was certified gold by the British Phonographic Industry ( BPI ) for shipment of 25 @,@ 000 copies . In France , the release entered the French Albums Chart at its peak position of number eight . After three months , it was certified gold by the Syndicat National de l 'Édition Phonographique ( SNEP ) for shipment of 75 @,@ 000 copies of the album . The CD + DVD also reached a peak of eight on he German Albums Chart and has been certified gold by the Bundesverband Musikindustrie ( BVMI ) for more than 25 @,@ 000 units shipped . Across Europe the album reached the top @-@ ten in Belgium , Denmark , Hungary , Portugal and Switzerland . On the Pan @-@ European Top 100 Albums chart , it reached a peak of number five , and also reached the top of the charts in Italy and Mexico . = = Critical response = = Stephen Thomas Erlewine from Allmusic felt that the reworking of Madonna 's older hits like " Into the Groove " and " Holiday " gave them a campy , Eurotrash feel like the songs on Confessions on a Dance Floor ; he added that " [ the reworkings ] help give the disc a cohesive feel even if the live performance , like the album it 's hawking , is kind of humorless . That said , as Madonna 's first live CD , I 'm Going to Tell You a Secret is strong and entertaining , and even if the excessive minutiae on the accompanying DVD means only hardcore fans will sit through its two hours , it 's also quite well done . " Sterdan from Jam ! complimented the CD section of the release , saying that " Thankfully , the CD takes up the slack , delivering more than an hour of newer fare like ' American Life ' and ' Music ' , peppered with oldies like ' Vogue ' , ' Holiday ' and ' Like a Prayer ' . Next time Madonna wants to share a secret , she should just leave the cameras at home . " Conversely , Sébastien Chicoine from Canoe.ca website preferred the DVD over the CD , saying that the disc was not " absolutely necessary " but could understand the business logic behind adding the CD to the release . Barry Walters from Rolling Stone said that the live CD proved that Madonna is a better singer . A reviewer from The Buffalo News was impressed with the release , saying that " This is exactly what you 'd expect it to be – a live document of Madonna 's most recent tour , which means , essentially , a tour through the dance @-@ based pop music of the past 20 years . " Colin Jacobson from the DVD Movie Guide website explained that " though parts of I 'm Going to Tell You a Secret frustrate , it remains a reasonably entertaining program . It probably will be most interesting for Madonna 's most serious fans , though . Those in search of the broader titillation of Truth or Dare will leave disappointed . " He added that most of the shots in the DVD seemed accurate , time @-@ and @-@ again a softness crept up in the wide angle shots . Jacobson found the performance s shots to be compelling and gave the sound of the DVD a rating of B + . The album was nominated for a Grammy Award at the 49th ceremony in the category Best Long Form Music Video . = = Track listing and formats = = = = = Formats = = = CD / DVD – double disc digipak edition containing the live DVD and the live CD DVD – DVD keep case packed with the DVD and the live CD iTunes Digital download – The full 2 @-@ hour documentary in digital version Additional notes : Recorded live in Paris on September 4 – 5 , 2004 by Effanel Music . Mixed by Stuart Price . = = Credits and personnel = = Credits adapted from I 'm Going to Tell You a Secret information from Allmusic . = = Charts = = = = Certifications = =
= Coat of arms of Munich = The coat of arms of Munich ( Münchner Wappen ) depicts a young monk dressed in black holding a red book . It has existed in a similar form since the 13th century , though at certain points in its history it has not depicted the central figure of the monk at all . As the German name for Munich , München , means of Monks , the monk in this case is a self @-@ explanatory symbol ( canting arms ) who represents the city of Munich . Appearing on a document of May 28 , 1239 , the oldest seal of Munich has a picture of a monk wearing an open hood . While all seal impressions show the monk with the book in one hand and three outstretched fingers in the other , the monk has varied slightly , appearing in profile , then later full @-@ faced and bare @-@ headed . By the 19th century the figure was portrayed as youthful and became known as the Münchner Kindl or Munich Child . The coat of arms in its current form was created in 1957 and is still an important symbol of the Bavarian state capital . = = The Monk = = As the German name for Munich , i.e. München , means " of Monks " , the monk in this case is a self @-@ explanatory symbol who represents the city of Munich . The figure is portrayed wearing a golden trimmed black cowl with a black hood and red shoes . The right hand is raised and the left carries a red book . The open right hand of the monk is interpreted as an oath @-@ making gesture , or a blessing gesture in Christian tradition . The red book in the left hand refers to the oath book of the city ( in accordance with the gesture of the right hand ) , or the municipal law book which is bounded in red and has been handed down since 1365 . Another interpretation is that it is a gospel book . When the Munich town administration developed a constitution of its council , a seal was necessary for the purposes of asserting the authenticity of town @-@ council documents . Appearing on a document of May 28 , 1239 , the oldest seal of Munich has a picture of a monk wearing an open hood . While all seal impressions show the monk with the book in one hand and three outstretched fingers in the other , the monk has varied slightly , appearing in profile , then later full @-@ faced and bare @-@ headed . The monk as a sole heraldic figure can be found on a seal dating from the year 1304 , and on flags of the city since the middle of the 14th century . Colourful representations of the town 's coat of arms stem from the 15th century . = = = Münchner Kindl = = = In the course of the few centuries up until the current version of 1957 , the coat of arms has undergone some distinctly visible changes . While some 15th @-@ century portrayals already show a child figure instead of the monk , the monk in representations onwards began to lose its serious disposition , with curly hair and a more youthful @-@ looking face . By the 18th century and especially the 19th century , the monk had been minimised into the Münchner Kindl , Bavarian for Munich Child , a reference to the figure first documented in 1727 , although it is not clear when it appeared on the coat of arms for the first time or who coined the term . The transformation was brought about by artists such as sculptors and painters as well as copper and seal engravers , as opposed to a legal order . In the second half of the nineteenth century , local artists also supplemented the figure with items such as radishes , pretzels , laurel wreaths and foaming beer steins . The symbol diversely appears in numerous places such as on manhole covers , beer steins and the top of the tower of the town hall . While the symbol as a man through being a monk was previously clear , its gender has become ambiguous since being designated the Kindl . One interpretation is that it is simply genderless , however in the 1920s a female inclination became apparent , and portrayals in person are to this day by young women . = = History = = The Munich coat of arms is verifiable from seals in 1239 and 1268 . These seals show a monk in a gate , above which is in eagle , referring to the Bishop of Freising . The city belonged to him and this was probably derived from his coat of arms . From 1313 , the city was in possession of the Wittelsbach Dukes and the eagle was replaced with a lion , a symbol of the old Bavarian and Palatine Wittelsbachs since the Fiefdom of Duke Ludwig in 1214 . = = = Coat of arms after ratification by Max I. Joseph = = = In 1808 , King Maximilian I Joseph granted the city a historicist city emblem depicting a classical portal , atop which the King 's crown lies . A golden lion sits in the gate 's threshold with a sword in one paw and a shield with the letter " M " in the other . As an enlightened monarch , Max I. Joseph wanted the city 's symbol to show its culture and at the same time dispel the stereotype of the " Mönchsbarbarei " , or the barbarianism of the monks . However , the township decided against the complete elimination of the historical reference to the monk and thus in 1818 the M was replaced with the previous monk 's head design . = = = Coat of arms after ratification by Ludwig I = = = In 1834 , King Ludwig I granted the city its old coat of arms again in the form of large and small crests . These embodied the small crest seal of 1304 and the large one of 1323 . The 1835 coat of arms had a blue background , though this was later corrected to argent under Ludwig II in 1865 . The background was rarely changed . One example of its occurrence , however , was when or was used in the 16th century instead . = = = Coat of arms in the Third Reich = = = From 1936 to 1945 , the lion was once again replaced by an eagle , only this time the one of the Nazi party , the Reichsadler . Deemed the Hauptstadt der Bewegung ( Capital of the Movement ) , Munich was a significant place in terms of the Nazi ideology . The city was home to the NSDAP headquarters , the Beer Hall Putsch and also saw the establishment of Dachau , the first Nazi concentration camp . Post @-@ war designs were not pursued until 1949 . = = = New coat of arms = = = Both a small and large coat of arms existed from 1949 until 1957 based on representations of them prior to 1936 . In 1957 both the large and small city coat of arms were newly arranged by the designer Eduard Ege . At the same time , the city council set the resolution on the December 17 , 1957 that the large one was no longer for official use but only for particular representative purposes .
= Geoffroy 's spider monkey = Geoffroy 's spider monkey ( Ateles geoffroyi ) , also known as the black @-@ handed spider monkey , is a species of spider monkey , a type of New World monkey , from Central America , parts of Mexico and possibly a small portion of Colombia . There are at least five subspecies . Some primatologists classify the black @-@ headed spider monkey ( A. fusciceps ) , found in Panama , Colombia , and Ecuador as the same species as Geoffroy 's spider monkey . It is one of the largest New World monkeys , often weighing as much as 9 kg ( 20 lb ) . Its arms are significantly longer than its legs , and its prehensile tail can support the entire weight of the monkey and is used as an extra limb . Its hands have only a vestigial thumb , but long , strong , hook @-@ like fingers . These adaptations allow the monkey to move by swinging by its arms beneath the tree branches . Geoffroy 's spider monkey lives in fission – fusion societies that contain between 20 and 42 members . Its diet consists primarily of ripe fruit and it requires large tracts of forest to survive . As a result of habitat loss , hunting and capture for the pet trade , it is considered to be endangered by the IUCN . = = Taxonomy = = Geoffroy 's spider monkey belongs to the New World monkey family Atelidae , which contains the spider monkeys , woolly monkeys , muriquis and howler monkeys . It is a member of the subfamily Atelinae , which includes the spider monkeys , woolly monkeys and muriquis , and of the genus Ateles , which contains all the spider monkeys . The genus name Ateles means " imperfect " , a reference to the vestigial thumb . The species name geoffroyi is in honor of French naturalist Étienne Geoffroy Saint @-@ Hilaire . Agreement over the number of spider monkey species is not universal . Kellogg and Goldman ( 1944 ) based their classification on fur color , and Groves ( 1989 ) based his on fur color and geographic distribution . Kellogg and Goldman differentiated Geoffroy 's spider monkey from other species by its dark black head , hands and wrists . Recent studies use mitochondrial DNA to help differentiate species . Such studies by Collins and Daubach ( 2000 , 2001 , 2006 ) indicate the Geoffroy 's spider monkey is more closely related to the white @-@ fronted spider monkey , A. belzebuth , and the brown spider monkey , A. hybridus , than it is to the red @-@ faced spider monkey , A. paniscus . According to these studies , A. paniscus branched off from the other spider monkeys approximately 3 @.@ 27 million years ago and the spider monkeys branched off from the woolly monkeys and muiriquis 3 @.@ 59 million years ago . Older studies by Porter , et al. indicate the howler monkeys are believed to have branched off from the other Atelides over 10 million years ago . = = Subspecies = = At least five subspecies of this monkey are recognized : Nicaraguan spider monkey , Ateles geoffroyi geoffroyi Hooded spider monkey , A. g. grisescens Ornate spider monkey , A. g. ornatus Mexican spider monkey , A. g. vellerosus Yucatan spider monkey , A. g. yucatanensis Some authorities also recognize A. g. azuerensis and A. g. frontatus as valid subspecies . The black @-@ headed spider monkey , Ateles fusciceps , is considered by authorities such as Groves ( 1989 ) and Rylands et al . ( 2006 ) to be a separate species from Geoffroy 's spider monkey . Other authorities , including Froelich ( 1991 ) , Collins and Dubach ( 2001 ) and Nieves ( 2005 ) , condider A. fusciceps to be synonymous with A. geoffroyi . Under this treatment , the two subspecies of the black @-@ headed spider monkey represent additional subspecies of Geoffroy 's spider monkey , A. g. fusciceps and A. g. rufiventris . = = Distribution and habitat = = The range of this species extends over much of Central America , encompassing Panama , Costa Rica , Nicaragua , Guatemala , Honduras , El Salvador , Belize and the south and much of the eastern portion of Mexico . Observations by local people indicate the southernmost subspecies , the hooded spider monkey , A. g. grisescens , may also occur in the portion of Colombia near the Panama border . In western Colombia and northeast Panama , it is replaced by the black @-@ headed spider monkey , A. fusciceps , which is considered by some primatologists to be a subspecies of Geoffroy 's spider monkey . Geoffroy 's spider monkey lives in various types of forest , including rains , semideciduous and mangrove forests . Higher densities of Geoffroy 's spider monkeys are generally found in areas containing evergreen forest . = = Physical description = = Geoffroy 's spider monkey is one of the largest New World monkeys . Its length measures between 30 and 63 cm ( 12 and 25 in ) and it weighs between 6 and 9 kg ( 13 and 20 lb ) . The tail is longer than the body at between 63 and 85 cm ( 25 and 33 in ) . Males and females are approximately the same size . Its body color varies by subspecies and population , and can be buff , reddish , rust , brown or black . The hands and feet are dark or black . The face usually has a pale mask and bare skin around the eyes and muzzle . Its arms and legs are long and slim . The arms are about 25 % longer than the legs . The thumb is only vestigial , but the fingers are long and strong , making the hands hook @-@ like . The long arms and hook @-@ like hands allow Geoffroy 's spider monkey to brachiate , that is , swing by its arms beneath the tree branches . The prehensile tail is very strong and has a palm @-@ like pad at the end . The tail acts as an extra limb , and is used for locomotion , as well as to pick fruits and to scoop water from holes in trees . Geoffroy 's spider monkey can support its weight suspended by its tail and often does so when feeding . The clitoris of female Geoffroy 's spider monkeys is large and protrudes , looking like a penis . This organ , called a pendulous clitoris because of the way it dangles externally , is actually larger than the male flaccid penis . As a result , females are sometimes mistaken for males by human observers . The enlarged clitoris is believed to aid males in determining sexual receptiveness , allowing them to touch the clitoris and smell their fingers to pick up chemical or olfactory cues to the female 's reproductive status . = = Behavior = = Geoffroy 's spider monkey is arboreal and diurnal , and mostly inhabits the upper portion of the forest . However , it comes to the ground more frequently than other spider monkey species . It lives in fission – fusion societies , large groups with a typical 20 to 42 members , which split into smaller subgroups to forage during the day . Subgroups typically number two to six members , and sometimes the subgroups remain separate from the main group even through the night . Geoffroy 's spider monkey forages over large tracts of forest in search of food . Home ranges for groups can exceed 900 hectares ( 2 @,@ 200 acres ) . Monkeys can range about 2 @,@ 000 metres ( 6 @,@ 600 ft ) each day . Males tend to cover a larger day range than females , and dominant individuals tend to have larger day ranges . Geoffroy 's spider monkey sometimes rubs a mixture of saliva and ground lime tree Citrus aurantifolia leaves on its fur . This is believed to act as an insect repellent . In some locations , Geoffroy 's spider monkey interacts with the white @-@ headed capuchin . These interactions can include mutual grooming . In addition to walking or running on four limbs and climbing , Geoffroy 's spider monkey uses several forms of suspensory locomotion . Brachiation , or swinging from the arms with assistance from the prehensile tail , is the most common form of suspensory locomotion . Less common forms include swinging while suspended by the tail , and walking on four limbs under a branch . Studies have indicated the Geoffroy 's spider monkey uses suspensory locomotion less frequently than other spider monkey species . The most common method used by spider monkeys to cross between trees is " bridging " , in which the monkey grasps for a branch from the new tree and pulls it towards itself so it can climb onto it . Airborne leaps are used when necessary , and certain populations of Geoffroy 's spider monkey , especially in Panama , are known to leap between trees more frequently than other populations . When not moving , Geoffroy 's spider monkey uses not only supported postures , such as sitting or standing , but also suspended postures in which it hangs from a branch . Suspended postures always include support from the tail , and sometimes the monkey hangs by its tail alone . Other times it hangs by the tail and by one or more limbs simultaneously . Studies have indicated at least some Geoffroy 's spider monkey populations use suspended postures less frequently when feeding than other spider monkey species . = = = Communication and intelligence = = = Sounds produced by Geoffroy 's spider monkey include barks , whinnies , squeals , squeaks and screams . Barks are typically alarm calls . Whinnies and screams can be used as distress calls , and are also made at dawn and at dusk . Each monkey makes a unique sound , which may allow monkeys to recognize each other through vocal communication alone . Several researchers have investigated the use of whinnies , which consist of between two and 12 quick increases and decreases in pitch , in more detail . This research has indicated one additional purpose of whinnies is to call other group members to a food source . Other purposes of whinnies suggested by this research have included maintaining vocal contact with other group members while traveling and distinguishing between group members and members of other groups . Geoffroy 's spider monkey uses several forms of nonvocal communication . A curled tail or arched back can be used as a threat display towards other spider monkeys . A head shake is used either as a threat or an invitation to play . Shaking branches or swaying arms is used as a warning of danger to the group . Although they do not use tools , spider monkeys , including Geoffroy 's spider monkey , are regarded as intelligent primates . A study performed in 2007 concluded they were the third most intelligent nonhuman primate , behind only orangutans and chimpanzees , and ahead of gorillas and all other monkeys . This mental capacity may be an adaptation to spider monkeys ' frugivorous diets , which require them to be able to identify and memorize many different types of foods and their locations . = = = Diet = = = Geoffroy 's spider monkey eats mostly fruit – preferably ripe and fleshy – and spends 70 % to 80 % of its feeding time eating fruit . Leaves make up most of the rest of its diet . Young leaves are especially important to provide the protein that can be lacking in fruit . Other elements of its diet include flowers , bark , insects , honey , seeds and buds . In addition to providing much of the monkey 's nutritional needs , fruit and leaves provide much of its water requirements . Like other spider monkeys , Geoffroy 's spider monkey drinks water from tree holes and bromeliads in trees , but unlike other spider monkeys , it also drinks from terrestrial water sources . = = = Predators = = = Large cats – jaguars and pumas – appear to be the only significant adult spider monkey predators , other than humans . Eagles and large snakes are also potential predators . However , predation of Geoffroy 's spider monkey has not been observed by researchers . = = = Reproduction = = = Females bear young every two to four years . Among males , mating is not restricted to only dominant individuals . In one study at Barro Colorado Island , all males in the group were observed mating at least once over a one @-@ year period . However , dominant males appear to mate more often than low @-@ ranking males . It is unknown whether male dominance is correlated with greater success in fathering offspring . Geoffroy 's spider monkeys mate in a sitting position , both facing the same direction , with the male seated behind the female and his arms wrapped around her chest and legs wrapped around her waist . This embrace can last between 8 and 22 minutes . Prior to mating , the male and female both separate themselves from the rest of the group , so they are alone except for any of the female 's juvenile offspring . The gestational period is about 7 @.@ 5 months , after which a single young is typically born , although twins sometimes occur . The young are dark in color until they begin taking on the adult coloration at the age of five months . They are carried on their mothers ' chests for the first month and a half to two months , at which point they can ride on their backs . They nurse until they are about one year old , but begin eating solid foods and moving independently at about three months . Even when they move independently , they cannot always cross gaps in the canopy that adults can manage . To help them , an adult will stretch across the gap , forming a bridge over which the young can cross . Females become sexually mature at about four years , and males at about five years . Upon reaching sexual maturity , females leave their natal group , but males do not . As a result , the males in the groups are typically related , while the females are not . This may help explain why male Geoffroy 's spider monkeys form strong bonds . Maximum life span in the wild is unknown . In captivity , Geoffroy 's spider monkey can live at least 33 years . = = Conservation status = = Geoffroy 's spider monkey is listed as " Endangered " by the IUCN , mostly due to habitat loss . It requires large tracts of primary forest to survive , so it is vulnerable to deforestation and is sometimes hunted by humans and captured for the pet trade . Because of its low reproductive turnover , it cannot quickly replenish its numbers when affected by these events . As a result , Geoffroy 's spider monkey has disappeared from some areas where it was once common . Three subspecies are critically endangered . Geoffroy 's spider monkey was extirpated on Barro Colorado Island in Panama . Hunting had eliminated the native population there by 1912 . However , between 1959 and 1966 , an effort was made to reintroduce the species to Barro Colorado . At least 18 monkeys were reintroduced , but only five , one male and four females , survived the reintroduction . This small group has thrived , and the island population had grown to 28 monkeys by 2003 .
= Operation Epsom = Operation Epsom , also known as the First Battle of the Odon , was a British Second World War offensive that took place between 26 and 30 June 1944 , during the Battle of Normandy . The offensive was intended to outflank and seize the German @-@ occupied city of Caen , an important Allied objective , in the early stages of the Allied invasion of north @-@ west Europe . Preceded by Operation Martlet to secure the right flank of the advance , Operation Epsom began early on 26 June , with units of the 15th ( Scottish ) Infantry Division advancing behind a rolling artillery barrage . Air cover was sporadic for much of the operation , because poor weather in England forced the last @-@ minute cancellation of bomber support . Accompanied by the tanks of the 31st Tank Brigade , the 15th ( Scottish ) Division made steady progress and by the end of the first day had overrun much of the German outpost line , although some difficulties remained in securing the flanks . In mutually costly fighting over the following two days , a foothold was secured across the River Odon and efforts were made to expand this , by capturing strategic points around the salient and moving up the 43rd ( Wessex ) Infantry Division . In response to powerful German counter @-@ attacks , by 30 June some of the British forces across the river were withdrawn , bringing the operation to a close . Interpretations of the intention and conduct of Operation Epsom differ widely but there is general agreement concerning its effect on the balance of forces in Normandy . The Germans contained the offensive but only by committing all their strength , including two panzer divisions newly arrived in Normandy , which had been intended for an offensive against British and American positions around Bayeux . Many casualties were suffered by both sides but unlike General Bernard Montgomery , the Allied commander in Normandy , Generalfeldmarschall Erwin Rommel was unable to withdraw units into reserve after the battle , as they were needed to hold the front line . The British retained the initiative , attacked several more times over the following two weeks and captured Caen in Operation Charnwood in mid @-@ July . = = Background = = The Norman city of Caen was a D @-@ Day objective for the British 3rd Infantry Division that landed on Sword Beach on 6 June 1944 . The capture of Caen , while " ambitious " , was described by the official historian , L. F. Ellis , as the most important D @-@ Day objective assigned to Lieutenant @-@ General John Crocker and I Corps . Operation Overlord called for the British Second Army , commanded by Lieutenant @-@ General Miles Dempsey , to secure the city and then form a front line from Caumont @-@ l 'Éventé to the south @-@ east of Caen , to acquire airfields and protect the left flank of the First US Army ( Lieutenant General Omar N. Bradley ) , while it fought the Battle of Cherbourg . Possession of Caen and its surroundings would give the Second Army a suitable staging area for a push south to capture Falaise , which could be used as the pivot for a swing left to advance on Argentan and then towards the Touques River . Hampered by congestion in the beachhead , which delayed the deployment of its armoured support and being forced to divert effort to attack strongly held German positions along the 9 @.@ 3 miles ( 15 @.@ 0 km ) route to the town , the 3rd Infantry Division was unable to assault Caen in force on D @-@ Day and was stopped short of its outskirts , by the 21st Panzer Division . Immediate follow @-@ up attacks failed as German resistance solidified . Abandoning the direct approach , Operation Perch — a pincer attack by I and XXX Corps — was launched on 7 June , to encircle Caen from the east and west . I Corps , striking south out of the Orne bridgehead , was halted by the 21st Panzer Division and the attack by XXX Corps was stopped west of Caen in front of Tilly @-@ sur @-@ Seulles by the Panzer @-@ Lehr @-@ Division . To force Panzer @-@ Lehr to withdraw or surrender and to keep operations fluid , part of the 7th Armoured Division pushed through a gap in the German front line and captured Villers @-@ Bocage . The Battle of Villers @-@ Bocage led to the vanguard of the 7th Armoured Division withdrawing from the town but by 17 June , Panzer Lehr had also been forced back and XXX Corps had taken Tilly @-@ sur @-@ Seulles . Another attack by the 7th Armoured Division and other offensive operations were abandoned when a severe storm descended on the English Channel on 19 June . The storm lasted for three days and delayed the Allied build @-@ up . Most of the convoys of landing craft and ships already at sea were driven back to ports in Britain ; towed barges and other loads ( including 2 @.@ 5 miles ( 4 @.@ 0 km ) of floating roadways for the Mulberry harbours ) were lost and 800 craft were left stranded on the Normandy beaches , until the spring tides in July . Planning began for a second offensive , codenamed Operation Dreadnought , to be launched out of the Orne bridgehead by the British VIII Corps ( Lieutenant @-@ General Richard O 'Connor ) , outflanking Caen from the east . Dreadnought was cancelled following objections from O 'Connor and an attack towards Évrecy was considered . This was also cancelled , either by Montgomery , the Allied ground forces commander in Normandy , or Dempsey , the Second Army commander . Dempsey , in a post @-@ war interview with Chester Wilmot , claimed that he told Montgomery that he was going to cancel the proposed operation on 18 June . The weather from 19 – 22 June grounded Allied aircraft and the Germans took advantage of the respite from air attacks , to improve their defences , strengthening infantry positions with minefields and posting c . 70 88 mm guns in hedgerows and woods , covering the approaches to Caen . = = Plan = = On 20 June Field Marshal Erwin Rommel , commanding German forces in Normandy , was ordered by Hitler to launch a counter @-@ offensive against the Allies between the towns of Caumont @-@ l 'Éventé ( Caumont ) and Saint @-@ Lô . The objective was to cut a corridor between the American and British armies by recapturing the city of Bayeux ( taken by the British on 7 June ) and the coast beyond . Four SS Panzer Divisions and one Heer Panzer Division were assigned to the task . Their assault was to be spearheaded by the 9th SS Panzer Division Hohenstaufen and 10th SS Panzer Division Frundsberg of the II SS Panzer Corps , recently arrived from Ukraine . The 1st SS Panzer Division Leibstandarte SS Adolf Hitler , 2nd SS Panzer Division Das Reich and 2nd Panzer Division would be supporting the attack . Most of the tanks used by these formations were Panzer IVs and Panthers , supplemented by sturmgeschütz ( assault guns ) and Tigers — the Panthers and Tigers being among the most lethal and well @-@ protected German armoured vehicles of the time . On 18 June General Bernard Montgomery , commander of all Allied ground forces in Normandy , issued a directive to Lieutenant @-@ General Miles Dempsey to launch a new pincer attack with the aim of capturing Caen . The initial plan called for I and XXX Corps to attack west of Caen for four days before VIII Corps launched the main attack out of the Orne bridgehead , east of Caen , on 22 June . However , it was soon realised that VIII Corps would not be able to assemble within the small perimeter of the Orne bridgehead and the following day the plan was revised . The revised plan called for a preliminary operation to take place three days before the main assault . I Corps with the 51st ( Highland ) Infantry Division was ordered to strike south from the Orne bridgehead , pinning elements of the 21st Panzer Division into place . Operation Martlet was to commence one day before Epsom with XXX Corps ' 49th ( West Riding ) Infantry Division and the 8th Armoured Brigade securing VIII Corps ' flank by capturing the high ground on the right of their axis of advance . The main role in Operation Epsom was assigned to the newly arrived VIII Corps , consisting of 60 @,@ 244 men under the command of Lieutenant @-@ General Sir Richard O 'Connor . VIII Corps would launch their offensive from the beachhead gained by the 3rd Canadian Infantry Division . Their operation was to take place in four phases with its ultimate objective the high ground near Bretteville @-@ sur @-@ Laize , south of Caen . VIII Corps would be supported by fire from 736 guns , three cruisers and the monitor HMS Roberts . The Royal Air Force was to provide a preliminary bombardment by 250 bombers and close air support thereafter . The 15th ( Scottish ) Infantry Division would lead the assault . During Phase I , codenamed Gout , they were to take the villages of Sainte Manvieu and Cheux . In Phase II , codenamed Hangover , the division would advance to capture several crossings over the Odon River and the villages of Mouen and Grainville @-@ sur @-@ Odon . Should resistance during the opening phase prove light , the 11th Armoured Division would seize the bridges over the Odon River by coup de main . During the first two phases the 43rd ( Wessex ) Infantry Division — to be reinforced on 28 June with the Guards Armoured Division 's infantry brigade — was to remain on the start line to provide a " firm base " . In Epsom 's third phase , Impetigo , the 43rd Division would move forward to relieve all Scottish infantry north of the Odon . The 15th Division would then assemble across the river , expanding the bridgehead by capturing several important villages . In the operation 's final phase , codenamed Goitre , elements of the 43rd Division would cross the river to hold the area taken , while the 15th Division would continue to expand their bridgehead . The 11th Armoured Division would attempt to force a crossing over the River Orne and advance on their final objective of Bretteville @-@ sur @-@ Laize . The 4th Armoured Brigade , although attached to the 11th Armoured Division , was restricted to operations between the Odon and Orne to protect the Corps flank and to be in a position to attack westwards , or towards Caen , as necessary . Depending on the success of VIII Corps attack , I Corps would then launch two supporting operations codenamed Aberlour and Ottawa . In the former the 3rd Infantry Division , supported by a Canadian infantry brigade , would attack north of Caen ; the latter would be a move by the 3rd Canadian Infantry Division supported by the 2nd Canadian Armoured Brigade to take the village and airfield of Carpiquet . Originally planned for 22 June , Epsom was postponed until 26 June to make up deficiencies in manpower and materiel . The initial opposition the British would face was expected to come from the depleted 12th SS Panzer Division Hitlerjugend ( " Hitler Youth " ) , elements of the 21st Panzer Division and Panzer Lehr . = = Operation Martlet = = As planned , on 23 June , the 51st ( Highland ) Infantry Division attacked with the 152nd ( Highland ) Infantry Brigade . Before daybreak and without an artillery bombardment , the Highland infantry advanced towards the village of Sainte @-@ Honorine @-@ la @-@ Chardronette . They took the German garrison by surprise and had control of the village before sunrise . During the morning the Highlanders were counter @-@ attacked by Kampfgruppe von Luck of the 21st Panzer Division . Fighting lasted all morning but by midday the village was firmly in British hands . This success diverted German attention and resources away from VIII Corps front , as it prepared for further attacks out of the Orne bridgehead . At 0415 on 25 June , the 49th ( West Riding ) Infantry Division supported by the 8th Armoured Brigade and 250 guns , launched Operation Martlet against part of the Panzer Lehr and 12th SS Panzer divisions . The first objective , Fontenay @-@ le @-@ Pesnel was fought over all day but stubborn German resistance prevented its capture . One infantry battalion supported by tanks , advanced around the village to the west and took Tessel Wood but was subjected to a series of German counter @-@ attacks . These were blunted by British artillery fire and close air support but by the end of the day the 49th Division had failed to reach the village of Rauray , leaving the terrain dominating the right flank of VIII Corps ' intended advance in German hands . Martlet forced the I SS Panzer Corps to commit the remaining tanks of the 12th SS Panzer Division against the XXX Corps front , for a counter @-@ attack the following day . During the night the Germans in Fontenay @-@ le @-@ Pesnel withdrew to straighten the front line and infantry from the 49th Division secured the village before dawn . = = Battle = = = = = 26 June = = = Poor weather hampered the start of Operation Epsom on 26 June , where rain over the battlefield had made the ground boggy ; over the United Kingdom in the early hours , there was a heavy mist resulting in aircraft being grounded and the bombing being called off . No. 83 Group RAF , based in Normandy , were able to provide air support throughout the operation . The 49th ( West Riding ) Infantry Division resumed Operation Martlet at 0650 , although much of its artillery support from VIII Corps was diverted to the main operation . The Germans were able to slow the British advance and then launched an armoured riposte . This initially gained ground but was stalled when British armour moved up and the two sides duelled in the confined terrain . Informed during the afternoon that a big British offensive was under way further east , SS @-@ Standartenführer Kurt Meyer of 12th SS Panzer called off the counter @-@ attack and ordered his tank companies to return to their positions south of Rauray . During the rest of the day the 49th Division was able to make progress , eventually halting just north of Rauray . At 0730 the 44th ( Lowland ) Infantry Brigade and the 46th ( Highland ) Infantry Brigade of the 15th ( Scottish ) Infantry Division , supported by the 31st Tank Brigade moved off their start lines behind a rolling barrage fired from 344 guns . The 46th Brigade initially advanced without armoured support , because in bypassing the mine and booby trap @-@ ridden village of Le Mesnil @-@ Patry , its tanks were forced to negotiate minefields flanking the village . The 2nd Battalion , Glasgow Highlanders faced only light resistance , while the 9th Battalion The Cameronians , ran into the grenadiers of the 12th SS Panzer Division , who had allowed the barrage to pass over their positions before opening fire . Reuniting with their tanks at around 1000 , by midday the two battalions were fighting for control of their initial objectives ; Cheux and Le Haut du Bosq . The 44th Brigade encountered little opposition until coming under machine gun fire at a small stream , following which German resistance was much heavier . Between 0830 and 0930 , the 6th Battalion , The Royal Scots Fusiliers and the 8th Battalion , The Royal Scots reached their initial objectives of Sainte Manvieu and La Gaule . After much hand to hand fighting they believed the villages to be captured just after midday , although they later found that some German remnants were holding out . Tanks and infantry from the 12th SS and the 21st Panzer divisions launched two counter @-@ attacks to regain Sainte Manvieu but were repulsed with the aid of intensive artillery fire . The main German opposition in this section of their outpost line , had been from part of the I Battalion , 26th Panzergrenadier Regiment , which had been mostly overrun and the divisional pioneer battalion . The Germans in Rauray , which had not been captured the previous day , were able to subject the British brigades to observed artillery and indirect tank fire , causing considerable casualties and destruction , especially within the village of Cheux . At 1250 a squadron of the 11th Armoured Division reconnaissance regiment north of Cheux , was ordered to advance towards the Odon , preparatory to an attempt by the divisional armoured brigade to rush the bridges . Owing to minefields near the village , debris blocking its streets and German holdouts attacking the tanks , it was not until 1400 that the regiment was able to make progress . By 1430 the squadron arrived on a ridge south of Cheux where it was engaged by twenty Panzer IVs , sent by the 12th SS Panzer Division from the Rauray area , Tiger tanks from the 3rd Battalion 101st Heavy SS Panzer Battalion and armour from the 21st Panzer Division . More tanks from the 11th Armoured Division arrived but determined German resistance halted any further advance and by the end of the day the division had lost twenty @-@ one tanks . At 1800 the 227th ( Highland ) of the 15th ( Scottish ) Infantry Division , was committed to the battle . The Highlanders were delayed by fighting in support of the rest of the division and only two companies from the 2nd Battalion Gordon Highlanders made much progress . They entered the northern outskirts of Colleville by 2100 but soon found themselves cut off by German counter @-@ attacks . After heavy and confused fighting one company was able to break out and rejoin the battalion . To stop the British offensive , that evening Field Marshal Rommel ordered assistance from all available units of II SS Panzer Corps . = = = 27 June = = = With no attacks during the night , the German command believed that the British offensive had been contained . During the early hours of 27 June , II SS Panzer Corps was ordered to resume preparations for its counter @-@ offensive towards Bayeux . On the right of the British advance , the I SS Panzer Corps launched a counter @-@ attack with 80 tanks , which was disorganised by artillery fire , before foundering on the anti @-@ tank guns of the 49th ( West Riding ) Infantry Division , who then resumed their attempt to secure VIII Corps flank . Rauray was taken by the 49th Division at 1600 on 27 June , after further heavy fighting against the 12th SS Panzer Division . German forces had been diverted from opposing VIII Corps advance and the fall of Rauray denied the Germans an important observation point , although they remained in control of an area of high ground to the south . Epsom was resumed at 0445 by the 10th Battalion , Highland Light Infantry of the 227 ( Highland ) Infantry Brigade . With support from Churchill tanks ; the battalion intended to make a bid for the Odon crossing at Gavrus . The Highlanders immediately ran into stiff opposition from elements of the 12th SS Panzer Division and despite heavy artillery support were unable to advance all day . Casualties were heavy on both sides . At 0730 the 2nd Battalion , Argyll and Sutherland Highlanders , also of the 227th Highland Brigade , launched an attack aimed at capturing the Odon crossing at Tourmauville , north @-@ west of the village of Baron @-@ sur @-@ Odon . With the German forces engaged by the Highland Light Infantry , the Argyll and Sutherland Highlanders supported by the 23rd Hussars , were able to advance to Colleville with relative ease . There the small German garrison supported by 88 mm guns , inflicted heavy casualties upon the British and denied them the village until the afternoon . The battalion seized the bridge at Tourmauville at around 1700 and a bridgehead was established . By 1900 , two depleted squadrons of the 23rd Hussars and a company of the 8th Battalion , Rifle Brigade ( Prince Consort 's Own ) had crossed the Odon into the bridgehead . The remainder of the 15th ( Scottish ) Infantry Division around Cheux and Sainte Manvieu , was being relieved by the 43rd ( Wessex ) Infantry Division . When the 5th Battalion , Duke of Cornwall 's Light Infantry , of the 214th Infantry Brigade , moved into the outskirts of Cheux , they found that the Scottish infantry had moved on and the vacant position had been reoccupied by grenadiers of 12th SS Panzer Division . After battling to recapture the position , at 0930 the battalion was counter @-@ attacked by six Panthers of the 2nd Panzer Division . The attack penetrated Cheux and several British anti @-@ tank guns were destroyed before it was beaten off . Further attacks by the 2nd Panzer Division were halted but the entire front was " a mass of small engagements " . For the rest of the morning and afternoon , the Scottish infantry and the 4th and 29th Armoured brigades expanded the salient north of the Odon and secured the rear of the Argyll and Sutherland Highlanders . During late evening the men of the 159th Infantry Brigade ( 11th Armoured Division ) were transported in trucks through the narrow " Scottish Corridor " to Tourville , where they dismounted and crossed the Odon on foot to reinforce the bridgehead . During the night Kampfgruppe Weidinger , a 2 @,@ 500 @-@ strong battle group from the 2nd SS Panzer Division arrived at the front and was placed under the command of the Panzer Lehr Division . = = = 28 June = = = During the early hours of 28 June , a battle group of the 1st SS Panzer Division , Kampfgruppe Frey , arrived at the front and was placed under the command of the 12th SS Panzer Division . At 0810 , General Friedrich Dollmann , the 7th Army commander , ordered SS @-@ Obergruppenführer Paul Hausser to divert the II SS Panzer Corps , to counter @-@ attack south of Cheux . Hausser replied that no counter @-@ attack could be launched until the following day , as so many of his units had yet to reach the front . The German command was thrown into disarray by Dollmann 's sudden death , when Rommel and Gerd von Rundstedt ( OB West ) were en route to a conference with Hitler and out of touch with the situation . It was not until 1500 that Hausser was appointed commander of the 7th Army , with Willi Bittrich replacing him as commander of II SS Panzer Corps . ( Hausser was advised to retain control of the Corps until the following morning . ) Pending the return of Rommel to Normandy , Hausser was also to be supreme commander in the invasion area . At 1700 the command structure was changed again ; the 7th Army under Hausser would be responsible for the invasion front facing the American army , while the Panzer Group West ( General Geyr von Schweppenburg ) was to be responsible for the invasion front facing the Anglo @-@ Canadian forces . At 0530 elements of the 15th ( Scottish ) Infantry Division with tank support , launched a new assault to capture the village of Grainville @-@ sur @-@ Odon . After shelling and close quarter street fighting , the Scots secured the village by 1300 hours ; German counter @-@ attacks followed but were repulsed . At 0600 the Germans began two strong flanking attacks , with the intention of pinching out the British salient . Kampfgruppe Frey on the eastern flank , launched an attack north of the Odon , supported by Panzer IVs of the 21st Panzer Division . This reached the villages of Mouen and Tourville but the British counter @-@ attacked from the direction of Cheux , resulting in confused heavy fighting throughout the day . Frey 's battle group managed to gain control of Mouen and British counter @-@ attacks supported by tanks halted any further advance but were unable to retake the village . British patrols found Marcelet partly empty , the German front line having been pulled back towards Carpiquet . On the western flank , Kampfgruppe Weidinger supported by Panthers , tried to recapture Brettevillette , Grainville @-@ sur @-@ Odon and ultimately Mondrainville . The British defenders ( Brettevillette and on Point 110 : the 1st Battalion Tyneside Scottish , 11th Battalion Durham Light Infantry ( 49th ( West Riding ) Infantry Division ) and 4th / 7th Dragoon Guards ( 8th Armoured Brigade ) . In Grainville @-@ sur @-@ Odon and le Valtru : 7th Battalion Seaforth Highlanders , 9th Battalion Cameronians ( Scottish Rifles ) and 9th Royal Tank Regiment . ) held their positions , launching local counter @-@ attacks to retake lost ground and eventually the German offensive was stopped , within 0 @.@ 6 miles ( 0 @.@ 97 km ) of linking up with the lead elements of Kampfgruppe Frey . South of the Odon , at 0900 the Argyll and Sutherland Highlanders advanced out of the bridgehead , to capture a bridge north of the village of Gavrus . Heavy fighting took place into the afternoon before both village and bridge were in Scottish hands . Infantry from the 11th Armoured Division , expanded the bridgehead by taking the village of Baron @-@ sur @-@ Odon and the 23rd Hussars with infantry advanced on Hill 112 ( 49 ° 7 ′ 7 ″ N 0 ° 27 ′ 34 ″ W ) . Having secured its northern slope and dislodged the defenders from its crest , they were unable to advance further , due to the Germans dug in on the reverse slope . Several counter @-@ attacks were launched by 12th SS Panzer and the battered Hussars were relieved at 1500 by the 3rd Royal Tank Regiment but neither side was able to take complete control of the hill . The 11th Armoured Division had lost nearly 40 tanks on its slopes by the end of the day and was surrounded on three sides but troops managed to reach and reinforce the position . = = = 29 June = = = With the weather improving over the United Kingdom and Normandy , Hausser 's preparations for his counter stroke came under continual harassment from Allied aircraft and artillery fire , delaying the start of the attack to the afternoon . From the number of German reinforcements arriving in the VIII Corps sector and aerial reconnaissance , O 'Connor suspected that the Germans were organising a counter @-@ stroke . XXX Corps was still some way to the north , leaving the VIII Corps right flank vulnerable , O 'Connor postponed attacks by I Corps and ordered VIII Corps onto the defensive . Dempsey , privy to ULTRA decrypts of intercepted German signal traffic , knew the counter @-@ attack was coming and approved O 'Connor 's precautions . VIII Corps began to reorganise to meet the attack . Supply echelons for Hausser 's divisions were located in the Évrecy – Noyers @-@ Bocage – Villers @-@ Bocage area and were the focus of RAF fighter @-@ bomber attention throughout the morning and early afternoon ; the RAF claimed the destruction of over 200 vehicles . VIII Corps also launched spoiling attacks , at 0800 1st Battalion Worcestershire Regiment , from the 43rd Division , assaulted Mouen , without tanks behind an artillery barrage . By 1100 the battalion had forced the 1st SS Panzer Division panzergrenadiers back and the 7th Battalion Somerset Light Infantry moved up and dug in on the Caen – Villers @-@ Bocage road . The 129th Brigade of the 43rd Division , swept the woods and orchards around Tourville @-@ sur @-@ Odon , before crossing the river north of Baron @-@ sur @-@ Odon and clearing the south bank . An attempt by the 44th Brigade of the 15th Division to advance towards the Odon and link up with the force holding the Gavrus bridges failed , leaving this position isolated and in the salient the 44th Battalion Royal Tank Regiment failed to capture Hill 113 ( 49 ° 6 ′ 14 ″ N 0 ° 30 ′ 45 ″ W ) north of Évrecy , after clashing with 10th SS Panzer Division and losing six tanks . Elements of the 11th Armoured Division attacked Esquay @-@ Notre @-@ Dame west of Hill 112 but were repulsed and an attack by the 8th Rifle Brigade and the 3rd Royal Tank Regiment on the southern slope of the hill , drove the Germans from the position . Hausser intended that the 9th SS Panzer Division , with Kampfgruppe Weidinger protecting its left flank , to cut across the British salient north of the Odon , while the 10th SS Panzer Division retook Gavrus and Hill 112 south of the river . The 9th SS Panzer attack began at 1400 , heavily supported by artillery . The 19th and 20th SS Panzergrenadier Regiments supported by Panthers , Panzer IV 's and assault guns attacked Grainville , le Haut du Bosq and le Valtru , aiming for Cheux . A British company was overrun and tanks and infantry penetrated le Valtru , where anti @-@ tank guns knocked out four German tanks in the village and artillery fire forced their supporting infantry to withdraw . Confused fighting , at times hand @-@ to @-@ hand , took place outside Grainville and the Panzergrenadiers captured a tactically important wood , before being forced back by a British counter @-@ attack . The Panzergrenadiers claimed they also captured Grainville but no British sources support this and by nightfall British infantry were in control of the village . At around 1600 , the British captured an officer of the 9th SS Panzer Division who was conducting a reconnaissance . He was found to be carrying a map and notebook containing details of new attacks . Around 1830 , the Germans attacked the 15th ( Scottish ) Infantry Division on the right flank . One unit was being relieved and in the confusion , German tanks and infantry slipped through the British defences , with some units advancing 2 miles ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) before running into heavy resistance . By 2300 , the attack by the 9th SS Panzer had been stopped . Supporting attacks against the British eastern flank had been planned but German tank concentrations assembling in the Carpiquet area , had been so severely disrupted by RAF fighter @-@ bombers during the afternoon , that the attacks never materialised . The 10th SS Panzer Division launched its attack behind schedule at 1430 . Following clashes earlier in the day the British were waiting but after five hours of battle , the Scottish infantry defending Gavrus had been pushed back into a pocket around the bridge , north of the village . An artillery bombardment caused the Germans to withdraw but the British did not reoccupy the village . Moving towards Hill 113 , the 2nd Grenadier Battalion , Panzergrenadier Regiment 21 and 2nd Battalion , Panzer Regiment 10 of 10th SS Panzer ran into the 44th Battalion The Royal Tank Regiment and 2nd Battalion ( The King 's Royal Rifle Corps ) in Évrecy , who thwarted their attempt to occupy the hill . Dealing with this obstacle took the remainder of the day and the attack on Hill 112 was postponed . The Germans claimed the destruction of 28 tanks while the British recorded the loss of 12 . Believing the German attacks on 29 June indicated more counter @-@ attacks for the following day , Dempsey reinforced the Odon bridgehead with a brigade of the 43rd division and pulled in its perimeter . The 159th Infantry Brigade of the 11th Armoured Division was placed under the command of the 15th ( Scottish ) Infantry Division and acceding to O ’ Connor ’ s wishes for additional infantry , Dempsey attached the newly arrived 53rd ( Welsh ) Infantry Division to VIII Corps ; the lead brigade arrived near the Epsom start line during the night . To hold Hill 112 , it was necessary hold Évrecy and Hill 113 for which there were insufficient troops and Dempsey ordered the 29th Armoured Brigade to abandon the hill . To hold the area between Rauray and the Odon , Dempsey withdrew the 29th Armoured Brigade north across the river after dark , ready for the expected German offensive . = = = 30 June = = = Bittrich ordered a resumption of the offensive during the night of 29 – 30 June , hoping to avoid Allied air support . The 19th and 20th Regiments of the 9th SS Panzer Division , renewed their attacks against Grainville @-@ sur @-@ Odon and le Valtru in the dark but little progress was made against the 11th Armoured Division north of the Odon and heavy British artillery bombardments . At 0120 , the 10th SS Panzer Division started to move towards Hill 112 and at dawn , covered by a heavy artillery barrage they assaulted the vacated British positions . Unaware that the British had pulled back , Panzergrenadiers and tanks of the 10th SS Panzer advanced on the hill from the south and south @-@ west and infantry from 12th SS Panzer attacked from the east and south @-@ east . Meeting no opposition , by noon the Germans had occupied the hill . A British counter @-@ attack and artillery fire broke up a follow @-@ up attack towards Baron @-@ sur @-@ Odon . Bittrich called off further offensive action against VIII Corps . In the evening Hausser , commanding the 7th Army , informed Rommel 's headquarters that his counter @-@ attacks had been temporarily suspended due to " tenacious enemy resistance " and intensive Allied artillery and naval gunfire . Unaware of this and believing that more German attacks would follow , Dempsey closed down Operation Epsom . The front gradually settled down save for skirmishing , although both sides spent the remainder of the day heavily shelling one another . The battleship HMS Rodney contributed by bombarding villages suspected of containing German headquarters ; one was later found to have housed the headquarters of the I SS Panzer Corps . With no further British offensive moves due , in the afternoon the Gavrus bridges were given up , the Scottish defenders being withdrawn across the Odon . At 2030 the town of Villers @-@ Bocage , a vital traffic centre for the German forces , was destroyed by 250 RAF heavy bombers . It had been intended to catch German troops by the bombing but only French civilians were present . = = = 1 July = = = The II SS Panzer Corps resumed its counter offensive on 1 July , after spending most of the preceding 24 hours regrouping . Unaware that the British had ended their operation and with overcast weather interfering with Allied air support , Bittrich believed he had an opportunity to prevent the 11th Armoured Division continuing its advance across the Orne . Before dawn the 10th SS Panzer Division advanced , supported by heavy mortar and artillery fire . The Germans took the village of Baron @-@ sur @-@ Odon quickly but a counter @-@ attack by the 31st Tank Brigade retook it by noon . Heavy shelling broke up other attacks by 10th SS Panzer from Hill 112 and British patrols later found c . 300 – 400 dead Panzergrenadiers on the northern slope of the hill . The 9th SS Panzer Division spent the day attempting to force the British lines between Rauray and the Odon . Supplemented by Panzergrenadiers of the 2nd SS Panzer Division and following a preliminary bombardment , tanks and infantry of 9th SS Panzer advanced behind a smoke screen and broke through the outer British defences . The Germans were stopped by secondary positions in front of Rauray and on high ground to the south @-@ east , although some troops penetrated as far as Haut du Bosq . Further German attacks throughout the day , were met with intense artillery fire and made no progress , in the early evening a British counter @-@ attack with Sherman and flame @-@ throwing Churchill Crocodile tanks restored the original front line . The attacks were costly for both sides , thirty German tanks were claimed destroyed , mostly by the 49th ( West Riding ) Infantry Division , troops of the 12th SS Panzer Division had been repulsed during the morning and artillery fire halted attacks from other formations . = = Aftermath = = = = = Analysis = = = Having had to commit his last strategic reserves to contain the British offensive , on 29 June Rommel requested permission from Hitler to allow the 7th Army to begin a fighting withdrawal towards the River Seine ; a move which would be mirrored by German forces in southern France to form a new front line along the Seine towards the Swiss border . This was partially endorsed by Hausser , who on 30 June proposed a retirement from Caen . Encouraged by the fighting in the valley of the Odon , Hitler stated that " we must not allow mobile warfare to develop " , committing his troops in Normandy to " a policy of aggressive and unyielding defence " . On 2 July , Scottish patrols produced the first evidence of this , reporting that south of the Odon the Germans were digging in . Aerial photographs taken two days later , showed large numbers of newly dug weapon positions and by 8 July , the German forces facing VIII Corps had entrenched themselves . Some local adjustments occurred as both sides sought to improve their tactical position and the 12th SS Panzer Division captured Fontaine @-@ Étoupefour on 2 July . The VIII Corps , in battle for the first time , had broken through elaborate German defensive positions and advanced nearly 6 miles ( 9 @.@ 7 km ) . By throwing in their last reserves , the Germans had been able to achieve a defensive success at the operational level , by containing the British offensive . More than 4 @,@ 000 casualties were inflicted upon the British but the effort cost the Germans more than 3 @,@ 000 men . The German commanders had been forced to commit their armoured reserves piecemeal to meet threats as they developed , counter @-@ attacking at a disadvantage . Over 120 German tanks were destroyed , the organisation of the remaining forces was disrupted and their offensive power much reduced . With few infantry divisions to relieve them , the panzer divisions were forced to remain in the front line rather than pulling back into reserve to recover . Operation Epsom has been analysed by many military historians and commentators . S. A. Hart wrote in 2007 , that post @-@ war publication of memoirs by Allied generals had led to disputes along national lines during the 1950s and 1960s , with American historians generally critical of Montgomery and the actions of the Anglo @-@ Canadian forces , while " pro @-@ Montgomery " historians set out to refute these criticisms . Also published during this period were the national official campaign histories , which were thoroughly @-@ researched but avoided detailed critical analysis of the controversies . During the 1980s , revisionist writers concentrated on the perceived deficiencies of the Allies and since the late 1990s , two schools of thought have been revising the revisionists , some expanding on revisionist work , by providing a more detailed campaign analysis and those who have tried to show that the techniques employed by the Anglo @-@ Canadian forces were appropriate to conditions in Normandy . In 1983 , Carlo D ’ Este wrote that the most logical place for a British attack would have been out of the Orne bridgehead , on the extreme eastern flank of the Allied lodgement . An attack there had been rejected by Montgomery , Dempsey and O ’ Connor as unrealistic . Some writers described the intent of Epsom as an attack to gain ground , while others have suggested that the operation had other objectives . In 2004 , Williams wrote that due to ULTRA intercepts , Montgomery was aware of Rommel 's plan to attack towards Bayeux and that Epsom was intended to forestall it . Wilmot in 1952 wrote that the operation was intended to draw the I SS Panzer Corps and the newly arrived II SS Panzer Corps into battle around Caen . Hart wrote that Montgomery wanted to keep the initiative and prevent German armoured forces from moving from to the west against the US First Army or being relieved and forming a reserve . The arrival of the II SS Panzer Corps was a catalyst for Operation Epsom , which retaining the initiative by forcing the German command to use the II SS Panzer Corps against VIII Corps . Hastings wrote in 1985 , that that " no sane commander " would mount an attack as big as Epsom without " every hope of breaking through the German defences , or at least of causing the enemy to make substantial withdrawals " . D ’ Este wrote that " No amount of pretence can conceal that the real object had been a short pincer movement to outflank Caen " . Lloyd Clark wrote : " On the battlefield , Epsom ended , rather ignominiously , in a sort of draw " and that judging the effects of Operation Epsom is hampered by disagreement about Montgomery 's intent . In written orders Montgomery required an advance across the Orne River and the capture of high ground south of Caen , which was not achieved . Clark wrote that there were implicit objectives with strategic implications , more important than the capture of ground . In 1971 , Ambrose wrote of Epsom veering off @-@ course from the plan and D 'Este wrote that Epsom was " an operation of immense intentions which were not attained " , calling it a " dismal failure " . In 2004 , Trew and Badsey wrote of the British failure that it " ... took most of six Panzer Divisions to stop Epsom short of its final objectives .... " and Reynolds in 2002 , wrote that without the commitment of these six divisions , it was highly likely that the British offensive would have achieved its goals . Daglish in 2007 wrote that while the original concept of Epsom had failed , the offensive was a strategic success . By withdrawing the 11th Armoured Division across the Odon and then into reserve , the 21st Army Group had re @-@ created the threat of an offensive near Caen . By the end of June , all German armoured forces in Normandy were concentrated on the Second Army front . Shulman had written in 1947 , that with the defeat of its second armoured counter @-@ attack in June , the German command had thrown away its most effective troops and Reynolds wrote that while the operation was costly for the British , it caused grievous losses to the Germans . In the VIII Corps history published in 1945 , Jackson wrote that Epsom failed in its overt goal but that " when seen as part of Montgomery 's series of rapid and consecutive blows against the German Army in Normandy , the importance of Epsom becomes more apparent and there is little doubt that it did play a significant part in the Allies ' eventual success in the region " . D 'Este wrote that the losses inflicted on the German army were " purely in terms of men and material " . Copp in 2003 wrote that too much emphasis had been given to a win @-@ lose criterion , whereas a cost @-@ benefit approach provided more insight . Describing the standard German practice of counter @-@ attacking when driven from a position , Copp wrote that the Germans courted losses that could not be readily replaced , " One such counter @-@ attack on 22 July resulted in 10SS regaining control of the Bon Repas [ sic ] – Évrecy road , a clear victory in a win @-@ lose narrative but a typical German defeat in any cost @-@ benefit analysis " . In 2013 , Buckley wrote that by 1 July , there was a stalemate in which the British were established south of the Odon but had retired from Hill 112 , in what may have been a premature decision . The Germans had maintained a continuous front but only by using reserves which made it impossible to begin the counter @-@ offensive planned by Panzergruppe West , which made the offensive a considerable Allied success , as part of a strategy of attrition based on organised fire power . Looked on as an attempt to break through and force the Germans out of Caen the operation failed but in terms of Montgomery 's strategy it was a costly victory . The German defence of Normandy never recovered from the damage inflicted during Epsom , the initiative was lost and German counter @-@ attack tactics failed in the face of Allied fire power , with even greater cost than that inflicted on the British ; the German command structure and assumptions on which the defence was based were undermined . = = = Casualties = = = Clark wrote that casualties in the 15th ( Scottish ) Infantry Division were 2 @,@ 331 men : 288 killed , 1 @,@ 638 wounded and 794 missing from 27 June – 2 July . Buckley gave casualties for the division as 2 @,@ 700 , including 300 men killed , 25 percent of the casualties incurred from June 1944 – May 1945 and that the other units in the operation had 2 @,@ 500 casualties . The losses among the 11th Armoured Division and 43rd ( Wessex ) Infantry Division , were 1 @,@ 256 men : 257 being killed in the 11th Armoured Division . No figures are provided for the 49th ( West Riding ) Infantry Division , 51st ( Highland ) Infantry Division or the 8th Armoured Brigade , that conducted preliminary operations and attacks in support of Epsom . From 26 – 30 June , VIII Corps lost 470 men killed , 2 @,@ 187 wounded and 706 missing . On 1 July , a further 488 men were killed and wounded and 227 men were reported missing . These figures exclude formations conducting preliminary operations and attacks in support of Epsom . German casualties during Epsom were more than 3 @,@ 000 men . The 9th SS Panzer Division suffered 1 @,@ 145 casualties , the 10th SS Panzer Division suffered 571 casualties and the 12th SS Panzer Division suffered 1 @,@ 244 casualties . The Germans lost 126 tanks from 26 June to midnight on 1 July , 41 Panthers and 25 Tigers among them . In 2015 , Napier published new figures for equipment losses , of 125 German and 150 British tanks . = = = Subsequent operations = = = The increasingly costly static defence led to disputes in the German high command . On the evening of 1 July in a conversation with Wilhelm Keitel , Rundstedt said " Make peace , you fools . " Shortly afterwards , Günther von Kluge replaced him as Commander in Chief West . Due to his disagreements with Hitler over how the campaign should be conducted , Schweppenburg was replaced by Heinrich Eberbach as commander of Panzer Group West . During the lull both sides made changes to their dispositions . The 53rd ( Welsh ) Infantry Division relieved the 15th ( Scottish ) Infantry Division in the west of the British salient , while the 43rd ( Wessex ) Infantry Division relieved the infantry of the 11th Armoured Division who were still holding the Odon bridgehead . The Germans moved up the 277th Infantry Division which began to relieve the 9th SS Panzer Division and the battle group of the 2nd SS Panzer Division . A few days later the British Second Army launched Operation Charnwood , to take Caen . This incorporated the postponed attack on Carpiquet , originally planned for Epsom as Operation Ottawa but now codenamed Operation Windsor . In a frontal assault the northern half of the city was captured , with the remaining portions being taken during Operations Atlantic and Goodwood in the third week of July . Fighting in the Odon Valley continued and on 10 July Operation Jupiter was launched by VIII Corps to push back the German forces near the village of Baron @-@ sur @-@ Odon , retake Hill 112 and advance to the River Orne . The Second Battle of the Odon began on 15 July to divert German attention from the ground where Operation Goodwood was to take place . The second battle has been called one of the bloodiest encounters of the campaign . = = = Battle honours = = = The British and Commonwealth system of battle honours recognised participation in Operation Epsom in 1956 , 1957 and 1958 , by the award to 34 units of the battle honour Odon , for service on and around the river from 25 June to 2 July 1944 . The award was accompanied by honours for four actions during the operation : Fontenay le Pesnil on 26 – 27 June , Cheux from 26 – 27 June , Tourmauville Bridge on 27 June and Defence of Rauray from 29 June – 2 July .
= St Fflewin 's Church , Llanfflewin = St Fflewin 's Church , Llanfflewin ( sometimes referred to as St Fflewyn 's Church , Llanfflewyn ) is a small rural church , situated by a farm in Anglesey , north Wales . The first church on the site is said to have been built by St Fflewin in 630 , but the present building has no structural features dating from before the 18th century , although the church has a font from the 14th or 15th century and part of an inscribed medieval gravestone has been reused in a window sill . The church is still used for worship by the Church in Wales , and is one of five churches in a combined benefice . It is a Grade II listed building , a national designation given to " buildings of special interest , which warrant every effort being made to preserve them " , because it is a " simple rural church built on Medieval foundations " . A 2006 guide to the churches of Anglesey said that it is a " typical , well @-@ preserved rural church and is well worth a visit . " = = History and location = = St Fflewin , to whom the church is dedicated , was a Christian who was active in the 6th century . He is described as the son of Ithel Hael , who came to Britain from Armorica ( present @-@ day northern France ) towards the end of the 5th century . He established a Christian site at the location of the present church in 630 ( according to the Diocese of Bangor and a 2006 guide to the churches of Anglesey ) , although a 19th @-@ century guide to Wales by the writer Samuel Lewis says that it was sometime early in the 7th century . No part of a building from that period survives . There was a church here by 1254 , since it is recorded in the Norwich Taxation of that year . The present building is thought by Cadw ( the Welsh Assembly Government body responsible for the built heritage of Wales ) to be " probably built upon Medieval foundations " , albeit that the earliest dateable feature of the structure is from the late 18th century . After some repairs in the early part of the 19th century , St Fflewin 's was partially rebuilt ( " judiciously " , says a 2009 guide to the buildings of north @-@ west Wales ) in 1864 and further restored during the 1930s . The Welsh poet and clergyman Morris Williams ( better known by his bardic name " Nicander " ) was rector here from 1859 until his death in 1874 ; he was buried at Llanrhuddlad , one of the other Anglesey churches for which he had responsibility . The church is isolated , located in the countryside of north Anglesey by a farm , about 1 mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) from Llanrhuddlad , in an area of Anglesey known as Mynydd Mechell . Llanfflewin takes its name from the church : the Welsh word llan originally meant " enclosure " and then " church " , so " Llanfflewin " means " Church of Fflewin " . It is set within a raised circular enclosure , with an arched lychgate ( possibly of 17th @-@ century date ) . It is still in use for worship , and belongs to the Church in Wales , as one of five churches in the combined benefice of Llanfechell with Bodewryd with Rhosbeirio with Llanfflewin and Llanbadrig . It is within the deanery of Twrcelyn , the archdeaconry of Bangor and the Diocese of Bangor . As of 2012 , the rector is Canon G W Edwards . = = Architecture and fittings = = The church , which is small and rectangular , has no internal division between the nave and the chancel . It measures 47 feet 6 inches by 14 feet 9 inches ( 14 @.@ 5 by 4 @.@ 5 m ) . It is built of rubble masonry , and the roof is made of slate ; there is a gabled bellcote at the west end of the roof . The roof timbers can be seen from the inside . Entrance to the church is through a porch with a rounded arch at the west end of the south wall , and there is a vestry , with one window , at the west end of the north wall . The windows in the south and north walls are rectangular pairs ; the window in the east wall is in the form of a rounded arch , with two lights ( sections of window separated by mullions ) . The sill of the window has a fragment of a medieval gravestone ( dating from some time after 1300 ) set into it , inscribed HIC IACET MADOCUS . The church has a " roughly dressed " font with nine sides , dating from the 14th or 15th century . There are a number of slate memorial tablets on the north and south walls from the 18th century . A 1937 survey by the Royal Commission on Ancient and Historical Monuments in Wales and Monmouthshire also recorded a bier , with the initials " W.W. " and the date 1784 , and an Elizabethan silver cup with a cover @-@ paten , the paten having an engraved date of 1574 . It also noted a wooden pitch pipe and wooden shovel , both dating from the late 18th century . = = Assessment = = The church has national recognition and statutory protection from alteration as it has been designated by Cadw ( on behalf of the National Assembly for Wales ) as a Grade II listed building – the lowest of the three grades of listing , designating " buildings of special interest , which warrant every effort being made to preserve them " . It was given this status on 12 May 1970 , and has been listed because it is " a simple rural church built on Medieval foundations " . Cadw also notes that it retains " the vernacular character of a pre gothic revival church " . Samuel Lewis said that the church , which he described as " a plain edifice " , was " beautifully situated near a small lake , and surrounded with pleasing scenery " . The Welsh politician and church historian Sir Stephen Glynne visited the church on 4 September 1867 . He said that the church " has been so completely modernised , that it is doubtful whether any original feature remains but the bell @-@ gable and one single light window in the north wall " . He said that the font was of " singular design " : " octagonal , swelling downwards and each face concave . " He also said that the site was " wild and striking . " A 2006 guide to the churches of Anglesey says that it is " a typical , well @-@ preserved rural church and is well worth a visit . "
= Doggystyle = Doggystyle is the debut studio album by American West Coast hip hop artist , Snoop Doggy Dogg , released by Death Row Records and Interscope Records on November 23 , 1993 . The album was recorded soon following the release of Dr. Dre 's landmark debut album The Chronic ( 1992 ) , to which Snoop Dogg contributed significantly . The style he developed for Dre 's album was continued on Doggystyle . Critics have praised Snoop Dogg for the lyrical " realism " he delivers on the album and for his distinctive vocal flow . Despite some mixed criticism of the album initially upon its release , Doggystyle has earned recognition from many music critics as one of the most significant albums of the 1990s , as well as one of the most important hip hop albums ever released . Much like The Chronic , the distinctive sounds of Doggystyle helped introduce the hip hop style of G @-@ funk to a mainstream audience , bringing forward West Coast hip hop as a dominant force in the early 1990s . Doggystyle debuted at number one on the Billboard 200 chart , and sold 806 @,@ 858 copies in its first week alone , which was the record for a debuting artist and the fastest @-@ selling hip hop album ever until Eminem 's The Marshall Mathers LP in 2000 . Doggystyle is included in The Source magazine 's list of the 100 Best Rap Albums , as well as Rolling Stone magazine 's list of Essential Recordings of the 90s . About.com placed the album in number 17 of the greatest hip hop / rap albums of all time . The album was certified quadruple platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) . By November 2015 , the album had sold 7 million copies in the United States , and over 11 million copies worldwide . = = Conception = = = = = Background = = = Snoop Dogg came to attention of the music industry in 1992 , through his vocal contributions on Dr. Dre 's The Chronic . That album is considered to have " transformed the entire sound of West Coast rap " by its development of what later became known as the " G @-@ funk " sound . The Chronic expanded gangsta rap with profanity , anti @-@ authoritarian lyrics and multi @-@ layered samples taken from 1970 's P @-@ Funk records . Snoop Dogg contributed vocals to Dre 's solo single , " Deep Cover " , which led to a high degree of anticipation among hip hop for the release of his own solo album . Doggystyle and The Chronic are associated with each other mainly because each prominently featured Snoop Dogg and because both contain G @-@ funk style production from Dr. Dre . The two releases are linked by the high number of vocal contributions from Death Row Records artists , including Tha Dogg Pound , RBX , The Lady of Rage , while both contain a high density of misogynistic lyrics and profanity in their lyrics . In addition , the two albums are each viewed by critics as early " G @-@ funk classics " , and have been described as " joined at the hip " . ' Doggystyle ' also marked the debut of Death Row vocalist , Nanci Fletcher - the daughter of jazz legend Sam Fletcher . Gangsta rap has been criticized for its extreme lyrics , which are often accused of glamorizing gang violence and black @-@ on @-@ black crime . The Gangsta rappers responded that they were simply describing the realities of life in places such as Compton , California , and Long Beach , California . Describing Doggystyle in 1993 , Snoop Dogg likewise points to the album 's realism , and the extent to which it is based on his personal experience . He said , " I can 't rap about something I don 't know . You 'll never hear me rapping about no bachelor 's degree . It 's only what I know and that 's that street life . It 's all everyday life , reality . " Explaining his intentions , Snoop Dogg claims he feels he is a role model to many young black men , and that his songs are designed to relate to their concerns . " For little kids growing up in the ghettos , " he said , " it 's easy to get into the wrong types of things , especially gangbanging and selling drugs . I 've seen what that was like , and I don 't glorify it , but I don 't preach . I bring it to them rather than have them go find out about it for themselves . " He further explained the " dream " that he would pursue after making the album : " I 'm going to try to eliminate the gang violence . I 'll be on a mission for peace . I know I have a lot of power . I know if I say , ' Don 't kill ' , niggas won 't kill " . = = = Recording = = = Doggystyle was recorded in early 1993 at Death Row Studios . It was produced in a style similar to The Chronic ; some critics called it a " carbon copy " . Snoop Dogg collaborated with two music groups , 213 and Tha Dogg Pound . Daz Dillinger , of the latter group , accused Dr. Dre of taking sole recognition for producing the album and alleged that Warren G and himself contributed substantially to the production of the project . Death Row Records co @-@ founder Marion " Suge " Knight stated in 2013 that , " Daz pretty much did the whole album " , and that credit was signed over to Dr. Dre for a fee . Snoop Dogg said Dr. Dre was capable of making beats without the help of collaborators and addressed the issues with Warren G and Daz , stating " They made beats , Dre produced that record " . He discussed the track " Ain 't No Fun " , mentioning that Daz and Warren G brought Dr. Dre the beat but " Dre took that muthafucka to the next level ! " Bruce Williams , closely affiliated with Dr. Dre , discussed the recording process during Dre 's time at Death Row Records , stating : Dre ’ s going to be the first one in the studio and the last one to leave . He ’ ll start messing with a beat . As the beat starts pumping , the guys start filtering in . Everybody will get their little drink and smoke in . Soon enough the beat starts to make a presence . You ’ ll look around the room and every cat that was a rapper – from Kurupt to Daz to Snoop – will grab a pen . They would start writing while Dre is making a beat so by the time he ’ s finished with the beat , they are ready to hit the booth and start spittin ' . To see those young cats – they were all hungry and wanted to make something dope . The atmosphere that was there , you couldn ’ t be wack . Williams said the album was never finished and because of the demand for the record , the distributors insisted the album be completed , otherwise they would cancel the album 's orders . This resulted in Dr. Dre mixing the album and inserting the skits within 48 hours , which enabled the album to be released . Rolling Stone writer Jonathan Gold described how Dr. Dre produced a beat from scratch to complete instrumental : " Dre may find something he likes from an old drum break , loop it and gradually replace each part with a better tom @-@ tom sound , a kick @-@ drum sound he adores , until the beat bears the same relationship to the original that the Incredible Hulk does to Bill Bixby " . Gold also described how the track progressed with other musicians adding to the song , stating " A bass player wanders in , unpacks his instrument and pops a funky two @-@ note bass line over the beat , then leaves to watch CNN , though his two notes keep looping into infinity . A smiling guy in a striped jersey plays a nasty one @-@ fingered melody on an old Minimoog synthesizer that 's been obsolete since 1982 , and Dre scratches in a sort of surfadelic munching noise , and then from his well @-@ stocked Akai MPC60 samples comes a shriek , a spare piano chord , an ejaculation from the first Beastie 's record -- " Let me clear my throat " — and the many @-@ layered groove is happening , bumping , breathing , almost loud enough to see . " While recording Doggystyle with Dr. Dre in August 1993 , Snoop Dogg was arrested in connection with the death of Phillip Woldermarian , a member of a rival gang who was shot and killed in a gang fight . According to the charges , the rapper 's bodyguard , McKinley Lee , shot Woldermarian as Snoop Dogg drove the vehicle ; the rapper claimed it was self @-@ defense , alleging the victim was stalking Snoop Dogg . He spent most of 1995 preparing the case which went to trial in late 1995 . He was cleared of all charges in February 1996 when he began work on his second album , Tha Doggfather . = = = Title significance = = = The album 's title alludes to the doggy style sex position and is a reference to the musician 's name . The artwork , which was done by artist Joe Cool , represents the themes covered in the album and the style of implementation of those ideas . Some critics believe the artwork portrays a woman merely as a hole to be filled by the man , which they believe adheres to the narcissistic and sexist lyrical themes Snoop Dogg covers . In this interpretation , the cover art and lyrics convey what they refer to as the self @-@ indulgent " gangsta " lifestyle , drugs , cars , sex , and money . The artwork uses several quotes from the 1982 George Clinton single " Atomic Dog " . The quotes come from the dogs at the top of the brick wall on the album cover , which say , " Why must I feel like dat ? " , " Why must I chase da cat ? " and " Nuttin ' but da dogg in me " . = = Music = = = = = Production = = = Dre 's handling of the production was praised by critics . AllMusic writer Stephen Erlewine stated : " Dre realized that it wasn 't time to push the limits of G @-@ funk , and instead decided to deepen it musically , creating easy @-@ rolling productions that have more layers than they appear " . He added that the beats were " laid @-@ back funky , continuing to resonate after many listens " . Rolling Stone writer Touré noted " The Chronic 's slow , heavy beats were a sonic representation of angry depression as accurate as Cobain 's feedback blasts ; Doggystyle is leaner , with its high @-@ tempo Isaac Hayes- and Curtis Mayfield @-@ derived tracks " . He went on to say that " Most of Dre 's hooks and nearly all his beats refuse to linger , as if the songs themselves are nervous , fearful of exposure , restless to get offscreen . " Entertainment Weekly magazine 's David Browne mentioned that " The mix of samples and live music on Dre 's latest , The Chronic , gave it texture and depth , and he continues his knob @-@ turning growth on Doggystyle , fluidly weaving together a gaggle of background singers and rappers , quirky samples , his trademark horror @-@ flick keyboard lines " . The Source magazine columinst wrote : " Dre 's brand of G @-@ funk may be common now , but it is still painstakingly well @-@ produced " . = = = Lyrics = = = Snoop Dogg 's lyrics were generally praised by critics , although they caused some controversy . He was acclaimed for the realism in his rhymes and his harmonious flow . Allmusic 's Stephen Erlewine commended Snoop Dogg , saying : " he 's one of hip @-@ hop 's greatest vocal stylists with this record " and he " takes his time , playing with the flow of his words , giving his rhymes a nearly melodic eloquence . Snoop is something special , with unpredictable turns of phrase , evocative imagery , and a distinctive , addictive flow " . Time magazine 's Christopher John Farley noted " Snoop 's rapping isn 't flashy , but it is catchy " and stated " His relaxed vocal style is a perfect match for Dre 's bass @-@ heavy producing . Snoop 's voice is lithe enough to snake its way around the big beats " . The ideas put forward through the lyrics include Snoop Dogg 's adolescent urges , as he freely talks of casual sex , smoking marijuana and gunning down rival gang members . Time magazine remarked that the notions " are often unnecessarily graphic ; at some points they 're downright obscene " and that " the album would have been stronger if such misgivings about the criminal life , as well as Snoop 's touches of introspection , had been applied to some of the cruder songs " . The album also covered gun play , drug dealing and pimping . The New York Times said that the lyrical concepts were delivered in " crudest , rudest terms " . Some critics said Snoop Dogg was " obsessed with being a ' G ' , a gangster , a lawbreaker who smokes dope and kills with impunity " and that his lyrics depict the black @-@ on @-@ black crime in the inner @-@ cities . The lyrics involve many derogatory terms against woman , with expressions such as " bitches " and " hos " being used throughout , which illustrates the feeling of sexism and oppression within American society . In certain tracks Snoop Dogg and Tha Dogg Pound casually speak of group sex , illustrating the demeaning of women . Snoop Dogg 's lyrics depict drugs , alcohol , sex , and money as methods of escape from oppression , but they also show an underside of the " gangsta " lifestyle and the results of following this lifestyle . The lyrics ' violent representations , including murder and aggressive behaviour , have also generated controversy . C. DeLores Tucker of the National Political Congress of Black Women named gangsta rap " a profane and obscene glorification of murder and rape " , which can be attributed to Doggystyle . = = = Content = = = " Who Am I ( What 's My Name ) ? " was the first single released from the album on November 30 , 1993 . It peaked at number eight on the Billboard Hot 100 and Hot R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Singles & Tracks charts , and reached number one on the Hot Rap Singles . It is largely recognised as the album 's ' leading single ' , and the RIAA certified it Gold on February 8 , 1994 . It was certified Platinum later the same year . It reached number 20 on the UK Singles Chart in 1994 and re @-@ entered the chart in 2004 , reaching number 100 . In terms of critical reception and the volume of sales , it is Snoop 's most successful single to date . " Gin and Juice " was the second single released on January 15 , 1994 . Like the previous single , it was a hit on multiple charts . It reached number eight on the Billboard Hot 100 , number 13 on the Hot R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Singles & Tracks , number one on Hot Rap Singles , and number 39 on the UK Singles Chart . The RIAA certified it Platinum on April 6 , 1994 . The song was nominated at the 1995 Grammy Awards for Best Rap Solo Performance , but lost to Queen Latifah 's " U.N.I.T.Y. " . " Doggy Dogg World " was released as a Europe @-@ only single during June 1994 . Even though the single was not officially released in the U.S. , it received some radio airplay which resulted in position 19 on the Rhythmic Top 40 chart . A music video was produced for the single , which gained American video TV @-@ play and won the 1994 MTV Video Music Award for Best Rap Video . It reached number 32 on the UK Singles Chart . " Lodi Dodi " and " Murder Was the Case " were not official singles , but they received radio airplay and charted in Rhythmic Top 40 . An 18 @-@ minute music video was shot for the two songs , with an accompanying Murder Was the Case soundtrack . The video won the 1995 Video of the Year award at The Source Hip @-@ Hop Music Awards . " Gin and Juice " was nominated at the 1995 Grammy Awards for Best Rap Solo Performance . A bonus track , " Gz Up , Hoes Down " , was included in the album 's first pressing , but not in later versions because of sample clearance issues . Snoop Dogg could not gain the rights to use the beats because the record company was not willing to pay license fees for using the samples . " Gz Up , Hoes Down " was later released on the Death Row compilation " 15 Years on Death Row " . " Tha Next Episode " was listed on the cover , but not included in any pressing . It is considered the original material used for the 2000 Dr. Dre single " The Next Episode " but bears no resemblance to the later song . It was 4 minutes and 36 seconds ( 4 : 36 ) long . " Tha Next Episode " was later released on the Dr. Dre mixtape Pretox under the name " Chronic Unreleased Studio Session " , but only 1 : 10 long . " Doggystyle " featuring George Clinton was a 5 : 26 long outtake from the album sessions . It is a singing melody with vocals dominating the song and it extensively samples " Oh I " by Funkadelic from their album " Electric Spanking of War Babies " . Jewell & The Brides of Funkenstein are featured on the chorus . The song was released on " Death Row : The Lost Sessions Vol . 1 " amongst other songs recorded by Snoop Doggy Dogg during his tenure at Death Row . = = Reception = = = = = Commercial performance = = = Doggystyle debuted on the Billboard 200 at number @-@ one , powered by spectacular first week sales 806 @,@ 000 units . As of November 2015 , the album had sold 7 million copies in the United States , and over 11 million copies worldwide . It was certified four times platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America on May 31 , 1994 . It is Snoop Dogg 's most successful album ; his following albums were certified single or double platinum . Doggystyle first appeared on music charts in 1993 , peaking on the Billboard 200 and Top R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Albums at number one . It re @-@ peaked at number one on the Billboard 200 in January 1994 , when it was already certified three times platinum by the RIAA . The record was mildly successful in Europe , reaching number 18 in Sweden , number 21 in Germany and number 35 in Austria . It also peaked at number 25 on the Recording Industry Association of New Zealand album chart . At the end of 1994 , the album was number three on the Billboard Year @-@ End Top Albums Chart and number one on the Billboard Year @-@ End Top R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Albums Chart . It re @-@ entered the charts in 2003 , peaking on the Ireland Albums Top 75 at number 70 . As of September 2015 , it had spent a total of 74 nonconsecutive weeks on the Billboard 200 album chart . = = = Critical reception = = = Doggystyle was generally praised by critics . Rolling Stone writer Touré mentioned " Doggystyle is filled with verbal and vocal feats that meet its high expectations . It speeds through 55 minutes of constant talk as if on a suicide hot line " . David Browne of Entertainment Weekly noted " It is the most limber , low @-@ rider gangsta album to date " and went on to say " Doggystyle is a grim , bleak @-@ faced record . It 's set in a dead @-@ end , no @-@ tomorrow world of cheap thrills " . Stephen Thomas Erlewine of AllMusic stated " Doggystyle and The Chronic stand proudly together as the twin pinnacles of West Coast G @-@ funk hip @-@ hop of the early ' 90s " Stylus magazine presented " The Chronic vs. Doggystyle " article , and stated a strong point of Doggystyle compared to Dre 's album was its follow @-@ up singles and that " some of the album tracks are more famous than the singles " . Vibe magazine expressed that " Snoop is no ordinary gangsta ; that 's impossible for an artist this playful . On his debut , with Dre riding shotgun anthems abound as often as gin @-@ soaked debauchery " . The Source magazine gave the album a 4 / 5 mic rating . It said Snoop Dogg emerged as a rapper who lived up to all the advance hype which came from his work on The Chronic , and discussed songs on the record , stating " If ' Murder Was The Case ' is a stroke of near genius , then ' Lodi Dodi ' is an example of total genius . " NME magazine called the lead single " a pinnacle he conquered effortlessly " and went on to name the record a " benchmark album " . The album also received some negative criticism . Erlewine of AllMusic mentioned the album did not " surprise or offer anything that wasn 't already on The Chronic " . Christopher John Farley noted Snoop Dogg had little examination over his emotions and feelings . David Browne spoke of " Ain 't No Fun " , stating it was an example of how " musically artful , yet lyrically repellent , this album can be " and went on to say " It 's easy to be impressed one moment and appalled the next " . Renowned rock critic Robert Christgau gave the album a " dud " rating , which signifies " a bad record whose details rarely merit further thought . At the upper level it may merely be overrated , disappointing , or dull . Down below it may be contemptible . " Q 's Danny Kelly observed : " Snoop Dogg 's record is more or less a 19 @-@ track homage to / gleeful rip off of George Clinton 's ' Atomic Dog ' … It 's inclined to become a touch unimaginative ; a tad , let 's be honest , dull … And the sleeve competes with The Waterboys ' Dream Harder and Billy Joel 's River of Dreams as the worst attached to a recent release . " Despite the initial mixed criticism , critical perception of the album later improved , as Doggystyle has earned several accolades and rankings on critics ' " best album " lists . A review of the album 's reissue upped Q 's rating from three to four stars out of five . " A modern classic , " observed reviewer Tom Doyle . The Source magazine later gave the album a classic five @-@ mic rating . = = = Accolades = = = The information regarding accolades attributed to Doggystyle is adapted from AcclaimedMusic.net. ( * ) designates lists that are unordered . = = Influence = = = = = Hip @-@ hop music = = = Doggystyle is seen by many hip hop pundits as a " classic " and an " essential " album . It is credited with defining West Coast hip hop ; shifting the emphasis to more melodious , synth @-@ driven , and funk @-@ induced beats . About.com stated during the period the album was released , " Gangsta rap never sounded so sweet . " The album is credited for further establishment of the slurred " lazy drawl " that sacrificed lyrical complexity for clarity and rhythmic cadence on Doggystyle and The Chronic . The album is considered as one of the first G @-@ funk albums the style of which many rappers duplicated in later years . = = = Hip @-@ hop culture = = = It has been suggested by some writers and publications that Doggystyle has considerably affected African @-@ American culture . Some publications have held the rap genre responsible for social problems such as sexual violence and sexism , which has been blamed on Snoop Dogg and other rappers for calling their controversial lyrics " keeping it real . " The problems of sexual violence and sexism are attributed to lyrics degrading women such as " bitches " and " ho 's , " which some believe have influenced black males . Snoop Dogg and other hip hop artists , including N.W.A , especially Eazy E , Dr. Dre and Ice Cube ( due to their success ) and Tupac Shakur , have been held accountable for developing the gangsta rap form ; a genre which articulated the rage of the urban underclass and its sense of intense oppression and defiant rebellion , which has been attained through the ability to communicate free of censorship , and has allowed hip hop culture to become a dominant style and ethos throughout the world . Mariah Carey sampled the song " Ain 't No Fun ( If the Homies Can 't Have None ) " in her 1999 album Rainbow for the remix of Heartbreaker which featured Missy Elliott and Da Brat . The writers of Enculturation , Steven Best and Douglas Kellner , have noted that Snoop Dogg and other rappers only condemn violence when it is directed against them , otherwise " they celebrate it , internalize it , and embrace it as an ethos and means of self expression , " which some believe has an effect on the black @-@ on @-@ black crime . The release of music videos from Doggystyle and The Chronic has enabled the artists to add visual illustrations to their lyrics , which generally involve Dr. Dre and Snoop Dogg driving around South Central , Los Angeles in a lowrider ( a vehicle with lowered suspension ) . This imagery of the " gangsta lifestyle " is thought to have influenced young black males into trying to live the same lifestyle and it is also noted by T. Denean , writer of Pimps Up , Ho 's Down : Hip Hop 's Hold on Young Black Women , that the videos highlight the representation of class , race and Black masculinity within contemporary urban America . = = = Subsequent work = = = Doggystyle is generally considered Snoop Dogg 's best record , in addition to being his highest charting and best @-@ selling album as his later albums were certified double Platinum , Platinum or Gold although Da Game Is to Be Sold , Not to Be Told was certified triple Platinum making it his second best selling album and also his only other one to be certified multi Platinum . It differs from following albums as his later work featured production from multiple individuals , such as The Neptunes , Timbaland and Daz Dillinger , with reduced input from Dr. Dre , which shows a shift from G @-@ funk production . Snoop Dogg 's follow @-@ up album , Tha Doggfather ( 1996 ) , did not involve Dr. Dre , as he left Death Row Records . As a result , DJ Pooh was the main beat @-@ maker for the album . Tha Doggfather followed the methods of a G @-@ funk record and initially sold well , but received mixed reviews and failed to produce a major hit single . In 1998 , Snoop Dogg left Death Row and joined No Limit Records , changing his stage name from Snoop Doggy Dogg to Snoop Dogg . During his tenure at the label , he continued several of the themes from Doggystyle with follow @-@ ups to earlier songs , such as " Gin & Juice II " ( 1998 ) and " Snoop Dogg ( What 's My Name II ) " ( 2000 ) . Subsequent studio albums such as Paid tha Cost to Be da Boss ( 2002 ) and R & G ( Rhythm & Gangsta ) : The Masterpiece ( 2004 ) exhibited a more mainstream , pop @-@ oriented theme with new sounds , but remained " hardcore throughout " and featured " plenty of street and commercial appeal " . These releases included three hit singles , " Beautiful " , " Drop It Like It 's Hot " and " Signs " . Snoop Dogg was credited for returning to his G @-@ funk roots in 2006 , which was established with his eighth studio album , Tha Blue Carpet Treatment ( 2006 ) . The album was noted for being a " hard and very G @-@ Funk record " . = = Track listing = = All songs produced by Dr. Dre . = = = Cut Tracks = = = " Gz Up , Hoez Down " ( featuring Hug ) - omitted on all but the original pressings , due to sample and clearance issues . " Tha Next Episode " ( featuring Dr. Dre ) - listed on the track listing provided to retailers before the album 's release , but does not feature on any pressings of the album . The instrumental was later used for Warren G 's track " Runnin ' Wit No Breaks " from his album , Regulate ... G Funk Era The pair later recorded a track entitled " The Next Episode " for Dre 's second studio album , 2001 , which is completely different from the original . " Doggystyle " ( featuring Jewell & George Clinton ) - recorded during the album sessions , remaining unreleased until its inclusion on the compilation album Death Row : The Lost Sessions Vol . 1 " The Root of All Evil ( Outro ) " ( featuring Teena Marie ) - recorded during the album sessions , remaining unreleased until its inclusion on the compilation album Death Row : The Lost Sessions Vol . 1 . The instrumental was later used for the remix of " California Love " , by 2Pac featuring Dr. Dre . " Every Single Day " ( featuring Kurupt , Jewell and Nate Dogg ) - recorded during the album sessions , remaining unreleased until an alternate version was released on Tha Dogg Pound compilation album 2002 . = = Personnel = = = = Charts = = = = = Chart precession and succession = = = = = Certifications = = = = Release history = =
= Harry Potter = Harry Potter is a series of fantasy novels written by British author J. K. Rowling . The novels chronicle the life of a young wizard , Harry Potter , and his friends Hermione Granger and Ron Weasley , all of whom are students at Hogwarts School of Witchcraft and Wizardry . The main story arc concerns Harry 's struggle against Lord Voldemort , the Dark wizard who intends to become immortal , overthrow the Ministry of Magic , subjugate non @-@ magic people ( Muggles ) and destroy anyone who stands in his way . Since the release of the first novel , Harry Potter and the Philosopher 's Stone , on 30 June 1997 , the books have found immense popularity , critical acclaim and commercial success worldwide . They have attracted a wide adult audience as well as younger readers , and are often considered cornerstones of modern young adult literature . The series has also had its share of criticism , including concern about the increasingly dark tone as the series progressed , as well as the often gruesome and graphic violence it depicts . As of July 2013 , the books have sold more than 450 million copies worldwide , making them the best @-@ selling book series in history , and have been translated into seventy @-@ three languages . The last four books consecutively set records as the fastest @-@ selling books in history , with the final instalment selling roughly eleven million copies in the United States within twenty @-@ four hours of its release . The series was originally published in English by two major publishers , Bloomsbury in the United Kingdom and Scholastic Press in the United States . A play , Harry Potter and the Cursed Child , based on a story by Rowling , is set to première in London on 30 July 2016 at the Palace Theatre , and its script will subsequently be published by Little , Brown as the eighth book in the series . The original seven books were adapted into an eight @-@ part film series by Warner Bros. Pictures , which has become the second highest @-@ grossing film series of all time as of August 2015 . The franchise has also generated much tie @-@ in merchandise , making the Harry Potter brand worth in excess of $ 15 billion . A series of many genres , including fantasy , drama , coming of age and the British school story ( which includes elements of mystery , thriller , adventure , horror and romance ) , the world of Harry Potter explores numerous themes and includes many cultural meanings and references . According to Rowling , the main theme is death . Other major themes in the series include prejudice , corruption , and madness . The success of the books and films has ensured that the Harry Potter franchise continues to expand , with numerous derivative works , a travelling exhibition that premièred in Chicago in 2009 , a studio tour in London that opened in 2012 , a digital platform on which J.K. Rowling updates the series with new information and insight , and a trilogy of spin @-@ off films premièring in November 2016 , among many other developments . Most recently , themed attractions , collectively known as The Wizarding World of Harry Potter , have been built at several Universal Parks & Resorts amusement parks around the world . = = Plot = = The central character in the series is Harry Potter , an English orphan who discovers , at the age of eleven , that he is a wizard , though he lives in the ordinary world of non @-@ magical people known as Muggles . The wizarding world exists parallel to the Muggle world , albeit hidden and in secrecy . His magical ability is inborn and children with such abilities are invited to attend exclusive magic schools that teach the necessary skills to succeed in the wizarding world . Harry becomes a student at Hogwarts School of Witchcraft and Wizardry , a wizarding academy in Scotland and it is here where most of the events in the series take place . As Harry develops through his adolescence , he learns to overcome the problems that face him : magical , social and emotional , including ordinary teenage challenges such as friendships , infatuation , romantic relationships , schoolwork and exams , anxiety , depression , stress , and the greater test of preparing himself for the confrontation , that lies ahead , in wizarding Britain 's increasingly @-@ violent second wizarding war . Each novel chronicles one year in Harry 's life during the period from 1991 to 1998 . The books also contain many flashbacks , which are frequently experienced by Harry viewing the memories of other characters in a device called a Pensieve . The environment Rowling created is intimately connected to reality . The British magical community of the Harry Potter books is inspired by 1990s British culture , European folklore , classical mythology and alchemy , incorporating objects and wildlife such as magic wands , magic plants , potions , spells , flying broomsticks , centaurs and other magical creatures , the Deathly Hallows , and the Philosopher 's Stone , beside others invented by Rowling . While the fantasy land of Narnia is an alternate universe and the Lord of the Rings ' Middle @-@ earth a mythic past , the wizarding world of Harry Potter exists in parallel within the real world and contains magical versions of the ordinary elements of everyday life , with the action mostly set in Scotland ( Hogwarts ) , the West Country , Devon , London and Surrey in southeast England . The world only accessible to wizards and magical beings comprises a fragmented collection of overlooked hidden streets , ancient pubs , lonely country manors and secluded castles invisible to the Muggle population . = = = Early years = = = When the first novel of the series , Harry Potter and the Philosopher 's Stone ( published in America and other countries as Harry Potter and the Sorcerer 's Stone ) opens , it is apparent that some significant event has taken place in the wizarding world – an event so very remarkable , even the Muggles ( non @-@ magical people ) notice signs of it . The full background to this event and Harry Potter 's past is revealed gradually through the series . After the introductory chapter , the book leaps forward to a time shortly before Harry Potter 's eleventh birthday , and it is at this point that his magical background begins to be revealed . Harry 's first contact with the wizarding world is through a half @-@ giant , Rubeus Hagrid , keeper of grounds and keys at Hogwarts . Hagrid reveals some of Harry 's history . Harry learns that , as a baby , he witnessed his parents ' murder by the power @-@ obsessed Dark wizard Lord Voldemort , who subsequently attempted to kill him as well . For reasons not revealed until the fifth book , the spell with which Voldemort tried to kill Harry , rebounded . Harry survived with only a lightning @-@ shaped scar on his forehead as a memento of the attack and Voldemort disappeared afterwards . As its inadvertent saviour from Voldemort 's reign of terror , Harry has become a living legend in the wizarding world . However , at the orders of the venerable and well @-@ known wizard Albus Dumbledore , the orphaned Harry had been placed in the home of his unpleasant Muggle relatives , the Dursleys , who kept him safe but treated him poorly , having him live in a cupboard and do chores while doting on their spoiled son Dudley . Petunia Dursley was jealous of her sister 's magical abilities as a child , and later came to believe that all wizards were freaks . Therefore , the Dursleys hated wizards , so they hid Harry 's true heritage from him , saying his parents died in a car crash in the hope that he would grow up " normal " . With Hagrid 's help , Harry prepares for and undertakes his first year of study at Hogwarts . As Harry begins to explore the magical world , the reader is introduced to many of the primary locations used throughout the series . Harry meets most of the main characters and gains his two closest friends : Ron Weasley , a fun @-@ loving member of an ancient , large , happy , but poor wizarding family , and Hermione Granger , a gifted and very hardworking witch of non @-@ magical parentage . Harry also encounters the school 's potions master , Severus Snape , who displays a conspicuously deep and abiding dislike for him , and the Defence Against the Dark Arts teacher , Quirinus Quirrell , who later turns out to be controlled by Lord Voldemort . The first book concludes with Harry 's second confrontation with Lord Voldemort , who , in his quest for immortality , yearns to gain the power of the Philosopher 's Stone , a substance that bestows everlasting life . The series continues with Harry Potter and the Chamber of Secrets , describing Harry 's second year at Hogwarts . He and his friends investigate a 50 @-@ year @-@ old mystery that appears uncannily related to recent sinister events at the school . Ron 's younger sister , Ginny Weasley , enrolls in her first year at Hogwarts , and finds an old notebook which turns out to be Voldemort 's diary from his school days . Ginny becomes possessed by Voldemort through the diary and unconsciously opens the " Chamber of Secrets " , unleashing an ancient monster , later revealed to be a basilisk , which begins attacking students at Hogwarts . The novel delves into the history of Hogwarts and a legend revolving around the Chamber that soon frightened everyone in the school . The book also introduces a new Defence Against the Dark Arts teacher , Gilderoy Lockhart , a highly cheerful , self @-@ conceited wizard who goes around as if he is the most wonderful person who ever existed , who knows absolutely every single thing there is to know about everything , who later turns out to be a fraud . Harry discovers that prejudice exists in the wizarding world , and learns that Voldemort 's reign of terror was often directed at wizards who were descended from Muggles . Harry also learns that his ability to speak the snake language Parseltongue is rare and often associated with the Dark Arts . The novel ends after Harry saves Ginny 's life by destroying the basilisk and the enchanted diary which has been the source of the problems . The third novel , Harry Potter and the Prisoner of Azkaban , follows Harry in his third year of magical education . It is the only book in the series which does not feature Lord Voldemort . Instead , Harry must deal with the knowledge that he has been targeted by Sirius Black , his father 's best friend , and , according to the Wizarding World , an escaped mass murderer who assisted in the deaths of Harry 's parents . As Harry struggles with his reaction to the dementors – dark creatures with the power to devour a human soul , which feed on despair – which are ostensibly protecting the school , he reaches out to Remus Lupin , a Defence Against the Dark Arts teacher who is eventually revealed to be a werewolf . Lupin teaches Harry defensive measures which are well above the level of magic generally executed by people his age . Harry came to know that both Lupin and Black were best friends of his father and that Black was framed by their fourth friend , Peter Pettigrew . In this book , a recurring theme throughout the series is emphasised – in every book there is a new Defence Against the Dark Arts teacher , none of whom lasts more than one school year . = = = Voldemort returns = = = During Harry 's fourth year of school ( detailed in Harry Potter and the Goblet of Fire ) , Harry is unwillingly entered as a participant in the Triwizard Tournament , a dangerous contest where three " champions " , one from each participating school , must compete with each other in three tasks in order to win the triwizard cup . This year , Harry must compete against a witch and a wizard " champion " from visiting schools Beauxbatons and Durmstrang , as well as another Hogwarts student , causing Harry 's friends to distance themselves from him . Harry is guided through the tournament by their new Defence Against the Dark Arts professor , Alastor " Mad @-@ Eye " Moody , who turns out to be an impostor – one of Voldemort 's supporters named Barty Crouch , Jr. in disguise . The point at which the mystery is unravelled marks the series ' shift from foreboding and uncertainty into open conflict . Voldemort 's plan to have Crouch use the tournament to bring Harry to Voldemort succeeds . Although Harry manages to escape , Cedric Diggory , the other Hogwarts champion in the tournament , is killed by Peter Pettigrew and Voldemort re @-@ enters the wizarding world with a physical body . In the fifth book , Harry Potter and the Order of the Phoenix , Harry must confront the newly resurfaced Voldemort . In response to Voldemort 's reappearance , Dumbledore re @-@ activates the Order of the Phoenix , a secret society which works from Sirius Black 's dark family home to defeat Voldemort 's minions and protect Voldemort 's targets , especially Harry . Despite Harry 's description of Voldemort 's recent activities , the Ministry of Magic and many others in the magical world refuse to believe that Voldemort has returned . In an attempt to counter and eventually discredit Dumbledore , who along with Harry is the most prominent voice in the wizarding world attempting to warn of Voldemort 's return , the Ministry appoints Dolores Umbridge as the High Inquisitor of Hogwarts and the new Defence Against the Dark Arts teacher . She transforms the school into a dictatorial regime and refuses to allow the students to learn ways to defend themselves against dark magic . With Ron and Hermione 's suggestion , Harry forms " Dumbledore 's Army " , a secret study group aimed to teach his classmates the higher @-@ level skills of Defence Against the Dark Arts that he has learned from his previous encounters with Dark wizards . An important prophecy concerning Harry and Lord Voldemort is revealed , and Harry discovers that he and Voldemort have a painful connection , allowing Harry to view some of Voldemort 's actions telepathically . In the novel 's climax , Harry and his friends face off against Voldemort 's Death Eaters at the Ministry of Magic . Although the timely arrival of members of the Order of the Phoenix saves the children 's lives , Sirius Black is killed in the conflict . In the sixth book , Harry Potter and the Half @-@ Blood Prince , Voldemort begins waging open warfare . Harry and his friends are relatively protected from that danger at Hogwarts . They are subject to all the difficulties of adolescence – Harry eventually begins dating Ginny , Ron establishes a strong infatuation with fellow Hogwarts student Lavender Brown , and Hermione starts to develop romantic feelings toward Ron . Near the beginning of the novel , lacking his own book , Harry is given an old potions textbook filled with many annotations and recommendations signed by a mysterious writer ; " the Half @-@ Blood Prince . " This book is a source of scholastic success and great recognition from their new potions master , Horace Slughorn , but because of the potency of the spells that are written in it , becomes a source of concern . Harry takes private lessons with Dumbledore , who shows him various memories concerning the early life of Voldemort in a device called a Pensieve . These reveal that in order to preserve his life , Voldemort has split his soul into pieces , creating a series of horcruxes – evil enchanted items hidden in various locations , one of which was the diary destroyed in the second book . Harry 's snobbish adversary , Draco Malfoy , attempts to attack Dumbledore , and the book culminates in the killing of Dumbledore by Professor Snape , the titular Half @-@ Blood Prince . Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows , the last book in the series , begins directly after the events of the sixth book . Lord Voldemort has completed his ascension to power and gained control of the Ministry of Magic . Harry , Ron and Hermione drop out of school so that they can find and destroy Voldemort 's remaining horcruxes . To ensure their own safety as well as that of their family and friends , they are forced to isolate themselves . As they search for the horcruxes , the trio learns details about Dumbledore 's past , as well as Snape 's true motives – he had worked on Dumbledore 's behalf since the murder of Harry 's mother . Snape is killed by Voldemort out of paranoia . The book culminates in the Battle of Hogwarts . Harry , Ron and Hermione , in conjunction with members of the Order of the Phoenix and many of the teachers and students , defend Hogwarts from Voldemort , his Death Eaters , and various dangerous magical creatures . Several major characters are killed in the first wave of the battle , including Remus Lupin and Fred Weasley . After learning that he himself is a horcrux , Harry surrenders himself to Voldemort in the Forbidden Forest , who casts a killing curse ( Avada Kedavra ) at him . The defenders of Hogwarts do not surrender after learning of Harry 's presumed death and continue to fight on . Harry awakens and faces Voldemort , whose horcruxes have all been destroyed . In the final battle , Voldemort 's killing curse rebounds off Harry 's defensive spell ( Expelliarmus ) killing Voldemort . Harry Potter marries and has children with Ginny Weasley and Hermione Granger marries and has children with Ronald Weasley . An epilogue describes the lives of the surviving characters and the effects of Voldemort 's death on the wizarding world . It also introduces the children of all the characters . = = = Nineteen years later = = = Harry Potter and the Cursed Child is an upcoming two @-@ part West End stage play , and the official eighth book in the Harry Potter book series , which was written by Jack Thorne and based on a story by author J. K. Rowling , Thorne and director John Tiffany . The play is scheduled to open on July 30 , 2016 at the Palace Theatre , London , England , and will feature Rowling collaborating with an experienced team to bring the production to the stage . The book will in @-@ turn be released July 31 , 2016 . The story is set nineteen years after the ending of Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows and follows Harry Potter , now a Ministry of Magic employee , and his youngest son Albus Severus Potter . The play 's official synopsis was released on 23 October 2015 : It was always difficult being Harry Potter and it isn ’ t much easier now that he is an overworked employee of the Ministry of Magic , a husband , and father of three school @-@ age children . While Harry grapples with a past that refuses to stay where it belongs , his youngest son Albus must struggle with the weight of a family legacy he never wanted . As past and present fuse ominously , both father and son learn the uncomfortable truth : sometimes , darkness comes from unexpected places . = = = Supplementary works = = = = = = = In @-@ universe books = = = = Rowling has expanded the Harry Potter universe with several short books produced for various charities . In 2001 , she released Fantastic Beasts and Where to Find Them ( a purported Hogwarts textbook ) and Quidditch Through the Ages ( a book Harry reads for fun ) . Proceeds from the sale of these two books benefited the charity Comic Relief . In 2007 , Rowling composed seven handwritten copies of The Tales of Beedle the Bard , a collection of fairy tales that is featured in the final novel , one of which was auctioned to raise money for the Children 's High Level Group , a fund for mentally disabled children in poor countries . The book was published internationally on 4 December 2008 . Rowling also wrote an 800 @-@ word prequel in 2008 as part of a fundraiser organised by the bookseller Waterstones . All three of these books contain extra information about the wizarding world not included in the original novels . = = = = Pottermore website = = = = In 2011 , Rowling launched a new website announcing an upcoming project called Pottermore . Pottermore opened to the general public on 14 April 2012 . Pottermore allows users to be sorted , be chosen by their wand and play various minigames . The main purpose of the website was to allow the user to journey though the story with access to content not revealed by JK Rowling previously , with over 18 @,@ 000 words of additional content . In September 2015 the website was completely overhauled and most of the features were removed . The site has been redesigned and it mainly focuses on the information already available , rather than exploration . = = Structure and genre = = The Harry Potter novels are mainly directed at a young adult audience as opposed to an audience of middle grade readers , children , or adults . The novels fall within the genre of fantasy literature , and qualify as a unique type of fantasy called " urban fantasy " , " contemporary fantasy " , or " low fantasy " . They are mainly dramas , and maintain a fairly serious and dark tone throughout , though they do contain some notable instances of tragicomedy and black humour . In many respects , they are also examples of the bildungsroman , or coming of age novel , and contain elements of mystery , adventure , horror , thriller , and romance . They can be considered part of the British children 's boarding school genre , which includes Rudyard Kipling 's Stalky & Co . , Enid Blyton 's Malory Towers , St. Clare 's and the Naughtiest Girl series , and Frank Richards 's Billy Bunter novels : the Harry Potter books are predominantly set in Hogwarts , a fictional British boarding school for wizards , where the curriculum includes the use of magic . In this sense they are " in a direct line of descent from Thomas Hughes 's Tom Brown 's School Days and other Victorian and Edwardian novels of British public school life " , though they are , as many note , more contemporary , grittier , darker , and more mature than the typical boarding school novel , addressing serious themes of death , love , loss , prejudice , coming @-@ of @-@ age , and the loss of innocence in a 1990 's British setting . The books are also , in the words of Stephen King , " shrewd mystery tales " , and each book is constructed in the manner of a Sherlock Holmes @-@ style mystery adventure . The stories are told from a third person limited point of view with very few exceptions ( such as the opening chapters of Philosopher 's Stone , Goblet of Fire and Deathly Hallows and the first two chapters of Half @-@ Blood Prince ) . In the middle of each book , Harry struggles with the problems he encounters , and dealing with them often involves the need to violate some school rules . If students are caught breaking rules , they are often disciplined by Hogwarts professors . However , the stories reach their climax in the summer term , near or just after final exams , when events escalate far beyond in @-@ school squabbles and struggles , and Harry must confront either Voldemort or one of his followers , the Death Eaters , with the stakes a matter of life and death – a point underlined , as the series progresses , by one or more characters being killed in each of the final four books . In the aftermath , he learns important lessons through exposition and discussions with head teacher and mentor Albus Dumbledore . In the final novel , Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows , Harry and his friends spend most of their time away from Hogwarts , and only return there to face Voldemort at the dénouement . = = Themes = = According to Rowling , a major theme in the series is death : " My books are largely about death . They open with the death of Harry 's parents . There is Voldemort 's obsession with conquering death and his quest for immortality at any price , the goal of anyone with magic . I so understand why Voldemort wants to conquer death . We 're all frightened of it . " Academics and journalists have developed many other interpretations of themes in the books , some more complex than others , and some including political subtexts . Themes such as normality , oppression , survival , and overcoming imposing odds have all been considered as prevalent throughout the series . Similarly , the theme of making one 's way through adolescence and " going over one 's most harrowing ordeals – and thus coming to terms with them " has also been considered . Rowling has stated that the books comprise " a prolonged argument for tolerance , a prolonged plea for an end to bigotry " and that they also pass on a message to " question authority and ... not assume that the establishment or the press tells you all of the truth " . While the books could be said to comprise many other themes , such as power / abuse of power , violence and hatred , love , loss , prejudice , and free choice , they are , as Rowling states , " deeply entrenched in the whole plot " ; the writer prefers to let themes " grow organically " , rather than sitting down and consciously attempting to impart such ideas to her readers . Along the same lines is the ever @-@ present theme of adolescence , in whose depiction Rowling has been purposeful in acknowledging her characters ' sexualities and not leaving Harry , as she put it , " stuck in a state of permanent pre @-@ pubescence " . Rowling has also been praised for her nuanced depiction of the ways in which death and violence affects youth , and humanity as a whole . Rowling said that , to her , the moral significance of the tales seems " blindingly obvious " . The key for her was the choice between what is right and what is easy , " because that … is how tyranny is started , with people being apathetic and taking the easy route and suddenly finding themselves in deep trouble . " = = Origins = = In 1990 , Rowling was on a crowded train from Manchester to London when the idea for Harry suddenly " fell into her head " . Rowling gives an account of the experience on her website saying : " I had been writing almost continuously since the age of six but I had never been so excited about an idea before . I simply sat and thought , for four ( delayed train ) hours , and all the details bubbled up in my brain , and this scrawny , black @-@ haired , bespectacled boy who did not know he was a wizard became more and more real to me . " Rowling completed Harry Potter and the Philosopher 's Stone in 1995 and the manuscript was sent off to several prospective agents . The second agent she tried , Christopher Little , offered to represent her and sent the manuscript to Bloomsbury . = = Publishing history = = After eight other publishers had rejected Philosopher 's Stone , Bloomsbury offered Rowling a £ 2 @,@ 500 advance for its publication . Despite Rowling 's statement that she did not have any particular age group in mind when beginning to write the Harry Potter books , the publishers initially targeted children aged nine to eleven . On the eve of publishing , Rowling was asked by her publishers to adopt a more gender @-@ neutral pen name in order to appeal to the male members of this age group , fearing that they would not be interested in reading a novel they knew to be written by a woman . She elected to use J. K. Rowling ( Joanne Kathleen Rowling ) , using her grandmother 's name as her second name because she has no middle name . Harry Potter and the Philosopher 's Stone was published by Bloomsbury , the publisher of all Harry Potter books in the United Kingdom , on 30 June 1997 . It was released in the United States on 1 September 1998 by Scholastic – the American publisher of the books – as Harry Potter and the Sorcerer 's Stone , after Rowling had received US $ 105 @,@ 000 for the American rights – an unprecedented amount for a children 's book by a then @-@ unknown author . Fearing that American readers would not associate the word " philosopher " with a magical theme ( although the Philosopher 's Stone is alchemy @-@ related ) , Scholastic insisted that the book be given the title Harry Potter and the Sorcerer 's Stone for the American market . The second book , Harry Potter and the Chamber of Secrets was originally published in the UK on 2 July 1998 and in the US on 2 June 1999 . Harry Potter and the Prisoner of Azkaban was then published a year later in the UK on 8 July 1999 and in the US on 8 September 1999 . Harry Potter and the Goblet of Fire was published on 8 July 2000 at the same time by Bloomsbury and Scholastic . Harry Potter and the Order of the Phoenix is the longest book in the series at 766 pages in the UK version and 870 pages in the US version . It was published worldwide in English on 21 June 2003 . Harry Potter and the Half @-@ Blood Prince was published on 16 July 2005 , and it sold 9 million copies in the first 24 hours of its worldwide release . The seventh and final novel , Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows , was published on 21 July 2007 . The book sold 11 million copies in the first 24 hours of release , breaking down to 2 @.@ 7 million copies in the UK and 8 @.@ 3 million in the US . = = = Translations = = = The series has been translated into 67 languages , placing Rowling among the most translated authors in history . The books have seen translations to diverse languages such as Korean , Azerbaijani , Ukrainian , Arabic , Urdu , Hindi , Bengali , Welsh , Afrikaans , Albanian , Latvian and Vietnamese . The first volume has been translated into Latin and even Ancient Greek , making it the longest published work in Ancient Greek since the novels of Heliodorus of Emesa in the 3rd century AD . The second volume has also been translated into Latin . Some of the translators hired to work on the books were well @-@ known authors before their work on Harry Potter , such as Viktor Golyshev , who oversaw the Russian translation of the series ' fifth book . The Turkish translation of books two to seven was undertaken by Sevin Okyay , a popular literary critic and cultural commentator . For reasons of secrecy , translation on a given book could only start after it had been released in English , leading to a lag of several months before the translations were available . This led to more and more copies of the English editions being sold to impatient fans in non @-@ English speaking countries ; for example , such was the clamour to read the fifth book that its English language edition became the first English @-@ language book ever to top the best @-@ seller list in France . The United States editions were adapted into American English to make them more understandable to a young American audience . = = = Completion of the series = = = In December 2005 , Rowling stated on her web site , " 2006 will be the year when I write the final book in the Harry Potter series . " Updates then followed in her online diary chronicling the progress of Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows , with the release date of 21 July 2007 . The book itself was finished on 11 January 2007 in the Balmoral Hotel , Edinburgh , where she scrawled a message on the back of a bust of Hermes . It read : " J. K. Rowling finished writing Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows in this room ( 552 ) on 11 January 2007 . " Rowling herself has stated that the last chapter of the final book ( in fact , the epilogue ) was completed " in something like 1990 " . In June 2006 , Rowling , on an appearance on the British talk show Richard & Judy , announced that the chapter had been modified as one character " got a reprieve " and two others who previously survived the story had in fact been killed . On 28 March 2007 , the cover art for the Bloomsbury Adult and Child versions and the Scholastic version were released . In September 2012 , Rowling mentioned in an interview that she might go back to make a " director 's cut " of two of the existing Harry Potter books . = = = Cover art = = = For cover art , Bloomsbury chose painted art in a classic style of design , with the first cover a watercolour and pencil drawing by illustrator Thomas Taylor showing Harry boarding the Hogwarts Express , and a title in the font Cochin Bold . The first releases of the successive books in the series followed in the same style but somewhat more realistic , illustrating scenes from the books . These covers were created by first Cliff Wright and then Jason Cockroft . Due to the appeal of the books among an adult audience , Bloomsbury commissioned a second line of editions in an ' adult ' style . These initially used black @-@ and @-@ white photographic art for the covers showing objects from the books ( including a very American Hogwarts Express ) without depicting people , but later shifted to partial colourisation with a picture of Slytherin 's locket on the cover of the final book . International and later editions have been created by a range of designers , including Mary GrandPré for U.S. audiences and Mika Launis in Finland . For a later American release , Kazu Kibuishi created covers in a somewhat anime @-@ influenced style . = = Achievements = = = = = Cultural impact = = = Fans of the series were so eager for the latest instalment that bookstores around the world began holding events to coincide with the midnight release of the books , beginning with the 2000 publication of Harry Potter and the Goblet of Fire . The events , commonly featuring mock sorting , games , face painting , and other live entertainment have achieved popularity with Potter fans and have been highly successful in attracting fans and selling books with nearly nine million of the 10 @.@ 8 million initial print copies of Harry Potter and the Half @-@ Blood Prince sold in the first 24 hours . The final book in the series , Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows became the fastest selling book in history , moving 11 million units in the first twenty @-@ four hours of release . The series has also gathered adult fans , leading to the release of two editions of each Harry Potter book , identical in text but with one edition 's cover artwork aimed at children and the other aimed at adults . Besides meeting online through blogs , podcasts , and fansites , Harry Potter super @-@ fans can also meet at Harry Potter symposia . The word Muggle has spread beyond its Harry Potter origins , becoming one of few pop culture words to land in the Oxford English Dictionary . The Harry Potter fandom has embraced podcasts as a regular , often weekly , insight to the latest discussion in the fandom . Both MuggleCast and PotterCast have reached the top spot of iTunes podcast rankings and have been polled one of the top 50 favourite podcasts . Some lessons identified in the series include diversity , acceptance , political tolerance , and equality . Surveys of over 1 @,@ 000 college students in the United States show that those who read the books were significantly different than those who had not . Readers of the series were found to be more tolerant , more opposed to violence and torture , less authoritarian , and less cynical . Although we cannot know if this is a cause @-@ and @-@ effect relationship , there is a clear correlation , and it seems that Harry Potter 's cultural impact may be stronger than just a fandom bond . At the University of Michigan in 2009 , StarKid Productions performed an original musical parodying the Harry Potter series called A Very Potter Musical . The musical was awarded Entertainment Weekly 's 10 Best Viral Videos of 2009 . = = = Commercial success = = = The popularity of the Harry Potter series has translated into substantial financial success for Rowling , her publishers , and other Harry Potter related license holders . This success has made Rowling the first and thus far only billionaire author . The books have sold more than 400 million copies worldwide and have also given rise to the popular film adaptations produced by Warner Bros. , all of which have been highly successful in their own right . The films have in turn spawned eight video games and have led to the licensing of more than 400 additional Harry Potter products . The Harry Potter brand has been estimated to be worth as much as $ 15 billion . The great demand for Harry Potter books motivated the New York Times to create a separate best @-@ seller list for children 's literature in 2000 , just before the release of Harry Potter and the Goblet of Fire . By 24 June 2000 , Rowling 's novels had been on the list for 79 straight weeks ; the first three novels were each on the hardcover best @-@ seller list . On 12 April 2007 , Barnes & Noble declared that Deathly Hallows had broken its pre @-@ order record , with more than 500 @,@ 000 copies pre @-@ ordered through its site . For the release of Goblet of Fire , 9 @,@ 000 FedEx trucks were used with no other purpose than to deliver the book . Together , Amazon.com and Barnes & Noble pre @-@ sold more than 700 @,@ 000 copies of the book . In the United States , the book 's initial printing run was 3 @.@ 8 million copies . This record statistic was broken by Harry Potter and the Order of the Phoenix , with 8 @.@ 5 million , which was then shattered by Half @-@ Blood Prince with 10 @.@ 8 million copies . 6 @.@ 9 million copies of Prince were sold in the U.S. within the first 24 hours of its release ; in the United Kingdom more than two million copies were sold on the first day . The initial U.S. print run for Deathly Hallows was 12 million copies , and more than a million were pre @-@ ordered through Amazon and Barnes & Noble . = = = Awards , honours , and recognition = = = The Harry Potter series has been recognised by a host of awards since the initial publication of Philosopher 's Stone including four Whitaker Platinum Book Awards ( all of which were awarded in 2001 ) , three Nestlé Smarties Book Prizes ( 1997 – 1999 ) , two Scottish Arts Council Book Awards ( 1999 and 2001 ) , the inaugural Whitbread children 's book of the year award ( 1999 ) , the WHSmith book of the year ( 2006 ) , among others . In 2000 , Harry Potter and the Prisoner of Azkaban was nominated for a Hugo Award for Best Novel , and in 2001 , Harry Potter and the Goblet of Fire won said award . Honours include a commendation for the Carnegie Medal ( 1997 ) , a short listing for the Guardian Children 's Award ( 1998 ) , and numerous listings on the notable books , editors ' Choices , and best books lists of the American Library Association , The New York Times , Chicago Public Library , and Publishers Weekly . A 2004 study found that books in the series were commonly read aloud in elementary schools in San Diego County , California . Based on a 2007 online poll , the U.S. National Education Association listed the series in its " Teachers ' Top 100 Books for Children " . Three of the books placed among the " Top 100 Chapter Books " of all time , or children 's novels , in a 2012 survey published by School Library Journal : Sorcerer 's Stone ranked number three , Prisoner of Azkaban 12th , and Goblet of Fire 98th . = = Reception = = = = = Literary criticism = = = Early in its history , Harry Potter received positive reviews . On publication , the first book , Harry Potter and the Philosopher 's Stone , attracted attention from the Scottish newspapers , such as The Scotsman , which said it had " all the makings of a classic " , and The Glasgow Herald , which called it " Magic stuff " . Soon the English newspapers joined in , with more than one comparing it to Roald Dahl 's work : The Mail on Sunday rated it as " the most imaginative debut since Roald Dahl " , a view echoed by The Sunday Times ( " comparisons to Dahl are , this time , justified " ) , while The Guardian called it " a richly textured novel given lift @-@ off by an inventive wit " . By the time of the release of the fifth book , Harry Potter and the Order of the Phoenix , the books began to receive strong criticism from a number of literary scholars . Yale professor , literary scholar , and critic Harold Bloom raised criticisms of the books ' literary merits , saying , " Rowling 's mind is so governed by clichés and dead metaphors that she has no other style of writing . " A. S. Byatt authored a New York Times op @-@ ed article calling Rowling 's universe a " secondary secondary world , made up of intelligently patchworked derivative motifs from all sorts of children 's literature ... written for people whose imaginative lives are confined to TV cartoons , and the exaggerated ( more exciting , not threatening ) mirror @-@ worlds of soaps , reality TV and celebrity gossip " . Michael Rosen , a novelist and poet , advocated the books were not suited for children , who would be unable to grasp the complex themes . Rosen also stated that " J. K. Rowling is more of an adult writer . " The critic Anthony Holden wrote in The Observer on his experience of judging Harry Potter and the Prisoner of Azkaban for the 1999 Whitbread Awards . His overall view of the series was negative – " the Potter saga was essentially patronising , conservative , highly derivative , dispiritingly nostalgic for a bygone Britain " , and he speaks of " a pedestrian , ungrammatical prose style " . Ursula K. Le Guin said , " I have no great opinion of it . When so many adult critics were carrying on about the ' incredible originality ' of the first Harry Potter book , I read it to find out what the fuss was about , and remained somewhat puzzled ; it seemed a lively kid 's fantasy crossed with a " school novel " , good fare for its age group , but stylistically ordinary , imaginatively derivative , and ethically rather mean @-@ spirited . " By contrast , author Fay Weldon , while admitting that the series is " not what the poets hoped for " , nevertheless goes on to say , " but this is not poetry , it is readable , saleable , everyday , useful prose " . The literary critic A. N. Wilson praised the Harry Potter series in The Times , stating : " There are not many writers who have JK 's Dickensian ability to make us turn the pages , to weep – openly , with tears splashing – and a few pages later to laugh , at invariably good jokes ... We have lived through a decade in which we have followed the publication of the liveliest , funniest , scariest and most moving children 's stories ever written " . Charles Taylor of Salon.com , who is primarily a movie critic , took issue with Byatt 's criticisms in particular . While he conceded that she may have " a valid cultural point – a teeny one – about the impulses that drive us to reassuring pop trash and away from the troubling complexities of art " , he rejected her claims that the series is lacking in serious literary merit and that it owes its success merely to the childhood reassurances it offers . Taylor stressed the progressively darker tone of the books , shown by the murder of a classmate and close friend and the psychological wounds and social isolation each causes . Taylor also argued that Philosopher 's Stone , said to be the most light @-@ hearted of the seven published books , disrupts the childhood reassurances that Byatt claims spur the series ' success : the book opens with news of a double murder , for example . Stephen King called the series " a feat of which only a superior imagination is capable " , and declared " Rowling 's punning , one @-@ eyebrow @-@ cocked sense of humor " to be " remarkable " . However , he wrote that despite the story being " a good one " , he is " a little tired of discovering Harry at home with his horrible aunt and uncle " , the formulaic beginning of all seven books . King has also joked that " Rowling 's never met an adverb she did not like ! " He does however predict that Harry Potter " will indeed stand time 's test and wind up on a shelf where only the best are kept ; I think Harry will take his place with Alice , Huck , Frodo , and Dorothy and this is one series not just for the decade , but for the ages " . = = = Social impact = = = Although Time magazine named Rowling as a runner @-@ up for its 2007 Person of the Year award , noting the social , moral , and political inspiration she has given her fandom , cultural comments on the series have been mixed . Washington Post book critic Ron Charles opined in July 2007 that the large numbers of adults reading the Potter series but few other books may represent a " bad case of cultural infantilism " , and that the straightforward " good vs. evil " theme of the series is " childish " . He also argued " through no fault of Rowling 's " , the cultural and marketing " hysteria " marked by the publication of the later books " trains children and adults to expect the roar of the coliseum , a mass @-@ media experience that no other novel can possibly provide " . Librarian Nancy Knapp pointed out the books ' potential to improve literacy by motivating children to read much more than they otherwise would . The seven @-@ book series has a word count of 1 @,@ 083 @,@ 594 ( US edition ) . Agreeing about the motivating effects , Diane Penrod also praised the books ' blending of simple entertainment with " the qualities of highbrow literary fiction " , but expressed concern about the distracting effect of the prolific merchandising that accompanies the book launches . However , the assumption that Harry Potter books have increased literacy among young people is " largely a folk legend . " Research by the National Endowment for the Arts ( NEA ) has found no increase in reading among children coinciding with the Harry Potter publishing phenomenon , nor has the broader downward trend in reading among Americans been arrested during the rise in the popularity of the Harry Potter books . The research also found that children who read Harry Potter books were not more likely to go on to read outside the fantasy and mystery genres . NEA chairman Dana Gioia said the series , " got millions of kids to read a long and reasonably complex series of books . The trouble is that one Harry Potter novel every few years is not enough to reverse the decline in reading . " Jennifer Conn used Snape 's and Quidditch coach Madam Hooch 's teaching methods as examples of what to avoid and what to emulate in clinical teaching , and Joyce Fields wrote that the books illustrate four of the five main topics in a typical first @-@ year sociology class : " sociological concepts including culture , society , and socialisation ; stratification and social inequality ; social institutions ; and social theory " . Jenny Sawyer wrote in Christian Science Monitor on 25 July 2007 that the books represent a " disturbing trend in commercial storytelling and Western society " in that stories " moral center [ sic ] have all but vanished from much of today 's pop culture ... after 10 years , 4 @,@ 195 pages , and over 375 million copies , J. K. Rowling 's towering achievement lacks the cornerstone of almost all great children 's literature : the hero 's moral journey " . Harry Potter , Sawyer argues , neither faces a " moral struggle " nor undergoes any ethical growth , and is thus " no guide in circumstances in which right and wrong are anything less than black and white " . In contrast Emily Griesinger described Harry 's first passage through to Platform 9 ¾ as an application of faith and hope , and his encounter with the Sorting Hat as the first of many in which Harry is shaped by the choices he makes . She also noted the " deeper magic " by which the self @-@ sacrifice of Harry 's mother protects the boy throughout the series , and which the power @-@ hungry Voldemort fails to understand . In an 8 November 2002 Slate article , Chris Suellentrop likened Potter to a " trust @-@ fund kid whose success at school is largely attributable to the gifts his friends and relatives lavish upon him " . Noting that in Rowling 's fiction , magical ability potential is " something you are born to , not something you can achieve " , Suellentrop wrote that Dumbledore 's maxim that " It is our choices that show what we truly are , far more than our abilities " is hypocritical , as " the school that Dumbledore runs values native gifts above all else " . In a 12 August 2007 New York Times review of Deathly Hallows , however , Christopher Hitchens praised Rowling for " unmooring " her " English school story " from literary precedents " bound up with dreams of wealth and class and snobbery " , arguing that she had instead created " a world of youthful democracy and diversity " . In 2010 , coinciding with the release of the film Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows Part 1 , a series of articles were written about Private Harry Potter of the British army . This real @-@ life Harry Potter was killed in the Arab Revolt near Hebron in 1939 . His grave , located in the British cemetery in Ramla , Israel , began to receive curious visitors leading the Ramla Municipality to list it on their website . The Daily Mail interviewed siblings of Harry Potter who stated , " We couldn 't believe people visit his grave , but apparently they come from miles around to have their photo taken next to it . " = = = Controversies = = = The books have been the subject of a number of legal proceedings , stemming from various conflicts over copyright and trademark infringements . The popularity and high market value of the series has led Rowling , her publishers , and film distributor Warner Bros. to take legal measures to protect their copyright , which have included banning the sale of Harry Potter imitations , targeting the owners of websites over the " Harry Potter " domain name , and suing author Nancy Stouffer to counter her accusations that Rowling had plagiarised her work . Various religious conservatives have claimed that the books promote witchcraft and religions such as Wicca and are therefore unsuitable for children , while a number of critics have criticised the books for promoting various political agendas . The books also aroused controversies in the literary and publishing worlds . In 1997 to 1998 , Harry Potter and the Philosopher 's Stone won almost all the UK awards judged by children , but none of the children 's book awards judged by adults , and Sandra Beckett suggested the reason was intellectual snobbery towards books that were popular among children . In 1999 , the winner of the Whitbread Book of the Year award children 's division was entered for the first time on the shortlist for the main award , and one judge threatened to resign if Harry Potter and the Prisoner of Azkaban was declared the overall winner ; it finished second , very close behind the winner of the poetry prize , Seamus Heaney 's translation of the Anglo @-@ Saxon epic Beowulf . In 2000 , shortly before the publication of Harry Potter and the Goblet of Fire , the previous three Harry Potter books topped the New York Times fiction best @-@ seller list and a third of the entries were children 's books . The newspaper created a new children 's section covering children 's books , including both fiction and non @-@ fiction , and initially counting only hardback sales . The move was supported by publishers and booksellers . In 2004 , The New York Times further split the children 's list , which was still dominated by Harry Potter books into sections for series and individual books , and removed the Harry Potter books from the section for individual books . The split in 2000 attracted condemnation , praise and some comments that presented both benefits and disadvantages of the move . Time suggested that , on the same principle , Billboard should have created a separate " mop @-@ tops " list in 1964 when the Beatles held the top five places in its list , and Nielsen should have created a separate game @-@ show list when Who Wants to Be a Millionaire ? dominated the ratings . = = Adaptations = = = = = Films = = = In 1998 , Rowling sold the film rights of the first four Harry Potter books to Warner Bros. for a reported £ 1 million ( $ 1 @,@ 982 @,@ 900 ) . Rowling demanded the principal cast be kept strictly British , nonetheless allowing for the inclusion of Irish actors such as the late Richard Harris as Dumbledore , and for casting of French and Eastern European actors in Harry Potter and the Goblet of Fire where characters from the book are specified as such . After many directors including Steven Spielberg , Terry Gilliam , Jonathan Demme , and Alan Parker were considered , Chris Columbus was appointed on 28 March 2000 as director for Harry Potter and the Philosopher 's Stone ( titled " Harry Potter and the Sorcerer 's Stone " in the United States ) , with Warner Bros. citing his work on other family films such as Home Alone and Mrs. Doubtfire and proven experience with directing children as influences for their decision . After extensive casting , filming began in October 2000 at Leavesden Film Studios and in London itself , with production ending in July 2001 . Philosopher 's Stone was released on 14 November 2001 . Just three days after the film 's release , production for Harry Potter and the Chamber of Secrets , also directed by Columbus , began . Filming was completed in summer 2002 , with the film being released on 15 November 2002 . Daniel Radcliffe portrayed Harry Potter , doing so for all succeeding films in the franchise . Columbus declined to direct Harry Potter and the Prisoner of Azkaban , only acting as producer . Mexican director Alfonso Cuarón took over the job , and after shooting in 2003 , the film was released on 4 June 2004 . Due to the fourth film beginning its production before the third 's release , Mike Newell was chosen as the director for Harry Potter and the Goblet of Fire , released on 18 November 2005 . Newell became the first British director of the series , with television director David Yates following suit after he was chosen to helm Harry Potter and the Order of the Phoenix . Production began in January 2006 and the film was released the following year in July 2007 . After executives were " really delighted " with his work on the film , Yates was selected to direct Harry Potter and the Half @-@ Blood Prince , which was released on 15 July 2009 . In March 2008 , Warner Bros. President and COO Alan F. Horn announced that the final instalment in the series , Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows , would be released in two cinematic parts : Part 1 on 19 November 2010 and Part 2 on 15 July 2011 . Production of both parts started in February 2009 , with the final day of principal photography taking place on 12 June 2010 . Rowling had creative control on the film series , observing the filmmaking process of Philosopher 's Stone and serving as producer on the two @-@ part Deathly Hallows , alongside David Heyman and David Barron . The Harry Potter films have been top @-@ rank box office hits , with all eight releases on the list of highest @-@ grossing films worldwide . Philosopher 's Stone was the highest @-@ grossing Harry Potter film up until the release of the final instalment of the series , Deathly Hallows , while Prisoner of Azkaban grossed the least . As well as being a financial success , the film series has also been a success among film critics . Opinions of the films are generally divided among fans , with one group preferring the more faithful approach of the first two films , and another group preferring the more stylised character @-@ driven approach of the later films . Rowling has been constantly supportive of all the films and evaluated Deathly Hallows as her " favourite one " in the series . She wrote on her website of the changes in the book @-@ to @-@ film transition , " It is simply impossible to incorporate every one of my storylines into a film that has to be kept under four hours long . Obviously films have restrictions novels do not have , constraints of time and budget ; I can create dazzling effects relying on nothing but the interaction of my own and my readers ' imaginations " . At the 64th British Academy Film Awards in February 2011 , Rowling was joined by producers David Heyman and David Barron along with directors David Yates , Alfonso Cuarón and Mike Newell in collecting the Michael Balcon Award for Outstanding British Contribution to Cinema on behalf of all the films in the series . Actors Rupert Grint and Emma Watson , who play main characters Ron Weasley and Hermione Granger , were also in attendance . = = = = Spin @-@ off prequels = = = = A new trilogy of films , beginning with Fantastic Beasts and Where to Find Them , will take place before the main series . The films will be released in November 2016 , 2018 and 2020 respectively . Rowling wrote the screenplay for the first instalment , marking her first foray into screenwriting . = = = Games = = = There are thirteen Harry Potter video games , eight of which correspond with the films and books , and five other spin @-@ offs . The film / book based games are produced by Electronic Arts , as was Harry Potter : Quidditch World Cup , with the game version of the first entry in the series , Philosopher 's Stone , being released in November 2001 . Harry Potter and the Philosopher 's Stone went on to become one of the best selling PlayStation games ever . The video games are released to coincide with the films , containing scenery and details from the films as well as the tone and spirit of the books . Objectives usually occur in and around Hogwarts , along with various other magical areas . The story and design of the games follows the selected film 's characterisation and plot ; EA worked closely with Warner Brothers to include scenes from the films . The last game in the series , Deathly Hallows , was split with Part 1 released in November 2010 and Part 2 debuting on consoles in July 2011 . The two @-@ part game forms the first entry to convey an intense theme of action and violence , with the gameplay revolving around a third @-@ person shooter style format . The spin @-@ off games , Lego Harry Potter : Years 1 – 4 and Lego Harry Potter : Years 5 – 7 are developed by Traveller 's Tales and published by Warner Bros. Interactive Entertainment . The spin @-@ off games Book of Spells and Book of Potions are developed by SCE London Studio and utilise the Wonderbook ; an augmented reality book which is designed to be used in conjunction with the PlayStation Move and PlayStation Eye . A number of other non @-@ interactive media games have been released ; board games such as Cluedo Harry Potter Edition , Scene It ? Harry Potter and Lego Harry Potter models , which are influenced by the themes of both the novels and films . = = = Audiobooks = = = All seven Harry Potter books have been released in unabridged audiobook versions , with Stephen Fry reading the UK editions , and Jim Dale voicing the series for the American editions . = = = Stage production = = = On 20 December 2013 , J. K. Rowling announced that she was working on a Harry Potter – based play for which she would be one of the producers . British theatre producers Sonia Friedman and Colin Callender will be the co @-@ producers . On 26 June 2015 , on the anniversary of the debut of the first book , Rowling revealed via Twitter that the Harry Potter stage play would be called Harry Potter and The Cursed Child . The Production is expected to open in the summer of 2016 at London 's Palace Theatre , London . The first four months of tickets for the June – September performances were sold out within several hours upon release . On 10 February 2016 , it was announced via the Pottermore website , that the script would be released in book form , the day after the play 's world premiere , making this the 8th book in the series , with events set nineteen years after the closing chapter of Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows . = = Attractions = = = = = The Wizarding World of Harry Potter = = = After the success of the films and books , Universal and Warner Brothers announced they would create The Wizarding World of Harry Potter , a new Harry Potter @-@ themed expansion to the Islands of Adventure theme park at Universal Orlando Resort in Florida . The land officially opened to the public on 18 June 2010 . It includes a re @-@ creation of Hogsmeade and several rides . The flagship attraction is Harry Potter and the Forbidden Journey , which exists within a re @-@ creation of Hogwarts School of Witchcraft and Wizardry . Other rides include Dragon Challenge , a pair of inverted roller coasters , and Flight of the Hippogriff , a family roller coaster . Four years later , on 8 July 2014 , Universal opened a Harry Potter @-@ themed area at the Universal Studios Florida theme park . It includes a re @-@ creation of Diagon Alley and connecting alleys and a small section of Muggle London . The flagship attraction is Harry Potter and the Escape from Gringotts roller coaster ride . Universal also added a completely functioning recreation of the Hogwarts Express connecting Kings Cross Station at Universal Studios Florida to the Hogsmeade station at Islands of Adventure . Both Hogsmeade and Diagon Alley contain many shops and restaurants from the book series , including Weasley 's Wizard Wheezes and The Leaky Cauldron . On 15 July 2014 , The Wizarding World of Harry Potter opened at the Universal Studios Japan theme park in Osaka , Japan . It includes the village of Hogsmeade , Harry Potter and the Forbidden Journey ride , and Flight of the Hippogriff roller coaster . There is also The Wizarding World of Harry Potter under construction at the Universal Studios Hollywood theme park near Los Angeles , California , with a planned opening in April 2016 . = = = United Kingdom = = = In March 2011 , Warner Bros. announced plans to build a tourist attraction in the United Kingdom to showcase the Harry Potter film series . Warner Bros. Studio Tour London is a behind @-@ the @-@ scenes walking tour featuring authentic sets , costumes and props from the film series . The attraction is located at Warner Bros. Studios , Leavesden , where all eight of the Harry Potter films were made . Warner Bros. constructed two new sound stages to house and showcase the famous sets from each of the British @-@ made productions , following a £ 100 million investment . It opened to the public in March 2012 .
= Mount Garibaldi = Mount Garibaldi is a potentially active stratovolcano in the Sea to Sky Country of British Columbia , 80 km ( 50 mi ) north of Vancouver , British Columbia , Canada . Located in the southernmost Coast Mountains , it is one of the most recognized peaks in the South Coast region , as well as British Columbia 's best known volcano . It lies within the Garibaldi Ranges of the Pacific Ranges . This heavily eroded dome complex occupies the southwest corner of Garibaldi Provincial Park overlooking the town of Squamish . It is the only major Pleistocene age volcano in North America known to have formed upon a glacier . Although part of the Garibaldi Volcanic Belt within the Cascade Volcanic Arc , it is not considered part of the Cascade Range . = = Human history = = = = = Indigenous people = = = To Squamish people , the local indigenous people of this territory , the mountain is called Nch 'kay . In their language it means " Dirty Place " or " Grimy One " . This name of the mountain refers to the muddy water in the Cheekye River . This mountain , like others located in the area , is considered sacred for it plays an important part in their history . In their oral history , they passed down a story of the flood covering the land . During this time , only two mountains peaked over the water , and this mountain was one of them . It was here that the remaining survivors of the flood latched their canoes to the peak and waited for the waters to subside . The mountain also serves as weather indicator to the people , as when clouds cover the face of the mountain , it signals the coming of rain or snow . Cultural ceremonial use , hunting , trapping and plant gathering occur around the Mount Garibaldi area , but the most important resource was a lithic material called obsidian . Obsidian is a black volcanic glass that was used to make knives , chisels , adzes , and other sharp tools in pre @-@ contact times . This material appears in sites dated to 10 @,@ 000 years ago up to protohistoric time periods . The source for this material is found in upper parts of the mountain area in higher elevations that surround the mountain range . = = = Later history = = = British Explorer Captain George Vancouver reached Howe Sound in June 1792 and became the first European to see the mountain . During this time George Vancouver met and traded with the local natives in the area . In 1860 , while carrying out a survey of Howe Sound on board the Royal Navy survey ship HMS Plumper , Captain George Henry Richards was impressed by a gigantic mountain dominating the view to the northeast . Captain Richards , and his officers , renamed the mountain after the Italian military and political leader Giuseppe Garibaldi , who that year had succeeded in unifying Italy by patriating Sicily and Naples . In August 1907 , the Vancouver mountaineers A. Dalton , W. Dalton , A. King , T. Pattison , J.J. Trorey , and G. Warren reached the summit of Mount Garibaldi . The views from the peak inspired the establishment of summer climbing camps at Garibaldi Lake . This early interest led to the creation in 1920 of a park reserve . In 1927 , Garibaldi was made into a large wilderness park called Garibaldi Provincial Park . Named after Mount Garibaldi , this 1 @,@ 946 @.@ 5 square kilometre park was established to protect the rich geological history , diverse vegetation , iridescent waters , abundant wildlife , and rugged mountains , many of which are capped by glaciers . When skiing caught on in the 1940s , Vancouver skiers began to search the glaciers and rugged mountains within the park . Early skiing was limited to the more easily reached area around Garibaldi Lake . In the winter of 1944 , a club group completed the first possible ski of Mount Garibaldi . The famous mountaineers Don and Phyllis Munday completed lots of tracks additionally . In the 1944 @-@ 45 Canadian Alpine Journal , the Mundays reported a ski attempt on Mount Garibaldi with Phil Brook , who was a friend of the Mundays . They skied on Sphinx Glacier and scrabbled Panorama Ridge just north of Garibaldi Lake during the same trip . Most importantly , during this period a road was built on Paul Ridge near the small community of Squamish at the north end of Howe Sound , thereby affording better vehicle approach to the highlands near Mount Garibaldi . With easier access Vancouver skiers spent even more time on the glaciers of Mount Garibaldi . The result of this was the formation in the 1940s of the Garibaldi Névé Traverse , an overnight adventure that ( weather permitting ) can include a fine descent of Mount Garibaldi . = = Subsidiary peaks = = The broad top of Mount Garibaldi contains three named peaks . The highest peak is named as the mountain itself , reaching 2 @,@ 678 m ( 8 @,@ 786 ft ) above sea level . The second highest peak is the sharp pyramid of Atwell Peak at the southern edge of the summit plateau , which reaches a height of 2 @,@ 655 m ( 8 @,@ 711 ft ) and lies on the southwest end of Garibaldi Provincial Park . This peak is named after Atwell Duncan Francis Joseph King , leader of the first ascent of Mount Garibaldi in 1907 . The lowest of the three is the rounded Dalton Dome , 2 @,@ 653 m ( 8 @,@ 704 ft ) high , west of the highest summit . This peak is named after Arthur Tinniswood Dalton , one of the guides of the 1907 ascent . A feature on the north side of the mountain , known as The Tent , reaches 2 @,@ 465 m ( 8 @,@ 087 ft ) and lies in Garibaldi Provincial Park . Another minor summit on the south side of the mountain , 2 @,@ 056 m ( 6 @,@ 745 ft ) high , is known as Diamond Head ( sometimes Little Diamond Head ) for its resemblance to Diamond Head in Hawaii . Diamond Head was the site of a ski proposal and small lodge , now derelict . On the northwest side of Mount Garibaldi , Brohm Ridge lies outside the western boundary of Garibaldi Provincial Park . The Sharkfin sticks up out of the Warren Glacier on the northeast side of the mountain with a height of 2 @,@ 000 m ( 6 @,@ 562 ft ) , just northeast of Squamish . Columnar Peak rises on the south side of the mountain with a height of 1 @,@ 826 m ( 5 @,@ 991 ft ) , just southwest of Mamquam Lake at southwest end of Garibaldi Provincial Park . Two pinnacles of volcanic rock 5 km ( 3 mi ) south of Mount Garibaldi 's summit , which attain heights of 1 @,@ 816 m ( 5 @,@ 958 ft ) and 1 @,@ 823 m ( 5 @,@ 981 ft ) , have been known as The Gargoyles since 1978 . = = Glaciers and icefields = = Two pocket glaciers lie right below the east side of Atwell Peak , the Diamond Glacier to the southeast and the upper Bishop Glacier to the northeast . Straight north of Atwell toward Mount Garibaldi lies a small , high @-@ elevation ice cap called the Cheekye Glacier , the name of which is associated with Cheekye River . A large icefield lies on the eastern and northern flanks of Mount Garibaldi called the Garibaldi Névé . Its drainage is to the east into the Pitt River , to the southwest into Garibaldi Lake . It has an area of 35 km2 and is an area of substantial snowfall with more than 5 m ( 16 ft ) in many winters . The Garibaldi Névé is usually accessed from the south through the Bishop Glacier or from the north through the Sentinel Glacier . = = Climbing and recreation = = Mountain climbing on Mount Garibaldi is fairly difficult ; it is fairly steep @-@ sided and involves climbing very loose rotten lava and volcanic ash . Fortunately , Mount Garibaldi has large areas of massive glaciation and extensive snowfields . The eastern and northern flanks of the mountain are smothered by the Garibaldi Névé where the finest climbing opportunities exist , making the easiest route a glacial travel or snow climb . Routes keep mostly to the alpine glaciers and snow slopes , which are abundant in winter and spring , but eventually melt in late spring and commonly vanish after June or July of most years . After the snow and ice melts , fissures and fractures can pose difficulty and danger , and avalanches from higher peaks of the mountain are a hazard . For this reason , early season , cold @-@ weather ascents are recommended for most routes up Garibaldi . Hiking , photography , and camping are popular in the Garibaldi area . Several trailheads provide access to the backcountry . In mid to late summer , visitors pass through meadows of wildflowers along alpine trails . Garibaldi Provincial Park is also popular for winter sports , including backcountry skiing and snowshoeing . = = Geology = = Mount Garibaldi lies within the Coast Plutonic Complex , which is the single largest contiguous granite outcropping in North America . The intrusive and metamorphic rocks extend approximately 1 @,@ 800 km ( 1 @,@ 118 mi ) along the coast of British Columbia , the Alaska Panhandle and southwestern Yukon . This is a remnant of a once vast volcanic arc called the Coast Range Arc that formed as a result of subduction of the Farallon and Kula Plates during the Jurassic @-@ to @-@ Eocene periods . In contrast , Garibaldi , Meager , Cayley and Silverthrone areas are of recent volcanic origin . Mount Garibaldi is one of the few Cascade volcanoes that is made exclusively of dacite ( Glacier Peak is the other ) . The mountain has a unique asymmetrical shape because its main cone was constructed atop part of a large glacier system associated with the Cordilleran Ice Sheet that has since melted away . Unlike many of the other Cascade volcanoes to the south , Garibaldi does not dominate the surrounding landscape , which consists of many high , rugged peaks . Many residents of Vancouver are therefore not aware that there is a volcano closer to the city than the more easily visible Mount Baker in Washington State . = = = Origins = = = Mount Garibaldi began erupting about 250 @,@ 000 years ago and has grown steadily since then . Like all of the Cascade volcanoes , Mount Garibaldi has its origins in the Cascadia subduction zone — a long convergent plate boundary that stretches from mid @-@ Vancouver Island to Northern California . The subduction zone separates the Juan de Fuca , Explorer , Gorda and North American Plates . Here , the oceanic crust of the Pacific Ocean sinks beneath North America at a rate of 40 millimetres ( 1 @.@ 6 in ) per year . Hot magma upwelling above the descending oceanic plate creates volcanoes , and each individual volcano erupts for a few million years . The subduction zone has existed for at least 37 million years , and has created a line of volcanoes called the Cascade Volcanic Arc which stretches over 1 @,@ 000 km ( 621 mi ) along the subduction zone . Several volcanoes in the arc are potentially active . Lassen Peak in California , which last erupted in 1917 , is the southernmost historically active volcano in the arc , while Mount Meager , just north of Mount Garibaldi , which erupted about 2 @,@ 350 years ago , is generally considered the northernmost . A few isolated volcanic centres northwest of Mount Meager , such as the Silverthrone Caldera , which is a circular 20 km ( 12 mi ) wide , deeply dissected caldera complex , are considered by some geologists to be the northernmost member of the arc . = = = Structure = = = Mount Garibaldi is the largest volcano in southernmost British Columbia . Like other stratovolcanoes , it is composed of many layers of hardened lava , tephra , and volcanic ash . Eruptions are explosive in nature , and the most common form is the Peléan style , which involves viscous magma , glowing avalanches of hot volcanic ash and pyroclastic flows . The source magma of this rock is classified as acidic , having high to intermediate levels of silica ( as in rhyolite , dacite , or andesite ) . The tephra deposits have lower volume and range than the corresponding Plinian and Vulcanian eruptions . Mount Garibaldi is known both for the very high quality exposures of its internal structure and for its conspicuous topographic anomalies , which can be attributed to the growth of the mountain onto a large glacier system and the subsequent collapse of the flanks of the volcano with the melting of the ice . The western flanks of the mountain expose basement rocks , sheared and altered quartz diorite , carved by streams and glaciers into a rugged topography with relief up to 1 @,@ 800 m ( 5 @,@ 906 ft ) . Valleys in this jagged surface have been filled with 0 @.@ 52 to 0 @.@ 22 million year old dacite and andesite flows , tuff breccias , and domes , precursors of the activity at Mount Garibaldi . About 0 @.@ 8 cubic miles ( 3 @.@ 3 km3 ) of material remains in the volcano . In modern times , the apron of material around the volcano 's main vent extends at least 4 @.@ 8 km ( 3 mi ) from its source in places that were covered by ice . In other areas its extent is less and its slope is steeper . Stratovolcanoes are a common feature of subduction zones . The magma that forms them arises when water , which is trapped both in hydrated minerals and in the porous basalt rock of the upper oceanic crust , is released into mantle rock of the asthenosphere above the sinking oceanic slab . The release of water from hydrated minerals is termed " dewatering " , and occurs at specific pressure / temperature conditions for specific minerals as the plate subducts to lower depths . The water freed from the subducting slab lowers the melting point of the overlying mantle rock , which then undergoes partial melting and rises due to its density relative to the surrounding mantle rock , and pools temporarily at the base of the lithosphere . The magma then rises through the crust , incorporating silica rich crustal rock , leading to a final intermediate composition . When the magma nears the surface it pools in a magma chamber under the volcano . The relatively low pressure of the magma allows water and other volatiles ( CO2 , S2 − , Cl − ) dissolved in the magma to begin to come out of solution , much like when a bottle of carbonated water is opened . Once a critical volume of magma and gas accumulates , the obstacle provided by the volcanic cone is overcome , leading to a sudden explosive eruption . = = = Ancestral stages of eruptive activity = = = The mountain grew in three phases . Garibaldi 's first phase resulted in the creation of a broad composite cone made of dacite and breccia that has been potassium @-@ argon dated to 250 @,@ 000 years old . Parts of this " proto @-@ Garibaldi " or ancestral volcano are exposed on Garibaldi 's lower northern and eastern flanks and on the upper 240 m ( 787 ft ) of Brohm Ridge . Around where Columnar Peak and possibly Glacier Pikes are now located , a series of coalescing dacite lava domes were constructed . During the ensuing long period of dormancy , the Cheekye River cut a deep valley into the cone 's western flank that was later filled with a glacier . After reaching its maximum extent the Cheekye Glacier along with part of the area 's ice sheet were covered with volcanic ash and fragmented debris from Garibaldi . This period of growth began with the eruption of the Atwell Peak plug dome from a ridge surrounded by the several thousand foot ice sheet . As the plug dome rose , massive sheets of broken lava crumbled as talus down its sides . Numerous Peléan pyroclastic flows ( consisting of a super @-@ heated mix of gas , ash , and pumice ) accompanied these cooler avalanches , forming a fragmental cone 6 @.@ 3 cubic kilometres ( 1 @.@ 5 cu mi ) in volume and an overall slope of 12 to 15 degrees . ( Erosion has since steepened this slope . ) Some of the glacial ice was melted by the eruptions , forming a small lake against Brohm Ridge 's southern arm . The volcanic sandstones seen today atop Brohm Ridge were created by ash settling in this lake . Glacial overlap was most significant on the west and somewhat to the south . Subsequent melting of the ice sheet and its component glaciers initiated a series of avalanches and mudflows on Garibaldi 's western flank that moved nearly half of the original cone 's volume into the Squamish Valley . This series of debris flows carried 2 @.@ 5 cubic kilometres ( 0 @.@ 6 cu mi ) of the mountain into the Squamish Valley where it covers 10 square miles ( 26 km2 ) to a thickness of about 300 feet ( 91 m ) . Gaps left by melting ice caused minor to moderate cone distortion where the ice sheet was thin and major distortion where it was thick . The ice was thickest in and thus cone distortion was greatest over the buried Cheekye valley . Soon before or after the buried ice had melted away , dacite lava quietly erupted from Opal Cone southeast of the Atwell Peak plug dome 10 @,@ 700 to 9 @,@ 300 years ago and flowed 20 km ( 12 mi ) down Ring Creek on Garibaldi 's southern and southwestern flanks without encountering any residual glacial ice . One of the lava flows traveled down a 30 % to 35 % grade over the landslide scar on the western flank . About 0 @.@ 15 cubic miles ( 0 @.@ 63 km3 ) of dacite erupted in Garibaldi 's third period of activity . This lava forms a thin layer of solid rock on the southern and western sides of the volcano and contains well @-@ defined lava flow margin levees . The Ring Creek lava flow is very unusual because lengthy lava flows are usually attained by fluid basalt flows , except the Ring Creek flow is dacite . = = = Current activity = = = Mount Garibaldi is one of the eleven Canadian volcanoes most strongly associated with recent seismic activity ; the others are Castle Rock , Mount Edziza , Mount Cayley , Hoodoo Mountain , The Volcano , Crow Lagoon , Silverthrone Caldera , Mount Meager , Wells Gray @-@ Clearwater Volcanic Field and Nazko Cone . The mountain is informally described as " dormant " ( " asleep " ) because the mountain has not erupted in historic times , nor does it display fumarolic activity like nearby Mount Baker . However , seismic data suggests that these volcanoes still contain living magma plumbing systems , indicating possible future eruptive activity . Although the available data does not allow a clear conclusion , these observations are further indications that some of Canada 's volcanoes are potentially active , and that their associated hazards may be significant . The seismic activity correlates both with some of Canada 's most youthful volcanoes , and with long @-@ lived volcanic centres with a history of significant explosive behavior , such as Mount Garibaldi . No hot springs are known in the Garibaldi area like those found at Mount Meager and Mount Cayley , the other major volcanic complexes in the Garibaldi belt , although there are hints of anomalously high local heat flow in Table Meadows and elsewhere . = = Volcanic hazards = = Volcanic eruptions in Canada rarely cause fatalities because of their remoteness and low level of activity . The only known fatality due to volcanic activity in Canada occurred at the Tseax Cone in 1775 , when a 22 @.@ 5 km ( 14 mi ) long basaltic lava flow travelled down the Tseax and Nass Rivers , destroying a Nisga 'a village and killing approximately 2 @,@ 000 people by volcanic gases . Many towns and cities near Mount Garibaldi are home to over half of British Columbia 's human population , and there is a likelihood that future eruptions will cause damage to populated areas , making Mount Garibaldi and other Garibaldi belt volcanoes a major hazard . There are significant hazards from almost all Canadian volcanoes that require hazard maps and emergency plans . Volcanoes which exhibit significant seismic activity , such as Mount Garibaldi , appear to be most likely to erupt . A significant eruption of any of the Garibaldi belt volcanoes would significantly impact Highway 99 and communities like Pemberton , Whistler and Squamish , and possibly Vancouver . = = = Explosive eruptions = = = Explosive eruptions from Mount Garibaldi would pose a severe threat to the nearby communities of Whistler and Squamish . Although no Plinian eruptions have been identified in Garibaldi 's eruptive history , even Peléan eruptions could create large amounts of ash that could significantly affect these local communities . Ash columns may rise to several hundred meters above the volcano , and due to its close proximity to Vancouver this could pose a threat for air traffic . Melting of leftover glacial ice covering the Mount Garibaldi area may cause floods , lahars , or debris flows that could possibly threaten small communities such as Brackendale . Highway 99 is already plagued by landslides and debris flows from the steep rugged Coast Mountains . An eruption creating floods could demolish sections of the highway . Flooding and debris flows could also have severe issues for the salmon fishery on the Squamish , Cheakamus , and Mamquam rivers . In addition , explosive eruptions and the associated ash column could cause short @-@ and long @-@ term water supply difficulties for Vancouver and most of the lower mainland . The catchment area for the Greater Vancouver watershed is close to the Garibaldi area . Pyroclastic fall could also have a deleterious effect on the ice fields to the east of Mount Garibaldi , causing more melting and spring flooding . This in turn could endanger water supplies from Pitt Lake as well as fisheries on the Pitt River . = = = Lava flows = = = The hazard from lava flows would be low to moderate because the nature of the lavas would prevent them from travelling far from their source , even though the Ring Creek lava flow ends only 6 km ( 4 mi ) from Squamish . Magma with high to intermediate levels of silica ( as in andesite , dacite or rhyolite ) commonly move slowly and typically cover small areas to form steep @-@ sided mounds called lava domes . Lava domes often grow by the extrusion of many individual flows less than 30 m ( 98 ft ) thick over a period of several months or years . Such flows will overlap one another and typically move less than a few meters per hour . Lava flows with high to intermediate levels of silica rarely extend more than 8 km ( 5 mi ) from their source ; for example , Garibaldi 's 20 km ( 12 mi ) long Ring Creek dacite lava flow . = = = Landslides = = = In the past , Garibaldi has had large debris flows . A section of the mountain collapsed into the Cheakamus River valley when the glacier Garibaldi was built on melted , creating a jagged unstable slope at the head of the Cheekye River . Repeated landslides from this steep cliff have created a huge debris fan at the mouth of the Cheekye River just north of Brackendale called the Cheekye Fan . Danger from future collapses have limited the growth of Brackendale onto the fan . The steep northern edge of The Barrier in the Garibaldi area has partly collapsed several times , the most recent being in 1855 @-@ 56 . This collapse created a large boulder field below it , which gave Rubble Creek its name . Danger from future collapses prompted the provincial government to declare the area immediately below it unsafe for human habitation in 1981 . This led to the evacuation of the small resort village of Garibaldi nearby , and the relocation of residents to new recreational subdivisions away from the hazard zone . Although imminent danger is unlikely , special regulations exist to warn potential danger and to minimize the risk to life and property in the event of a landslide . = = Monitoring = = Currently , Mount Garibaldi is not monitored closely enough by the Geological Survey of Canada to ascertain how active the volcano 's magma system is . The existing network of seismographs has been established to monitor tectonic earthquakes and is too far away to provide a good indication of what is happening beneath the mountain . It may sense an increase in activity if the volcano becomes very restless , but this may only provide a warning for a large eruption . It might detect activity only once the volcano has started erupting . A possible way to detect an eruption is studying Garibaldi 's geological history since every volcano has its own pattern of behaviour , in terms of its eruption style , magnitude and frequency , so that its future eruption is expected to be similar to its previous eruptions . While there is a likelihood of Canada being critically effected by local or close by volcanic eruptions argues that some kind of improvement program is required . Benefit @-@ cost thoughts are critical to dealing with natural hazards . However , a benefit @-@ cost examination needs correct data about the hazard types , magnitudes and occurrences . These do not exist for volcanoes in British Columbia or elsewhere in Canada in the detail required . Other volcanic techniques , such as hazard mapping , displays a volcano 's eruptive history in detail and speculates an understanding of the hazardous activity that could possibly be expected in the future . At present no hazard maps have been created for Mount Garibaldi because the level of knowledge is insufficient due to its remoteness . A large volcanic hazard program has never existed within the Geological Survey of Canada . The majority of information has been collected in a lengthy , separate way from the support of several employees , such as volcanologists and other geologic scientists . Current knowledge is best established at Mount Meager north of Mount Garibaldi and is likely to rise considerably with a temporary mapping and monitoring project . Knowledge at Mount Garibaldi and other volcanoes in the Garibaldi Volcanic Belt is not as established , but certain contributions are being done at least Mount Cayley . An intensive program classifying infrastructural exposure near all young Canadian volcanoes and quick hazard assessments at each individual volcanic edifice associated with recent seismic activity would be in advance and would produce a quick and productive determination of priority areas for further efforts . The existing network of seismographs to monitor tectonic earthquakes has existed since 1975 , although it remained small in population until 1985 . Apart from a few short @-@ term seismic monitoring experiments by the Geological Survey of Canada , no volcano monitoring has been accomplished at Mount Garibaldi or at other volcanoes in Canada at a level approaching that in other established countries with historically active volcanoes . Active or restless volcanoes are usually monitored using at least three seismographs all within approximately 15 km ( 9 mi ) , and frequently within 5 km ( 3 mi ) , for better sensitivity of detection and reduced location errors , particularly for earthquake depth . Such monitoring detects the risk of an eruption , offering a forecasting capability which is important to mitigating volcanic risk . Currently Mount Garibaldi does not have a seismograph closer than 25 km ( 16 mi ) . With increasing distance and declining numbers of seismographs used to indicate seismic activity , the prediction capability is reduced because earthquake location accuracy and depth decreases , and the network becomes less accurate . The inaccurate earthquake locations in the Garibaldi Volcanic Belt are a few kilometers , and in more isolated northern regions they are up to 10 km ( 6 mi ) . The location magnitude level in the Garibaldi Volcanic Belt is about magnitude 1 to 1 @.@ 5 , and elsewhere it is magnitude 1 @.@ 5 to 2 . At carefully monitored volcanoes both the located and noticed events are recorded and surveyed immediately to improve the understanding of a future eruption . Undetected events are not recorded or surveyed in British Columbia immediately , nor in an easy @-@ to @-@ access process . In countries like Canada it is possible that small precursor earthquake swarms might go undetected , particularly if no events were observed ; more significant events in larger swarms would be detected but only a minor subdivision of the swarm events would be complex to clarify them with confidence as volcanic in nature , or even associate them with an individual volcanic edifice . = = Garibaldi Lake volcanic field = = Mount Garibaldi is associated with a group of small volcanoes that form the Garibaldi Lake volcanic field . An unusual volcanic structure called The Table is located between Garibaldi Lake and Mount Garibaldi . This several @-@ hundred @-@ foot @-@ high flat @-@ topped volcano is made of layers of andesitic dacite that are arranged like a stack of more or less equal sized pancakes . The Table was formed in the early Holocene at a time when the Cordilleran ice sheet covered the region . As the volcano 's lava rose it melted the part of the ice sheet above The Table 's vent , creating space for the lava to move into . Repeated eruptions constructed the steep @-@ walled stack of lava seen today . The Black Tusk is a large spire of extensively eroded dark volcanic rock that is shaped like a Walrus tusk . It is considered to be the remnant of an extinct andesitic stratovolcano which formed between about 1 @.@ 3 and 1 @.@ 1 million years ago . Mount Price , west of Garibaldi Lake , 5 km south of The Black Tusk , was formed in three stages of activity , dating back 1 @.@ 1 million years , the latest of which produced two large lava flows from Clinker Peak during the early Holocene that ponded against the retreating continental ice sheet and formed The Barrier , containing Garibaldi Lake . Cinder Cone stands 150 m ( 492 ft ) above a gap between two arms of Helmet Glacier on Garibaldi 's flanks . During summer its crater is filled with a snow melt lake .
= Charles Cabaniss = Charles Cabaniss ( October 14 , 1859 – January 19 , 1882 ) was a midshipman in the United States Navy and early player of American football . Born and raised in Central Virginia , he was appointed to the United States Naval Academy at the age of 16 . At the academy , Cabaniss retained average @-@ level grades and was a member of the school 's first @-@ ever football team . He graduated in 1880 and was appointed to the USS Swatara . Cabaniss was killed in an accident on the Swatara in 1882 which received coverage throughout much of the Eastern United States . = = Life = = = = = At the Naval Academy = = = Cabaniss was born on October 14 , 1859 in Petersburg , Virginia . He grew up in Central Virginia until he was appointed to the United States Naval Academy at the age of sixteen years and eight months . He began classes at the academy on June 21 , 1876 and was the only member of his class from Virginia . Cabaniss was an average student while at the Naval Academy ; he finished 40th in his class of 69 in his second year , earning near @-@ top marks in drawing and mathematics but very low marks in history and French language . He also spent the mandatory two months and eighteen days at sea . Cabaniss had the fewest demerits of any member of his sophomore class and earned a spot on the academy 's summer cruise on the USS Constellation . Cabaniss 's academic rankings remained generally the same in his following year at the academy . His scores in drawing , mathematics , and physics were above average , while his merits in French language and history were among the worst . He finished 33rd in the class of 66 . He maintained his spot as the most disciplined in his class , earning fewer than half the demerits than the second @-@ best . Cabaniss finished his final year at the Naval Academy ranking 25th out of 61 graduates . The course requirements changed that year ; Cabaniss received poor marks in seamanship , tactics , naval tactics , astronomy , and French language , but very high marks in mathematics , electricity , and English composition courses . He maintained his good conduct , earning the second @-@ fewest demerits of any cadet . This earned him an appointment as a Cadet Ensign , a temporary position as an academy officer . That year , the academy fielded its first competitive football team . Although football had seen some popularity at the school , there had not been an organized effort to establish it . Two different teams were assembled in 1879 ; only first @-@ classmen ( final @-@ year students ) were allowed to join the teams . Cabaniss joined the second team as a rusher , the equivalent of a modern @-@ day offensive lineman . He played alongside future admiral Hugh Rodman and eventual Governor of Guam William John Maxwell . The academy 's team played one game , a scoreless tie with the nearby Baltimore Athletic Club . Navy 's rushers forced the Baltimore A.C. backwards into their own end zone for safeties on three separate occasions , and generally outplayed and overpowered their opponents the entire game . = = = Swatara and death = = = On June 10 , 1880 , Cabaniss graduated from the academy and was sent home to await his orders . He was assigned on August 17 of that year to the USS Swatara as a part of the Asiatic Squadron . For sixteen months , the ship was docked in Kobe , Japan , during which time Cabaniss earned himself a positive reputation with other sailors . Crew mates described him as always being happy , with an intimidating , six @-@ foot @-@ tall physique but a personality that did not match . His disciplined nature remained ; he reportedly was one of the best @-@ behaved sailors , who spent all of his time either carrying out his duties or practicing to be a better officer . Cabaniss was never admonished for shore misconduct , a considerable issue for most other new officers and sailors . He was reportedly a favorite of the superior officers stationed in Kobe , and was appointed to a spot on the admiral 's staff as a reward for his conduct . Cabaniss was preparing for an examination for promotion early in February 1882 . Cabaniss was killed in an accident on board the Swatara on January 19 , 1882 . An official report of the incident was released on March 25 of that year . According to the report , before @-@ noon exercises on board the ship had just been completed when an order was made to prepare rifles for target practice . At around ten in the morning , Cabaniss was assisting in the instruction of the ship 's second group of sailors when he broke off and entered the ship 's engine room to instruct a sailor on his duties . An experienced sailor , Ensign James P. Parker , was explaining to new sailors how to properly load their guns . He showed them how to load and discharge the weapons using a practice round . He then reloaded his gun with live rounds , but apparently forgot this and fired one of them . The bullet ricocheted off the ship 's deck , struck one of the guns , ricocheted off the deck again , and struck Cabaniss , killing him instantly . The ball first entered through his left arm , impacting it so strongly that it broke every bone in his elbow . It then entered his side , tearing his latissimus dorsi muscle ; went into his chest , severing every major artery ; ricocheted up to near his shoulder , exited his right side , and struck the man he was instructing in the shoulder . Cabaniss was reported to have never made a sound as he fell . The other sailor recovered . Cabaniss ' body was ordered to be embalmed but was not ; the damage to his body was so severe that the embalming fluid would leak out . His body was buried in Kobe on February 24 with military honors . The entire crew of the Swatara attended , as well as the entire crew of HMS Flying Fish and many noted Japanese citizens . Ensign Parker reportedly suffered from depression following the accident . Cabaniss ' death received significant media coverage in the Eastern United States . The New York Times published an article on its second page , and among other papers that carried the story were the Wilmington Morning Star and the Petersburg Index @-@ Appeal . = = = Explanatory notes = = =
= Russian battleship Petropavlovsk ( 1911 ) = The Russian battleship Petropavlovsk ( Russian : Петропавловск ) was the third of the four Gangut @-@ class dreadnoughts built before World War I for the Imperial Russian Navy , the first Russian class of dreadnoughts . She was named after the Russian victory over the British and the French in the Siege of Petropavlovsk in 1854 . The ship was completed during the winter of 1914 – 15 , but was not ready for combat until mid @-@ 1915 . Her role was to defend the mouth of the Gulf of Finland against the Germans , who never tried to enter , so she spent her time training and providing cover for minelaying operations . Her crew joined the general mutiny of the Baltic Fleet after the February Revolution of 1917 and she was the only dreadnought available to the Bolsheviks for several years after the October Revolution of 1917 . She bombarded the mutinous garrison of Fort Krasnaya Gorka and supported Bolshevik light forces operating against British ships supporting the White Russians in the Gulf of Finland in 1918 – 19 . Later , her crew joined the Kronstadt Rebellion of 1921 and she was renamed Marat after the rebellion was crushed . Marat was reconstructed from 1928 to 1931 and represented the Soviet Union at the Coronation Naval Review at Spithead in 1937 . Two years later , she bombarded a Finnish coastal artillery position during the Winter War once before the Gulf of Finland iced up . Shortly afterwards , her anti @-@ aircraft armament was upgraded . When the Germans invaded on 22 June 1941 she was in Kronstadt and provided gunfire support to Soviet troops in September as the Germans approached Leningrad . Later that month she had her bow blown off and sank in shallow water after two hits by 1 @,@ 000 @-@ kilogram ( 2 @,@ 200 lb ) bombs that detonated her forward magazine . She was refloated several months later and became a stationary battery , providing gunfire support during the Siege of Leningrad . Plans were made to reconstruct her after the war , using the bow of her sister Frunze , but they were not accepted and were formally cancelled in 1948 . She was renamed Volkhov , after the nearby river , in 1950 and served as a stationary training ship until stricken in 1953 and broken up afterwards . = = Design = = Petropavlovsk was 180 meters ( 590 ft 7 in ) long at the waterline and 181 @.@ 2 meters ( 594 ft 6 in ) long overall . She had a beam of 26 @.@ 9 meters ( 88 ft 3 in ) and a draft of 8 @.@ 99 meters ( 29 ft 6 in ) , 49 centimeters ( 1 ft 7 in ) more than designed . Her displacement was 24 @,@ 800 tonnes ( 24 @,@ 408 long tons ) at load , over 1 @,@ 500 t ( 1 @,@ 476 long tons ) more than her designed displacement of 23 @,@ 288 t ( 22 @,@ 920 long tons ) . Petropavlovsk 's machinery was built by the Baltic Works . Four Parsons @-@ type steam turbine sets drove the four propellers . The engine rooms were located between turrets three and four in three compartments . The outer compartments each had a high @-@ pressure ahead and reverse turbine for each wing propeller shaft . The central engine room had two low @-@ pressure ahead and astern turbines as well as two cruising turbines driving each of the two center shafts . The engines had a total designed output of 42 @,@ 000 shaft horsepower ( 31 @,@ 319 kW ) , but they produced 52 @,@ 000 shp ( 38 @,@ 776 kW ) during her sister Poltava 's full @-@ speed trials on 21 November 1915 and gave a top speed of 24 @.@ 1 knots ( 44 @.@ 6 km / h ; 27 @.@ 7 mph ) . Twenty @-@ five Yarrow Admiralty @-@ type small @-@ tube boilers provided steam to the engines at a designed working pressure of 17 @.@ 5 standard atmospheres ( 1 @,@ 770 kPa ; 257 psi ) . Each boiler was fitted with Thornycroft oil sprayers for mixed oil / coal burning . They were arranged in two groups . The forward group consisted of two boiler rooms in front of the second turret , the foremost of which had three boilers while the second one had six . The rear group was between the second and third turrets and comprised two compartments , each with eight boilers . At full load she carried 1 @,@ 847 @.@ 5 long tons ( 1 @,@ 877 t ) of coal and 700 long tons ( 711 t ) of fuel oil and that provided her a range of 3 @,@ 500 nautical miles ( 6 @,@ 500 km ; 4 @,@ 000 mi ) at a speed of 10 knots ( 19 km / h ) . Her main armament consisted of a dozen Obukhovskii 12 @-@ inch ( 305 mm ) Pattern 1907 52 @-@ caliber guns mounted in four triple turrets distributed the length of the ship . The Russians did not believe that superfiring turrets offered any advantage as they discounted the value of axial fire and believed that superfiring turrets could not fire while over the lower turret because of muzzle blast problems . They also believed that distributing the turrets , and their associated magazines , over the length of the ship improved the survivability of the ship . Sixteen 4 @.@ 7 @-@ inch ( 119 mm ) 50 @-@ caliber Pattern 1905 guns were mounted in casemates as the secondary battery intended to defend the ship against torpedo boats . She was completed with only a single 3 @-@ inch ( 76 mm ) 30 @-@ caliber Lender anti @-@ aircraft ( AA ) gun mounted on the quarterdeck . Other AA guns were probably added during the course of World War I , but details are lacking . Conway 's says that four 75 @-@ millimeter ( 3 @.@ 0 in ) guns were added to the roofs of the end turrets during the war . Four 17 @.@ 7 @-@ inch ( 450 mm ) submerged torpedo tubes were mounted with three torpedoes for each tube . = = Service = = Petropavlovsk was built by the Baltic Works in Saint Petersburg . Her keel was laid down on 16 June 1909 and she was launched on 22 September 1911 . She entered service on 5 January 1915 , six months after the start of World War I , when she reached Helsingfors and was assigned to the First Battleship Brigade of the Baltic Fleet . Petropavlovsk and her sister Gangut provided distant cover for minelaying operations on 10 – 11 November and 6 December 1915 . She saw no action of any kind during 1916 . Her crew joined the general mutiny of the Baltic Fleet on 16 March 1917 , after the idle sailors received word of the February Revolution in Saint Petersburg . The Treaty of Brest @-@ Litovsk required the Soviets to evacuate their naval base at Helsinki in March 1918 or have their ships interned by newly independent Finland even though the Gulf of Finland was still frozen over . Petropavlovsk and her sisters led the first group of ships on 12 March and reached Kronstadt five days later in what became known as the " Ice Voyage " . Petropavlovsk was the only operable dreadnought belonging to the Soviets and provided cover to smaller ships on raiding missions . On 31 May 1919 she fired in support of the Russian destroyer Azard and several minesweepers that had taken the bait laid by the British forces supporting the White Russians . The British destroyer HMS Walker appeared to be operating alone and the Soviets sortied to attack her , but a number of other British destroyers were positioned to sweep in behind the Soviets . Azard retreated at full speed and Petropavlovsk opened fire on Walker at about 14 @,@ 000 yards ( 12 @,@ 802 m ) . She hit Walker twice , inflicting only minor damage and wounding two sailors , and the British destroyers eventually disengaged when they got too close to Soviet coastal artillery and minefields . A few days later Petropavlovsk and the pre @-@ dreadnought battleship Andrei Pervozvanny bombarded Fort Krasnaya Gorka whose garrison had mutinied against the Bolsheviks . She fired no fewer than 568 12 @-@ inch shells and the garrison surrendered on 17 June when Leon Trotsky promised them their lives , only to subsequently order them machine @-@ gunned . On 17 August 1919 Petropavlovsk was claimed as torpedoed and put out of action by the British Coastal Motor Boat CMB 88 during a night attack in Kronstadt harbor , but was , in fact , not damaged at all . The crew of Petropavlovsk joined the Kronstadt Rebellion of March 1921 . After it was bloodily crushed she was renamed Marat to honor the French revolutionary leader Jean @-@ Paul Marat on 31 March 1921 . By 1922 her primary rangefinder had been moved to a platform on the foremast and she mounted three 3 @-@ inch " Lender " AA guns each on the roofs of the fore and aft turrets . Marat was partially reconstructed between the fall of 1928 and 8 April 1931 at the Baltic Works . The most obvious external change was a much more elaborate forward superstructure needed to house new fire control instruments . A KDP @-@ 6 fire control director , with two 6 @-@ meter ( 20 ft ) Zeiss rangefinders , was positioned at the top of the tubular foremast . An 8 @-@ meter ( 26 ft ) Zeiss rangefinder was also added on the rear superstructure . The top of the forward funnel was lengthened by about 2 meters ( 6 ft 7 in ) and angled backwards in an attempt to keep the exhaust gases away from the control and gunnery spaces . A derrick was added to the mainmast to handle a KR @-@ 1 flying boat imported from Germany that was stored above the third turret . No aircraft catapult was fitted so the aircraft had to take off and land on the water . A forecastle was added to the bow , which was also given much more sheer and flare to improve her sea @-@ keeping abilities . Her turrets were overhauled , her guns replaced and new 8 @-@ meter rangefinders were installed on every turret . Her boilers were converted to only burn fuel oil and the more powerful boilers allowed the forward three boilers to be removed . The space freed up was used for anti @-@ aircraft ammunition and various control spaces . The cruising turbines were also removed which simplified the ship 's machinery at a small cost in power . These changes increased her displacement to 26 @,@ 170 tonnes ( 25 @,@ 757 long tons ) at full load and her overall length to 184 meters ( 604 ft ) . Her metacentric height increased to 1 @.@ 93 meters ( 6 ft 4 in ) from her designed 1 @.@ 76 meters ( 5 ft 9 in ) mainly because she now carried much of her fuel in her double bottom rather than in coal bunkers high on the sides of the ship . More weight was added to her before World War II , including an increase in the thickness of her turret roofs to 152 millimeters ( 6 @.@ 0 in ) , that decreased her metacentric height to only 1 @.@ 7 meters ( 5 ft 7 in ) . This was unsatisfactory and plans were made to reconstruct her again , but they were cancelled when the Germans attacked in 1941 . Marat took part in the 1937 Coronation Review in Britain . Her participation in the Winter War was minimal as she bombarded Finnish 10 @-@ inch ( 254 mm ) coast defense guns one time at Saarenpää in the Beryozovye Islands with 133 high explosive shells before the Gulf of Finland iced over . In early 1940 her anti @-@ aircraft armament was reinforced . She exchanged her elderly 3 @-@ inch " Lender " guns for modern 76 @.@ 2 @-@ millimeter ( 3 @.@ 00 in ) 34 @-@ K guns and two twin 76 @.@ 2 mm 81 @-@ K mounts were mounted on her quarter deck . The magazines for these guns were situated in the rearmost casemates on each beam , which lost their 120 mm guns . At some point six automatic 37 @-@ millimeter ( 1 @.@ 5 in ) 70 @-@ K guns were also added . These additions boosted her displacement to 26 @,@ 700 tonnes ( 26 @,@ 278 long tons ) at full load . She sailed to Tallinn shortly after the Soviets occupied Estonia , although she returned to Kronstadt on 20 June 1941 , two days before the German invasion of Russia began . Marat opened fire on troop positions of the German 18th Army from the Leningrad Sea Canal on 8 September . She was lightly damaged by German 15 @-@ centimeter ( 5 @.@ 9 in ) guns on 16 September . She was sunk at her moorings on 23 September 1941 by two near @-@ simultaneous hits by 1 @,@ 000 @-@ kilogram ( 2 @,@ 200 lb ) bombs near the forward superstructure . They caused the explosion of the forward magazine which heaved the turret up , blew the superstructure and forward funnel over to starboard and demolished the forward part of the hull from frames 20 to 57 . 326 men were killed and the ship gradually settled to the bottom in 11 meters ( 36 ft ) of water . Her sinking is commonly credited to the Stuka pilot Oberleutnant Hans @-@ Ulrich Rudel of III . / StG 2 , but Rudel dropped only one of the two bombs . The rear part of the ship was later refloated and she was used as a floating battery although all of her 120 mm guns were removed . Initially only the two rearmost turrets were operable , but the second turret was repaired by the autumn of 1942 . She fired a total of 1 @,@ 971 twelve @-@ inch shells during the Siege of Leningrad . In December 1941 granite slabs 40 – 60 millimeters ( 1 @.@ 6 – 2 @.@ 4 in ) thick from the nearby harbor walls were laid on her decks to reinforce her deck protection . Another transverse bulkhead was built behind frame 57 and the space between them was filled with concrete to prevent her sinking if the original bulkhead was ruptured . She resumed her original name on 31 May 1943 . After the war there were several plans to reconstruct her , using the bow of the Frunze , but they were not accepted and were formally cancelled on 29 June 1948 . She was renamed Volkhov , after the nearby river , on 28 November 1950 and served as a stationary training ship until stricken on 4 September 1953 . The ship was subsequently broken up .
= José María Caro Martínez = José María Caro Martínez ( Spanish pronunciation : [ xoˈse maˈɾia ˈkaɾo maɾˈtineθ ] ; 1830 – 11 November 1916 ) was a Chilean politician and civil servant . In May 1894 , he was unanimously elected as the first mayor of the commune of Pichilemu , along with Pedro Nolasco de Mira , and Francisco Reyes , who were respectively elected as segundo and tercer alcalde ( second and third magistrate ) . Caro Martínez had previously served for several years as llavero ( administrator ) of the San Antonio de Petrel hacienda , and between 1891 and 1892 was the Subdelegate of the 13th Subdelegation of San Fernando Department , which comprised the district of Cáhuil . The eleven @-@ year mayorship of Caro Martínez , which lasted from 1894 and 1905 , was qualified by journalist and local historian José Arraño Acevedo as " the most fruitful " in the history of the commune . In his four terms , Caro Martínez constructed roads that connected Pichilemu with San Fernando , capital of the department of the same name , and founded several schools in Pichilemu and parts of current Marchigüe . He resigned in May 1905 and completed his fourth mayoral term as a segundo alcalde . As a mayor , he was succeeded by Francisco Javier Asalgado , who held the office for two non @-@ consecutive terms . Caro Martínez was the father of José María Caro Rodríguez , the first Chilean Cardinal of the Roman Catholic Church , Francisco Adriano Caro Rodríguez , who was regidor of Pichilemu for several terms between 1906 and December 1925 , when he became the 8th Mayor of Pichilemu following the resignation of Luis Barahona Fornés , and Pedro Pablo Caro Rodríguez , a lawyer from the University of Chile , who served as acting judge in several Chilean cities . = = Early life = = José María Caro Martínez was born in San Antonio de Petrel , in current Pichilemu , Region of O 'Higgins , to Pedro Pascual Caro Gaete and Cayetana Martínez Ríos , in 1830 . The exact birth date is unknown , since all the books of the parish of Ciruelos with baptism records between 1830 and 1834 were burnt in a fire . The Caro Martínez family , of " devout Catholics " , is described as having a " profound Christian faith , " with their members " complying with unblemished devotion their Christian duties . " Since he was a child , Caro shaped his personality on the " fulfillment of his duties " ; according to a 1944 article from the Pichilemu newspaper , " his personality became even more robust in his youth as he faced an accident whose consequences stood by him until his death . " Like his father , he dedicated his life to agricultural activities , and " managed to raise a small fortune . " Caro served for several years as administrator ( llavero ) of the hacienda of San Antonio de Petrel , property of José Vicente Ortúzar Formas . During his administration of San Antonio de Petrel , the hacienda was " rich " , as it " possessed 1 @,@ 500 cows , [ ... ] and produced yearly 15 thousand sacks of wheat , each of 100 kilograms . " Caro Martínez and his family lived in the Petrel area until the 1880s , when they moved to nearby village Quebrada del Nuevo Reino ; he lived there until his death . Caro Martínez became an active member of the parish of Ciruelos . According to journalist José Arraño Acevedo , the archives of the Archiepiscopate of Santiago — which are published yearly — show he was elected as a steward of the Confraternity of the Blessed Sacrament for the years of 1888 , 1890 , 1892 , and 1900 . = = Political career = = Caro Martínez was a member of the Conservative Party of Chile , and was appointed by the party 's leaders as the perpetual president of the party 's seat in the commune of Pichilemu . In 1891 , he was appointed by President Jorge Montt Álvarez as subdelegate of the 13th Subdelegation of San Fernando Department , which comprised the district of Cáhuil , territory of the current commune of Pichilemu . He held the position until 1892 , and was succeeded by José Domingo Fuenzalida . Also in 1891 , on 21 December , the commune of Pichilemu was created by the Autonomous Commune Law ( Spanish : Ley de Comuna Autónoma ) , written by Ministry of the Interior Manuel José Irarrázabal Larraín . The new commune comprised the districts of Cáhuil , Peñablanca , and Cocauquén . It was one of the most extensive communes of the department of San Fernando . However , the local government was yet to be established . On 21 March 1894 , a preparatory meeting was held to create a Junta Calificadora de Poderes — an organisation that would be in charge of the elections . Caro Martínez was elected president of the Junta Calificadora in the meeting . Later that year , on 6 May , the first municipal meeting ( sesión municipal ) was held . During the meeting , Caro Martínez , aged 64 , was unanimously elected as the first Mayor of Pichilemu since its creation as a commune . Pedro Nolasco de Mira , and Francisco Reyes were elected as segundo , and tercer alcalde , respectively , and Francisco Cerón , José Leonardo Lizana , Ceferino Rosales , Benjamín Calderón , and Francisco León as regidores . Immediately after his election , Caro Martínez created the local police force ( Cuerpo de Policía Local ) . He also constructed roads all over the commune of Pichilemu , with special attention to those that would connect Pichilemu with the central area of the department of San Fernando , specifically the commune of San Fernando , and Santiago , the capital of Chile . As part of this project , he constructed a bridge over the Petrel Lake , known as the Puente Negro ( Black Bridge ) , and another in Cáhuil , connecting that town with its saltworks . He also founded several schools in the Pichilemu area , which only had one , located in Ciruelos . Those include the schools of Yerbas Buenas , Las Garzas , Trinidad , Molineros , Peñablanca , all in the current territory of the commune of Marchigüe , and one in central Pichilemu . Other works during Caro Martínez 's mayorship include the grant of 1 @,@ 300 Chilean pesos for the design of plans for the construction of the railway from Alcones to Pichilemu , and the installation of a water tank , located in the house of municipal secretary Albino Pulgar . Additionally , the government of Caro Martínez determined the urban limits of the commune of Pichilemu , gave help to victims of heavy rainstorms that hit the area in the time , brought Carabineros forces to " scare away " bandits from the local farms , and made repairs to the roads of Marchigüe , Trinidad , Molineros , and Peñablanca . Caro Martínez was re @-@ elected mayor ( primer alcalde ) of Pichilemu in 1897 , 1900 , and 1903 . On 7 May 1905 , just one year before his fourth term expired , he decided to resign to the primer alcalde office , and took a position as segundo alcalde of Pichilemu until 1906 . Following his resignation , Francisco Javier Asalgado became the mayor , and held the office between that year and 1909 , and again in 1912 , but only for less than a month . His mayorship was described by historian José Arraño Acevedo as " the most fruitful [ ... ] in the municipal life of Pichilemu . " Caro Martínez was described by Virgilio Figueroa , biographer of his son José María Caro Rodríguez , as " an individual with public spirit and leadership skills . " According to Washington Saldías in an article published in Pichilemu News , Caro Martínez 's mayorship has been the longest in the history of Pichilemu . = = Later life , death , and legacy = = According to José Arraño Acevedo 's 1980 article " José María Caro Martínez , Primer Alcalde de Pichilemu " , following his retirement from politics in 1906 , Caro Martínez " stayed watchful to everything that was being done in favour of the commune he led so aptly . " He appears as a subscriber of El Puerto , the first newspaper published in Pichilemu , which only printed three editions . In the first edition of the newspaper , dated 16 January 1908 , an article states that José María Caro Martínez and Exequiel Fernández were awarded 200 pesos in a raffle held on the previous day in the headquarters of the La Unión newspaper , in Santiago . In late September – early October 1916 , he became ill with an unspecified disease , which forty days later , in the night of that 11 November , " won against his strong physique " and provoked his death at age 86 . Caro was subsequently cremated and is buried with his wife Rita , who died at age 97 on 7 August 1931 , in a mausoleum constructed by their son José María , located at the churchyard of Ciruelos . Almost eighty years after his death , in December 1991 , the government of Mayor René Maturana Maldonado decreed , as part of the celebrations of the centennial of the commune 's creation , the renaming of several streets of the commune whose original names " caused confusion because they were repeated in other streets " , to new names of " relevant people of the [ local ] history . " As a result , J. M. Caro street ( Calle J. M. Caro ) in the Pavez Polanco neighborhood was renamed to Alcalde Caro Martínez street ( Calle Alcalde Caro Martínez ) in honour of the commune 's first mayor . = = Family = = Caro Martínez married Rita Rodríguez Cornejo ( 1833 – 1931 ) on 20 February 1860 at the chapel of San Antonio de Petrel . The couple had nine children , all born in San Antonio de Petrel : Rita , Cristina , Petronila , José María , Pedro Pascual , Francisco Adriano , Pedro Pablo , Cayetana , and Rosa . José María ( 1866 – 1958 ) became a Catholic priest ; he served as Archbishop of Santiago from 1939 until his death , and in 1946 he became the first Chilean Cardinal of the Church . Francisco Adriano became , like his father , involved in politics , serving for several terms as regidor of the commune of Pichilemu between 1906 and 24 December 1925 , when he became the 8th Mayor of Pichilemu , following the resignation of Luis Antonio Barahona Fornés to run for a deputy seat . Francisco held the office until 22 May 1927 , when President Carlos Ibáñez del Campo appointed Evaristo Merino as mayor of Pichilemu . Pedro Pablo ( 1875 – 1959 ) was a University of Chile lawyer , who served as acting judge in Castro , Cachapoal ( Peumo ) , amid others ; Pedro Pablo also served as secretary and treasurer of the commune of Buin .
= The King and I = The King and I is a musical , the fifth by the team of composer Richard Rodgers and dramatist Oscar Hammerstein II . It is based on the 1944 novel Anna and the King of Siam by Margaret Landon , which is in turn derived from the memoirs of Anna Leonowens , governess to the children of King Mongkut of Siam in the early 1860s . The musical 's plot relates the experiences of Anna , a British schoolteacher hired as part of the King 's drive to modernize his country . The relationship between the King and Anna is marked by conflict through much of the piece , as well as by a love that neither can admit . The musical premiered on March 29 , 1951 , at Broadway 's St. James Theatre . It ran nearly three years , then the fourth longest @-@ running Broadway musical in history , and has had many tours and revivals . In 1950 , theatrical attorney Fanny Holtzmann was looking for a part for her client , veteran leading lady Gertrude Lawrence . Holtzmann realized that Landon 's book would provide an ideal vehicle and contacted Rodgers and Hammerstein , who were initially reluctant but agreed to write the musical . The pair initially sought Rex Harrison to play the supporting part of the King , a role that he had played in the 1946 film made from Landon 's book , but he was unavailable . They settled on the young actor and television director Yul Brynner . The musical was an immediate hit , winning Tony Awards for Best Musical , Best Actress ( for Lawrence ) and Best Featured Actor ( for Brynner ) . Lawrence died unexpectedly of cancer a year and a half after the opening , and the role of Anna was played by several actresses during the remainder of the Broadway run of 1 @,@ 246 performances . A hit London run and U.S. national tour followed , together with a 1956 film for which Brynner won an Academy Award , and the musical was recorded several times . In later revivals , Brynner came to dominate his role and the musical , starring in a four @-@ year national tour culminating in a 1985 Broadway run shortly before his death . Christopher Renshaw directed major revivals on Broadway ( 1996 ) , winning the Tony Award for Best Revival , and in the West End ( 2000 ) . A 2015 Broadway revival won another Tony for Best Revival . Both professional and amateur revivals of The King and I continue to be staged regularly throughout the English @-@ speaking world . = = Historical background = = Mongkut , King of Siam , was about 57 years old in 1861 . He had lived half his life as a Buddhist monk and was an able scholar , founding a new order of Buddhism and a temple in Bangkok ( paid for by his half @-@ brother , King Nangklao ) . Through his decades of devotion , Mongkut acquired an ascetic lifestyle and a firm grasp of Western languages . When Nangklao died in 1850 , Mongkut became king . At that time , various European countries were striving for dominance , and American traders sought greater influence , in Southeast Asia . He ultimately succeeded in keeping Siam an independent nation , partly by familiarizing his heirs and harem with Western ways . In 1861 , Mongkut wrote to his Singapore agent , Tan Kim Ching , asking him to find a British lady to be governess to the royal children . At the time , the British community in Singapore was small , and the choice fell on a recent arrival there , Anna Leonowens ( 1831 – 1915 ) , who was running a small nursery school in the colony . Leonowens was the Anglo @-@ Indian daughter of an Indian Army soldier and the widow of Thomas Owens , a clerk and hotel keeper . She had arrived in Singapore two years previously , claiming to be the genteel widow of an officer and explaining her dark complexion by stating that she was Welsh by birth . Her deception was not detected until long after her death , and had still not come to light when The King and I was written . Upon receiving the King 's invitation , Leonowens sent her daughter , Avis , to school in England , to give Avis the social advantage of a prestigious British education , and traveled to Bangkok with her five @-@ year @-@ old son , Louis . King Mongkut had sought a Briton to teach his children and wives after trying local missionaries , who used the opportunity to proselytize . Leonowens initially asked for $ 150 in Singapore currency per month . Another request by Leonowens , that she live in or near the missionary community to ensure she was not deprived of Western company , aroused suspicion in Mongkut , who cautioned in a letter , " we need not have teacher of Christianity as they are abundant here " . King Mongkut and Leonowens came to an agreement : $ 100 per month and a residence near the royal palace . At a time when most transport in Bangkok was by boat , Mongkut did not wish to have to arrange for the teacher to get to work every day . Leonowens and Louis temporarily lived as guests of Mongkut 's prime minister , and after the first house offered was found to be unsuitable , the family moved into a brick residence ( wooden structures decayed quickly in Bangkok 's climate ) within walking distance of the palace . In 1867 , Leonowens left Bangkok on a six @-@ month leave of absence to visit her daughter Avis in England , intending to deposit Louis at a school in Ireland and return to Siam with Avis . However , due to unexpected delays and opportunities for further travel , Leonowens was still abroad in late 1868 , when Mongkut fell ill and died . Leonowens did not return to Siam , although she continued to correspond with her former pupil , the new king Chulalongkorn . = = Creation = = In 1950 , British actress Gertrude Lawrence 's business manager and attorney , Fanny Holtzmann , was looking for a new vehicle for her client when the 1944 Margaret Landon novel Anna and the King of Siam ( a fictionalized version of Leonowens ' experiences ) was sent to her by Landon 's agent . According to Rodgers biographer Meryle Secrest , Holtzmann was worried that Lawrence 's career was fading . The 51 @-@ year @-@ old actress had appeared only in plays , not in musicals , since Lady in the Dark closed in 1943 . Holtzmann agreed that a musical based on Anna and the King of Siam would be ideal for her client , who purchased the rights to adapt the novel for the stage . Holtzmann initially wanted Cole Porter to write the score , but he declined . She was going to approach Noël Coward next , but happened to meet Dorothy Hammerstein ( Oscar 's wife ) in Manhattan . Holtzmann told Dorothy Hammerstein that she wanted Rodgers and Hammerstein to create a show for Lawrence , and asked her to see that her husband read a book that Holtzmann would send over . In fact , both Dorothy Rodgers and Dorothy Hammerstein had read the novel in 1944 and had urged their husbands to consider it as a possible subject for a musical . Dorothy Hammerstein had known Gertrude Lawrence since 1925 , when they had both appeared in André Charlot 's London Revue of 1924 on Broadway and on tour in North America . Rodgers and Hammerstein had disliked Landon 's novel as a basis for a musical when it was published , and their views still held . It consists of vignettes of life at the Siamese court , interspersed with descriptions of historical events unconnected with each other , except that the King creates most of the difficulties in the episodes , and Anna tries to resolve them . Rodgers and Hammerstein could see no coherent story from which a musical could be made until they saw the 1946 film adaptation , starring Irene Dunne and Rex Harrison , and how the screenplay united the episodes in the novel . Rodgers and Hammerstein were also concerned about writing a star vehicle . They had preferred to make stars rather than hire them , and engaging the legendary Gertrude Lawrence would be expensive . Lawrence 's voice was also a worry : her limited vocal range was diminishing with the years , while her tendency to sing flat was increasing . Lawrence 's temperament was another concern : though she could not sing like one , the star was known to be capable of diva @-@ like behavior . In spite of this , they admired her acting – what Hammerstein called her " magic light " , a compelling presence on stage – and agreed to write the show . For her part , Lawrence committed to remaining in the show until June 1 , 1953 , and waived the star 's usual veto rights over cast and director , leaving control in the hands of the two authors . Hammerstein found his " door in " to the play in Landon 's account of a slave in Siam writing about Abraham Lincoln . This would eventually become the narrated dance , " The Small House of Uncle Thomas " . Since a frank expression of romantic feelings between the King and Anna would be inappropriate in view of both parties ' upbringing and prevailing social mores , Hammerstein wrote love scenes for a secondary couple , Tuptim , a junior wife of the King , and Lun Tha , a scholar . In the Landon work , the relationship is between Tuptim and a priest , and is not romantic . The musical 's most radical change from the novel was to have the King die at the end of the play . Also , since Lawrence was not primarily a singer , the secondary couple gave Rodgers a chance to write his usual " soaring " romantic melodies . In an interview for The New York Times , Hammerstein indicated that he wrote the first scene before leaving for London and the West End production of Carousel in mid @-@ 1950 ; he wrote a second scene while in the British capital . The pair had to overcome the challenge of how to represent Thai speech and music . Rodgers , who had experimented with Asian music in his short @-@ lived 1928 musical with Lorenz Hart titled Chee @-@ chee , did not wish to use actual Thai music , which American audiences might not find accessible . Instead , he gave his music an exotic flavor , using open fifths and chords in unusual keys , in ways pleasant to Western ears . Hammerstein faced the problem of how to represent Thai speech ; he and Rodgers chose to convey it by musical sounds , made by the orchestra . For the King 's style of speech , Hammerstein developed an abrupt , emphatic way of talking , which was mostly free of articles , as are many East Asian languages . The forceful style reflected the King 's personality and was maintained even when he sang , especially in his one solo , " A Puzzlement " . Many of the King 's lines , including his first utterance , " Who ? Who ? Who ? " , and much of the initial scene between him and Anna , are drawn from Landon 's version . Nevertheless , the King is presented more sympathetically in the musical than in the novel or the 1946 film , as the musical omits the torture and burning at the stake of Lady Tuptim and her partner . With Rodgers laid up with back trouble , Hammerstein completed most of the musical 's book before many songs were set to music . Early on , Hammerstein contacted set designer Jo Mielziner and costume designer Irene Sharaff and asked them to begin work in coordination with each other . Sharaff communicated with Jim Thompson , an American who had revived the Thai silk industry after World War II . Thompson sent Sharaff samples of silk cloth from Thailand and pictures of local dress from the mid @-@ 19th century . One such picture , of a Thai woman in western dress , inspired the song " Western People Funny " , sung by the King 's chief wife , Lady Thiang , while dressed in western garb . Producer Leland Hayward , who had worked with the duo on South Pacific , approached Jerome Robbins to choreograph a ballet for " The Small House of Uncle Thomas " . Robbins was very enthusiastic about the project and asked to choreograph the other musical numbers as well , although Rodgers and Hammerstein had originally planned little other dancing . Robbins staged " The Small House of Uncle Thomas " as an intimate performance , rather than a large production number . His choreography for the parade of the King 's children to meet their teacher ( " March of the Royal Siamese Children " ) drew great acclaim . Robert Russell Bennett provided the orchestrations , and Trude Rittmann arranged the ballet music . The pair discussed having an Act 1 musical scene involving Anna and the King 's wives . The lyrics for that scene proved to be very difficult for Hammerstein to write . He first thought that Anna would simply tell the wives something about her past , and wrote such lyrics as " I was dazzled by the splendor / Of Calcutta and Bombay " and " The celebrities were many / And the parties very gay / ( I recall a curry dinner / And a certain Major Grey ) . " Eventually , Hammerstein decided to write about how Anna felt , a song which would not only explain her past and her motivation for traveling with her son to the court of Siam , but also serve to establish a bond with Tuptim and lay the groundwork for the conflict that devastates Anna 's relationship with the King . " Hello , Young Lovers " , the resulting song , was the work of five exhausting weeks for Hammerstein . He finally sent the lyrics to Rodgers by messenger and awaited his reaction . Hammerstein considered the song his best work and was anxious to hear what Rodgers thought of it , but no comment came from Rodgers . Pride kept Hammerstein from asking . Finally , after four days , the two happened to be talking on the phone about other matters , and at the end of the conversation , Rodgers stated , very briefly , that the lyric was fine . Josh Logan , who had worked closely with Hammerstein on South Pacific , listened to the usually unflappable writer pour out his unhappy feelings . It was one of the few times that Hammerstein and Rodgers did not display a united front . = = Casting and auditions = = Although the part of the King was only a supporting role to Lawrence 's Anna , Hammerstein and Rodgers thought it essential that a well @-@ known theatrical actor play it . The obvious choice was Rex Harrison , who had played the King in the movie , but he was booked , as was Noël Coward . Alfred Drake , the original Curly in Oklahoma ! , made contractual demands which were deemed too high . With time running short before rehearsals , finding an actor to play the King became a major concern . Mary Martin , the original Nellie Forbush in South Pacific , suggested that her co @-@ star in a 1946 musical set in China , Lute Song , try for the role . Rodgers recounted the audition of the Russian @-@ American performer , Yul Brynner : They told us the name of the first man and out he came with a bald head and sat cross @-@ legged on the stage . He had a guitar and he hit his guitar one whack and gave out with this unearthly yell and sang some heathenish sort of thing , and Oscar and I looked at each other and said , " Well , that 's it . " Brynner termed Rodgers ' account " very picturesque , but totally inaccurate " . He recalled that as an established television director ( in CBS 's Starlight Theatre , for example ) , he was reluctant to go back on the stage . His wife , his agent , and Martin finally convinced him to read Hammerstein 's working script , and once he did , he was fascinated by the character of the King and was eager to do the project . In any case , Brynner 's fierce , mercurial , dangerous , yet surprisingly sensitive King was an ideal foil for Lawrence 's strong @-@ willed , yet vulnerable Anna , and when the two finally came together in " Shall We Dance ? " , where the King hesitantly touches Anna 's waist , the chemistry was palpable . Pre @-@ rehearsal preparations began in late 1950 . Hammerstein had wanted Logan to direct and co @-@ write the book , as he had for South Pacific , but when Logan declined , Hammerstein decided to write the entire book himself . Instead of Logan , the duo hired as director John van Druten , who had worked with Lawrence years earlier . The costume designer , Sharaff , wryly pointed the press to the incongruity of a Victorian British governess in the midst of an exotic court : " The first @-@ act finale of The King and I will feature Miss Lawrence , Mr. Brynner , and a pink satin ball gown . " Mielziner 's set plan was the simplest of the four Rodgers and Hammerstein musicals he had worked on , with one main set ( the throne room ) , a number of front @-@ stage drops ( for the ship and Anna 's room , for example ) and the entire stage cleared for " The Small House of Uncle Thomas " . The show was budgeted at $ 250 @,@ 000 ( US $ 2 @,@ 280 @,@ 000 in 2016 dollars ) making it the most expensive Rodgers and Hammerstein production to that point , and prompting some mockery that costs exceeded even their expensive flop Allegro . Investors included Hammerstein , Rodgers , Logan , Martin , Billy Rose and Hayward . The children who were cast as the young princes and princesses came from a wide range of ethnic backgrounds , including Puerto Rican or Italian , though none were Thai . Johnny Stewart was the original Prince Chulalongkorn but left the cast after only three months , replaced by Ronnie Lee . Sandy Kennedy was Louis , and Broadway veteran Larry Douglas played Lun Tha . Shortly before rehearsals began in January 1951 , Rodgers had the first Tuptim , Doretta Morrow , sing the entire score to Lawrence , including Lawrence 's own songs . Lawrence listened calmly , but when she met Rodgers and Hammerstein the following day , she treated Rodgers coldly , apparently seeing the composer 's actions as flaunting her vocal deficiencies . Hammerstein and Rodgers ' doubts about whether Lawrence could handle the part were assuaged by the sheer force of her acting . James Poling , a writer for Collier 's who was allowed to attend the rehearsals , wrote of Lawrence preparing " Shall I Tell You What I Think of You ? " : She took the center of the barren stage wearing , for practice , a dirty muslin hoop over her slacks , with an old jacket thrown over her shoulders for warmth . She began rather quietly on the note , " Your servant ! Your servant ! Indeed I 'm not your servant ! " Then she gradually built the scene , slowly but powerfully , until , in a great crescendo , she ended prone on the floor , pounding in fury , and screaming , " Toads ! Toads ! Toads ! All of your people are toads . " When she finished , the handful of professionals in the theatre burst into admiring applause . At his first meeting with Sharaff , Brynner , who had only a fringe of hair , asked what he was to do about it . When told he was to shave it , Brynner was horror @-@ struck and refused , convinced he would look terrible . He finally gave in during tryouts and put dark makeup on his shaved head . The effect was so well @-@ received that it became Brynner 's trademark . Lawrence 's health caused her to miss several rehearsals , though no one knew what was wrong with her . When the tryout opened in New Haven , Connecticut on February 27 , 1951 , the show was nearly four hours long . Lawrence , suffering from laryngitis , had missed the dress rehearsal , but managed to make it through the first public performance . The Variety critic noted that despite her recent illness she " slinks , acts , cavorts , and in general exhibits exceedingly well her several facets for entertaining " , but the Philadelphia Bulletin printed that her " already thin voice is now starting to wear a great deal thinner " . Leland Hayward came to see the show in New Haven and shocked Rodgers by advising him to close it before it went any further . Additionally , when the show left New Haven for Boston for more tryout performances , it was still at least 45 minutes too long . Gemze de Lappe , who was one of the dancers , recalled one cut that she regretted : They took out a wonderful scene . Mrs. Anna 's first entrance into the palace comes with a song in which she sings , " Over half a year I have been waiting , waiting , waiting , waiting , waiting , waiting outside your door . " At the end she points her umbrella at him , or something like that , and the King says " Off with her head " or words to that effect , and the eunuchs pick her up and carry her off . The King says " Who , who , who ? " with great satisfaction , and finds out that he has just thrown out the English schoolteacher . So he says , " Bring her back ! " and she is ushered in ... we all loved it . This song , " Waiting " , was a trio for Anna , the King , and the Kralahome ( the King 's prime minister ) . " Who Would Refuse ? " , the Kralahome 's only solo , was also dropped . Left without a note to sing , Mervyn Vye abandoned the show and was replaced by John Juliano . " Now You Leave " , a song for Lady Thiang ( played by Dorothy Sarnoff in the original production ) , was also cut . After the cuts , Rodgers and Hammerstein felt that the first act was lacking something . Lawrence suggested that they write a song for Anna and the children . Mary Martin reminded them of a song that had been cut from South Pacific , " Suddenly Lucky " . Hammerstein wrote a new lyric for the melody , and the resulting song became " Getting to Know You " . " Western People Funny " and " I Have Dreamed " were also added in Boston . Brynner regretted that there were not more tryout performances , feeling that the schedule did not give him an adequate opportunity to develop the complex role of the King . When he told this to Hammerstein and Rodgers , they asked what sort of performance they would get from him , and he responded , " It will be good enough , it will get the reviews . " = = Plot = = = = = Act 1 = = = In 1862 , a strong @-@ willed , widowed schoolteacher , Anna Leonowens , arrives in Bangkok , Siam ( later known as Thailand ) at the request of the King of Siam to tutor his many children . Anna 's young son , Louis , fears the severe countenance of the King 's prime minister , the Kralahome , but Anna refuses to be intimidated ( " I Whistle a Happy Tune " ) . The Kralahome has come to escort them to the palace , where they are expected to live – a violation of Anna 's contract , which calls for them to live in a separate house . She considers returning to Singapore aboard the vessel that brought them , but goes with her son and the Kralahome . Several weeks pass , during which Anna and Louis are confined to their palace rooms . The King receives a gift from the king of Burma , a lovely slave girl named Tuptim , to be one of his many wives . She is escorted by Lun Tha , a scholar who has come to copy a design for a temple , and the two are secretly in love . Tuptim , left alone , declares that the King may own her , but not her heart ( " My Lord and Master " ) . The King gives Anna her first audience . The schoolteacher is a part of his plan for the modernization of Siam ; he is impressed when she already knows this . She raises the issue of her house with him , he dismisses her protests and orders her to talk with his wives . They are interested in her , and she tells them of her late husband , Tom ( " Hello , Young Lovers " ) . The King presents her new pupils ; Anna is to teach those of his children whose mothers are in favor with him – several dozen – and is to teach their mothers as well . The princes and princesses enter in procession ( " March of the Royal Siamese Children " ) . Anna is charmed by the children , and formality breaks down after the ceremony as they crowd around her . Anna has not given up on the house , and teaches the children proverbs and songs extolling the virtues of home life , to the King 's irritation . The King has enough worries without battling the schoolteacher , and wonders why the world has become so complicated ( " A Puzzlement " ) . The children and wives are hard at work learning English ( " The Royal Bangkok Academy " ) . The children are surprised by a map showing how small Siam is compared with the rest of the world ( " Getting to Know You " ) . As the crown prince , Chulalongkorn , disputes the map , the King enters a chaotic schoolroom . He orders the pupils to believe the teacher but complains to Anna about her lessons about " home " . Anna stands her ground and insists on the letter of her contract , threatening to leave Siam , much to the dismay of wives and children . The King orders her to obey as " my servant " ; she repudiates the term and hurries away . The King dismisses school , then leaves , uncertain of his next action . Lun Tha comes upon Tuptim , and they muse about having to hide their relationship ( " We Kiss in a Shadow " ) . In her room , Anna replays the confrontation in her mind , her anger building ( " Shall I Tell You What I Think of You ? " ) . Lady Thiang , the King 's head wife , tells Anna that the King is troubled by his portrayal in the West as a barbarian , as the British are being urged to take over Siam as a protectorate . Anna is shocked by the accusations – the King is a polygamist , but he is no barbarian – but she is reluctant to see him after their argument . Lady Thiang convinces her that the King is deserving of support ( " Something Wonderful " ) . Anna goes to him and finds him anxious for reconciliation . The King tells her that the British are sending an envoy to Bangkok to evaluate the situation . Anna " guesses " – the only guise in which the King will accept advice – that the King will receive the envoy in European style , and that the wives will be dressed in Western fashion . Tuptim has been writing a play based on a book that Anna has lent her , Uncle Tom 's Cabin , that can be presented to the guests . News is brought to the King that the British are arriving much earlier than thought , and so Anna and the wives are to stay up all night to prepare . The King assembles his family for a Buddhist prayer for the success of the venture and also promises before Buddha that Anna will receive her own house " as provided in agreement , etc . , etc . " = = = Act 2 = = = The wives are dressed in their new European @-@ style gowns , which they find confining ( " Western People Funny " ) . In the rush to prepare , the question of undergarments has been overlooked , and the wives have practically nothing on underneath their gowns . When the British envoy , Sir Edward Ramsay , arrives and gazes at them through a monocle , they are panicked by the " evil eye " and lift their skirts over their heads as they flee . Sir Edward is diplomatic about the incident . When the King is called away , it emerges that Sir Edward is an old flame of Anna 's , and they dance in remembrance of old times , as Edward urges her to return to British society . The King returns and irritably reminds them that dancing is for after dinner . As final preparations for the play are made , Tuptim steals a moment to meet with Lun Tha . He tells her he has an escape plan , and she should be ready to leave after the performance ( " I Have Dreamed " ) . Anna encounters them , and they confide in her ( " Hello , Young Lovers " , reprise ) . The play ( " Small House of Uncle Thomas " , narrated ballet ) is presented in a Siamese ballet @-@ inspired dance . Tuptim is the narrator , and she tells her audience of the evil King Simon of Legree and his pursuit of the runaway slave Eliza . Eliza is saved by Buddha , who miraculously freezes a river and conceals her in snow . Buddha then causes the river to melt , drowning King Simon and his hunting party . The anti @-@ slavery message is blunt . After the play , Sir Edward reveals that the British threat has receded , but the King is distracted by his displeasure at Tuptim 's rebellious message . After Sir Edward leaves , Anna and the King express their delight at how well the evening went , and he presents her with a ring . Secret police report that Tuptim is missing . The King realizes that Anna knows something ; she parries his inquiry by asking why he should care : Tuptim is just another woman to him . He is delighted ; she is at last understanding the Siamese perspective . Anna tries to explain to him the Western customs of courtship and tells him what it is like for a young woman at a formal dance ( " Shall We Dance ? " ) . He demands that she teach him the dance . She does , and in that dance they experience and express a love for each other that they can never speak aloud . They are interrupted by the Kralahome . Tuptim has been captured , and a search is on for Lun Tha . The King resolves to punish Tuptim , though she denies she and Lun Tha were lovers . Anna tries to dissuade him , but he is determined that her influence shall not rule , and he takes the whip himself . He turns to lash Tuptim , but under Anna 's gaze is unable to swing the whip , and hurries away . Lun Tha is found dead , and Tuptim is dragged off , swearing to kill herself ; nothing more is heard about her . Anna asks the Kralahome to give her ring back to the King ; both schoolteacher and minister state their wish that she had never come to Siam . Several months pass with no contact between Anna and the King . Anna is packed and ready to board a ship leaving Siam . Chulalongkorn arrives with a letter from the King , who has been unable to resolve the conflicts within himself and is dying . Anna hurries to the King 's bedside and they reconcile . The King persuades her to take back the ring and to stay and assist the next king , Chulalongkorn . The dying man tells Anna to take dictation from the prince , and instructs the boy to give orders as if he were King . The prince orders the end of the custom of kowtowing that Anna hated . The King grudgingly accepts this decision . As Chulalongkorn continues , prescribing a less arduous bow to show respect for the king , his father dies . Anna kneels by the late King , holding his hand and kissing it , as the wives and children bow or curtsey , a gesture of respect to old king and new . = = Principal roles and notable performers = = = = Musical numbers = = = = Productions = = = = = Original productions = = = The King and I opened on Broadway on March 29 , 1951 , with a wide expectation of a hit by the press and public . Both Hammerstein and Rodgers professed to be worried . The composer complained that most people were not concerned about whether the show was good , but whether it was better than South Pacific . Even the weather cooperated : heavy rain in New York stopped in time to allow the mostly wealthy or connected opening night audience to arrive dry at the St. James Theatre . Margaret Landon , author of the book on which the musical was based , was not invited to opening night . Brynner turned in an outstanding performance that night , nearly stealing the show . Lawrence knew that the company was nervous because of her illnesses . The director , John van Druten , described how her opening night performance put all worries to rest : " She came on the stage with a new and dazzling quality , as if an extra power had been granted to the brilliance of her stage light . She was radiant and wonderful . " The rave reviews in the newspapers lifted Lawrence 's spirits , and she expected a lengthy run as Anna , first on Broadway , then in London 's West End , and finally on film . Lawrence won a Tony Award for her leading role , while Brynner won the award for best featured actor . The show won the Tony for best musical , and designers Mielziner and Sharaff received awards in their categories . De Lappe remembered the contrast between Lawrence 's indifferent singing voice and the force of her performance : I used to listen to Gertrude Lawrence on the public address system every night in our dressing rooms , and she 'd get onto a note and sag down off of it . The night after I left the show to go into Paint Your Wagon , Yul Brynner gave me house seats and I saw her from the front and I was so taken by her . She had such a star quality , you didn 't care if she sang off @-@ key . She more than dominated the stage . Boy , was that a lesson to me . Lawrence had not yet discovered that she was dying from liver cancer , and her weakened condition was exacerbated by the demands of her role . At the age of 52 , she was required to wear dresses weighing 75 pounds ( 34 kg ) while walking or dancing a total of 4 miles ( 6 @.@ 4 km ) during a 3 ½ hour performance eight times a week . Lawrence found it hard to bear the heat in the theatre during the summer months . Understudy Constance Carpenter began replacing her in matinee performances . Later in the year Lawrence 's strength returned , and she resumed her full schedule , but by Christmas she was battling pleurisy and suffering from exhaustion . She entered the hospital for a full week of tests . Just nine months before her death , the cancer still was not detected . In February 1952 , bronchitis felled her for another week , and her husband Richard Aldrich asked Rodgers and Hammerstein if they would consider closing the show for Easter week to give her a chance to recover fully . They denied his request , but agreed to replace her with the original Ado Annie from Oklahoma ! , Celeste Holm , for six weeks during the summer . Meanwhile , Lawrence 's performances were deteriorating , prompting audiences to become audibly restive . Rodgers and Hammerstein prepared a letter , never delivered , advising her that " eight times a week you are losing the respect of 1 @,@ 500 people " . In late August , Lawrence fainted following a matinee and was admitted to the NewYork – Presbyterian Hospital . She slipped into a coma and died on September 6 , 1952 , aged 54 . Her autopsy revealed liver cancer . On the day of her funeral , the performance of The King and I was cancelled . The lights of Broadway and the West End were dimmed ; she was buried in the ball gown she wore during Act 2 . Carpenter assumed the role of Anna and went on to play it for 620 performances . Other Annas during the run included Holm , Annamary Dickey and Patricia Morison . Although Brynner later boasted of never missing a show , he missed several , once when stagehands at the St. James Theatre accidentally struck him in the nose with a piece of scenery , another time due to appendicitis . Also , for three months in 1952 ( and occasionally in 1953 ) , Alfred Drake replaced Brynner . One young actor , Sal Mineo , began as an extra , then became an understudy for a younger prince , then an understudy and later a replacement for Crown Prince Chulalongkorn . Mineo began a close friendship and working relationship with Brynner which would last for more than a decade . The last of the production 's 1 @,@ 246 performances was on March 20 , 1954 . The run was , at the time , the fourth longest ever for a Broadway musical . A U.S. national tour began on March 22 , 1954 , at the Community Theatre , Hershey , Pennsylvania , starring Brynner and Morison . The tour played in 30 cities , closing on December 17 , 1955 , at the Shubert Theatre , Philadelphia . The original London production opened on October 8 , 1953 , at the Theatre Royal , Drury Lane , and was warmly received by both audiences and critics ; it ran for 946 performances . The show was restaged by Jerome Whyte . The cast featured Valerie Hobson , in her last role , as Anna ; Herbert Lom as the King ; and Muriel Smith as Lady Thiang . Martin Benson played the Kralahome , a role he reprised in the 1956 film . Eve Lister was a replacement for Hobson , and George Pastell replaced Lom during the long run . The New York Times theatre columnist Brooks Atkinson saw the production with Lister and Pastell , and thought the cast commonplace , except for Smith , whom he praised both for her acting and her voice . Atkinson commented , " The King and I is a beautifully written musical drama on a high plane of human thinking . It can survive in a mediocre performance . " The musical was soon premiered in Australia , Japan , and throughout Europe . = = = Early revivals = = = The first revival of The King and I in New York was presented by the New York City Center Light Opera Company in April and May 1956 for three weeks , starring Jan Clayton and Zachary Scott , directed by John Fearnley , with Robbins ' choreography recreated by June Graham . Muriel Smith reprised her London role of Lady Thiang , and Patrick Adiarte repeated his film role , Chulalongkorn . This company presented the musical again in May 1960 with Barbara Cook and Farley Granger , again directed by Fearnley , in another three @-@ week engagement . Atkinson admired the purity of Cook 's voice and thought that she portrayed Anna with " a cool dignity that gives a little more stature to the part than it has had before . " He noted that Granger brought " a fresh point of view – as well as a full head of hair " . Joy Clements played Tuptim , and Anita Darian was Lady Thiang . City Center again presented the show in June 1963 , starring Eileen Brennan and Manolo Fabregas , directed by Fearnley . Clements and Darian reprised Tuptim and Thiang . In the final City Center Light Opera production , Michael Kermoyan played the King opposite Constance Towers for three weeks in May 1968 . Darian again played Lady Thiang . For all of these 1960s productions , Robbins ' choreography was reproduced by Yuriko , who had played the role of Eliza in the original Broadway production and reprised the role in the City Center productions . The Music Theatre of Lincoln Center , with Rodgers as producer , presented the musical in mid @-@ 1964 at the New York State Theater , starring Risë Stevens and Darren McGavin , with Michael Kermoyan as the Kralahome . Lun Tha , Tuptim and Thiang were played by Frank Porretta , Lee Venora and Patricia Neway . Costumes were by Irene Sharaff , the designer for the original productions and the film adaptation . The director was Edward Greenberg , with the Robbins choreography again reproduced by Yuriko . This was Music Theatre 's debut production , a five @-@ week limited engagement . The King and I was revived at London 's Adelphi Theatre on October 10 , 1973 , running for 260 performances until May 25 , 1974 , starring Sally Ann Howes as Anna and Peter Wyngarde as the King . Roger Redfarn directed , and Sheila O 'Neill choreographed . The production , which began in June 1973 with a tour of the English provinces , earned mixed to warm reviews . Michael Billington in The Guardian called the revival " well played and well sung " . Although he was enthusiastic about Howes as Anna , Billington thought Wyngarde " too fragile to be capable of inspiring unholy terror " . He praised Redfarn 's production – " whipped along at a good pace and made a sumptuous eyeful out of the interpolated ballet on ' Uncle Tom 's Cabin ' . " Less favorably , Robert Cushman in The Observer thought the production " scenically and economically under @-@ nourished " . He liked Wyngarde 's King ( " a dignified clown " ) but thought Howes not formidable enough to stand up to him as Anna . He noted that " she sings beautifully and the songs are the evening 's real justification " . = = = Brynner reprises the role = = = In early 1976 , Brynner received an offer from impresarios Lee Gruber and Shelly Gross to star , in the role that he had created 25 years before , in a U.S. national tour and Broadway revival . The tour opened in Los Angeles on July 26 , 1976 , with Constance Towers reprising the role of Anna . On opening night , Brynner suffered so badly from laryngitis that he lip @-@ synched , with his son Rock singing and speaking the role from the orchestra pit . The production traveled across the United States , selling out every city it appeared in and finally opening in New York at the Uris Theatre ( today the Gershwin Theatre ) on May 2 , 1977 . The production featured Martin Vidnovic as Lun Tha , and Susan Kikuchi danced the part of Eliza , recreating the role that her mother , Yuriko , had originated . Yuriko both directed the production and recreated the Robbins choreography . Sharaff again designed costumes , and Michael Kermoyan reprised the role of the Kralahome , while June Angela was Tuptim . The run lasted 696 performances , almost two years , during which each of the stars took off three weeks , with Angela Lansbury replacing Towers and Kermoyan replacing Brynner . The production was nominated for the Drama Desk Award for Outstanding Musical . Brynner insisted on renovations to the Uris before he would play there , stating that the theatre resembled " a public toilet " . He also insisted that dressing rooms on the tour and at the Uris be arranged to his satisfaction . According to his biographer Michelangelo Capua , for years afterwards , performers thanked Brynner for having backstage facilities across the country cleaned up . New York Times reviewer Clive Barnes said of the revival , " The cast is a good one . Mr. Brynner grinning fire and snorting charm is as near to the original as makes little difference " and called Towers " piquantly ladylike and sweet without being dangerously saccharine " . However , fellow Times critic Mel Gussow warned , later in the run , that " to a certain extent [ Brynner ] was coasting on his charisma " . The tour was extended in 1979 , after the New York run , still starring Brynner and Towers . The production then opened in the West End , at the London Palladium , on June 12 , 1979 , and was reported to have the largest advance sale in English history . Brynner stated , " It is not a play , it is a happening . " Virginia McKenna starred in London as Anna , winning an Olivier Award for her performance . June Angela again played Tuptim , and John Bennett was the Kralahome . It ran until September 27 , 1980 . Brynner took only a few months off after the London run ended , which contributed to his third divorce ; he returned to the road in early 1981 in an extended U.S. tour of the same production , which eventually ended on Broadway . Mitch Leigh produced and directed , and Robbins ' choreography was reproduced by Rebecca West , who also danced the role of Simon of Legree , which she had danced at the Uris in 1977 . Patricia Marand played Anna , Michael Kermoyan was again the Kralahome , Patricia Welch was Tuptim . During 1981 , Kate Hunter Brown took over as Anna , continuing in the role for at least a year and a half . By 1983 , Mary Beth Peil was playing Anna . On September 13 , 1983 , in Los Angeles , Brynner celebrated his 4,000th performance as the King ; on the same day he was privately diagnosed with inoperable lung cancer , and the tour had to shut down for a few months while he received painful radiation therapy to shrink the tumor . The Washington Post reviewer saw Brynner 's " absolutely last farewell tour " in December 1984 and wrote of the star : When Brynner opened in the original production in 1951 , he was the newcomer and Gertrude Lawrence the established star . Now , 33 years and 4 @,@ 300 performances later , he is the king of the mountain as well as the show ... The genius of his performance – and it must be some sort of genius to maintain a character this long – is its simplicity . There is not a superfluous expression nor a vague gesture . And if at times , the arms on hips posture , the shining dome and fierce expression remind one of Mr. Clean , it should be remembered that Brynner was there first . The production reached New York in January 1985 , running for 191 performances at the Broadway Theatre , with Brynner , Peil , Welch and West still playing their roles . The part of Eliza was played by the leading man 's fourth wife , Kathy Lee Brynner , and newcomer Jeffrey Bryan Davis played Louis . During the run , Brynner was unable to sing " A Puzzlement " , due to what was announced as a throat and ear infection , but he " projected bursting vitality to the top of the balcony . " He received a special Tony Award for his role as the King and had come to dominate the musical to such an extent that Piel was nominated merely for a featured actress Tony as Anna . Leigh was nominated for a Tony for his direction . New York Times critic Frank Rich praised Brynner but was ambivalent about the production , which he called " sluggish " , writing that Brynner 's " high points included his fond , paternalistic joshing with his brood in ' The March of the Siamese Children , ' his dumb @-@ show antics while attempting to force the English schoolteacher Anna to bow , and , of course , the death scene . ... The star aside , such showmanship is too often lacking in this King and I. " The last performance was a special Sunday night show , on June 30 , 1985 , in honor of Brynner and his 4,625th performance of the role . Brynner died less than four months later , on October 10 , 1985 . From August 1989 to March 1990 , Rudolf Nureyev played the King in a North American tour opposite Liz Robertson , with Kermoyan as the Kralahome , directed by Arthur Storch and with the original Robbins choreography . Reviews were uniformly critical , lamenting that Nureyev failed to embody the character , " a King who stands around like a sulky teenager who didn 't ask to be invited to this party . ... Not even his one dance number ... goes well . ... Rodgers and Hammerstein 's King [ is ] supposed to be a compelling personality [ but Nureyev 's ] bears no resemblance to the man described ... in the " Something Wonderful " number . The show therefore comes across as something of a charade ... with everyone pretending to be dealing with a fearsome potentate who , in fact , is displaying very little personality at all . " = = = Renshaw 's production : 1991 to 2002 = = = The first major revival to break away from the original staging and interpretation was an Australian production directed by Christopher Renshaw , starring Hayley Mills as Anna , in 1991 . Renshaw pointedly ignored the printed stage directions in the script when reshaping the piece into what he called " an authentic Thai experience " . The production had a more sinister Siamese setting , a less elegant but more forceful Anna , and a younger King ( Tony Marinyo ) . The attraction between Anna and the King was made explicit . Renshaw " cut a few lines and lyrics , and translated others into Thai to reinforce the atmosphere of a foreign land " , and all Asian roles were played by Asian actors . He also asked choreographers Lar Lubovitch and Jerome Robbins to create a " spiritual " ballet , for the King 's entrance in Act 1 , and a procession with a sacred white elephant in Act II . According to Renshaw , " The reds and golds were very much inspired by what we saw at the royal palace " , and set and costume elements reflected images , architecture and other designs in the palace and elsewhere in Bangkok . For example , the stage was framed by columns of elephant figures , a large emerald Buddha loomed over Act I , and hundreds of elephant images were woven into the set . Renshaw said , " The elephant is regarded as a very holy creature ... they believe the spirit of Buddha often resides in the form of the elephant . " Stanley Green , in his Encyclopedia of the Musical Theatre , viewed the central theme of The King and I as " the importance of mutual understanding between people of differing ethnic and cultural backgrounds " , but Renshaw felt that the musical suffered from 1950s attitudes when " Orientalism was used as an exoticism rather than a real understanding of the particular culture . " He stated that his production was informed by authentic Thai cultural , aesthetic and religious ideas that he learned from visiting Thailand . A feature in Playbill commented that the production focused on the " clash of ideologies and cultures , of East versus West " . Theatre arts professor Eileen Blumenthal , however , called the production " a King and I for the age of political correctness " . While she acknowledged that the musical 's treatment of Asian cultures had come to be understood as insensitive in the nearly half century since its premiere , she argued that Rodgers and Hammerstein 's script was more sensitive than most orientalist literature of its day , in that " West learns from East as well as the other way around " , and that , moreover , the musical 's treatment of its Asian subject is fantastical , not intended to be realistic . She concluded that the show is a documentary of " who we 've been " in the West , and that a work like The King and I should not be suppressed , because it is " too good " . The production was reproduced on Broadway , opening on April 11 , 1996 at the Neil Simon Theatre , starring Donna Murphy as Anna , who won a Tony Award for her performance , and Lou Diamond Phillips as the King , with Randall Duk Kim as the Kralahome , Jose Llana as Lun Tha , Joohee Choi as Tuptim and Taewon Yi Kim as Lady Thiang . Jenna Ushkowitz made her Broadway debut as one of the children . The production was nominated for eight Tony Awards , winning best revival and three others , with acting nominations for Phillips and Choi , who each won Theatre World Awards , and seven Drama Desk Awards , winning for Outstanding Revival of a Musical ; Renshaw won for his direction . The production was praised for " lavish ... sumptuous " designs by Roger Kirk ( costumes ) and Brian Thomson ( sets ) , who both won Tony and Drama Desk Awards for their work . Faith Prince played the role of Anna later in the run , followed by Marie Osmond . The revival ran on Broadway for 780 performances , and Kevin Gray replaced Phillips . The production then toured in the U.S. with Mills and Victor Talmadge . Other Annas on this tour included Osmond , Sandy Duncan , Stefanie Powers and Maureen McGovern , who ended the tour in Chicago in June 1998 . The production opened on May 3 , 2000 at the London Palladium , directed by Renshaw and choreographed by Lubovitch , and using the Kirk and Thomson designs . It reportedly took in £ 8 million in advance ticket sales . The cast included Elaine Paige as Anna and Jason Scott Lee as the King , with Sean Ghazi as Luan Tha and Ho Yi as the Kralahome . Lady Thiang was , again , played by Taewon Yi Kim , of whom The Observer wrote , " Her ' Something Wonderful ' was just that . " The show was nominated for an Olivier Award for outstanding musical . Later in the run , Lee was replaced as the King by Paul Nakauchi . The revival was generally well received . The Daily Mirror said : " The King and I waltzed back to the West End in triumph last night . " The Daily Express noted , " Love it or loathe it , The King and I is an unstoppable smash . " Variety , however , noted a lack of chemistry between the leads , commenting that " there ’ s something not entirely right in Siam when the greatest applause is reserved for Lady Thiang " . Replacements included Josie Lawrence as Anna , Keo Woolford as the King and Saeed Jaffrey as the Kralahome . The show closed on January 5 , 2002 . = = = 2004 to present = = = Another U.S. national tour began in mid @-@ 2004 , directed by Baayork Lee ( who appeared in the original production at age 5 ) , with choreography by Susan Kikuchi , reproducing the Robbins original . Sandy Duncan again starred as Anna , while Martin Vidnovic played the King . He had played Lun Tha in the 1977 Broadway production and voiced the King in the 1999 animated film . Stefanie Powers took over for Duncan throughout 2005 . Near the end of the tour in November 2005 , Variety judged that Lee had successfully " harnessed the show 's physical beauty and its intrinsic exotic flavor . " Jeremy Sams directed , and Kikuchi choreographed , a limited engagement of the musical in June 2009 at the Royal Albert Hall in London . It starred Maria Friedman and Daniel Dae Kim . A U.K. national tour starred Ramon Tikaram as the King and Josefina Gabrielle as Anna , directed by Paul Kerryson , with choreography by David Needham . It opened in December 2011 in Edinburgh and continued into May 2012 . In June 2014 , Théâtre du Châtelet in Paris presented an English @-@ language production of The King and I directed by Lee Blakeley and starring Susan Graham , who was " close to perfection as Anna " , Lambert Wilson , " also excellent as the king " , and Lisa Milne as Lady Thiang . The New York Times called it " a grand new staging that has set French critics searching for superlatives . " The Renshaw production was revived again in April 2014 by Opera Australia for performances in Sydney , Melbourne and Brisbane , directed by Renshaw and featuring Lisa McCune and Teddy Tahu Rhodes . Some critics questioned anew the portrayal of the Siamese court as barbaric and asked why a show where " the laughs come from the Thai people mis @-@ understanding British ... culture " should be selected for revival . A fourth Broadway revival began previews on March 12 and opened on April 16 , 2015 at the Vivian Beaumont Theater . The production was directed by Bartlett Sher and starred Kelli O 'Hara as Anna and Ken Watanabe , as the King , in his American stage debut . It featured Ruthie Ann Miles as Lady Thiang , Paul Nakauchi as the Kralahome , Ashley Park as Tuptim , Conrad Ricamora as Lun Tha , Jake Lucas as Louis Leonowens , and Edward Baker @-@ Duly as Sir Edward Ramsey . Choreography by Christopher Gattelli was based on the original Jerome Robbins dances . The desigers included Michael Yeargan ( sets ) , Catherine Zuber ( costumes ) and Donald Holder ( lighting ) . Reviews were uniformly glowing , with Ben Brantley of The New York Times calling it a " resplendent production " , praising the cast ( especially O 'Hara , " one of our greatest reinterpreters of musical standards ... something wonderful " ) , direction , choreographer , designs and orchestra , and commenting that Sher " sheds a light [ on the vintage material ] that isn 't harsh or misty but clarifying [ and ] balances epic sweep with intimate sensibility . " The production was nominated for nine Tony Awards , winning four , including Best Revival of a Musical , Best Leading Actress ( for O 'Hara ) , Best Featured Actress ( for Miles ) and best costume design ( for Zuber ) , and won the Drama Desk Award for Outstanding Revival . Replacements for the King included Jose Llana Hoon Lee and Daniel Dae Kim . Replacements for Anna included Marin Mazzie . The revival closed on June 26 , 2016 after 538 performances . A U.S. national tour of the production is scheduled to begin in November 2016 . The King and I continues to be a popular choice for productions by community theatres , school and university groups , summer camps and regional theatre companies . = = Adaptations = = The musical was filmed in 1956 with Brynner re @-@ creating his role opposite Deborah Kerr . The film won five Academy Awards and was nominated for four more . Brynner won an Oscar as Best Actor for his portrayal , and Kerr was nominated as Best Actress . Sharaff won for best costume design . The film was directed by Walter Lang ( who was also nominated for an Oscar ) and choreographed by Robbins . Marni Nixon dubbed the singing voice of Anna , and Rita Moreno played Tuptim . Other notable performers included Adiarte as Chulalongkorn and Benson as the Kralahome , reprising their stage roles , as did dancers Yuriko and de Lappe . Alan Mowbray appeared in the new role of the British Ambassador , while Sir Edward Ramsey ( demoted to the Ambassador 's aide ) was played by Geoffrey Toone . The movie 's script was faithful to the stage version , although it cut a few songs ; reviews were enthusiastic . Thomas Hischak , in his The Rodgers and Hammerstein Encyclopedia , states : " It is generally agreed that the [ movie ] is the finest film adaptation of any R & H musical " . Thai officials judged the film offensive to their monarchy and banned both film and musical in 1956 . A non @-@ musical 1972 television adaptation , starring Brynner , was broadcast in the U.S. by CBS but was cancelled in mid @-@ season after 13 episodes . It followed the main storyline of the musical , focusing on the relationship between the title characters . Samantha Eggar played " Anna Owens " , with Brian Tochi as Chulalongkorn , Keye Luke as the Kralahome , Eric Shea as Louis , Lisa Lu as Lady Thiang , and Rosalind Chao as Princess Serena . The first episode aired on September 17 , 1972 , and the last aired on December 31 , 1972 . Margaret Landon was unhappy with this series and charged the producers with " inaccurate and mutilated portrayals " of her literary property ; she unsuccessfully sued for copyright infringement . Jerome Robbins ' Broadway was a Broadway revue , directed by Robbins , showcasing scenes from some of his most popular earlier works on Broadway . The show ran from February 1989 to September 1990 and won six Tony Awards , including best musical . It featured " Shall We Dance " and " The Small House of Uncle Thomas " ballet , with Kikuchi as Eliza . Yuriko was the choreographic " reconstruction assistant " . RichCrest Animation Studios and Morgan Creek Productions released a 1999 animated film adaptation of the musical . Except for using some of the songs and characters , the story is unrelated to the Rodgers and Hammerstein version . Geared towards children , the adaptation includes cuddly animals , including a dragon . Voices were provided by Miranda Richardson as Anna ( speaking ) , Christiane Noll as Anna ( singing ) , Martin Vidnovic as the King , Ian Richardson as the Kralahome and Adam Wylie as Louis . Hischak dislikes the film but praises the vocals , adding that one compensation of the film is hearing Barbra Streisand sing a medley of " I Have Dreamed " , " We Kiss in a Shadow " and " Something Wonderful " , which is borrowed from Streisand 's 1985 The Broadway Album and played under the film 's closing credits . He expressed surprise " that the Rodgers & Hammerstein Organization allowed it to be made " and noted that " children have enjoyed The King and I for five decades without relying on dancing dragons " . Ted Chapin , president of that organization , has called the film his biggest mistake in granting permission for an adaptation . = = Music and recordings = = = = = Musical treatment = = = In his music , Rodgers sought to give some of the music an Asian flavor . This is exhibited in the piercing major seconds that frame " A Puzzlement " , the flute melody in " We Kiss in a Shadow " , open fifths , the exotic 6 / 2 chords that shape " My Lord and Master " , and in some of the incidental music . The music for " The Small House of Uncle Thomas " was for the most part written not by Rodgers , but by dance music arranger Trude Rittmann , though " Hello , Young Lovers " and a snatch of " A Puzzlement " are quoted within it . Before Rodgers and Hammerstein began writing together , the AABA form for show tunes was standard , but many of the songs in The King and I vary from it . " I Have Dreamed " is an almost continuous repetition of variations on the same theme , until the ending , when it is capped by another melody . The first five notes ( a triplet and two quarter notes ) of " Getting to Know You " also carry the melody all the way through the refrain . According to Mordden , this refusal to accept conventional forms " is one reason why their frequently heard scores never lose their appeal . They attend to situation and they unveil character , but also , they surprise you . " According to Rodgers ' biographer William Hyland , the score for The King and I is much more closely tied to the action than that of South Pacific , " which had its share of purely entertaining songs " . For example , the opening song , " I Whistle a Happy Tune " , establishes Anna 's fear upon entering a strange land with her small son , but the merry melody also expresses her determination to keep a stiff upper lip . Hyland calls " Hello , Young Lovers " an archetypical Rodgers ballad : simple , with only two chords in the first eight bars , but moving in its directness . = = = Recordings = = = The original cast recording was released by Decca Records in 1951 . While John Kenrick admires it for the performances of the secondary couple , Larry Douglas and Doretta Morrow , and for the warmth of Lawrence 's performance , he notes that " Shall We Dance " was abridged , and there are no children 's voices – the chorus in " Getting to Know You " is made up of adults . In 2000 , the recording was inducted into the Grammy Hall of Fame . Hischak comments that in the London cast album , Valerie Hobson 's vocals were no stronger than Lawrence 's and that the highlight is Muriel Smith 's " Something Wonderful " in a disc with too many cuts . He calls Anna 's songs " well served " by Marni Nixon 's singing in the 1956 film soundtrack and judges the recording as vocally satisfying ; Kenrick describes it as a " mixed bag " : he is pleased that it includes several songs cut from the film , and he praises Nixon 's vocals , but he dislikes the supporting cast and suggests watching the movie instead for its visual splendor . Kenrick prefers the 1964 Lincoln Center cast recording to the earlier ones , especially approving of the performances of Risë Stevens as Anna and Patricia Neway as Lady Thiang . The inclusion on that recording , for the first time , of " The Small House of Uncle Thomas " , was notable because LP technology limited a single @-@ disc album to about fifty minutes , and thus inclusion of the ballet required the exclusion of some of the other numbers . Kenrick finds the recording of the 1977 Broadway revival cast to be " [ e ] asily the most satisfying King & I on CD " . He judges it to be Brynner 's best performance , calling Towers " great " and Martin Vidnovic , June Angela and the rest of the supporting cast " fabulous " , though lamenting the omission of the ballet . Hischak , in contrast , says that some might prefer Brynner in his earlier recordings , when he was " more vibrant " . Kenrick enjoys the 1992 Angel studio recording mostly for the Anna of Julie Andrews , who he says is " pure magic " in a role she never performed on stage . Kenrick praises the performance of both stars on the 1996 Broadway revival recording , calling Lou Diamond Phillips " that rarity , a King who can stand free of Brynner 's shadow " . Hischak finds the soundtrack to the 1999 animated film with Christiane Noll as Anna and Martin Vidnovic as the King , as well as Barbra Streisand singing on one track , more enjoyable than the movie itself , but Kenrick writes that his sole use for that CD is as a coaster . = = Critical reception = = Opening night reviews of the musical were strongly positive . Richard Watts in the New York Post termed it " [ a ] nother triumph for the masters " . Critic John Mason Brown stated , " They have done it again . " The New York Times drama critic Brooks Atkinson wrote : " This time Messrs. Rodgers and Hammerstein are not breaking any fresh trails , but they are accomplished artists of song and words in the theater ; and The King and I is a beautiful and lovable musical play . " Barely less enthusiastic was John Lardner in The New Yorker , who wrote , " Even those of us who find [ the Rodgers and Hammerstein musicals ] a little too unremittingly wholesome are bound to take pleasure in the high spirits and technical skill that their authors , and producers , have put into them . " Otis Guernsey wrote for the New York Herald Tribune , " Musicals and leading men will never be the same after last night ... Brynner set an example that will be hard to follow ... Probably the best show of the decade . The balance of opinion among the critics of the original London production was generally favorable , with a few reservations . In The Observer , Ivor Brown predicted that the piece would " settle down for some years at Drury Lane . " The anonymous critic of The Times compared the work to Gilbert and Sullivan : " Mr. Rodgers charmingly echoes Sullivan in the king 's more topsy @-@ turvy moments ; and Mr. Hammerstein attends very skilfully to the lurking Gilbertian humour . " Less favorably , in The Daily Express , John Barber called the work " this treacle @-@ bin Mikado " , and declared that only one of the cast , Muriel Smith , could really sing . In 1963 , New York Times reviewer Lewis Funke said of the musical , " Mr. Hammerstein put all of his big heart into the simple story of a British woman 's adventures , heartaches , and triumphs . ... A man with a world @-@ view , he seized the opportunity provided by [ Landon 's book ] to underscore his thoughts on the common destiny of humanity . " Fourteen years later , another Times reviewer , Clive Barnes , called the musical " unsophisticated and untroubled . Even its shadows are lightened with a laugh or a sweetly sentimental tear ... we can even be persuaded to take death as a happy ending " . The reworked 1996 Broadway production received mixed reviews . Vincent Canby of The New York Times disliked it : " This latest King and I might look like a million dollars as a regional production ; on Broadway ... it 's a disappointment . The score remains enchanting but , somewhere along the line , there has been a serious failure of the theatrical imagination . " But Liz Smith enthused : " The King and I is perfect " ; and the Houston Chronicle wrote , of the subsequent tour , " The King and I is the essence of musical theater , an occasion when drama , music , dance and decor combine to take the audience on an unforgettable journey . " Critic Richard Christiansen in the Chicago Tribune observed , of a 1998 tour stop at the Auditorium Theatre : " Written in a more leisurely and innocent and less politically correct period , [ The King and I ] cannot escape the 1990s onus of its condescending attitude toward the pidgin English monarch and his people . And its story moves at a pace that 's a mite too slow for this more hurried day and age . " When the production reached London in 2000 , however , it received uniformly positive reviews ; the Financial Times called it " a handsome , spectacular , strongly performed introduction to one of the truly great musicals " . The 2015 Broadway revival initially received uniformly glowing reviews . Ben Brantley of The New York Times called it a " resplendent production " and commented : [ In the ] 1996 production ... [ a ] dark strain of sadomasochistic tension born of Victorian repression and Eastern sensuality was introduced into sunny Siam . ... Mr. Sher is no strong @-@ armed revisionist . He works from within vintage material , coaxing shadowy emotional depths to churn up a surface that might otherwise seem shiny and slick . ... [ T ] he show is both panoramic and personal , balancing dazzling musical set pieces with sung introspective soliloquies . [ The direction ] enhances [ scenes ' ] emotional weight . No one is merely a dancer or an extra or an archetype , which may be the greatest defense this show offers against what can come across as cute condescension toward the exotic East . ... [ The ] portrayal of the varied forms and content of love [ and ] some of [ Rodgers and Hammerstein 's ] lushest ballads ... acquire freshening nuance and anchoring conviction " . Marilyn Stasio , in Variety , termed the production " sumptuous " and " absolutely stunning " . She noted a " still pertinent theme : the dissonant dynamic when Western civilization tries to assert its values on ancient Eastern cultures . " In USA Today , Elysa Gardner wrote of the grins and tears evoked by the production . " [ W ] atching these people from vastly different cultures carefully but joyfully reach for common ground ... can be almost unbearably moving . ... [ Rodgers and Hammerstein 's ] textured humanity and appeals for tolerance , like their shimmering scores , only gain resonance as time passes . " The production 's attempts to achieve historical accuracy and explore the work 's dark themes with a modern sensibility led some reviewers to conclude that it succeeds at converting the musical 's orientalism into " a modern critique of racism and sexism " . Other commentators , however , such as composer Mohammed Fairouz , argued that an attempt at sensitivity in production cannot compensate for " the inaccurate portrayal of the historic King Mongkut as a childlike tyrant and the infantilization of the entire Siamese population of the court " , which demonstrate a racist subtext in the piece , even in 1951 when it was written . Benjamin Ivry opined that " the Rodgers and Hammerstein organization should shelve the [ musical ] as a humanitarian gesture toward Southeast Asian history and art " . Fifty years after its premiere , Rodgers biographer Meryle Secrest summed up the musical : The King and I is really a celebration of love in all its guises , from the love of Anna for her dead husband ; the love of the King 's official wife , Lady Thiang , for a man she knows is flawed and also unfaithful ; the desperation of forbidden love ; and a love that is barely recognized and can never be acted upon .
= Lego Star Wars II : The Original Trilogy = Lego Star Wars II : The Original Trilogy is a Lego @-@ themed action @-@ adventure video game developed by Traveller 's Tales and published by LucasArts and TT Games Publishing . It was released on 11 September 2006 . Part of the Lego Star Wars series , it is based on the Star Wars science fiction media franchise and Lego Group 's Star Wars @-@ themed toy line . It follows the events of the Star Wars films Star Wars , The Empire Strikes Back and Return of the Jedi . The game allows players to assume the roles of over 50 Lego versions of characters from the film series ; customized characters can also be created . Camera movement was improved from its predecessor — Lego Star Wars : The Video Game ; and the concept of " vehicle levels " was explored more thoroughly . The game was revealed at American International Toy Fair 2006 . Promotions for the game were set up at chain stores across the United States . Lego Star Wars II was critically and commercially successful ; it has sold over 8 @.@ 2 million copies worldwide as of May 2009 . Critics praised the game for its comedic and " adorable " portrayal of the film series and for their preference of the original trilogy to the prequel trilogy . However , the game 's low difficulty , and its Game Boy Advance and Nintendo DS versions in general , were received more poorly . The game received awards from the British Academy of Film and Television Arts and Spike TV , among others . A mobile phone adaptation , Lego Star Wars II Mobile , was later developed by Universomo , published by THQ , and released on 19 December 2006 . Lego Star Wars and Lego Star Wars II were compiled in Lego Star Wars : The Complete Saga , released on 6 November 2007 . The OS X version of the game was released in April 2007 by Feral Interactive . = = Gameplay = = Lego Star Wars II 's gameplay is from a third @-@ person perspective , and takes place in a 3D game world that contains objects , environments and characters designed to resemble Lego pieces . Its gameplay — a combination of the action @-@ adventure , platform , and sometimes puzzle genres — shares elements with that of Lego Star Wars : The Video Game ( 2005 ) . While Lego Star Wars followed the events of The Phantom Menace ( 1999 ) , Attack of the Clones ( 2002 ) and Revenge of the Sith ( 2005 ) , Lego Star Wars II is based on Star Wars ( 1977 ) , The Empire Strikes Back ( 1980 ) and Return of the Jedi ( 1983 ) . The game comically retells the trilogy 's events using cut scenes without dialogue . The player assumes the roles of the films ' characters , each of which possess specific weapons and abilities . At any time , a second player can join the game by activating a second controller . During game play , players can collect Lego studs – small , disk @-@ shaped objects that serve as the game 's currency . The player has a health meter , which is displayed on the game 's heads @-@ up display . The player 's health is represented by four hearts ; when these hearts are depleted the player dies and a small amount of their studs bounce away . However , they instantly respawn and can often recollect the lost studs . The game 's central location is the Mos Eisley Cantina , a spaceport bar on the planet Tatooine . At the counter , the player may use their Lego studs to purchase characters , vehicles , gameplay hints and extras , or activate cheat codes . In a small area outside the cantina , players may view collected vehicles . The game is broken into levels , which are accessed from the cantina ; each film is represented by six levels , representing key locations and scenes in that film . The locations include Hoth , Bespin , Dagobah , Tatooine , the Death Star , and Endor . The game also features bonus levels . During levels , the player defeats enemies , builds objects out of Lego bricks and drives vehicles , Certain levels are played entirely while piloting vehicles , including a TIE fighter , a Snowspeeder , and the Millennium Falcon . Levels must first be played in Story Mode . This unlocks the next level as well as a Free Play mode for the recently completed level . Gameplay is identical in the two modes . However , Story Mode restricts playable characters to those followed in the film scenes the levels are based on , while Free Play offers all those unlocked . Levels can be replayed in either mode to collect studs and secret items . Three types of secret items are available : gold bricks , minikits and power bricks . Within each level is hidden one power brick . When a power brick is collected , its corresponding extra , such as invincibility or stud multipliers , becomes available for purchase . Each level also contains ten hidden minikits , that is , ten pieces of a Star Wars vehicle . When all ten have been collected , the player is awarded a gold brick . Collecting a certain number of gold bricks unlocks free rewards , such as a spigot that spews out studs . Gold bricks are also awarded when levels are completed and when a predefined number of studs is accumulated in a level ; ninety @-@ nine gold bricks are available . The vehicles represented by the minikits are displayed outside the cantina . As each vehicle is completed ( all ten minikits collected ) , it becomes available for play in a bonus level . = = = Playable characters = = = Over 50 characters from the films are playable over the course of the game , including variations of Luke Skywalker , Princess Leia , Han Solo , Chewbacca , Lando Calrissian , R2 @-@ D2 , C @-@ 3PO , Darth Vader , Wicket the Ewok , and Boba Fett . Character abilities have a greater role in Lego Star Wars II than in Lego Star Wars . Certain characters armed with guns can use a grappling hook in predesignated areas . Characters wielding lightsabers can deflect projectiles , double jump and use the Force . R2 @-@ D2 , C @-@ 3PO , and other droid characters are needed to open certain doors . Small characters like the Ewok and Jawa can crawl through hatches to reach otherwise inaccessible areas . Bounty hunters , such as Boba Fett , may use thermal detonators to destroy otherwise indestructible objects . Sith , like Darth Vader , can use the Force to manipulate black Lego objects . Some characters have unique abilities ; for example , Chewbacca can rip enemies ' arms from their sockets , Darth Vader can choke enemies with the Force , Princess Leia possesses a slap attack , and Lando Calrissian can use a kung @-@ fu @-@ like attack . Special abilities are often necessary to unlock secrets , and story mode does not always provide characters with needed abilities . This means that some secrets can only be found in free play mode . The player can unlock the " Use Old Save " extra , which imports all unlocked characters from Lego Star Wars for use in free play ; however , a Lego Star Wars saved game must be present on the same memory card that contains Lego Star Wars II 's save data . Players can create two customized characters in the Mos Eisley Cantina . These characters can be built using both miscellaneous parts and those of unlocked characters ; 2 @,@ 258 @,@ 163 @,@ 204 combinations are possible . Entering two cheat codes , publicized by IGN , makes pieces for a Santa Claus character available . The game generates names for the characters based on the pieces used ( for example , a character made from pieces of Darth Vader and C @-@ 3PO might have the name " Darth @-@ 3PO " ) ; alternately , the player may create a name . = = Development = = Lego Star Wars II was created by the Cheshire , England , game developer Traveller 's Tales . LucasArts — busy with other projects — had deferred publishing of Lego Star Wars to Eidos Interactive , but regained the " necessary resources " to publish its sequel alongside TT Games Publishing . Lego Star Wars II was created for Microsoft Windows , OS X , Xbox , GameCube , PlayStation 2 , Game Boy Advance ( GBA ) , Nintendo DS , PlayStation Portable ( PSP ) , and Xbox 360 . Differences exist between platforms : the DS and GBA versions have some different playable characters than the other versions , and the DS and PSP versions support a " Wireless Lobby " for multiplayer gameplay . The Xbox 360 and PlayStation 2 versions of the game feature higher @-@ definition graphics . Lego Star Wars II uses a modified Lego Star Wars engine . However , many gameplay improvements were made over its predecessor , most notably camera angles and movement . Camera movement in co @-@ op was a specific point of concern , as LucasArts received critical feedback from fans over this issue . Traveller 's Tales looked to expand upon the concept of levels completed entirely in vehicles . These " vehicle levels " were explored more thoroughly in Lego Star Wars II than in its predecessor . In response to complaints from fans , LucasArts and Traveller 's Tales granted the ability to build bricks to all non @-@ droid characters . Character customization , an entirely new concept , was considered a significant improvement over the original game , and is one of three features highlighted on the game 's final back cover . Tom Stone , director at Traveller 's Tales , stated of the various improvements made over the original game : The designers attempted to recreate the films ' characters and events in a " cute " way . Assistant producer Jeff Gullet said that , in the game 's recreation of a Return of the Jedi scene where Luke Skywalker " jumps off the plank ... and somersaults onto the skiff " , Skywalker " performs an all @-@ out acrobatic routine with all sorts of jumps from the plank . It 's hilarious " . LucasArts producer David Perkinson said , " unless you 've got the heart of the Emperor , you are going to chuckle at many of [ the characters ] the first time you see them – you just have to . They 're so darn cute ! " = = Marketing and release history = = On 2 February 2006 , images of the game were leaked to the Internet . However , they were quickly removed , and LucasArts , if telephoned , did not confirm or deny the game 's development . The game was formally announced on 10 February at American International Toy Fair 2006 . A preview was later hosted at Electronic Entertainment Expo ( E3 ) 2006 . Because the original Lego Star Wars had been well received commercially and critically , selling 3 @.@ 3 million copies by March 2006 and winning several awards , its sequel was highly anticipated by both fans of the original game and video game publications such as IGN and GameSpot . Shortly before the game 's release , promotions were set up at chain stores across the United States , including Toys " R " Us , Wal @-@ Mart , Target , Best Buy , GameStop , and Circuit City . In Europe , Lego Star Wars II was released on 11 September 2006 , for PC , Xbox , GameCube , GBA , DS , and Xbox 360 ; on 15 September for PlayStation 2 ; and on 10 November for PSP . The game 's North American release fell on 12 September for all platforms , coinciding with the release of the individual two @-@ disc DVD releases of the films on which it was based . The game 's Australian release fell on 15 September for all platforms , but the Xbox 360 version was not released in this region . The OS X version of the game was released in 2007 . The PlayStation 2 and Nintendo DS versions were the only versions that saw release in Japan , which occurred on 2 November 2006 . The game received a rating of E10 + from the Entertainment Software Rating Board ( for " cartoon violence " and " crude humor " ) , 3 + from PEGI , and A from CERO . = = = Mobile phone adaptation = = = A mobile phone adaptation of the game was developed by Universomo and published by THQ . It was released on 19 December 2006 . Several gameplay features — such as two @-@ dimensional graphics , limited character selection , and coverage only of the film Star Wars — distinguish this version of the game from the versions for other platforms . = = = Compilation = = = Lego Star Wars and Lego Star Wars II were compiled in Lego Star Wars : The Complete Saga , developed by Traveller 's Tales and published by LucasArts . The Complete Saga incorporated improvements from the sequel into the original game , and expanded the Mos Eisley Cantina to allow access to both games ' levels . It was created for Windows , PlayStation 3 , Xbox 360 , Wii , and DS . It was released on 6 November 2007 . = = Reception = = = = = Critical response = = = Upon release , Lego Star Wars II was positively received by critics , who praised its portrayal of the films ' characters and events . Nintendo Power staff writer Chris Shepperd claimed that " [ t ] he adorable LEGO adaptations also led to some hilarious story moments : the ' I am your father ' scene from The Empire Strikes Back is priceless " . Reviewers from GameSpy , 1UP.com , GameSpot , IGN , and PlayStation : The Official Magazine offered similar opinions . Shepperd and Variety 's Ben Fritz called the game " adorable " . In reviews of the Xbox 360 version , Official Xbox Magazine praised the game 's " off @-@ kilter humor " , and Electronic Gaming Monthly stated that " [ y ] ou have to give credit to the brilliant blockhead who forced this awesome yet fundamentally bizarro idea on LucasArts . " The game was praised as a result of reviewers ' preference of the original trilogy over the prequel trilogy . Andrew Reiner of Game Informer said that " comparing [ the prequel trilogy ] to the films in the original trilogy is similar to comparing Jar Jar Binks to Han Solo " . Shepperd praised the level design of Lego Star Wars II , and called its predecessor 's environments " sterile " . These views were echoed by reviewers from 1UP.com , Variety , GameSpot , GameSpy , Official U.S. PlayStation Magazine ( for the PlayStation 2 ) , and BusinessWeek . Critics were divided on the game 's level of difficulty . Fritz claimed that , though Lego Star Wars II provided only a " short journey " , it was " loads of fun " . GameSpot 's Ryan Davis estimated that it could be completed in six hours , but praised its bonus content . GameSpy and 1UP.com 's reviewers thought similarly . A review by USA Today 's Brett Molina claimed that " [ t ] he game 's difficulty is balanced well enough so kids won 't feel too frustrated while older gamers will still find a solid challenge " and gave the game an overall score of 8 out of 10 . Official Xbox Magazine 's review praised its " weird puzzles " . IGN 's Jeremy Dunham and Reiner were more critical of the perceived low difficulty . Critics disliked the game 's Game Boy Advance and Nintendo DS versions . Davis believed that the Game Boy Advance version could be completed in two hours . GameSpy staff writer Phil Theobald bemoaned this version 's poor controls , easy levels and vehicle @-@ piloting sections . He concluded that " for goodness sake , [ one should ] buy one of the [ home ] console versions " . Theobald , Davis , and IGN 's Craig Harris criticized the high number of glitches in the DS version . = = = Awards and accolades = = = Lego Star Wars II won and was nominated for numerous awards , and ranked on several video game lists . The official Star Wars website declared Lego Star Wars II to be the best Star Wars @-@ related product of 2006 . The game won iParenting Media Awards ' " 2006 Greatest Products Call " , and was placed on Reader 's Digest 's September 2006 " 5 Things We Don 't Want You to Miss " list , Time magazine 's list of the top ten video games of 2006 , and GameSpy 's PC " Game of the Year " list . It received the 2006 Game of the Year award from Nick Jr. and from IGN ( for PC games only ) . It won Spike TV Video Game Awards 2006 's " Best Game Based on a Movie or TV Show " , and " Best Gameplay " from the British Academy of Film and Television Arts 's 3rd British Academy Video Games Awards . It received BAFTA nominations in three other categories , including " Best Game " . In contrast , the previously poorly received DS version was listed as one of the " tears " on IGN 's September 2009 " Cheers & Tears " list of action games for the DS . = = = Sales = = = Lego Star Wars II sold over 1 @.@ 1 million copies worldwide in its opening week . The PlayStation 2 , GameCube , Xbox 360 , and Xbox versions were the third , fifth , eighth , and ninth @-@ best selling games of September 2006 , respectively . The GameCube , Xbox , and PlayStation 2 versions were the third , eighth , and ninth @-@ best selling games of 2006 , respectively . All platforms except PC combined , the game was the third @-@ highest selling of 2006 in the United States , behind Madden NFL 07 and Cars . All platforms combined , the game was the fifth @-@ highest selling of 2006 in the United Kingdom . The GameCube , GBA , and DS versions were the first , second , and fifth best @-@ selling of January 2007 for their respective platforms . By 2 May 2009 , the game 's worldwide sales had surpassed 8 @.@ 2 million . It has been certified as part of the budget lines Platinum Hits for the Xbox 360 , Greatest Hits for the PlayStation 2 ( each represents a worldwide sales total of at least 400 @,@ 000 on its respective platform ) , and Player 's Choice for the GameCube ( 250 @,@ 000 ) . = = = Legacy = = = Jeff Bell , corporate vice president of global marketing for Microsoft , commended Lego Star Wars II for expanding the range of consumers for the Xbox 360 , noting its family @-@ friendly appeal . Character customization — a new feature in Lego Star Wars II — reappeared in subsequent Lego video games such as Lego Batman : The Videogame . A prequel called Lego Star Wars III : The Clone Wars was released in 2011 . It covers some of the time period of the Clone Wars .
= Sadie Harris = Sadie Harris is a recurring fictional character from the American television medical drama Grey 's Anatomy , which airs on the American Broadcasting Company ( ABC ) in the United States . The character was created by series producer Shonda Rhimes and portrayed by actress Melissa George . Introduced as a surgical intern who has an old companionship with the series ' protagonist Meredith Grey ( Ellen Pompeo ) , she eventually forms a friendship with Lexie Grey ( Chyler Leigh ) , and departs after it is revealed she cheated her way into the surgical program . George was invited to meet with Grey 's Anatomy 's executive producers after the show 's casting agents saw her in the 2008 television drama , In Treatment . The actress ' original contract included eight to eleven episodes of recurring appearances in season five , with the possibility of becoming a series regular . She was originally planned to be a romantic foil for Erica Hahn ( Brooke Smith ) and Callie Torres ( Sara Ramirez ) , but the role was retooled after the former departed in November 2008 . After speculation as to whether the character would become a series regular , it was confirmed that George 's character would not be joining the series and would soon depart . George explained that it was her own decision to leave the show , in response to the assertions that her departure was done to " de @-@ gay " Grey 's Anatomy . The character has received mixed feedback from critics , and has been characterized as " naughty " , " mischievous " , and " nutty " . = = Storylines = = Sadie Harris first appears in the season five episode " These Ties That Bind " , in which it is made known that she was once a very close friend of Meredith Grey ( Ellen Pompeo ) . Harris and Meredith Grey had given each other nicknames during an extended vacation in Europe : " Die " and " Death " , respectively . Meredith Grey 's best friend is Cristina Yang ( Sandra Oh ) ; Yang becomes jealous of the friendship between Meredith Grey and Harris . Having joined Seattle Grace Hospital as a surgical intern , Harris begins a friendship with fellow intern Lexie Grey ( Chyler Leigh ) , Meredith Grey 's sister . The hospital 's interns are frustrated with their lack of surgical opportunities , so Harris cuts her own shoulder and then lets the interns stitch it back together . Harris later volunteers herself to have an appendectomy to help the interns learn that surgical procedure , on the condition that she gets a chance to perform one afterwards . The interns make a mistake in the surgery , and Harris is seriously endangered , but is rescued by the residents . The interns are put on probation and rebuked by Meredith Grey , although Harris tells Lexie Grey that she is not apologetic . Following the surgery fiasco , Harris approaches the hospital 's chief of surgery Richard Webber ( James Pickens , Jr . ) , and claims responsibility for the incident . He informs her that the reason she has not been fired is because of his personal friendship with her father . Later , she flirts with Callie Torres ( Sara Ramirez ) , although the relationship is never pursued . Harris continues to pursue a friendship with Lexie Grey , even going as far as to help her cover up Lexie Grey 's blooming relationship with Mark Sloan ( Eric Dane ) . In " Before and After " , during a competition among the interns set up by Izzie Stevens ( Katherine Heigl ) , George O 'Malley ( T.R. Knight ) notices Harris ' lack of medical knowledge . Although he offers to tutor Harris , she declines and chooses not to tell Webber , which O 'Malley does instead . When Harris comes out from a talk with Webber , she tells Meredith Grey that she has decided to quit , and that she did not qualify for the surgical program . When she tries to get Meredith Grey to go back to vacationing in Europe , Meredith Grey declines and Harris departs . = = Development = = = = = Casting and creation = = = Melissa George received an invitation to meet the show 's executive producers , Shonda Rhimes and Betsy Beers , from Grey 's Anatomy 's casting agents after they saw her recurring guest performances in the television drama In Treatment ( 2008 ) . George explained that after meeting with the producers , she was set to begin working . George 's initial contract included eight to eleven episodes of recurring appearances , with the possibility of becoming a series regular . However , according to George 's representative , she did not intend to do more than eight episodes . Harris was first planned to have a romance with Torres , but Rhimes eventually changed that after George started filming . She was initially written as a lesbian , but was revised as bisexual . In January 2009 , George confirmed her departure from Grey 's Anatomy , and several reasons were cited for her leaving . George said she had decided to leave to pursue another project , and offered praise to the cast members . However , a representative of the show claimed the actress ' departure was due to a mutual agreement between Grey 's Anatomy and George , explaining that the character 's storyline " came to a natural end " , but that everyone was upset with her departure . Following Erica Hahn ( Brooke Smith ) ' s departure , E ! Online 's Kristin Dos Santos asserted that Smith 's dismissal from the show , and the rewrite of Harris ' storyline , was enforced by the American Broadcasting Company ( ABC ) , as part of an attempt to " de @-@ gay " Grey 's Anatomy , but these claims were rebuked by Rhimes . = = = Characterization = = = George 's character has been described as " naughty " and " mischievous " , as well as " nutty " . She added that Harris ' sexuality is not the main aspect of her personality . George called her character " broken " , and opined that her outgoing personality is meant to cover up something else . George stated that the way she portrayed Harris was influenced by the outspokenness of Lisa Rowe , a sociopathic character from Girl , Interrupted ( 1999 ) played by Angelina Jolie . Peter Nowalk , one of the show 's writers , characterized Harris as " quite a flirty gal " . Other Grey 's Anatomy cast members have also commented on the character of Harris ; Chandra Wilson stated that Harris is fast paced , whereas Leigh said that the character is there to " wreak havoc on Seattle Grace " . Entertainment Weekly 's Michael Ausiello said that Harris is " an intern with an open mind towards sexuality " . Debbie Chang , writing for BuddyTV , and Jonathan Toomey of The Huffington Post also cast ideas about Harris ' self @-@ incision in the episode " In the Midnight Hour " , wondering if she " has a death wish " and " what is wrong with her " . Stacy McKee , a primary writer for the show , said Harris is Meredith Grey 's " pre @-@ Cristina Cristina " and that she shares " a history with Meredith that Cristina can 't " . = = Reception = = Throughout her run on Grey 's Anatomy , the character received mixed feedback among critics . Jon Caramanica of the Los Angeles Times was critical of her character development , calling George " woefully misused " . Writing for The Age , Michael Idato opined that the storyline between Harris and Yang was " frosty " , adding that the writing was in a " true soap fashion " . Darren Devlyn of the Herald Sun wondered if the producers brought in George to " shake up the show " , and found the character 's bisexual storyline similar to Hahn 's . Speaking of George 's exit , Kris De Leon of BuddyTV noted that she departed on the " best of terms " in comparison with Isaiah Washington ( Preston Burke ) , Smith , and Knight — former cast members who had " rocky " exits . Erin McWhirter of The Daily Telegraph called George 's character " outrageous " in response to the appendectomy . Former Star @-@ Ledger editor Alan Sepinwall was critical of the character , saying he rolled his eyes in regard to her letting the interns perform procedures on her , sarcastically writing : " Ooooh , she 's damaged ! And sexy ! She takes off her top and then eagerly cuts herself for the other interns ! That 's hot ! " TV Guide 's Erin Lulevitch referred to her as a " masochist " due to her self @-@ incision . Scott Ellis of The Sydney Morning Herald enjoyed the character , calling her " intriguing " . Entertainment Weekly 's Jennifer Armstrong enjoyed Harris in " Sympathy for the Devil " , finding it " sweet " when she took the blame for causing Sloan 's penile fracture , to avoid Lexie Grey being embarrassed . Chang of BuddyTV claimed that Harris is " kind of a rebel " , and the Daily News ' Lauren Johnston deemed her personality " brash " .
= LW10 = LW10 is a para @-@ Alpine and para @-@ Nordic sit @-@ skiing classification for skiers who cannot sit up without support . For international skiing competitions , classification is conducted by International Paralympic Committee ( IPC ) Alpine Skiing and IPC Nordic Skiing , while national federations such as Alpine Canada handle classification for domestic competitions . In para @-@ Alpine skiing , the skier uses a mono @-@ ski , which is required to have breaks on both sides of the ski . The para @-@ Nordic sit @-@ ski configuration has two skis . Skiers in this class use outrigger skis for balance , as leverage to right themselves when they fall , and for turning . A factoring system is used in the sport to allow different classes to compete against each other when there are too few individual competitors in one class in a competition . Factoring for the 2011 / 2012 alpine ski season was done based on subclass , with LW10.1 factoring being 0 @.@ 7234 for Slalom , 0 @.@ 7794 for Giant Slalom , 0 @.@ 7942 for Super @-@ G and 0 @.@ 8004 for Downhill , and LW10.2 factoring being 0 @.@ 7399 for Slalom , 0 @.@ 8152 for Giant Slalom , 0 @.@ 8069 for Super @-@ G and 0 @.@ 8183 for downhill . The percentage for the para @-@ Nordic 2012 / 2013 ski season was 86 % and for LW10.5 was 91 % . = = Definition = = LW10 is a para @-@ Alpine and para @-@ Nordic sit @-@ skiing classification , where LW stands for Locomotor Winter . LW10 skiers cannot sit up without support , which includes people with cerebral palsy in all their limbs . Competitors in this class lack " buttock sensibility " . The International Paralympic Committee ( IPC ) defined this para @-@ Alpine classification as " a . Disabilities in the lower limbs , no functional sitting balance. b . CP with disabilities in all four limbs ( functional classification ) . " In 2002 , the Australian Paralympic Committee defined this classification for para @-@ Alpine as a sit skiing classification for " Athletes with disabilities in the lower limbs and no sitting balance ( i.e. Cannot sit upright without support ) . " In para @-@ Nordic skiing , the IPC defines this class as for " those with impairments in the lower limb ( s ) and the trunk . " Cross Country Canada defines this para @-@ Nordic classification as " Impairment in the lower limbs and trunk with minimal trunk muscle activity in flexion and extension and no functional sitting balance . [ The ] athlete is unable to stand . " A skier in this class " will have minimal trunk muscle activity in flexion and extension so that the athlete is unable to maintain a sitting position against gravity while properly strapped to the test table and without arm support " . For international para @-@ Alpine skiing competitions , classification is done through IPC Alpine Skiing . A national federation such as Alpine Canada handles classification for domestic competitions . For para @-@ Nordic skiing events , classification is handled by IPC Nordic Skiing Technical Committee on the international level and by the national sports federation such as Cross @-@ Country Canada on a country by country level . A skier must meet a minimum of one of several conditions to be eligible for a sit @-@ skiing classification . These conditions include a single below knee but above ankle amputation , monoplegia that exhibits similar to below knee amputation , legs of different length where there is at least a 7 centimetres ( 2 @.@ 8 in ) difference , and combined muscle strength in the lower extremities less than 71 . Assessment for this classification includes consideration of the skier 's medical history and disability , a physical examination , and an in @-@ person assessment of the skier training or competing . During the assessment process , six different tests are conducted that look at the skier 's balance on different planes , and test for upper body strength and levels of mobility . The guideline scores for people to be assessed in this classification are 0 — 8 . = = = LW10.5 = = = Cross Country Canada defined this para @-@ Nordic classification as " impairment in the lower limbs and trunk with some upper abdominal and trunk muscle activity and no functional sitting balance . [ The ] athlete is unable to stand " . In para @-@ Nordic skiing , LW10.5 is for sit skiers with disability affecting their lower extremities and trunk function , and who lack " buttock sensibility S1 @-@ S5 " . = = Equipment = = In para @-@ Alpine skiing , the skier uses a monoski , which is required to have breaks on both sides of the ski . The chair can detach from a ski . Helmets are required in LW10 para @-@ Alpine competition ; Slalom helmets for Slalom and crash helmets for the Giant Slalom . The para @-@ Nordic sit @-@ ski configuration has two skis . LW10 para @-@ Nordic sit @-@ skiers can use a sit @-@ ski with outrigger skis , which are forearm crutches with a miniature ski on a rocker at the base . They sometimes use a quadriplegic ski , called a " Swing @-@ Bo " , which was designed to give the skier better steering , and rely less on outriggers . In the Biathlon , athletes with amputations can use a rifle support while shooting . = = Technique = = Skiers use outriggers for balance and as leverage when they fall to right themselves . Outriggers are also used for turning ; skiers use the outrigger and their upper body by leaning into the direction they want to turn . In para @-@ Nordic skiing , outriggers or ski poles are used to propel the skier forward . If skiers fall , they may require assistance in righting themselves , and / or getting back to the fall line . Doing this on their own , they need to position their mono @-@ ski facing uphill relative to the fall line . In the Biathlon , all Paralympic athletes shoot from a prone position . = = Sport = = A factoring system is used in para @-@ Alpine and para @-@ Nordic skiing to allow different classes to compete against each other when there are too few individual competitors in one class . A number is given to each class of skiers based on their functional mobility or vision levels ; the results are calculated by multiplying the finish time by the factored number . The resulting number is used to determine the winner in events where the factor system is used . During the 1997 / 1998 ski season , the percentage for this para @-@ Nordic classification was 84 % . For the 2003 / 2004 para @-@ Nordic skiing season , the percentage for was 87 % . The percentage for the 2008 / 2009 and 2009 / 2010 para @-@ Nordic ski seasons was 86 % and for LW10.5 was 91 % . Factoring for the 2011 / 2012 alpine ski season was done based on subclass ; LW10.1 factoring was 0 @.@ 7234 for Slalom , 0 @.@ 7794 for Giant Slalom , 0 @.@ 7942 for Super @-@ G and 0 @.@ 8004 for downhill . LW10.2 factoring was 0 @.@ 7399 for Slalom , 0 @.@ 8152 for Giant Slalom , 0 @.@ 8069 for Super @-@ G and 0 @.@ 8183 for downhill . The percentage for the para @-@ Nordic 2012 / 2013 ski season was 86 % and was 91 % for LW10.5. In para @-@ Alpine skiing events , LW10 skiers are grouped with sitting classes , who are seeded to start after visually impaired classes , and the classes in the Slalom and Giant Slalom . In downhill , Super @-@ G and Super Combined , this group competes after the visually impaired classes and before standing classes . In cross @-@ country and biathlon events , this classification is grouped with other sitting classes . The IPC advises event organisers to run the men 's sit @-@ ski group first , then the women 's sit @-@ ski group section , the visually impaired , and the standing skiers . For alpine events , a skier is allowed one push , without running , from the starting position at the start of the race . If the competitor skis off the course during a para @-@ Nordic race , a race official may assist him or her back onto the course . Skiers cannot use their legs to break or steer during the race . Skiers in the LW10 class can injure themselves while skiing . Between 1994 and 2006 , one skier in the LW10 class was injured on the German national para @-@ Alpine skiing team . He had a clavicle fracture in 2001 , which corresponds to the higher rate of " plexus brachialis distorsion and a higher rate of shoulder injuries " in the LW10 class compared to able bodied skiers . = = Events = = At the 2002 Winter Paralympics in alpine @-@ skiing , this classification was not grouped with others for the men 's downhill , Giant Slalom , Slalom and Super @-@ G events . At the 2002 Games , women skiers in the Giant Slalom , Slalom , and Super @-@ G were grouped with LW11 and L12 for one medal event , and they were grouped with LW11 for the downhill event . At the 2004 Alpine World Championships , LW10 , LW11 and LW12 women competed against each other in a competition with factored results during the downhill event . At the 2005 IPC Nordic Skiing World Championships , this class was grouped with other sit @-@ skiing classifications . In cross country , this class was eligible to compete in the men 's 5 km , 10 km and 20 km individual race , and women were eligible to compete in the 2 @.@ 5 km , 5 km and 10 km individual races . In the men and women 's biathlon , this classification was again grouped with sit @-@ ski classes in the 7 @.@ 4 km race with 2 shooting stages 12 @.@ 5 km race , which had four shooting stages . At the 2009 Alpine World Championships , the class was grouped with other sitting classes , with four male ( only one of whom finished ) and one female LW10 skier competing in their respective downhill events . = = Competitors = = Skiers in this classification include British skier Talan Skeels @-@ Piggins , United States skier Chris Waddell , and Japan 's Kuniko Obinata .
= Castillonnais = The Castillonais or Cheval Ariègeois de Castillon , once called the cheval du Biros or Saint @-@ Gironnais , is an ancient breed of small riding horse from the Ariège département of southwestern France . The breed 's phenotype is currently in flux , but overall it resembles ( and is sometimes confused with ) the more common Merens horse . Members of the breed are either dark bay or black , and all have pangare color modification , which results in paler color around the eyes and muzzle and on the underside of the body . Today it is used principally for pleasure riding ( including equine tourism ) and driving . The Castillonnais probably descends from the horses that inspired the Magdalenian @-@ era paintings found , for example , at the Cave of Niaux , with Oriental and Iberian blood added later . Originally bred as a multipurpose breed used for cavalry , agriculture and driving , the breed declined in population during the 20th century , and almost became extinct . In 1980 , a group of supporters began to work to save the breed , and a breed association , now called the Association Nationale du Cheval Castillonnais d 'Ariège Pyrénées ( ANCCAP ) , was formed in 1992 . The breed was officially recognized by the French Ministry of Agriculture in 1996 . The French government , breed association and a regional conservation group all now share an interest in the preservation of the breed . Population numbers are still quite low , and inbreeding is a concern . = = Characteristics = = The physical characteristics seen in the breed are currently in flux , so there is not a single breed phenotype , though many members of the breed closely resemble the Mérens . Enthusiasts are breeding for a rustic mountain horse , of medium size , with good gaits and good temperament . Some members of the breed closely resemble Iberian horses such as the Andalusian horse . The official breed standard calls for a moderately long neck and long , sloped shoulder , broad back , rounded croup and muscular legs . Some members of the breed are branded on the left hindquarter . Because of its relative rarity and physical similarities , the Castillonnais is commonly confused with the Mérens . Castillonnais horses range from 13 @.@ 1 to 15 @.@ 1 hands ( 53 to 61 inches , 135 to 155 cm ) high , with the ideal height for mares being 14 @.@ 1 hands ( 57 inches , 145 cm ) and 14 @.@ 2 hands ( 58 inches , 147 cm ) for stallions . Two colors are allowed in the breed : dark bay and black , both with pangare modification , which results in paler color around the eyes and muzzle and on the underside of the body . Horses of any other color are prohibited from entry into the studbook and all horses are genetically tested to officially determine their color before they are allowed into the studbook . The breed is considered to be an easy keeper , with an easygoing temperament . The horses are agile , sure @-@ footed on mountain paths , and exhibit extended gaits , with strong engagement of the hindquarters . = = History = = Like many other French breeds from the Pyrenees , the Castillonnais probably descends from the horses that inspired the Magdalenian @-@ era paintings found , for example , at the Cave of Niaux . Over time , blood from Oriental and Iberian horses was added to the breed , and influenced its physical appearance and temperament . The Castillonnais was originally known as the " cheval du Biros " ( Biros horse ) or " Saint @-@ Gironnais " , a name from the town of Saint @-@ Girons in Ariege in the Pyrenees , where a large horse fair was held the day after All Saints ' Day . In the late nineteenth century , horses of the Pyrenees were known for their use as mounts by light cavalry . In 1908 , Gabriel Lamarque , equine historian and president of the Société d ’ agriculture de l ’ Ariège ( Agricultural Society of Ariege ) , began to study the breed as part of his work in the development of native horse populations in France . The breed was originally a multipurpose horse , used for agriculture , cavalry and pulling diligences ( a type of carriage ) . Because of a lack of support from a breeding syndicate , such as the one in existence for the Mérens horse , once the need for a multipurpose breed declined , the population of the Castillonnais dwindled . Many horses were crossbred with draft horses , and the breed almost became extinct . The intervention of a group of supporters in 1980 saved the breed from extinction , and in 1992 L 'Association Pyrénéenne Ariégeoise du Cheval Castillonnais ( the Ariege Pyrenees Association of Castillonnais Horses ) was formed , with support from several French government agencies and stud farms . Annually , in August , the association holds a small competition and sale for the breed in Castillon @-@ en @-@ Couserans , which also includes inspections to register horses for the breed studbook . In 1996 , the Castillonnais was officially recognized by the French Ministry of Agriculture , due to the efforts of a small number of breed enthusiasts , though by that time only 50 purebred mares remained . The breed association 's name was changed to L ’ association Nationale du Cheval Castillonnais d 'Ariège Pyrénées ( ANCCAP ) ( National Association of Castillonnais Horses of the Ariège Pyrenees ) , and is headquartered in Castillon @-@ en @-@ Couserans . Le Conservatoire du Patrimoine Biologique Régional de Midi @-@ Pyrénées ( Conservatory of the Biological Heritage of the Midi @-@ Pyrénées Region ) , an organization that has worked to protect the diversity of animal species in the region since 1980 , is also committed to protecting the breed . Population numbers for the Castillonnais are quite low . The majority of breeders are located in Castillon @-@ en @-@ Couserans , in Ariège , but a few can be found in Brittany and Provence . In November 2005 , there were only around 260 existing Castillonnais , and a goal was created by the breed association to double the number of purebred mares between 2005 and 2014 . Inbreeding is a concern due to low population numbers , and the national stud farm at Tarbes and Institut National de la Recherche Agronomique ( National Institute of Agronomic Research ) have been brought in to help safeguard the genetic resources of the breed . = = Uses = = The Castillonnais is used mainly for pleasure riding , and it is well adapted to the mountainous terrain of the Pyrenees , which makes is useful for equestrian tourism in the area . It can be used for driving , and is sometimes seen in dressage competitions . Some Castillonnais are used for logging and as pack horses for taking food and equipment to mountainous areas otherwise only accessible by helicopter .
= Gabras = Gabras or Gavras ( Greek : Γαβρᾶς ) , feminine form Gabraina ( Γάβραινα ) , is the surname of an important Byzantine aristocratic family , which became especially prominent in the late 11th and early 12th centuries as the semi @-@ independent and quasi @-@ hereditary rulers of Chaldia . The Gabrades are attested for the first time in the late 10th century , when Constantine Gabras participated in the revolt of Bardas Skleros . The general Theodore Gabras captured Trebizond and ruled it and the theme of Chaldia as a virtually autonomous state ( ca . 1081 – 1098 ) . He was celebrated for his martial exploits , and was later venerated as a saint in the region . His son , Constantine Gabras , also became governor of Chaldia ( ca . 1119 – 1140 ) and ended up ruling it as a quasi @-@ independent prince . Several members of the family entered service with the Seljuk Turks in the 12th and 13th centuries , and in the 14th century , several Gabrades are attested in administrative positions in Byzantium , most notably the official and scholar Michael Gabras , known for his extensive correspondence with the main Byzantine literary and political figures of his day , and his brother John . A branch of the family also became rulers of the Principality of Theodoro in the Crimea . = = Origins and first members = = The family first appears in the northeastern corner of the Byzantine world , the province of Chaldia , centred on Trebizond . The family 's ethnic origin is unknown . Some scholars like Alexander Vasiliev and Alexander Kazhdan suggested an Armenian origin , as with many other aristocratic families of the time , but the surname " Gabras " is neither Armenian nor Greek . Persian and Aramaic origins for the name have been suggested , including a suggestion by Konstantinos Amantos that it is a corruption of the name " Gabriel " . The historian Anthony Bryer , however , considers more likely that the name is a cognate of the Arabic kafir , Persian gabr or Turkish gavur , terms meaning " infidel " or " unbeliever " , which is appropriate for the Christian – Muslim borderlands where the Gabrades first appear . It seems that the Gabrades arose from the Inner Pontus , a region with its own distinct identity : a mountainous area , it was scarcely affected by Hellenization and preserved a traditional and archaic societal structure , with tiny lordships centred on mountain strong @-@ holds . The first known member of the family , Constantine Gabras , participated in the 976 – 979 revolt of Bardas Skleros , and was killed in battle in 979 . A patrikios Gabras appears in 1018 , who was blinded for plotting along with the Bulgarian Elemag to restore the recently subdued Bulgarian Empire ; it is unclear , however , what his relation with the Chaldian Gabrades is , or whether he might be a Bulgarian noble . In 1040 , a Michael Gabras was one of the leaders of a failed aristocratic conspiracy against the Domestic of the Schools Constantine , a brother of Emperor Michael IV ( r . 1034 – 1041 ) . He too was blinded along with his fellow conspirators . = = The Gabrades as autonomous rulers in Chaldia = = The first important member of the family was Saint Theodore Gabras . A native of Chaldia , he was an energetic and valiant man . He recaptured Trebizond from the Turks in 1075 , and was appointed governor ( doux ) of Chaldia by Alexios I Komnenos in 1081 . Gabras ruled Chaldia as a virtually independent ruler , and until his death in battle in 1098 , he fought with success against the Danishmend Turks and the Georgians . He became a heroic figure in both Pontic Greek and Turkoman poetry , and was recognized by the Orthodox Church as a martyr and saint . By his first wife , Irene ( possibly a Taronitissa ) , Theodore had a son , Gregory Gabras , who was kept as a hostage in Constantinople , where he was initially betrothed to one of the daughters of the sebastokrator Isaac Komnenos and later to Maria Komnene , daughter of Alexios I. Theodore tried to kidnap him in 1091 , but failed . Nothing further is known of Gregory Gabras , but he may be identical to Gregory Taronites , who as doux of Chaldia in 1103 – 1106 also led a rebellion against Alexios . Another member of the family , Constantine Gabras , whose exact relation to Theodore is unknown , was also appointed doux of Chaldia by John II Komnenos ( r . 1118 – 1143 ) ca . 1119 . He ruled it practically independently from 1126 until 1140 , when John II subdued him . His exploits also formed part of an extensive oral tradition in the Pontus , but the so @-@ called " Song of Gabras " , written down ca . 1900 , has been shown to be a modern work drawing from other medieval sources . The Gabrades ' success in creating a more or less autonomous domain is not surprising : northeastern Asia Minor , including Chaldia , had had a long history of disaffection with the central Byzantine government in the 11th century , helped by its mixed Greek and Armenian population — the latter introduced in the early 11th century and quickly coming to dominate the Pontic hinterland . Already before the Battle of Manzikert in 1071 , the renegade Frankish mercenary Robert Crispin had made the fortress of Koloneia the centre of a separate domain , and was succeeded in 1073 by Roussel de Bailleul . Thus , when Theodore Gabras appeared at Trebizond in 1075 and again in 1081 , he was seen as a native leader for the Pontic Greeks of the coastlands , and his regime relied on local forces , i.e. the old thematic levies of the province . The Gabrades ' Turkish counterpart and main rivals were the Danishmendid emirs of Neokaisareia and Sebasteia . On the other hand , as Bryer comments , " although rivals , the Gabrades and the Danishmendids probably had more in common with each other than they had with the Komnenoi of Constantinople or the Seljuks of Konya " ; the two often allied with each other , especially against efforts by their respective suzerains to bring them to heel , and the Gabrades are remembered as gallant foes in Turkoman heroic poetry . = = Service under the Komnenoi and the Seljuks = = Following the collapse of their independent power , many of the Gabrades came to serve under the new Seljuk Sultanate at Konya , while others went to serve the Komnenoi emperors at Constantinople and mostly lost their ties to the Pontus . Already in the 1140s , a nameless member of the family fought on the side of the Seljuks and was captured and executed by Manuel I Komnenos ( r . 1143 – 1180 ) in 1146 . Another Gabras , possibly the son of the former , defected from Byzantium to Kilij Arslan II ( r . 1155 – 1192 ) and became one of his leading advisors . He may be identical with , or the father of , Kilij Arslan 's vizier during the last part of his reign ( ca . 1180 – 1192 ) , Ikhtiyar al @-@ Din Hasan ibn Ghafras . Other members of the family in Seljuk service include Constantine Gabras , possibly the son of the doux Constantine , who " betrayed " the emperor while on a diplomatic mission in 1162 / 3 ; an unnamed Gabras who was accused of poisoning Kilij Arslan II in 1192 ; John Gabras ( " Giovanni de Gabra " ) , who was sent to a diplomatic mission in Europe on behalf of Sultan Kayqubad I in 1234 – 1236 ; and a Michael ( " Mikhail bar Gavras " ) who was a physician at Malatya ca . 1256 . On the other hand , the pansebastos sebastos Michael Gabras was a general of Manuel I Komnenos , fighting against the Hungarians and the Seljuks , and became related to the imperial dynasty as a son @-@ in @-@ law of Andronikos Komnenos . = = In late Byzantium and the Empire of Trebizond = = The surname of Gabras is still attested in the Byzantine world during the 13th and 14th centuries , but the family had lost its prestige . Some of the Gabrades of this period were peasants who adopted the surname of their masters , and most of the family members attested in government service were lowly officials . Under the Empire of Nicaea , the Gabrades appear in Macedonia and western Asia Minor . A pansebastos sebastos Ioannakios or Ioannikios Gabras is mentioned in the ca . 1216 ; a megaloepiphanestatos Gregory Gabras is mentioned as governor of a village near Prilep in the 1220s , and the latter 's relative , the pansebastos sebastos Stephen Gabras , was active near Ohrid ; a John Gabras sold land near Miletus in 1236 ; and a Constantine Gabras was protopapas ( " senior priest " ) of the Metropolis of Miletus ca . 1250 . In the Palaiologan period , the pansebastos sebastos Christopher Gabras died as a monk ca . 1264 / 5 ; Manuel Doukas Komnenos Gavras is attested as benefactor of a monastery in 1300 / 1 ; other members of the family are occasionally mentioned in legal documents , epigrams or correspondence as active in Constantinople and Macedonian cities like Serres or Veroia . Gabras Komnenos , of unknown first name , held the post of " judge of the army " ( krites tou phossatou ) and is recorded by Manuel Philes as a " slayer of the barbarians " ; a John Gabras Kaballarios was hetaireiarches at Serres ca . 1348 ; another family member held a pronoia estate at Kalamaria before 1347 . Other Gabrades were serfs ( paroikoi ) , attached to large estates : Michael Gabras at Leros ca . 1263 ; Demetrios and his sons Michael and Philotheos , as well as a probably related Basil Gabras , as paroikoi of the Esphigmenou monastery at Rentina ca . 1300 ; finally , Demetrios Gabras Chrito [ u ] s and George Gabras were paroikoi of the Xeropotamou monastery at Rebenikeia in the early 14th century . The most famous of the Palaiologan @-@ era Gabrades , however , is Michael Gabras , a sakellarios of the Patriarchate of Constantinople and " the most prolific of all Byzantine letter writers " ( A. Bryer ) , whose correspondence spans the period 1305 – 1341 and includes most of the major political and literary figures of his day . He also had a brother John , who wrote a theological treatise against the doctrines of Gregory Palamas . A few Gabrades also remained in the Pontus , where they entered the service of the Empire of Trebizond , established by the exiled Komnenoi shortly before the dissolution of the Byzantine Empire by the Fourth Crusade in 1204 : most notably , a member of the family was governor of Sinope during the brief period when it was reclaimed from the Turks by Trebizond ( ca . 1254 or 1258 / 9 – 1265 or 1267 / 8 ) . Other family members are mentioned as landholders , mostly in the bandon ( province ) of Matzouka , south of Trebizond : Andronikos Gavras , probably in the 13th century ; a George Gabras ca . 1344 / 5 ; Kosmas , a military leader ( polemarchos ) in the bandon of Matzouka ca . 1378 ; and Theodore Gabras in Gemora in the early 15th century . = = In Crimea and the Principality of Theodoro = = A branch of the Gabras family is commonly identified by scholars with the family known from Russian sources as " Khovra " . This family ruled the small Principality of Theodoro , which was founded in the mid @-@ 14th century in the southwestern Crimea ( in the area of " Gothia " ) and survived until conquered by the Ottoman Turks in 1475 . The southern Crimea had been part of the Byzantine Empire until the late 12th century , and then came under the control of the Empire of Trebizond for a generation , but retained close links with the Pontic coast long after . While several hypotheses have been put forward as to how , when , and which branch of the Gabrades relocated there , none can be conclusively proven . The first Gabras of Theodoro to be mentioned is Stephen ( " Stepan Vasilyevich Khovra " ) , prince of Gothia , who emigrated to Moscow in 1391 or 1402 along with his son Gregory . The two became monks , and Gregory later founded the Simonov Monastery there . The Russian noble families of Khovrin and Golovin claimed descent from them . Stephen 's son , Alexios ( " Alexis " ) I , ruled Gothia after his father 's departure until 1444 / 5 or 1447 . He was succeeded briefly by John , possibly his son . John 's son Alexios died young ca . 1446 / 7 , and his epitaph was composed by John Eugenikos . Another son of Alexios , Olubei , succeeded as prince ca . 1447 and ruled until ca . 1458 , while a daughter of Alexios , Maria of Gothia , became in 1426 the first wife of the last Trebizondian emperor , David . After the disappearance of Olubei from the scene ca . 1458 , no princes are known by name until Isaac in 1465 , possibly Olubei 's son . Isaac was overthrown in 1475 by his brother Alexander due to his pro @-@ Ottoman stance . His reign was brief , as the Ottoman Empire laid siege and conquered Theodoro itself in December . Alexander and his family were taken captive to Constantinople , where the prince was beheaded , his son was forcibly converted to Islam , and his wife and daughters became part of the Sultan 's harem . = = Later Gabrades = = The last notable members of the family are mentioned in Constantinople during the early centuries of the Ottoman Empire , as with Michael or Mozalos Gabras , active ca . 1555 – 65 , or Cyril Gabras , megas skeuophylax of the Patriarchate in 1604 . Other family members are attested in Crete and the Aegean islands . Thus an unnamed Gabras held lands in Santorini in the early 17th century ; and numerous Gabrades are to be found at Chios and in Crete , especially around Siteia , until the early 19th century . For Crete in particular , it has been often supposed , although with no definitive evidence , that the local Gabrades came directly from the Pontus .
= Richard Goldstone = Richard Joseph Goldstone ( born 26 October 1938 ) is a South African former judge . After working for 17 years as a commercial lawyer , he was appointed by the South African government to serve on the Transvaal Supreme Court from 1980 to 1989 and the Appellate Division of the Supreme Court of South Africa from 1990 to 1994 . He is considered to be one of several liberal judges who issued key rulings that undermined apartheid from within the system by tempering the worst effects of the country 's racial laws . Among other important rulings , Goldstone made the Group Areas Act – under which non @-@ whites were banned from living in " whites only " areas – virtually unworkable by restricting evictions . As a result , prosecutions under the act virtually ceased . His critics have noted that despite his liberal positions he has been responsible for sentencing to death 2 black South Africans while also being involved in upholding the death sentences of over 20 other black South Africans . During the transition from apartheid to multiracial democracy in the early 1990s , he headed the influential Goldstone Commission investigations into political violence in South Africa between 1991 and 1994 . Goldstone 's work enabled multi @-@ party negotiations to remain on course despite repeated outbreaks of violence , and his willingness to criticise all sides led to him being dubbed " perhaps the most trusted man , certainly the most trusted member of the white establishment " in South Africa . He was credited with playing an indispensable role in the transition and became a well known public figure in South Africa , attracting widespread international support and interest . Goldstone 's work investigating violence led directly to his being nominated to serve as the first chief prosecutor of the United Nations International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia and for Rwanda from August 1994 to September 1996 . He prosecuted a number of key war crimes suspects , notably the Bosnian Serb political and military leaders , Radovan Karadžić and Ratko Mladić . On his return to South Africa he took up a seat on the newly established Constitutional Court of South Africa , to which he had been nominated by President Nelson Mandela . In 2009 , Goldstone led a fact @-@ finding mission created by the UN Human Rights Council to investigate international human rights and humanitarian law violations related to the Gaza War . The mission concluded that Israel and Hamas had both potentially committed war crimes and crimes against humanity , findings which sparked outrage in Israel and the initiation of a personal campaign against Goldstone . In 2011 , in the light of investigations by the Israeli forces which indicated that they had not intentionally targeted civilians as a matter of policy , Goldstone wrote that if evidence which had been available later had been available at the time , the Goldstone Report would have been a different document . = = Family life and religious background = = Goldstone is a third @-@ generation South African born into a Jewish family in Boksburg near Johannesburg . He is of mixed English @-@ Lithuanian descent ; his mother 's father was English and his grandfather was a Lithuanian Jew who emigrated in the 19th century . His family was non @-@ religious , but he credits his Jewishness with having shaped his ethical views through being part of a community that has been persecuted throughout history . Goldstone has written about the role that those of Jewish heritage played in the fight against apartheid noting , subsequent to Nelson Mandela ’ s death , that Mandela had himself observed " I have found Jews to be more broad @-@ minded than most whites on issues of race and politics , perhaps because they themselves have historically been victims of prejudice . " He is married to Noleen Goldstone . They have two daughters and four grandsons . = = Career = = = = = South Africa = = = While Goldstone was still a child , his grandfather encouraged him to study law . He later recalled : " My grandfather decided when I was about four [ that ] I was going to be a barrister , so I just always assumed I was . It turned out to be a wise decision . " Goldstone was educated at King Edward VII School in Johannesburg and subsequently undertook a six @-@ year legal studies course at the University of the Witwatersrand , from which he graduated in 1962 with a BA LLB cum laude . At the university Goldstone became involved in the international effort to end South Africa 's apartheid system . He had been brought up in an anti @-@ apartheid atmosphere ; although his parents were not activists , they were opposed to racial discrimination and this was to have a profound influence on his later career . Like many other South African Jews , he chose to become conspicuously active in public life in an effort to oppose or alleviate the worst aspects of apartheid . While he was chairman of the university 's Students ' Representative Council , he campaigned against the exclusion of black students . He also attracted attention from the state security police by having contact with anti @-@ apartheid groups within South Africa , including the African National Congress , which was a banned organisation at the time . On one occasion he secretly tape @-@ recorded a spy sent by the police to infiltrate the anti @-@ apartheid student movement at the university . The recording was later used as evidence in the firing of the national police commissioner . He was elected president of the National Union of South African Students , in which capacity he represented South African youth abroad at international gatherings . = = = = Career as corporate / intellectual property barrister and judge = = = = After being admitted to the Johannesburg Bar in 1963 , Goldstone practised corporate and intellectual property law as a barrister in Johannesburg for 17 years , a " 100 percent commercial practice " . He was appointed senior counsel in 1976 . In 1980 he was selected by the government to serve as a judge on the Transvaal Supreme Court . At the time of his appointment he was the youngest Supreme Court judge in South Africa . His elevation came despite his known opposition to apartheid . South Africa 's National Party government occasionally promoted " opposition " barristers to the Supreme Court Bench to demonstrate its claimed commitment to an independent judiciary and to confer legitimacy on the system through the presence of judges who enjoyed a reputation for independence and integrity . This raised obvious moral issues for Goldstone – as a judge , he would be expected to uphold South Africa 's apartheid laws . Some eminent lawyers did refuse to become judges , but liberal lawyers had already served as judges ; throughout the apartheid era , no one sitting on the bench had ever resigned for overtly political reasons . Goldstone sought the advice of prominent anti @-@ apartheid lawyers , who urged him to take up the position on the basis that he could do more to undermine apartheid as a judge working within the system than as an attorney working on the outside . He commented later : " I took an appointment to the bench , as did a number of liberal judges , and we had to uphold the law of the country . It was a moral dilemma to do that , but the approach was that it was better to fight from inside than not at all . The moral dilemma came up when I had to apply the law . " He noted in 1992 that most South African judges " applied such [ apartheid ] laws without commenting upon their moral turpitude . " A number , including Goldstone , were more outspoken – a policy that he felt aided the credibility of the courts . There was a fine dividing line between applying moral standards and promoting political doctrines , but Goldstone believed that " in my view , if a judge is to err , it should be on the side of defending morality . " He took the view that " judges have a duty to act morally , and if they 're dealing with laws which have an unjust effect , I think it 's their duty – if they can , within the powers they 've got legitimately – to interpret the laws and give judgments which will make them less harsh and less unjust . " Being a judge in apartheid @-@ era South Africa was a challenge , but it had its rewards ; " I hated in the morning the thought of having to do this for another day , [ but ] by the end of the day , I was exhilarated at the reaction and how important the work was . " Goldstone 's career as a judge was characterised by bold acts of judicial activism that soon attracted national and international interest . He was described as " an outstanding commercial lawyer who had shrewdly and inventively applied the law to secure justice in politically controversial and human rights cases . " Employing the bench as a means of making ordinary South Africans aware of the iniquities of apartheid , he gained a reputation as a committed , compassionate , legally meticulous and politically astute jurist who championed international human rights and sought to temper the effects of South Africa 's apartheid laws . He sought to retain his independence , refusing to kowtow to the authorities . As Reinhard Zimmermann puts it , Goldstone " emerged as one of the leading ' liberal ' judges who never showed any propensity towards the then prevailing executive @-@ mindedness " . His judicial approach was influenced by the fact that although the ruling National Party had built up a framework of racist and unequal laws aimed at repressing the rights of non @-@ whites , the country had retained the underlying structure and principles of Anglo @-@ Dutch common law . According to Davis & Le Roux ( 2009 ) , a group of liberal judges that included Goldstone , Gerald Friedman , Ray Leon , Johann Kriegler , John Milne and Lourens Ackermann sought to read the apartheid legislation " as narrowly as possible to give effect to the values of the common law " . This philosophy led Goldstone to issue rulings that undermined key aspects of the apartheid system . One of his most significant rulings concerned the Group Areas Act that mandated the eviction of non @-@ whites from areas reserved for whites . His ruling in the case of S v Govender in 1982 that evictions of non @-@ whites were not automatically required by the Act led to the virtual cessation of such evictions . Following the judgement it became so difficult to evict non @-@ whites from whites @-@ only areas that the system of housing segregation began to break down . Prosecutions under the Act fell from 893 between 1978 – 1981 to only one in 1983 . Geoffrey Budlender , former director of the anti @-@ apartheid Legal Resources Centre , commented of Goldstone 's decision in the Govender case that " it was an alert judge trying to apply human rights standards to a repressive piece of legislation . And it was Goldstone 's work ; it wasn 't our work that stopped the Group Areas prosecutions in the end . " Budlender noted that " it was a matter of great debate in the eighties about whether decent people should accept appointments to the bench , because they were enforcing repressive laws , " but stated that " [ f ] rom the point of view of the practitioner trying to run human rights cases and public @-@ interest cases , we prayed for a Goldstone or a [ John ] Didcott on the bench . That was our dream . " In 1985 , Goldstone ruled that the government 's mass sacking of 1 @,@ 700 black staff at Baragwanath Hospital in Soweto had been illegal . The following year , he was the first judge to free a political prisoner who had been detained under a recently imposed state of emergency under which the government had given itself draconian police powers . Another important ruling against the state in 1988 resulted in the release of a detainee who had not been advised by the police that he was entitled to a lawyer . In 1989 , Goldstone became the first South African judge under apartheid to take on a black law clerk , an African @-@ American Yale Law student named Vernon Grigg . Goldstone also used his judicial prerogatives to visit thousands of people who had been imprisoned without trial , including some who later became members of the post @-@ apartheid South African government . Although he could do little to free them , his visits served to reassure the prisoners – and serve notice to the prison administration – that someone in a position of power was taking an active interest in their well @-@ being . Few white judges at the time enjoyed the trust and respect of the black majority ; Goldstone became a notable exception . Some of South Africa 's laws and emergency regulations mandated particular penalties which judges had no discretion to modify . South Africa 's whites @-@ only parliament pursued a doctrine of parliamentary supremacy , passing laws which judges were absolutely bound to enforce if they had been enacted by parliament or were faithful to what parliament had done . Goldstone distressed civil rights lawyers in 1986 when he concurred without comment with a decision that allowed the jailing of a 13 @-@ year @-@ old boy for disrupting school . Goldstone later remarked that he was constrained by the law , that " the emergency regulations covered the situation . " The laws and regulations also included the death penalty for certain crimes such as murders committed without any extenuating circumstances ; although Goldstone was personally opposed to the death penalty , he was nonetheless required to pass death sentences on two convicted murderers . His reluctance to impose death penalties prompted criticism from judges who were in favour of capital punishment . Another Transvaal Supreme Court judge , D. Curlewis , commented in 1991 that " a person who deserves to hang was more likely to get the death sentence from me or my ilk " than Goldstone or other liberal judges , who were " at heart abolitionists for one reason or another ... Obviously , and for that reason , they cannot be sound on the imposition of the death penalty . " Goldstone was promoted to the Supreme Court of South Africa in 1989 , a post which he took up in October 1990 after a year 's study at Harvard University . As one of three judges on the Supreme Court 's appellate panel , he upheld a majority of appeals to the court . He also served as the founding national president of the National Institute of Crime Prevention and the Rehabilitation of Offenders ( NICRO ) , a body established to look after prisoners who had been released ; chairperson of the Bradlow Foundation , a charitable educational trust ; and head of the board of the Human Rights Institute of South Africa ( HURISA ) . Albie Sachs , who was later to serve alongside Goldstone on the Constitutional Court of South Africa , commented that Goldstone 's judicial career demonstrated " that an honest and dignified judge who 's sensitive to fundamental human rights of all human beings , even in the most dire circumstances , could find some space for concepts of legality and respect for human dignity . " = = = = Sebokeng Inquiry and Goldstone Commission = = = = In 1990 , President F. W. de Klerk began the negotiation process that was to lead to the end of apartheid in 1994 . At the time , South Africa was plagued by regular massacres as members of the African National Congress ( ANC ) and the Inkatha Freedom Party ( IFP ) fought for dominance . The police and security forces often reacted to demonstrations with indiscriminate force , and the ANC claimed that a hypothesised " Third Force " was engaged in covert destabilisation . The violence caused serious problems in building trust between the parties . The negotiations broke down soon after they started due to a mass shooting at Sebokeng township near Johannesburg in March 1990 , in which 281 demonstrators were shot and 11 killed by South African police . After pressure from the ANC , de Klerk appointed Goldstone to investigate the incident . His report was published in September 1990 and was described at the time as " one of the strongest indictments of South Africa 's police ever made by a government @-@ appointed investigator . " He condemned the police for a breakdown in discipline and recommended that a number of individual police officers be prosecuted . Nine policemen were subsequently charged with murder . To aid the transition to multiracial democracy , the South African government established a Commission of Inquiry Regarding the Prevention of Public Violence and Intimidation in October 1991 to investigate human rights abuses committed by the country 's various political factions . Its members were chosen by consensus among the three main parties . Goldstone had by now become reputed as an impartial and unimpeachable judge , and was asked by ANC chairman Nelson Mandela to head the commission ; it became known as the Goldstone Commission . Goldstone explained later that he had been selected because he had earned the confidence of both sides : " The government was aware that I would not make findings against it without good cause , and the majority of South Africans had confidence that I would quote hesitate to make findings against the government if the evidence justified it . " He nonetheless received numerous death threats . He continued to work as an appeals court judge throughout his time chairing the Commission , hearing cases during the mornings and afternoons and then continuing through to midnight on Commission business . The Commission sat for three years , carrying out 503 investigations that triggered the initiation of 16 prosecutions . It had no judicial powers and could not issue binding regulations but had to establish its legitimacy through its reports and recommendations . It soon gained a reputation for even handedness , criticising all sides in often trenchant terms . The rivalry between the ANC and IFP was blamed for being " the primary cause " of violence and Goldstone urged both sides to " abandon violence and intimidation as political weapons " . The government 's security forces were found to have been involved in numerous abuses of human rights , though Goldstone rejected Nelson Mandela 's claims that President de Klerk was personally involved and described such suggestions as " unwise , unfair and dangerous " . One of Goldstone 's most important findings was the revelation in November 1992 that a secret military intelligence unit of the South African Defence Force was working to sabotage the ANC while posing as a legitimate business corporation . The ensuing scandal led to De Klerk purging the army and intelligence services . Goldstone 's findings attracted praise and criticism from all sides . Some anti @-@ apartheid activists criticised Goldstone for what they saw as balancing his reports by apportioning blame equally ; Goldstone responded that his findings reflected the fact that all sides had " dirty hands " . Nonetheless , his impartiality and willingness to speak out led to him becoming , as the Christian Science Monitor put it in 1993 , " arguably the most indispensable arbitrator in South Africa 's turbulent transition to democracy . " He became a household name and was voted the top newsmaker of 1992 in a South African poll , well ahead of either de Klerk or Mandela . His character was cited by other lawyers as a key asset in making the commission a success ; one lawyer commented , " He has the rare ability to straddle both the legal and political worlds . He is a great strategist and combines a deep humanity with a political sensitivity . " As well as reporting on political violence , Goldstone proposed practical measures to end the violence in venues such as commuter trains , taxis , mines , township hostels and the troubled Natal region . He also succeeded in persuading the government to accept an international rôle in the transition – which it had previously strongly opposed – as well as forcing it to undertake a major restructuring of the security forces and purging subversive elements in the military . According to Goldstone , the commission 's work helped to calm South Africa during the transition period . He regarded it as " a vitally important safety valve " that provided a " credible public instrument " to deal with incidents that might otherwise have derailed the negotiations . The international community took a similar view ; his work was supported and funded by the UN , the Commonwealth and the European Community , who regarded it as vital to expose the truth behind political violence in order to achieve democratic stability . Goldstone 's work was to pave the way for the establishment of the Truth and Reconciliation Commission in 1995 , a body that he strongly supported . Its chairman , Archbishop Desmond Tutu , commented that Goldstone had made an " indispensable " contribution to the peaceful democratic transition in South Africa . The Commission 's final report was strongly critical of the apartheid @-@ era legal system but commended the role of a few judges , including Goldstone , who " exercised their judicial discretion in favour of justice and liberty wherever proper and possible " . It noted that although they were few in number , such figures were " influential enough to be part of the reason why the ideal of a constitutional democracy as the favoured form of government for a future South Africa continued to burn brightly throughout the darkness of the apartheid era . " The Commission found that " the alleviation of suffering achieved by such lawyers substantially outweighed the admitted harm done by their participation in the system . " Reinhard Zimmermann commented in 1995 that " Goldstone 's reputation as a sound and impeccably impartial lawyer coupled with his genuine concern for social justice have invested him , across the political spectrum , with a degree of legitimacy that is probably unequalled in South Africa today . " = = = Chief UN Prosecutor in Yugoslavia and Rwanda = = = In August 1994 , Goldstone was named as the first chief prosecutor of the International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia ( ICTY ) , which was established by a resolution of the UN Security Council in 1993 . When the Security Council established the International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda ( ICTR ) in late 1994 , he became its chief prosecutor , too . His appointment to the tribunals came as something of a surprise , even to Goldstone himself , as he had only limited experience of international law and Yugoslavian affairs and had never been a prosecutor before . He owed his appointment to the Italian chief judge of the ICTY , Antonio Cassese . There had been lengthy wrangling between UN member states about whom to appoint as a prosecutor and none of the candidates proposed so far had been accepted . The French national counsel , Roger Errera , suggested Goldstone , commenting that " if he is Jewish , that goes down well . Everyone suspects everyone in the former Yugoslavia . So it 's better that he is neither Catholic , nor Orthodox , nor Muslim . " Goldstone was approached by Cassese and expressed an interest in the position . President Mandela supported his wish to take up the position at The Hague , as Goldstone later recalled : " He certainly encouraged me . He thought it was important to take what was the first offer of a major international position after South Africa ceased to be a pariah . " However , the offer put Mandela in a difficult spot . He wanted Goldstone , who was one of the few South African jurists to have earned the respect of both blacks and whites , for South Africa 's newly established Constitutional Court . Mandela struck a deal with the UN Secretary @-@ General , Boutros Boutros @-@ Ghali , that Goldstone would serve only half of his four @-@ year term as prosecutor and would then return to take up his post in South Africa . The president rushed through a constitutional amendment that would allow Goldstone to be named , take an immediate period of leave to serve at the tribunal and then return to his spot on the Constitutional Court . He proved to be an ideal candidate , as he had been suggested by the French , was not too hot @-@ headed for the British , was strong enough to satisfy the Americans and his credentials as a white South African who had opposed apartheid satisfied the Russians and Chinese . The UN Security Council unanimously approved his appointment to the rôle of prosecutor . In his roles at the ICTY and ICTR he had to design prosecutorial strategies for both those ground @-@ breaking tribunals , from scratch . In doing so , he sought to be scrupulously even @-@ handed – a goal he was more easily able to achieve at ICTY than at ICTR . He built his strategy at both courts to a large degree on that pursued by the prosecutors at the Nuremberg Tribunal of 1945 – 46 . He served as the chief prosecutor of the two tribunals until September 1996 . Among his most notable legal achievements as chief prosecutor was securing the recognition of rape as a war crime under the Geneva Convention . Goldstone was hindered by the inflexible bureaucracy of the UN , finding the newly established ICTY in a shambles when he joined the tribunal . The tribunal lacked political legitimacy , financial support and prosecutorial direction ; its failure to even bring any prosecutions had led to it being criticised by the media as " a fig leaf for inaction " , and Goldstone was asked by the former British prime minister Edward Heath : " Why did you accept such a ridiculous job ? " He had to make repeated appeals to the UN 's hierarchy and to donor nations for the equipment and funding that the tribunal needed to operate . He quickly found that the key to the job was to take " [ the ] big @-@ picture diplomatic role and [ recognise ] that the hands @-@ on prosecution work could be pushed down to experienced prosecutors and investigators like [ Graham ] Blewitt – at least for the time being . " He undertook a flurry of media appearances and financial negotiations that led to the tribunal being properly staffed for the first time , with many staff being recruited through his own personal networks ; a budget of eight million dollars from thirteen countries , supplemented by a $ 300 @,@ 000 donation from George Soros ; and the first indictment , of Bosnian Serb prison camp guard Duško Tadić . Another problem Goldstone faced was the reluctance of NATO peacekeeping forces in Bosnia to apprehend war crimes suspects . He was bitterly critical of what he called the " highly inappropriate and pusillanimous policy " of Western countries in declining to pursue suspected war criminals , singling out France and the United Kingdom as particular culprits . By the end of his time as prosecutor he had issued 74 indictments but only seven of the accused had been apprehended . Goldstone was instrumental in preventing the Dayton Agreement of December 1995 including amnesty provisions for those accused of war crimes in the former Yugoslavia . Some commentators had advocated including an amnesty as the price for peace ; Goldstone was resolutely opposed to this , not only because it would enable those responsible for atrocities to escape justice but also because of the dangerous precedent it could set , where powerful actors such as the United States could bargain away the ICTY 's mandate for political convenience . In response , Goldstone pushed through a new indictment of the Bosnian Serb president Radovan Karadžić and his army chief Ratko Mladić for the Srebrenica massacre , which was issued two weeks into the peace talks at Dayton . He lobbied President Bill Clinton to resist any such demands and made it clear that an amnesty would not be a legal basis for the ICTY to suspend indictments . In the end , no amnesty was included in the Dayton Agreement . Goldstone 's actions were later credited with making the negotiations a success . The chief US negotiator , Richard Holbrooke , described the tribunal as " a huge valuable tool " which had enabled Karadžić and Mladić to be excluded from the talks , with the Serbian side represented instead by the more conciliatory Milosević . The Dayton Agreement put direct responsibility on all sides to send suspects to The Hague , committing the Serbian , Bosnian and Croatian governments to cooperating with the ICTY in future . When he retired from the Office of the Prosecutor in 1996 , Goldstone was replaced by the distinguished Canadian lawyer Louise Arbour . His contribution was praised by colleagues at the ICTY : " Goldstone was absolutely right for his time because he came with moral clout from South Africa and his own particular status as a champion of human rights . " = = = Constitutional Court = = = On his return from The Hague , Goldstone took up his seat on the Constitutional Court , which he held until retiring in 2003 . Justice Albie Sachs described Goldstone as representing " a sense of continuity " between the traditions of the past that managed to survive the years of apartheid , and the whole new era of the constitution that governs South Africa today . = = = Argentina = = = He was a member of the International Panel of the Commission of Enquiry into the Activities of Nazism in Argentina ( CEANA ) which was established in 1997 to identify Nazi war criminals who had emigrated to Argentina , and transferred victim assets ( Nazi gold ) there . = = = Kosovo = = = Goldstone was chair of the Independent International Commission on Kosovo from August 1999 until December 2001 . = = = Volcker Committee = = = In April 2004 , he was appointed by Kofi Annan , the UN Secretary General , to the Independent Inquiry Committee , chaired by Paul Volcker , to investigate the Iraq Oil for Food program . = = = UN Fact @-@ Finding Mission on the Gaza Conflict = = = During the Gaza War between Israel and Hamas in December 2008 – January 2009 , the UN Human Rights Council ( UNHRC ) passed a resolution condemning Israel for " grave violations " of human rights and calling for an independent international investigation . The UNHRC appointed a four @-@ person team , headed by Goldstone , to investigate " all violations of international human rights law and international humanitarian law that might have been committed at any time in the context of the military operations that were conducted in Gaza during the period from 27 December 2008 and 18 January 2009 , whether before , during or after . " According to a report in Reuters , Goldstone said he had spent many days and " sleepless nights " deciding whether to accept the mandate , saying that it had come as " quite a shock " . He continued , " I can approach the daunting task I have accepted in an even @-@ handed and impartial manner and give it the same attention that I have to situations in my own country , " where his experience had been that " transparent , public investigations are very important , important particularly for the victims because it brings acknowledgement of what happened to them . " He explained that he had long " taken a deep interest in Israel , in what happens in Israel , and I have been associated with organisations that have worked in Israel " and " decided to accept it because of my deep concern for peace in the Middle East , and my deep concern for victims in all sides in the Middle East . " Goldstone insisted that he would not follow a one @-@ sided mandate but would investigate any abuses committed by either side during the conflict . He said that he had initially not been willing to take on the mission unless the mandate was expanded to cover all sides . Despite then @-@ president of the Human Rights Council , Ambassador Martin Uhomoibhi 's verbal commitment that there was no objection to the revised mandate , the Human Rights Council never voted to revise the mandate , and resolution S @-@ 9 / 1 remained unchanged . The Israeli government refused to cooperate with the investigation , accusing the UN Human Rights Council of anti @-@ Israel bias and arguing that the report could not possibly be fair . In a 20 January 2011 panel discussion at Stanford University , Goldstone said that the UNHRC " repeatedly rush to pass condemnatory resolutions in the face of alleged violations of human rights law by Israel but ... have failed to take similar action in the face of even more serious violations by other States . Until the Gaza Report they failed to condemn the firing of rockets and mortars at Israeli civilian centers . " The report , released on 15 September 2009 , concluded that both sides had committed violations of the laws of war . It stated that Israel had used disproportionate force , targeted Palestinian civilians , used them as human shields and destroyed civilian infrastructure . Hamas and other armed Palestinian groups were found to have deliberately targeted Israeli civilians and sought to spread terror in southern Israel by mounting indiscriminate rocket attacks . The report 's conclusions were endorsed by the UN Human Rights Council . On 16 October 2009 , UN Human Rights Council voted in support of the Goldstone Report where twenty @-@ five member nations voted in favour of the resolution endorsing the report , six voted against endorsement while another eleven remained impartial . Goldstone has criticised the United Nations Human Rights Council 's selective endorsement of the report his commission compiled , since the resolution adopted chastises Israel only , when the report itself is critical of both parties . The Israeli government and some Jewish groups strongly criticised the report , which they asserted was biased and commissioned by a UN body that was hostile to Israel . Hamas also dismissed the findings that it had committed war crimes . Goldstone himself came under sustained personal attack , with critics accusing him of bias , dishonesty and improper motives in being party to the report . Goldstone denied the accusations , saying he felt that being a Jew increased his obligation to participate in the investigation . In a 1 April 2011 article in the Washington Post reflecting on the Commission 's work , Goldstone wrote that the report would have been different if he had been aware of information that has become known since its issuance . While expressing regret that Israel 's failure to co @-@ operate with the Commission had hindered its ability to gather exculpatory facts , he approved Israel 's subsequent internal investigations into incidents described in the report as well as their establishment of policies to better protect civilians in future conflicts . He contrasted the Israeli reaction with the failure of Hamas to investigate or modify their methods and procedures . Goldstone said he had hoped that the Commission 's inquiry " would begin a new era of evenhandedness at the U.N. Human Rights Council , whose history of bias against Israel cannot be doubted " . In addition , according to a report in Haaretz , Goldstone told associates in early 2011 that " he has been in great distress and under duress " ever since publication of his report . = = Academic and charity activities = = In March 1996 , Goldstone was named chancellor of the University of the Witwatersrand in Johannesburg . He served for two terms , stepping down in September 2006 . In October 2003 , Goldstone gave a lecture entitled " Preventing Deadly Conflict " at the University of San Diego 's Joan B. Kroc Institute for Peace & Justice Distinguished Lecture Series . He was a Global Visiting Professor of Law at New York University School of Law in spring 2004 , and in the fall , he was the William Hughes Mulligan Visiting Professor at Fordham University School of Law . In spring 2005 , he was the Henry Shattuck Visiting Professor Law at Harvard Law School . Goldstone participated as guest faculty in the Oxford @-@ George Washington International Human Rights Program in 2005 . Goldstone was named the 2007 Weissberg Distinguished Professor of International Studies at Beloit College , in Beloit , Wisconsin . From 17 – 28 January 2007 he visited classes , worked with faculty and students , participated in panel discussions on human rights and transitional justice with leading figures in the field and delivered the annual Weissberg Lecture , " South Africa 's Transition to Democracy : The Role of the Constitutional Court " on 24 January at the Moore Lounge in Pearsons Hall . In Fall 2007 he was the William Hughes Mulligan Professor of International Law at Fordham University School of Law , and held that position again in Fall 2009 . Fordham Law presented him with a Doctor of Laws , honoris causa , in 2007 , the highest honor the school can bestow . Goldstone also was the Woodrow Wilson Visiting Scholar in Political Science at Washington & Jefferson College in 2009 . From 2004 through 2008 , in addition to his teaching appointments , Goldstone was the chair of the Advisory Committee to the Institute for Historical Justice and Reconciliation . In 2008 , the Institute became an independent entity , with Goldstone as its chairman . He also continues as a member of the board of directors of the Salzburg Global Seminar . Goldstone serves as a trustee for Link @-@ SA , a charity which funds the tertiary education of South Africans from impoverished backgrounds . Goldstone serves on the Board of Directors of several nonprofit organisations that promote justice , including Physicians for Human Rights , the International Center for Transitional Justice , the Institute for Justice and Reconciliation , the South African Legal Services Foundation , the Brandeis University Center for Ethics , Justice , and Public Life , Human Rights Watch , and the Center for Economic and Social Rights . Goldstone was president of the Jewish training and education charity World ORT between 1997 and 2004 . He was an honorary member of the Board of Governors of Hebrew University for over ten years prior to June 2010 , when the University announced he had been dropped from the Board due to inactivity " for a decade or more " . In April 2010 , Jerusalem lawyer David Schonberg had requested Goldstone be removed from the Board because of the UN report on Gaza . A University spokesperson stated that removing inactive members was a routine procedure , that other inactive members had also been removed , and that Goldstone 's removal had " nothing to do with his Report about Gaza " . = = Awards and honours = = Goldstone has received the 1994 International Human Rights Award of the American Bar Association , the 2005 Thomas J. Dodd Prize in International Justice and Human Rights , and the 2009 MacArthur Award for International Justice , announced by the John D. and Catherine T. MacArthur Foundation . He holds honorary degrees from Hebrew University , the University of Notre Dame , the University of Maryland , and the Universities of Cape Town , British Columbia , Glasgow , and Calgary among others . He was the first person to be granted the title , " The Hague Peace Philosopher " in 2009 , as part of the new Spinoza Fellowship of The Hague , the Netherlands Institute for Advanced Study in the Humanities and Social Sciences ( NIAS ) , Radio Netherlands , and The Hague Campus of Leiden University . He is an honorary fellow of St John 's College , Cambridge , an honorary member of the Association of the Bar of the City of New York , a foreign member of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences . Goldstone was a fellow of the Weatherhead Center for International Affairs at Harvard University in 1989 . = = Publications = = = = = Books = = = International judicial institutions : the architecture of international justice at home and abroad , co @-@ authored with Adam M. Smith . London and New York : Routledge , 2009 . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 415 @-@ 77645 @-@ 5 ( hardback ) ; ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 415 @-@ 77646 @-@ 2 ( paperback . ) For humanity : reflections of a war crimes investigator . New Haven , Connecticut : Yale University Press , 2000 . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 300 @-@ 08205 @-@ 0 Do judges speak out ? . Johannesburg : South African Institute of Race Relations , 1993 . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 86982 @-@ 431 @-@ 3 = = = Lectures = = = The Future of International Criminal Justice in the Lecture Series of the United Nations Audiovisual Library of International Law The Developing Global Rule of Law in the Lecture Series of the United Nations Audiovisual Library of International Law = = = Contributions to edited volumes , and forewords to books by others = = = Goldstone , Richard J. ( 1996 ) . " From the Holocaust : Some Legal and Moral Implications " . In Rosenbaum , Alan S. Is the Holocaust Unique ? : Perspectives on Comparative Genocide ( 3rd ed . ) . Boulder , Colorado : Westview Press ( published 2008 ) . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 8133 @-@ 4406 @-@ 5 . Goldstone , Richard ( 2005 ) . " The Tension Between Combating Terrorism and Protecting Civil Liberties " . In Wilson , Richard Ashby . Human Rights in the ' War on Terror ' . Cambridge University Press . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 521 @-@ 85319 @-@ 4 . Goldstone has written forewords to books including Martha Minow 's Between Vengeance and Forgiveness : Facing History after Genocide and Mass Violence ( ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 8070 @-@ 4507 @-@ 7 ) and War Crimes : The Legacy of Nuremberg ( ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 8133 @-@ 4406 @-@ 5 ) , which examines the political and legal influence of the Nuremberg trials on contemporary war crime proceedings . Goldstone , writing in The New York Times in October 2011 , said that " in Israel , there is no apartheid . Nothing there comes close to the definition of apartheid under the 1998 Rome Statute . "
= Big Fish = Big Fish is a 2003 American fantasy drama film based on the 1998 novel of the same name by Daniel Wallace . The film was directed by Tim Burton and stars Ewan McGregor , Albert Finney , Billy Crudup , Jessica Lange , and Marion Cotillard . Other roles are performed by Helena Bonham Carter , Matthew McGrory , and Danny DeVito among others . Edward Bloom ( Finney ) , a former traveling salesman in the Southern United States with a gift for storytelling , is now confined to his deathbed . Will ( Crudup ) , his estranged son , attempts to mend their relationship as Bloom relates tall tales of his eventful life as a young adult ( portrayed by Ewan McGregor in the flashback scenes ) . Screenwriter John August read a manuscript of the novel six months before it was published and convinced Columbia Pictures to acquire the rights . August began adapting the novel while producers negotiated with Steven Spielberg who planned to direct after finishing Minority Report ( 2002 ) . Spielberg considered Jack Nicholson for the role of Edward Bloom , but eventually dropped the project to focus on Catch Me If You Can ( 2002 ) . Tim Burton and Richard D. Zanuck took over after completing Planet of the Apes ( 2001 ) and brought Ewan McGregor and Albert Finney on board . The film 's theme of reconciliation between a dying father and his son had special significance for Burton , as his father had died in 2000 and his mother in 2002 , a month before he signed on to direct . Big Fish was shot on location in Alabama in a series of fairy tale vignettes evoking the tone of a Southern Gothic fantasy . The film received award nominations in multiple film categories , including four Golden Globe Award nominations , seven nominations from the British Academy of Film and Television Arts , two Saturn Award nominations , and an Oscar and a Grammy Award nomination for Danny Elfman 's original score . = = Plot = = At Will ’ s wedding party , Edward Bloom recalls the day Will was born , claiming he caught an enormous catfish using his wedding ring as bait . Will , having heard these stories all his life , believes them to be lies and falls out with his father . Three years later , Edward is stricken with cancer , so Will and his pregnant French wife Joséphine return to his childhood home in Alabama to spend time with his father . Edward ’ s life is told through flashbacks , beginning with his encounter with a witch in his hometown , Ashton . She shows him his death but he reacts to it without fear . As he grows into adulthood , he finds his home too confining , and sets out into the world with a misunderstood giant , Karl , who has come to town with a traveling circus . Edward and Karl find a fork in the road and travel down separate paths . Edward follows a path through a swamp and discovers the secret town of Spectre , the cheery locals claiming he was expected . There , he befriends Ashton poet Norther Winslow and the mayor ’ s daughter Jenny . However , Edward leaves Spectre , unwilling to settle down but promises Jenny he will return . In the present day , Joséphine speaks to the bed @-@ ridden Edward and asks him to tell her the story of how he met his wife Sandra , with Will listening outside the door . Returning to his reminisces , Edward reunites with Karl and they visit the Calloway Circus , where Edward falls in love with a beautiful woman . Karl and Edward get jobs in the circus where the ringmaster Amos Calloway reveals to Edward one detail about the woman at the end of every month . Three years later , Edward discovers that Amos is secretly a werewolf but shows no ill @-@ will towards his employer . Amos , upon returning to normal , reveals the woman is Sandra , and she attends Auburn University . Edward confesses his love to Sandra , but she declines his wedding proposal despite numerous romantic gestures . He then learns she is already engaged to Don Price , a fellow Ashton citizen . Don beats Edward in a fight , prompting Sandra to break off their engagement and marry Edward . Shortly after , Edward is conscripted into the army and sent to fight in the Korean War . He parachutes into the middle of a North Korean military show , steals important documents , and convinces Siamese twins Ping and Jing to help him go home in exchange for making them celebrities . Upon returning home , Edward becomes a travelling salesman and crosses paths with Winslow , unwittingly helping him rob a failing bank , inspiring the poet to work on Wall Street . In the present , Will investigates the truth behind his father ’ s tales and travels to Spectre . He meets an older Jenny , who explains that Edward rescued the town from bankruptcy and rebuilt it with help from his friends from Calloway Circus . Will suggests that Jenny had an affair with his father , but she reveals while she loved Edward , he remained loyal to Sandra . Will returns home but learns Edward has had a stroke and stays with him at the hospital . Edward wakes up but , unable to speak much , asks Will to narrate how his life ends . Though struggling , Will tells his father of their imagined daring escape from the hospital to the nearby lake , where everyone from Edward ’ s past is there to see him off . Will takes Edward into the river , where he transforms into the giant catfish and swims away . A satisfied Edward dies , knowing Will understands his love for storytelling . At the funeral , Will and Joséphine are surprised when all the people from Edward ’ s stories come to the service , though each one is a slightly less fantastical version than described . Will , finally understanding his father ’ s love for life , passes on Edward ’ s stories to his own son . = = Cast = = Ewan McGregor as young Edward Bloom Perry Walston as 10 @-@ year old Edward Bloom Albert Finney as old Edward Bloom Billy Crudup as Will Bloom Grayson Stone as 6 – 8 @-@ year old Will Bloom Jessica Lange as Sandra K. Bloom , Edward 's dream girl and wife Helena Bonham Carter as Jenny Hill . Bonham Carter also plays an elderly witch who gives a young Bloom a vision of his future death in her evil eye . Hailey Anne Nelson as 8 @-@ year @-@ old Jenny Hill Alison Lohman as the young Sandra , née Templeton Robert Guillaume as Dr. Bennett , the family doctor Karlos Walkes as young Dr. Bennett Marion Cotillard as Joséphine Bloom Matthew McGrory as Karl , the misunderstood giant David Denman as Don Price , Sandra Templeton 's boyfriend when Edward meets her John Lowell as 12 @-@ year old Don Price Loudon Wainwright III as Beamen , the mayor of Spectre , and Jenny 's father Missi Pyle as Mildred , Beamen 's wife Ada Tai and Arlene Tai as Ping and Jing , conjoined twins who perform as singers for soldiers in North Korea Steve Buscemi as Norther Winslow , a poet from Ashton who supposedly went missing , having never left the idyllic town of Spectre Danny DeVito as Amos Calloway , a circus ringmaster and werewolf Bevin Kaye as River Woman ( Fish ) Miley Cyrus as 8 @-@ year @-@ old Ruthie ( credited as Destiny Cyrus ) Daniel Wallace as Economics teacher Deep Roy as Mr. Soggybottom , the circus clown and Calloway 's attorney George McArthur as Colossus , former giant in the circus , replaced by Karl = = Themes = = The reconciliation of the father @-@ son relationship between Edward and William is the key theme in Big Fish . Novelist Daniel Wallace 's interest in the theme of the father @-@ son relationship began with his own family . Wallace found the " charming " character of Edward Bloom similar to his father , who used charm to keep his distance from other people . In the film , Will believes Edward has never been honest with him because Edward creates extravagant myths about his past to hide himself , using storytelling as an avoidance mechanism . Edward 's stories are filled with fairy tale characters ( a witch , mermaid , giant , and werewolf ) and places ( the circus , small towns , the mythological city of Spectre ) , all of which are classic images and archetypes . The quest motif propels both Edward 's story and Will 's attempt to get to the bottom of it . Wallace explains : " The father 's quest is to be a big fish in a big pond , and the son 's quest is to see through his tall tales . " Screenwriter John August identified with Will 's character and adapted it after himself . In college , August 's father died , and like Will , August had attempted to get to know him before his death , but found it difficult . Like Will , August had studied journalism and was 28 years old . In the film , Will says of Edward , " I didn 't see anything of myself in my father , and I don 't think he saw anything of himself in me . We were like strangers who knew each other very well . " Will 's description of his relationship with Edward closely resembled August 's own relationship with his father . Burton also used the film to confront his thoughts and emotions concerning the death of his father in 2000 : " My father had been ill for a while ... I tried to get in touch with him , to have , like in this film , some sort of resolution , but it was impossible . " Religion and film scholar Kent L. Brintnall observes how the father @-@ son relationship resolves itself at the end of the film . As Edward dies , Will finally lets go of his anger and begins to understand his father for the first time : In a final gesture of love and comprehension , after a lifetime of despising his father 's stories and his father as story @-@ teller , Will finishes the story his father has begun , pulling together the themes , images and characters of his father 's storied life to blend reality and fantasy in act of communion and care . By unselfishly releasing the anger he has held about his father 's stories , Will gains the understanding that all we are our stories and that his father 's stories gave him a reality and substance and a dimension that was as real , genuine , and deep as the day @-@ to @-@ day experiences that Will sought out . Will comes to understand , then , that his father — and the rest of us — are our stories and that the deeper reality of our lives may , in fact , not be our truest self . = = Production = = = = = Development = = = About six months before it was published , screenwriter John August read a manuscript of Big Fish : A Novel of Mythic Proportions ( 1998 ) by author Daniel Wallace . August read the unpublished novel following the death of his father . In September 1998 , August convinced Columbia Pictures to acquire the film rights on his behalf . August worked hard to make the episodic book into a cohesive screenplay , deciding on several narrators for the script . In August 2000 , producers Bruce Cohen and Dan Jinks began discussions for Steven Spielberg to direct . Spielberg planned to have DreamWorks co @-@ finance and distribute Big Fish with Columbia , and planned to have filming start in late 2001 , after completing Minority Report ( 2002 ) . Spielberg courted Jack Nicholson for the role of Edward Bloom , Sr. and towards this end , had August compose two additional drafts for Nicholson 's part . August recalls : " There was this thought that there wasn 't enough for Jack Nicholson to do in the movie so we built new sequences . Pieces got moved around , but it wasn 't a lot of new stuff being created . It ended up being a really good intellectual exercise in my explaining and defending and reanalyzing pieces of the story . " Spielberg eventually left Big Fish when he became distracted with Catch Me If You Can ( 2002 ) , and DreamWorks also backed out of the film . With Spielberg no closer to committing , August , working with Jinks and Cohen , considered Stephen Daldry as a potential director . " Once Steven decided he wasn 't going to do it , we put the script back to the way it was , " recalls Jinks . " Steven even said , ' I think I made a mistake with a couple of things I asked you guys to try . ' " August took his favorite elements from the previous drafts , coming up with what he called " a best @-@ of Big Fish script . " By the time we approached Tim Burton , the script was in the best shape it had ever been . " Burton had never been particularly close to his parents , but his father 's death in October 2000 and his mother 's in March 2002 affected him deeply . Following the production of Planet of the Apes ( 2001 ) , the director wanted to get back to making a smaller film . Burton enjoyed the script , feeling that it was the first unique story he was offered since Beetlejuice ( 1988 ) . Burton also found appeal in the story 's combination of an emotional drama with exaggerated tall tales , which allowed him to tell various stories of different genres . He signed to direct in April 2002 , which prompted Richard D. Zanuck , who worked with Burton on Planet of the Apes , to join Big Fish as a producer . Zanuck also had a difficult relationship with his own father , Darryl F. Zanuck , who once fired him as head of production at 20th Century Fox . = = = Casting = = = For the role of Edward Bloom , Burton spoke with Jack Nicholson , Spielberg 's initial choice for the role . Burton had previously worked with Nicholson on Batman ( 1989 ) and Mars Attacks ! ( 1996 ) . In order to depict Nicholson as the young Bloom , Burton intended to use a combination of computer @-@ generated imagery and prosthetic makeup . The director then decided to cast around for the two actors in question . Jinks and Cohen , who were then working with Ewan McGregor on Down with Love ( 2003 ) , suggested that Burton cast both McGregor and Albert Finney for Edward . Burton later compared McGregor 's acting style to regular colleague Johnny Depp . Viewing Finney 's performance in Tom Jones ( 1963 ) , Burton found him similar to McGregor , and coincidentally found a People magazine article comparing the two . McGregor , being Scottish , found it easier performing with a Southern American English accent . " It 's a much easier accent to do than a standard American accent because you can really hear it . You can get your teeth into it . Standard American is much harder because it 's more lyrical . " The same dual casting applied to the role of Bloom 's wife , Sandra , who would be played by Jessica Lange and Alison Lohman . Burton commented that he was impressed with Lohman 's performance in White Oleander ( 2002 ) . Burton 's girlfriend , Helena Bonham Carter , was also cast in two roles . Her prosthetic makeup for The Witch took five hours to apply . " I was pregnant throughout filming , so it was weird being a pregnant witch , " the actress reflected . " I had morning sickness , so all those fumes and the make @-@ up and the rubber ... it was hideous . " Burton personalized the film with several cameos . While filming in Alabama , the crew tracked down Billy Redden , one of the original banjo players from Deliverance ( 1972 ) . Redden was working as a part @-@ owner of a restaurant in Clayton , Georgia , and he agreed to reprise his role in the Spectre vignette . As Edward Bloom first enters the town , Redden can be seen on a porch plucking a few notes from " Dueling Banjos " . Burton was pleased with the result : " If you 're watching the film and don 't recognise the solitary , enigmatic figure on the porch , that 's fine . But if you do – well , it just makes me so happy to see him and I think other people will feel the same way . " Original Big Fish author Daniel Wallace makes a brief appearance as Sandra 's economics teacher in the " Courtship of Sandra Templeton " scene . = = = Filming = = = Burton planned to start filming in October 2002 , but principal photography in Alabama did not begin until January 13 , 2003 . Apart from filming in Paris for one week in May , Big Fish was entirely shot in Alabama , mostly in Wetumpka. and Montgomery ( such as the Cloverdale neighborhood ) Brief filming also took place in Tallassee and on the campus of Huntingdon College . Scenes for the town of Spectre were filmed on a custom set located on an island in Lake Jackson between Montgomery and Millbrook , Alabama , adjacent to the Alabama River . Principal photography for Big Fish in Alabama continued until the first week of April. and is estimated to have generated as much as $ 25 million for the local economy . Burton filmed all the dramatic hospital scenes and most of those involving Finney first , before moving on to the McGregor section of Bloom 's life . Although McGregor was on set from the beginning of filming , Burton chose to shoot all Finney 's scenes first . Location filming in Alabama was delayed by inclement weather ; during the Calloway circus scenes filming , a tornado watch was issued and flooding on the set interrupted filming for several weeks . Despite the delays , Burton delivered the film on budget and on schedule . The director attempted to limit the use of digital effects . However , because he wanted to evoke a Southern Gothic fantasy tone for Big Fish , color grading techniques were applied by Sony Pictures Imageworks . Stan Winston Studios , with whom Burton worked with on Edward Scissorhands ( 1990 ) and Batman Returns ( 1992 ) , designed Helena Bonham Carter 's prosthetic makeup and created the animatronics . Scenes with Karl the Giant were commissioned using forced perspective filmmaking . = = = Music = = = The soundtrack was composed by regular Burton collaborator Danny Elfman . Burton approached Pearl Jam during post @-@ production to request an original song for the soundtrack and closing credits . After screening an early print of the film , Pearl Jam vocalist Eddie Vedder wrote " Man of the Hour " , completing the demo by the next day . It was recorded by the band four days later . Guitarist Mike McCready stated , " We were so blown away by the movie ... Eddie and I were standing around talking about it afterwards and were teary @-@ eyed . We were so emotionally charged and moved by the imagination and humanity that we felt because of the movie . " = = Release = = Columbia Pictures planned to wide release Big Fish in the United States on November 26 , 2003 before pushing it back to December 10 for a limited release . The film premiered on December 4 , 2003 at the Hammerstein Ballroom in Manhattan . The domestic wide release in the US came on January 9 , 2004 , with the film appearing in 2 @,@ 406 theaters and earning $ 13 @.@ 81 million in its opening weekend . The film eventually grossed $ 66 @.@ 81 million in U.S. totals and $ 56 @.@ 11 million in foreign countries , with a total of $ 122 @.@ 92 million worldwide . = = = Critical response = = = Big Fish received positive reviews from film critics . Based on 212 reviews collected by Rotten Tomatoes , 77 % of the critics positively reviewed Big Fish , for an average score of 7 @.@ 2 / 10 . Metacritic calculated an average score of 58 / 100 , based on 43 reviews . Observations modeled the film after Forrest Gump ( 1994 ) . " Big Fish turns into a wide @-@ eyed Southern Gothic picaresque in which each lunatic twist of a development is more enchanting than the last , " Owen Gleiberman of Entertainment Weekly wrote . " It 's like Forrest Gump without the bogus theme @-@ park politics . " Peter Travers from Rolling Stone magazine praised Burton 's direction , feeling it was a celebration of the art of storytelling and a touching father – son drama . Mike Clark of USA Today commented that he was most fascinated by the casting choices . " Equally delightful is the Alison Lohman character 's evolution into an older woman ( Jessica Lange ) . It 's a metamorphosis to equal any in screen history . " Internet reviewer James Berardinelli found the fairy tale approach reminiscent of The Princess Bride ( 1987 ) and the films of Terry Gilliam . " Big Fish is a clever , smart fantasy that targets the child inside every adult , " Berardinelli said , " without insulting the intelligence of either . " Roger Ebert , in a mixed review , wrote " there is no denying that Will has a point : The old man is a blowhard . There is a point at which his stories stop working as entertainment and segue into sadism . " Richard Corliss of Time magazine was disappointed , finding the father @-@ son reconciliation storyline to be over @-@ dramatically cliché . " You recall The Boy Who Cried Wolf ? Edward Bloom is the man who cried fish . " Big Fish was # 85 on Slant Magazine 's best films of the 2000s . = = = Home media = = = The Region 1 DVD was released on April 27 , 2004 , and Region 2 was released on June 7 . The DVD features a Burton audio commentary track , seven featurettes and a trivia quiz . A special edition was released on November 1 , 2005 , with a 24 @-@ page hardback book entitled Fairy Tale for a Grown Up . The film was released on Blu @-@ ray Disc on March 20 , 2007 . = = Accolades = = Big Fish received four nominations at the 61st Golden Globe Awards ( but no winners ) for Best Motion Picture ( Musical or Comedy ) , Best Supporting Actor ( Finney ) , Best Original Score and Best Original Song ( Pearl Jam 's " Man of the Hour " ) . At the 57th British Academy Film Awards , the film received seven nominations from the British Academy of Film and Television Arts , including Best Film , Best Direction ( Tim Burton ) , Best Adapted Screenplay ( John August ) , Best Actor in a Supporting Role ( Albert Finney ) , Best Production Design ( Dennis Gassner ) , Best Visual Effects ( Kevin Scott Mack , Seth Maury , Lindsay MacGowan , Paddy Eason ) as well as Best Makeup and Hair ( Jean Ann Black and Paul LeBlanc ) . Finney received another nomination for Best Actor at the 30th Saturn Awards , where the film was also nominated for Best Fantasy Film . At the 76th Academy Awards , Danny Elfman was nominated for the Academy Award for Best Original Score . In 2005 , Elfman received a nomination at the 47th Grammy Awards for the Best Score Soundtrack Album for a Motion Picture .
= Angkor Wat = Angkor Wat ( Khmer : អង ្ គរវត ្ ត or " Capital Temple " ) is a temple complex in Cambodia and the largest religious monument in the world , with the site measuring 162 @.@ 6 hectares ( 1 @,@ 626 @,@ 000 m2 ; 402 acres ) . It was originally constructed as a Hindu temple for the Khmer Empire , gradually transforming into a Buddhist temple toward the end of the 12th century . It was built by the Khmer King Suryavarman II in the early 12th century in Yaśodharapura ( Khmer : យសោធរបុរៈ , present @-@ day Angkor ) , the capital of the Khmer Empire , as his state temple and eventual mausoleum . Breaking from the Shaiva tradition of previous kings , Angkor Wat was instead dedicated to Vishnu . As the best @-@ preserved temple at the site , it is the only one to have remained a significant religious center since its foundation . The temple is at the top of the high classical style of Khmer architecture . It has become a symbol of Cambodia , appearing on its national flag , and it is the country 's prime attraction for visitors . Angkor Wat combines two basic plans of Khmer temple architecture : the temple @-@ mountain and the later galleried temple . It is designed to represent Mount Meru , home of the devas in Hindu mythology : within a moat and an outer wall 3 @.@ 6 kilometres ( 2 @.@ 2 mi ) long are three rectangular galleries , each raised above the next . At the centre of the temple stands a quincunx of towers . Unlike most Angkorian temples , Angkor Wat is oriented to the west ; scholars are divided as to the significance of this . The temple is admired for the grandeur and harmony of the architecture , its extensive bas @-@ reliefs , and for the numerous devatas adorning its walls . The modern name , Angkor Wat , means " Temple City " or " City of Temples " in Khmer ; Angkor , meaning " city " or " capital city " , is a vernacular form of the word nokor ( នគរ ) , which comes from the Sanskrit word nagara ( Devanāgarī : नगर ) . Wat is the Khmer word for " temple grounds " , also derived from Sanskrit vāṭa ( Devanāgarī : वाट ) , meaning " enclosure " . = = History = = Angkor Wat lies 5 @.@ 5 kilometres ( 3 @.@ 4 mi ) north of the modern town of Siem Reap , and a short distance south and slightly east of the previous capital , which was centred at Baphuon . In an area of Cambodia where there is an important group of ancient structures , it is the southernmost of Angkor 's main sites . According to legend , the construction of Angkor Wat was ordered by Indra to act as a palace for his son Precha Ket Mealea . According to the 13th century Chinese traveler Daguan Zhou , it was believed by some that the temple was constructed in a single night by a divine architect . The initial design and construction of the temple took place in the first half of the 12th century , during the reign of Suryavarman II ( ruled 1113 – c . 1150 ) . Dedicated to Vishnu , it was built as the king 's state temple and capital city . As neither the foundation stela nor any contemporary inscriptions referring to the temple have been found , its original name is unknown , but it may have been known as " Varah Vishnu @-@ lok " after the presiding deity . Work seems to have ended shortly after the king 's death , leaving some of the bas @-@ relief decoration unfinished . In 1177 , approximately 27 years after the death of Suryavarman II , Angkor was sacked by the Chams , the traditional enemies of the Khmer . Thereafter the empire was restored by a new king , Jayavarman VII , who established a new capital and state temple ( Angkor Thom and the Bayon respectively ) a few kilometers to the north . Toward the end of the 12th century , Angkor Wat gradually transformed from a Hindu center of worship to Buddhism , which continues to the present day . Angkor Wat is unusual among the Angkor temples in that although it was somewhat neglected after the 16th century it was never completely abandoned , its preservation being due in part to the fact that its moat also provided some protection from encroachment by the jungle . One of the first Western visitors to the temple was António da Madalena , a Portuguese monk who visited in 1586 and said that it " is of such extraordinary construction that it is not possible to describe it with a pen , particularly since it is like no other building in the world . It has towers and decoration and all the refinements which the human genius can conceive of . " By the 17th century , Angkor Wat was not completely abandoned and functioned as a Buddhist temple . Fourteen inscriptions dated from the 17th century discovered in Angkor area , testify to Japanese Buddhist pilgrims that might had established small settlements alongside Khmer locals . At that time , the temple was thought by the Japanese visitors as the famed Jetavana garden of the Buddha , which originally located in the kingdom of Magadha , India . The best @-@ known inscription tells of Ukondafu Kazufusa , who celebrated the Khmer New Year at Angkor Wat in 1632 . In the mid @-@ 19th century , the temple was visited by the French naturalist and explorer , Henri Mouhot , who popularised the site in the West through the publication of travel notes , in which he wrote : " One of these temples — a rival to that of Solomon , and erected by some ancient Michelangelo — might take an honorable place beside our most beautiful buildings . It is grander than anything left to us by Greece or Rome , and presents a sad contrast to the state of barbarism in which the nation is now plunged . " Mouhot , like other early Western visitors , found it difficult to believe that the Khmers could have built the temple , and mistakenly dated it to around the same era as Rome . The true history of Angkor Wat was pieced together only from stylistic and epigraphic evidence accumulated during the subsequent clearing and restoration work carried out across the whole Angkor site . There were no ordinary dwellings or houses or other signs of settlement including cooking utensils , weapons , or items of clothing usually found at ancient sites . Instead there is the evidence of the monuments themselves . Angkor Wat required considerable restoration in the 20th century , mainly the removal of accumulated earth and vegetation . Work was interrupted by the civil war and Khmer Rouge control of the country during the 1970s and 1980s , but relatively little damage was done during this period . Camping Khmer Rouge forces used whatever wood remained in the building structures for firewood , a pavilion was ruined by a stray American shell , and a shoot @-@ out between Khmer Rouge and Vietnamese forces put a few bullet holes in a bas relief . Far more damage was done after the wars , by art thieving working out of Thailand , which , in the late 1980s and early 1990s , claimed almost every head that could be lopped off the structures , including reconstructions . The temple is a powerful symbol of Cambodia , and is a source of great national pride that has factored into Cambodia 's diplomatic relations with France , the United States and its neighbor Thailand . A depiction of Angkor Wat has been a part of Cambodian national flags since the introduction of the first version circa 1863 . From a larger historical and even transcultural perspective , however , the temple of Angkor Wat did not become a symbol of national pride sui generis but had been inscribed into a larger politico @-@ cultural process of French @-@ colonial heritage production in which the original temple site was presented in French colonial and universal exhibitions in Paris and Marseille between 1889 and 1937 . Angkor Wat 's aesthetics were also on display in the plaster cast museum of Louis Delaporte called musée Indo @-@ chinois which existed in the Parisian Trocadero Palace from c.1880 to the mid @-@ 1920s . The splendid artistic legacy of Angkor Wat and other Khmer monuments in the Angkor region led directly to France adopting Cambodia as a protectorate on 11 August 1863 and invading Siam to take control of the ruins . This quickly led to Cambodia reclaiming lands in the northwestern corner of the country that had been under Siamese ( Thai ) control since 1351 AD ( Manich Jumsai 2001 ) , or by some accounts , 1431 AD . Cambodia gained independence from France on 9 November 1953 and has controlled Angkor Wat since that time . It is safe to say that from the colonial period onwards until the site 's nomination as UNESCO World Heritage in 1992 , this specific temple of Angkor Wat was instrumental in the formation of the modern and gradually globalized concept of built cultural heritage . In December 2015 , it was announced that a research team from University of Sydney had found a previously unseen ensemble of buried towers built and demolished during the construction of Angkor Wat , as well as massive structure of unknown purpose on its south side and wooden fortifications . The findings also include evidence of low @-@ density residential occupation in the region , with a road grid , ponds and mounds . These indicate that the temple precinct , bounded by moat and wall , may not have been used exclusively by the priestly elite , as was previously thought . The team used LiDAR , ground @-@ penetrating radar and targeted excavation to map Angkor Wat . = = Architecture = = = = = Site and plan = = = Angkor Wat , located at 13 ° 24 ′ 45 ″ N 103 ° 52 ′ 0 ″ E , is a unique combination of the temple mountain ( the standard design for the empire 's state temples ) and the later plan of concentric galleries . The temple is a representation of Mount Meru , the home of the gods : the central quincunx of towers symbolises the five peaks of the mountain , and the walls and moat symbolise the surrounding mountain ranges and ocean . Access to the upper areas of the temple was progressively more exclusive , with the laity being admitted only to the lowest level . Unlike most Khmer temples , Angkor Wat is oriented to the west rather than the east . This has led many ( including Maurice Glaize and George Coedès ) to conclude that Suryavarman intended it to serve as his funerary temple . Further evidence for this view is provided by the bas @-@ reliefs , which proceed in a counter @-@ clockwise direction — prasavya in Hindu terminology — as this is the reverse of the normal order . Rituals take place in reverse order during Brahminic funeral services . The archaeologist Charles Higham also describes a container which may have been a funerary jar which was recovered from the central tower . It has been nominated by some as the greatest expenditure of energy on the disposal of a corpse . Freeman and Jacques , however , note that several other temples of Angkor depart from the typical eastern orientation , and suggest that Angkor Wat 's alignment was due to its dedication to Vishnu , who was associated with the west . A further interpretation of Angkor Wat has been proposed by Eleanor Mannikka . Drawing on the temple 's alignment and dimensions , and on the content and arrangement of the bas @-@ reliefs , she argues that the structure represents a claimed new era of peace under King Suryavarman II : " as the measurements of solar and lunar time cycles were built into the sacred space of Angkor Wat , this divine mandate to rule was anchored to consecrated chambers and corridors meant to perpetuate the king 's power and to honor and placate the deities manifest in the heavens above . " Mannikka 's suggestions have been received with a mixture of interest and scepticism in academic circles . She distances herself from the speculations of others , such as Graham Hancock , that Angkor Wat is part of a representation of the constellation Draco . = = = Style = = = Angkor Wat is the prime example of the classical style of Khmer architecture — the Angkor Wat style — to which it has given its name . By the 12th century Khmer architects had become skilled and confident in the use of sandstone ( rather than brick or laterite ) as the main building material . Most of the visible areas are of sandstone blocks , while laterite was used for the outer wall and for hidden structural parts . The binding agent used to join the blocks is yet to be identified , although natural resins or slaked lime has been suggested . The temple has drawn praise above all for the harmony of its design . According to Maurice Glaize , a mid @-@ 20th @-@ century conservator of Angkor , the temple " attains a classic perfection by the restrained monumentality of its finely balanced elements and the precise arrangement of its proportions . It is a work of power , unity and style . " Architecturally , the elements characteristic of the style include : the ogival , redented towers shaped like lotus buds ; half @-@ galleries to broaden passageways ; axial galleries connecting enclosures ; and the cruciform terraces which appear along the main axis of the temple . Typical decorative elements are devatas ( or apsaras ) , bas @-@ reliefs , and on pediments extensive garlands and narrative scenes . The statuary of Angkor Wat is considered conservative , being more static and less graceful than earlier work . Other elements of the design have been destroyed by looting and the passage of time , including gilded stucco on the towers , gilding on some figures on the bas @-@ reliefs , and wooden ceiling panels and doors . = = = Features = = = = = = = Outer enclosure = = = = The outer wall , 1 @,@ 024 m ( 3 @,@ 360 ft ) by 802 m ( 2 @,@ 631 ft ) and 4 @.@ 5 m ( 15 ft ) high , is surrounded by a 30 m ( 98 ft ) apron of open ground and a moat 190 m ( 620 ft ) wide . Access to the temple is by an earth bank to the east and a sandstone causeway to the west ; the latter , the main entrance , is a later addition , possibly replacing a wooden bridge . There are gopuras at each of the cardinal points ; the western is by far the largest and has three ruined towers . Glaize notes that this gopura both hides and echoes the form of the temple proper . Under the southern tower is a statue of Vishnu , known as Ta Reach , which may originally have occupied the temple 's central shrine . Galleries run between the towers and as far as two further entrances on either side of the gopura often referred to as " elephant gates " , as they are large enough to admit those animals . These galleries have square pillars on the outer ( west ) side and a closed wall on the inner ( east ) side . The ceiling between the pillars is decorated with lotus rosettes ; the west face of the wall with dancing figures ; and the east face of the wall with balustered windows , dancing male figures on prancing animals , and devatas , including ( south of the entrance ) the only one in the temple to be showing her teeth . The outer wall encloses a space of 820 @,@ 000 square metres ( 203 acres ) , which besides the temple proper was originally occupied by the city and , to the north of the temple , the royal palace . Like all secular buildings of Angkor , these were built of perishable materials rather than of stone , so nothing remains of them except the outlines of some of the streets . Most of the area is now covered by forest . A 350 m ( 1 @,@ 150 ft ) causeway connects the western gopura to the temple proper , with naga balustrades and six sets of steps leading down to the city on either side . Each side also features a library with entrances at each cardinal point , in front of the third set of stairs from the entrance , and a pond between the library and the temple itself . The ponds are later additions to the design , as is the cruciform terrace guarded by lions connecting the causeway to the central structure . = = = = Central structure = = = = The temple stands on a terrace raised higher than the city . It is made of three rectangular galleries rising to a central tower , each level higher than the last . Mannikka interprets these galleries as being dedicated to the king , Brahma , the moon , and Vishnu . Each gallery has a gopura at each of the points , and the two inner galleries each have towers at their corners , forming a quincunx with the central tower . Because the temple faces west , the features are all set back towards the east , leaving more space to be filled in each enclosure and gallery on the west side ; for the same reason the west @-@ facing steps are shallower than those on the other sides . The outer gallery measures 187 m ( 614 ft ) by 215 m ( 705 ft ) , with pavilions rather than towers at the corners . The gallery is open to the outside of the temple , with columned half @-@ galleries extending and buttressing the structure . Connecting the outer gallery to the second enclosure on the west side is a cruciform cloister called Preah Poan ( the " Hall of a Thousand Gods " ) . Buddha images were left in the cloister by pilgrims over the centuries , although most have now been removed . This area has many inscriptions relating the good deeds of pilgrims , most written in Khmer but others in Burmese and Japanese . The four small courtyards marked out by the cloister may originally have been filled with water . North and south of the cloister are libraries . Beyond , the second and inner galleries are connected to each other and to two flanking libraries by another cruciform terrace , again a later addition . From the second level upwards , devatas abound on the walls , singly or in groups of up to four . The second @-@ level enclosure is 100 m ( 330 ft ) by 115 m ( 377 ft ) , and may originally have been flooded to represent the ocean around Mount Meru . Three sets of steps on each side lead up to the corner towers and gopuras of the inner gallery . The very steep stairways represent the difficulty of ascending to the kingdom of the gods . This inner gallery , called the Bakan , is a 60 m ( 200 ft ) square with axial galleries connecting each gopura with the central shrine , and subsidiary shrines located below the corner towers . The roofings of the galleries are decorated with the motif of the body of a snake ending in the heads of lions or garudas . Carved lintels and pediments decorate the entrances to the galleries and to the shrines . The tower above the central shrine rises 43 m ( 141 ft ) to a height of 65 m ( 213 ft ) above the ground ; unlike those of previous temple mountains , the central tower is raised above the surrounding four . The shrine itself , originally occupied by a statue of Vishnu and open on each side , was walled in when the temple was converted to Theravada Buddhism , the new walls featuring standing Buddhas . In 1934 , the conservator George Trouvé excavated the pit beneath the central shrine : filled with sand and water it had already been robbed of its treasure , but he did find a sacred foundation deposit of gold leaf two metres above ground level . = = = = Decoration = = = = Integrated with the architecture of the building , and one of the causes for its fame is Angkor Wat 's extensive decoration , which predominantly takes the form of bas @-@ relief friezes . The inner walls of the outer gallery bear a series of large @-@ scale scenes mainly depicting episodes from the Hindu epics the Ramayana and the Mahabharata . Higham has called these , " the greatest known linear arrangement of stone carving " . From the north @-@ west corner anti @-@ clockwise , the western gallery shows the Battle of Lanka ( from the Ramayana , in which Rama defeats Ravana ) and the Battle of Kurukshetra ( from the Mahabharata , showing the mutual annihilation of the Kaurava and Pandava clans ) . On the southern gallery follow the only historical scene , a procession of Suryavarman II , then the 32 hells and 37 heavens of Hinduism . On the eastern gallery is one of the most celebrated scenes , the Churning of the Sea of Milk , showing 92 asuras and 88 devas using the serpent Vasuki to churn the sea under Vishnu 's direction ( Mannikka counts only 91 asuras , and explains the asymmetrical numbers as representing the number of days from the winter solstice to the spring equinox , and from the equinox to the summer solstice ) . It is followed by Vishnu defeating asuras ( a 16th @-@ century addition ) . The northern gallery shows Krishna 's victory over Bana ( where according to Glaize , " The workmanship is at its worst " ) , and a battle between the Hindu gods and asuras . The north @-@ west and south @-@ west corner pavilions both feature much smaller @-@ scale scenes , some unidentified but most from the Ramayana or the life of Krishna . Angkor Wat is decorated with depictions of apsaras and devata ; there are more than 1 @,@ 796 depictions of devata in the present research inventory . Angkor Wat architects employed small apsara images ( 30 cm ( 12 in ) – 40 cm ( 16 in ) ) as decorative motifs on pillars and walls . They incorporated larger devata images ( all full @-@ body portraits measuring approximately 95 cm ( 37 in ) – 110 cm ( 43 in ) ) more prominently at every level of the temple from the entry pavilion to the tops of the high towers . In 1927 , Sappho Marchal published a study cataloging the remarkable diversity of their hair , headdresses , garments , stance , jewelry and decorative flowers , which Marchal concluded were based on actual practices of the Angkor period . = = = Construction techniques = = = The stones , as smooth as polished marble , were laid without mortar with very tight joints that are sometimes hard to find . The blocks were held together by mortise and tenon joints in some cases , while in others they used dovetails and gravity . The blocks were presumably put in place by a combination of elephants , coir ropes , pulleys and bamboo scaffolding . Henri Mouhot noted that most of the blocks had holes 2 @.@ 5 cm ( 0 @.@ 98 in ) in diameter and 3 cm ( 1 @.@ 2 in ) deep , with more holes on the larger blocks . Some scholars have suggested that these were used to join them together with iron rods , but others claim they were used to hold temporary pegs to help manoeuvre them into place . The monument was made out of millions of tonnes of sandstone and its volume and mass are similar to those of the Pyramid of Menkaure in Egypt . The Angkor Wat temple consumed about 5 million to 10 million asndstone bricks with a maximum weight of 1 @.@ 5 tons each . In fact , the entire city of Angkor used up far greater amounts of stone than all the Egyptian pyramids combined , and occupied an area significantly greater than modern @-@ day Paris . Moreover , unlike the Egyptian pyramids which use limestone quarried barely 0 @.@ 5 km ( 0 @.@ 31 mi ) away all the time , the entire city of Angkor was built with sandstone quarried 40 km ( 25 mi ) ( or more ) away . This sandstone had to be transported from Mount Kulen , a quarry approximately 25 miles ( 40 km ) to the northeast . The route has been suggested to span 35 kilometres ( 22 mi ) along a canal towards Tonlé Sap lake , another 35 kilometres ( 22 mi ) crossing the lake , and finally 15 kilometres ( 9 @.@ 3 mi ) against the current along Siem Reap River , making a total journey of 90 kilometres ( 56 mi ) . However , Etsuo Uchida and Ichita Shimoda of Waseda University in Tokyo , Japan have discovered in 2012 a shorter 35 @-@ kilometre ( 22 mi ) canal connecting Mount Kulen and Angkor Wat using satellite imagery . The two believe that the Khmer used this route instead . Virtually all of its surfaces , columns , lintels and even roofs are carved . There are miles of reliefs illustrating scenes from Indian literature including unicorns , griffins , winged dragons pulling chariots as well as warriors following an elephant @-@ mounted leader and celestial dancing girls with elaborate hair styles . The gallery wall alone is decorated with almost 1 @,@ 000 square metres of bas reliefs . Holes on some of the Angkor walls indicate that they may have been decorated with bronze sheets . These were highly prized in ancient times and were a prime target for robbers . While excavating Khajuraho , Alex Evans , a stonemason and sculptor , recreated a stone sculpture under 4 feet ( 1 @.@ 2 m ) , this took about 60 days to carve . Roger Hopkins and Mark Lehner also conducted experiments to quarry limestone which took 12 quarrymen 22 days to quarry about 400 tons of stone . The labor force to quarry , transport , carve and install so much sandstone must have run into the thousands including many highly skilled artisans . The skills required to carve these sculptures were developed hundreds of years earlier , as demonstrated by some artifacts that have been dated to the seventh century , before the Khmer came to power . = = Angkor Wat today = = = = = Restoration and conservation = = = As with most other ancient temples in Cambodia , Angkor Wat has faced extensive damage and deterioration by a combination of plant overgrowth , fungi , ground movements , war damage and theft . The war damage to Angkor Wat 's temples has been very limited , compared to the rest of Cambodia 's temple ruins , and it has received the most attentive restoration . The restoration of Angkor Wat in the modern era began with the establishment of the Conservation d 'Angkor ( Angkor Conservancy ) by the École française d 'Extrême @-@ Orient ( EFEO ) in 1908 ; before that date , activities at the site were primarily concerned with exploration . The Conservation d 'Angkor was responsible for the research , conservation , and restoration activities carried out at Angkor until the early 1970s , and a major restoration of Angkor was undertaken in the 1960s . However , work on Angkor was abandoned during the Khmer Rouge era and the Conservation d 'Angkor was disbanded in 1975 . Between 1986 and 1992 , the Archaeological Survey of India carried out restoration work on the temple , as France did not recognize the Cambodian government at the time . Criticism has been raised about both the early French restoration attempts and particularly the later Indian work , with concerns over damage done to the stone surface by the use of chemicals and cement . In 1992 , following an appeal for help by Norodom Sihanouk , Angkor Wat was listed in UNESCO 's World Heritage in Danger ( later removed in 2004 ) and World Heritage Site together with an appeal by UNESCO to the international community to save Angkor . Zoning of the area was set up to protect the Angkor site in 1994 , APSARA was established in 1995 to protect and manage the area , and a law to protect Cambodian heritage was passed in 1996 . A number of countries such as France , Japan and China are involved in various Angkor Wat conservation projects . The German Apsara Conservation Project ( GACP ) is working to protect the devatas and other bas @-@ reliefs which decorate the temple from damage . The organisation 's survey found that around 20 % of the devatas were in very poor condition , mainly because of natural erosion and deterioration of the stone but in part also due to earlier restoration efforts . Other work involves the repair of collapsed sections of the structure , and prevention of further collapse : the west facade of the upper level , for example , has been buttressed by scaffolding since 2002 , while a Japanese team completed restoration of the north library of the outer enclosure in 2005 . World Monuments Fund began conservation work on the Churning of the Sea of Milk Gallery in 2008 after several years of studies on its condition . The project restored the traditional Khmer roofing system and removed cement used in earlier restoration attempts that had resulted in salts entering the structure behind the bas @-@ relief , discoloring and damaging the sculpted surfaces . The main phase of work ended in 2012 , with the final component being the installation of finials on the roof of the gallery in 2013 . Microbial biofilms have been found degrading sandstone at Angkor Wat , Preah Khan , and the Bayon and West Prasat in Angkor . The dehydration- and radiation @-@ resistant filamentous cyanobacteria can produce organic acids that degrade the stone . A dark filamentous fungus was found in internal and external Preah Khan samples , while the alga Trentepohlia was found only in samples taken from external , pink @-@ stained stone at Preah Khan . Replicas were also made to replace some of the lost or damaged sculptures . = = = Tourism = = = Since the 1990s , Angkor Wat has become a major tourist destination . In 1993 , there were only 7 @,@ 650 visitors to the site ; by 2004 , government figures show that 561 @,@ 000 foreign visitors had arrived in Siem Reap province that year , approximately 50 % of all foreign tourists in Cambodia . The number reached over a million in 2007 , and over two million by 2012 . Most visited Angkor Wat , which received over two million foreign tourists in 2013 . The site has been managed by the private SOKIMEX group since 1990 , which rented it from the Cambodian government . The influx of tourists has so far caused relatively little damage , other than some graffiti ; ropes and wooden steps have been introduced to protect the bas @-@ reliefs and floors , respectively . Tourism has also provided some additional funds for maintenance — as of 2000 approximately 28 % of ticket revenues across the whole Angkor site was spent on the temples — although most work is carried out by foreign government @-@ sponsored teams rather than by the Cambodian authorities . Since Angkor Wat has seen significant growth in tourism throughout the years UNESCO and its International Co @-@ ordinating Committee for the Safeguarding and Development of the Historic Site of Angkor ( ICC ) , in association with representatives from the Royal Government and APSARA , organized seminars to discuss the concept of " cultural tourism " . Wanting to avoid commercial and mass tourism , the seminars emphasized the importance of providing high quality accommodation and services in order for the Cambodian government to benefit economically , while also incorporating the richness of Cambodian culture . In 2001 , this incentive resulted in the concept of the " Angkor Tourist City " which would be developed with regard to traditional Khmer architecture , contain leisure and tourist facilities , and provide luxurious hotels capable of accommodating large amounts of tourists . The prospect of developing such large tourist accommodations has encountered concerns from both APSARA and the ICC , claiming that previous tourism developments in the area have neglected construction regulations and more of these projects have the potential to damage landscape features . Also , the large scale of these projects have begun to threaten the quality of the nearby town 's water , sewage , and electricity systems . It has been noted that such high frequency of tourism and growing demand for quality accommodations in the area , such as the development of a large highway , has had a direct effect on the underground water table , subsequently straining the structural stability of the temples at Angkor Wat . Locals of Siem Reap have also voiced concern that the charm and atmosphere of their town have been compromised in order to entertain tourism . Since this local atmosphere is the key component to projects like Angkor Tourist City , the local officials continue to discuss how to successfully incorporate future tourism without sacrificing local values and culture . At the ASEAN Tourism Forum 2012 , it was agreed that Borobudur and Angkor Wat would become sister sites and the provinces sister provinces . = = Gallery = =
= Zanzibar Revolution = The Zanzibar Revolution occurred in 1964 and led to the overthrow of the Sultan of Zanzibar and his mainly Arab government by local African revolutionaries . Zanzibar was an ethnically diverse state consisting of a number of islands off the east coast of Tanganyika which had been granted independence by Britain in 1963 . In a series of parliamentary elections preceding independence , the Arab minority succeeded in retaining the hold on power it had inherited from Zanzibar 's former existence as an overseas territory of Oman . Frustrated by under @-@ representation in Parliament despite winning 54 % of the vote in the July 1963 election , the mainly African Afro @-@ Shirazi Party ( ASP ) allied itself with the left @-@ wing Umma Party , and early on the morning of 12 January 1964 ASP member John Okello mobilised around 600 – 800 revolutionaries on the main island of Unguja ( Zanzibar Island ) . Having overrun the country 's police force and appropriated their weaponry , the insurgents proceeded to Zanzibar Town where they overthrew the Sultan and his government . Reprisals against Arab and South Asian civilians on the island followed ; the resulting death toll is disputed , with estimates ranging from several hundred to 20 @,@ 000 . The moderate ASP leader Abeid Karume became the country 's new president and head of state , and positions of power were granted to Umma party members . The new government 's apparent communist ties concerned Western governments . As Zanzibar lay within the British sphere of influence , the British government drew up a number of intervention plans . However , the feared communist government never materialised , and because British and United States citizens were successfully evacuated these plans were not put into effect . Meanwhile , the communist bloc powers of China , East Germany and the Soviet Union established friendly relations with the new government by recognising the country and sending advisors . Karume succeeded in negotiating a merger of Zanzibar with Tanganyika to form the new nation of Tanzania ; an act judged by contemporary media to be an attempt to prevent communist subversion of Zanzibar . The revolution ended 200 years of Arab dominance in Zanzibar , and is commemorated on the island each year with anniversary celebrations and a public holiday . = = Background = = The Zanzibar Archipelago , now part of the Southeast African republic of Tanzania , is a group of islands lying in the Indian Ocean off the coast of Tanganyika . It comprises the main southern island of Unguja ( also known as Zanzibar ) , the smaller northern island of Pemba , and numerous surrounding islets . With a long history of Arab rule dating back to 1698 , Zanzibar was an overseas territory of Oman until it achieved independence in 1858 under its own Sultanate . In 1890 during Ali ibn Sa 'id 's reign , Zanzibar became a British protectorate , and although never formally under direct rule was considered part of the British Empire . By 1964 , the country was a constitutional monarchy ruled by Sultan Jamshid bin Abdullah . Zanzibar had a population of around 230 @,@ 000 Africans — some of whom claimed Persian ancestry and were known locally as Shirazis — and also contained significant minorities in the 50 @,@ 000 Arabs and 20 @,@ 000 South Asians who were prominent in business and trade . The various ethnic groups were becoming mixed and the distinctions between them had blurred ; according to one historian , an important reason for the general support for Sultan Jamshid was his family 's ethnic diversity . However , the island 's Arab inhabitants , as the major landowners , were generally wealthier than the Africans ; the major political parties were organised largely along ethnic lines , with Arabs dominating the Zanzibar Nationalist Party ( ZNP ) and Africans the Afro @-@ Shirazi Party ( ASP ) . In January 1961 , as part of the process of decolonisation , the island 's British authorities drew up constituencies and held democratic elections . Both the ASP and the ZNP won 11 of the available 22 seats in Zanzibar 's Parliament , so further elections were held in June with the number of seats increased to 23 . The ZNP entered into a coalition with the Zanzibar and Pemba People 's Party ( ZPPP ) and this time took 13 seats , while the ASP , despite receiving the most votes , won just 10 . Electoral fraud was suspected by the ASP and civil disorder broke out , resulting in 68 deaths . To maintain control , the coalition government banned the more radical opposition parties , filled the civil service with its own appointees , and politicised the police . In 1963 , with the number of parliamentary seats increased to 31 , another election saw a repeat of the 1961 votes . Due to the layout of the constituencies the ASP , led by Abeid Amani Karume , won 54 percent of the popular vote but only 13 seats , while the ZNP / ZPPP won the rest and set about strengthening its hold on power . The Umma Party , formed that year by disaffected radical Arab socialist supporters of the ZNP , was banned , and all policemen of African mainland origin were dismissed . This removed a large portion of the only security force on the island , and created an angry group of paramilitary @-@ trained men with knowledge of police buildings , equipment and procedures . Furthermore , the new Arab @-@ dominated government made it clear that in foreign policy , the Sultanate of Zanzibar would be seeking close links with the Arab world , especially Egypt and had no interest in forging relationships with the nations on the African mainland as the black majority wished . Slavery had been abolished in Zanzibar in 1897 , but much of the Arab elite who dominated the island 's politics made little effort to hide their racist views of the black majority as their inferiors , a people fit only for slavery . Memories of Arab slave @-@ trading in the past ( some of the older blacks had been slaves in their youth ) together with a distinctly patronizing view of the Arab elite towards the black majority in the present meant that much of the black population of Zanzibar had a ferocious hatred of the Arabs , viewing the new Arab @-@ dominated government as illegitimate . Complete independence from British rule was granted on 10 December 1963 , with the ZNP / ZPPP coalition as the governing body . The government requested a defence agreement from the United Kingdom , asking for a battalion of British troops to be stationed on the island for internal security duties , but this was rejected as it was deemed inappropriate for British troops to be involved in the maintenance of law and order so soon after independence . British intelligence reports predicted that a civil disturbance , accompanied by increasing communist activity , was likely in the near future and that the arrival of British troops might cause the situation to deteriorate further . However , many foreign nationals remained on the island , including 130 Britons who were direct employees of the Zanzibar government . = = Revolution = = Around 3 : 00 am on 12 January 1964 , 600 – 800 poorly armed , mainly African insurgents , aided by some of the recently dismissed ex @-@ policemen , attacked Unguja 's police stations , both of its police armouries , and the radio station . The Arab police replacements had received almost no training and , despite responding with a mobile force , were soon overcome . Arming themselves with hundreds of captured automatic rifles , submachine guns and Bren guns , the insurgents took control of strategic buildings in the capital , Zanzibar Town . Within six hours of the outbreak of hostilities , the town 's telegraph office and main government buildings were under revolutionary control , and the island 's only airstrip was captured at 2 : 18 pm . The Sultan , together with Prime Minister Muhammad Shamte Hamadi and members of the cabinet , fled the island on the royal yacht Seyyid Khalifa , and the Sultan 's palace and other property was seized by the revolutionary government . At least 80 people were killed and 200 injured , the majority of whom were Arabs , during the 12 hours of street fighting that followed . Sixty @-@ one American citizens , including 16 men staffing a NASA satellite tracking station , sought sanctuary in the English Club in Zanzibar Town , and four US journalists were detained by the island 's new government . According to the official Zanzibari history , the revolution was planned and headed by the ASP leader Abeid Amani Karume . However , at the time Karume was on the African mainland as was the leader of the banned Umma Party , Abdulrahman Muhammad Babu . The ASP branch secretary for Pemba , Ugandan @-@ born ex @-@ policeman John Okello , had sent Karume to the mainland to ensure his safety . Okello had arrived in Zanzibar from Kenya in 1959 , claiming to have been a field marshal for the Kenyan rebels during the Mau Mau Uprising , although he actually had no military experience . He maintained that he heard a voice commanding him , as a Christian , to free the Zanzibari people from the Muslim Arabs , and it was Okello who led the revolutionaries — mainly unemployed members of the Afro @-@ Shirazi Youth League — on 12 January . One commentator has further speculated that it was probably Okello , with the Youth League , who planned the revolution . During the revolution , there was an orgy of violence committed against the South Asian and Arab communities with thousands of women being raped by the Okello 's followers , much looting and massacres of Arabs all over the island . The American diplomat Don Petterson described the killings of Arabs by the African majority as an act of genocide . = = Aftermath = = A Revolutionary Council was established by the ASP and Umma parties to act as an interim government , with Karume heading the council as President and Babu serving as the Minister of External Affairs . The country was renamed the People 's Republic of Zanzibar and Pemba ; the new government 's first acts were to permanently banish the Sultan and to ban the ZNP and ZPPP . Seeking to distance himself from the volatile Okello , Karume quietly sidelined him from the political scene , although he was allowed to retain his self @-@ bestowed title of field marshal . However , Okello 's revolutionaries soon began reprisals against the Arab and Asian population of Unguja , carrying out beatings , rapes , murders , and attacks on property . He claimed in radio speeches to have killed or imprisoned tens of thousands of his " enemies and stooges " , but actual estimates of the number of deaths vary greatly , from " hundreds " to 20 @,@ 000 . Some Western newspapers give figures of 2 @,@ 000 – 4 @,@ 000 ; the higher numbers may be inflated by Okello 's own broadcasts and exaggerated reports in some Western and Arab news media . The killing of Arab prisoners and their burial in mass graves was documented by an Italian film crew , filming from a helicopter , for Africa Addio and this sequence of film comprises the only known visual document of the killings . Many Arabs fled to safety in Oman , although by Okello 's order no Europeans were harmed . The post @-@ revolution violence did not spread to Pemba . By 3 February Zanzibar was finally returning to normality , and Karume had been widely accepted by the people as their president . A police presence was back on the streets , looted shops were re @-@ opening , and unlicensed arms were being surrendered by the civilian populace . The revolutionary government announced that its political prisoners , numbering 500 , would be tried by special courts . Okello formed the Freedom Military Force ( FMF ) , a paramilitary unit made up of his own supporters , which patrolled the streets and looted Arab property . The behaviour of Okello 's supporters , his violent rhetoric , Ugandan accent , and Christian beliefs were alienating many in the largely moderate Zanzibari and Muslim ASP , and by March many members of his FMF had been disarmed by Karume 's supporters and the Umma Party militia . On 11 March Okello was officially stripped of his rank of Field Marshal , and was denied entry when trying to return to Zanzibar from a trip to the mainland . He was deported to Tanganyika and then to Kenya , before returning destitute to his native Uganda . In April the government formed the People 's Liberation Army ( PLA ) and completed the disarmament of Okello 's remaining FMF militia . On 26 April Karume announced that a union had been negotiated with Tanganyika to form the new country of Tanzania . The merger was seen by contemporary media as a means of preventing communist subversion of Zanzibar ; at least one historian states that it may have been an attempt by Karume , a moderate socialist , to limit the influence of the radically left @-@ wing Umma Party . However , many of the Umma Party 's socialist policies on health , education and social welfare were adopted by the government . = = Foreign reaction = = British military forces in Kenya were made aware of the revolution at 4 : 45 am on 12 January , and following a request from the Sultan were put on 15 minutes ' standby to conduct an assault on Zanzibar 's airfield . However , the British High Commissioner in Zanzibar , Timothy Crosthwait , reported no instances of British nationals being attacked and advised against intervention . As a result , the British troops in Kenya were reduced to four hours ' standby later that evening . Crosthwait decided not to approve an immediate evacuation of British citizens , as many held key government positions and their sudden removal would further disrupt the country 's economy and government . To avoid possible bloodshed , the British agreed a timetable with Karume for an organised evacuation . Within hours of the revolution , the American ambassador had authorised the withdrawal of US citizens on the island , and a US Navy destroyer , the USS Manley , arrived on 13 January . The Manley docked at Zanzibar Town harbour , but the US had not sought the Revolutionary Council 's permission for the evacuation , and the ship was met by a group of armed men . Permission was eventually granted on 15 January , but the British considered this confrontation to be the cause of much subsequent ill will against the Western powers in Zanzibar . Western intelligence agencies believed that the revolution had been organised by communists supplied with weapons by the Warsaw Pact countries . This suspicion was strengthened by the appointment of Babu as Minister for External Affairs and Abdullah Kassim Hanga as Prime Minister , both known leftists with possible communist ties . Britain believed that these two were close associates of Oscar Kambona , the Foreign Affairs Minister of Tanganyika , and that former members of the Tanganyika Rifles had been made available to assist with the revolution . Some members of the Umma Party wore Cuban military fatigues and beards in the style of Fidel Castro , which was taken as an indication of Cuban support for the revolution . However this practice was started by those members who had staffed a ZNP branch office in Cuba and it became a common means of dress amongst opposition party members in the months leading up to the revolution . The new Zanzibar government 's recognition of the German Democratic Republic ( the first African government to do so ) , and of North Korea , was further evidence to the Western Powers that Zanzibar was aligning itself closely with the communist bloc . Just six days after the revolution the New York Times stated that Zanzibar was " on the verge of becoming the Cuba of Africa " , but on 26 January denied that there was active communist involvement . Zanzibar continued to receive support from communist countries and by February was known to be receiving advisers from USSR , East Germany and China . Cuba also lent its support with Che Guevara stating on 15 August that " Zanzibar is our friend and we gave them our small bit of assistance , our fraternal assistance , our revolutionary assistance at the moment when it was necessary " but denying there were Cuban troops present during the revolution . At the same time , western influence was diminishing and by July 1964 just one Briton , a dentist , remained in the employ of the Zanzibari government . It has been alleged that Israeli spymaster David Kimche was a backer of the revolution with Kimche in Zanzibar on the day of the Revolution . The deposed Sultan made an unsuccessful appeal to Kenya and Tanganyika for military assistance , although Tanganyika sent 100 paramilitary police officers to Zanzibar to contain rioting . Other than the Tanganyika Rifles ( formerly the colonial King 's African Rifles ) , the police were the only armed force in Tanganyika , and on 20 January the police absence led the entire Rifles regiment to mutiny . Dissatisfied with their low pay rates and with the slow progress of the replacement of their British officers with Africans , the soldiers ' mutiny sparked similar uprisings in both Uganda and Kenya . However , order on the African mainland was rapidly restored without serious incident by the British Army and Royal Marines . The possible emergence of an African communist state remained a source of disquiet in the West . In February , the British Defence and Overseas Policy Committee said that , while British commercial interests in Zanzibar were " minute " and the revolution by itself was " not important " , the possibility of intervention must be maintained . The committee was concerned that Zanzibar could become a centre for the promotion of communism in Africa , much like Cuba had in the Americas . Britain , most of the Commonwealth , and the USA withheld recognition of the new regime until 23 February , by which time it had already been recognised by much of the communist bloc . In Crosthwait 's opinion , this contributed to Zanzibar aligning itself with the Soviet Union ; Crosthwait and his staff were expelled from the country on 20 February and were only allowed to return once recognition had been agreed . = = = British military response = = = Following the evacuation of its citizens on 13 January , the US government stated that it recognised that Zanzibar lay within Britain 's sphere of influence , and would not intervene . The US did , however , urge that Britain cooperate with other Southeast African countries to restore order . The first British military vessel on the scene was the survey ship HMS Owen , which was diverted from the Kenyan coast and arrived on the evening of 12 January . Owen was joined on 15 January by the frigate Rhyl and the Royal Fleet Auxiliary ship Hebe . While the lightly armed Owen had been able to provide the revolutionaries with an unobtrusive reminder of Britain 's military power , the Hebe and Rhyl were different matters . Due to inaccurate reports that the situation in Zanzibar was deteriorating , the Rhyl was carrying a company of troops of the first battalion of the Staffordshire Regiment from Kenya , the embarkation of which was widely reported in the Kenyan media , and would hinder British negotiations with Zanzibar . The Hebe had just finished removing stores from the naval depot at Mombasa and was loaded with weapons and explosives . Although the Revolutionary Council was unaware of the nature of Hebe 's cargo , the Royal Navy 's refusal to allow a search of the ship created suspicion ashore and rumours circulated that she was an amphibious assault ship . A partial evacuation of British citizens was completed by 17 January , when the army riots in Southeast Africa prompted Rhyl 's diversion to Tanganyika so the troops she was carrying could assist in quelling the mutiny . In replacement , a company of the Gordon Highlanders was loaded aboard Owen so an intervention could still be made if necessary . The aircraft carriers Centaur and Victorious were also transferred to the region as part of Operation Parthenon . Although never enacted , Parthenon was intended as a precaution should Okello or the Umma party radicals attempt to seize power from the more moderate ASP . In addition to the two carriers , the plan involved three destroyers , Owen , 13 helicopters , 21 transport and reconnaissance aircraft , the second battalion of the Scots Guards , 45 Commando of the Royal Marines and one company of the second battalion of the Parachute Regiment . The island of Unguja , and its airport , were to be seized by parachute and helicopter assault , followed up by the occupation of Pemba . Parthenon would have been the largest British airborne and amphibious operation since the Suez Crisis . Following the revelation that the revolutionaries may have received communist bloc training , Operation Parthenon was replaced by Operation Boris . This called for a parachute assault on Unguja from Kenya , but was later abandoned due to poor security in Kenya and the Kenyan government 's opposition to the use of its airfields . Instead Operation Finery was drawn up , which would involve a helicopter assault by Royal Marines from HMS Bulwark , a commando carrier then stationed in the Middle East . As Bulwark was outside the region , Finery 's launch would require 14 days ' notice , so in the event that a more immediate response was necessary , suitable forces were placed on 24 hours ' notice to launch a smaller scale operation to protect British citizens . With the merger of Tanganyika and Zanzibar on 23 April , there were concerns that the Umma Party would stage a coup ; Operation Shed was designed to provide for intervention should this happen . Shed would have required a battalion of troops , with scout cars , to be airlifted to the island to seize the airfield and protect Karume 's government . However , the danger of a revolt over unification soon passed , and on 29 April the troops earmarked for Shed were reduced to 24 hours ' notice . Operation Finery was cancelled the same day . Concern over a possible coup remained though , and around 23 September Shed was replaced with Plan Giralda , involving the use of British troops from Aden and the Far East , to be enacted if the Umma Party attempted to overthrow President Julius Nyerere of Tanzania . An infantry battalion , tactical headquarters unit and elements of the Royal Marines would have been shipped to Zanzibar to launch an amphibious assault , supported by follow @-@ on troops from British bases in Kenya or Aden to maintain law and order . Giralda was scrapped in December , ending British plans for military intervention in the country . = = Legacy = = One of the main impacts of the revolution in Zanzibar was to break the power of the Arab / Asian ruling class , who had held it for around 200 years . Despite the merger with Tanganyika , Zanzibar retained a Revolutionary Council and House of Representatives which was , until 1992 , run on a one @-@ party system and has power over domestic matters . The domestic government is led by the President of Zanzibar , Karume being the first holder of this office . This government used the success of the revolution to implement reforms across the island . Many of these involved the removal of power from Arabs . The Zanzibar civil service , for example , became an almost entirely African organisation , and land was redistributed from Arabs to Africans . The revolutionary government also instituted social reforms such as free healthcare and opening up the education system to African students ( who had occupied only 12 % of secondary school places before the revolution ) . The government sought help from the Soviet Union , the German Democratic Republic ( GDR ) , and P. R. China for funding for several projects and military advice . The failure of several GDR @-@ led projects including the New Zanzibar Project , a 1968 urban redevelopment scheme to provide new apartments for all Zanzibaris , led to Zanzibar focussing on Chinese aid . The post @-@ revolution Zanzibar government was accused of draconian controls on personal freedoms and travel and exercised nepotism in appointments to political and industrial offices , the new Tanzanian government being powerless to intervene . Dissatisfaction with the government came to a head with the assassination of Karume on 7 April 1972 , which was followed by weeks of fighting between pro and anti @-@ government forces . A multi @-@ party system was eventually established in 1992 , but Zanzibar remains dogged by allegations of corruption and vote @-@ rigging , though the 2010 general election was seen to be a considerable improvement . The revolution itself remains an event of interest for Zanzibaris and academics . Historians have analysed the revolution as having a racial and a social basis with some stating that the African revolutionaries represent the proletariat rebelling against the ruling and trading classes , represented by the Arabs and South Asians . Others discount this theory and present it as a racial revolution that was exacerbated by economic disparity between races . Within Zanzibar , the revolution is a key cultural event , marked by the release of 545 prisoners on its tenth anniversary and by a military parade on its 40th . Zanzibar Revolution Day has been designated as a public holiday by the government of Tanzania ; it is celebrated on 12 January each year .
= HMS Emperor of India = HMS Emperor of India was an Iron Duke @-@ class battleship of the British Royal Navy . She was originally to have been named Delhi but was renamed before she was completed , to honour King George V , who was also Emperor of India . The ship was laid down on 31 May 1912 at the Vickers shipyard , and was launched on 27 November 1913 . The finished ship was commissioned a year later in November 1914 , shortly after the start of the First World War . She was armed with a main battery of ten 13 @.@ 5 @-@ inch ( 340 mm ) guns and was capable of a top speed of 21 @.@ 25 knots ( 39 @.@ 36 km / h ; 24 @.@ 45 mph ) . Upon commissioning , Emperor of India joined the 4th Battle Squadron of the Grand Fleet , based at Scapa Flow . She took part in numerous sorties into the northern North Sea to enforce the blockade of Germany , along with frequent training exercises and gunnery drills . Emperor of India was in dock for a refit in late May 1916 , so she was unavailable for the Battle of Jutland . The increased danger from submarines led both the Grand Fleet and the German High Seas Fleet to pursue more cautious strategies after Jutland , which led to a less eventful war . After the war , Emperor of India was sent to the Mediterranean Fleet , where she became involved in the Allied intervention in the Russian Civil War in the Black Sea in 1919 – 1921 . She remained in the Mediterranean until 1926 , when she was transferred to the Atlantic Fleet . The London Naval Treaty of 1930 mandated that Emperor of India and her three sister ships be dismantled . In 1931 , she and HMS Marlborough underwent a series of weapons tests that proved to be highly beneficial for future British battleship designs . Emperor of India was ultimately sold for scrap in February 1932 , and was broken up shortly thereafter . = = Design = = Emperor of India was 622 feet 9 inches ( 190 m ) long overall and had a beam of 90 ft ( 27 m ) and an average draught of 29 ft 6 in ( 9 m ) . She displaced 25 @,@ 000 long tons ( 25 @,@ 401 t ) as designed and up to 29 @,@ 560 long tons ( 30 @,@ 034 t ) at combat loading . Her propulsion system consisted of four Parsons steam turbines , with steam provided by eighteen Babcock & Wilcox boilers . The engines were rated at 29 @,@ 000 shaft horsepower ( 21 @,@ 625 kW ) and produced a top speed of 21 @.@ 25 kn ( 39 km / h ; 24 mph ) . Her cruising radius was 7 @,@ 800 nautical miles ( 14 @,@ 446 km ; 8 @,@ 976 mi ) at a more economical 10 kn ( 19 km / h ; 12 mph ) . Emperor of India had a crew of 995 officers and enlisted men , though during wartime this grew to up to 1 @,@ 022 . Emperor of India was armed with a main battery of ten BL 13 @.@ 5 @-@ inch Mk V naval guns mounted in five twin gun turrets . They were arranged in two superfiring pairs , one forward and one aft ; the fifth turret was located amidships , between the funnels and the rear superstructure . Close @-@ range defence against torpedo boats was provided by a secondary battery of twelve BL 6 @-@ inch Mk VII guns . The ship was also fitted with a pair of QF 3 @-@ inch 20 cwt anti @-@ aircraft guns and four 47 mm ( 2 in ) 3 @-@ pounder guns . As was typical for capital ships of the period , she was equipped with four 21 in ( 530 mm ) torpedo tubes submerged on the broadside . Emperor of India was protected by a main armoured belt that was 12 in ( 305 mm ) thick over the ship 's vitals . Her deck was 2 @.@ 5 in ( 64 mm ) thick . The main battery turret faces were 11 in ( 279 mm ) thick , and the turrets were supported by 10 in ( 254 mm ) thick barbettes . = = Service history = = Emperor of India was laid down at the Vickers shipyard on 31 May 1912 , originally to have been named Delhi . She was launched on 27 November 1913 and christened Emperor of India . The ship was commissioned into the Royal Navy 's Grand Fleet under Admiral John Jellicoe in November 1914 for sea trials , three months after the outbreak of World War I. The following month she was assigned to the 4th Battle Squadron as the second division flagship , where she served for the first two years of the war . On 1 December , Emperor of India and her sister ship Benbow arrived at the 4th Squadron to begin working up , before being pronounced fit for service with the fleet on 10 December . During this period , the rearmost 6 @-@ inch guns were removed from the four Iron Duke @-@ class ships and their casemates were sealed off , as they were too low in the hull and permitted water to continually enter the ship . = = = World War I = = = On 23 and 24 December , the 4th and 2nd Squadrons conducted gunnery practice north of the Hebrides . The following day , the entire fleet sortied for a sweep in the North Sea , which concluded on 27 December ; this was Emperor of India 's first fleet operation . Another round of gunnery drills followed on 10 – 13 January 1915 west of the Orkneys and Shetlands , this time with the entire fleet . On the evening of 23 January , the bulk of the Grand Fleet sailed in support of Beatty 's Battlecruiser Fleet , but the main fleet did not become engaged in the Battle of Dogger Bank that took place the following day . On 7 – 10 March , the Grand Fleet conducted a sweep in the northern North Sea , during which it conducted training manoeuvres . Another such cruise took place on 16 – 19 March . On 11 April , the Grand Fleet conducted a patrol in the central North Sea and returned to port on 14 April ; another patrol in the area took place on 17 – 19 April , followed by gunnery drills off the Shetlands on 20 – 21 April . The Grand Fleet conducted a sweep into the central North Sea on 17 – 19 May without encountering any German vessels . In mid @-@ June , the fleet conducted another round of gunnery training . On 2 – 5 September , the fleet went on another cruise in the northern end of the North Sea and conducted gunnery drills . Throughout the rest of the month , the Grand Fleet conducted numerous training exercises . On 13 October the majority of the fleet conducted another sweep into the North Sea , returning to port on the 15th . On 2 – 5 November , Emperor of India participated in another fleet training operation west of the Orkneys . Another such cruise took place on 1 – 4 December . The typical routine of gunnery drills and squadron exercises occurred in January . The fleet departed for a cruise in the North Sea on 26 February ; Jellicoe had intended to use the Harwich Force to sweep the Heligoland Bight , but bad weather prevented operations in the southern North Sea . As a result , the operation was confined to the northern end of the sea . On the night of 25 March , Emperor of India and the rest of the fleet sailed from Scapa Flow to support the Battlecruiser Fleet and other light forces that raided the German zeppelin base at Tondern . By the time the Grand Fleet approached the area on 26 March , the British and German forces had already disengaged and a severe gale threatened the light craft . Iron Duke , the fleet flagship , guided the destroyers back to Scapa while Emperor of India and the rest of the fleet retired independently . On 21 April , the Grand Fleet conducted a demonstration off Horns Reef to distract the Germans while the Russian Navy relaid its defensive minefields in the Baltic Sea . The fleet returned to Scapa Flow on 24 April and refuelled before proceeding south in response to intelligence reports that the Germans were about to launch a raid on Lowestoft . The Grand Fleet did not arrive in the area until after the German High Seas Fleet had withdrawn , however . On 2 – 4 May , the fleet conducted another demonstration off Horns Reef to keep German attention focused on the North Sea . Emperor of India was not available for the Battle of Jutland on 31 May – 1 June , as she was in dock for a refit . Following Jutland , she was transferred to the 1st Battle Squadron , where she again served as the second division flagship . She remained in the 1st Squadron for the rest of the war . On 18 August , the Germans again sortied , this time to bombard Sunderland ; Vice Admiral Reinhard Scheer , the German fleet commander , hoped to draw out Beatty 's battlecruisers and destroy them . British signals intelligence decrypted German wireless transmissions , allowing Jellicoe enough time to deploy the Grand Fleet in an attempt to engage in a decisive battle . Both sides withdrew , however , after their opponents ' submarines inflicted losses : the British cruisers Nottingham and Falmouth were both torpedoed and sunk by German U @-@ boats , and the German battleship SMS Westfalen was damaged by the British submarine E23 . After returning to port , Jellicoe issued an order that prohibited risking the fleet in the southern half of the North Sea due to the overwhelming risk from mines and U @-@ boats . Later that year , Emperor of India was equipped with equipment to handle a kite balloon . Following the investigation into the Battle of Jutland , the Royal Navy determined that deck protection was insufficient in all of its capital ships ; as a result , Emperor of India had an additional 100 t ( 98 long tons ; 110 short tons ) of armour over the magazines between October and December 1916 . A series of minor modifications followed throughout 1917 and 1918 ; these included the installation of larger and additional searchlights to improve night combat capabilities , funnel caps to reduce smoke interference with the spotting tops , and rangefinder baffles that were intended to make it more difficult to estimate the range for enemy gunners . The baffles were later removed in 1918 . In late 1917 , the Germans began using destroyers and light cruisers to raid the British convoys to Norway ; this forced the British to deploy capital ships to protect the convoys . In April 1918 , the German fleet sortied in an attempt to catch one of the isolated British squadrons , though the convoy had already passed safely . The Grand Fleet sortied too late to catch the retreating Germans , though the battlecruiser SMS Moltke was torpedoed and badly damaged by the submarine HMS E42 . Following the capitulation of Germany in November 1918 , the Allies interned most of the High Seas Fleet in Scapa Flow . The fleet rendezvoused with the British light cruiser Cardiff , which led the ships to the Allied fleet that was to escort the Germans to Scapa Flow . The massive fleet consisted of some 370 British , American , and French warships . The fleet remained in captivity during the negotiations that ultimately produced the Treaty of Versailles . Reuter believed that the British intended to seize the German ships on 21 June 1919 , which was the deadline for Germany to have signed the peace treaty . That morning , the Grand Fleet left Scapa Flow to conduct training maneuvers , and while they were away Reuter issued the order to scuttle the High Seas Fleet . = = = Post @-@ war career = = = In 1919 , Emperor of India was assigned to the Mediterranean Fleet , as part of the 4th Battle Squadron , along with her three sisters and two Centurion @-@ class battleships . During this period , she served in the Black Sea during the Allied intervention in the Russian Civil War to support the Whites against the Red Bolsheviks . Admiral Edward Hobart Seymour , the commander of British forces in the Black Sea , hoisted his flag aboard the ship on 14 April . The ship bombarded Bolshevik troops on 5 May 1919 outside Theodosia , and later to disrupt the operations of a railway being used to supply the Bolshevik assault on the port . On 26 March 1920 , Emperor of India provided gunfire support to White Russian forces outside Novorossiysk , along with the French armoured cruiser Waldeck @-@ Rousseau . Shortly thereafter , Emperor of India came under fire from an armoured train , prompting the ship to leave the harbour , bound for Theodosia . The ship was also involved in observing the Greco @-@ Turkish War of 1919 – 22 ; this included stops in the ports of Mitylene and Smyrna . She returned to Britain for a refit in 1922 , during which new long @-@ base rangefinders were installed on " X " turret . This was followed by another stint in the Mediterranean Fleet that lasted until 1926 . During this period , she took part in a demonstration in Smyrna against Turkish demands that foreign warships leave the port . She was thereafter transferred to the Atlantic Fleet , where she served until 1930 . In May 1926 , stability tests were conducted with the ship ; these provided the basis for a 1927 proposal from the Director of Naval Construction to add anti @-@ torpedo bulges to the four Iron Duke @-@ class ships . The proposal was sent to the Board for review , but concerns over the further value of the ships , which were due to be replaced in 1931 – 32 under the terms of the Washington Naval Treaty , and the cost of the reconstruction led the Board to cancel it . From July to September 1927 , she had a refit in Devonport . She served as the squadron flagship from June 1929 until January 1931 , when she was relieved by Marlborough . According to the terms of the London Naval Treaty of 1930 , the four ships of the Iron Duke class were to be scrapped or demilitarised ; Emperor of India was scheduled to be removed from service in 1931 and broken up for scrap . The ship provided one final service to the Navy by serving as a gunnery target , along with Marlborough . The tests included firing destroyer armament at the upper works at close range to test their effectiveness in a simulated night engagement , direct hits from 13 @.@ 5 @-@ inch shells , aerial attacks , and experiments with flash tightness in the magazines . The main tests for Emperor of India took place in June off Bognor Regis . She departed Portsmouth on 6 June and ran aground on the Owers Bank . Salvage efforts proved fruitless , and so the Navy decided to conduct the gunnery tests there . The tests were conduced on 10 – 11 June , with her sister Iron Duke , which hit Emperor of India with twelve 13 @.@ 5 @-@ inch shells over the two days . The first round of shells were fired from 12 @,@ 000 yards ( 11 @,@ 000 m ) , while on the second day the range was increased to 18 @,@ 000 yards ( 16 @,@ 000 m ) . She was refloated later and sold for scrap to the Alloa Shipbreaking Co. on 6 February 1932 . She arrived in Rosyth for demolition on 16 February . The tests provided invaluable experience that was incorporated into the King George V and Lion classes and HMS Vanguard . Of particular importance was a shell that struck Emperor of India on the bottom edge of the main belt , which penetrated into one of the boiler rooms , where it caused tremendous damage . This showed that the depth of British belt armour was too shallow , which influenced the design of the King George V class . In addition , the tests with Emperor of India and Marlborough highlighted the weaknesses of the deck armour of British battleship designs , particularly over the ammunition magazines , and the other First World War @-@ vintage battleships that continued in service had additional armour installed in subsequent modernisations in the 1930s .
= Adrift ( Torchwood ) = " Adrift " is the eleventh episode of the second series of British science fiction television series Torchwood , which was first broadcast by BBC Three on 19 March 2008 , and repeated on BBC Two one week later . The episode was written by series one and two head writer Chris Chibnall , directed by Mark Everest and produced by Sophie Fante and Richard Stokes . The episode featured the five initial series regulars John Barrowman , Eve Myles , Burn Gorman , Naoko Mori and Gareth David Lloyd plus recurring actors Kai Owen and Tom Price . The episode begins with Torchwood employee Gwen Cooper ( Eve Myles ) being called in to investigate a missing person case by her former colleague Andy Davidson ( Tom Price ) . When bereaved mother Nikki Bevan ( Ruth Jones ) starts a support group for missing people , Gwen realises the problem is widespread . She pursues the investigation against the wishes of her boss Jack Harkness ( John Barrowman ) and is able to track Nikki 's son to an isolation facility . It is revealed that Nikki 's son Jonah , like the other missing individuals around Cardiff , was taken by the space @-@ time rift and returned physically and mentally scarred . After realising she cannot have a relationship with her son , Nikki implores Gwen not to reveal the truth to any other bereaved relative . Chris Chibnall wanted to write a story that tackled the issue of loss and revolved around a missing person case . Executive producer Russell T Davies appreciated the character dynamics and domestic themes in the episode and cited the script as one of his inspirations in continuing the series . Ruth Jones , who is generally better known for her comedic roles , was cast against type in the central guest role of Nikki Bevan . The episode was filmed largely on location in South Wales with the island of Flat Holm featuring prominently . Response to the episode was generally positive . Reviewers generally praised the episode for illuminating the conflicting elements of Gwen 's character and providing a central dilemma with no easy answer . Some critics identified ostensible plot holes , though felt that the episode 's emotional successes negated these . = = Plot = = Jonah Bevan ( Oliver Ferriman ) is walking home across the Cardiff Bay Barrage when a mysterious bright light appears . He vanishes . Seven months later , at the instigation of her former police colleague Andy Davidson ( Tom Price ) , Torchwood agent Gwen Cooper ( Eve Myles ) is investigating Jonah 's disappearance . After Jonah 's mother Nikki ( Ruth Jones ) starts a support group for relatives of missing people in the Cardiff area , Gwen realises that there are more cases resembling Jonah 's disappearance . Gwen collates a chart of the missing people and her colleague Toshiko ( Naoko Mori ) discovers that all the disappearances occurred during negative spikes of activity from the Cardiff space @-@ time rift . The two women postulate the implications of this : that the rift can take people away and discard them elsewhere . Gwen confronts her boss Jack Harkness ( John Barrowman ) with her research but he informs her that nothing can be done and orders her to stop the investigation . Gwen becomes consumed with the issue of the missing individuals and this takes its toll on her relationship with her husband Rhys ( Kai Owen ) . They argue , and he states that if Gwen is working to safeguard ordinary life then she has not been successful . Returning to Torchwood 's headquarters , Gwen interrupts Jack and fellow Torchwood employee Ianto ( Gareth David @-@ Lloyd ) during a sexual encounter . After apologising , she tells Jack that she wants to continue the investigation . Jack refuses to help , but Ianto later gives Gwen a GPS device with coordinates to a hidden location , leading Gwen to a facility on Flat Holm . It harbors 17 of the missing people that the rift has taken and subsequently brought back . Gwen finds Jack there , and demands access to Jonah . Jonah ( now Robert Pugh ) has aged and become physically deformed after being stuck on a burning planet shortly before witnessing the burning of a solar system . Jack reveals that he set up the facility when he first took command of Torchwood , in order to care for the victims of the rift , who had previously been locked away in the Torchwood vaults . Gwen brings Nikki in to see Jonah under the supervision of a facility staff member . At first Nikki is horrified , believing it to be a cruel joke , but Jonah starts reminiscing on his childhood . Nikki calms and thinks about taking Jonah home to care for him herself . However , Jonah starts screaming horribly , necessitating that everyone leave his company . In a voiceover , Gwen reveals that the scream lasts for 20 hours every day because Jonah looked into the heart of a Dark Star , which had the effect of driving him insane . Gwen visits Nikki a week later , who implores her not to show the island to anyone else . Nikki states that it would have been better for her to have remembered her son as he was , rather than to know of his true fate . Nikki packs up Jonah 's belongings and knowing he can never return home , breaks down into sobs . At home that night Gwen prepares a romantic candle @-@ lit dinner for Rhys who , realising that she is upset , insists that Gwen shares her burden . = = Production = = " Adrift " was produced as part of its own production block : block seven . Filming of the episode was " double banked " with block five , which consisted of the episodes " From Out of the Rain " and " Fragments " . This accounted for the lack of availability of some of the regular cast members . Unlike the rest of the episodes in the series , this episode was not solely produced by regular series Richard Stokes but by guest producer Sophie Fante . Discussing the premise of the story writer Chris Chibnall states that " the issue of loss " is what drives the narrative and that he had " always wanted to write a story about people who go missing " . Director Mark Everest noted that " people go missing all the time " and that to tackle this theme was " a brave thing to do " . Executive producer Russell T Davies felt it provided good drama to have a story that would also examine elements of " paranoia " and " fear " and " mistrust " between Gwen and Jack as result of her realising she does not know the full extent of his work within Torchwood . Davies later stated in his book The Writer 's Tale that " Adrift " was one of the scripts that " paved the way " for the third series of the show ; his intention being to write Torchwood characters as " real people " with " families , feuds , aches and pains " . The episode underwent less rewriting than any other script from the first two series with the final version being essentially a second draft . Gwen was initially referred to by her husband 's surname , Williams , but Eve Myles vetoed this idea as she believed that an independent professional woman would want to keep her maiden name . A change made in the editing of the episode was the cutting of a short scene hinting at a possible romance between Nikki and Andy . This scene is included in the deleted scenes included in the series two boxset . Ruth Jones was cast in the central guest role of Nikki . The actress stated that she was both " excited " and " scared " to appear in the series as it was " a very serious role " and comedy had previously been her " comfort zone " . Robert Pugh was cast as the aged and scarred version of Nikki 's son Jonah . Richard Stokes estimated that the actor had to spend between two and two and a half hours in make @-@ up in addition to a twelve @-@ hour filming day to have prosthetics applied to create the appearance of scarring . Ruth Jones found the prosthetics to be " absolutely fantastic " and " very gruesome " . The reveal of Jonah 's Scream was initially going to be a wholly alien effect with Pugh just miming on set . However , Pugh was keen to give the scream a go . Everest states that in the final dub the scream was " tweaked " and " layers were added " although stated that the fundamental basis of it was Pugh " screaming his lungs out " . Discussing the return of Andy , Stokes stated that it was always the plan for the production team to give the character greater focus in an episode due to his " comic value " , whilst Eve Myles had joked it was her " personal mission " to get the character back . The episode was largely filmed on location around South Wales . Jonah 's disappearance and Jack 's subsequent investigation were filmed at the Cardiff Bay Barrage . The exteriors of Nikki 's house were filmed at the Penarth Marina , whilst the scenes of the missing persons meeting were filmed at the Church of All Saints on Victoria Square , Penarth on 22 September 2007 . The café sequences with Gwen and Andy were recorded in Fortes Café on Barry Island whilst the scene of Gwen and Rhys ' picnic and argument were shot in Bute Park , Cardiff . The main location shoot for the episode was the island of Flat Holm in the Bristol Channel where exterior shots were filmed at the end of September . As the island does not allow vehicular access the production team were restricted in the filming equipment they could take on to the island . Though Flat Holm does possess a derelict cholera isolation hospital , the scenes of Torchwood 's isolation facility were in fact filmed inside a Ministry of Defence building in Caldicot , Monmouthshire . Incidental music used included Richard Hawley 's song " Serious " from his 2007 album Lady 's Bridge and the song " Hard to Beat " by Hard @-@ Fi from their album Stars of CCTV which are heard the first and second time Gwen and Andy meet in the café . Also used is the song " Other Side of the World " from KT Tunstall 's album Eye to the Telescope which plays during a scene where Gwen brings Rhys breakfast . = = Broadcast and reception = = " Adrift " was first broadcast on the digital channel BBC Three on 19 March 2008 at 10 : 00 pm . It received its first terrestrial broadcast two days later , 21 March , at 9 : 00 pm on BBC Two . A pre @-@ watershed version of the episode was aired at 7 : 00 pm 25 March 2008 . According to consolidated figures the episode 's BBC Three broadcast was watched by 0 @.@ 97 million viewers , its BBC Two debut by 2 @.@ 52 million viewers and the pre @-@ watershed version by 1 @.@ 00 million viewers , amounting to an aggregated total of 4 @.@ 49 million viewers across its three initial showings . The episode was also available to watch on the online catch up service BBC iPlayer , where it was the 16th most viewed individual broadcast between 1 January and 31 March 2008 . = = = Critical reception = = = Ian Berriman of SFX rated the episode four and a half stars out of five and felt that it showed " how every SF @-@ related casualty is more than just a statistic – it ’ s also someone ’ s life @-@ destroying tragedy " . He thought the episode had a few logic gaps but that the emotional focus was enough to distract the audience from this . He felt that the sequence where Gwen 's husband Rhys " tears a strip off Gwen , then reminds her what Torchwood is fighting for " was the episode 's highlight . Ben Rawson @-@ Jones of Digital Spy stated that the script " neatly brings out the conflicting components within Gwen 's character " and praised the episode for raising the moral dilemma of whether to reveal the truth or not . He gave the episode four stars , feeling it to highlight the versatility of Torchwood as a series and to show " how badly science @-@ fiction is overlooked as serious , well @-@ crafted drama " . IGN 's Travis Fickett rated the episode 9 @.@ 5 out of ten ( " Amazing " ) and stated it to be " the kind of science fiction that every series should aspire to create . " He felt that the episode worked for viewers unfamiliar with the show whilst managing to progress " every regular character in the series " . He felt that the episode handled the subject matter of missing people thoughtfully and sensitively whilst furthering the relationship between Rhys and Gwen , stating that it was the " best episode Gwen has had to date " which showcased " Eve Myles range " and Kai Owen 's " tremendous power as an actor . " Fickett concluded his review by stating that " this is very nearly a perfect episode of not just Torchwood , but the genre of science fiction and the medium of television " . Joan O 'Connell Hedman of Slant Magazine also gave a positive review feeling the episode to explore " Torchwood 's bread and butter topic : the intersection of the human and the alien , and what it means to be human in the aftermath . " She stated that the episode " played to its strengths , namely Eve Myles ' Gwen and how she relates to both human and alien " and stated it to demonstrate " how perfect Rhys is for Gwen " . She felt that the episode was flawed in its " cop @-@ out " ending and Jack 's handling of Gwen but in her conclusion noted it be " the first episode of Torchwood that left me choked up , crying with Gwen at the end " . Airlock Alpha 's Alan Stanley Blair felt the episode to be a vast improvement on its predecessors stating it be " hard hitting , edgy and explores much bleaker and darker avenues to life in Torchwood " . He also felt that the personal effect of Gwen 's struggles on her domestic life was one of the most interesting aspects comparing it to the television series Angel which " touched on some of these threads through the meta @-@ story and vampire mythology " but not " on the scale of this [ episode ] " . He concluded that the episode 's conclusion was both to its credit and its biggest disappointment because it showed that there is " no way to make everything all right " but left its audience " screaming for a happy ending that will never come " . Jason Hughes of AOL TV was more mixed in his review . He felt that the episode was a " vast improvement over last week 's episode " and stated that it lived up to Torchwood 's reputation as " the darker , more mature cousin of Doctor Who " . However , he stated that the episode had " some logistical problems " and " at least one ridiculously convenient coincidence that the emotional hook of the episode hinged on " . He praised the " tragic emotional impact of the moment when Jonah 's mom told Gwen to promise her not to do that to any other families " and stated that he liked " that there weren 't any easy answers " . io9 's Charlie Jane Anders described " Adrift " as " easily the best episode of the Doctor Who spin @-@ off since the one where Martha Jones showed up " . She stated that " the fact that it offered no easy solutions and gave us that super @-@ bleak ending was enough to win me over " .
= Silent Alarm Remixed = Silent Alarm Remixed is the remix album to Silent Alarm , the debut album by British indie rock band Bloc Party . It was released on 29 August 2005 in the British Isles on Wichita Recordings , the band 's primary label , and on 13 September 2005 in the United States through Vice Records to coincide with Bloc Party 's worldwide touring schedule . The record peaked at number 54 on the UK Albums Chart . In the US , it achieved a peak of number four on the Billboard Top Electronic Albums . Bloc Party commissioned Silent Alarm Remixed to show that remixes and dance music were relevant to the band and to the rock landscape at large . The band members gave each of the original tracks to a number of musicians from different genres ; Ladytron , Four Tet , and Nick Zinner were amongst those who reworked the songs . Critics often considered the record as showcasing the potential high quality of remix albums , although some reviewers treated it as disjunct and a poor marketing decision . = = Origins and release = = Bloc Party 's critically acclaimed debut album Silent Alarm charted in 18 countries on four continents by the end of April 2005 . The Japanese edition included three bonus songs which later appeared on Silent Alarm Remixed : " So Here We Are ( Four Tet Remix ) " , " Plans ( Mogwai Remix ) " , and " Pioneers ( M83 Remix ) " . The US double LP version contained another two tracks which later formed part of the track list : " Positive Tension ( Jason Clark Remix ) " and " Price of Gas ( Automato Remix ) " . During the month of May , other musical acts were asked to remix the rest of the songs from the band 's work . Frontman Kele Okereke has stated that the decision was taken because the band members wanted to show that dance music was significant to them as a rock quartet . Fellow Vice Records band Death from Above 1979 were the first act to be asked and covered " Luno " as a B @-@ side to their June 2005 single " Black History Month " . Engineers reworked " Blue Light " after supporting Bloc Party at several concerts during the first half of 2005 . Before their fame , Okereke and lead guitarist Russell Lissack were regular visitors to Erol Alkan 's Trash club in London ; the early contact with the band led Alkan to rework their first single " She 's Hearing Voices " . The band had also performed at Dave Pianka 's Philadelphia club and the gig inspired the owner to remix " This Modern Love " with Adam Sparkle into something more suited to a disco . Ladytron were early fans of the band and invited the quartet for a performance at their Liverpool club before reworking " Like Eating Glass " for the release . Whitey and Yeah Yeah Yeahs ' Nick Zinner were the only acts to be hired based on their respective musical credentials . Bloc Party spent the whole of August 2005 promoting Silent Alarm Remixed at several European festivals . The record was released on 29 August following the band 's headlining slots at the Reading and Leeds Festivals on 26 – 28 August . The final track list included the Bloc Party EP edit of " Banquet " by Silent Alarm producer Paul Epworth . The cover art is a negative of the bare winter landscape by freelance photographer Ness Sherry used on Silent Alarm . = = Critical reception = = AllMusic 's Heather Phares described the album as more consistent than most remix collections and noted that it functions well as a record in its own right . Priya Elan of NME explained that " the results are pretty much all quality " and that some of the tracks are better than the original songs on Silent Alarm . Rockfeedback 's Thomas Hannan stated , " It 's all very clever , but the most intelligent thing about it is that it makes you think about the original in a completely altered way . " Pitchfork Media 's Nitsuh Adebe was impressed with the album and indicated that it is " surprisingly good , and surprisingly often " . Christian Hoard of Rolling Stone was less receptive and commented that the tracks are flawed in conception , because Bloc Party is not a disco @-@ oriented band despite its propulsive rhythm section . Nick Southall of Stylus suggested that the inherent problem with record is that the vocals have been removed from the " sympathetic stereo @-@ treatment and layering " of Silent Alarm . Liam Colle of PopMatters was not impressed by Silent Alarm Remixed and commented that " the new tricks aren 't quite charming , or very tricky for that matter " , because the album " reeks of a marketing brainstorm " . Drowned in Sound 's Mike Diver concluded that the disparate nature of the record 's contributors denies it the coherency of the original . = = Composition = = Ladytron 's mix of " Like Eating Glass " replaces the lead and rhythm guitars with looped synthesisers and adds a large amount of reverberation to the vocals ; the resulting effect was described by Pitchfork Media 's Nitsuh Adebe as " walking out of your apartment and thinking you can hear Bloc Party playing a festival six blocks over " . Whitey reworked " Helicopter " in a minimalist fashion and introduced wolf howls and a xylophone staccato to the song . The musician 's effects gave the track a rawer sound than the original version according to Heather Phares of Allmusic . " Positive Tension " was remixed by Jason Clark of art punk band Pretty Girls Make Graves under the pseudonym " Blackbox " . The song includes elements of oldschool jungle . The Paul Epworth edit of single " Banquet " , under his " Phones " moniker , is more sparse than the original and is closer to dance music than indie rock . Engineers ' " Blue Light " was dubbed the ' Anti @-@ Gravity ' mix and resulted in an ambient track which Nick Southall of Stylus considered as good as Bloc Party 's version . Erol Alkan 's reworking of debut single " She 's Hearing Voices " is a dub version over twice the length of the blueprint . The song accentuates the punk funk elements in Bloc Party 's work . Alkan has noted that his priority was to get more out of the track 's groove and melody since " the original is so fast it kind of flies by without you being able to recognise [ its ] beauty " . Dave Pianka and Adam Sparkle 's work on " This Modern Love " resulted in a musical construction akin to 1980s new wave bands Blondie and The Cure . M83 used several studio effects to create an ambient version of single " Pioneers " by adding strings and synthesisers to the original composition . Automato 's remix of " Price of Gas " infuses Bloc Party 's blueprint with electronica elements . Solo act Kieran Hebden , under his Four Tet alias , provided the remix for " So Here We Are " and created a folktronica version of the original , reminiscent of the music once produced by Windham Hill Records according to Christian Hoard of Rolling Stone . Death From Above 1979 's version of " Luno " is the only re @-@ recording on Silent Alarm Remixed and is wholly in the dance @-@ punk genre . Bloc Party drummer Matt Tong has stated , " It 's a really aggressive take on our music . " Mogwai 's mix of " Plans " adds an extensive use of echo to the original song , while Nick Zinner 's remix of " Compliments " created in Shibuya , Tokyo accentuates Okereke 's whispers to create vocal effects similar to those of The Cure 's Robert Smith according to Adebe . = = Track listing = = All songs originally written and composed by Bloc Party and remixed by each credited artist . = = = Bonus tracks = = = " Banquet " ( Cornelius Remix ) – 10 : 47 ( there is also a 4 : 37 version ) – track 14 on the Japanese edition " Tulips " ( Minotaur Shock Remix ) – 5 : 19 – hidden track begins at 5 : 21 of the last song on the UK and US editions and at 5 : 28 of the last song on the Japanese edition . = = Release history = = = = Chart positions = =
= William de Ufford , 2nd Earl of Suffolk = William de Ufford , 2nd Earl of Suffolk KG ( 30 May 1338 – 15 February 1382 ) was an English nobleman in the reigns of Edward III and Richard II . He was the son of Robert de Ufford , who was created Earl of Suffolk by Edward III in 1337 . William had three older brothers who all predeceased him , and in 1369 he succeeded his father . In the 1370s , he participated in several campaigns of the Hundred Years ' War , but this period was not a successful one for England . Suffolk was closely connected to Thomas Beauchamp , Earl of Warwick and John of Gaunt , Duke of Lancaster , and his conciliatory skills were highly valued in national politics . He helped arbitrate in the conflict between Gaunt and the parliamentary Commons during the Good Parliament . In 1381 , Suffolk took part in suppressing the Peasants ' Revolt in East Anglia , after narrowly escaping the rebels himself . He died suddenly in 1382 while attending parliament , and since he had no surviving children , his title became extinct and his property was dispersed . = = Early life = = William 's father Robert , the first Ufford Earl of Suffolk , was a close associate of King Edward III and a trusted military commander in the early stages of the Hundred Years ' War . His military career included the Battle of Crécy , the Siege of Calais and the Battle of Poitiers , where he greatly distinguished himself . In 1324 , Robert married Margaret , daughter of Walter Norwich , Treasurer of the Exchequer , expanding his already substantial territorial holdings in East Anglia . Little is known of William 's early years . He was the fourth son of the family , and up until three years before his father died , he still had two surviving older brothers . For this reason , his early biography is based largely on conjecture . It is known that he managed to establish an independent position for himself through a fortunate marriage . By 1361 he was married to Joan Montagu , the daughter of Alice of Norfolk , and – through Alice – a granddaughter of Thomas of Brotherton , a younger son of Edward I. The first recorded evidence for his military activity dates from 1367 , but he was probably also present in earlier campaigns . His father campaigned in France in 1355 – 6 and 1359 – 60 , and it is likely that William also took part in these expeditions , along with Thomas Beauchamp , the future Earl of Warwick . The two men would develop a close affinity , and their careers were strikingly similar : they were born around the same time , they were probably knighted together in July 1355 , neither was born as heir to their earldoms but came to their titles through the death of older brothers , and both succeeded their fathers in 1369 . = = Service to Edward III = = In the autumn of 1367 , William de Ufford and Thomas Beauchamp were going overseas , probably on a crusade to Prussia . On 4 November 1369 , William 's father died , shortly after his oldest son Robert , who was childless . William , who was now the heir of the family , was invested with the earldom of Suffolk soon after . As earl of Suffolk he participated in several campaigns in the rather unsuccessful stage of the Hundred Years ' War in the 1370s , along with Beauchamp , who had recently become Earl of Warwick . They escorted King Charles II of Navarre to and from Cherbourg for his visit to England in 1370 . In 1372 , they were summoned by King Edward III for an abortive expedition to France , and in 1373 – 74 , they accompanied the king 's son John of Gaunt , Duke of Lancaster , on the prince 's fruitless chevauchée from Calais to Bordeaux . In 1375 or 1376 , Suffolk was bestowed the Order of the Garter . Also around this time , the relationship between the earls of Suffolk and Warwick was strengthened further . Suffolk 's first wife Joan must have died at some unknown point before 1376 , when he married Isabel , Warwick 's sister . Suffolk 's connection with John of Gaunt was strong , a family connection that went back to the times of Suffolk 's father . Suffolk 's second wife Isabel had a daughter from a previous marriage , who was in Gaunt 's wardship . This daughter , Elizabeth , who was an heiress of Lord Strange , was probably transferred to Isabel 's household at her marriage to Suffolk . The two lords also maintained some of the same men as servants , or retainers . At the Good Parliament in 1376 , Suffolk was elected to a committee that would discuss the parliament 's grievances concerning the failed fiscal and military policies of Gaunt , who was the de facto ruler of England . In spite of his association with Gaunt , the parliament trusted Suffolk 's neutrality and equality in such a position . After parliament disbanded , Suffolk attended a lavish dinner given by the House of Commons , where Gaunt was conspicuously absent . = = Service to Richard II = = Edward III died in 1377 and was succeeded by his ten @-@ year @-@ old grandson , Richard II . At Richard 's coronation , Suffolk carried the new king 's sceptre , and he was later appointed to Richard 's minority council . Even after the council was disbanded in January 1380 , he remained a central figure at court , participating in the negotiations for the king 's marriage to Anne of Bohemia , and mediating in a conflict between John of Gaunt and Henry Percy , Earl of Northumberland . Suffolk was the dominant magnate in the East Anglia region . When the region 's peasants revolted in 1381 , he became a central figure in their repression . While in Bury St Edmunds , he was taken by surprise by the rebels while eating dinner . The rebel leader , Geoffrey Litster , attempted to force Suffolk to join the rebellion , hoping to lend legitimacy to the cause . When this failed , Litster turned to other prominent men . Suffolk then fled disguised as a groom , reaching London by way of St Albans . He soon returned to Bury with a force of 500 lances , and met little resistance . Much of the work suppressing the rebellion had been undertaken by Henry Despenser , Bishop of Norwich , leaving Suffolk to apprehend the remaining rebels for trial . In the rebellion Suffolk suffered financially : the peasants plundered property worth £ 1 @,@ 000 from his castle at Mettingham . = = Death and dispersal of estates = = On 15 February 1382 , Suffolk attended parliament at Westminster Hall . As he ascended the stairs to the chamber where the lords had retired , he fell down and died instantly . According to Walsingham , Suffolk was an amiable man , much liked by all layers of society , and the news of his death was received with great sadness . Politically , he was a conciliatory person , and this quality had facilitated reconciliation in situations such as Gaunt 's conflict with parliament or the quarrel between Gaunt and Percy . He was buried in his family 's traditional burial place Campsey Priory , an Augustinian nunnery in Campsea Ashe , Suffolk . William de Ufford 's first marriage , to Joan Montagu , brought him significant land holdings in Norfolk . With Joan he had at least five children , none of whom survived him , and his second marriage , to Isabel , was apparently childless . The lands he had acquired through Joan were reunited with the earldom of Norfolk , while his patrimony reverted to the crown . According to the late earl 's will , much of the Suffolk lands – though not the title – descended on the Willoughby family , who were connected to the Uffords through marriage . In 1385 , the earldom of Suffolk was restored for Michael de la Pole , who received a great portion of Ufford 's lands to support his title .
= Battle of Cape Henry = The Battle of Cape Henry was a naval battle in the American War of Independence which took place near the mouth of Chesapeake Bay on 16 March 1781 between a British squadron led by Vice Admiral Mariot Arbuthnot and a French fleet under Admiral Charles René Dominique Sochet , Chevalier Destouches . Destouches , based in Newport , Rhode Island , had sailed for the Chesapeake as part of a joint operation with the Continental Army to oppose the British army of Brigadier General Benedict Arnold that was active in Virginia . Admiral Destouches was asked by General George Washington to take his fleet to the Chesapeake to support military operations against Arnold by the Marquis de Lafayette . Sailing on 8 March , he was followed two days later by Admiral Arbuthnot , who sailed from eastern Long Island . Arbuthnot 's fleet outsailed that of Destouches , reaching the Virginia Capes just ahead of Destouches on 16 March . After manoeuvring for several hours , the battle was joined , and both fleets suffered some damage and casualties without losing any ships . However , Arbuthnot was positioned to enter the Chesapeake as the fleets disengaged , frustrating Destouches ' objective . Destouches returned to Newport , while Arbuthnot protected the bay for the arrival of additional land troops to reinforce General Arnold . = = Background = = In December 1780 , British General Sir Henry Clinton sent Brigadier General Benedict Arnold ( who had changed sides to the British the previous September ) with about 1 @,@ 700 troops to Virginia to do some raiding and to fortify Portsmouth . General George Washington responded by sending the Marquis de Lafayette south with a small army to oppose Arnold . Seeking to trap Arnold between Lafayette 's army and a French naval detachment , Washington asked the French admiral Destouches , the commander of the fleet at Newport , Rhode Island for help . Destouches was wary of the threat posed by the slightly larger British North American fleet anchored at Gardiner 's Bay off the eastern end of Long Island , and was reluctant to help . A storm in early February damaged some of Arbuthnot 's fleet , which prompted Destouches to send a squadron of three ships south shortly after . When they reached the Chesapeake , the British ships supporting Arnold moved up the shallow Elizabeth River , where the French ships were unable to follow . The French fleet returned to Newport , having as their only success the capture of HMS Romulus , a heavy frigate that was one of several ships sent by the British to investigate the French movements . This modest success , and the encouragement of General Washington , prompted Destouches to embark on a full @-@ scale operation . On 8 March , Washington was in Newport when Destouches sailed with his entire fleet , carrying 1 @,@ 200 troops for use in land operations when they arrived in the Chesapeake . Vice Admiral of the White Mariot Arbuthnot , the British fleet commander in North America , was aware that Destouches was planning something , but did not learn of Destouches ' sailing until 10 March , and immediately led his fleet out of Gardiner Bay in pursuit . He had the speed advantage of copper @-@ clad vessels and a favourable wind , and reached Cape Henry on 16 March , slightly ahead of Destouches . = = Battle = = Although the two fleets both had eight ships in their lines , the British had an advantage in firepower : the 90 @-@ gun HMS London was the largest ship of either fleet ( compared to the 84 @-@ gun Duc de Bourgogne ) , while the French fleet also included the recently captured 44 @-@ gun Romulus , the smallest vessel on either line . When Arbuthnot spotted the French fleet to his northeast at 6 am on 16 March , they were about 40 nmi ( 74 km ) east @-@ northeast of Cape Henry . Arbuthnot came about , and Destouches ordered his ships to form a line of battle heading west , with the wind . Between 8 and 9 am the winds began shifting , but visibility remained poor , and the two fleets manoeuvred for several hours , each seeking the advantage of the weather gage . By 1 pm the wind had stabilised from the northeast , and Arbuthnot , with superior seamanship , was coming up on the rear of the French line as both headed east @-@ southeast , tacking against the wind . Destouches , in order to escape this position , gave orders to wear ship in sequence , and brought his line around in front of the advancing British line . With this manoeuvre he surrendered the weather gage ( giving Arbuthnot the advantage in determining the attack ) , but it also positioned his ships relative to the wind such that he could open his lower gundecks in the heavy seas , which the British could not do without the risk of water washing onto the lower decks . Arbuthnot responded to the French manoeuvre by ordering his fleet to wear . When the ships in the van of his line made the maneuver , they were fully exposed to the French line 's fire , and consequently suffered significant damage . Robust , Europe , and Prudent were virtually unmanageable due to damage to their sails and rigging . Arbuthnot kept the signal for maintaining the line flying , and the British fleet thus lined up behind the damaged vessels . Destouches at this point again ordered his fleet to wear in succession , and his ships raked the damaged British ships once more , taking off London 's topsail yard before pulling away to the east . = = Aftermath = = French casualties were 72 killed and 112 wounded , while the British suffered 30 killed and 73 wounded . Arbuthnot pulled into Chesapeake Bay , thus frustrating the original intent of Destouches ' mission , while the French fleet returned to Newport . After transports delivered 2 @,@ 000 men to reinforce Arnold , Arbuthnot returned to New York . He resigned his post as station chief due to age and infirmity in July and left for England , ending a stormy , difficult , and unproductive relationship with General Clinton . General Washington , unhappy that the operation had failed , wrote a letter that was mildly critical of Destouches . This letter was intercepted and published in an English newspaper , prompting a critical response to Washington by the Comte de Rochambeau , the French army commander at Newport . The Comte de Barras , who arrived in May to take command of the Newport station , justified Destouches ' failure to pursue the attack : " It is a principle in war that one should risk much to defend one 's positions , and very little to attack those of the enemy . " Naval historian Alfred Thayer Mahan points out that " this aversion from risks [ ... ] goes far to explain the French want of success in the war . " Lafayette , when he learned of the French failure , turned back north to rejoin Washington . Washington then ordered Lafayette to stay in Virginia , having learned of the reinforcements sent to Arnold . Although the French operation to support Lafayette was unsuccessful , the later naval operations by the Comte de Grasse that culminated in the French naval victory in the September 1781 Battle of the Chesapeake paved the way for a successful naval blockade and land siege of Lord Cornwallis ' army at Yorktown , Virginia . The battle has been memorialized by American singer @-@ songwriter Todd Snider in " The Ballad of Cape Henry " . Although there is a marker commemorating the Battle of the Chesapeake at the Cape Henry Memorial in Virginia , there is no recognition of this battle at the site . = = Order of battle = = Basic information ( ship names and gun counts ) are provided by Morrissey unless otherwise cited . The names of ship captains are provided by Mahan unless otherwise cited , and casualty figured are provided by Lapeyrouse . Mahan and Lapeyrouse disagree on the casualty count ; Mahan reports that the British had 30 killed and 73 wounded , and that the French had 72 killed and 112 wounded . Sources also disagree on which ship carried Destouches and his flag . The English @-@ language sources ( Mahan , p . 492 , and Morrissey , p . 51 ) list his flag on board the Neptune , while Lapeyrouse ( p . 170 ) lists the Duc de Bourgogne . The Duc de Bourgogne was the flagship of Destouches ' predecessor , the Chevalier de Ternay , during which time Destouches was captain of the Neptune ; Destouches may have moved to the Duc de Bourgogne upon Ternay 's death . = = In Popular Culture = = Americana singer songrwriter Todd Snider recorded The Ballad Of Cape Henry on his 2008 album Peace Queer based upon the naval engagement and included the following lyrics : Other ships Guadelupe ( frigate , 28 , Hugh Robinson ) Pearl ( frigate , 32 , George Montagu ) Iris ( frigate , 32 , George Dawson ) Medea ( frigate , 28 , Henry Duncan ) Other ships Hermione ( frigate , 36 , Latouche ) Gentille ( frigate , 32 , M. de Maingand ) Fantasque ( 14 , M. de Vaudoré )
= John Douglas ( architect ) = John Douglas ( 11 April 1830 – 23 May 1911 ) was an English architect who designed over 500 buildings in Cheshire , North Wales , and northwest England , in particular in the estate of Eaton Hall . He was trained in Lancaster and practised throughout his career from an office in Chester . Initially he ran the practice on his own , but from 1884 until two years before his death he worked in partnerships with two of his former assistants . Douglas 's output included new churches , restoring and renovating existing churches , church furnishings , new houses and alterations to existing houses , and a variety of other buildings , including shops , banks , offices , schools , memorials and public buildings . His architectural styles were eclectic . Douglas worked during the period of the Gothic Revival , and many of his works incorporate elements of the English Gothic style . He was also influenced by architectural styles from the mainland of Europe and included elements of French , German and Dutch architecture . However he is probably best remembered for his incorporation of vernacular elements in his buildings , in particular half @-@ timbering , influenced by the black @-@ and @-@ white revival in Chester . Other vernacular elements he incorporated include tile @-@ hanging , pargeting , and the use of decorative brick in diapering and the design of tall chimney stacks . Of particular importance is Douglas 's use of joinery and highly detailed wood carving . Throughout his career he attracted commissions from wealthy landowners and industrialists , especially the Grosvenor family of Eaton Hall . Most of his works have survived , particularly his churches . The city of Chester contains a number of his structures , the most admired of which are his half @-@ timbered black @-@ and @-@ white buildings and Eastgate Clock . The highest concentration of his work is found in the Eaton Hall estate and the surrounding villages of Eccleston , Aldford and Pulford . = = Biography = = = = = Early life and training = = = John Douglas was born at Park Cottage , Sandiway , Cheshire , on 11 April 1830 and baptised on 16 May 1830 at St Mary 's Church , Weaverham . He was the second of the four children , and the only son , of John Douglas and his wife Mary née Swindley ( 1792 – 1863 ) . John Douglas senior was born in Northampton about 1798 – 1800 and his wife was born in Aldford , a village on the Eaton estate in Cheshire ; her father was the village blacksmith at Eccleston , another village in the Eaton estate . John Douglas senior was by trade a builder and joiner , and also described himself as a surveyor and a timber merchant . In 1835 he acted as architect for a house at Hartford , a village between Sandiway and Northwich . At the time of the 1851 census he was employing 48 men . He owned land in Sandiway , and a house and land in the neighbouring village of Cuddington . Nothing is known of John Douglas junior 's school education . He gained knowledge and experience in his father 's building yard and workshop which were attached to the family house . In the mid or late 1840s he was articled to E. G. Paley , of Sharpe and Paley , architects in Lancaster , Lancashire . When his articles were completed , Douglas became Paley 's chief assistant . In either 1855 or 1860 he established his own office at No. 6 Abbey Square , Chester . = = = Family and personal life = = = Douglas 's elder sister , Elizabeth , was born in 1827 . His younger sisters were Mary Hannah and Emma , who were born in 1832 and 1834 respectively . Mary Hannah died five months before Emma 's birth , and Emma herself died in 1848 . Douglas married Elizabeth Edmunds , a farmer 's daughter from Bangor @-@ is @-@ y @-@ Coed , Flintshire , on 25 January 1860 in St Dunawd 's Church in the village , a church he was later to restore . Initially the couple lived over the office at 6 Abbey Square , and later they moved next door to No. 4 . Their five children were born in these houses , John Percy in 1861 , Colin Edmunds in 1864 , Mary Elizabeth in 1866 , Sholto Theodore the following year , and Jerome in 1869 . Only two of the children survived to adulthood ; Mary Elizabeth died from scarlet fever in 1868 , Jerome lived for only a few days , and John Percy died aged 12 in 1873 . About 1876 the family moved to live at 31 and 33 Dee Banks , Chester , one of a pair of semi @-@ detached houses overlooking the River Dee , which were built by Douglas . His wife died in 1878 from laryngitis after a year 's illness . Douglas did not remarry . His son Colin trained as an architect and worked in Douglas 's office but died in 1887 at the age of 23 from consumption . His other son Sholto is not known to have had any profession but he was a heavy drinker of alcohol . During the 1890s Douglas built a large house for himself , Walmoor Hill , also at Dee Banks overlooking the river . Here he lived until his death on 23 May 1911 at the age of 81 . His funeral was held at Overleigh old cemetery , Chester , where he was buried . The following Sunday a memorial service was held at St John the Evangelist 's Church , Sandiway . His estate amounted to a little over £ 32 @,@ 000 ( equivalent to £ 2 @,@ 940 @,@ 000 in 2015 ) . Apart from his surviving buildings , only two memorials remain to his memory . One is a tablet in St Paul 's Church , Boughton , the church in which he worshipped and which he had rebuilt . The other is a plaque placed on one of his buildings in St Werburgh Street , Chester , in 1923 by his pupils and assistants . = = Practice and personality = = Douglas practised on his own until 1884 , when his son , Colin , became ill . He then took Daniel Porter Fordham into partnership and practised as Douglas & Fordham . Fordham was born around 1846 and had been an assistant in Douglas 's office since at least 1872 . In 1898 , having developed consumption , Fordham retired from the practice and went to live in Bournemouth where he died the following year . He was replaced as partner by Charles Howard Minshull , who had been born in Chester in 1858 and who became articled to Douglas in 1874 ; the practice became Douglas & Minshull . During the first decade of the 20th century , Douglas became less active but , for reasons which are unknown , the partnership was dissolved in 1909 . The practice returned to the title of John Douglas , Architect . Minshull went into partnership with E. J. Muspratt in Foregate Street , Chester . When Douglas died , this partnership worked from the Abbey Square address as Douglas , Minshull & Muspratt . Little is known about Douglas 's private life and personality . Only two images of him are known to survive . One is a photograph taken in later middle age . The other is a caricature sketch made by an assistant in his office . This shows him in old age , bowed , bent and bespectacled , carrying a portfolio and an ear trumpet . According to architectural historian Edward Hubbard , Douglas 's life " seems to have been one of thorough devotion to architecture ... which may well have been intensified by the death of his wife and other domestic worries " . His obituary in the Chester Chronicle stated that he " lived heart and soul in his profession " . Douglas was a dedicated Christian who regularly attended his local church , St Paul 's Church , Boughton , a church he rebuilt . His house , Walmoor Hill , included an oratory . He also had a " strong sense of national loyalty " , incorporating statues of Queen Victoria in niches at Walmoor Hill and in his buildings in St Werburgh Street , Chester . Douglas was not good at handling the financial matters of his practice . The Duke of Westminster 's secretary wrote of him in 1884 , " A good architect but a poor hand at accounts ! " . Delay in presenting his accounts often led to difficulties and confusion ; such delay sometimes amounted to as much as ten years . Otherwise very little is known about his personal life . No family papers have survived and none of the documents from the office at 6 Abbey Square has been found . = = Styles and practice = = = = = Output and patronage = = = Douglas designed some 500 buildings . He built at least 40 new churches or chapels , restored , altered or made additions to many other churches , and designed fittings and furniture for the interiors of churches . He designed new houses , altered or made additions to others , and built various structures associated with those houses . Douglas 's works also included farms , shops , offices , hotels , a hospital , drinking fountains , clocks , schools , public baths , a library , a bridge , an obelisk , cheese factories , and public conveniences . As his office was in Chester , most of his works were in Cheshire and North Wales , although some were further afield , in Lancashire , Staffordshire , Warwickshire and Scotland . Throughout his career Douglas attracted commissions from wealthy and important patrons . His first @-@ known independent work was an ornament , which is no longer in existence , for the garden of the Honourable Mrs Cholmondeley . She was the sister @-@ in @-@ law of Hugh Cholmondeley , 2nd Baron Delamere , and it was from the 2nd Baron that Douglas received his first major commission , a considerable rebuilding of the south wing of his seat at Vale Royal Abbey in 1860 . Around the same time , Lord Delamere commissioned him to build the church of St John the Evangelist at Over , Winsford , as a memorial to his first wife . Douglas 's most important patrons were the Grosvenor family of Eaton Hall , Cheshire . In 1865 he was commissioned to design the entrance lodge and other structures for Grosvenor Park in Chester , and St John 's Church in the village of Aldford in the Eaton Hall estate for Richard Grosvenor , 2nd Marquess of Westminster . When the marquess died in 1869 he was succeeded by his son Hugh Grosvenor , 1st Duke of Westminster . Douglas received a large number of commissions from the 1st Duke and from his son , the 2nd Duke , throughout his career . It is estimated that for the 1st Duke alone he designed four churches and chapels , eight parsonages and large houses , about 15 schools , around 50 farms ( in whole or in part ) , about 300 cottages , lodges and smithies , two factories , two inns and about 12 commercial buildings on the Eaton Hall estate alone . He also designed buildings on the duke 's Halkyn estate in Flintshire , including another church . Other wealthy landowners who commissioned work from Douglas included William Molyneux , 4th Earl of Sefton , Francis Egerton , 3rd Earl of Ellesmere , George Cholmondeley , 5th Marquess of Cholmondeley , Rowland Egerton @-@ Warburton of Arley Hall , Cheshire , and in Wales , the family of Lord Kenyon , and the Gladstone family , including W. E Gladstone . He also received commissions from industrialists , including John & Thomas Johnson , soap and alkali manufacturers from Runcorn , Richard Muspratt , a chemical industrialist from Flint , Flintshire , and W. H. Lever , soap manufacturer and creator of the village of Port Sunlight . = = = Styles = = = Although the firm where Douglas received his training was in a provincial city in the north of England , it was at the forefront of the Gothic Revival in the country . The Gothic Revival was a reaction against the neoclassical style , which had been popular in the 18th and early 19th centuries , and it incorporated features of the Gothic style of the Middle Ages . Both Edmund Sharpe and E. G. Paley had been influenced by the Cambridge Camden Society and , more specifically , by A. W. N Pugin who believed that " Gothic was the only correct and Christian way to build " . Sharpe had also been influenced by Thomas Rickman , and he had written papers on medieval scholarship himself . Paley had been influenced by his brother , Frederick Apthorp Paley , who was enthusiastic about Gothic architecture , and who had also been influenced by Rickman . During the time Douglas was working in Lancaster the firm was responsible for building and restoring churches in Gothic Revival style , one of which was St Wilfrid 's Church in the Cheshire village of Davenham , some 3 miles ( 5 km ) from Sandiway . Douglas 's first church , that of St John the Evangelist at Over , Winsford , was entirely English Gothic in style , more specifically Early Decorated . Douglas 's influences were not from England alone . Although he never travelled abroad , he incorporated Gothic styles from continental countries , especially Germany and France . This combination of Gothic styles contributed to what has come to be known as the High Victorian style . Its features include a sense of massiveness , steep roofs which are frequently hipped , round turrets with conical roofs , pinnacles , heavy corbel tables , and the use of polychromism . Many of Douglas 's works , especially his earlier ones , are High Victorian in style , or incorporate High Victorian features . One characteristic feature of Douglas 's work is the inclusion of dormer windows rising through the eaves and surmounted by hipped roofs . Another major influence in his work was the rise of interest in vernacular architecture . By the time Douglas moved to Chester , the black @-@ and @-@ white revival using half @-@ timbering was well under way , and Douglas came to incorporate this style in his buildings in Chester and elsewhere . The black @-@ and @-@ white revival did not start in Chester , but it did become Chester 's speciality . The first Chester architect involved in the revival had been Thomas Mainwaring Penson , whose first work in this genre was the restoration of a shop in Eastgate Street in the early 1850s . Other early Chester architects involved in the revival were T. A. Richardson and James Harrison and it came to be developed mainly by T. M. Lockwood and by Douglas . Part of Douglas 's earliest work for the Grosvenor family , the entrance lodge to Grosvenor Park , used half @-@ timbering in its upper storey ; this is the first known use by Douglas of black @-@ and @-@ white . Other vernacular motifs were taken from earlier styles of English architecture , in particular , the Tudor style . These include tile @-@ hanging , pargetting and massive brick ribbed chimney stacks . In this style , Douglas was influenced by the architects Nesfield and Shaw . Douglas also used vernacular elements from the continent , especially the late medieval brickwork of Germany and the Low Countries . A characteristic of Douglas 's work is his attention to both external and internal detailing . Such detailing was not derived from any particular style and Douglas chose elements from whichever style suited his purpose for each specific project . His detailing applied particularly to his joinery , perhaps inspired by his experience in his father 's workshop , and was applied both to wooden fittings and to the furniture he designed . A further Continental influence was his use of a Dutch gable . The most important and consistently used element in Douglas 's vernacular buildings was his use of half @-@ timbering , which was usually used for parts of the building . However , in the cases of Rowden Abbey and St Michael and All Angels Church , Altcar , the entire buildings were timber @-@ framed . = = Significant works = = = = = Early works ( 1860 – 70 ) = = = Douglas 's earliest significant commissions were for the 2nd Baron Delamere and were very different in type and style from each another . The addition of a wing to Vale Royal Abbey ( 1860 ) was in Elizabethan style while St John 's Church at Over ( 1860 – 63 ) was of the Gothic Revival in Early Decorated style . The Congregational Chapel , also at Over ( 1865 ) was again different , being built in polychromic brick in High Victorian style . Meanwhile , Douglas had designed a shop at 19 – 21 Sankey Street , Warrington ( 1864 ) with Gothic arcades and detailed stone carving which Hubbard considers to be his " first building of real and outstanding quality ... in its way one of the best things he ever did " . Shortly after this came the first commissions for the Grosvenor family , consisting of a lodge and other structures in Grosvenor Park , Chester ( 1865 – 67 ) , and St John the Baptist 's Church , Aldford ( 1865 – 66 ) . His first commission for a large house was Oakmere Hall ( 1867 ) for John & Thomas Johnson , industrialists of Runcorn . It is in High Victorian style and includes a main block and a service wing , a large tower on the south face , a small tower with turrets , a porte @-@ cochère , steep roofs and dormer windows . Another early church was St Ann 's at Warrington ( 1868 – 69 ) , again High Victorian in style , which is described as being " quite startlingly bold " and " a prodigy church in Douglas 's output " . By 1869 – 70 Douglas had started to design buildings on the Eaton Hall estate . Around this time he also re @-@ modelled St Mary 's Church , Dodleston . = = = Early mature buildings ( 1870 – 84 ) = = = = = = = Secular = = = = Many of the secular buildings in this period were smaller @-@ scale structures . These include cottages in Great Budworth , and cottages , houses , schools and farms in the Eaton Hall estate and its associated villages . In 1872 he designed Shotwick Park , a large house in Great Saughall , built in brick with some half @-@ timbering ; it has steep roofs , tall ribbed chimneys and turrets . About the same time he reconstructed Broxton Higher Hall , incorporating much half @-@ timbering . Commissions for more large houses came in the late 1870s and 1880s . The Gelli ( 1877 ) is a house in three ranges designed for the Kenyon sisters in the village of Tallarn Green , Flintshire . Also built for the Kenyon family is Llannerch Panna in Penley , Flintshire ( 1878 – 79 ) , which is " competent in its handling of timberwork " . An entirely black @-@ and @-@ white house with jettying is Rowden Abbey ( 1881 ) in Hertfordshire . Back in North Wales , Plas Mynach ( 1883 ) in Barmouth includes much detailed woodwork internally . In about 1879 – 81 Douglas built a terrace of houses on his own land in Chester , 6 – 11 Grosvenor Park Road , the road leading to the main entrance to Grosvenor Park , in High Victorian style . About 1883 he designed Barrowmore Hall ( or Barrow Court ) at Great Barrow ( since demolished ) which was one of his largest houses . Also around this time he designed buildings on the Eaton Hall estate , including Eccleston Hill ( 1881 – 82 ) , a large house for the Duke 's secretary , the Stud Lodge , a smaller building of the same dates , Eccleston Hill Lodge ( 1881 ) , a three @-@ storey gatehouse at the main entrance to the park , with a high hipped roof and turrets , and The Paddocks ( 1882 – 83 ) , another large house , this time for the Duke 's land agent . In Chester city centre his designs included the Grosvenor Club and North and South Wales Bank ( 1881 – 83 ) in Eastgate Street , built in stone and brick , with a turret and a stepped gable , and 142 Foregate Street for the Cheshire County Constabulary ( 1884 ) , with a shaped gable in Flemish style . = = = = Churches = = = = St Mary 's Church , Whitegate was restored in 1874 – 75 for the 2nd Baron Delamere , retaining much of the medieval interior but rebuilding the exterior , adding a short chancel , and incorporating half @-@ timbering . St Paul 's Church , Boughton in Chester was Douglas 's own parish church which he rebuilt in 1876 incorporating parts of the pre @-@ existing building . Douglas 's only church built entirely in half @-@ timbering is the small church of St Michael and All Angels at Great Altcar in Lancashire . A church built in brick with half @-@ timbering is St Chad 's ( 1881 ) at Hopwas in Staffordshire . During this period Douglas built or restored a series of churches entirely in stone , incorporating mainly Gothic features together with vernacular elements . These include St John the Baptist 's Church , Hartford ( 1873 – 75 ) , St Paul 's , Marston ( 1874 , now demolished ) , the Presbyterian Chapel ( 1875 ) at Rossett , Denbighshire , St Stephen 's , Moulton ( 1876 ) , the rebuilding of Christ Church , Chester ( also in 1876 ) , the Church of St Mary the Virgin ( 1877 – 78 ) at Halkyn , Flintshire , and the Welsh Church of St John the Evangelist ( 1878 ) in Mold , also in Flintshire . Later in this period he built St Mary 's Church , at Pulford in 1881 – 84 for the Duke of Westminster and in 1882 – 85 St Werburgh 's New Church at Warburton for Rowland Egerton @-@ Warburton . = = = Partnerships = = = = = = = Douglas & Fordham ( 1884 – 98 ) = = = = In 1885 – 87 the partnership designed Abbeystead House for the 4th Earl of Sefton in North Lancashire . Hubbard describes this as " the finest of Douglas 's Elizabethan houses , and one of the largest which he ever designed " . During this time additions were made to Jodrell Hall in Cheshire and Halkyn Castle in Flintshire . In 1885 the Castle Hotel at Conwy , Caernarfonshire , was remodelled , and in 1887 – 88 a strongroom was added to Hawarden Castle , followed by a porch in 1890 . During this period more buildings were added to the Eaton Hall estate , and these included houses and cottages , such as Eccleston Hill , and Eccleston Ferry House , and farms such as Saighton Lane Farm . In 1890 – 91 an obelisk was built in the Belgrave Avenue approach to Eaton Hall . The last house designed by Douglas on a large scale was Brocksford Hall ( 1893 ) in Derbyshire . This was a country house in Elizabethan style using diapered brick and stone dressings with a clock tower . In Chester city centre , 38 Bridge Street ( 1897 ) is a timber @-@ framed shop that incorporates a section of Chester Rows and contains heavily decorated carving . From 1892 the partnership designed houses and cottages in Port Sunlight for Lever Brothers . Also in the village they designed the Dell Bridge ( 1894 ) , and the school ( 1894 – 96 ) , which is now called the Lyceum . In 1896 Douglas designed a house for himself , Walmoor Hill in Dee Banks , Chester , in Elizabethan style . Between 1895 and 1897 he designed a range of buildings on the east side of St Werburgh Street in the centre of Chester . At its south end , on the corner of Eastgate Street , is a bank whose ground storey is built in stone , and behind this leading up St Werburgh Street , the ground storey consists of shop fronts . Above this the range consists of two storeys plus an attic , which are covered in highly ornamented timber @-@ framing . On the first floor is a series of oriel windows , the second floor is jettied , and at the top are eleven gables . Pevsner considers that this range of buildings is " Douglas at his best ( though also at his showiest ) " . Hubbard expresses the opinion that " in this work , the city 's half @-@ timber revival reached its very apogee " . During the partnership , work continued on designing new churches and restoring older ones . In 1884 – 85 a chapel was built at Carlett Park at Eastham in the Wirral and in 1884 – 87 St Deiniol 's Church was built in Criccieth , Caernarfonshire . Christ Church , Rossett ( 1886 – 92 ) , St Paul 's Church , Colwyn Bay ( 1887 – 88 with later additions ) , and St Andrew 's Church , West Kirby ( 1889 – 91 ) followed . St John 's Church in Barmouth , Merionethshire was built between 1889 and 1895 . It is one of the largest of Douglas 's churches , although in 1891 , during its construction , the tower collapsed and had to be rebuilt . Other churches built in North Wales were Christ Church in Bryn @-@ y @-@ Maen , Colwyn Bay , and All Saints , Deganwy ( both 1897 – 99 ) . In about 1891 – 92 the Church of St James the Great , Haydock , was built . This was constructed in half @-@ timber to give protection against possible mining subsidence . Other new churches built during this partnership were St Wenefrede 's Church , Bickley ( 1892 ) , St David 's Welsh Church in Rhosllannerchrugog , Denbighshire , All Saints Church , Higher Kinnerton ( 1893 ) , the Congregational Church in Great Crosby ( 1897 – 98 ) , and St John the Evangelist 's Church , Weston , Runcorn ( 1897 – 1900 ) . A spire was added to St Peter 's Church , Chester in 1886 – 87 and a tower was added to Holy Trinity Church , Capenhurst in about 1889 – 90 . In 1886 – 87 Douglas added a bell tower to St John the Baptist 's Church , Chester and this was followed by the rebuilding of its north aisle . Other restorations , embellishments , and additions of monuments and furniture were carried out in churches during this partnership . = = = = Douglas & Minshull ( 1898 – 1909 ) and Douglas alone ( 1909 – 11 ) = = = = In 1898 the firm designed St Oswald 's Chambers in St Werburgh Street , Chester , and this was followed by further buildings in the city . In 1902 – 03 Douglas built St John the Evangelist 's Church , in the village of his birth , Sandiway . It was built on land owned by Douglas and he paid for the cost of the chancel and the lych gate . In 1899 the Diamond Jubilee Memorial Clock , constructed in open wrought iron , was erected on the Eastgate in Chester to commemorate Queen Victoria 's Diamond Jubilee in 1897 . In 1898 – 1901 Chester 's public baths were built ; this was an unusual work for Douglas as it involved specialist engineering work . During this period one of Douglas 's most important secular buildings was designed , St Deiniol 's Library , at Hawarden , Flintshire , for W. E. Gladstone and his family . The first phase was constructed between 1899 and 1902 , and the library was completed in 1904 – 06 . Around this time the practice was commissioned to work on two churches in association with Gladstone ; St Ethelwold 's ( 1898 – 1902 ) was a new church at Shotton in Flintshire , and additions were made to St Matthew 's at Buckley , also in Flintshire , between 1897 and 1905 . The other new churches built during this period were Douglas 's only Scottish church , the Episcopal Church ( 1903 ) in Lockerbie , Dumfriesshire , and St Matthew 's Church ( 1910 – 11 ) in Saltney , Flintshire . Alterations were made and furniture was designed for other churches . Douglas 's last major project was the addition of a tower to his church of St Paul 's at Colwyn Bay , but he died before this could be completed . = = = Publication = = = Douglas published no writings of his own and left no records of his ideas and thoughts . The only publication with which he was associated was the Abbey Square Sketch Book , which he edited . The book appeared in three volumes , the first dated 1872 and the others undated ; it consisted of sketches and drawings ( with some photographs in the third volume ) by many contributors . The pictures depicted buildings and furniture , mainly dating from the late medieval period and the 16th and 17th centuries , and mostly from Cheshire and northwest England . Douglas 's only contribution was a jointly ascribed plate in the third volume . It is likely that he designed the title pages , or at least the drawing incorporated in it , of the Abbey Gateway in Chester . = = Reputation , influences and legacy = = Douglas practised for the whole of his career in a provincial county town , and most of his works were concentrated in Cheshire and North Wales , yet he " conducted a practice which achieved national renown " . He was never a member of the Royal Institute of British Architects , but his works featured frequently in national publications , including Building News , The Builder , The Architect , and The British Architect , the last of which particularly praised many of his works . A number of Douglas 's works were exhibited at the Royal Academy and appeared in Academy Architecture . Douglas 's obituary in The British Architect referred to him as having " achieved a reputation which has long placed him in the front rank of living architects " . In the series The Buildings of England , Nikolaus Pevsner described him , without reservation , as " the best Cheshire architect " . In the companion series The Buildings of Wales : Clwyd , Hubbard expressed the opinion that he was " the most important and active local architect of the period " . Critical praise was not confined to Britain ; Douglas 's works were acclaimed by the French architect Paul Sédille , and the German architect and writer Hermann Muthesius . Despite this , the only official recognition he received in his lifetime was a medal for Abbeystead House , which was shown at an exhibition in Paris . Many of the architects training and working in Douglas 's office were influenced by him . Perhaps the best known of these were Edmund Kirby and Edward Ould . Kirby is best remembered for his Roman Catholic churches . Ould went on to design a number of buildings in Chester and further afield in a Douglas @-@ like style , including notably Wightwick Manor and various buildings at Port Sunlight . Other architects who did not work in his office were also influenced by him ; these include Thomas Lockwood , Richard Thomas Beckett , Howard Hignett , A. E. Powers , James Strong and the Cheshire County Architect , Henry Beswick . A large proportion of Douglas 's buildings still exist , many of them being listed buildings , in a wide variety of types and styles . Douglas is not remembered for any one building type ; his churches and houses are considered to be of equal importance . He was not a pioneer of any particular new development , but instead followed national stylistic trends while still retaining his individuality . His buildings are " anything but copyist " and they " bear a highly individual and nearly always recognisable stamp " . The major characteristics of his buildings are " sure proportions , imaginative massing and grouping ... immaculate detailing and a superb sense of craftsmanship and feeling for materials " . His work is " architecture which can be enjoyed as well as admired " .
= Street newspaper = Street newspapers ( or street papers ) are newspapers or magazines sold by homeless or poor individuals and produced mainly to support these populations . Most such newspapers primarily provide coverage about homelessness and poverty @-@ related issues , and seek to strengthen social networks within homeless communities . Street papers aim to give these individuals both employment opportunities and a voice in their community . In addition to being sold by homeless individuals , many of these papers are partially produced and written by them . In the late 19th and early 20th centuries several publications by charity , religious , and labor organizations tried to draw attention to the homeless , but street newspapers only became common after the founding of New York City 's Street News in 1989 . Similar papers are now published in over 30 countries , with most located in the United States and Western Europe . They are supported by governments , charities , and coalitions such as the International Network of Street Papers and the North American Street Newspaper Association . Although street newspapers have multiplied , many still face challenges , including funding shortages , unreliable staff and difficulty in generating interest and maintaining an audience . Street newspapers are sold mainly by homeless individuals , but the newspapers vary in how much content is submitted by them and how much of the coverage pertains to them : while some papers are written and published mainly by homeless contributors , others have a professional staff and attempt to emulate mainstream publications . These differences have caused controversy among street newspaper publishers over what type of material should be covered and to what extent the homeless should participate in writing and production . One popular street newspaper , The Big Issue , has been a focus of this controversy because it concentrates on attracting a large readership through coverage of mainstream issues and popular culture , whereas other newspapers emphasize homeless advocacy and social issues and earn less of a profit . = = History = = = = = Historical foundations = = = Although the modern street newspaper began with the 1989 publication of Street News in New York City , and the Street Sheet in San Francisco , 1989 , newspapers sold by the poor and homeless to generate income and to bring attention to social problems date back to the late 19th century ; journalism scholar Norma Fay Green has cited The War Cry , created by the Salvation Army in London in 1879 , as an early form of " dissident , underground , alternative publication " . The War Cry was sold by Salvation Army officers and the working poor to draw people 's attention to the poor living conditions of these individuals . Another precursor to the modern street newspaper was Cincinnati 's Hobo News , which ran from 1915 to 1930 and featured writing from prominent labor and social activists as well as Industrial Workers of the World members , alongside contributions of oral history , creative writing , and artwork from hoboes , or itinerant beggars . Most street papers published before 1970 , such as The Catholic Worker ( founded in 1933 ) , were affiliated with religious organizations . Like workers ' papers and other forms of alternative media in the late 19th and early 20th centuries , early street newspapers were often created because the founders believed mainstream news did not cover issues that were relevant to ordinary people . = = = Modern street newspapers = = = Modern street newspapers began to emerge in the United States in the late 1980s in response to increasing levels of homelessness and homeless advocates ' dissatisfaction with the mainstream media 's portrayals of the homeless . At the time , many media outlets portrayed homeless people as being all criminals and drug addicts , and suggested that homelessness was a result of laziness rather than societal or political factors . Thus , one motivation for the creation of the first street newspapers was to counter the negative coverage of homeless people that was coming from existing media . Street News , founded in late 1989 in New York City , is frequently cited as the first modern street newspaper . Street Sheet in San Francisco started organically around the same time , without the knowledge of Street News ' existence , and is considered the longest @-@ running continuously published street newspaper . While some small papers were already being published when it was founded , Street News attracted the most attention and became the " catalyst " for many other papers . Many more street papers were launched in the early 1990s , crediting the high @-@ profile New York paper as their inspiration , such as Spare Change News in Boston founded in 1992 . During this period , an average of five new papers were created every year . This growth has been attributed both to changing attitudes and policies towards homeless individuals and to the ease of publishing provided by desktop computers ; After 1989 , at least 100 papers sprung up in over 30 countries . By 2008 , an estimated 32 million people worldwide read street newspapers , and 250 @,@ 000 poor , disadvantaged , or homeless individuals sold or contributed to them . Street papers have been started in many major cities worldwide , mainly in the United States and Western Europe . They have especially proliferated in Germany , which in 1999 had more street newspapers than the rest of Europe combined , and in Sweden , where the street papers Aluma , Situation Sthlm and Faktum won the 2006 grand prize award for journalism of the Swedish Publicists ' Association . Street papers have been established in some cities in Canada , Africa , South America , and Asia . Even within the United States , some street newspapers ( such as Chicago 's bilingual Hasta Cuando ) are published in languages other than English . In the mid @-@ 1990s , coalitions were established to strengthen the street newspaper movement . The International Network of Street Papers ( INSP ) ( founded in 1994 ) and the North American Street Newspaper Association ( NASNA ) ( founded in 1997 ) aim to provide support for street papers and to " uphold ethical standards " . In particular , the INSP was established to help groups that were starting new street newspapers , to bring more mainstream media attention to the street newspaper movement during the 1990s , and to support interaction and cross @-@ talk between street paper publishers and staff from different countries . The INSP and the NASNA voted to combine their resources in 2006 ; they have collaborated to found the Street News Service , a project which collects articles from member papers and archives them on the internet . National street paper coalitions have also been formed in Europe ( there is a national coalition in Italy , and the Netherlands has the Straatmedia Groep Nederland ) . = = Description = = Most street newspapers have three main purposes : To provide income and job skills to the homeless and other marginalized individuals , who act as vendors of and often contributors to the newspapers To provide coverage of , and to educate the general public about , issues pertaining to homelessness and poverty To establish social networks within homeless communities and between homeless individuals and service providers The defining characteristic of a street newspaper is that it is sold by homeless or marginalized vendors . While many street newspapers aim to provide coverage of social issues and educate the public about homelessness , this goal is often secondary : many people who buy street newspapers do so to support and express solidarity with the homeless vendor , rather than to read the paper . The precise demographics of the readership of street newspapers is unclear . A pair of 1993 surveys conducted by Chicago 's StreetWise suggested that the paper 's readers at the time tended to be college @-@ educated , with slightly over half being female , and slightly over half unmarried . = = = Operations and business = = = Most street newspapers operate by selling the papers to homeless vendors for a fraction of the retail price ( usually between 10 % and 50 % ) , after which the vendors sell the papers for the retail price and retain all the proceeds from street sales . The income vendors earn from sales is intended to help them " get back on their feet " . The purpose of requiring vendors to purchase papers up front and earn back the money by selling them is to help them develop skills in financial management . Vendors for most newspapers are identifiable by badges or messenger bags . Many newspapers require that vendors sign a code of conduct or otherwise " clean up their act " . Most street newspaper vendors in the United States and United Kingdom are homeless individuals , although in several other countries ( especially in Europe ) papers are mainly sold by refugees . Nevertheless , not all vendors are homeless ; some have stable housing situations but are unable to hold other jobs , while others started out homeless but were eventually able to use their income from sales to find housing . In general , the major American street newspapers do not require prospective vendors to show proof of homelessness or poverty , and they do not require vendors to retire once they find stable housing . In the United States , since 2008 there have been a growing number of vendors who are " newly needy " — only recently homeless , or with only temporary financial difficulty — as opposed to the " chronically homeless " who have traditionally made up the majority of the vendor force . These vendors are often well @-@ educated and have extensive work experience , but lost their jobs in the 2008 financial crisis . Street papers start in a variety of ways . Some , such as Street Sense , are begun by homeless or formerly homeless individuals , whereas others are more professional ventures . Many , particularly in the United States , receive aid from local government and charities , and coalitions such as the International Network of Street Papers and the North American Street Newspaper Association provide workshops and support for new street papers . Many develop in a bottom @-@ up fashion , starting up through volunteer work and " newcomers to the media business " and gradually expanding to include professionals . For most papers , the majority of revenue comes from sales , donations , and government grants , while some receive advertising revenue from local businesses . There has been some disagreement among street newspaper publishers and supporters over whether papers should accept advertising , with some arguing that advertising is practical and helps support the paper , and others claiming that many kinds of advertisements are inappropriate in a paper that is mainly geared towards the poor . Specific business models for street newspapers vary widely , ranging from vendor @-@ managed papers that place the highest value upon homeless empowerment and involvement to highly professionalized and commercialized weeklies . Some papers ( especially in Europe ) operate as autonomous businesses , while others operate as parts of existing organizations or projects . There are papers that are very successful , such as the UK @-@ based The Big Issue , which in 2001 sold nearly 300 @,@ 000 copies a week and earned the equivalent of over 20 million USD in profits , but many papers sell as few as 3 @,@ 000 copies a month and barely generate a profit at all for the publishers . = = = Coverage = = = Most street newspapers report on issues regarding homelessness and poverty , sometimes functioning as a main source of information on policy changes and other practical issues that are relevant to the homeless but may go unreported in mainstream media . Many feature contributions from the homeless and the poor in addition to articles by activists and community organizers , including profiles of individual street newspaper vendors . For example , the first edition of Washington , D.C. ' s Street Sense included a description of a prominent homeless community , an interview with a congresswoman , an editorial about the costs and benefits of taking a job , several poems about homelessness , a how @-@ to column , and a section for recipes . A 2009 issue of the Lawrence , Kansas @-@ based Change of Heart included a story on the recent bulldozing of a homeless camp , a review of a book on homelessness , a description of the Family Promise organization for homeless support , and a list of community resources ; much of this content was submitted by the homeless . The writing style is often simple and clear ; social scientist Kevin Howley describes street newspapers as having a " native eloquence " . According to Howley , street newspapers are similar to citizen journalism in that both are a response to the perceived shortcomings of the mainstream media and both encourage involvement by non @-@ professionals . A major difference between the two , however , is that the citizen journalism movement does not necessarily advocate a particular position , whereas street newspapers openly advocate for the homeless and poor . Unlike most street newspapers , the UK @-@ based The Big Issue focuses mostly on celebrity news and interviews , rather than coverage of homelessness and poverty . It is still sold by homeless vendors and uses the bulk of its proceeds to support homeless individuals and advocacy organizations for the homeless , but the paper 's content is mostly written by professional staff and geared towards a broad audience . Because of its professional nature and high production values , it has been a frequent target of criticism in an ongoing debate between adherents of professional and grassroots ideals of how street newspapers should work . = = = Social benefits = = = In addition to providing some individuals with income and employment , street newspapers are intended to give homeless participants responsibility and independence , and to create a tight @-@ knit homeless community . Many offer additional programs to vendors , such as job training , housing placement assistance , and referral to other direct services . Others operate as a program of a larger social services organization — for instance , Chicago 's StreetWise can refer vendors to providers of " drug and alcohol treatment , high school equivalency classes , career counseling , and permanent housing " . Most are engaged in some form of organizing and advocacy regarding homelessness and poverty , and many function as " watchdogs " for the local homeless communities . Howley has described street newspapers as a means of mobilizing the networks of " formal and informal relationships that exist between the homeless , the unemployed , and the working poor , and shelter managers , healthcare workers , community organizers , and others who work on their behalf " . = = = Challenges and criticisms = = = In the early days of street newspapers , people were often reluctant to buy from homeless vendors for fear that they were being scammed . Furthermore , many of the more activist papers fail to sell well because their writing and production are perceived to be unprofessional and lackluster . Topics covered are sometimes seen as lacking newsworthy content , and of little relevance or interest to the general public or the homeless community . Organizations in Montreal and San Francisco have responded to these criticisms by offering workshops in writing and journalism for homeless contributors . Papers such as StreetWise have in the past been criticized as " grim " and for having vendors that are too loud and intrusive . Some newspapers sell well but may not be widely read , as many people will donate to vendors without buying , or buy the newspaper and then throw it away . Howley has described readers ' hesitance or unwillingness to read the papers as " compassion fatigue " . On the other hand , those papers that do sell well and are widely read , such as The Big Issue , are often targets of criticism for being too " mainstream " or commercial . Other difficulties street newspapers face include high turnover of " transient " or unreliable staff , lack of adequate funding , lack of journalistic freedom for papers that are funded by local government , and , among some demographics , lack of interest in homeless issues . For example , journalism professor Jim Cunningham has attributed the difficulties in selling Calgary 's Calgary Street Talk to the fact that the mostly middle @-@ class , conservative population has " not enough sensitivity to the causes of homelessness " . Finally , anti @-@ homeless legislation often targets street newspapers and vendors ; for example , in New York City and Cleveland , laws have prevented vendors from selling papers on public transit or other high @-@ traffic areas , making it difficult for the papers Street News and Homeless Grapevine to earn revenue . = = = Differing approaches = = = Among proponents and publishers of street newspapers there is disagreement over how street newspapers should be run and what their goals should be , reflecting a " clash between two philosophies for advocating social change " . On one side of the debate are papers that seek to function like a business and generate a profit and a wide readership in order to benefit the homeless in a practical way ; on the other are papers that seek to provide a " voice " to the homeless and poor without watering down their message for a broad readership . Timothy Harris , the director of Real Change , has described the two camps as " liberal entrepreneurial " and " radical , grassroots activist " . Controversy surrounding The Big Issue , the world 's most widely circulated street newspaper , is a good example of these two schools of thought . The Big Issue is mostly a tabloid covering celebrity news ; while it is sold by the homeless and generates a profit that is used to benefit the homeless , the content is not written by them and there is little coverage of social issues that are relevant to them . In the late 1990s when the London @-@ based paper began making plans to enter markets in the United States , many American street newspaper publishers reacted defensively , saying they could not compete with the production values and mainstream appeal of the professionally produced The Big Issue or that The Big Issue did not do enough to provide a voice to the homeless . The reaction to The Big Issue raised what is now an ongoing conflict between commercialized , professional papers and more grassroots @-@ style ones , with papers such as The Big Issue emulating mainstream papers and magazines in order to generate a large profit to invest in homeless issues and others focusing on political and social issues rather than on content that will generate money . Some street newspaper proponents believe that the primary aim of the papers should be to give homeless individuals a voice and to " fill the void " in mainstream media coverage , whereas others believe it should be to provide homeless individuals with jobs and an income . Other frequent areas of disagreement include the extent that the homeless should participate in the writing and printing of street newspapers , and whether street newspapers should accept advertising to generate revenue . Kevin Howley sums up the division between different street newspaper models when he questions if it is " possible ( or desirable for that matter ) to publish a dissident newspaper — that is , a publication committed to progressive social change — and still attract a wide audience " . = = List of street newspapers = =
= Fajsz = Fajsz ( Hungarian pronunciation : [ ˈfɒjs ] ) , also Falicsi ( pronounced [ ˈfɒlitʃi ] ) , was Grand Prince of the Hungarians from about 950 to around 955 . All information on him comes from De administrando imperio , a book written by the Byzantine Emperor Constantine VII Porphyrogenitus . No other contemporary source or later Hungarian chronicle preserved his name , suggesting that he did not take an active role in the politics of the Hungarian tribes ' confederation . = = Life = = Fajsz was the only known son of Jutotzas , the third son of Árpád who led the Hungarian tribes ' confederation at the time of their conquest of the Carpathian Basin between around 895 and 907 . After Árpád 's death , fundamental changes happened in the government of the tribal confederation . Although the various tribes could even thereafter act in concert for raids , they did not obey a strong central authority any more . Even so , as the historian Miklós Molnár emphasizes , " the supremacy of the House of Árpád seems to have remained unshaken . " For instance , Hungarian visitors to Constantinople – including Termatzus , a great @-@ grandson of Árpád – informed Emperor Constantine VII around 948 that the " first chief " of the Hungarians " comes by succession of Árpád 's family " . Constantine VII also mentions that Fajsz was the head of the confederation of the Hungarian tribes around 950 . The historian Gyula Kristó proposes that Fajsz abdicated after the Hungarians ' catastrophic defeat by the Germans in the battle of Lechfeld in 955 . = = Name and legacy = = Fajsz 's name , which was preserved in two forms – " Phalitzi " and " Phalis " – may be connected either to the Hungarian word for " half " ( fél ) or to the verb fal ( " to gobble up " ) . Historian György Györffy proposes that the villages named Fajsz in the Carpathian Basin – for instance , the one in Bács @-@ Kiskun County ( Hungary ) – were named after him . Based on the recorded Phalitzi form of Fajsz 's name , Gyula Kristó rejects this hypothesis .
= Red Alarm = Red Alarm ( レッドアラーム , Reddo Arāmu ) is a 1995 shoot ' em up video game developed by T & E Soft and published by Nintendo . Released as a Virtual Boy launch game , it requires the player to pilot a space fighter and defeat the army of a malevolent artificial intelligence called " KAOS " . The game takes inspiration from the 1993 title Star Fox , and it is one of the few third @-@ party titles for the Virtual Boy . Unlike most of the console 's games , Red Alarm features three @-@ dimensional ( 3D ) polygonal graphics . However , hardware constraints limited the visuals to bare wire @-@ frame models , similar to those of the 1980 arcade game Battlezone . Reviewers characterized Red Alarm 's graphics as confusing , but certain publications praised it as one of the most enjoyable Virtual Boy titles . = = Gameplay and plot = = Red Alarm is a shoot ' em up that takes place in a three @-@ dimensional ( 3D ) graphical environment . As a Virtual Boy game , it features a red @-@ and @-@ black color palette and stereoscopic 3D visuals , the depth of which may be adjusted by the player . The game is set during the 21st century , in the aftermath of a 70 @-@ year world war that led to the establishment of a utopian society without weapons . An artificially intelligent defense system called " KAOS " , which had been used to end the war , becomes sentient and builds an army to wipe out humanity . Assuming control of a " Tech @-@ Wing " space fighter , the player seeks to destroy KAOS 's forces and finally its mainframe . The game is broken up into six levels , each of which culminates in a boss fight . The player uses the Tech @-@ Wing 's laser cannons to attack , and its guided missiles to destroy armored enemies . Shields on the craft offer limited protection from enemy fire ; evasion is critical . The Tech @-@ Wing may be maneuvered in any direction , and certain levels contain branching corridors and dead ends that force players to retrace their paths . Four camera angles — three third @-@ person viewpoints and the first @-@ person " cockpit view " — are available . When a level is completed , the player may watch a replay of their performance from multiple perspectives . = = Development and release = = Red Alarm was published by Nintendo and developed by T & E Soft , one of the few third @-@ party companies approached to develop for the Virtual Boy . According to the console 's creator , Gunpei Yokoi , Nintendo tried to " maintain as much control as possible " over Virtual Boy game development so that low @-@ quality releases by outside companies could be avoided . Although T & E Soft was known for golf video games , the design of Red Alarm was inspired by that of Star Fox , a rail shooter for the Super Nintendo Entertainment System . This decision was considered by Patrick Kolan of IGN to be " a departure for the team " . Unlike many Virtual Boy games , Red Alarm features an engine that displays 3D graphics : the game world is rendered in wire @-@ frame polygonal visuals similar to those of the 1980 arcade game Battlezone . Because of the console 's limited technology , solid 3D graphics were not viable . Red Alarm debuted in North America at the 1995 Winter Consumer Electronics Show , and it was confirmed as a launch game for the Virtual Boy at that year 's Electronic Entertainment Expo . Later that year , Red Alarm and several other titles were released alongside the console , which debuted on July 21 in Japan and August 14 in the United States . = = Reception = = Writing for Weekly Famicom Tsūshin , Isabella Nagano called Red Alarm 's stereoscopic visuals " amazing " , and Sawada Noda recommended the game to all owners of the Virtual Boy . In a more negative review , the publication 's Mizu Pin characterized the wire @-@ frame graphics as confusing and frustrating , a criticism echoed by the four reviewers of Electronic Gaming Monthly . A GamePro writer under the pseudonym " Slo Mo " found the visuals confusing as well , but felt that players could adjust to them . Slo Mo and Electronic Gaming Monthly 's Danyon Carpenter and Al Manuel praised the title 's control scheme , and the latter magazine 's Andrew Baran summarized Red Alarm as " a nifty show @-@ off game " . The reviewer for Next Generation saw significant promise in Red Alarm , and believed that its elements should add up to " a fantastic game " ; but the writer panned the final product as a wasted opportunity . Similarly , Danny Wallace of Total ! wrote , " On the one hand , it 's a pretty impressive 3D spacey shoot @-@ em @-@ up , with a real grip on the Virtual world and all those fancy techniques , and on the other it 's an often visually confusing , headache @-@ inducing attempt at being something it 's quite obviously not . " However , Dave Halverson of DieHard GameFan called Red Alarm " a great shooter " with excellent graphics . Co @-@ reviewer Nicholas Barres hailed it as a " masterpiece " , and he considered it to be " the one and only reason to buy a Virtual Boy " . A retrospective feature by the Australian Broadcasting Corporation 's program Good Game highlighted Red Alarm as one of the Virtual Boy 's most visually impressive games due to its polygonal graphics . The outlet praised it as one of the most entertaining titles on the console . Video game database AllGame gave the game a two and a half out of five rating , noting how the graphics made it difficult to play . The review stated that the design of the graphics " makes structures hard to see because there is empty space between the lines defining them . Add multiple enemy fighters and ground defenses [ sic ] into the mix , and it can be very difficult to navigate your ship , especially when you are trying to fight back ! " The review concluded that the developers " have created a very detailed setting for which to fight in . Walls have faces stretching out of them like a scene from The Abyss , there are several interesting bosses to combat , and you 'll even hear some speech . Deep down there is a fine shooter that is simply hard to enjoy due to the limitations of the hardware ... and that is truly a shame . " In 2008 , Kolan called it " a really competent shooter " with strong visuals and gameplay . The following year , Damien McFerran of Retro Gamer summarized Red Alarm as " pretty good fun to play " , although inferior to Star Fox . However , Wired 's Chris Kohler later opined that the game " kind of sucked " .
= Pat Collins = Tharon Leslie " Pat " Collins ( September 13 , 1896 – May 20 , 1960 ) was an American baseball catcher who played ten seasons in Major League Baseball ( MLB ) . He played for the St. Louis Browns , New York Yankees and Boston Braves from 1919 to 1929 . He batted and threw right @-@ handed and also played five games at first base . Collins played minor league baseball for the Joplin Miners until 1919 , when he signed with the St. Louis Browns . After spending six seasons with the organization , Collins spent a one @-@ year sojourn in the minor leagues before he was traded to the New York Yankees , where he spent the next three years and played in the famous 1927 Murderers ' Row lineup . At the conclusion of the 1928 season , he was traded to the Boston Braves , with whom he played his last game on May 23 , 1929 . A two @-@ time World Series champion , he is famous for being the only major league player to pinch hit and pinch run in the same game . = = Personal life = = Collins was born on September 13 , 1896 in Sweet Springs , Missouri . His mother , Sarah , ran a boarding house , and he had three siblings : Ola , Mildred , and Rathal . He attended school in Sweet Springs before moving to Kansas City , Kansas to play sandlot ball . He was married to Daisy C. Collins . During his time with the Yankees , his teammate Babe Ruth — who usually called everyone " Kid " due to his inability to remember people 's names — mockingly gave Collins the nickname " Horse Nose " . After his major league career ended , he went on to run a restaurant in Kansas City , then operate a tavern in Lawrence , Kansas until 1952 . In April 1952 , the state of Kansas took Collins to court over alleged unpaid federal income tax from 1945 to 1950 . Although he was convicted in December of evading $ 4 @,@ 037 , a federal judge ordered a new trial after evidence emerged showing his friend had deposited $ 48 @,@ 300 in a safety deposit box for him . After being treated for a heart condition , Collins died in his sleep on May 20 , 1960 in Kansas City at the age of 63 and was interred at the city 's Memorial Park Cemetery . = = Professional career = = = = = Minor leagues = = = Collins began his professional baseball career in 1917 with the Joplin Miners , a minor league baseball team that were members of the Class A Western League . In 1919 , his last season with the Miners , he had a breakthrough year , posting a batting average .316 and amassing 100 hits , 19 doubles and 10 home runs in 96 games played . This caught the attention of the St. Louis Browns , who signed him near the end of the season . = = = St. Louis Browns ( 1919 – 24 ) = = = Collins made his major league debut for the Browns on September 5 , 1919 , at the age of 22 , entering the game as a pinch @-@ hitter for pitcher Bert Gallia and drawing a walk in a 12 – 3 loss against the Detroit Tigers . Between 1920 and 1922 , he never played more than 31 games nor started more than 20 games a season as catcher , and his role was limited to occasional pinch @-@ hitting appearances . During the 1923 season , Collins played 47 games ( 37 starts ) and had the fifth highest caught stealing percentage in the American League ( AL ) at 44 @.@ 4 % . During a June 8 road game at Shibe Park , he became the first and only major league player to pinch hit and pinch run in the same game . His teammate Homer Ezzell reached base in the third inning , but needed to use the restroom . Collins was inserted into the game as a pinch runner until Ezzell returned . In the ninth inning , Collins returned to pinch hit for pitcher Ray Kolp after the Philadelphia Athletics ' manager Connie Mack agreed to drop the no free substitution rule and allowed Collins to pinch hit . However , the official box score lists his pinch hit appearance only . In 1924 , there were two factors which limited Collins to just 20 games ( 11 starts ) as catcher . Firstly , he dislocated the joint in his left thumb during spring training after splitting the finger . Then on June 22 , Collins — along with Browns manager George Sisler and coach Jimmy Austin — were suspended indefinitely after arguing balls and strikes with the umpire . Sisler lodged a formal protest to AL president Ban Johnson , and the suspensions were rescinded four days later . After the season ended , Collins was not re @-@ signed by the Browns , so he spent the 1925 season with the St. Paul Saints , a minor league baseball team that competed in the American Association ( AA ) . There , he batted .316 and hit 19 home runs in 132 games . = = = New York Yankees ( 1926 – 28 ) = = = The Saints traded Collins to the New York Yankees on August 30 , 1925 , in exchange for $ 25 @,@ 000 and three players to be named later ( the Yankees later sent Pee @-@ Wee Wanninger to St. Paul on December 16 ) . During his years with the team , he developed a reputation of being slow @-@ footed and having a throwing arm that was described as " terrible " and " weak " . However , his steadiness behind the plate and his bat kept him in lineup . He became the starting catcher " by default " after Benny Bengough — who was Miller Huggins ' first choice for the job — suffered from a sore arm before spring training commenced . In his first season with the organization , Collins had the fourth highest on @-@ base percentage ( .433 ) and tenth best at bats per home run ratio ( 41 @.@ 4 ) in the AL , though he also recorded the fifth highest number of strikeouts in the league with 57 . Defensively , he played the fourth highest number of games at catcher ( 100 ) , during which he finished second in errors committed by a catcher ( 14 ) , fifth in passed balls ( 6 ) and fourth in stolen bases allowed in the AL . However , he compensated for this by turning the most double plays ( 14 ) and recording the second highest range factor ( 4 @.@ 75 ) as catcher , while finishing fourth in putouts ( 401 ) and fifth in assists ( 74 ) at his position and catching the fifth highest number of baserunners stealing ( 34 ) . On July 20 , in the final game of a series against the Browns ( his former team ) , Collins injured a side ligament while attempting to run down catcher Wally Schang , who was also facing his former team . This , along with Bengough 's recurring problems with his arm , prompted the Yankees to buy Hank Severeid from the Washington Senators . In the postseason , the Yankees advanced to the 1926 World Series , where they lost to the St. Louis Cardinals in seven games . Collins did not receive much playing time throughout the series , appearing in just three games and getting no hits and one strikeout in two plate appearances . The 1927 season saw Collins split catching duties with Johnny Grabowski and Bengough . He appeared in the most games behind the plate out of the three players – 89 games caught by Collins versus 68 by Grabowski and Bengough 's 30 . He was usually placed near the bottom of the Yankees lineup , which was given the nickname " Murderers ' Row " . Many sports analysts , baseball writers and fans consider the 1927 team the greatest baseball team of all time . Although Collins was labelled an " offensive afterthought " , he still managed to bat a respectable .275 and drove in 36 runs in 311 plate appearances . Defensively , he once again finished fourth in the AL in number of games ( 89 ) and putouts ( 267 ) at catcher , while also recording the fourth highest fielding percentage at the position ( .976 ) . At the end of the year , the Yankees once again advanced to the World Series , where they swept the Pittsburgh Pirates in four games . Collins played in Games 1 and 4 ; in the first game , he was hitless in two at bats but garnered two walks , while in the latter game he went 3 @-@ for @-@ 3 with a double . His series average of .600 was the highest among his teammates . After the Yankees purchased Bill Dickey from the Jackson Senators before the start of the 1928 season , the team now had four catchers on their roster . The increase competition restricted Collins to 45 starts and 70 games in total . In the 1928 World Series , the Yankees achieved a second consecutive Fall Classic sweep , this time against the Cardinals in a rematch of the series from two years before . However , he played just one game in the series , entering the 7th inning of Game 4 as a defensive substitute and hitting a double two innings later . The catching situation — along with his dismal .221 batting average that year — made Collins redundant , and at the end of the season , he was sold to the Boston Braves . = = = Boston Braves and back to the minors ( 1929 – 32 ) = = = Collins managed to play just seven games for the Braves during the 1929 season , making his final major league appearance on May 23 . During his brief tenure with the team , he was hitless , but drove in 2 runs , drew 3 walks and had 3 sacrifice bunts in 11 plate appearances . After the Braves acquired several younger catchers , he was released and sent to the Buffalo Bisons of the Class AAA International League There , he batted .122 and had 5 hits in 16 games played before manager Bill Clymer cut him loose after the season ended . He promptly signed a one @-@ year contract with the Seattle Indians , a minor league team that played in the Class AAA Pacific Coast League . He batted .244 during his stint with the team and was traded midway through the 1930 season to the Kansas City Blues , thus returning to the AA . His numbers improved tremendously — he recorded a .358 batting average , amassed 39 hits and slugged 7 doubles and 3 home runs in 109 at bats . The 1931 season saw Collins play just 27 games with the Blues and his average dipped to .182 . He was scheduled to be traded to the Omaha Packers in July , but the deal fell through and he remained with the team through to the 1932 season . That year , he played 105 games and batted .268 , collected 78 hits with 14 doubles , 3 triples and 4 home runs before retiring from professional baseball at the end of the season . = = Post @-@ playing career = = After playing his final major league season in 1929 , Collins returned to minor league baseball and played for several teams until 1932 . In 1936 , he teamed up with former minor league pitcher Van Hammer in attempting to establish a new Western League franchise in St. Joseph , Missouri , after the St. Joseph Saints moved to Waterloo , Iowa and became the Waterloo Hawks . However , the plan fell through after a court injunction was issued barring him from using the stadium in St. Joseph for professional baseball . Because of this , Collins forfeited the St. Joseph franchise and subsequently bought the Western League 's Rock Island Islanders instead .
= Nanbu clan = The Nanbu clan ( 南部氏 , Nanbu @-@ shi ) was a Japanese samurai clan originating in northern Japan , specifically Mutsu Province ( the northeast coast of Honshū ) . The Nanbu claimed descent from the Minamoto clan , and its members first enter the historical record as residents of Kai Province during the Kamakura period . The clan later moved to Mutsu . In the Sengoku period , the clan frequently clashed with its neighbors , including the Tsugaru clan , one of its branches which declared independence . The Nanbu clan was on the winning side of the Battle of Sekigahara , and entered the Edo period as the lordly ( daimyo ) family of the Morioka Domain . Over the course of the Edo period , several branch families were established , each of which received its own fief . During the Boshin War of 1868 @-@ 69 , the Nanbu clan and its branches fought on the side of the Ouetsu Reppan Domei , the northern alliance of domains . After the collapse of the alliance , the Nanbu clan had much of its land confiscated , and in 1871 , the heads of its branches were relieved of office . In the Meiji era , they became part of the new nobility . The main Nanbu line survives to the present day ; Toshiaki Nanbu was the chief priest of Yasukuni Shrine . = = Origins = = The Nanbu clan claimed descent from the Seiwa Genji , via the Takeda clan of Kai Province . Minamoto no Mitsuyuki , the great @-@ great grandson of Minamoto no Yoshimitsu , was the first to take the Nanbu name , after the area in Kai where he resided . The earliest written reference to the Nanbu region of Kai is in the late @-@ 13th @-@ century writings of the Buddhist monk Nichiren . It was in the Nanbokucho period that the Nanbu left Kai and moved to Mutsu Province , where they would remain until 1871 . = = Sengoku and Azuchi @-@ Momoyama era = = In the Sengoku period , the Nanbu clan reached the zenith of its power under the headship of Nanbu Harumasa . Harumasa was very politically active , and corresponded with Oda Nobunaga . A major point of conflict for the Nanbu clan during these years was its relationship with the Ōura clan . The Ōura were a cadet branch of the Nanbu . They declared their independence from the Nanbu in 1571 , during the headship of Ōura Tamenobu . Tamenobu had been vice @-@ district magistrate ( 郡代補佐 , gundai hosa ) under the Nanbu clan 's local magistrate Ishikawa Takanobu ; however , he attacked and killed Ishikawa and began taking the Nanbu clan 's castles . Tamenobu also attacked Kitabatake Akimura ( another local power figure ) and took his castle at Namioka . The Ōura clan 's fight against the Nanbu clan , under Nanbu Nobunao , would continue in the ensuing years . In 1590 , Tamenobu pledged fealty to Toyotomi Hideyoshi ; Hideyoshi confirmed Tamenobu in his holdings , effectively putting him out of the Nanbu clan 's grasp . As the Ōura fief had been in the Tsugaru region on the northern tip of Honshū , the family then changed its name to Tsugaru . Nanbu Harumasa 's heir Nobunao pledged allegiance to Toyotomi Hideyoshi in 1590 . Hideyoshi confirmed Nobunao 's lordship over the Nanbu fief , and helped suppress an uprising by Nobunao 's relative Kunohe Masazane . Nobunao thus helped to secure northern Honshū for Toyotomi Hideyoshi . = = Edo era = = The Nanbu clan sided with Tokugawa Ieyasu 's Eastern Army during the Battle of Sekigahara . In the wake of Ieyasu 's victory , the Nanbu clan was confirmed in its lordship of the Morioka Domain ( 盛岡藩 , Morioka @-@ han ) ( also known as the Nanbu Domain ( 南部藩 , Nanbu @-@ han ) ) . The income rating was placed at 100 @,@ 000 koku , but later in the Edo era , Morioka was given the political ranking of a domain twice its size . The Nanbu clan remained here for the entirety of the Edo Period , surviving until the Meiji Restoration . Over the course of the Edo period , two new branches of the Nanbu clan were founded . One of them was granted the fief of Hachinohe , and the other one was granted the fief of Shichinohe . In 1821 , the old tensions between the Nanbu and Tsugaru flared once more , in the wake of the Sōma Daisaku Incident ( 相馬大作事件 , Sōma Daisaku jiken ) , a foiled plot by Sōma Daisaku , a former retainer of the Nanbu clan , to assassinate the Tsugaru lord . The Nanbu clan 's territories were also among those effected by the Tenpo famine of the mid @-@ 1830s . Though no Nanbu lord ever held shogunate office , the Nanbu of Morioka ( together with many of the other domains of northern Honshū ) assisted the shogunate in policing the frontier region of Ezochi ( now Hokkaido ) . The clan 's first direct encounter with foreigners came in the late 16th century , when a Dutch ship , the Breskens , arrived in Nanbu territory . A shore party from the ship was captured by local authorities and taken to Edo . Over the course of its history particularly in the Edo period , there were several retainers of the Nanbu clan who became famous on a national scale . Narayama Sado , a clan elder ( karō ) who was active during the Boshin War , was one of them ; he was responsible for leading the Nanbu clan 's political activity and interaction with neighboring domains . Hara Takashi , who later became Prime Minister of Japan , was another . Some 20th @-@ century figures in Japanese politics also came from families of former Nanbu retainers ; perhaps the most well known ones were Seishirō Itagaki and Hideki Tōjō . = = Boshin War = = During the Boshin War of 1868 @-@ 69 , the Nanbu clan was initially neutral . However , under the leadership of Nanbu Toshihisa and the clan elder ( 家老 , karō ) Narayama Sado , the Nanbu clan later sided with the northern alliance ( the Ōuetsu Reppan Dōmei ) . On September 23 , 1868 , the Nanbu clan 's troops joined in the attack on the Akita Domain , which had seceded from the alliance and sided with the imperial government . By October 7 , Nanbu troops took Ōdate , one of the Akita domain 's castles . However , due to the collapse of the alliance , the Nanbu clan surrendered to the imperial army on October 29 , 1868 . After the war , the Nanbu clan 's holdings were drastically reduced by the imperial government as punishment for siding with the northern domains . The Nanbu of Morioka were then briefly moved to Shiroishi before being returned to Morioka . Two years after the war , as with all other daimyo , the heads of all three Nanbu branches were relieved of their offices by the abolition of the han system . = = Meiji era and beyond = = In the early years of the Meiji era , the main Nanbu line was ennobled with the title of count ( hakushaku ) in the new nobility system . The Nanbu of Hachinohe and Shichinohe were also ennobled with the title of viscount ( shishaku ) . Count Toshinaga Nanbu , the 42nd generation Nanbu family head , was an officer of the Imperial Japanese Army , he died in battle during the Russo @-@ Japanese War . He was succeeded by his brother Toshiatsu ; Toshiatsu was a proponent of the arts and studied painting under Kuroda Seiki . As Toshiatsu 's presumptive heir Toshisada died at age 18 , Toshiatsu adopted Toshihide Ichijō , his son @-@ in @-@ law , as his heir . Toshihide was the son of Duke Ichijō Saneteru , who was a former court noble . Upon adoption , Toshihide assumed the Nanbu name , and after Toshiatsu 's death , became 44th generation Nanbu family head . After Toshihide 's death in 1980 , his son Toshiaki became 45th generation head . From 2004 through 2009 , Toshiaki was the chief priest of Yasukuni Shrine . = = Family heads = = Main line ( Sannohe , later Morioka ) Branch line ( Hachinohe ) Branch line ( Shichinohe ) = = = English = = = Contemporary Japan : A Review of Japanese Affairs ( 1939 ) . Tokyo : The Foreign Affairs Association of Japan . Inahara , Katsuji ( 1937 ) . The Japan Year Book . Tokyo : Foreign affairs association of Japan . Iwao , Seiichi . ( 1978 ) . Biographical dictionary of Japanese history . Berkeley : University of California . " Japan Focus " article on Yasukuni Shrine ( accessed 13 Dec. 2007 ) Oka , Yoshitake ( 1986 ) . Five Political Leaders of Modern Japan . Tokyo : University of Tokyo Press . Ōoka , Shōhei ( 1996 ) . Taken Captive : A Japanese POW 's Story . Ann Arbor : University of Michigan Press . Papinot , Edmund . ( 1948 ) . Historical and Geographical Dictionary of Japan . New York : Overbeck Co . Totman , Conrad . ( 1993 ) . Early Modern Japan . Berkeley : University of California Press . = = = French = = = Papinot , Jacques Edmund Joseph . ( 1906 ) Dictionnaire d 'histoire et de géographie du japon . Tokyo : Librarie Sansaisha . Nobiliaire du japon ( 2003 , abridged online text of 1906 book ) . ] = = = German = = = List of Meiji @-@ era Japanese nobility ( accessed 15 August 2008 ) = = = Japanese = = = Onodera , Eikō ( 2005 ) . Boshin nanboku sensō to Tōhoku seiken Sendai : Kita no mori . " Hachinohe @-@ han " on Edo 300 HTML ( accessed 15 August 2008 ) . Hoshi , Ryōichi ( 1997 ) . Ōuetsu Reppan Dōmei . Tokyo : Chūōkōron @-@ shinsha . " Morioka @-@ han " on Edo 300 HTML ( accessed 15 August 2008 ) . ---- ( 1913 ) . Nanbu chūi 南部中尉. n.p. : Kikuchi Gorō . ( Accessed from National Diet Library , 15 August 2008 ) " Nanbu @-@ shi " on Harimaya.com ( accessed 15 August 2008 ) . ---- ( 2000 ) . Nihonshi yōgoshū . Tokyo : Yamakawa shuppansha . Noguchi Shin 'ichi ( 2005 ) . Aizu @-@ han . Tokyo : Gendai shokan . " Shichinohe @-@ han " on Edo 300 HTML ( accessed 15 August 2008 ) . " Tokugawa Bakufu to Tozama 117 han . " Rekishi Dokuhon Magazine , April 1976 . " Tsugaru @-@ shi " on Harimaya.com ( accessed 15 August 2008 ) . = = = Nonfiction = = = Hesselink , Reinier H. ( 2002 ) . Prisoners from Nambu : reality and make @-@ believe in seventeenth @-@ century Japanese diplomacy . Honolulu : University of Hawai 'i Press . Mori , Kahee ( 1967 ) . Nanbu Nobunao . Tokyo : Jinbutsu Ōraisha . = = = Fiction = = = Asada , Jirō ( 2008 ) . Mibu gishiden . Tokyo : Kashiwa shoten . = = Popular Culture = = The Nanbu are a playable nation in the grand strategy game Europa Universalis IV .
= Britomart Redeems Faire Amoret = Britomart Redeems Faire Amoret is an oil painting on canvas by English artist William Etty , first exhibited in 1833 and now in Tate Britain . Intended to illustrate the virtues of honour and chastity , it depicts a scene from Edmund Spenser 's The Faerie Queene in which the female warrior Britomart slays the evil magician Busirane and frees his captive , the beautiful Amoret . In Spenser 's original poem Amoret has been tortured and mutilated by the time of her rescue , but Etty disliked the depiction of violence and portrayed her as unharmed . Despite being a depiction of an occult ritual , a violent death , a near @-@ nude woman and strongly implied sexual torture , Britomart Redeems Faire Amoret was uncontroversial on its first exhibition in 1833 and was critically well received . Sold by Etty to a private collector in 1833 , it passed through the hands of several more before entering the collection of the Lady Lever Art Gallery . In 1958 it was acquired by the Tate Gallery , and it remains in the collection of Tate Britain . = = Background = = William Etty was born in York in 1787 , the son of a miller and baker . He showed artistic promise from an early age , but his family were financially insecure , and at the age of 12 he left school to become an apprentice printer in Hull . On completing his seven @-@ year indenture he moved to London " with a few pieces of chalk @-@ crayons in colours " , with the aim of emulating the Old Masters and becoming a history painter . Etty gained acceptance to the Royal Academy Schools in early 1807 . After a year spent studying under renowned portrait painter Thomas Lawrence , Etty returned to the Royal Academy , drawing at the life class and copying other paintings . In 1821 the Royal Academy exhibited one of Etty 's works , The Arrival of Cleopatra in Cilicia ( also known as The Triumph of Cleopatra ) . The painting was extremely well received , and many of Etty 's fellow artists greatly admired him . He was elected a full Royal Academician in 1828 , ahead of John Constable . He became well respected for his ability to capture flesh tones accurately in painting and for his fascination with contrasts in skin tones . Following the exhibition of Cleopatra , Etty attempted to reproduce its success , concentrating on painting further history paintings containing nude figures . He exhibited 15 paintings at the Summer Exhibition in the 1820s ( including Cleopatra ) , and all but one contained at least one nude figure . In so doing Etty became the first English artist to treat nude studies as a serious art form in their own right , capable of being aesthetically attractive and of delivering moral messages . Although some nudes by foreign artists were held in private English collections , Britain had no tradition of nude painting , and the display and distribution of nude material to the public had been suppressed since the 1787 Proclamation for the Discouragement of Vice . The supposed prurient reaction of the lower classes to his nude paintings caused concern throughout the 19th century . Many critics condemned his repeated depictions of female nudity as indecent , although his portraits of male nudes were generally well received . ( Etty 's male nude portraits were primarily of mythological heroes and classical combat , genres in which the depiction of male nudity was considered acceptable in England . ) From 1832 onwards , needled by repeated attacks from the press , Etty remained a prominent painter of nudes but made conscious efforts to try to reflect moral lessons in his work . = = Composition = = Britomart Redeems Faire Amoret illustrates a scene from book III of The Faerie Queene , a 16th @-@ century allegorical epic poem by Edmund Spenser , in which Busirane , an evil sorcerer , abducts the beautiful Amoret ( representing married virtue ) , and tortures her to the point of death . The heroic female warrior Britomart ( representing both chastity and Elizabeth I ) battles through obstacles to reach the chamber in which Amoret is being held , and slays Busirane moments before he is able to kill Amoret . Britomart Redeems Faire Amoret was intended by Etty to illustrate the virtues of chastity and honour . It shows the moment in which Busirane is interrupted by Britomart as he prepares to kill Amoret . Amoret is chained to a gilded Solomonic column , carved with depictions of Venus , and her clothes fall from her shoulders as she struggles . Britomart , clad in armour , enters Busirane 's Moorish chamber , and tramples a blood @-@ stained grimoire as she draws her sword . Busirane , naked from the waist up and with Chinese @-@ style trousers and queue , falls to the floor , his blade still pointing at Amoret 's heart . Unusually for Etty , Britomart is painted very thinly , with the canvas weave still visible through the paint . Art historian Alison Smith considers that this was likely inspired by Henry Fuseli , who painted a depiction of Britomart using the same style of painting . In the original poem , Busirane had tortured and cut out the heart of the still @-@ living Amoret by the time of her rescue . When he came to paint Britomart Redeems Faire Amoret Etty had created numerous scenes of combat and death , and would later achieve a degree of critical approbation when it became known that he visited mortuaries to sketch cadavers to ensure the accuracy of his depictions of bodies in varying stages of decomposition . However , he had an aversion to " the offensive and revolting butchery , some have delighted and even revelled in " , and disliked the depiction of gratuitous violence . Consequently , in Etty 's work Amoret is depicted as physically unharmed by her ordeal , although his composition implies " sadistic torture and occult sexual sorcery " . Although there is a strong suggestion in his letters that in his early years he had a sexual encounter with one of his models and possibly also a sexual encounter of some kind while in Venice in 1823 – 24 , Etty was devoutly Christian and famously abstemious . Alison Smith considers the composition of Britomart Redeems Faire Amoret a conscious effort on his part to praise the virtue of chastity by creating a " challenge for the presumably male viewer ... to vanquish lust and cast a pure gaze on vulnerable womanhood " . Throughout his career Etty had championed the use of female models in life classes , creating some controversy , and this painting may have been intended to emphasise his belief that " To the pure in heart all things are pure " . = = Reception = = In 1832 , the exhibition of Etty 's Youth on the Prow , and Pleasure at the Helm had led to significant criticism in some parts of the press for its use of nude figures , with The Morning Chronicle condemning it as an " indulgence of what we once hoped a classical , but which are now convinced , is a lascivious mind " . When it was exhibited at the Royal Academy Summer Exhibition in 1833 , Britomart Redeems Faire Amoret received much more favourable treatment . Although it depicted a near @-@ nude woman , a violent death , an occult ritual and the strong implication of sexual torture , critical coverage was overwhelmingly positive . The New Monthly Magazine considered it " a wondrous and rare piece of colour " , while The Gentleman 's Magazine considered it " a beautiful cabinet picture " of a " truly poetical character " . The most effusive praise came from The Literary Gazette : Grace and beauty in the female form , spirited action in the knight , and fiend @-@ like expression in the magician , unite with the splendid depth of effect produced by the architecture to render this , notwithstanding a slight tendency to blackness in some of the half @-@ tints , one of Mr. Etty 's " gems of art " . = = Legacy = = Etty considered Britomart Redeems Faire Amoret one of his major works . Following its exhibition at the 1833 Summer Exhibition , it was exhibited in August of the same year at the Royal Manchester Institution . It was sold at this second exhibition for £ 157 ( about £ 13 @,@ 000 in today 's terms ) to an anonymous collector listed in Etty 's records only as " Mr. L. , Manchester " . It was one of 133 Etty paintings exhibited in a major retrospective exhibition of his work at the Royal Society of Arts in June – August 1849 ; during this exhibition it was sold on to Lord Charles Townshend for a sum of 520 guineas ( about £ 51 @,@ 000 in today 's terms ) . Etty died in 1849 , having continued working and exhibiting up to his death , and continued to be regarded by many as a pornographer . Charles Robert Leslie observed shortly after Etty 's death that " [ Etty ] himself , thinking and meaning no evil , was not aware of the manner in which his works were regarded by grosser minds " . Interest in him declined as new movements came to characterise painting in Britain , and by the end of the 19th century the costs of all his paintings had fallen below their original prices . Townshend sold Britomart Redeems Faire Amoret two years after Etty 's death for 510 guineas . It then passed through the hands of several owners over subsequent years , selling for a slightly lower sum each time . It was likely an influence on John Everett Millais 's 1870 The Knight Errant , which also showed a distressed nude woman being rescued ; although Millais disliked Etty 's later works , several of his paintings were strongly influenced by the artist . In 1919 Britomart Redeems Faire Amoret was bought for 410 guineas ( about £ 18 @,@ 000 in today 's terms ) by William Lever , 1st Viscount Leverhulme , and was one of the 13 Etty works transferred to the Lady Lever Art Gallery , where it remained until 1958 . In 1958 it was bought by the Tate Gallery , and as of 2015 it remains in Tate Britain . It was one of four Etty paintings shown as part of Tate Britain 's Exposed : The Victorian Nude exhibition , and in 2011 – 12 it was exhibited as part of a major retrospective of Etty 's work at the York Art Gallery . In 2013 Franco Moretti argued that Britomart Redeems Faire Amoret was the " prototypical " example of the Victorian nudes of the later 19th century in which nudity ceased to be a symbol of innocence and instead became a symbol of the coercion of women at the hands of savages , criminals and tyrants .
= Emma Pillsbury = Emma Pillsbury Schuester is a fictional character from the Fox musical comedy @-@ drama series Glee . Portrayed by actress Jayma Mays , Emma has appeared in Glee from its pilot episode , first broadcast on May 19 , 2009 . Emma was developed by Glee creators Ryan Murphy , Brad Falchuk and Ian Brennan . She is a guidance counselor at the fictional William McKinley High School in Lima , Ohio where the series is set . Emma suffers from obsessive @-@ compulsive disorder and has romantic feelings for glee club director Will Schuester ( Matthew Morrison ) , but becomes engaged to football coach Ken Tanaka ( Patrick Gallagher ) as Will is married . Ken ultimately breaks up with her on their wedding day because of her feelings for Will , and when Will leaves his wife Terri ( Jessalyn Gilsig ) , he and Emma share a kiss . Their relationship is short @-@ lived , and in the second season , Emma and her dentist boyfriend Carl Howell ( John Stamos ) marry in Las Vegas . The wedding is later annulled as it was unconsummated . At the beginning of the third season , she and Will are living together ; they become engaged shortly after New Years , and consummate their relationship near the end of the school year . Emma leaves Will at the altar midway through the fourth season , but the two later reconcile and marry in the season finale . She becomes pregnant during the middle of the fifth season . Mays feels the character has a lot of depth , juxtaposing Emma 's position helping the students with her own phobia of germs and love for a married man . She explained that " the character is not a stereotypical TV @-@ style husband @-@ stealer who immediately would be luring the dude into the sack , but rather seems like a real person facing real issues . " Mays has performed several musical numbers in the show , including " I Could Have Danced All Night " from My Fair Lady , Madonna 's " Like a Virgin " , " Touch @-@ a , Touch @-@ a , Touch @-@ a , Touch Me " from The Rocky Horror Show , " Afternoon Delight " by the Starland Vocal Band , and The 5th Dimension 's " Wedding Bell Blues " . " Touch @-@ a , Touch @-@ a , Touch @-@ a , Touch Me " was originally Mays ' audition piece ; her performance of it on Glee was met with critical acclaim . The songs appear on the series ' soundtrack albums and EPs . The character has been well received by critics , including Mike Hale of the New York Times who praised Mays for being able to " [ register ] Emma 's devastation with just the slightest widening of [ her ] enormous eyes . " Critics responded well to the development of Emma and Will 's relationship . Eric Goldman of IGN wrote that their first kiss was " hard to not feel good about " . Dan Snierson of Entertainment Weekly , however , suggested that it may have been " more intriguing " to leave their romance unresolved . = = Storylines = = Emma is introduced as the guidance counselor at William McKinley High School . She has romantic feelings for Spanish and glee teacher Will Schuester ( Matthew Morrison ) , and encourages him in his attempt to revitalise the school glee club . She is dismayed to learn that Will 's wife Terri ( Jessalyn Gilsig ) is pregnant and that he is considering leaving the teaching profession to become an accountant , but is able to convince him to reconsider by showing him a video of him singing . In an attempt to get over Will , Emma begins dating football coach Ken Tanaka ( Patrick Gallagher ) , and becomes engaged to him in the episode " Vitamin D " . However , when Will is unable to attend a competition with the glee club , Emma volunteers to take them in his place , and postpones her own wedding by several hours . Acknowledging her continuing feelings for Will , Ken breaks up with her on their wedding day . Emma tells Will that she has resigned from the school , as she is ashamed of her behavior with Ken , and is heartbroken that she cannot be with Will . Will tells her that he has left Terri , but Emma feels it is too soon for him to move on . Regardless , as she later prepares to leave the school , Will finds her and stops her with a kiss . Emma and Will pursue a relationship , but Emma fears that he may be repeating patterns from his relationship with Terri because of his difficulties with being alone . She reveals that she is a virgin , and though she decides to have sex with Will , she changes her mind at the last moment . Will suggests that she see a counselor for help with her debilitating issues . Emma later discovers that Will kissed another woman and verbally berates him , terminating their relationship . In the season finale , Will kisses Emma and tells her that he loves her . Emma begins a relationship with her dentist , Dr. Carl Howell ( John Stamos ) , which leads to a Vegas wedding . Her reservations about sex lead her to become faculty advisor to the school 's celibacy club . Carl arranges a meeting with sex education teacher Holly Holliday ( Gwyneth Paltrow ) , and reveals that they have yet to sleep together . Emma confesses that she may still have feelings for Will , and Carl tells her he will be moving into a hotel until she is certain of her feelings . In " A Night of Neglect " , Emma reveals to Will that Carl has left her for good and wants an annulment , since their marriage was never consummated . Because of the stress , Emma 's OCD affects her far more than usual , and she feels regretful because she thought she would have overcome it by that point in her life . Will tells Emma that he will be there for her no matter what , and also urges her to get treatment for her OCD . She starts seeing a psychiatrist in the episode " Born This Way " , and is showing signs of improvement by the end of season two . Over the summer , Will and Emma move in together , although they have not consummated their relationship . That they are both thinking of an eventual marriage is made clear in the episode " Asian F " , and when Will invites her parents to dinner in that episode , he discovers that they are " ginger supremacists " who mock Emma 's OCD , the roots of which are shown in flashbacks with them and an eight @-@ year @-@ old Emma . Will asks Emma to marry him in " Yes / No " and she accepts . Later that winter , a tenured position opens at McKinley High , and although Will and Sue Sylvester compete against each other for the position , it is ultimately given to Emma rather than either of them . Will and Emma finally consummate their relationship in " Nationals " after New Directions wins the show choir championship . When Will is named to a national blue @-@ ribbon panel on the arts in Washington , DC , early in the fourth season , he expects Emma to come with him , but Emma is very reluctant to do so : she doesn 't want to leave her job for several months while he 's away . They ultimately agree that Emma will stay behind and the two will reunite on weekends . They also agree to get married when Will returns , but the stress of planning a big wedding proves too much for Emma , and she leaves the church before the ceremony begins . She and Will eventually reconcile , and the two finally get married in the choir room with the glee club as witnesses in " All or Nothing " , after New Directions win Regionals . Following their marriage , the couple decide to have children , but are unable to conceive for several months . They are desperately trying to do so in the fifth season 's tenth episode " Trio " , and are caught having sex in the school by Becky Jackson ( Lauren Potter ) . At the end of the episode , Emma reveals to Will that she is pregnant . In " Opening Night " Emma gives birth to a boy , Daniel Finn Schuester . During the final season , in the episode Transitioning , she convinces a torn Will to choose what 's best for him , to stay at Vocal Adrenaline with a promising salary and facility but unhappy or to stop . In a parallel episode to the Pilot , 2009 , she is aware and cocerned with Kurt 's depression and consults with his father about it and also convince Will to stay with the Glee Club as the kids still needs him and that it what makes him happy . In the series finale , " Dreams Come True " , she is now living happily with the newly promoted Will as the principal and in the future they have more kids together . She appears at the McKinley 's auditorium rededication to Finn Hudson and enjoys the final performance of the New Directions . She is visibly shocked when Will and Terri hug and together with all of the Glee Cast take a final bow . = = Development = = = = = Casting and creation = = = Emma is portrayed by actress Jayma Mays . In the third season episode " Asian F " , Hannah Spiros plays an eight @-@ year @-@ old Emma . Prior to her casting in Glee , Mays was already an established actress in both the television and film industry , but had little theatrical experience . In casting Glee , series creator Ryan Murphy sought actors who could identify with the rush of starring in theatrical roles . Auditioning actors with no theatrical experience were required to prove they could sing and dance as well as act , and Mays auditioned with the song " Touch @-@ a , Touch @-@ a , Touch @-@ a , Touch Me " from The Rocky Horror Show . Asked what originally drew her to the role of Emma , Mays said : " Everything , really . Actually , the second I got the sides . I got the sides just for that character before I got the whole script . And just from the sides alone in the pilot , I could tell she was such a well developed character . And there was so much going on with her just from those few sheets of paper that I had kind of describing who she was . I knew immediately that there was a lot that was going to be going on with her . And I think that 's hard to find sometimes with roles for women . There 's maybe not so many layers to them , always . And I just felt from the get go that there was so much going on . And I also knew that Ryan Murphy was involved . I knew that was exciting to me , too . As soon as I heard that , I knew that there would be something good on the page . So I was immediately drawn to it . " = = = Characterization = = = In the first episode , it is revealed that Emma has obsessive @-@ compulsive disorder , suffering from mysophobia , a fear of germs . The show garnered mostly praise for its portrayal of a character with OCD and for accurately @-@ depicting OCD as a serious but treatable anxiety disorder . Bill Harris of the Toronto Sun assessed that her phobia is " comical " and that Emma 's initial role in the series is comic relief . Mays has explained that " the character is not a stereotypical TV @-@ style husband @-@ stealer who immediately would be luring the dude into the sack , but rather seems like a real person facing real issues . " Mays added : " This is something that ’ s part of a lot of people ’ s lives . But Emma is not a cheater . They ’ ve portrayed her as being somewhat virginal . There ’ s purity there . She doesn ’ t just hone in and say , ‘ I want to destroy this guy ’ s relationship . ' So Emma is hopeful and sad at the same time . Funny , too . Sounds like real life , where , as stated earlier , you can ’ t help who you love . " David Hinckley of the New York Daily News described her as " good @-@ hearted and smart . Emma is also so obsessive @-@ compulsive she counts the bristles on her toothbrush . " Mays has deemed Emma an " amazing " character to play , and has explained : " I don 't find that female characters are always written with a lot of depth , but she 's so well defined on the page . Sure , she 's terrified of germs and in love with a married man , so seeing her as the voice of reason for the kids is amazing . " Emma 's relationship with Will will continue to grow , as " she has these moments of clarity when she 's talking to Will because he calms her . " Mays described her in an interview with TheTVChick : " She is a romantic at heart . But she ’ s practical . She ’ s very interesting , because she does have those dreams and hopes of finding the right man . And in her mind , even though Will Schuester ’ s married , that sort of guy is like the perfect guy for her . She ’ s very practical in the fact that she doesn ’ t want to be alone and she knows that she ’ s somewhat limited in a small town to men . And Ken Tanaka is a very nice man , he ’ s not exactly like Will , but he ’ s good to her and he ’ s solid . He ’ s got a job , and he understands her and he understands all her quirks and stuff . So she ’ s practical , she knows that just might be her lot in life . So it ’ s weird . She ’ s got this very dreamy side about her and who she wants to be and what she wants her life to be like . But she ’ s also got this very practical , down @-@ to @-@ earth , well this is kind of the best I can do thing . It ’ s funny a lot of people have thought that part about her is weak . Like a weak character flaw , but I actually don ’ t think that ’ s true . I really just think that ’ s the practical side of her . I think that ’ s her being practical . And I think a lot of people are like that sometimes . " Discussing Emma 's style and costuming , Glee 's costume designer Lou Eyrich has explained : " We wanted to make her look like everything ’ s so neat — perfectly ironed and tucked @-@ in shirts with matching belts , shoes and pins . We wanted to make her stand out from the other teachers . She ’ s always so happy and excited , so we wanted her outfits to represent that sunny disposition . In the pilot , we made her look much more teacher @-@ y . Now we 're having more fun with her character , keeping her bright and unusual . Quirky is the word . Emma ’ s also always in stacked Mary Janes or T @-@ strap heels . It takes the outfit down from being too stylish or too sexy . It makes her look prim and almost old @-@ fashioned . " = = = Relationships = = = Emma 's relationship with glee club coach Will Schuester is an integral part of her character . They have had an on and off relationship since the show 's first season . Television critics have responded extremely well to the pairing between the two . Mandi Bierly for Entertainment Weekly said of the episode " Vitamin D " : " Matthew Morrison communicates so much with his eyes . There ’ s a softness and a longing in them that I ’ m always surprised Emma ( Jayma Mays ) matches . " Critics also commented positively on the development of Will and Emma 's relationship in the episode Sectionals . Natalie Abrams of TV Guide noted that she had been waiting for them to kiss since the pilot episode , and Eric Goldman of IGN has deemed their coming together " very hard to not feel good about " . Dan Snierson , however , wrote that although there was satisfaction in the episode ending on the kiss , it may have been " more intriguing " to conclude when Will finds Emma 's empty office , and having him then question whether it was too soon for the two of them to begin a relationship . Eric Goldman of IGN commented of the following episode : " I would have liked to at least see Shue and Emma as a couple for a few episodes , rather than such a quick split . It felt rushed . " Todd VanDerWerff added : " I loved Emma 's eruption to Will about how Sue Sylvester must have cheated and the kids deserved to win . " Robert Canning said of the Britney Spears oriented episode : " The true focus of the episode was Will dealing with his lack of spontaneity . This stood as a contrast to the impulsiveness of Emma 's new boyfriend , sexy dentist Carl played by the somehow always charming John Stamos . There 's a fun love triangle building here which should only get better as Will becomes less of an insecure whiner . " Jayma Mays commented of their relationship : " Oh no ! I don ’ t know if I can say ! That ’ s a hard question because when you see the scenes of Emma and Will , you obviously think ' Oh of course they ’ re supposed to be together , of course , of course ! ' but the fact is , is that he ’ s a married man and Emma knows that ’ s wrong , and she doesn ’ t want to be a homewrecker . She doesn ’ t want to ruin a relationship . So I guess in a perfect world , she could find someone like Will , or maybe Ken Tanaka ( laughs ) can become a little bit more like Will . But maybe it ’ s all about respect . Maybe if she can respect Ken enough , that will develop into true love . " She also commented of her co @-@ star Matthew Morrison ( Will ) : " We were friends . We knew each other before we started this job . We worked together once before . So , that ’ s always helpful when you know the person that you ’ re working with , and you already feel comfortable around them . But yeah , he ’ s a really good friend , so that makes that stuff a little bit easier . " = = Reception = = Variety 's Brian Lowry deemed the adult cast of early Glee " over @-@ the @-@ top buffoons " , however opined that Emma offered " modest redemption " . The Los Angeles Times 's Denise Martin called Mays as Emma " just as funny " as Lynch 's Sue , and noted : " Emma doesn 't get the zingers Coach Sue gets , but she makes me laugh just as hard . " Harris commented that , " Despite the sad seriousness of [ Emma 's love for Will ] , the tightly wound Emma [ ... ] also is one of the funniest characters in Glee . Go figure . It 's funny , because everything is kind of heavy that 's going on in her life , with these phobias and this guy she loves who ’ s married , yet she still is a bit of the comic relief . " Mandi Bierly for Entertainment Weekly noted of the episode " Vitamin D " that she had hoped Emma would decline Ken 's proposal : " I want Emma to be strong and know it ’ s better to be without someone for the right reason than to be with someone for the wrong one . " Mike Hale for the New York Times praised Mays ' performance in the episode . He noted : " Jayma Mays registered Emma ’ s devastation with just the slightest widening of those enormous eyes . In fact all the best non @-@ singing moments in the episode were hers . " Critics commented positively on the development of Will and Emma 's relationship ; TV Guide 's Natalie Abrams wrote that she had been waiting for them to kiss since the pilot episode . Flandez felt that the kiss made the " poignant moment " of the glee club 's final performance " even more dear " , and hoped that it would not be the last between them , while Aly Semigran of MTV praised the development and called the kiss " sweet [ and ] longing " . Goldman wrote : " Schue and Emma finally coming together was very hard to not feel good about , even though you know it just won 't be that easy when the show returns " . Gerrick Kennedy of the Los Angeles Times opined that it was clear Ken and Emma would not marry , and added that when Will kissed Emma : " I died " . In discussing Will and Emma 's conversation about how she would have left Ken if Will had shown any interest in her , Pardue commented : " That 's maybe the sweetest and the saddest thing I 've ever heard . " She called the kiss between Will and Emma " romantic " commenting that it made her " heart happy " . Entertainment Weekly 's Dan Snierson commented that although there was satisfaction in the episode ending on the kiss , it may have been " more intriguing " to conclude with Will finding Emma 's office empty , or " before she smiled approvingly after their kiss " , questioning whether it was too soon for the two of them to begin a relationship , or " about freakin ' time " . Todd VanDerWerff of The A.V Club was critical of Emma in the show 's second season . He said : " Emma is apparently married , but we haven ’ t seen her husband since October , and even when he was more of a “ fixture ” on the show ( which is difficult to say about a character who ’ s appeared as little as Carl Howell has ) , his relationship with Emma made no sense as anything other than a plot device . Now , as it turns out , Emma and Carl haven ’ t consummated their marriage at all , and this has something to do with the fact that the show has combined Emma ’ s germ @-@ phobia and virginity into some sort of terrifying psychosexual pathology that doesn ’ t make much sense and doesn ’ t resemble the somewhat levelheaded person she used to be . ( The plotting in Will Schuester ’ s love life is the one place where the show attempts to have even a modicum of continuity , for whatever reason . ) Anyway , Carl is necessarily upset about this , and he ’ s also upset when Holly Holliday gets Emma to admit that she still has confusing feelings for Will , so he resolves to let her stay in the condo while he stays in the Radisson where all of the good big @-@ name Glee guest stars go to hope their pilots for the fall are picked up . " = = Musical performances = = Mays performed a cover version of " I Could Have Danced All Night " from My Fair Lady in the episode " Mash @-@ Up " , a studio recording of which was included as a bonus @-@ track on copies of Glee : The Music , Volume 1 purchased from Target stores . Raymund Flandez of The Wall Street Journal called the performance " lovely " , and Andrea Reiher for Zap2it similarly praised the piece : " wow , she has a nice voice ! She 's no Julie Andrews , but she 'll do . " Eric Goldman for IGN commented : " Seeing Emma sing " I Could Have Danced All Night " was sweet , though was it just me ( or my TV ) , or was the volume on her vocals a bit unusually loud ? I also could have done without Will 's line telling her she should sing to help her keep the beat as she danced – come on Glee , you 're a musical . Embrace it and just let her sing . " Mays said that she " had fun singing , " but found the experience " terrifying , " as she had never given a musical performance on camera before . She derided her choreography skills , and elaborated : " I was so nervous that day . I had to keep eating bread and toast because my stomach was so sick . But it was an interesting experience . It was definitely a challenge for me . Of course if they ask me to do it again , I would do it again . But I ’ m not going to go begging them for it . " In her first lead solo performance since the first season , Mays performed " Touch @-@ a , Touch @-@ a , Touch @-@ a , Touch Me " from The Rocky Horror Show during the themed episode " The Rocky Horror Glee Show " ; it was the song she 'd used when auditioning for the role of Emma . Anthony Benigno of the Daily News named it the best song of the episode , and graded it " A + " . Despite finding the episode " abrupt , uneven [ and ] sanitized " , Flandez felt that it was saved by this performance . Erica Futterman of Rolling Stone remarked that having Emma in the role of Janet was " ideal " , but preferred the song visually to vocally . Slant Magazine 's Matt Zoller Seitz disliked the change in Emma 's characterization which brought about the number , and while he wrote that " Mays was so charming that she almost , almost saved it " , he ultimately found the " motivational contortions " insulting to the audience . The track was included on the EP Glee : The Music , The Rocky Horror Glee Show . It charted at number 72 in the UK , and 96 in Canada . In season three , Mays performs " Wedding Bell Blues " in the episode " Yes / No " , which was described by Bobby Hankinson of The Houston Chronicle as " the perfect combination of a great song , plot relevance , and Princess Beatrice hat " . TV Guide 's Kate Stanhope agreed with him on all three points , and added that it was " a great pick for her vocals " . TVLine 's Michael Slezak described those vocals as " a breath of dewy spring air " and gave the song an " A " , but Joseph Brannigan Lynch of Entertainment Weekly thought Emma was not " much of a singer " and gave the number a " B − " , though he said " the curiosity of backup vocals from Coach Beiste and Sue Sylvester made this entirely worthwhile " . In season four , Mays is one of eight singers featured in the performance of " The Scientist " by Coldplay in the episode " The Break @-@ Up " . She also performed the song " ( Not ) Getting Married Today " from the musical Company with Morrison and Amber Riley in the episode " I Do " and " You 're All The World to Me " from Royal Wedding in the following episode , again with Morrison .
= LaRouche criminal trials = The LaRouche criminal trials in the mid @-@ 1980s stemmed from federal and state investigations into the activities of American political activist Lyndon LaRouche and members of his movement . They were charged with conspiring to commit fraud and soliciting loans they had no intention of repaying . LaRouche and his supporters disputed the charges , claiming the trials were politically motivated . In 1986 , hundreds of state and federal officers raided LaRouche offices in Virginia and Massachusetts . A federal grand jury in Boston , Massachusetts , indicted LaRouche and 12 associates on credit card fraud and obstruction of justice . The subsequent trial , described as an " extravaganza " , was repeatedly delayed and ended in mistrial . Following the mistrial , a federal grand jury in Alexandria , Virginia , indicted LaRouche and six associates . After a short trial in 1988 , LaRouche was convicted of mail fraud , conspiracy to commit mail fraud , and tax evasion , and was sentenced to prison for fifteen years . He entered prison in 1989 and was paroled five years later . At the same trial , his associates received lesser sentences for mail fraud and conspiracy . In separate state trials in Virginia and New York , 13 associates received terms ranging from one month to 77 years . The Virginia state trials were described as the highest @-@ profile cases that the state Attorney General 's office had ever prosecuted . Fourteen states issued injunctions against LaRouche @-@ related organizations . Three LaRouche @-@ related organizations were forced into bankruptcy after failing to pay contempt of court fines . Defense lawyers filed numerous unsuccessful appeals that challenged the conduct of the grand jury , the contempt fines , the execution of the search warrants and various trial procedures . At least ten appeals were heard by the United States court of appeals , and three were appealed to the U.S. Supreme Court . Former U.S. Attorney General Ramsey Clark joined the defense team for two appeals . Following the convictions , the LaRouche movement mounted failed attempts at exoneration . = = Background = = Beginning in the late 1960s and early 1970s , Lyndon LaRouche formed a variety of political organizations , including the U.S. Labor Party and the National Democratic Policy Committee . These organizations served as the platforms for presidential campaigns by LaRouche starting in 1976 , and by his followers in scores of local races . According to one candidate , supporters viewed LaRouche as " the greatest political leader and economist of the 20th century , and they 're proud to be associated with him . They feel he 's leading the battle to save Western civilization . " The Survey of Jewish Affairs , 1987 called the LaRouche movement one of the two most prominent " extremist political groups " of 1986 . The movement 's greatest electoral success came in 1986 when two supporters , Janice Hart and Mark J. Fairchild , won the Democratic Party nominations for Illinois Secretary of State and Lieutenant Governor . Both lost in the general election . Also in 1986 , the " Prevent AIDS Now Initiative Committee " ( PANIC ) got an initiative on the California ballot , Proposition 64 ( also known as the " LaRouche Initiative " ) , which attracted widespread opposition and was defeated that November . = = Investigations = = = = = Early 1980s = = = According to arguments made by LaRouche 's attorneys in later appeals , the government investigations were started under the FBI 's COINTELPRO in the 1960s . Edward Spannaus , a defendant in the trials , further notes that there was a memorandum written on January 12 , 1983 , by former FBI chief William Webster to Oliver " Buck " Revell , head of the Bureau 's General Investigative Division . It requested information on the funding of LaRouche and the U.S. Labor Party , including whether the U.S. Labor Party might be funded by hostile intelligence agencies . The LaRouche organization asserts that this formulation was specifically tailored to enable FBI " active measures " against LaRouche under Executive Order 12333 , which permits such measures if a political movement receives foreign funding . The memo was eventually obtained by LaRouche 's attorneys and submitted as an exhibit in the 1987 trial of LaRouche and co @-@ defendants in Boston . In August 1982 , former Secretary of State Henry Kissinger sent a memo to Webster requesting an investigation of the LaRouche movement due to their " increasingly obnoxious " harassment of him , which was raised at a meeting that day of the President 's Foreign Intelligence Advisory Board by senior member David Abshire . Revell replied to Kissinger that there was sufficient evidence to proceed with an investigation . The FBI conducted an investigation but did not find evidence of a violation of Kissinger 's civil rights . The investigation was closed in late 1983 . = = = Mid @-@ 1980s = = = In the mid @-@ 1980s , the U.S. government and eleven states began investigations into alleged financial improprieties by LaRouche groups . A federal grand jury reportedly began investigating " an extensive nationwide pattern of credit card fraud " by LaRouche organizations in November 1984 . That same year a New Jersey bank froze the accounts of LaRouche 's 1984 presidential campaign due to allegedly fraudulent credit @-@ card charges . In January 1985 , the grand jury in Boston , Massachusetts , subpoenaed documents from the National Democratic Policy Committee ( NDPC ) , and three other LaRouche organizations : Caucus Distributors Inc . , Fusion Energy Foundation , and Campaigner Publications Inc . Seven weeks later , on March 29 , 1985 , a U.S. District Court Judge A. David Mazzone held them to be in contempt and fined them $ 45 @,@ 000 per day . The fines for all the organizations eventually totaled over $ 20 million . The same grand jury subpoenaed Elliot I. Greenspan , an official of Caucus Distributors Inc . , to appear but he pleaded the Fifth Amendment and refused to testify . He was granted immunity and compelled to testify but only did so after being jailed for contempt for two days . A spokesman for LaRouche called the investigation " a political terror operation " . Investigations by a separate federal grand jury in Alexandria , Virginia , along with state agencies in New York , California , Minnesota , Illinois and Washington were also underway . The FBI , IRS , FEC and personnel of other federal agencies were conducting separate investigations . The Internal Revenue Service revoked the tax @-@ exempt status of the Fusion Energy Foundation in September 1985 , and a year later the State of New York sought to dissolve the corporation , alleging that it used " persistently fraudulent and illegal " means to solicit donations . U.S. Attorney William Weld announced in January 1986 , that he would convene a national conference " to coordinate a prosecutive and investigative effort " against LaRouche . The conference was held the following month in Boston . Three states , Alaska , Indiana and Maryland , banned fund raising by Caucus Distributors Inc. in May 1986 , due to the sale of unregistered promissory notes . The Illinois Secretary of State began civil proceedings against Caucus Distributors Inc. in June 1986 , seeking an injunction to bar deceptive business practices . Minnesota officials banned " Independent Democrats for LaRouche " from fund raising , an order that was affirmed on appeal to the U.S. Supreme Court . LaRouche lawyers filed a series of related civil suits against individuals , agencies and businesses . They sued Weld and former Attorney General William French Smith to try to stop the FBI investigation of the credit card case . They sued the New Jersey bank that had frozen their credit card merchant accounts ; and they sued Chemical Bank in a similar suit . Edward Spannaus , a treasurer for LaRouche campaigns , filed complaints with the state bar and the U.S. Justice Department against one of the Assistant U.S. Attorneys in the case . = = Raid and indictments = = Beginning October 6 , 1986 , the Leesburg , Virginia , headquarters of the LaRouche organization was searched in a coordinated , two @-@ day raid by hundreds of officers of the FBI , IRS , other federal agencies , and Virginia state authorities , supported by armored cars and a helicopter . The agents also surrounded LaRouche 's heavily guarded estate for the duration of the search but did not enter it . While surrounded , LaRouche sent a telegram to President Ronald Reagan saying that an attempt to arrest him " would be an attempt to kill me . I will not submit passively to such an arrest , but ... I will defend myself " . He later assured that he would comply peaceably with any warrant . LaRouche offices in Quincy , Massachusetts were searched as well . US Attorney Henry E. Hudson held a press conference to say that the searches had recovered subpoenaed materials , including notebooks and index cards . Warren J. Hamerman , Chair of the NDPC , said the searches " conducted by Donald Regan 's associate William Weld 's forces against presidential candidate Lyndon LaRouche 's headquarters coincides with Don Regan 's desperate attempts to maintain the cover @-@ up on AIDS " . LaRouche later said that the Soviet Premier had ordered the raid as part of an assassination attempt . " The man with the mark of the beast on his head , Mikhail Gorbachov , has demanded my elimination " , said LaRouche . In his 1987 autobiography , he wrote that the raid was ordered by Raisa Gorbachev , whom he described as outranking her husband in the nomenklatura due to her leadership of the Soviet Cultural Fund . On the same day as the Leesburg search , the Boston grand jury handed down a 117 @-@ count indictment that named ten LaRouche associates , two corporations , and three campaign committees . Authorities charged them with making unauthorized credit charges that defrauded $ 1 million from over 1 @,@ 000 people . The charges also included a scheme to raise funds by soliciting loans with no intention of repaying them . The National Caucus of Labor Committees was charged , along with others , of conspiring to obstruct justice . Prosecutors charged that defendants had burned records , sent potential grand jury witnesses out of the country , and failed to provide subpoenaed evidence . The indictment quoted LaRouche telling an associate that , in reaction to legal problems , " we are going to stall , tie them up in the courts ... just keep stalling , stall and appeal , stall and appeal " . Three of the indicted associates remained at large for over a year , and investigators were allegedly given false information . On June 30 , 1987 , the U.S. grand jury in Boston indicted LaRouche on one count of conspiracy to obstruct justice . Meanwhile , the state cases were progressing . On February 16 , 1987 , the Commonwealth of Virginia indicted 16 LaRouche associates on securities fraud and other felonies . On March 3 , 1987 , the State of New York indicted 15 LaRouche associates on charges of grand larceny and securities fraud . = = Involuntary bankruptcy = = In early April 1987 , the government charged in court that LaRouche organizations may have been trying to sell properties for cash to more easily conceal their assets and avoid paying $ 21 @.@ 4 million in contempt of court fines . The U.S. Department of Justice filed an involuntary bankruptcy petition on April 20 , 1987 , to collect the debt from Caucus Distributors Inc . , Fusion Energy Foundation , and Campaigner Publications Inc . In a rare procedure , the companies were seized before the bankruptcy came to trial . Assistant U.S. Attorney S. David Schiller wrote in a brief that the debtors had a " pattern of transferring or commingling substantial corporate assets to their members and other insiders for little or no consideration and for non @-@ business purposes " . The trustees later reported they were only able to locate about $ 86 @,@ 000 in assets . The bankruptcy halted the publication of a weekly newspaper , New Solidarity , and a bi @-@ monthly science magazine , Fusion . At least one publication , Fusion , was reborn with a new name but the same editor and material . The attorneys who represented the LaRouche entities in the bankruptcy trial filed a brief stating that the action was unprecedented and improper , alleging that it deviated from the standard rules of involuntary bankruptcy , and that members of the Alexandria prosecution team from the second criminal trial were involved in the planning and execution of the bankruptcy . During the bankruptcy trial in September 1989 , an FBI agent destroyed evidence ( credit card receipts , cancelled checks , and FEC filings ) immediately after he had promised the court he would preserve them . On October 25 , 1989 , Judge Martin V.B. Bostetter dismissed the government 's involuntary bankruptcy petition , finding that two of the entities involved were nonprofit fund @-@ raisers and therefore not subject to involuntary bankruptcy actions . According to the LaRouche movement , Bostetter said the government 's actions amounted to bad faith regardless of whether government agents and attorneys had intended this outcome . He found that the government 's actions and representations in obtaining the bankruptcy had the effect of misleading the court as to the status of the organization , leading to a " constructive fraud on the court " . In 1993 , an appeals court decision said that Bostetter had specifically rejected that view , and said that the defendants had " greatly distorted the character of much of the evidence " . Appeals that went all the way up to the U.S. Supreme Court found that the matter of the involuntary bankruptcy would not change the outcome of LaRouche 's conviction . The LaRouche organization asserts that it has proof , obtained under the Freedom of Information Act , which shows that the purpose of the bankruptcy was simply to shut down the affected entities rather than to collect fines . The U.S. Attorney said , " Essentially the court holds that we did not abuse the bankruptcy filing , just that we should have filed differently . " He also noted that only a minimal amount of money had been collected . = = Boston trials = = = = = Trial of Frankhouser = = = United States District Judge Robert Keeton presided in Boston . Jury selection was completed in September 1987 . Before the trial could begin , Keeton granted a motion to sever the case of Roy Frankhouser , whose case was tried first in front of a different jury . Frankhouser had been an informant for the ATF and other law enforcement agencies , in addition to being a neo @-@ Nazi and a former Pennsylvania Ku Klux Klan grand dragon . Frankhouser became a security consultant for LaRouche after convincing him that he was actively connected to U.S. intelligence agencies . In U.S. v. Frankhauser , Frankhouser testified that he and LaRouche security employee Forrest Lee Fick had invented a connection to the CIA in order to justify his $ 700 a week salary . They persuaded a friend to play a former top CIA official ( " Mr. Ed " ) in meetings with LaRouche associates who , according to LaRouche group lawyers , came to believe that they had a direct line of communication to the White House and Kremlin through Mr. Ed and — as " a national resource in security matters " — were immune from prosecution . When LaRouche found out about the grand jury investigation , he reportedly told Frankhouser to get the CIA to quash it . Frankhouser told LaRouche that the CIA wanted him to destroy evidence and hide witnesses . Frankhouser claimed that on another occasion LaRouche sent him to Boston to check on the grand jury investigation . Instead of going to Boston he went to a Star Trek convention in Scranton , Pennsylvania and called to warn LaRouche that the FBI had wiretapped his phones . LaRouche was called as a defense witness in Frankhouser 's trial but he refused to testify , exercising his Fifth Amendment right to avoid self @-@ incrimination . Frankhouser was found guilty of obstruction of the federal investigation into credit @-@ card fraud . He was sentenced to three years and a $ 50 @,@ 000 fine . After his conviction , he was granted immunity against further prosecution and compelled to testify against LaRouche in the Boston trial . Frankhouser appealed his conviction on April 3 , 1989 , arguing that his case should not have been severed from the main case , that his counsel had inadequate time to prepare , and that he was not provided with allegedly exculpatory evidence . The appeal was rejected in July . = = = Trial of LaRouche , et al . = = = The trial of LaRouche and his six co @-@ defendants , U.S. v. LaRouche Campaign , began on December 17 , 1987 , with the jury that had been picked in September , before the Frankhouser trial . The 12 defense lawyers made 400 pretrial motions . The prosecution argued that pressure to fill fund raising quotas had led to 2 @,@ 000 instances of credit card fraud , and that organization members had sought to obstruct the investigation . The defense presented the case that the prosecution was the culmination of a 20 @-@ year campaign of harassment by the FBI and CIA , and that the prosecution was acting on the orders of the CIA when they destroyed evidence and hid witnesses . During the trial , a search of the personal files of Oliver North was ordered by Judge Keeton to look for evidence that North had led an effort to harass and infiltrate the LaRouche movement , causing an additional delay in the trial . The search produced a May 1986 telex from Iran @-@ Contra defendant General Richard Secord to North , discussing the gathering of information against LaRouche . After this memo surfaced , Judge Keeton ordered a search of Vice President George Bush 's office for documents relating to LaRouche . Another delay came when the trial was halted to give time for the FBI to search their files for exculpatory documents . The trial was delayed again when federal agents seized LaRouche properties as part of the involuntary bankruptcy procedure in 1988 . Originally expected to last from three to six months , the trial stretched out much longer . One local reporter called the Boston trial a " long , complex and costly multidefendant extravaganza " . After several jurors asked to be excused due to the length of the trial , the defense refused to proceed with fewer than 12 jurors , forcing the judge to declare a mistrial on May 4 , 1988 . According to one of the jurors , all defendants , including LaRouche , would have been found not guilty . He told a reporter " it seemed some of the government 's people caused the problem " , and that people working on behalf of the government " may have been involved in some of this fraud to discredit the campaign . " At the time of the mistrial , a spokesperson said that the Constitutional Defense Fund , a LaRouche organization , had spent over $ 2 million on legal and administrative expenses . Defense attorneys said they would appeal if the government sought a new trial . A retrial in Boston was scheduled for January 3 , 1989 , but the charges were dismissed after the Alexandria convictions ; this was over the objections of the LaRouche lawyers who said they were seeking vindication . The Assistant U.S. Attorney who handled both the Boston and Alexandria cases said after the dismissal , " It was the Boston prosecuting effort which led to the evidence which allowed the indictment and convictions in Alexandria , and I think justice was served by the substantial sentences received . " Throughout the trial , three of the indicted individuals were fugitives : Michael Gelber , Charles Park , and Richard Sanders . According to Roy Frankhouser , they had been sent to Europe . They surrendered to the court in 1990 and were sentenced by Judge Keeton to one year each for obstructing the investigation . = = = Related appeals = = = On July 3 , 1986 , the First Circuit Court of Appeals upheld the contempt of court fines from the Boston grand jury . That decision was appealed to the U.S. Supreme Court , which let it stand . The First Circuit Court heard an appeal on September 11 , 1987 , alleging abuse of the grand jury and denied it six days later . On November 3 , 1987 , six organizations affiliated with LaRouche argued that their documents were seized improperly during the October 1986 search . The court denied the appeal the following January . Jeffrey Steinberg said on December 11 , 1987 , that 100 notebooks compiled by himself and his wife should not have been included in the grand jury subpoena or the search . He lost that appeal the following January . The court heard an appeal from NBC on January 5 , 1988 , over a lower court subpoena of NBC outtakes of a videotaped interview with a witness , Forrest Lee Fick . The lower court ruled the subpoenaed outtakes were to be placed under seal and subject to in camera review only , giving the court discretion whether to release any portion to the defendants . LaRouche had asserted the outtakes could be used to impeach Fick 's testimony . The court affirmed the lower court 's ruling in March . Following the mistrial in Boston , the prosecution moved to schedule a new trial . LaRouche and the other defendants appealed that effort on October 5 , 1988 , saying that a new trial would create double jeopardy . The appeal was denied four months later . The contempt of court fines were appealed again on January 9 , 1989 , and affirmed again on March 29 . Following the convictions in the Alexandria court , prosecutors moved to dismiss the charges from the Boston court , canceling the retrial . The LaRouche lawyers appealed that decision on March 13 , 1989 , arguing that they needed the trial to exonerate LaRouche . = = Alexandria trial = = Judge Albert V. Bryan Jr. presided over U.S. v. LaRouche in the U.S. District Court for the Eastern District of Virginia , where LaRouche resided . That court was known as a " rocket docket " for its speed in disposing of cases . LaRouche and six associates were indicted on October 14 , 1988 on charges of mail fraud and conspiracy to commit mail fraud . Trial was scheduled for six weeks after the indictment . Defense lawyers made an unusual appeal asking for a delay , which was rejected . Judge Bryan granted a prosecution motion in limine , ruling that the defense would not be permitted to discuss , or even allude to , the fact that the indebted entities had been placed in involuntary bankruptcy . It also excluded claims of vindictive prosecution and political harassment by the government . Bryan wrote , " the court will not allow a delving into any details of alleged infiltration ... for the reason that ... this would divert the jury from the issues raised in the indictment . " The prosecution , led by Assistant U.S. Attorney Kent Robinson , presented evidence that LaRouche and his staff solicited US $ 34 million in loans since 1983 with false assurances to potential lenders and showed " reckless disregard for the truth " . In his opening statement to the trial , Robinson said , " Members of the jury , this case is about money . It 's about how the defendants got money , and to a lesser extent , what they did with that money when they got it ... The defendants , all seven of them , are charged in engaging in a scheme to defraud . That is , to obtain those loans by making false promises , false pretences , saying things to potential lenders which they knew weren 't true . " The most important evidence was the testimony of lenders , many of them elderly retirees , who had loaned a total of $ 661 @,@ 300 to help LaRouche fight the " war on drugs " but only received $ 10 @,@ 000 in repayment . One of the prosecutors , John Markham , said those loans represented " just a very small portion of unrepaid borrowing " . Other testimony asserted that , as of 1987 , half of the $ 4 million borrowed by the 1984 presidential campaign was unpaid , and that only $ 5 million had been repaid out of $ 30 million in non @-@ campaign loans . LaRouche supporters claim the unrepaid amount was $ 294 @,@ 000 but , according to testimony at trial , the amount owed by 1987 topped $ 25 million . Several witnesses were LaRouche followers who testified under immunity from prosecution . A former fundraiser testified that he was told , " No matter what the person you are talking to says , get the money . [ ... ] If you are talking to an unemployed worker who says he has got to feed ... a dozen children , forget it . Get the money . Most of these people are immoral anyway . This is the most moral thing they have ever done is to give you money . " None of the defendants testified . Outside of court , LaRouche denied all the charges , calling them " an all @-@ out frame @-@ up by a state and federal task force , " and said that the federal government was trying to kill him . " The purpose of this frame @-@ up is not to send me to prison . It 's to kill me , " LaRouche said . " In prison it 's fairly easy to kill me ... If this sentence goes through , I 'm dead . " = = = Income tax = = = One of the charges against LaRouche was that he had conspired to avoid paying income tax , not having filed a return in ten years . LaRouche claimed to have had no income . LaRouche lived on a 172 @-@ acre ( 700 @,@ 000 m2 ) estate near Leesburg , Virginia , with a pond and horse ring . It was purchased for his use by Oklahoma oilman David Nick Anderson for $ 1 @.@ 3 million , with LaRouche organizations paying rent to cover the $ 9 @,@ 605 mortgage . LaRouche had named the property " Ibykus Farm " after a work by Friedrich Schiller . His wife , Helga LaRouche , is reported to have overseen hundreds of thousands of dollars in renovations to the property . In all , the LaRouche group spent over US $ 4 million on Virginia real estate during this period , according to trial testimony . The LaRouche defense argued that Ibykus Farm was a " safehouse " needed for the security of LaRouche and others . The government argued that security expenditures were " misplaced priorities . " In 1985 , a judge in a separate case had described LaRouche 's testimony about being almost penniless as " completely lacking in credibility " . In 1986 , in the same case , LaRouche said that he did not know who had paid the rent on the estate , or for his food , lodging , clothing , transportation , bodyguards , or lawyers since 1973 . The judge fined him for failing to answer . = = = Conviction and imprisonment = = = On December 16 , 1988 , LaRouche was convicted of conspiracy to commit mail fraud involving more than $ 30 million in defaulted loans ; 11 counts of actual mail fraud involving $ 294 @,@ 000 in defaulted loans ; and one count of conspiring to defraud the U.S. Internal Revenue Service . The judge said that the claim of a vendetta was " arrant nonsense " , and that , " the idea that this organization is a sufficient threat to anything that would warrant the government bringing a prosecution to silence them just defies human experience . " Jury foreman Buster Horton told The Washington Post that it was the failure of LaRouche aides to repay loans which swayed the jury in the Virginia case . He said that the jury " all agreed [ LaRouche ] was not on trial for his political beliefs . We did not convict him for that . He was convicted for those 13 counts he was on trial for . " As part of the trial in Alexandria , six of LaRouche 's associates were also found guilty . His chief fund @-@ raiser , William Wertz , was convicted on ten mail fraud counts . LaRouche 's legal adviser and treasurer , Edward Spannaus , along with fund raising operatives Dennis Small , Paul Greenberg , Michael Billington , and Joyce Rubinstein , were convicted of conspiracy to commit mail fraud . Wertz and Spannaus were sentenced to five years imprisonment each , with Spannaus serving a total of two and a half years until his release from custody . Both were fined $ 1 @,@ 000 . The others received three @-@ year terms and various fines . While in prison LaRouche released claims that he was tortured as part of an assassination attempt . LaRouche ran two political campaigns from prison : for Virginia 's 10th Congressional District in 1990 and for U.S. President in 1992 . One of his cellmates during his incarceration at the Federal Medical Center , Rochester in Minnesota was televangelist Jim Bakker . Bakker later devoted a chapter of his book , I Was Wrong , to his experience with LaRouche . Bakker described his astonishment at LaRouche 's detailed knowledge of the Bible . According to Bakker , LaRouche received a daily briefing each morning by phone , often in German , and on more than one occasion LaRouche had information days before it was reported on the network news . Bakker also wrote that his cellmate was convinced that their cell was bugged . In Bakker 's view , " to say LaRouche was a little paranoid would be like saying that the Titanic had a little leak . " LaRouche also befriended Richard Miller , a former FBI agent and fellow inmate who was imprisoned on espionage charges . LaRouche was paroled in 1994 after serving five years of the 15 @-@ year sentence , the normal schedule for parole at that time . LaRouche commented later that " ... in effect , George H. W. Bush put me in the jug , and Bill Clinton got me out " . = = = Appeal of convictions = = = The defendants in the Alexandria trial appealed their convictions to Fourth Circuit Court of Appeals on October 6 , 1989 . Former U.S. Attorney General Ramsey Clark joined the defense team , which contended that there were six faults in the trial . In the words of the Circuit Court 's opinion , the alleged errors were : The district court erred in denying their motion for a continuance of the trial date . The district court erroneously denied their discovery request for exculpatory material . The district court made numerous evidentiary rulings , in limine and at trial , that unconstitutionally restricted their ability to defend against the charges . The trial judge failed to conduct a voir dire sufficient to impanel an unbiased jury and improperly failed to excuse several jurors for cause . The mail fraud counts were improperly joined with the tax conspiracy count . The sentence imposed on LaRouche was excessive . The district court erroneously instructed the jury on the tax count . The district court erred in allowing the introduction of illegally seized evidence . Seventeen amicus curiae ( " friend of the court " ) briefs were filed in the appeal . One , by Albert Bleckmann , director of the Institute for Public Law and Political Sciences at the University of Münster , objected to the lack of voir dire , the exclusion of evidence under the motion in limine , the fact that the government did not approach LaRouche about his tax situation before indicting him for tax violations , and concerns about double jeopardy because of the nearly identical charges in the Boston and Alexandria trials . A brief by a French lawyer said that , " a crime of thought seems to have been camouflaged as a common law crime . " Notable submitters of amicus briefs included : James Robert Mann , Charles E. Rice , Jay Alan Sekulow and George P. Monaghan . The three @-@ judge panel reviewed and rejected each item , affirming the defendants ' convictions and sentences unanimously on January 22 , 1990 . Five months later the U.S. Supreme Court declined to review the case . = = State trials = = The Attorney General of Virginia , Mary Sue Terry , prosecuted eight LaRouche organizations on charges of securities fraud relating to $ 30 million in loans . The first trials were in Leesburg , but later trials moved to the larger city of Roanoke . In order for the prosecutions to proceed , a decision by the State Corporation Commission ( SCC ) was needed verifying that the loans solicited by LaRouche organizations were securities . Attorneys for the LaRouche organizations argued that a prohibition on raising funds through loans would violate their First Amendment rights . The SCC rejected that argument and decided , on March 4 , 1987 , that the promissory notes were securities . It ordered six LaRouche organizations — Fusion Energy Foundation Inc . , Caucus Distributors Inc . , Publication and General Management Inc . , Campaigner Publications Inc . , EIR News Service Inc. and Publication Equities Inc . — to stop their sale . Five other states had already issued injunctions , and 14 states eventually followed . At least one injunction , by the State of Minnesota against Independent Democrats for LaRouche , was appealed to the U.S. Supreme Court , which confirmed the lower court ruling . Six of LaRouche 's associates were convicted and two pleaded guilty . Rochelle Ascher , a fundraiser , was sentenced in Leesburg to 86 years ( reduced to 10 years ) for six charges of fraudulently selling securities and one count each of selling an unregistered security with intent to defraud , selling a security by an unregistered agent with intent to defraud , and conspiracy to commit security fraud . In two Roanoke trials , four other associates were found guilty of securities fraud charges : Donald Phau , Lawrence Hecht , Paul Gallagher and Anita Gallagher . Richard Welsh and Martha M. Quinde pleaded guilty and received 12 month and one month terms , respectively . Michael Billington was charged in a Roanoke court with having knowingly solicited 131 loans that would never be repaid from 85 people , totaling $ 1 @.@ 24 million . Represented by a court @-@ appointed lawyer , he rejected a plea bargain that would have limited his prison sentence to the three years he had already served in the federal case . The lawyer , Brian Gettings , doubted Billington 's competence and told the court that he believed LaRouche was making the decisions in the case rather than his client . The court ordered two psychiatric tests . The first physician deemed him competent . Billington refused to cooperate with a second examination that was to be conducted by an expert on cults . Billington sought to fire Gettings , who had already tried to quit over competency question , but the judge refused to permit Billington to substitute a different attorney . A LaRouche spokesman said that Billington was prepared for trial . Billington was convicted on nine counts of " conspiracy to fail to register as a securities broker " . Under Virginia 's court system , the jury determines prison terms although a judge may override the jury 's recommendation . The jury in this case recommended 77 years ( out of a possible 90 ) ; the judge refused to lower it because Billington continued to insist upon his innocence ( which the judge deemed lack of remorse ) and because he had warned that he would accept the jury recommendation if Billington requested a jury trial . Billington served a total of ten years in prison before being released on parole . The lead prosecutor said the case involved " willful and massive fraud that has caused a lot of people to suffer " . A trial in New York state courts on charges of scheming to defraud resulted in the conviction of Robert Primack , Marielle Kronberg and Lynne Speed . = = Reactions from LaRouche and supporters = = " My imprisonment is the American Dreyfus case " , LaRouche said in a January 1989 interview from prison . The prosecutor denied claims of a conspiracy , describing the theory as an " Orwellian fantasy ... that we are hiding some supersecret spy plot which , if exposed , would exonerate them " . LaRouche supporters insisted that LaRouche was jailed , not for any violation of the law , but for his beliefs . LaRouche also alleged systematic government misconduct : The record shows , that for nearly thirty years , elements of the U.S. Department of Justice have been engaged in world @-@ wide political targeting of me and my associates . This includes early 1970s operations run in conjunction with Secretary of State Henry A. Kissinger 's U.S. State Department . During the last ten years or so of that period , some U.S. officials , and others , have challenged the relevant agencies with some of the evidence which shows , that those prosecutions and correlated harassment of me and my associates , had been clearly fraudulent , politically motivated targeting . LaRouche and his lawyers asserted that the Anti @-@ Defamation League ( ADL ) sought to destroy his organization , and that the prosecution was the result of a conspiracy between the ADL , the government and the media . This claim stemmed from a series of meetings that LaRouche publications refer to as the John Train " Salon " . In testimony submitted to the Senate Judiciary Committee on July 13 , 1998 , the LaRouche @-@ affiliated Schiller Institute claimed that " [ t ] he inability to repay lenders and other crediters [ sic ] was the consequence of an unprecedented involuntary bankruptcy proceeding initiated by the Justice Department against those companies in 1987 , initiated in an ex parte , in camera proceeding " . Friedrich August Freiherr von der Heydte , a professor of constitutional and international law at the University of Mainz in Germany , compared the LaRouche trial to the Dreyfus affair , which he called " a classical example of a political trial " . He wrote , " Just as LaRouche was , the French Capt. Alfred Dreyfus was deprived by the structure of the trial procedures , of any opportunity to prove his innocence , and facts critical for his defense were excluded from the trial . " On November 8 , 1991 , Angelo Vidal d 'Almeida Ribeiro , the Special Rapporteur for the United Nations Commission on Human Rights , filed a request to the U.S. Government based on a complaint that had been filed concerning the LaRouche case . The U.S. government responded by saying that LaRouche had been given due process under the laws of the United States . The U.N. Commission took no further action . = = Exoneration attempts = = Ramsey Clark wrote a letter in 1995 to then @-@ Attorney General Janet Reno in which he said that the case involved " a broader range of deliberate and systematic misconduct and abuse of power over a longer period of time in an effort to destroy a political movement and leader , than any other federal prosecution in my time or to my knowledge " . He asserted that , " The government , ex parte , sought and received an order effectively closing the doors of these publishing businesses , all of which were involved in First Amendment activities , effectively preventing the further repayment of their debts . " He called the convictions " a tragic miscarriage of justice which at this time can only be corrected by an objective review and courageous action by the Department of Justice " . The LaRouche movement organized two panels to review the cases : the Curtis Clark Commission , and the Mann @-@ Chestnut hearings . On September 18 , 1996 , a full @-@ page advertisement appeared in the New Federalist , a LaRouche publication , as well as The Washington Post and Roll Call . Entitled " Officials Call for LaRouche 's Exoneration " , its signatories included Arturo Frondizi , former President of Argentina ; figures from the 1960s American Civil Rights Movement such as Amelia Boynton Robinson ( a leader of the Larouche @-@ affiliated Schiller Institute ) , James Bevel ( a Larouche movement participant ) and Rosa Parks ; former Minnesota Senator and Democratic Presidential Candidate Eugene McCarthy ; Mervyn M. Dymally , who chaired the Congressional Black Caucus ; and artists such as classical vocalist William Warfield and violinist Norbert Brainin , former 1st Violin of the Amadeus Quartet . = = Later developments = = In 2009 , Molly Kronberg , widow of Kenneth Kronberg , sued LaRouche in federal court for the Eastern District of Virginia , in Alexandria , alleging that he and his associates libelled and harassed her on account of her compelled testimony in the 1988 case which led to his conviction . LaRouche alleges that Kronberg perjured herself and colluded with the prosecutors to frame him in order to cover up a bad check issued in 1979 by her from a New Benjamin Franklin House Publishing Company account for royalties owed him . One of the prosecutors in the 1988 case , John Markham , is representing Kronberg in the suit . = = United States court of appeals = = In Re Grand Jury Proceedings.appeal of Campaigner Publications , Inc . , et al . , 795 F.2d 226 ( 1st Cir . July 3 , 1986 ) . U.S. v. Larouche Campaign , 829 F.2d 250 ( 1st Cir . September 17 , 1987 ) . Fusion Energy Foundation v. Terry , 836 F.2d 1342 ( 4th Cir . January 7 , 1988 ) . In Re Jeffrey Steinberg , 837 F.2d 527 ( 1st Cir . January 22 , 1988 ) . U.S. v. LaRouche Campaign , appeal of National Broadcasting Company , Inc , 841 F.2d 1176 ( 1st Cir . March 9 , 1988 ) . U.S. v. LaRouche Campaign , 866 F.2d 512 ( 1st Cir . January 31 , 1989 ) . In Re Grand Jury Proceedings.appeal of Caucus Distributors , Inc . , et al . , 871 F.2d 156 ( 1st Cir . May 30 , 1989 ) . U.S. v. Frankhauser , 878 F.2d 1571 ( 4th Cir . July 4 , 1989 ) . [ Note : Court records spell the name " Frankhauser " while most other sources spell it " Frankhouser " . ] U.S. v. LaRouche , 896 F.2d 815 ( 4th Cir . January 22 , 1990 ) . U.S. v. LaRouche , 4 F.3d 987 ( 4th Cir . September 13 , 1993 ) . Welsh v. Holt , 78 F.3d 580 ( 4th Cir . February 28 , 1996 ) .
= Illinois Route 98 = Illinois Route 98 ( IL 98 , Route 98 ) is a 8 @.@ 36 @-@ mile ( 13 @.@ 45 km ) east – west state highway located entirely within Tazewell County in central Illinois . The route runs from Route 29 on the border of Pekin and North Pekin east to Interstate 155 ( I @-@ 155 ) in Morton . The highway connects Pekin , North Pekin , Morton , and the community of Groveland ; it passes through a variety of landscapes between the towns . Route 98 is maintained by the Illinois Department of Transportation . The state of Illinois created Route 98 in 1924 ; the original route connected several cities in western Illinois . The eastern section of this route appeared on maps by 1928 , and the highway was completed in 1929 . In 1939 , Route 98 moved to its current alignment ; it has not changed since . = = Route description = = Route 98 begins at an intersection with Route 29 on the border of Pekin and North Pekin ; Worley Lake and the Illinois River lie to the west . The route heads east as a divided two @-@ lane road called Edgewater Drive , passing a group of houses which lie between two small lakes . After entering North Pekin , the highway becomes undivided and runs through a business district . It intersects County Route 25 , known locally as Parkway Road , before crossing into Pekin . Route 98 enters a forested area in Pekin and passes to the north of John T. McNaughton Park near the city 's eastern border . After leaving Pekin , Route 98 passes through farmland in unincorporated Groveland Township . The highway meets Cole Hollow Road and California Road at successive intersections in a residential area . Past a creek , the road heads into a rural area with sections of farmland and forest . As it enters Groveland , the highway intersects County Route 1 , which runs south through the community . Route 98 leaves Groveland to the east , running through another farmed area . The route curves into Morton and takes the name Birchwood Street , traversing a creek before entering an industrial district . In this area , Route 98 briefly becomes a divided highway before terminating at exit 31 on I @-@ 155 . The road continues past the terminus as a local street , still carrying the name Birchwood Street . Route 98 is maintained by the Illinois Department of Transportation ( IDOT ) , an Illinois state agency responsible for maintaining highways and other transport infrastructure in the state . IDOT is responsible for collecting traffic data on Illinois state highways ; this data is measured in terms of annual average daily traffic , an estimate of the number of vehicles which use a road on any given day in a particular year . In 2009 , IDOT estimated that 4400 vehicles used the western portion of Route 98 , 3900 used the central portion , and 3700 used the eastern portion . No part of Route 98 is included in the National Highway System , a network of roads considered significant to the nation 's economy , defense , and mobility . = = History = = Route 98 was initially designated in 1924 on a route in western Illinois . The state planned the road to connect Route 3 east of Macomb to Route 95 near Havana by way of Adair , Table Grove , Ipava , and Duncan Mills . The route was first marked on the 1928 Illinois highway map ; at this point , the road connected Table Grove in the west to U.S. Route 24 ( US 24 ) and Route 31 at Duncans Mills in the east . By 1929 , the highway 's western terminus was extended to Route 9 east of Macomb . The original route became part of Route 10 between 1936 and 1939 , at which time the Route 98 designation was transferred to its present alignment . The original Route 98 is now part of US 136 . = = Major intersections = = The entire route is in Tazewell County .
= Japanese battleship Satsuma = Satsuma ( 薩摩 ) was a semi @-@ dreadnought battleship built for the Imperial Japanese Navy ( IJN ) in the first decade of the 20th century . Lead ship of her class , she was the first battleship built in Japan . She was named for Satsuma Province , now a part of Kagoshima prefecture . The ship saw no combat during World War I , although she led a squadron that occupied several German colonies in the Pacific Ocean in 1914 . Satsuma was disarmed and sunk as a target in 1922 – 24 in accordance with the terms of the Washington Naval Treaty of 1922 . = = Background = = The Satsuma class was ordered in late 1904 under the 1904 War Naval Supplementary Program during the Russo @-@ Japanese War . Unlike the previous Katori @-@ class pre @-@ dreadnought battleships , they were the first battleships ordered from Japanese shipyards , although Satsuma used many imported components . They were originally designed with a dozen 12 @-@ inch ( 305 mm ) guns , but had to be redesigned because of a shortage of guns in Japan and to reduce costs . = = Design and description = = The ship had an overall length of 482 feet ( 146 @.@ 9 m ) , a beam of 83 feet 6 inches ( 25 @.@ 5 m ) , and a normal draft of 27 feet 6 inches ( 8 @.@ 4 m ) . She displaced 19 @,@ 372 long tons ( 19 @,@ 683 t ) at normal load . The crew ranged from 800 to 940 officers and enlisted men . Satsuma was powered by a pair of vertical triple @-@ expansion steam engines , each driving one propeller , using steam generated by 20 Miyabara water @-@ tube boilers using a mixture of coal and fuel oil . The engines were rated at a total of 17 @,@ 300 indicated horsepower ( 12 @,@ 900 kW ) and designed to reach a top speed of 18 @.@ 25 knots ( 33 @.@ 80 km / h ; 21 @.@ 00 mph ) . During the ship 's sea trials she reached 18 @.@ 95 knots ( 35 @.@ 10 km / h ; 21 @.@ 81 mph ) from 18 @,@ 507 ihp ( 13 @,@ 801 kW ) . Satsuma carried enough coal and oil to give her a range of 9 @,@ 100 nautical miles ( 16 @,@ 900 km ; 10 @,@ 500 mi ) at a speed of 10 knots ( 19 km / h ; 12 mph ) . The ship was completed with four 45 @-@ caliber 12 @-@ inch 41st Year Type guns in two gun turrets , one each fore and aft of the superstructure . They fired 850 @-@ pound ( 386 kg ) armor @-@ piercing ( AP ) shells to a maximum range of 24 @,@ 000 yd ( 22 @,@ 000 m ) . The intermediate armament consisted of six twin @-@ gun turrets equipped with 45 @-@ caliber Type 41 10 @-@ inch guns , three turrets on each side of the superstructure . Her heavy intermediate armament is why the ship is considered to be a semi @-@ dreadnought . Satsuma was equipped with a dozen 40 @-@ caliber 4 @.@ 7 @-@ inch 41st Year Type quick @-@ firing ( QF ) guns , mounted in casemates in the sides of the hull . The ship was also equipped with four 40 @-@ caliber 12 @-@ pounder 12 @-@ cwt QF guns and four 28 @-@ caliber 12 @-@ pounder QF guns . In addition , she was fitted with five submerged 18 @-@ inch ( 457 mm ) torpedo tubes , two on each broadside and one in the stern . The waterline main belt of the Satsuma @-@ class vessels consisted of Krupp cemented armor that had a maximum thickness of 9 inches ( 229 mm ) amidships . It tapered to a thickness of 4 inches ( 102 mm ) inches at the ends of the ship . A 6 @-@ inch ( 152 mm ) strake of armor protected the casemates . The barbettes for the main guns were 7 – 9 @.@ 5 inches ( 180 – 240 mm ) thick . The armor of Satsuma 's main gun turrets had a maximum thickness of nine inches . The deck armor was 2 – 3 inches ( 51 – 76 mm ) thick and the conning tower was protected by six inches of armor . = = Construction and career = = Satsuma , named for Satsuma Province , was laid down at Yokosuka Naval Arsenal on 15 May 1905 . She was launched on 15 November 1906 with Emperor Meiji , the Navy Minister , and other high officials on hand for the ceremony , and completed on 25 March 1910 . At the time of her launching , Satsuma had the largest displacement of any battleship in the world . On 5 August 1911 , the ship suffered an explosion in one of her 12 @-@ inch guns when it failed to fire during gunnery practice . After some time passed , the breech was opened and ignited the propellant ; the resulting fire killed 16 crewmen and several officers . She was lightly damaged by a typhoon on 22 September 1912 . Satsuma was assigned to the 1st Battleship Squadron when World War I began in August 1914 . She served as Rear Admiral Tatsuo Matsumura 's flagship in the Second South Seas Squadron as it seized the German possessions of the Caroline and the Palau Islands in October 1914 . Satsuma rejoined the 1st Battleship Squadron in 1915 , was refitted at Sasebo Naval Arsenal in 1916 and served with the 1st Squadron for the rest of the war . Sometime during the war , she was fitted with two 12 @-@ pounders on high @-@ angle mounts to serve as anti @-@ aircraft guns . The ship was disarmed at Yokosuka Naval Arsenal in 1922 to comply with the provisions of the Washington Naval Treaty , stricken from the Navy List on 20 September 1923 and converted into a target ship . Satsuma was sunk by the battleships Mutsu and Nagato off the southern tip of the Bōsō Peninsula , near the mouth of Tokyo Bay on 7 September 1924 .
= E and F @-@ class destroyer = The E and F @-@ class destroyers were a group of 18 destroyers built for the Royal Navy during the 1930s . The ships were initially assigned to the Home Fleet , although they reinforced the Mediterranean Fleet during the Italian invasion of Abyssinia of 1935 – 36 and enforced the Non @-@ Intervention Agreement during the Spanish Civil War of 1936 – 39 . After the beginning of the Second World War in August 1939 , the E @-@ class ships were mostly assigned to escort duties under the Western Approaches Command , while the Fs were assigned to escort the ships of the Home Fleet . Between them they sank four German submarines through March 1940 while losing only one ship to a submarine . Most of the sisters were committed to the Norwegian Campaign in April – June where they helped to sink one German destroyer and a submarine . The two E @-@ class minelayer @-@ destroyers helped to evacuate Allied troops from Dunkirk in May – June . Most of the Fs were sent to Gibraltar around the end of June and formed part of Force H where they participated in the attack on Mers @-@ el @-@ Kébir . Two months later they participated in the Battle of Dakar where they sank three Vichy French submarines . During the rest of 1940 , they sank one Italian submarine while losing two ships to mines and torpedoes . Force H covered a number of convoys to Malta in 1941 , during which they sank one German submarine and lost one destroyer to bombs . Three E @-@ class ships began escorting convoys to Russia in late 1941 and three others were transferred to the Eastern Fleet . Two of these latter were sunk by Japanese forces in early 1942 and two Fs were transferred to replace them . Many of the Fs reinforced the Arctic convoy escorts during which they fought several engagements with German destroyers and sank one German submarine . Several were detached to escort Malta convoys , during which one ship was lost . Several ships were converted to escort destroyers in late 1942 – early 1943 for duty in the North Atlantic and many others were assigned there for extended periods of time where they sank two German submarines . Three of these ships were later transferred to the Royal Canadian Navy . Four of the Es and Fs were sent to the Mediterranean Fleet in mid @-@ 1943 to support the invasion of Sicily and remained there into 1944 . One of these was transferred to the Royal Hellenic Navy that same year and remained in Greek service until 1956 . The ships that remained in the Atlantic sank two German submarines in 1944 before they were recalled to the UK in May to prepare for the invasion of Normandy . There they sank two submarines , although another F @-@ class ship was lost to a mine . The ships mostly returned to the North Atlantic after Overlord or began long refits in Canada . The three Canadian ships were used to transport troops back to Canada after the end of the war before being broken up in 1947 . Most of the British ships were broken up around the same time , although one ship was sold to the Dominican Navy in 1949 and served until 1968 . = = Design and description = = The E class were ordered as part of the 1931 Naval Construction Programme , the F class following in 1932 . These ships were based on the preceding D class with minor changes to the hull and armament . Two of the ships were modified to accommodate 60 mines . The F class were repeats of the E 's with some minor differences . All of the destroyers were fitted with ASDIC ( sonar ) and the ability to use the Two @-@ Speed Destroyer Sweep ( TSDS ) minesweeping gear . The E- and F @-@ class destroyers displaced 1 @,@ 405 long tons ( 1 @,@ 428 t ) at standard load and 1 @,@ 940 long tons ( 1 @,@ 970 t ) at deep load . They had an overall length of 329 feet ( 100 @.@ 3 m ) , a beam of 33 feet 3 inches ( 10 @.@ 1 m ) and a draught of 12 feet 6 inches ( 3 @.@ 8 m ) . The ships ' complement was 145 officers and ratings . They were powered by two Parsons geared steam turbines , each driving one propeller shaft , using steam provided by three Admiralty 3 @-@ drum boilers that operated at a pressure of 300 psi ( 2 @,@ 068 kPa ; 21 kgf / cm2 ) and a temperature of 620 ° F ( 327 ° C ) . The turbines developed a total of 36 @,@ 000 shaft horsepower ( 27 @,@ 000 kW ) and gave a maximum speed of 35 @.@ 5 knots ( 65 @.@ 7 km / h ; 40 @.@ 9 mph ) . The destroyers carried a maximum of 470 – 480 long tons ( 480 – 490 t ) of fuel oil that gave them a range of 6 @,@ 350 nautical miles ( 11 @,@ 760 km ; 7 @,@ 310 mi ) at 15 knots ( 28 km / h ; 17 mph ) . All of the ships had the same main armament , four quick @-@ firing ( QF ) 4 @.@ 7 @-@ inch ( 120 mm ) Mark IX guns in single mounts , designated ' A ' , ' B ' , ' X ' , and ' Y ' from front to rear . The guns had a maximum elevation of 40 ° which was achieved by using a lowered section of the deck around the mount , the " well " , that allowed the breech of the gun to be lowered below deck height . They fired a 50 @-@ pound ( 22 @.@ 7 kg ) shell at a muzzle velocity of 2 @,@ 650 ft / s ( 810 m / s ) to a range of 16 @,@ 970 yards ( 15 @,@ 520 m ) . For anti @-@ aircraft ( AA ) defence , they had two quadruple mounts for the QF 0 @.@ 5 @-@ inch Vickers Mk III machine gun on platforms between the funnels . The E- and F @-@ class ships were fitted with two quadruple mounts for 21 @-@ inch ( 533 mm ) torpedo tubes . The ships , except for the minelayers , were also equipped with two throwers and one rack for 20 depth charges . The stern of the minelayers was fitted with a pair of sponsons that housed part of the mechanical chain @-@ conveyor system and to ensure smooth delivery of her mines . To compensate for the weight of her Mark XIV mines , their rails , two 4 @.@ 7 @-@ inch guns , their ammunition , both sets of torpedo tubes , their whalers and their davits had to be removed . The main guns were controlled by an Admiralty Fire Control Clock Mk I that used data derived from the manually @-@ operated director @-@ control tower and the separate 9 @-@ foot ( 2 @.@ 7 m ) rangefinder situated above the bridge . They had no capability for anti @-@ aircraft fire and the anti @-@ aircraft guns were aimed solely by eye . = = = Wartime modifications = = = Beginning in May 1940 , the after bank of torpedo tubes was removed and replaced with a QF 12 @-@ pounder 20 @-@ cwt anti @-@ aircraft gun , the after mast and funnel being cut down to improve the gun 's field of fire . Four to eight QF 20 mm Oerlikon cannons were added to the surviving ships , usually replacing the .50 @-@ calibre machine gun mounts between the funnels . One pair of these was added to the bridge wings and the other pair was mounted abreast the searchlight platform . Early in the war , depth charge stowage increased to 38 . By 1943 , all the surviving ships , except Fury had the ' Y ' gun on the quarterdeck removed to allow for additional depth charge stowage and two additional depth charge throwers . The 12 @-@ pounder was removed to allow for the installation of a Huff @-@ Duff radio direction finder on a short mainmast and for more depth charges . All of the survivors , except perhaps for Echo , had ' A ' or ' B ' gun replaced by a Hedgehog anti @-@ submarine spigot mortar , and their director @-@ control tower and rangefinder above the bridge removed in exchange for a Type 271 target @-@ indication radar , Fame had her ' A ' gun reinstalled by 1944 . A Type 286 short @-@ range , surface @-@ search radar , adapted from the Royal Air Force 's ASV radar , was also added . The early models , however , could only scan directly forward and had to be aimed by turning the entire ship . Express 's modifications differed somewhat in that ' B ' gun was replaced by a twin @-@ gun QF 6 @-@ pounder Hotchkiss mount and a split Hedgehog installation . In addition , she retained her 12 @-@ pounder gun , but her remaining torpedo tubes were removed . = = = Flotilla leaders = = = For the first time since the A class of the 1927 programme , the flotilla leaders were built to an enlarged design , being lengthened to incorporate an additional QF 4 @.@ 7 @-@ inch gun between the funnels . The lengthened design resulted in a three boiler room layout to enhance water @-@ tight integrity . The leaders were not fitted for minesweeping or minelaying . They displaced 1 @,@ 475 – 1 @,@ 495 long tons ( 1 @,@ 499 – 1 @,@ 519 t ) at standard load and 2 @,@ 010 – 2 @,@ 050 long tons ( 2 @,@ 040 – 2 @,@ 080 t ) at deep load . The ships had an overall length of 343 feet ( 104 @.@ 5 m ) , a beam of 33 feet 9 inches ( 10 @.@ 3 m ) and a draught of 12 feet 6 inches ( 3 @.@ 8 m ) . The ships carried a total of 175 personnel which included the staff of the Captain ( D ) , commanding officer of the flotilla . Their turbines were 2 @,@ 000 shp ( 1 @,@ 500 kW ) more powerful than the private ships , which made them 0 @.@ 5 knots ( 0 @.@ 93 km / h ; 0 @.@ 58 mph ) faster ; their propulsion machinery was otherwise identical . Exmouth was an early wartime loss and consequently received no modifications , but Faulknor survived the war . Her modifications differed somewhat from those of the private ships . She received a 4 @-@ inch ( 102 mm ) AA gun in lieu of her aft torpedo tubes , although they were later reinstalled and the 4 @-@ inch gun replaced ' X ' 4 @.@ 7 @-@ inch gun . Two Oerlikons were later added on the forward part of her aft superstructure and a quadruple QF two @-@ pounder " pom @-@ pom " mount replaced ' Q ' gun between the funnels . Finally her rangefinder was replaced by a high @-@ angle director fitted with a Type 285 gunnery radar . = = Ships = = = = = E class = = = = = = F class = = = = = Service = = All of the E class were assigned to the 5th Destroyer Flotilla ( DF ) of the Home Fleet upon commissioning during 1934 . Following the Italian invasion of Abyssinia , the entire flotilla was sent to the Red Sea in August 1935 to monitor Italian warship movements until April 1936 . Refitted upon their return , many were deployed to Spanish waters during the Spanish Civil War in 1936 – 39 to intercept shipping carrying contraband goods to Spain and to protect British @-@ flagged ships . While the F @-@ class ships were assigned to the 6th Destroyer Flotilla of the Home Fleet , they followed much the same pattern as their E @-@ class sisters . In April 1939 the 5th and 6th DFs were renumbered the 7th and 8th Destroyer Flotillas , respectively . In mid @-@ 1939 , newly @-@ commissioned J @-@ class destroyers began to replace the E @-@ class ships and they were reduced to reserve for lack of manpower . Increasing tensions with Nazi Germany in August , caused the British to mobilize the Navy 's reserves , which allowed the ships to be manned again and assigned to the 12th Destroyer Flotilla of the Home Fleet . When the war began on 3 September , the E @-@ class ships , except for the two minelayers , Esk and Express , were assigned to the Western Approaches Command ( WAC ) for convoy escort and patrolling duties , while the Fs remained with the Home Fleet , performing the same sorts of tasks . On 14 September , Faulknor , Firedrake , and Foxhound , escorting the aircraft carrier Ark Royal , sank U @-@ 39 , the first German submarine to be lost during the war , after she had unsuccessfully attacked the carrier . Six days later , Fearless , Faulknor , Forester , and Fortune sank U @-@ 27 . Most of the E class remained with the WAC until April 1940 , but several were transferred to Rosyth Command at the end of 1939 . Exmouth was one of these and was sunk by U @-@ 22 on 21 January 1940 in the Moray Firth . On the other hand , Escapade forced U @-@ 63 to the surface on 25 February , which was then scuttled by her crew , and Fortune sank U @-@ 44 on 20 March . Esk and Express were assigned to the specialist 20th Destroyer Flotilla shortly after the war began , together with the four I @-@ class destroyer @-@ minelayers , and were busy laying mines in the North Sea and off the English coast through April – May 1940 . The beginning of the Norwegian Campaign in April saw almost all of the E and F class transferred to the Home Fleet for operations in Norwegian waters . For the most part they escorted the ships of the Home Fleet and the various convoys to and from Norway , but Forester and Foxhound were part of the escort for the battleship Warspite during the Second Battle of Narvik on 13 April and the latter helped to sink one German destroyer . While escorting one convoy , Fearless and the destroyer Brazen sank U @-@ 49 two days later . Esk and Express were the only two ships committed to the evacuation of Dunkirk in May – June , each rescuing thousands of Allied troops . Fearless , Escapade , Faulknor , and Foxhound of the 8th DF escorted Ark Royal and the battlecruiser Hood to Gibraltar in late June , where they formed Force H. Eight days later , they participated in the attack on Mers @-@ el @-@ Kébir against the Vichy French ships stationed there , together with Forester , Foresight and Escort . The latter ship was sunk by an Italian submarine on 11 July while covering a Malta convoy . Most of Force H returned to the UK for a brief refit in early August , but upon their return at the end of the month , the 8th DF now consisted of Faulknor , Forester , Foresight , Firedrake , Fortune , Fury , and Greyhound . On the night of 31 August / 1 September , Esk , Express and three other minelaying destroyers laid a minefield off the Dutch island of Texel . While doing so , the latter ship struck a mine that blew her bow off . While closing to render aid , Esk struck two mines that broke her in half with heavy casualties . Express was towed back to England for repairs that lasted until October 1941 . On 13 September , Force H met a convoy that was carrying troops intended to capture Dakar from the Vichy French that was escorted by Inglefield , Eclipse , Echo , Encounter , and Escapade . Ten days later they attacked Dakar where Foresight and Inglefield sank the French submarine Persée , Fortune sank the submarine Ajax a day later and Foresight sank the submarine Bévéziers on the 25th . After the battle , Escapade and Echo returned to the Home Fleet and resumed their regular duties of fleet escort . On 17 October , Fame ran aground and could not be refloated for several months . The following day , Firedrake together with the destroyer Wrestler and two Royal Air Force flying boats sank the Italian submarine Durbo . Fury , Encounter , Faulknor , Firedrake , and Forester participated in the inconclusive Battle of Cape Spartivento on 27 November . In 1941 , the 8th DF escorted Force H as it covered multiple convoys and aircraft carriers flying off aircraft to Malta . While returning from one of the latter missions , Forester , Foresight , Faulknor , Fearless and Foxhound sank U @-@ 138 on 18 June . A month later , Fearless was crippled by Italian bombs on 23 July while escorting a convoy to Malta and had to be scuttled by her sister Foresight while Firedrake was badly damaged by near misses and had to return to Gibraltar for repairs . The ships of the 8th DF mostly returned home between August and October for repairs and refits . Encounter was transferred to the Mediterranean Fleet in April and spent several months under repair as she was badly damaged by bombs at Malta . The ship was then transferred to the Eastern Fleet in November and arrived at Singapore the following month . Eclipse , Echo , and Electra were assigned to the 3rd Destroyer Flotilla of the Home Fleet at the beginning of 1941 where they escorted the larger ships of the fleet while they were searching for German commerce raiders and on other missions . Escapade began escorting convoys to Russia in August and continued to do so for most of the following year . Electra did the same for several months until she was detailed to escort the battleship Prince of Wales and the battlecruiser Repulse to Singapore in October , together with Express . Express and Electra were half of the escorts for Prince of Wales and Repulse as they sailed north on 9 December , but could do little as the Japanese bombers sank the two capital ships other than help to rescue the 3 @,@ 000 @-@ odd survivors . Upon their return to Singapore , they joined Encounter and the other destroyers there escorting ships between Singapore and the Sunda Strait . Electra and Encounter escorted the heavy cruiser Exeter during the Battle of the Java Sea on 27 February 1942 . The former ship was sunk by a Japanese destroyer as she covered Exeter 's withdrawal . Several days later , Encounter and the American destroyer Pope were escorting the damaged Exeter en route to Ceylon when they encountered four Japanese heavy cruisers and their escorts . Encounter and Exeter were sunk in the subsequent battle on 1 March . Express did not participate in any of these battles because she 'd been damaged by a boiler room fire in early February and her repairs did not begin until April . Fortune joined her sister with the Eastern Fleet in February , with Foxhound following two months later . On 27 March , Fury , Eclipse and the light cruiser Trinidad were escorting Convoy PQ 13 in the Arctic when they were intercepted by three German destroyers . In the ensuing action , the cruiser was damaged by one of her own torpedoes and Eclipse was hit twice , although the cruiser sank the German destroyer Z26 . Foresight , Forester and the light cruiser Edinburgh were the close escort for Convoy QP 11 , returning from Murmansk to Iceland , when Edinburgh was torpedoed on 29 April . The two hits disabled her steering and she had to be towed by the two destroyers . Two days later , they were attacked by three German destroyers which badly damaged Foresight and Forester and put another torpedo into Edinburgh , crippling her . The two destroyers took off the survivors and scuttled the cruiser . Temporarily repaired at Murmansk , the sisters were part of Trinidad 's escort home when she was set on fire by a German bomber and had to be scuttled on 15 May . Faulknor , Fury , Escapade , Echo , and Eclipse escorted more Arctic convoys in May – September , Faulknor sinking U @-@ 88 on 12 September while escorting Convoy PQ 18 . Foresight and Fury were briefly detached to escort the fleet during Operation Pedestal in August , during which the former was torpedoed and had to be scuttled . While being repaired , Fame was converted into an escort destroyer and was assigned to the WAC , joining her sister , Fearless , upon its completion in September . A month later , she sank U @-@ 353 while protecting Convoy SC 104 . Fearless was torpedoed and sunk by U @-@ 211 on 16 December . When convoys to Russia resumed in December 1942 , Fury , Forester , Faulknor , Eclipse , and Echo were assigned as escorts . Fury , and Eclipse were detached to augment the escorts of the WAC in March – May 1943 , joining their sisters , Fame and Escapade , when German submarine attacks reached their peak . The former had already sunk U @-@ 69 on 17 February while escorting Convoy ONS 165 . Express , Fortune and Foxhound was assigned to the Eastern Fleet at the beginning of 1943 , but the first two returned to Britain in February to begin refits , during which they were transferred to the Royal Canadian Navy and renamed Gatineau and Saskatchewan in June and May , respectively . Foxhound followed in August and was converted into an escort destroyer before being given to the Canadians in February 1944 and renamed Qu 'Appelle . Forester was assigned to Escort Group C1 of the WAC in June . Escapade was badly damaged by a premature detonation of her Hedgehog projectiles in September and was under repair until the end of 1944 . Faulknor , Fury , Echo , and Eclipse were transferred to the Mediterranean Fleet to escort the covering force during the invasion of Sicily in July and the subsequent landings in mainland Italy . Faulknor , Fury , and Eclipse participated in the Dodecanese Campaign after the surrender of Italy in September and the latter ship sank after hitting a mine on 24 October . Echo began a long refit at Malta in December and was loaned to the Royal Hellenic Navy upon its completion in April 1944 . Renamed Navarinon , she supported government forces during the Greek Civil War and was retained after the end of the war . Faulknor and Fury later supported operations in Italy before returning to the UK for Operation Overlord in June . While escorting Convoy HX 280 , Gatineau helped to sink U @-@ 744 on 6 March , four days later Forester participated in the sinking of U @-@ 845 . Fame , Forester , Gatineau , Saskatchewan , and Qu 'Appelle joined their sisters covering the preparations for the invasion of Normandy and the invasion itself . Fame and two others destroyers sank U @-@ 767 on 18 June . Fury struck a mine on 21 June and was forced to beach herself to prevent her from sinking . She was written off after she was salvaged and was broken up for scrap beginning in September . Saskatchewan and Gatineau returned to Canada in August for lengthy refits that lasted into 1945 after which they returned to the UK . Qu 'Appelle returned to the North Atlantic in October and Forester helped to sink U @-@ 413 on 20 August and then was sent back to the North Atlantic . Escapade was fitted with the new Squid anti @-@ submarine mortar when her repairs were finished . = = = Postwar = = = Gatineau , Saskatchewan , and Qu 'Appelle were used to ferry Canadian troops back home before they were placed in reserve in 1946 and subsequently sold for scrap , although Gatineau was scuttled in 1948 in British Columbia to serve as a breakwater . Faulknor and Forester were reduced to reserve in 1945 and broken up the following year ; Escapade lasted on active duty a year longer as she served in the Anti @-@ Submarine Training Flotilla until 1946 , but the ship was scrapped the next year . Unlike most of her sisters , Fame remained on active duty until 1947 when she was placed in reserve . She was sold to the Dominican Republic in 1949 and renamed Generalissimo . The ship was renamed Sanchez in 1962 and finally discarded in 1968 . Navarinon later became a training ship before she was returned to the Royal Navy in 1956 and broken up the following year .
= Orison ( The X @-@ Files ) = " Orison " is the seventh episode of the seventh season of the science fiction television series The X @-@ Files . It premiered on the Fox network in the United States on January 9 , 2000 . It was written by Chip Johannessen , directed by Rob Bowman , and featured guest appearances by Nick Chinlund . The episode is a " Monster @-@ of @-@ the @-@ Week " story , unconnected to the series ' wider mythology . In addition , " Orison " serves as a sequel , and brings closure , to the second season episode " Irresistible " , with Chinlund reprising his role as Donnie Pfaster . " Orison " earned a Nielsen household rating of 9 @.@ 4 , being watched by 15 @.@ 63 million people in its initial broadcast . The episode received mixed reviews from critics , with several heavily criticizing the final scene featuring Scully killing Pfaster , calling it a betrayal of characterization . The show centers on FBI special agents Fox Mulder ( David Duchovny ) and Dana Scully ( Gillian Anderson ) who work on cases linked to the paranormal , called X @-@ Files . Mulder is a believer in the paranormal , while the skeptical Scully has been assigned to debunk his work . In this episode , Reverend Orison releases Donnie Pfaster , Scully 's former kidnapper , from jail in the hopes of passing judgment on him . What he discovers instead is that he has released pure evil , and it ’ s headed for Scully . " Orison " was written by Johannessen , who had formerly been an executive producer on the television series Millennium . Johannessen 's first draft featured an escaped prisoner who could stop time . Executive producers Chris Carter , Frank Spotnitz , and John Shiban enjoyed the premise and decided to bring back Donnie Pfaster . However , instead of continuing in the style of " Irresistible " , the episode went in a " substantial new direction " . = = Plot = = At a prison in Saint Paul , Minnesota , a man gets his fingers chopped off during a workshop and all the other inmates move very slowly to help him , while one man walks out at regular speed . The man is revealed to be Donnie Pfaster ( Nick Chinlund ) , who kidnapped Scully five years earlier . Pfaster , who happens to be a " death fetishist " , is obsessed with cutting women 's hair and eating their fingers . After hearing that Pfaster escaped from prison , Fox Mulder ( David Duchovny ) and Dana Scully ( Gillian Anderson ) take the case and investigate . It turns out three men escaped from three prisons and all had contact with a prison chaplain named Reverend Orison ( Scott Wilson ) . Eventually , the US Marshals corner Pfaster and Orison at a diner , but Orison uses his power of persuasion to distract the Marshals , allowing the two to escape . Pfaster takes Orison 's car and runs Orison over . Meanwhile , Scully keeps hearing the same song , " Don 't Look Any Further " , everywhere she goes and soon begins to believe it is a sign . After finding him unconscious , Mulder and Scully question Orison and show him a photo of the remains of a prostitute Pfaster killed . They also find that Orison killed someone and spent 22 years in prison himself . Orison claims he is being spoken to by God and doing his work . After a medical exam , Mulder finds out that Orison has three times the bloodflow capacity of the brain and he drilled a hole in head , allowing him to perform mental tricks by hypnotizing people . He does this while repeating the phrase " Glory , Amen . " Later , Orison hypnotizes the security guard in his room and escapes . Pfaster hires a prostitute , but soon realizes she is wearing a wig and attempts to attack her , but she gets away . Orison finds Pfaster and takes him at gunpoint while he digs a grave for him , but Pfaster morphs into a demonic beast and kills Orison , burying him in his own shallow grave . Pfaster then calls the police , tells them where Orison is buried , and goes to Scully 's house . He attacks Scully and Scully confesses to him that the only reason he was not given the death penalty was because she asked the judge for life . He overpowers her and locks her in her own closet . Mulder thinks something may be wrong when he hears the same song on his radio and calls Scully . After receiving no answer , he goes over to her house and stumbles upon Pfaster , promptly arresting him . Meanwhile , Scully escapes from the closet and shoots Pfaster , despite him being unarmed , killing him . Scully later confides in Mulder , telling him she 's scared because she 's not sure who 's in control of her , God or something else . = = Production = = = = = Writing = = = " Orison " was written by Chip Johannessen , who had formerly been an executive producer on the Chris Carter @-@ created television series Millennium . In Johannessen 's first draft , the episode 's main antagonist was a prisoner with the ability to stop time . Executive producers Carter , Frank Spotnitz , and John Shiban found the episode 's premise promising . However , Carter enjoyed the story because it bore stylistic similarities to the first season episode " Beyond the Sea " . After reading the first draft , Spotnitz and Carter decided to reintroduce Donnie Pfaster , a character from the second season episode " Irresistible " . Carter noted that , " we had talked about possibly revisiting some old monster this season , and this seemed like the perfect opportunity . " The writers and producers decided to take " Orison " in a " substantial new direction " . Although Donnie Pfaster was originally portrayed as a " death fetishist " , his nature was non @-@ supernatural . In " Orison " , however , it was decided to make Pfaster into a true demon . Shiban explained " we decided late in the process to turn him into this totally demonic character , essentially evil as an entity . " Spotnitz was very excited about bringing closure to the Pfaster @-@ Scully story . He explained , " For me , what really justified bringing Donnie back was the final act of the script when Donnie comes for Scully and she ends up shooting him full of holes . " The final scene , however , proved difficult to script . Director Rob Bowman noted , that the act " was a tough scene . Frank and I had spoken on the phone about the dialogue in the wrap @-@ up scene with Mulder and Scully . Even though she shot him in the heightened state , you couldn 't deny the fact that she killed Donnie Psaster [ sic ] in cold blood . How do we deal with that ? " = = = Casting and filming = = = Nick Chinlund returned to the series to reprise his role as Pfaster . Rick Millikan , the show 's casting director , eventually settled on Scott Wilson for the role of Orison believing that he could pull off the " dual nature " of the character better than anyone else . The episode featured several complex scenes , most notably the shot at the beginning , where time slows to a stop . Bowman used several different takes , all filmed at different film speeds in order to achieve the right effect . The final fight scene between Scully and Pfaster took a day and a half to film . Many of the episodes scenes were filmed in Downey , California . Make @-@ up for the episode was done by John Vulich , who sought to " pay homage " to the make @-@ up in the original episode . In order to do this , Vulich perused several fan sites and downloaded photos that he used as models . = = = Music = = = The song that Scully keeps hearing in the episode is " Don 't Look Any Further " , originally by former Temptations lead singer Dennis Edwards . The production staff went through several cover versions in order to find the right one for the episode . Unfortunately , according to Paul Rabwin , none of the songs " really worked . " Originally , Rabwin wanted Lyle Lovett to record a cover for the episode , but he was unavailable , so the staff asked singer @-@ songwriter John Hiatt . Rabwin later called Hiatt 's version " chilling , eerie , and soulful . " . Mark Snow , the show 's composer , used various musical effects for emphasis . He explained , " There 's a slo @-@ mo scene where Mulder comes in the room with Scully and guns are drawn . They 're looking around , and I do these big boom single hits with a lot of reverb . There 's nothing else but that . Sometimes , that is really effective . " = = Broadcast and reception = = " Orison " first aired in the United States on January 9 , 2000 . This episode earned a Nielsen rating of 9 @.@ 4 , with a 14 share , meaning that roughly 9 @.@ 4 percent of all television @-@ equipped households , and 14 percent of households watching television , were tuned in to the episode . It was viewed by 15 @.@ 63 million viewers . The episode aired in the United Kingdom and Ireland on Sky1 on April 30 , 2000 @.@ and received 0 @.@ 78 million viewers , making it the fourth most watched television episode of any program that week . Fox promoted the episode with the tagline " Five years ago , a demonic madman tried to murder Scully . Tonight he strikes again . " The episode received mixed reviews from critics . Kenneth Silber from Space.com wrote positively of the episode , saying , " ' Orison ' rises above its origins in the depressing , hackneyed genre of serial @-@ killer dramas . The episode combines a fast pace with a richly gloomy mood , and even serves to blur the all @-@ too @-@ sharp distinction between standalone X @-@ Files stories and the series ' ' mythology arc . ' " Rich Rosell from Digitally Obsessed awarded the episode 4 @.@ 5 out of 5 stars and called the episode " creepy , dark and wonderful " . Rosell argued that the episode " adds fuel to the fiery argument that it is [ Scully ] , and not Mulder , that the real heart of the series was built on . " Tom Kessenich , in his book Examinations , gave the episode a largely positive review , writing " [ ' Orison ' ] was a journey filled with horror , mystery , and self @-@ analysis . It was also one of the most exhilarating journeys the seventh season has produced thus far . " Furthermore , Kessenich defended Scully 's actions at the end of the episode writing that " what we saw at the end of ' Orison ' was a human being pushed beyond the breaking point by a man [ ... ] it doesn 't make what she did right , but it certainly wasn 't a difficult thing to understand . " Zack Handlen of The A.V. Club awarded the episode a " B " and felt that the episode , despite its faults , had elements that were particularly interesting . He noted that the titular chaplain was a " potentially fascinating figure " who was never explored to his full extent , and that the ending was effective in that it " helps transform the episode ’ s climax into something more than a simple regurgitation " . Finally , he positively compared the mood and thematic elements of the episode to Carter 's other series Millennium . Not all reviews were positive . Robert Shearman and Lars Pearson , in their book Wanting to Believe : A Critical Guide to The X @-@ Files , Millennium & The Lone Gunmen , were extremely critical of the episode and rated it one star out of five . Shearman and Pearson called the episode a " mess " , with the effect that " it cheapens ' Irresistible ' badly " . The two , however , point out the sequence wherein Scully murders Pfaster as the worst scene in the episode , arguing that the scene was " at worst a betrayal of characterization that has badly damaged the moral fibre of the series . " Paula Vitaris from Cinefantastique gave the episode a largely negative review and awarded it one star out of four . Vitaris heavily criticized the episode as " a retread of ' Irresistible ' " . Furthermore , she derided the ending , noting that " nothing in the episode [ indicated ] that Scully [ was ] on the verge of losing her self @-@ control " .
= Star Wars : Dark Forces = Star Wars : Dark Forces is a first @-@ person shooter video game developed and published by LucasArts . It was released in 1995 for DOS and Apple Macintosh , and in 1996 for the PlayStation . The storyline is set in the Star Wars fictional universe and follows the character Kyle Katarn , a mercenary working on behalf of the Rebel Alliance . He discovers the Empire 's " Dark Trooper Project " , which involves the development of a series of powerful new battle droids and power @-@ armored stormtroopers . Dark Forces uses the Jedi game engine , which was developed specifically for the game . The engine adds gameplay features to the first @-@ person shooter genre which were uncommon at the time of release , including level designs with multiple floors and the ability to look up and down . Critics gave very favorable reviews to the DOS and Macintosh versions of Dark Forces , which were praised for the level design and technological advances . The PlayStation version was criticized for having poor graphics and slow frame rates , reducing playability . A sequel to Dark Forces , Star Wars Jedi Knight : Dark Forces II , followed in 1997 . = = Gameplay = = Dark Forces is a first @-@ person shooter ( FPS ) . The player controls Kyle Katarn from a first @-@ person perspective , with a focus on combat against various creatures and characters from the Star Wars universe , although the game also includes environmental puzzles and hazards . Dark Forces follows a central storyline outlined in mission briefings and cutscenes . Each mission includes specific objectives which are related to the story . The missions take place in a variety of environments across the Star Wars universe , including a Star Destroyer interior , Jabba the Hutt 's space yacht , and the planet Coruscant , where the player must infiltrate a computer vault . Dark Forces ' gameplay expands on the FPS standards set by Doom in 1993 , and features gameplay elements that are now common in the FPS genre . These include the ability to look up and down , duck , and jump . A variety of power @-@ ups are made available to the player , including health , shields , weapons and ammunition . The game also features several non @-@ combat items to aid the player . The head lamp illuminates the area in front of the player , but will reveal the player 's position to enemies in dark rooms . Ice cleats provide traction in icy areas , and an air mask protects the player from areas with toxic atmosphere . Many inventory items are powered by batteries ( separate from weapon ammunition types ) which can be found around the levels . For combat , the player may use fists , explosive land mines and thermal detonators , as well as blasters and other ranged weapons . Gameplay leans towards ranged combat , although some enemies have melee attacks such as punching , biting , and using axes . All player weapons except the fist require ammunition , which can be collected in power @-@ ups . Many weapons also offer an alternate fire mode . The player has health and shields which are damaged by enemy attacks and some environmental hazards , and may be replenished through power @-@ ups . In addition to combat , Dark Forces provides physical obstacles for the character , such as jumping from ledges or traversing across flowing rivers , and includes multi @-@ step puzzles such as mazes controlled by switches . = = Plot = = The storyline in Dark Forces follows Kyle Katarn ( voiced by Nick Jameson ) , a mercenary employed by the Rebel Alliance . Before the game begins , Katarn was a student learning the skills required to follow in his father 's career of agricultural mechanics . While he was studying at an academy , he was told by officials that Rebels had killed his parents . The pain from this caused him to enlist in the Imperial army . Subsequently , Katarn met Jan Ors ( Julie Eccles ) , a Rebel working undercover as a double agent in the Empire . Ors uncovered the real information about Katarn 's parents ' death ; that the Empire was behind it . The Empire eventually discovered that Ors was working for the Rebels and she was taken prisoner . Katarn helped her escape , thus ending his career with the Empire . He soon became a mercenary and , due to his hatred of the Empire for killing his parents , he began to take on jobs from the Rebel Alliance . Dark Forces begins with Katarn being recruited by the Rebel Alliance to recover the plans to the Death Star , a heavily armed space station capable of destroying an entire planet . The Alliance use the plans to find a weakness in and subsequently destroy the Death Star . One year later , the Alliance hires Katarn again , this time to investigate an assault on one of their bases by a new type of Imperial soldier . His investigation reveals the Imperial Dark Trooper project , led by General Rom Mohc ( Jack Angel ) . His mission to stop the project takes him to the sewers of Anoat City , where he captures Moff Rebus , an Imperial weapons specialist who developed the Dark Trooper weapon . Rebus ' interrogation leads Katarn to a weapons research facility in the mountains of Fest and the Gromas mines where minerals are extracted for the Dark Troopers . After learning of Crix Madine 's ( a former Imperial Commander , who had defected to the Alliance ) capture and imminent execution , Kyle proceeds to a high security detention center on Orinackra to rescue him . Madine provides the Rebel Alliance with information about the smuggling of Dark Trooper materials , leading Katarn to investigate the Ramsees Hed docking port on Cal @-@ Seti . He then destroys a robotics facility on the icy planet Anteevy , the second stage of the Dark Trooper production line . After being captured by Jabba the Hutt and having to escape his ship , Katarn infiltrates a computer vault on Coruscant which reveals the location of the Ergo fuel station , the final stage in the smuggling route . He masquerades as a smuggler , gaining access to the Super Star Destroyer Executor , which brings him finally to the Arc Hammer starship , the headquarters of General Mohc 's Dark Trooper project , where he successfully destroys the operation and kills Mohc . = = Development = = Development of Dark Forces was led by Daron Stinnett . The programming was led by Ray Gresko , and the graphics and storyline by Justin Chin . Production began in September 1993 , at a time when the first @-@ person shooter genre was very popular . The idea of creating a first @-@ person shooter in the Star Wars universe was inspired by fan mods of Doom which had levels set on the Death Star . The developers of Dark Forces wanted to adapt the FPS format into an adventure game . To do this they introduced puzzles and strategy , along with a Star Wars plot . Originally Luke Skywalker was intended to be the main character in the game , however the developers realized that this would add constraints to gameplay and storyline . Instead a new character , Kyle Katarn , was created . Upon release , Dark Forces was commonly called a " Doom clone , " but the game makes significant expansions upon the gameplay features present in Doom . New gameplay mechanisms that were not common at the time of release include the ability to look up and down , duck , jump , and swim . The use of multiple floor levels is another technical advance in the first @-@ person shooter genre . To produce these new features , the developers wrote a game engine from scratch . The Jedi game engine can create gameplay and graphical elements such as fully 3D objects , atmospheric effects such as fog and haze , animated textures and shading . Stinnett indicated that the developers wanted these elements to be part of an " active environment , " and features were included to create this : " ships come and go at the flight decks , rivers sweep along , platforms and conveyor belts move and much of the machinery functions . " The Dark Troopers in Dark Forces were created specifically for the game by Justin Chin and Paul Mica . Chin notes that they were designed as a more advanced enemy when compared to standard stormtroopers : " Instead of just beefing up the stormtroopers , I designed them to be more efficient . I wanted something more terrifying and more omnipotent . " Three designs for the Dark Troopers were produced for Dark Forces . Lucasfilm licensing department initially rejected two of the designs for looking too much out of character , so Chin produced new designs which were ultimately approved . The development team collaborated with staff at Skywalker Ranch for the sounds , music , and costumes used in the cutscenes . Dark Forces was ported from DOS to Apple Macintosh . This presented several challenges for the developers . LucasArts requested the game to be produced for both DOS and Macintosh with the same system requirements , specifically the random @-@ access memory ( RAM ) . The Mac OS runs a graphical user interface which uses up RAM while DOS does not , meaning the Macintosh version has less RAM available for Dark Forces to use . Aaron Giles , who was the Macintosh programmer for Dark Forces , explained that to resolve this problem the memory had to be managed more efficiently . Although set in the Star Wars universe , lead artist and author Justin Chin " invented " new weapons for the game , such as the Bryar pistol and Packered mortar gun , which were named after his personal favorites , such as composer Gavin Bryars and 1950s Packard automobiles , respectively . = = = Music = = = Music for Star Wars : Dark Forces was mostly original works composed by Clint Bajakian , though they are based on cues from John Williams ' original Star Wars works through the utilization of the iMUSE system to create interactive music . The game also features full speech and sound effects in stereo . = = Release = = Dark Forces became LucasArts ' highest sell @-@ in with more than 300 @,@ 000 copies accounted for at launch . The game went on to sell 952 @,@ 000 copies over the next five years , to become the eleventh highest selling game from 1993 to 1999 . Dark Forces achieved a strong following on the internet , and custom levels and maps were created for the game . The popularity of characters from Dark Forces resulted in LucasArts licensing toys based on the game . Hasbro produced Kyle Katarn and Dark Trooper toys , which are among the Star Wars expanded universe items to be turned into action figures . The Dark Troopers were also included in books and comics . William C. Dietz 's novelizations of the Dark Forces storyline were adapted to full @-@ cast audio dramatizations . LucasArts extended Dark Forces with Star Wars Jedi Knight : Dark Forces II in 1997 , and later two more sequels . The Jedi Knight series continues the story of Kyle Katarn and has been praised for its quality as a whole . In September 2009 , Dark Forces was re @-@ released as a downloadable version on Valve Corporation 's Steam network for Windows XP , 2000 and Vista . The game is available to purchase individually or as part of a package including all of the games in the Jedi Knight series . On April 29 , 2010 , the game was made available on the PlayStation Network as a " PSone Classic " . = = Reception = = The DOS and Macintosh versions of Star Wars : Dark Forces were well received , with the DOS version holding an aggregate score on GameRankings of 77 % . Publications compared Dark Forces to Doom , a significant video game in the first @-@ person shooter genre at the time , but also indicated that Dark Forces improved upon Doom 's features . Criticisms tended to focus on the game being too short , as well as lacking a multiplayer feature . Steven Kent of The Seattle Times believes that the general aspects of the game appeal to most computer gamers , not just Star Wars fans . Kent argued that the Star Wars setting is a high point for the game , saying that the level designs recreate the Star Wars style well : " Though most of the Dark Forces sets are original to the game , they were created in the ' Star Wars ' spirit . " Dark Forces ' gameplay has been described as " challenging " and has generally received praise . Ron Dulin , reviewing the game for GameSpot , highlights the implementation of puzzles within levels : " The levels are diverse and ingenious , with plenty of creative obstacles standing between you and your goal . While they can be occasionally frustrating , Dark Forces ' diverse gameplay requirements make this title more mentally challenging than your average key hunt . " The graphics and sound were both praised as helping to immerse the player in the environment . The PlayStation version of Dark Forces received less positive reviews than the DOS and Macintosh versions . It holds an aggregate score on GameRankings of 59 @.@ 57 % . Directly comparing the PlayStation version with the DOS / Mac version , GameSpot wrote " Though the speed of the Playstation allows for smooth movement , Dark Forces boasts a horrendously choppy frame rate . " IGN made a similar point ; " Unlike the PC and Mac versions , PlayStation Dark Forces is grainier than a loaf of bread . Close up , everything is blocky and pixelated , but even from far away the walls and textures look like big , chunky blocks . Even worse than the graphics , though , is the frame rate . Or lack thereof . The choppy motion takes so much away from the enjoyment of actually playing the game . " Alex Constantides of Computer and Video Games offers the same view , saying that the game is " visually dated . "
= Football in the Philippines = Association football is a developed and well @-@ known sport in the Philippines , played by amateur and professional Filipino football clubs . The Philippine Football Federation ( PFF ) is the governing body of international football in the country . Football is a popular sport among the country 's Southeast Asian neighbors , yet it is overshadowed by basketball , which is the most popular sport in the Philippines . However , football has a long history in the archipelago , dating back to more than 100 years ago when Paulino Alcántara Riestra became the first Filipino and Asian player to play for a European club . He made his debut as a striker at the age of 15 at Barcelona , which made him the club 's youngest and second highest goalscorer behind Lionel Messi . Since then , the first football teams began to form , including the Manila Sporting Club in 1906 , the Sandow Athletic Club in 1909 , and the Bohemian Sporting Club in 1910 . To promote and revive the sport , some international and local football clubs helped the Philippines . FIFA also assisted the country by building and upgrading facilities including the creation of the PFF headquarters in 2009 . As well , the establishment of the United Football League ( UFL ) and the National Men 's Club Championship to provide more local competitions . The Philippines national football team is the representative of men 's international football for the Philippines . They won the Far Eastern Games once ( in 1913 ) and became a two @-@ time Philippine Peace Cup champion ( in 2012 and 2013 ) . The Philippines women 's national football team , representing women 's international football in the Philippines , achieved a third @-@ place ( bronze ) finish at the 1985 Southeast Asian Games . There are many stadiums that can be found in the Philippines like the Rizal Memorial Stadium in Manila which is the national stadium of the country . It is also the home stadium of the Philippine football team .Meanwhile , the Panaad Stadium in Bacolod is the secondary venue for the Philippines . = = History = = = = = Introduction = = = Around 1895 , football was introduced in the Philippines by English sportsmen . In addition , some Filipinos sent to college in Hong Kong and China returned home and taught their friends a little bit about the game of football . Within a year , there were two or three football clubs established in Manila . In 1898 , the U.S. Navy battleship Maine was anchored in Havana harbor to protect the Americans from a riot between Cuba and Spanish officers , and after the ship sank resulting in significant casualties , the Americans declared war against Spain , beginning the Spanish – American War . They damaged every ship in Manila Bay , This ended Spanish colonization of the Philippines , and replaced the colonizing Spaniards with Americans . When the war broke out , those football teams disbanded and abandoned the city , either to save themselves and their families from the bombardment they expected at any moment , or to cast their lot with the Filipino troops outside the city limits . After the war when peace reigned again , six football teams were formed , among them the Manila Sporting Club , the Paris Club , and the Manila Jockey Club . In 1906 , the Sandow football team was established ( further developed as Sandow Athletic Club in 1909 ) . On 15 October 1907 , the first official football match was held in Manila , with the celebration of the opening of the Philippine Assembly . The trophy , a silver cup donated by 27th President of the United States William Howard Taft , was won by the Sandow Athletic Club . Soon , more clubs were formed . In 1910 , the Bohemian Sporting Club was organized and began to train football players . In 1920 , the Circulo Social Deportivo was established and produced a football team . To further propagate the love of the sport and to regulate soccer championship contests , all football teams within the city banded themselves together and organized the Philippine Amateur Football Association in 1907 ( now the Philippine Football Federation ) , and held its first championship in 1921 with Bohemian Sporting Club as champions . On 25 February 1912 , Paulino Alcántara was the first Filipino and Asian footballer to play for a European club . Alcántara made his debut for Barcelona at the age of 15 against Català Sporting Club , where he scored his first hat @-@ trick . Alcántara remains the youngest player to play or score for the club . He scored 369 goals in 357 matches , making him the second club 's highest goalscorer ( counting goals scored in both official games and friendlies ) with Lionel Messi ranking first in the record . In 1917 , he was selected by the Philippines to represent the country at the Far Eastern Championship Games in Tokyo , helping them defeat Japan 15 – 2 , which remains the largest win in Philippine international football history . Alcántara only played once for the Philippines that finished second in the tournament . He also made some appearances in other national teams , including Catalonia and Spain . In 1916 , while continuing his studies in medicine , he played football for a local team , the Bohemian Sporting Club , whom he helped win two Philippine Championships in 1917 and 1918 . However , the popularity of " The Beautiful Game " decreased when the Americans founded basketball in the Philippines in 1910 as part of the physical education curriculum in Philippine schools . Filipinos easily embraced basketball due to its competitive and action @-@ packed nature , unlike football , which some Filipinos were uninterested in watching or playing . Two surveys were conducted in parts of Metro Manila in 2012 — the first found that basketball is the most @-@ watched sport at 74 @.@ 4 % , and football is fourth at 17 @.@ 9 % . In the second survey , basketball was found to be the most @-@ played sport during leisure time at 9 @.@ 6 % , while association football did not make the list . = = = 1950s @-@ 1970s = = = Football saw some rise in the fifties where the country saw enthusiasm for the sport built through the football teams of top educational institutions such as the Ateneo , Letran , La Salle , San Beda , University of San Carlos , University of Santo Tomas , Siliman , and the University of Visayas . The Philippine Football Association partnered with San Miguel Brewery to seek foreign assistance in developing football in the country . In the early sixties , British coaches Alan Rogers and Brian Birch were brought in and funded by San Miguel to train referees , coaches and players in the country . Due to lack of facilities , the two coaches organized a five @-@ a @-@ side football competition which was played in a field with the same size of a basketball court . The two were later relieved and Danny McClellan and Graham Adams were tasked train national and youth players . San Miguel through the Philippine Football Association , brought in Spanish medical students who were knowledgeable in football in 1961 . Association president , Felipe Monserrat , tasked the Spaniards to garner interest in football in the country and to train local players . The composition of the Spanish quarter were Francisco Escarte , Enrique dela Mata , Claudio Sanchez and Juan Cutillas , with the former two leaving after a year . The group was followed by Peter Leaver from the United Kingdom who focused on developing school football and assisted schools such as Ateneo and La Salle . Philippine football also received promotional support from the Elizalde Company . In 1971 Juan Cutillas , selected four Spanish players and one Chinese in an effort to boost the Philippine national team . The national team joined the tournaments such as the Pestabola Merdeka , Pesta Sukan , Jakarta Anniversary Tournamentp and the President Park Tournament . The Philippines managed to cause upsets results against Thailand , Singapore and South Korea . When the Spanish players , Tomas Lozano , Mannuel Cuenca , Juan Guitierrez and Julio Roxas left the football team due to financial reasons , football in the country saw another decline and basketball gained foothold in the country . = = = Revival = = = = = = = Help from foreign countries and clubs = = = = There have been four projects accepted by the Fédération Internationale de Football Association ( FIFA ) , to build and upgrade football facilities in the Philippines . In the first project , approved in August 2000 , FIFA built six technical centers on Iloilo , Laguna , Negros Occidental , Cagayan de Oro , Zamboanga , and Agusan del Sur , with a total budget of ₱ 458 @,@ 046 ( ≈ € 7 @,@ 500 or ≈ $ 10 @,@ 000 ) . The next project , in December 2006 , constructed the headquarters of the PFF in Pasig . Its third project was to upgrade the pitch in the Rizal Memorial Stadium to an artificial turf from August to September 2012 , but it was discontinued because Philippine Football Federation President Mariano Araneta said that conducting the 2012 Philippine Peace Cup in Manila would lessen the expenses of the PFF in the event . FIFA 's final project was to build a technical center in Bukidnon , which includes a natural grass pitch , dormitories , changing rooms , lecture rooms and offices . A number of foreign countries and clubs have offered to help promote and popularise the sport within the country . In 2010 , the German Football Association ( DFB ) recommended the services of former Rwanda U @-@ 17 coach Michael Weiß as coach of the " Azkals " , a nickname for the national team , after Dan Palami 's three @-@ day visit in Frankfurt . The DFB gave the Philippine Football Federation a grant of € 500 @,@ 000 ( ≈ ₱ 31 million or ≈ $ 11 @,@ 000 ) . However , after three years as a head coach , Weiß was no longer part of the Azkals after the PFF 's year @-@ end evaluation . On 18 October 2011 , officials from the Real Madrid Foundation visited the Philippines to sign an agreement with local non @-@ governmental organizations ( NGO ) to open a social and sports academy for youths in Mindanao to 70 poor children with under age 14 . On 15 May 2012 , English club Chelsea was joined by international development manager Ian Woodroffe , and Adrian New , managing director for Asia , arrived in the country to formally launched a football school at the SM Mall of Asia . It is the third football school created by Chelsea in Asia , after two others in Hong Kong and Kuala Lumpur . The school is operated by Phil Younghusband and James Younghusband , brothers and former members of Chelsea 's Reserves and Youth Team . After a year , Smart Communications sponsored the soccer school through its partnership with the Younghusband Football Academy ( TYFA ) to visit schools throughout the Philippines in conjunction with Smart 's program . Soon after its establishment , they built an artificial grass football field named as Gatorade @-@ Chelsea Blue Pitch in Ayala Alabang . The opening ceremonies was joined with Ayala Corporation president , Fernando Zobel de Ayala , Makati mayor Jun Binay and Makati representative Monique Lagdameo last 15 January 2014 . The venue has a dimension of 64 @.@ 5 by 100 metres ( 212 by 328 ft ) and it is set to be the new facility for the school . Another Spanish club , Barcelona , conducted a camp in Muntinlupa named " Barcelona Escola Camp 2013 " . It began on 17 April and ended on 21 April 2013 . Two coaches from Barcelona Escola , Joseph Moratalla and Jordi Blanco , came to the Philippines . The camp was organized by Team Socceroo . A second camp was scheduled on 18 December to 22 December 2013 , held in Emperador Stadium , Taguig . Coaches from the camp shared their training , philosophy , methodology , and values with the children . After the destruction of Typhoon Haiyan in the country , FIFA gave the PFF $ 1 million to rebuild and rehabilitate damaged football facilities . Leyte Football Association President Dan Palami and other football officials are planning to construct a training center in Tacloban from the grant FIFA gave . On 3 December 2011 , the Philippines faced U.S. club LA Galaxy as a part of their Asia @-@ Pacific Tour in the Rizal Memorial Stadium , which Galaxy won 6 – 1 . Manchester United with its sponsor , a shampoo brand Clear made a " multi @-@ year partnership " as they will hold training camps facilitated by coaches in the sport . The Manchester United Soccer School will teach 32 amateur footballers in an " intense and rigorous " program . Tryouts were held in March 2014 . = = = = Development of international and local competitions = = = = In 2008 , the Filipino Premier League ( FPL ) was established as the top @-@ flight competition in the Philippines . It featured eight clubs from the National Capital Region . The PFF also planned a Visayas and Mindanao FPL tournament in 2009 , which never materialized . The first and only champion of the league , which was cancelled at the season 's conclusion , was the Philippine Army . Shortly after the dissolution of the Filipino Premier League , the Football Alliance sought to renew the interest of Filipinos in football . The Alliance entered into discussions with the United Football Clubs Association for the possibility of establishing another top @-@ flight football competition in the Philippines . Instead of creating a whole system and competition , the United Football Clubs Association agreed to partner with the Football Alliance in operating the United Football League ( UFL ) , a semi @-@ professional league . After the league 's second season , AKTV became its official TV broadcaster with the signing of a ₱ 150 million ( ~ $ 3 @.@ 3 million or ~ € 2 @.@ 5 million ) , five @-@ year deal , which ensures the airing of two live matches every week . The deal was further improved with a new TV arrangement in which four live matches would be aired every week on primetime television on AksyonTV . By 2015 or 2016 , the PFF seeks to establish a professional national football league , which would be supported by the Asian Football Confederation ( AFC ) and FIFA . It was proposed that the league will have at least 10 clubs — four clubs in Luzon , four in Visayas , and two in Mindanao . The United Football League is currently the de facto top tier national league in the country . As the league is under the National Capital Region Football Association , the league cannot be officially defined as a national league . The Philippine Football Federation has not been able to organize a national tournament since 2007 , when they staged the PFF Centennial Men 's Open Championship due to " variety of reasons " . In January 2011 , Smart Communications approached the PFF with an offer to finance a new local football cup competition , the PFF National Men 's Club Championship . The proposed partnership was set to last 10 years , with Smart releasing ₱ 80 million in funds with the aim of providing more playing opportunities for football players , and the eventual creation of a national cup . In March 2011 , the first season of the cup began . Since 2012 , the Chinese Taipei Football Association ( CTFA ) requested if the PFF can host the third staging of the Long Teng Cup in the Philippines . It was then accepted , the Philippines which has been a regular participant since its inception in 2010 , renamed the tournament the Paulino Alcántara Cup , then renamed it once again to the Paulino Alcántara Peace Cup . The tournament was eventually renamed the Philippine Peace Cup because the Philippine Sports Commission , which operates the Rizal Memorial Stadium where the tournament was held , has a rule against events named after an individual . The tournament takes place in September to celebrate Peace Month in the Philippines . = = = = National team performance = = = = The inaugural season of the Far Eastern Games ( FEG ) in 1913 was the first championship held in Manila . The tournament provided the first matches in international football for all three nations , including the Republic of China and Japan . In the same season , the Philippines clinched their first championship title in international soccer when they defeated China 2 – 1 . They also competed in 1915 in Shanghai , where the Chinese grabbed their first FEG title against the Filipinos . The Philippine team has competed in every Far Eastern Games , but has not yet won another tournament since 1913 . In 1938 , the FEG was cancelled due to the outbreak of the Second Sino @-@ Japanese War . The Philippine team competed in the Asian Games numerous times , making their debut in 1954 when the Philippines hosted the tournament . The Filipinos were in Group A with South Vietnam and Chinese Taipei . All games was held in Rizal Memorial Stadium . Their matches were both losses , resulting in early elimination . They returned in 1958 in Tokyo , this time competing in Group C. The Azkals recorded their first win at the games over Japan , but eventually lost to Hong Kong . In 1962 , the Asian Games were held in Jakarta . Chinese Taipei and Israel were excluded in the tournament when the Indonesian government refused to issue visas for the Israeli and Taiwanese delegations . Meanwhile , Burma withdrew from competition . The Philippine team finished last in the standings , behind South Vietnam , Indonesia , and Malaya . The team finished last again in 1974 after losing every game . Beginning in 2002 , an age division of under @-@ 23 was approved for men , which is the same as in football competitions in the Olympic Games . The Philippines U @-@ 23 has never yet made an appearance at the Asian Games since 2002 . The Philippine team is yet to qualify at the AFC Asian Cup . They have played at the AFC Challenge Cup , which serves as a qualifier for the Asian Cup . They have made two appearances , in 2006 and 2012 . The 2006 AFC Challenge Cup was the opening season of the competition , held in Bangladesh . The Philippines advanced automatically because there was no qualification stages . After competing in Group A , they concluded the standings with a loss over Chinese Taipei and two draws with India and Afghanistan . However , in the second season , they did not advanced because of their performance at the qualification phase , finishing short at second place only by goal difference . Their first match was a victory over Brunei , followed by a goalless draw from Tajikistan and a 3 – 0 win against Bhutan . The conclusion was the same in the 2010 qualification stage , where they ended their campaign by finishing third . The Filipinos grabbed their best finish in the cup when they were ranked third in the 2012 edition , with a loss from Turkmenistan in the semi @-@ finals , and a victory against Palestine in the third place playoff . The Philippine team has participated in minor tournaments such as the Merdeka Tournament in 1962 , 1971 and 1972 , where each was finished in the group stages . The Philippines won two minor competitions , both in the Philippine Peace Cup . Since winning the 2012 Peace Cup , for the first time in 99 years , the national team earned their first international title after winning all of their games . Also in 2013 , they retained the title after a win over Pakistan . The Philippines has not made an appearance in the World Cup . However , in 2011 , the Philippines made history in the FIFA World Cup qualification – AFC First round when they defeated Sri Lanka in the second leg 4 – 0 ( 5 – 1 agg . ) , advancing to the next round for the first time . However , they eventually lost to Kuwait in the second stage . In the national team 's 2013 season , they capped off the year by finishing 127th in the FIFA World Rankings as their new all @-@ time high . = = United Football League = = In the 2014 season , the United Football League is divided into two divisions , with nine teams in Division I and 12 teams in Division II . The 2009 UFL Cup was created to determine the composition of teams that will be playing in the league . However , new teams that did not participate in the 2009 UFL Cup will automatically join Division II . Division I clubs will face their opponents three times ( formerly twice ) for league play , which it will run a month longer than the previous year 's league . Meanwhile , the rule will not apply for Division II teams , as they retain the double round robin format . After the home and away fixtures are concluded , a league table will be used to determine which teams will be champions , relegated , or promoted . When a club places first in the standings in Division I , they will become champions . However , if they rank first in the standings in Division II , they will be the winners and will receive promotion to Division I. If the team places last in the table in Division I , they will be automatically relegated to Division II . Every season , the UFL regularly organizes a promotion @-@ relegation playoff match , in which the second rank team in Division II and the eighth @-@ placed team in Division I will face off in a two legged match . The winning team will be determined by an aggregate score . If the Division I team wins the series , they will retain their place in Division I. If the Division II team wins , they will receive a promotion to Division I and the losing team will be relegated . = = = Qualification for men 's Asian competitions = = = In the AFC President 's Cup , the winner of the PFF National Men 's Club Championship will qualify to participate in the competition . In the 2013 AFC President 's Cup , Global qualified because they were the champions of the 2012 United Football League , but all teams in the league were from the National Capital Region Football Association . The PFF decided that the National Men 's Club Championship will serve as the qualifiers for the Philippines ' club representative to the 2014 President 's Cup . = = National teams = = The Philippine national men 's football team represents the Philippines in men 's international football . In addition , there are other youth national teams that represent the country in other competitions such as the Philippines national under @-@ 23 football team , also known as the Philippine Olympic team , the Philippines national under @-@ 19 football team , and the Philippines national under @-@ 17 football team . The Philippines national futsal team represents men 's international futsal , and the Philippines national beach soccer team in men 's international beach soccer . The women 's team , also known as the " Malditas , " represents the country in women 's international football and in the Olympics . The Malditas captured a third @-@ place ( bronze ) finish in the 1985 Southeast Asian Games , and were victorious in the 2012 LA Vikings Cup . = = Stadiums = = For a list of football stadiums in the Philippines with Wikipedia articles , see Category : Football venues in the Philippines . The Rizal Memorial Stadium in Manila is the national stadium of the Philippines , as well as the home venue of the national team . It has served as the main stadium of the 1954 Asian Games and a former venue for the United Football League . Established in 1934 , the stadium has a capacity of 12 @,@ 873 . Another stadium , Panaad Stadium in Bacolod , is an alternative home stadium for the Philippines with 20 @,@ 000 seats . The Emperador Stadium in Taguig , the main stadium of the UFL , has an all @-@ weather football pitch made of artificial turf , developed by real estate developer Megaworld Corporation and constructed by All Asia Structures , Inc . The University of Makati Stadium , another former UFL venue , is the first football stadium built by a local university , and has a capacity of 4 @,@ 000 . Iloilo Sports Complex is the host of home matches from Iloilo F.A .. It hosted an international competition in the group stages of the 2013 AFC President 's Cup .
= Hurricane Daniel ( 2006 ) = Hurricane Daniel was the second strongest hurricane of the 2006 Pacific hurricane season . The fourth named storm of the season , Daniel originated on July 16 from a tropical wave off the coast of Mexico . It tracked westward , intensifying steadily to reach peak winds of 150 mph ( 240 km / h ) on July 22 . At the time , the characteristics of the cyclone resembled those of an annular hurricane . Daniel gradually weakened as it entered an area of cooler water temperatures and increased wind shear , and after crossing into the Central Pacific Ocean , it quickly degenerated into a remnant low pressure area on July 26 . Initial predictions suggested that the cyclone would pass through the Hawaiian Islands as a tropical storm ; however , Daniel 's remnants dissipated southeast of Hawaii . The storm brought light to moderate precipitation to the islands of Hawaii and Maui , causing minor flooding , although no major damage or fatalities were reported . = = Meteorological history = = Hurricane Daniel began as a tropical wave that moved off the west coast of Africa on July 2 . The wave moved across the Atlantic Ocean and Caribbean Sea with little associated convection , and on July 12 , it crossed Central America into the eastern Pacific Ocean . Convection increased on July 13 , and two days later the system began to exhibit signs of tropical development to the south of Mexico . It tracked westward at about 15 mph ( 25 km / h ) , and on July 16 , the disturbance became better organized . With convective rainbands near an associated low @-@ level circulation , it is estimated the tropical wave spawned a tropical depression late on July 16 . At the time , it was located about 525 miles ( 845 km ) south @-@ southwest of Manzanillo , Colima . Classified as Tropical Depression Five @-@ E , the system tracked westward under the steering currents of a mid @-@ level ridge . In the hours after formation , the depression lacked a concentration of deep convection near the center . Conditions favored development , including warm sea surface temperatures , very low amounts of wind shear , and an established anticyclone over the cyclone . Convection became more centralized , coinciding with the improvement of upper @-@ level outflow . Based on Dvorak classifications , it is estimated that the cyclone intensified into Tropical Storm Daniel at 1200 UTC on July 17 . Daniel quickly became better organized , exhibiting increased thunderstorm activity and banding features . A central dense overcast developed , and a well @-@ defined rainband wrapped around the center of circulation . Based on the formation of an eye feature , the National Hurricane Center upgraded Daniel to hurricane status late on July 18 while it was located about 885 miles ( 1420 km ) south @-@ southwest of Cabo San Lucas . On July 19 , the eye of Daniel became apparent on satellite imagery , which organized into a pinhole eye . It underwent an eyewall replacement cycle as it turned to the west @-@ northwest , temporarily halting its intensification trend , before quickly strengthening and attaining major hurricane status on July 20 . Later that day , Hurricane Daniel organized into a very symmetric cyclone with a distinct eye about 30 miles ( 50 km ) in diameter . Upon attaining Category 4 status on the Saffir @-@ Simpson Hurricane Scale , the cyclone resembled the appearance of an annular hurricane ; an annular hurricane is one with a large and symmetric eye , surrounded by a thick ring of intense convection , and usually is able to maintain its intensity and structure for several days . On July 21 the hurricane underwent another eyewall replacement cycle . After completing the cycle , Daniel attained its peak winds of 150 mph ( 240 km / h ) early on July 22 . It maintained peak winds for about 18 hours , and Daniel began a weakening trend as it crossed into an area of progressively cooler water temperatures . The eye became more distinct on July 23 , before the cloud tops again warmed as the winds decreased . The hurricane crossed into the area of forecast responsibility of the Central Pacific Hurricane Center on July 24 , and upon doing so , its eye disappeared from satellite imagery . Daniel was forecast to track through the Hawaiian Islands as a tropical storm as water temperatures near the islands were warmer , and wind shear was expected to be minimal . However , it decelerated as the ridge to its north weakened , and due to the combination of cool waters and increasing easterly shear , Daniel weakened to a tropical storm on July 25 . Later that day , no active convection remained near the exposed circulation center , and early on July 26 it weakened to tropical depression status . Thunderstorm activity failed to redevelop , and Daniel degenerated into a remnant low pressure area by 0000 UTC on July 27 . The remnant low continued west @-@ northwestward , dissipating just south @-@ east of the Big Island of Hawaii on July 28 . = = Preparations and impact = = When Hurricane Daniel was forecast to pass through the Hawaiian islands as a tropical storm , state and Hawaii County officials recommended residents prepare hurricane kits . They also suggested purchasing non @-@ perishable foods and batteries . Initially , the storm was several days away from potentially affecting the state , and as a result few residents rushed to prepare . The Honolulu National Weather Service issued a high surf advisory for east facing beaches in Hawaii , and warned beachgoers to remain out of the water . The National Weather Service issued a flash flood watch and wind advisory in association with the remnants of Daniel . The remnants produced 2 – 5 inches ( 50 – 125 mm ) of rainfall throughout windward areas of the Big Island of Hawaii and Maui on July 28 and 29 . West Wailuaiki on Maui recorded 3 @.@ 87 inches ( 98 @.@ 3 mm ) in one day , which was the highest daily rainfall total from the hurricane . The storm also dropped precipitation on the East Maui watershed . The rainfall — particularly in Kailua @-@ Kona on the Big Island — caused ponding on roadways , as well as flooding of small streams . However , no injuries or serious damage were reported . A station in Ka Lae briefly reported sustained winds of about 35 mph ( 55 km / h ) with gusts to 45 mph ( 75 km / h ) . During the 61st Interdepartmental Hurricane Conference , the Hawaii State Civil Defense requested the retirement of the name Daniel , citing that it became one of the several storms memorable for threat or damage . However , the World Meteorological Organization did not approve the request .
= Sable ( wrestler ) = Rena Marlette Lesnar ( née Greek ; born August 8 , 1967 ) , better known as Sable , is an American model , actress , and retired professional wrestler . She is primarily known for her time in WWE . Before gaining popularity in the world of professional wrestling , she began working for WWE in 1996 . As Sable , she was one of the first WWE Divas , and gained considerable popularity . After feuding with Luna Vachon , and Jacqueline , Sable became the second WWF Women 's Champion after the title was reinstated into the company . After becoming a heel and leaving the company , she filed a $ 110 million lawsuit against the company , citing allegations of sexual harassment and unsafe working conditions . In 2003 , she returned to WWE and was put into a feud with Torrie Wilson , and another storyline as Vince McMahon 's mistress . In 2004 , she left the company to spend more time with her family . Outside of wrestling , she has been featured on the cover of Playboy three times . The April 1999 issue of the magazine with her on the cover was one of the highest selling issues in Playboy history . She has guest starred on several television series , including Pacific Blue , and appeared in the film Corky Romano . = = Early life = = Rena Greek was born in Jacksonville , Florida . She was active in her youth and was interested in activities such as gymnastics , horseback riding , and softball . After winning her first beauty pageant at twelve years of age , she eventually became a model in 1990 , working with companies such as L 'Oréal , Pepsi , and Guess ? . = = Professional wrestling career = = = = = World Wrestling Federation = = = = = = = Debut and storyline with Marc Mero ( 1996 – 1998 ) = = = = She made her World Wrestling Federation debut as Sable at WrestleMania XII in March 1996 , escorting Hunter Hearst Helmsley to the ring as he took on the returning Ultimate Warrior . Sable 's first major angle involved her then real @-@ life husband , who debuted at WrestleMania XII as " Wildman " Marc Mero . The storyline started when Marc Mero witnessed Sable being mistreated by Helmsley backstage , so Mero attacked Helmsley and took Sable as his manager . She remained Mero 's manager until his injury in 1997 . Between 1997 and the time he returned from his injury in 1998 , Sable became popular on her own . In her next storyline , a returning Marc Mero ( now known as " Marvelous " Marc Mero ) became jealous , refused to let Sable get any of the spotlight , and mistreated her . The duo entered into a feud with Luna Vachon and The Artist Formerly Known as Goldust , which climaxed in a match at WrestleMania XIV in March 1998 . Sable delivered a superkick to Goldust and executed a " Sable Bomb " , a version of the powerbomb , on Luna . She also delivered a TKO and pinned Luna to finish the match , with the crowd chanting Sable 's name in the background . At the following pay @-@ per @-@ view event , Unforgiven in April 1998 , Sable lost to Luna in an Evening Gown match after being distracted by Marc Mero . After Marc 's interference at Unforgiven , Sable came to the ring and challenged Marc to a match . Sable then kicked him in the groin and delivered a Sable Bomb to get revenge . Sable eventually broke away from " Marvelous " Marc Mero , who debuted Jacqueline as his new manager , resulting in a storyline feud between the two women . The two met in a bikini contest in July 1998 at Fully Loaded . Sable , only wearing impressions of hands painted on her exposed breasts , won the contest after receiving the most cheers from the audience . The next night on Raw however , Vince McMahon disqualified Sable from the previous night 's contest since she did not actually wear a bikini , and the trophy was then awarded to Jacqueline . In response , Sable gave McMahon the double finger . At SummerSlam , Sable and her mystery partner , federation newcomer Edge , defeated Marc Mero and Jacqueline in a mixed tag team match . = = = = Women 's Championship feuds ( 1998 – 1999 ) = = = = Sable and Jacqueline faced off for the newly reinstated WWF Women 's Title on the September 21 , 1998 edition of Raw . Jacqueline claimed the title after Marc Mero interfered . On November 15 , 1998 at Survivor Series , she dropped the title to Sable , who won after powerbombing both Marc and Jacqueline during the match . During this time , Rena had a guest appearance on an episode of the USA Network show Pacific Blue . Sable then briefly entered a storyline where she was forced to play a subservient role to Vince and Shane McMahon , but the storyline was cut short . In 1999 , as part of a new storyline , Sable was attacked by a masked woman named Spider Lady , who turned out to be Luna . Sable defeated Luna in a Strap match at the Royal Rumble after an assist from a planted female Sable fan , WWF newcomer Tori . Tori 's debut signified a change in Sable 's persona . After the Rumble , Rena ( under her Sable ring name ) was featured as the cover girl for the April 1999 issue of Playboy . The issue was one of the highest selling issues of Playboy ever . Surrounding the release of the issue , the Sable character turned heel by " going Hollywood " and having an inflated ego . Rarely defending her title , Sable continually berated her fan Tori , and she feuded with both Tori and Luna Vachon ( who had turned face ) . She debuted a new catchphrase : " This is for all the women who want to be me and all the men who come to see me " and a dance move called " the grind . " The feud with Tori led to a match at WrestleMania XV . During the contest , Nicole Bass debuted as Sable 's bodyguard and helped Sable win the match . Sable went on with Bass making Bass do all of her dirty work . Sable continued to hold the championship for almost six months , but on May 10 , 1999 , Debra " won " the Women 's Championship from Sable in an Evening Gown match . Normally in an Evening Gown match , the winner is the woman who forcibly removes her opponent 's dress , which Sable did . As part of the storyline , WWF Commissioner Shawn Michaels , however , ruled that the woman who had lost her dress was the winner , making Debra the new Women 's Champion . Off @-@ screen , Sable was in a dispute with the WWF , which is why she was stripped of the title on @-@ screen . Sable at this time was also very unpopular backstage , to the extent that Sean Waltman has since admitted to playing a nasty practical joke on her last day with the WWF . = = = Post – WWF ( 1999 – 2001 ) = = = In June 1999 , Sable quit the WWF and filed a $ 110 million lawsuit against the company , citing allegations of sexual harassment and unsafe working conditions . She claims to have filed the lawsuit after refusing to go topless . During the course of the lawsuit , Vince McMahon counter @-@ sued her over control of the stagename " Sable " . Sable reduced the amount she was seeking in damages , and they eventually settled out of court in August 1999 . Sable used her real name for her appearance in the September 1999 issue of Playboy . She was the first woman in history to be given two Playboy covers in the same year . After her WWF exit , she made an on @-@ camera appearance as an audience member on World Championship Wrestling 's Nitro on June 14 , 1999 . During this time , she made appearances on The Howard Stern Show and Late Night with Conan O 'Brien . She also made appearances on television shows such as Relic Hunter and First Wave and in the films Corky Romano as a female bouncer and Ariana 's Quest . She released her autobiography , entitled Undefeated in August 2000 . She also released a comic book entitled The 10th Muse starring herself as a superhero . In May 2001 , she was given an advice column on CompuServe . On November 13 and November 14 , 2001 , she appeared as the on @-@ camera " CEO " of the newly formed X Wrestling Federation ( XWF ) , but these were her only appearances with the company . = = = Return to WWE = = = = = = = Relationship with Vince McMahon ( 2003 ) = = = = Rena Mero returned to the WWF , which is now known as World Wrestling Entertainment ( WWE ) on the April 3 , 2003 episode of SmackDown ! , reprising her role as Sable . Sable continued portraying a villainess and spent several months in a storyline with new Playboy covergirl Torrie Wilson . During their angle , the evil Sable followed Wilson down to her matches , talked with her backstage , and on one occasion , she left Wilson in a tag match alone to fend for herself . Sable eventually challenged Wilson to a showdown bikini contest at Judgment Day . After Sable got the bigger applause , Wilson removed her bikini to reveal an even smaller bikini underneath , and Special Guest Referee Tazz declared Wilson the winner . After the match , Wilson went up to Sable and kissed her before exiting the ring . Sable then had an altercation with the guest judge Tazz , dumping water on him on the following edition of SmackDown ! , as a means of gaining revenge for declaring Wilson the winner . Sable then feuded with Stephanie McMahon in a storyline in which she was Vince McMahon 's mistress . Vince appointed Sable as Stephanie 's personal assistant against Stephanie 's will , sparking the feud between the duo . During the feud , they competed in several catfights , a food fight , a parking lot brawl in which Sable 's bra was ripped off , revealing both her breasts on live television , and a match in which Sable smacked a clipboard over Stephanie 's head . At Vengeance , Sable defeated Stephanie after interference by her new ally , A @-@ Train . At SummerSlam , Sable accompanied A @-@ Train in his match against The Undertaker , which he lost . After the match , The Undertaker held Sable so that Stephanie could use a Spear attack on her . After SummerSlam , Vince and Sable focused on getting rid of Stephanie for good , so Vince made an " I Quit " match at No Mercy . During the match , Sable slapped Stephanie and was involved in a scuffle with Linda McMahon . = = = = Various storylines and departure ( 2004 ) = = = = Sable briefly became a face again when she appeared on the cover of Playboy magazine ( March 2004 issue ) for the third time in her career . On the cover , she appeared with fellow diva Torrie Wilson , making them the first WWE Divas to pose in Playboy together . Surrounding the release of the cover , the duo feuded with Raw divas Stacy Keibler and Miss Jackie , even though all four women were faces at the time . The two teams squared off at WrestleMania XX in an Interpromotional Tag Team Evening Gown match , but the divas started the match in their underwear , making it more of a lingerie match . Sable and Wilson were victorious . The change was rumored to have occurred because Sable had suffered damage to her breast . Following WrestleMania XX , Sable quickly turned heel again and engaged in another short feud with Torrie Wilson . The feud culminated at The Great American Bash , where Sable defeated Wilson despite the referee not noticing that one of Wilson 's shoulders were not down . On the July 1 edition of SmackDown , Sable was defeated by Wilson in a rematch . Sable 's final appearance in WWE was on SmackDown ! when she , Dawn Marie , and Wilson accompanied Eddie Guerrero to the ring in his lowrider . On August 10 , 2004 , WWE 's official website announced that Sable and WWE had parted ways , this time on good terms . Lesnar claimed that she left the company to spend more time with her family . = = = New Japan Pro Wrestling ( 2006 – 2007 ) = = = She made her debut for New Japan Pro Wrestling on January 4 , 2006 at a NJPW show , along with Brock Lesnar as special guests , and continued to accompany Lesnar until late June 2007 . Sable and Lesnar later departed from the company after Lesnar battled WWE in a lawsuit . = = Other media = = Sable made her video game debut in the WWE game WWF Attitude , and appears in the games WWE SmackDown ! Here Comes the Pain and WWE SmackDown ! vs. Raw . = = Personal life = = Rena Greek married Wayne W. Richardson in 1986 . The couple had a daughter named Mariah in 1988 . The two remained married until Richardson died in a drunk driving accident in 1991 . She met her second husband , professional wrestler and former boxer Marc Mero , in 1993 . She had breast implants that same year . After marrying Mero in 1994 , she broke into the wrestling business through what was then known as the World Wrestling Federation . After Rena and Marc Mero divorced in 2004 , she began dating Brock Lesnar , whom she became engaged to later on that year . The engagement was called off in early 2005 , but they were engaged again in January 2006 . They were married on May 6 , 2006 . The couple has two sons together , Turk ( born June 2009 ) and Duke ( born July 2010 ) . She 's also stepmother to Mya ( born April 2002 ) , the daughter of Brock 's ex @-@ fiancée , Nicole . In September 2012 , Rena became a grandmother , as her daughter Mariah gave birth to a baby girl . = = In wrestling = = Finishing moves Sable Bomb ( Powerbomb ) TKO – Total Knock Out - adopted from Marc Mero Signature moves Hair pull whip Multiple kick variations Repeated shoot , to a bent over or cornered opponent Super , sometimes to an oncoming opponent Running clothesline , sometimes done repeatedly in succession Slap Sable @-@ canrana ( Super frankensteiner ) Managers Tori Nicole Bass Wrestlers managed A @-@ Train Hunter Hearst Helmsley Marc Mero Mr. McMahon The Oddities Entrance themes " Wild Cat " by Jim Johnston ( 1997 – 1999 , 2003 – 2004 ) " No Chance in Hell " performed by Peter Bursuker and composed by Jim Johnston ( 2003 ; used while managing Mr. McMahon ) = = Championships and accomplishments = = World Wrestling Federation WWF Women 's Championship ( 1 time ) Slammy Award ( 2 time ) Dressed to Kill ( 1997 ) Diva of The Year ( 1997 )
= History of York City F.C. ( 1980 – present ) = York City Football Club is a professional association football club based in York , North Yorkshire , England . Its history from the 1980 – 81 to the current season saw fluctuating fortunes in the 1980s and 1990s , and relegation from and return to the Football League . York made their seventh re @-@ election bid after 1980 – 81 , before the club won its first and only league title after finishing first in the Fourth Division in 1983 – 84 with 101 points . They were the first team to score this many points in a Football League season . After four seasons in the Third Division in 1987 – 88 , York were relegated . They beat Crewe Alexandra on penalties at Wembley Stadium in the play @-@ off final in 1992 – 93 , winning promotion back into the third tier of English football , now renamed as the Second Division . The following season , York competed in the play @-@ off semi @-@ final , when they were beaten by Stockport County . Later in the 1990s , they knocked Premier League clubs Manchester United and Everton out of the League Cup in successive seasons . After six seasons , York were relegated into the Third Division in 1998 – 99 . In the following years , the club experienced financial troubles ; chairman Douglas Craig offered the club and its ground for sale in December 2001 . The club was bought by John Batchelor in March 2002 , but the following December they went into administration . In March 2003 , York were taken over by the club 's Supporters ' Trust , and were relegated into the Conference National in 2003 – 04 , ending seventy @-@ five years of Football League membership . The team were unsuccessful in the play @-@ offs in the 2006 – 07 and 2009 – 10 seasons , and were beaten in the 2009 FA Trophy Final at the newly rebuilt Wembley Stadium . In 2011 – 12 , York defeated Newport County in the 2012 FA Trophy Final at Wembley , and shortly after returned to the Football League with a 2 – 1 win over Luton Town in the play @-@ off final . In their second season in League Two , the club reached the play @-@ offs but were knocked out in the semi @-@ final by Fleetwood Town . = = 1980 – 98 : Fourth Division championship and first play @-@ off success = = The 1980 – 81 season started comfortably for York City , and the team were fourteenth in the table by mid @-@ January 1981 . However , three wins from the last eighteen matches saw them finish in bottom place . York 's seventh application for re @-@ election was successful with forty @-@ six votes . Poor form at home contributed to York occupying the bottom half of the table for most of 1981 – 82 , and a club record of twelve successive matches without a home win . Barry Lyons was sacked as manager in December 1981 , and under caretaker manager Kevin Randall the club dropped into the bottom four . Former York player and club director Barry Swallow took over as caretaker manager in March 1982 , and several convincing home wins toward the end of the season helped the team to seventeenth place . Denis Smith , who had played on loan from Stoke City the previous season , was appointed player @-@ manager in May 1982 , with Viv Busby as his assistant player @-@ coach . York finished 1982 – 83 in seventh place ; their inconsistent away form in the last half of the season led to them missing out on promotion . The club occupied one of the top two places in 1983 – 84 from the second week of the season onwards , and won the Fourth Division championship with 101 points . They became the first team to achieve a three @-@ figure points total in a Football League season . The Yorkshire Evening Press billed them the " Team of the Century " . York set new club records for most wins ( thirty @-@ one ) , most away wins ( thirteen ) and most goals ( ninety @-@ one ) . For the first time since 1954 – 55 , York had two players score over twenty league goals in a season ; these were John Byrne and Keith Walwyn . A profit of almost £ 15 @,@ 000 was posted and the club aspired to further progress and promotion . Winning six of their first eight matches in 1984 – 85 , York were top of the Third Division by early @-@ October 1984 . After a run of two wins from eleven matches they slipped to eleventh place in mid @-@ December 1984 , though they continued to occupy a top half position before finishing the season in eighth place . In January 1985 , York beat First Division side Arsenal 1 – 0 at home in the FA Cup fourth round , courtesty of a late penalty scored by Keith Houchen . They reached the fifth round for the third time and drew 1 – 1 at home to European Cup holders Liverpool . They lost 7 – 0 in the replay at Anfield — the club 's record cup defeat . York started 1985 – 86 well and were second in the table by late @-@ November 1985 , before a poor mid @-@ season spell saw them drop into mid @-@ table . After being unbeaten in the last nine matches , they finished seventh in the table , marking the fifth consecutive season in which York 's end @-@ of @-@ season league placing improved . They reached the FA Cup fifth round for the second consecutive season , again drawing 1 – 1 at home to Liverpool , before losing 3 – 1 after extra time at Anfield . York made a strong start to 1986 – 87 , and in late @-@ September 1986 they were in second place . They won only seven of their remaining thirty @-@ eight matches and needed a point from their last match to avoid the danger of relegation , which they achieved with a 1 – 1 draw against Notts County . York finished 1986 – 87 in twentieth place . Smith left to take over at Sunderland in May 1987 , and former Blackburn Rovers manager Bobby Saxton was appointed in June . Only two players were under contract at the time of Saxton 's arrival ; his hastily arranged squad struggled from the start of 1987 – 88 , and only won their first match in late @-@ October 1987 . York were bottom of the table for most of the season , and were relegated after finishing in twenty @-@ third place . The season was statistically the club 's worst in the Football League , with the fewest wins ( eight ) , most defeats ( twenty @-@ nine ) and the fewest points since the three points for a win system was introduced ( thirty @-@ three ) . York made a poor start to 1988 – 89 , and Saxton resigned with the club bottom of the Fourth Division in mid @-@ September 1988 . Swallow took over on a caretaker basis before the former Hartlepool United manager John Bird was appointed in October 1988 . York 's away form improved in the second half of the season , and in the last week they had a slim chance of reaching the play @-@ offs . They missed out on a play @-@ off place and finished the season in eleventh place . A record loss of £ 190 @,@ 000 was posted for the season , but the club carried no overdraft because of interest @-@ free loans from directors and a £ 100 @,@ 000 share issue . York started 1989 – 90 strongly and were in third place by mid @-@ December 1989 . Successive home defeats in late @-@ December 1989 marked the start of a decline that saw them finish the season thirteenth in the table . In September 1990 , York player David Longhurst collapsed and died after suffering heart failure during a home match against Lincoln City . A few months later , a newly built , covered stand at the Shipton Street End of Bootham Crescent was named after him . York were the Fourth Division 's second lowest scorers in 1990 – 91 , as they finished twenty @-@ first in the table . Douglas Craig , who had been on the board since 1978 , succeeded Michael Sinclair as chairman in June 1991 . York had won two of eleven matches by mid @-@ October 1991 ; Bird was sacked and was replaced in November by Aston Villa assistant manager John Ward . York continued to be placed in lower mid @-@ table , and finished fourth from bottom for the second year running in 1991 – 92 . They started 1992 – 93 with a club @-@ record start of four wins , and led the table until late @-@ December 1992 . Ward left for Bristol Rovers in March 1993 , shortly after a mid @-@ season slump in which York won only one of thirteen matches . Ward 's assistant Alan Little took over and York finished the season in fourth place . They played Bury in the play @-@ off semi @-@ final , drawing the first leg 0 – 0 at Gigg Lane before winning the second leg 1 – 0 at home with a goal from Gary Swann . In the final at Wembley Stadium , York beat Crewe Alexandra 5 – 3 on penalties , after the score had finished 1 – 1 after extra time . Wayne Hall scored the decisive penalty as York won promotion into the third tier , now named the Second Division after the formation of the Premier League in 1992 . York made a good start to 1993 – 94 , before a series of poor results saw them slip to seventeenth place in late @-@ November 1993 . They only lost five of their last thirty fixtures to finish the season fifth in the Second Division table — their highest league placing since 1976 . They lost to Stockport County in the play @-@ off semi @-@ final , being beaten 1 – 0 in the second leg at Edgeley Park after drawing 0 – 0 at home in the first leg . York were in lower mid @-@ table for the first half of 1994 – 95 , but improving form saw them move up the table , before finishing in ninth place . They struggled through most of 1995 – 96 , and only avoided relegation by winning their last match away to Brighton & Hove Albion ; they finished in twentieth place . This season saw York record a 4 – 3 aggregate victory over Manchester United in the League Cup second round . York defeated a strong United side including some younger players 3 – 0 at Old Trafford in the first leg ; in the second leg United fielded some more experienced players , but York defeated them 3 – 1 to progress on aggregate . United went on to win the Premier League and FA Cup double . York finished twentieth in 1996 – 97 , only securing safety in the penultimate match with an away win over Rotherham United . For the second consecutive season , they eliminated Premier League opponents from the League Cup in the second round , with a 4 – 3 aggregate win over Everton . After drawing the first leg 1 – 1 at Goodison Park , York progressed after winning the second leg 3 – 2 at home . In mid @-@ December 1997 , York were fourth in the table , but declining form after New Year saw them finish 1997 – 98 in sixteenth place . = = 1998 – 2010 : Financial problems and relegation from Football League = = By mid @-@ October 1998 , York were placed eighth in the Second Division . They slipped to the bottom third of the table after winning one point from a possible twenty @-@ one . Despite improved results over Christmas , York played eleven consecutive matches without a win . In mid @-@ March 1999 , the club was just above the bottom four places , when Little was sacked and player @-@ coach Neil Thompson appointed caretaker manager . A flurry of transfers , including the departure of leading scorer Richard Cresswell to Premier League side Sheffield Wednesday for a club @-@ record fee of £ 950 @,@ 000 , followed . After losing away to Manchester City on the last day of 1998 – 99 , York dropped into the bottom four for the first time that season , and were relegated in twenty @-@ first place . The club 's trading loss for the season was £ 483 @,@ 096 , despite a record profit of £ 1 @,@ 274 @,@ 202 from lucrative transfers . Club historian David Batters said , " the stark reality was that the club had to sell to survive " . In July 1999 , the club and its real property assets , including the ground , were transferred to a holding company called Bootham Crescent Holdings ( BCH ) for £ 165 @,@ 000 . Thompson was sacked in February 2000 after a run of one win from twelve matches during the middle of 1999 – 2000 . Former Hull City manager Terry Dolan took over , and York finished the season in twentieth place after conceding only five goals in the last twelve matches . Losses for the season were £ 667 @,@ 255 , and the wage bill of £ 1 @,@ 635 @,@ 736 was twice that of 1995 . By mid @-@ February 2001 , York were bottom of the Third Division table , but after losing only two of their last sixteen matches they finished 2000 – 01 in seventeenth . They reached the FA Cup third round for the second time since 1986 , but were beaten 3 – 0 by Premier League side Leicester City at Filbert Street . Record losses of £ 1 @,@ 261 @,@ 038 were reported in November 2001 , before Craig announced in December that the club and the ground had been put up for sale for £ 4 @.@ 5 million . Craig later said Bootham Crescent would close by June 2002 , and the club would resign from the Football League if a buyer was not found . The club was taken over by motor racing driver John Batchelor in March 2002 . He pledged to give the Supporters ' Trust ( ST ) two seats on the board and announced a sponsorship deal with Persimmon that would see an undisclosed amount split between the club and his racing team . By late @-@ March 2002 , York were second from bottom , before a run of five wins from the last eight matches saw them finish 2001 – 02 in fourteenth place . They reached the FA Cup fourth round for the first time since 1986 , losing 2 – 0 at home to Premier League team Fulham . In May 2002 , the club was rebranded York City Soccer Club as part of Batchelor 's plan to market it in the United States . Persimmon , which had bought ten percent of the shares in BCH , submitted planning applications for ninety @-@ three homes on the site of Bootham Crescent , and Batchelor spoke of building York a new stadium at Clifton Moor . The club entered a creditors ' voluntary agreement in November 2002 , and the York Evening Press said York had been " plunged into the darkest , coldest days of its history " . The club went into administration in December 2002 , and was given five weeks to find a buyer or face bankruptcy . The ST donated £ 92 @,@ 000 to give the club a temporary reprieve . The ST took control over the club in March 2003 after the Inland Revenue accepted an offer of £ 100 @,@ 000 as payment for £ 160 @,@ 000 owed in tax . Steve Beck became the new chairman . Batchelor had diverted almost all of the £ 400 @,@ 000 Persimmon sponsorship money away from York to his racing team , and his promise of having ST members on the board never materialised . He left the club with a profit of £ 120 @,@ 000 and admitted to asset stripping during his time as owner . Despite the off @-@ field problems , York pushed for promotion in 2002 – 03 and were in an automatic promotion place by late @-@ March 2003 . They won none of their last six games and finished the season in tenth place . Dolan was sacked in May 2003 , the new board citing financial reasons for his departure . At twenty @-@ seven years , York player Chris Brass was appointed player @-@ manager in June 2003 , which made him the youngest Football League managerial appointment since 1946 . The club 's lease of Bootham Crescent was extended to May 2004 , and plans proceeded to develop Huntington Stadium ahead of a possible move , but problems bringing the ground to Football League standards were encountered . The board preferred to stay at Bootham Crescent , and they bought the site in February 2004 after six months of negotiations . The deal came after York were lent £ 2 million by The Football Stadia Improvement Fund ( FSIF ) , with which they bought 75 @.@ 89 % of BCH shares and all of the 20 @,@ 000 shares owned by Persimmon . Once plans for a new stadium were settled , the loan would be converted a grant to help fund the move . York equalled a club record by winning the first four matches of 2003 – 04 , and by mid @-@ January 2004 were tenth in the table . They won none of their final twenty fixtures , garnering only five more points as they finished bottom of the Third Division . York were relegated into the Conference National after seventy @-@ five years of Football League membership . Beck renounced his title of chairman in September 2004 because he favoured a more democratic approach for a fan @-@ owned club . The board was restructured and Jason McGill became the managing director . In November 2004 , Brass was sacked after a home defeat to Forest Green Rovers , which left York fourth from the bottom of the table . His assistant Viv Busby took over as caretaker manager before former Derby County coach Billy McEwan was appointed in February 2005 . Under McEwan , York avoided relegation into the Conference North , with a seventeenth @-@ place finish in 2004 – 05 . One @-@ third into 2005 – 06 , York were in second place but poor mid @-@ season results saw them slide down the table . They pushed for the play @-@ offs after six consecutive wins but finished in eighth place after faltering in the run @-@ in . With twenty @-@ two goals , Andy Bishop was the Conference National top scorer in 2005 – 06 . Financial problems arose again ; a loss of £ 150 @,@ 000 was reported for the season , and there were problems meeting the first annual payment of £ 100 @,@ 000 to the FSIF . McGill 's company JM Packaging made a proposal to the ST to become majority shareholders , and would lend the club £ 650 @,@ 000 to cover the current losses and meet the loan repayments for the next five years . ST members approved the proposal in June 2006 , and JM Packaging became seventy @-@ five percent shareholders , reducing the ST 's previous eighty @-@ five percent ownership to twenty @-@ five percent . York made a good start to 2006 – 07 , and were never out of the top five from early @-@ November 2006 . They finished the season in fourth place and played Morecambe in the play @-@ off semi @-@ final ; after drawing 0 – 0 at home in the first leg they were beaten 2 – 1 at Christie Park in the second leg . York started 2007 – 08 by losing seven of their first ten matches . Despite improving form , their home results remained poor , leading to McEwan 's sacking in November 2007 . He was succeeded by his assistant Colin Walker , after the team won five of his six matches as caretaker manager . York finished the season in fourteenth place , and reached the semi @-@ final of the FA Trophy , losing 2 – 1 on aggregate to Torquay United . In May 2008 , City of York Council announced its commitment to build a community stadium , to be used by York and the city 's rugby league club , York City Knights . An agreement with the FSIF was reached in September 2008 ; the club would stop making loan repayments and would repay the outstanding amount once Bootham Crescent was sold . At the start of 2008 – 09 , York won only five of their nineteen league matches , resulting in Walker 's sacking in November 2008 . Under his replacement , former Port Vale manager Martin Foyle , the team avoided relegation in the penultimate game of the season against Weymouth , and they finished seventeenth in the table . York participated in the 2009 FA Trophy Final at the new Wembley Stadium , where they were beaten 2 – 0 by Stevenage Borough . After starting 2009 – 10 with only one win from five matches , York won eight successive matches in a bid for promotion . They finished in fifth place and faced Luton Town in the play @-@ off semi @-@ final , winning each leg 1 – 0 , but were beaten 3 – 1 by Oxford United in the final at Wembley . They reached the FA Cup third round that season , and were beaten 3 – 1 by Premier League Stoke City at the Britannia Stadium . Richard Brodie was the Conference Premier joint top scorer in 2009 – 10 , with twenty @-@ six goals . = = 2010 – present : Return into Football League = = After winning only three of their first ten matches of 2010 – 11 , Foyle resigned as manager in September 2010 , and was replaced with Tamworth manager Gary Mills the following month . Improving form saw York challenge for the play @-@ offs , and by mid @-@ March 2011 they were sixth in the table — one place away from a play @-@ off spot . They won only three of ten matches in the run @-@ in and missed out on the play @-@ offs to finish the season in eighth place . York reached the FA Cup third round for the second consecutive year , and lost 2 – 0 to Premier League club Bolton Wanderers at the Reebok Stadium . York won three of the opening seven matches in 2011 – 12 and were only once below a play @-@ off place from early @-@ October 2011 , finishing the season in fourth place . Playing a passing style of football but producing results when needed , they earned eighty @-@ three points that season — the second highest in the club 's history . York drew 1 – 1 at home to Mansfield Town in the play @-@ off semi @-@ final first leg and won the second leg 1 – 0 after extra time at Field Mill . They then beat Newport County 2 – 0 at Wembley in the 2012 FA Trophy Final , which was the first time the club had won a national knockout competition . A week later they returned to Wembley for the play @-@ off final , where they beat Luton Town 2 – 1 , with goals from Ashley Chambers and Matty Blair . The club was promoted into League Two , returning to the Football League after an eight @-@ year absence . In between the two matches at Wembley , City of York Council granted planning permission for a new community stadium to be built at Monks Cross . York started 2012 – 13 by winning five of fourteen matches , and by late @-@ October 2012 were ninth in the table . They dropped down the table in the following months , but were still in contention for a play @-@ off place after beating Burton Albion 3 – 0 in the New Year . After this match , York failed to win eleven consecutive matches , and Mills was sacked in March 2013 after a 2 – 0 home defeat to Bradford City . Under his replacement , former Northern Ireland manager Nigel Worthington , York avoided relegation by winning four of their last five matches . They finished their first League Two season in seventeenth place . York won four of their first twenty @-@ three matches of 2013 – 14 , and by late @-@ December 2013 were third from the bottom of the table . A number of influential signings in January 2014 helped York improve their form , and from early @-@ February they were unbeaten in seventeen consecutive matches , conceding no goals from open play . York finished in seventh place and played Fleetwood Town in the play @-@ off semi @-@ final . After losing the first leg 1 – 0 at home , they drew 0 – 0 at Highbury Stadium in the second leg . Worthington resigned as manager in October 2014 after York won only one of their opening fourteen matches of 2014 – 15 . He was succeeded by former Scunthorpe United manager Russ Wilcox . York remained in the lower reaches of the table . They avoided relegation with a late @-@ season run of four wins from five matches , and they finished the season in eighteenth place . With York twenty @-@ first in the table after a nine @-@ match run without a league win , Wilcox was sacked in October 2015 . He was succeeded in November 2015 by the former Dundee United manager Jackie McNamara .
= 1939 Atlantic hurricane season = The 1939 Atlantic hurricane season officially began on June 12 , 1939 , and lasted until November 7 , 1939 . These dates mark the period of each year when most tropical cyclones form in the Atlantic basin . The 1939 season had below normal activity , with only six tropical storms , of which two became hurricanes and one became a major hurricane , equivalent to Category 3 status or higher on the modern @-@ day Saffir @-@ Simpson Hurricane Scale . The first tropical cyclone formed on June 12 , and the last dissipated on November 6 . All of the storms affected land to some extent . The first two cyclones of the season made landfall along the coast of the United States , collectively causing only minor damage . Hurricane Five , the strongest of the year , took a northeastern path through the western Atlantic , striking Bermuda on October 16 . The fifth and final storm was a minimal hurricane that wrought damage throughout the western Caribbean Sea , most notably in Jamaica and Cuba . The weakest known storm was Tropical Storm Four , with winds of only 50 miles per hour ( 80 km / h ) and a minimum barometric pressure of 1 @,@ 003 millibars ( 29 @.@ 62 inHg ) . = = Timeline = = = = Storms = = = = = Tropical Storm One = = = The first tropical storm of the season developed in the extreme western Caribbean Sea on June 12 . Reports of the storm first came from the Mexican Weather Service office in Chetumal , Quintana Roo , and during the afternoon of June 12 , vessels just offshore recorded squally conditions and choppy seas . The cyclone moved northward , parallel to the coast of Belize , before moving over the northeastern corner of the Yucatán Peninsula . It continued steadily northward through the Gulf of Mexico , slowly strengthening to a peak of 50 miles per hour ( 80 km / h ) on June 14 with a minimum central pressure of 1 @,@ 000 @.@ 0 hectopascals ( 29 @.@ 53 inHg ) . An area of high pressure to the north caused the storm to execute a counter @-@ clockwise loop . A trough of low pressure turned it back to the north , and the cyclone made landfall near Mobile , Alabama , as a minimal tropical storm on June 16 . Turning to the northwest , it quickly weakened to a tropical depression and dissipated on June 17 over Mississippi . In advance of the system , officials issued storm warnings for coastal areas of Alabama and western Florida , and residents in low @-@ lying areas were advised to seek higher ground . Damage associated with the cyclone was generally minor , and only one life was lost when a boy fell into the swollen waters of a river and drowned . = = = Hurricane Two = = = On August 7 , a tropical storm formed north of the Leeward Islands , likely from a tropical wave . It tracked to the west @-@ northwest , slowly strengthening to a hurricane as it moved through the Bahamas on August 11 . Later that day , it met the east coast of Florida , and crossed the state in around 15 hours . After weakening to a tropical storm , it quickly re @-@ strengthened upon emerging into the Gulf of Mexico , and made another landfall near Apalachicola , Florida , on August 13 . Over land , the cyclone slowed considerably and quickly deteriorated . By August 14 , the storm had weakened to a tropical depression as it drifted through Alabama . The depression turned to the northeast , and remained a tropical depression until it dissipated over New York on August 20 . Due to timely reports and warnings , the storm was reportedly forecast with " exceptional accuracy " . In Florida , damage was minor , amounting to uprooted trees , broken windows , moderate crop damage , and downed power lines . A few flimsy structures and small watercraft also sustained damage . Along the Florida Panhandle , the storm 's winds impacted power , telephone , and telegraph lines , and inflicted $ 2 @,@ 000 worth of damage to a dock warehouse . A man in Cedar Key , Florida , drowned after rough surf overturned his rowboat , and at least two other people suffered minor storm @-@ related injuries . Torrential rain fell in Alabama as a result of the storm 's slow forward movement , leading to severe flooding . Further inland , the storm spawned a tornado in North Carolina which caused one death . As the depression continued heading inland , it dropped heavy precipitation throughout the Mid @-@ Atlantic States , exceeding 14 inches ( 36 cm ) in Tuckerton , New Jersey , and 18 inches ( 460 mm ) in Manahawkin , New Jersey . = = = Tropical Storm Three = = = An operationally unnoticed tropical storm developed on August 15 . At its peak , sustained winds were 65 mph ( 100 km / h ) and the minimum pressure of 1 @,@ 000 mbar ( 30 inHg ) . By August 19 , the storm dissipated . = = = Tropical Storm Four = = = An area of disturbed weather over Central America organized into a tropical storm in the Bay of Campeche on September 23 . Uneventfully , it moved generally north @-@ northeastward through the Gulf of Mexico and its winds strengthened to a peak of 50 miles per hour ( 80 km / h ) . The storm made landfall on south @-@ central Louisiana on September 26 , and dissipated later that day . The Weather Bureau office in New Orleans posted numerous advisories , although the effects from the storm were minimal . = = = Hurricane Five = = = On the afternoon of October 9 , reports from the Leeward Islands of low pressures and unsettled weather indicated that a storm was forming in the vicinity . The disturbance strengthened into a tropical storm on October 12 to the northeast of Puerto Rico . The quickly escalating storm tracked northwestward before turning towards the northeast , away from a high pressure area building in from the west . Early on October 15 , the storm attained hurricane intensity and continued to mature until October 16 , when it reached its peak at a strength corresponding to Category 4 status on the modern @-@ day Saffir @-@ Simpson Hurricane Scale . That same day it passed just east of Bermuda . It weakened as it accelerated to the northeast , and became extratropical near Newfoundland a couple of days later . Numerous ships encountered the hurricane along its course . On the President Harding , en route to New York , one crew member drowned due to the rough conditions and 73 crew and passengers suffered injury , of various severity , requiring a call for emergency medical supplies . The ship itself sustained a bit of damage . As the storm passed near the island of Bermuda , it generated strong winds — gusting to 131 miles per hour ( 211 km / h ) — and heavy precipitation . Damage was fairly significant ; the winds uprooted trees , shattered windows , and disrupted public utilities . = = = Hurricane Six = = = On October 29 , the fifth and final known tropical cyclone of the season developed in the western Caribbean Sea from a tropical wave . It initially moved northwestward , but turned toward the east shortly thereafter . Drifting due eastward , the storm grew into a minimal hurricane on October 31 while passing over the Cayman Islands . The hurricane 's center passed just north of the island of Jamaica later that day as it weakened back into a tropical storm . Eventually , the storm turned abruptly northeastward and crossed the eastern tip of Cuba . By November 3 , it had emerged into the Atlantic and entered the southern Bahamas . Beginning to accelerate , the tropical storm passed to the west of Bermuda before becoming extratropical on November 6 . At Grand Cayman , winds from the storm reached 92 miles per hour ( 148 km / h ) with a minimum pressure of 990 @.@ 0 hectopascals ( 29 @.@ 23 inHg ) . According to press reports , the hurricane inflicted considerable damage on the Cayman Islands . In northern Jamaica , property damage was also widespread . The hurricane brought heavy rainfall , high winds , and pounding surf to the island , leaving one dead . Another death was reported in Cuba , where the torrential rains also caused extensive flooding and losses to livestock and crops .
= The Boat Race 1849 ( December ) = The 10th Boat Race took place on the River Thames on 15 December 1849 . Typically held annually , the event is a side @-@ by @-@ side rowing race between crews from the Universities of Oxford and Cambridge . The race was won by Oxford who triumphed over Cambridge after they were disqualified . It is the only time the Boat Race has been held twice in a calendar year , and as of 2015 remains the only time the event has been decided as a result of a disqualification . = = Background = = The Boat Race is a side @-@ by @-@ side rowing competition between the University of Oxford ( sometimes referred to as the " Dark Blues " ) and the University of Cambridge ( sometimes referred to as the " Light Blues " ) . The race was first held in 1829 , and since 1845 has taken place on the 4 @.@ 2 @-@ mile ( 6 @.@ 8 km ) Championship Course on the River Thames in southwest London . Cambridge had beaten Oxford " easily " in the race earlier that year . It was as a result of the manner of the defeat , and with doubts over the construction of the Oxford boat that they issued a challenge to Cambridge University Boat Club in October to race again in December . The invitation to race was " immediately accepted . " Cambridge held the overall lead , with seven victories to Oxford 's two . = = Crews = = Oxford 's crew contained four rowers who had featured in the previous race in March , with Chitty , Steward , Sykes and Rich returning for the Dark Blues . Cambridge welcomed back five rowers and the cox , George Booth . The difference in weight between the crews was marginal , Oxford 's rowers weighing an average of just under 11 st 6 lb ( 72 @.@ 4 kg ) were 0 @.@ 125 pounds ( 0 @.@ 06 kg ) per man heavier than Cambridge . = = Race = = Oxford won the toss and elected to start from the Middlesex station , leaving Cambridge with Surrey . Weather conditions were poor : rain and a strong wind provided a " pitiless pelting " to spectators and the crews alike . Although pre @-@ race betting indicated no clear favourite , the high winds were thought to provide Cambridge with a slight advantage " as their style of rowing was deemed to be more suitable to stormy weather " and so the Light Blues went into the race as marginal favourites . Both crews were on the river before 3pm in boats constructed by Searle and Sons , described as " masterpieces of art " , complete with splashboards to reduce the amount of water taken on board . Cambridge made the better start and were clear by the Searles boathouse . They increased the lead by a further half @-@ a @-@ length and held it for another 0 @.@ 5 miles ( 0 @.@ 8 km ) , at which point Oxford produced a " marked improvement in speed " and began to reduce the deficit . As Cambridge had already moved in front of Oxford , they steered back towards the Surrey shore in preparation for shooting Hammersmith Bridge . In doing so , a collision ensued , causing Oxford to come to halt . Although Cambridge made a three @-@ to @-@ four length headstart , Oxford 's subsequent pace combined with Cambridge 's wayward steering reduced the gap and by the end of the race , the boats were nearly level . Immediately upon the conclusion , the race umpire , Thomas Howard Fellows of Leander Club declared the result in favour of Oxford , disqualifying Cambridge for the foul . Cambridge , although believing the foul was against them , did not object to the decision . The Cambridge University Boat Club secretary Charles Bagot wrote : " It is much to be regretted that a foul should have taken place , as , besides rendering the race an imperfect test of the merits of the respective crews , it very much disturbed the harmony and good feeling which should exist between members of the rival Universities in such contests . " As of 2015 , it remains the only time that the Boat Race has been decided by a disqualification .
= Ludlow Castle = Ludlow Castle is a ruined medieval fortification in the town of the same name in the English county of Shropshire , standing on a promontory overlooking the River Teme . The castle was probably founded by Walter de Lacy after the Norman conquest and was one of the first stone castles to be built in England . During the civil war of the 12th century the castle changed hands several times between the de Lacy 's and rival claimants , and was further fortified with a Great Tower and a large outer bailey . In the mid @-@ 13th century , Ludlow was passed on to Geoffrey de Geneville who rebuilt part of the inner bailey , and the castle played a part in the Second Barons ' War . Roger Mortimer acquired the castle in 1301 , further extending the internal complex of buildings , and the Mortimer family went on to hold Ludlow for over a century . Richard , the Duke of York , inherited the castle in 1425 , and it became an important symbol of Yorkist authority during the Wars of the Roses . When Richard 's son , Edward IV , seized the throne in 1461 it passed into the ownership of the Crown . Ludlow Castle was chosen as the seat of the Council in the Marches of Wales , effectively acting as the capital of Wales , and it was extensively renovated during throughout the 16th century . By the 17th century the castle was luxuriously appointed , hosting cultural events such as the first performance of John Milton 's masque Comus . Ludlow Castle was held by the Royalists during the English Civil War of the 1640s , until it was besieged and taken by a Parliamentarian army in 1646 . The contents of the castle were sold off and a garrison was retained there for much of the interregnum . With the Restoration of 1660 , the Council was reestablished and the castle repaired , but Ludlow never recovered from the civil war years and when the Council was finally abolished in 1689 it fell into neglect . Henry Herbert , the Earl of Powis , leased the property from the Crown in 1772 , extensively landscaping the ruins , and his brother @-@ in @-@ law , Edward Clive , bought the castle outright in 1811 . A mansion was constructed in the outer bailey but the remainder of the castle was left largely untouched , attracting an increasing number of visitors and becoming a popular location for artists . After 1900 , Ludlow Castle was cleared of vegetation and over the course of the century it was extensively repaired by the Powis Estate and government bodies . In the 21st century it is still owned by the Earl of Powis and operated as a tourist attraction . The architecture of Ludlow reflects its long history , retaining a blend of several styles of building . The castle is approximately 500 by 435 feet ( 152 by 133 m ) in size , covering almost 5 acres ( 2 @.@ 0 ha ) . The outer bailey includes the Castle House building , now used by the Powis Estate as offices and accommodation , while the inner bailey , separated by a trench cut out of the stone , houses the Great Tower , Solar block , Great Hall and Great Chamber block , along with later 16th century additions , as well as a rare , circular chapel , modelled on the shrine in the Church of the Holy Sepulchre . English Heritage notes that the ruins represent " a remarkably complete multi @-@ phase complex " and considers Ludlow to be " one of England 's finest castle sites " . = = History = = = = = 11th century = = = Ludlow Castle was probably founded by Walter de Lacy around 1075 . Walter had arrived in England in 1066 as part of William fitzOsbern 's household during the Norman conquest of England . FitzOsbern was made the Earl of Hereford and tasked with settling the area ; at the same time , several castles were founded in the west of the county , securing its border with Wales . Walter de Lacy was the earl 's second in command , and was rewarded with 163 manors spread across seven counties , with 91 in Herefordshire alone . Walter began building a castle within the manor of Stanton Lacy ; the fortification was originally called Dinham Castle , before it acquired its later name of Ludlow . Ludlow was the most important of Walter 's castles : as well as being at the heart of his new estates , the site also lay at a strategic crossroads over the Teme River , on a strong defensive promontory . Walter died in a construction accident at Hereford in 1085 and was succeeded by his son , Roger de Lacy . The castle 's Norman stone fortifications were added possibly as early as the 1080s onwards , and were finished before 1115 , based around what is now the inner bailey of the castle , forming a stone version of a ringwork . It had four towers and a gatehouse tower along the walls , with a ditch dug out of the rock along two sides , the excavated stone being reused for the building works , and would have been one of the very first masonry castles in England . With its circular design and grand entrance tower , it has been likened to the earlier Anglo @-@ Saxon burgheat designs . In 1096 , Roger was stripped of his lands after rebelling against William II and they were reassigned to Roger 's brother , Hugh . = = = 12th century = = = Hugh de Lacy died childless around 1115 , and Henry I gave Ludlow Castle and most of the surrounding estates to Hugh 's niece , Sybil , marrying her to Pain fitzJohn , one of his household staff . Pain used Ludlow as his caput , the main castle in his estates , using the surrounding estates and knight 's fees to support the castle and its defences . Pain died in 1137 fighting the Welsh , triggering a struggle for the inheritance of the castle . Robert fitzMiles , who had been planning to marry Pain 's daughter , laid claim to it , as did Gilbert de Lacy , Roger de Lacy 's son . By now , King Stephen had seized the English throne , but his position was insecure and he therefore gave Ludlow to fitzMiles in 1137 , in exchange for promises of future political support . A civil war between Stephen and the Empress Matilda soon broke out and Gilbert took his chance to rise up against Stephen , seizing Ludlow Castle . Stephen responded by taking an army into the Welsh Marches , where he attempted to garner local support by marrying one of his knights , Joce de Dinan , to Sybil and granting the future ownership of the castle to them . Stephen took the castle after several attempts in 1139 , famously rescuing his ally Prince Henry of Scotland when the latter was caught on a hook thrown over the walls by the garrison . Gilbert still maintained that he was the rightful owner of Ludlow , however , and a private war ensued between Joce and himself . Gilbert was ultimately successful and retook the castle around a few years before the end of the civil war in 1153 . He ultimately left for the Levant , leaving Ludlow in the hands of firstly , his eldest son , Robert , and then , after Robert 's death , his younger son , Hugh de Lacy . During this period , the Great Tower , a form of keep , was constructed by converting the entrance tower , probably either around the time of the siege of 1139 , or during the war between Gilbert and Joce . The old Norman castle had also begun to become too small for a growing household and , probably between 1140 and 1177 , an outer bailey was built to the south and east of the original castle , creating a large open space . In the process , the entrance to the castle shifted from the south to the east , to face the growing town of Ludlow . Gilbert probably built the circular chapel in the inner bailey , resembling the churches of the Templar order which he later joined . Hugh took part in the Norman invasion of Ireland and in 1172 was made Lord of Meath ; he spent much time away from Ludlow , and Henry II confiscated the castle in his absence , probably to ensure that Hugh stayed loyal while in Ireland . Hugh died in Ireland in 1186 and the castle passed to his son , Walter , who was a minor and did not take charge of the property until 1194 . During Prince John 's rebellion against Richard I in 1194 , Walter joined in the attacks against the prince ; Richard did not approve of this and confiscated Ludlow and Walter 's other properties . Walter de Lacy offered to buy back his land for 1 @,@ 000 marks , but the offer was rejected until in 1198 the vast sum of 3 @,@ 100 marks was finally agreed . = = = 13th century = = = Walter de Lacy travelled to Ireland in 1201 and the following year his properties , including Ludlow Castle , were once again confiscated to ensure his loyalty and placed under the control of William de Braose , his father @-@ in @-@ law . Walter 's lands were returned to him , subject to the payment of a fine of 400 marks , but in 1207 his disagreements with royal officials in Ireland led to King John seizing the castle and putting it under the control of William again . Walter reconciled himself with John the following year , but meanwhile William himself had fallen out with the King ; violence broke out and both Walter and William took refuge in Ireland , with John taking control of Ludlow yet again . It was not until 1215 that their relationship recovered and John agreed to give Ludlow back to Walter . At some point during the early 13th century , the innermost bailey was constructed in the castle , creating an additional private space within the inner bailey . In 1223 , King Henry III met with the Welsh prince Llywelyn ab Iorwerth at Ludlow Castle for peace talks , but the negotiations were unsuccessful . The same year Henry became suspicious of Walter 's activities in Ireland and , among other measures to secure his loyalty , Ludlow Castle was taken over by the Crown for a period of two years . This was cut short in May 1225 when Walter carried out a campaign against Henry 's enemies in Ireland and paid the King 3 @,@ 000 marks for the return of his castles and lands . During the 1230s , however , Walter had accumulated a thousand pounds of debt to Henry and private moneylenders which he was unable to repay . As a result , in 1238 he gave Ludlow Castle as collateral to the King , although the fortification was returned to him sometime before his death in 1241 . Walter 's granddaughters Maud and Margaret were due to inherit Walter 's remaining estates on his death , but they were still unmarried , making it hard for them to hold property in their own right . Henry informally divided the lands up between them , giving Ludlow to Maud and marrying her to one of his royal favourites , Peter de Geneva , cancelling many of the debts they had inherited from Walter at the same time . Peter died in 1249 and Maud married a second time , this time to Geoffrey de Geneville , a friend of the Prince Edward , the future king . In 1260 , Henry officially split up Walter 's estate , allowing Geoffrey to retain the castle . Henry lost control of power in the 1260s , resulting in the Second Barons ' War across England . Following the Royalist defeat in 1264 , the rebel leader Simon de Montfort seized Ludlow Castle , but it was recaptured shortly afterwards by Henry 's supporters , probably led by Geoffrey de Geneville . Prince Edward escaped from captivity in 1265 and met up with his supporters at the castle , before commencing his campaign to retake the throne , culminating in de Montfort 's defeat at Evesham later that year . Geoffrey continued to occupy the castle for the rest of the century under Edward I 's rule , prospering until his death in 1314 . Geoffrey built the Great Hall and the Solar block during his tenure of the castle , either between 1250 and 1280 , or later , in the 1280s and 1290s . The town walls of Ludlow also began to be constructed in the 13th century , probably from 1260 onwards , and these were linked to the castle to form a continuous ring of defences around the town . = = = 14th century = = = Geoffrey and Maud 's oldest granddaughter , Joan , married Roger Mortimer in 1301 , giving Mortimer control of Ludlow Castle . Around 1320 , Roger built the Great Chamber block alongside the existing Great Hall and Solar complex , copying what was becoming a popular tripartite design for domestic castle buildings in the 14th century ; an additional building was also constructed by Roger on the location of the later Tudor Lodgings , and the Guardrobe Tower was added to the curtain wall . Between 1321 and 1322 Mortimer found himself on the losing side of the Despenser War and , after being imprisoned by Edward II , he escaped from the Tower of London in 1323 into exile . While in France , Mortimer formed an alliance with Queen Isabella , Edward 's estranged wife , and together in 1327 they seized power in England . Mortimer was made the Earl of March and became extremely wealthy , possibly entertaining Edward III at the castle in 1329 . The earl built a new chapel in the Outer Bailey , named after Saint Peter , honouring the saint 's day on which he had escaped from the Tower . Mortimer 's work at Ludlow was probably intended to produce what the historian David Whitehead has termed a " show castle " with chivalric and Arthurian overtones , echoing the now archaic Norman styles of building . Mortimer fell from power the following year but his widow Joan was permitted to retain Ludlow . Ludlow Castle gradually became the Mortimer family 's most important property , but for much of the rest of the century its owners were too young to control the castle personally . The castle was first briefly inherited by Mortimer 's son , Edmund , and then in 1331 Mortimer 's young grandson , Roger , who eventually became a prominent soldier in the Hundred Years War . Roger 's young son , Edmund , inherited the castle in 1358 , and also grew up to become involved in the war with France . Both Roger and Edmund used a legal device called " the use " , effectively giving Ludlow Castle to trustees during their lifetimes in exchange for annual payments ; this reduced their tax liabilities and gave them more control over the distribution of the estates on their deaths . Edmund 's son , another Roger , inherited the castle in 1381 , but King Richard II took the opportunity of Roger 's minority to exploit the Mortimer estates until they were put into the control of a committee of major nobles . When Roger died in 1398 , Richard again took wardship of the castle on behalf of the young heir , Edmund , until he was deposed from power in 1399 . = = = 15th century = = = Ludlow Castle was in the wardship of King Henry IV , when the Owain Glyndŵr revolt broke out across Wales . Military captains were appointed to the castle to protect it from the rebel threat , in the first instance John Lovel and then Henry 's half @-@ brother , Sir Thomas Beaufort . Roger Mortimer 's younger brother , Edmund , set out from the castle with an army against the rebels in 1402 , but was captured at the Battle of Bryn Glas . Henry refused to ransom him , and he eventually married one of Glyndŵr 's daughters , before dying during the siege of Harlech Castle in 1409 . Henry placed the young heir to Ludlow , another Edmund Mortimer , under house arrest in the south of England , and kept a firm grip on Ludlow Castle himself . This persisted until Henry V finally granted Edmund his estates in 1413 , with Edmund going on to serve the Crown overseas . As a result , the Mortimers rarely visited the castle during the first part of the century , despite the surrounding town having become prosperous in the wool and cloth trades . Edmund fell heavily into debt and having sold his rights to his Welsh estates to a consortium of nobles , before dying childless in 1425 . The castle was inherited by Edmund 's sister 's young son , Richard the Duke of York , who took possession in 1432 . Richard took a keen interest in the castle , which formed the administrative base for his estates around the region , possibly living there in the late 1440s and definitely residing there for much of the 1450s . Richard also established his sons , including the future Edward IV , and their household at the castle in the 1450s , and was possibly responsible for rebuilding the northern part of the Great Tower during this period . The Wars of the Roses broke out between the Lancastrians and Richard 's Yorkist faction in the 1450s . Ludlow Castle did not find itself in the front @-@ line of most of the conflict , instead acting as a safe retreat away from the main fighting . An exception to this was the Battle of Ludford Bridge which took place just outside the town of Ludlow in 1459 , resulting in a largely bloodless victory for the Lancastrian Henry VI . After the battle , in a bid to break Richard 's power over the region , Edmund de la Mare was placed in charge of the castle as constable , with John Talbot , the Earl of Shrewsbury , being given the wider lordship . Richard was killed in battle in 1460 , and his son Edward seized the throne the following year , retaking control of Ludlow Castle and merging it with the property of the Crown . The new Edward IV visited the castle regularly and established a council there to govern his estates in Wales . He probably conducted only modest work on the property , although he may could have been responsible for the remodelling of the Great Tower . In 1473 , possibly influenced by his own childhood experiences at Ludlow , Edward sent his eldest son , the future Edward V , and his brother Prince Richard to live at the castle , which was also made the seat of the newly created Council in the Marches of Wales . By now Ludlow had become primarily residential , rather than military , but was still rich in chivalric connotations and a valuable symbol of the Yorkist authority and their claim to the throne . Edward died in 1483 , but after Henry VII took the throne in 1485 he continued to use Ludlow Castle as a regional base , granting it to his son , Prince Arthur , in 1493 , and reestablishing the dormant Council in the Marches at the property . = = = 16th century = = = In 1501 , Prince Arthur arrived in Ludlow for his honeymoon with his bride Catherine of Aragon , before dying the following year . The Council in the Marches of Wales continued to operate , however , under the guidance of its president , Bishop William Smyth . The council evolved into a combination of a governmental body and a court of law , settling a range of disputes across Wales and charged with maintaining general order , and Ludlow Castle became effectively the capital of Wales . Mary Tudor , daughter of Catherine of Aragon and Henry VIII , spent 19 months at Ludlow overseeing the Council of the Marches between 1525 and 1528 , along with her entourage of servants , advisors , and guardians . The relatively small sum of £ 5 was spent restoring the castle before her arrival . The council 's wide ranging role was reinforced in legislation in 1534 , and its purpose was further elaborated in the Act of Union of 1543 ; some presidents , such as Bishop Rowland Lee , used its harsher powers extensively to execute local criminals , but later presidents typically preferred to punish with the pillory , whipping or imprisonment in the castle . The Great Chamber itself was used as the council 's meeting room . The establishment of the Council in Ludlow Castle gave it a new lease of life , during a period in which many similar fortifications were falling into decay . By the 1530s , the castle needed considerable renovation ; Lee began work in 1534 , borrowing money to do so , but Sir Thomas Engleford complained the following year that the castle was still unfit for habitation . Lee repaired the castle roofs , probably using lead from the Carmelite friary in the town , and using the fines imposed and the goods confiscated by the court . He later claimed that the work on the castle would have cost around £ 500 , had the Crown had to pay for it all directly . The porter 's lodge and prison were built in the outer bailey around 1552 . The woods around the castle were gradually cut down during the 16th century . Elizabeth I , influenced by her royal favourite Robert Dudley , appointed Sir Henry Sidney as President of the Council in 1560 , and he took up residence at Ludlow Castle . Henry was a keen antiquarian with an interest in chivalry , and used his post to restore much of the castle in a late @-@ perpendicular style . He extended the castle by building family apartments between the Great Hall and Mortimer 's Tower , and used the former royal apartments as a guest wing , starting a tradition of decorating the Great Hall with the coats of arms of council officers . The larger windows in the castle were glazed , a clock installed and water piped into the castle . The judicial facilities were improved with a new courthouse converted out of the 14th @-@ century chapel , facilities for prisoners and storage facilities for the court records , Mortimer 's Tower in the outer bailey being turned into a record depository . The restoration was generally sympathetic and , although it included a fountain , a real tennis court , walks and viewing platform , it was less ephemeral a make @-@ over than seen in other castle restorations of the period . = = = 17th century = = = The castle was luxuriously appointed by the 17th century , with an expensive , but grand , household based around the Council of the Marches . The future Charles I was declared Prince of Wales in the castle by James I in 1616 , and Ludlow was made his principal castle in Wales . A company called the " Queen 's Players " entertained the Council in the 1610s , and in 1634 John Milton 's masque Comus was performed in the Great Hall for John Egerton , Earl of Bridgewater . The Council faced increased criticism over its legal practices , however , and in 1641 an Act of Parliament stripped it of its judicial powers . When the English Civil War broke out in 1642 between the supporters of King Charles and those of Parliament , Ludlow and the surrounding region supported the Royalists . A Royalist garrison was put in place in the town , under the command of Sir Michael Woodhouse , and the defences were strengthened , with artillery being brought from nearby Bringwood Forge for the castle . As the war turned against the King in 1644 , the garrison was drawn down to provide reinforcements for the field army . The military situation deteriorated and in 1645 the remaining outlying garrisons were drawn in to protect Ludlow itself . In April 1646 Sir William Brereton and Colonel John Birch led a Parliamentary army from Hereford to take Ludlow ; after a short siege , Woodhouse surrendered the castle and town on good terms on 26 May . During the years of the interregnum , Ludlow Castle continued to be run by Parliamentarian governors , the first being the military commander Samuel More . There was a Royalist plot to retake the castle in 1648 , but no other military activity took place . The most valuable items in the castle were removed shortly after the siege , and the remainder of the luxurious furnishings were sold off in the town in 1650 . The castle was initially kept garrisoned , but in 1653 , most of the weapons in the castle were removed on the grounds of security and sent to Hereford , then in 1655 the garrison was disbanded altogether . In 1659 , the political instability in the Commonwealth government led to the castle being regarrisoned by 100 men under the command of William Botterell . Charles II returned to the throne in 1660 and reinstated the Council of the Marches in 1661 , but the castle never recovered from the war . Richard Vaughan , the Earl of Carberry , was appointed president and given £ 2 @,@ 000 to renovate the castle , and between 1663 and 1665 , a company of infantry soldiers was garrisoned there , overseen by the earl , with the task of safeguard the money and contents of the castle as well as the ammunition for the local Welsh militia . The Council of the Marches failed to reestablish itself and was finally disbanded in 1689 , bringing an end to Ludlow Castle 's role in government . Uncared for , the condition of the castle rapidly deteriorated . = = = 18th century = = = The castle remained in disrepair , and in 1704 its governor , William Gower , proposed dismantling the castle and building a residential square on the site instead , in a more contemporary style . His proposal was not adopted but , by 1708 , only three rooms were still in use in the hall range , many of the other buildings in the inner bailey had fallen into disuse , and much of the remaining furniture was rotten or broken . Shortly after 1714 , the roofs were stripped of their lead and the wooden floors began to collapse ; the writer Daniel Defoe visited in 1722 , and noted that the castle " is in the very Perfection of Decay " . Nonetheless , some rooms remained usable for many years afterwards , possibly as late as the 1760s and 1770s , when drawings show the entrance block to the inner bailey to still be intact , and visitors remarked on the good condition of the round chapel . The stonework became overgrown with ivy , trees and shrubs , and by 1800 the chapel of Saint Mary Magdalene had finally degenerated into ruin . Alexander Stuart , an Army captain who served as the last governor of the castle , stripped down what remained of the fortification in the mid @-@ 1700s . Some of the stone was reused to build the Bowling Green House – later renamed the Castle Inn – on the north end of the tennis courts , while the north side of the outer bailey was used to make the bowling green itself . Stuart lived in a house in Ludlow itself , but decorated the Great Hall with the remains of the castle armoury , and may have charged visitors for admittance . It became fashionable to restore castles as private homes , and the future George II may have considered making Ludlow habitable again , but was deterred by the estimated costs of £ 30 @,@ 000 . Henry Herbert , the Earl of Powis , later became interested in acquiring the castle and in 1771 approached the Crown about leasing it . It is uncertain if he intended to further strip the castle of its materials or , more likely , if he intended to turn it into a private home , but the castle was , according to Powis ' surveyor 's report later that year , already " extremely ruinous " , the walls " mostly rubble and the battlements greatly decayed " . The Crown offered a 31 @-@ year lease at £ 20 a year , which Powis accepted in 1772 , only to die shortly afterwards . Henry 's son , George Herbert , maintained the lease and his wife , Henrietta , constructed gravel @-@ laid public walks around the castle , dug into the surrounding cliffs , and planted trees around the grounds to improve the castle 's appearance . The castle walls and towers were given superficial repairs and tidied up , usually when parts threatened to collapse , and the interior of the inner bailey levelled , costing considerable sums of money . The landscape also required expensive maintenance and repairs . The town of Ludlow was increasingly fashionable and frequented by tourists , with the castle forming a particularly popular attraction . Thomas Warton published an edition of Milton 's poems in 1785 , describing Ludlow Castle and popularising the links to Comus , reinforcing the castle 's reputation as a picturesque and sublime location . The castle became a topic for painters interested in these themes : J. M. W. Turner , Francis Towne , Thomas Hearne , Julius Ibbetson , Peter de Wint and William Marlowe all produced depictions of the castle during the late 18th and early 19th centuries , usually taking some artistic licence with the details in order to produce atmospheric works . = = = 19th century = = = Lord Clive , George 's brother @-@ in @-@ law and heir , attempted to acquire the lease after 1803 , citing the efforts that the family had put in to restoring the castle . He faced competition for the lease from the government 's Barrack Office , who were considering using the castle as a French prisoner @-@ of @-@ war camp for up to 4 @,@ 000 inmates from the Napoleonic wars . After some extensive discussions the prisoner @-@ of @-@ war plan was finally dropped , and Lord Clive , by now declared the Earl of Powis , was offered the chance to buy the castle outright for £ 1 @,@ 560 , which he accepted in 1811 . Between 1820 and 1828 the earl had converted the abandoned tennis court and the Castle Inn – which he closed in 1812 after buying the castle – into a new , grand building , called Castle House , overlooking the north side of the outer bailey . By the 1840s the house had been leased out , first to George Hodges and his family , and then to William Urwick and to Robert Marston , all important members of the local landowning classes . The mansion included a drawing room , dining room , study , servants ' quarters , a conservatory and grapevines , and in 1887 was worth £ 50 a year in rent . During the 19th century , vegetation continued to grow over the castle 's stonework , although after a survey by Arthur Blomfield in 1883 , which highlighted the damage being caused by the ivy , attempts were made to control the plants , cleaning them off many of the walls . Ludlow Castle was held in high esteem by Victorian antiquarians , George Clark referring to it as " the glory of the middle marches of Wales " and as being " probably without rival in Britain " for its woodland setting . When Ludlow became connected to the growing railway network in 1852 , the numbers of tourists to the castle increased , with admission costing six pence in 1887 . The castle was put to a wide range of uses . The grassy areas of the bailey were kept cropped by grazing sheep and goats , and used for fox hunting meetings , sporting events and agricultural shows ; parts of the outer bailey was used as a timber yard , and , by the turn of the century , the old prison was used as an ammunition store by the local volunteer militia . = = = 20th century = = = W. H. St John Hope and Harold Brakspear began a sequence of archaeological investigations at Ludlow Castle in 1903 , publishing their conclusions in 1909 in an account which continues to be held in regard by modern academics . Christian Herbert , the Earl of Powis , cleared away much of the ivy and vegetation from the castle stonework . In 1915 the castle was declared an ancient monument by the state , but it continued to be owned and maintained by the earl and trustees of the Powis estate . The castle was increasingly rigorously maintained , and during the 1910s and 1920s the larger trees around the castle were cut down , and the animals were cleared from the inner and outer baileys on the basis that they posed a health and safety risk to visitors . The 1930s saw a major effort to clear the remaining vegetation from the castle , the cellars were cleared of debris by the government 's Office of Works and the stable block was converted into a museum . Tourists continued to visit the castle , with the 1920s and 1930s seeing many day @-@ trips by teams of workers in the region encouraged by the growth in motor transport . The open spaces inside the castle were used by the local townsfolk for football matches and similar events , and in 1934 Milton 's Comus was restaged in the castle to mark the 300th anniversary of the first such event . Castle House in the outer bailey was leased to the diplomat Sir Alexander Stephen in 1901 , who carried out extensive work on the property in 1904 , extending and modernising the north end of the house , including constructing a billiard room and a library ; he estimated the cost of the work to be around £ 800 . Castle House continued to be leased out by the Powis estate to wealthy individuals up until the Second World War . One such lessee , Richard Henderson observed that he had spent around £ 4 @,@ 000 maintaining and upgrading the property , and the rentable value of the property rose from £ 76 to £ 150 over the period . During the Second World War the castle was used by the Allied military . The Great Tower was used as a look @-@ out post and United States ' forces used the castle gardens for baseball games . Castle House fell empty after the death of its final lessee , James Geenway ; the house was then briefly requisitioned in 1942 by the Royal Air Force and turned into flats for key war workers , causing extensive damage later estimated at £ 2 @,@ 000 . In 1956 , Castle House was de @-@ requisitioned and sold by the Earl of Powis the following year to Ludlow Borough Council for £ 4 @,@ 000 , which rented out the flats . During the 1970s and early 1980s the Department of the Environment assisted the Powis estate by lending government staff to repair the castle . Visitor numbers were falling , however , in part due the dilapidated condition of the property , and the estate became increasingly unable to afford to maintain the castle . After 1984 , when the function of the department was taken over by English Heritage , a more systematic approach was put into place . This based around a partnership in which the Powis Estate would retain ownership of the castle and develop visitor access , in exchange for a £ 500 @,@ 000 contribution from English Heritage for a jointly @-@ funded programme of repairs and maintenance , delivered through specialist contractors . This included repairs to the parts of the curtain wall , which collapsed in 1990 , and the redevelopment of the visitor 's centre . Limited archaeological excavation was carried out in the outer bailey between 1992 and 1993 by the City of Hereford Archaeology Unit . = = = 21st century = = = In the 21st century , Ludlow Castle is owned by John Herbert , the current Earl of Powis , but is held and managed by the Trustees of the Powis Castle Estate as a tourist attraction . The castle was receiving over 100 @,@ 000 visitors a year by 2005 , more than in previous decades . The castle traditionally hosts a Shakespearean play as part of the annual cultural Ludlow Festival in the town , and is at the centre of the Ludlow Food and Drink Festival each September . English Heritage considers Ludlow to be " one of England 's finest castle sites " , with the ruins representing " a remarkably complete multi @-@ phase complex " . It is protected under UK law as a Scheduled Monument and a Grade I listed building . By the 21st century , however , Castle House had become dilapidated and English Heritage placed it on its " at risk " register . In 2002 , the Powis Estate repurchased the property from the South Shropshire District Council for £ 500 @,@ 000 , renovating it and converting it for use as offices and rental apartments , reopening the building in 2005 . = = Architecture = = Ludlow Castle sits on a rocky promontory , overlooking the modern town of Ludlow on lower ground to the east , while the ground slopes steeply from the castle to the rivers Corve and Teme to the south and west , about 100 feet ( 30 m ) below . The castle is broadly rectangular in shape , and approximately 500 by 435 feet ( 152 by 133 m ) in size , covering almost 5 acres ( 2 @.@ 0 ha ) in total . The interior is divided into two main parts : an inner bailey which occupies the north @-@ west corner and a much larger outer bailey . A third enclosure , known as the innermost bailey , was created in the early 13th century when walls were built to enclose the south @-@ west corner of the inner ward . The castle 's walls are linked to Ludlow 's medieval town wall circuit on the south and east sides . The castle is built from a range of different types of stone ; the Norman stone work is constructed from greenish @-@ grey siltstone rubble , with the ashlar and quoin features carved from red sandstone , with the later work primarily using local red sandstone . = = = Outer bailey = = = The outer bailey is entered through a gatehouse ; inside , the space within the curtain walls is divided into two . On the north side of the outer bailey is Castle House and its gardens ; the house is a two @-@ storeyed property , based around the old walls of the tennis court and the Castle Inn , and the curtain wall . The north end of Castle House butts onto Beacon Tower , overlooking the town . The other half of the outer bailey houses the 16th @-@ century porter 's lodge , prison and stable block which run along its eastern edge . The porter 's lodge and prison comprise two buildings , 40 feet ( 12 m ) and 58 by 23 feet ( 17 @.@ 7 by 7 @.@ 0 m ) across , both two @-@ storeyed and well built in ashlar stone , with a stable block on the far end , more crudely built in stone and 66 by 21 feet ( 20 @.@ 1 by 6 @.@ 4 m ) in size . The exterior of the prison was originally decorated with the coats of arms of Henry , the Earl of Pembroke , and Queen Elizabeth I , but these have since been destroyed , as have the barred windows which once protected the property . Along the south of the bailey are the remains of St Peter 's , a former 14th @-@ century chapel , approximately 21 by 52 feet ( 6 @.@ 4 by 15 @.@ 8 m ) in size , later converted to a courthouse by the addition of an extension reaching up to the western curtain wall . The courtroom occupied the whole of the combined first floor with records kept in the rooms underneath . The south @-@ west corner of the outer bailey is cut off by a modern wall from the rest of the bailey . The western curtain wall is approximately 6 @-@ foot @-@ 5 @-@ inch ( 1 @.@ 96 m ) thick , and guarded by the 13th @-@ century Mortimer 's Tower , 18 feet ( 5 @.@ 5 m ) across externally , with a ground floor vaulted chamber inside , 12 @-@ foot ( 3 @.@ 7 m ) large . When first built , Mortimer 's Tower was a three storey gateway with an unusual D @-@ shaped design , possibly similar to those at Trim Castle in Ireland , but in the 15th century the entrance way was blocked up to turn it into a conventional mural tower , and in the 16th century an additional internal floor was inserted . The tower is now roofless , although it was roofed as late as the end of the 19th century . = = = Inner bailey = = = The inner bailey represents the extent of the original Norman castle and is protected by a curtain wall between 5 @-@ foot ( 1 @.@ 5 m ) and 6 @-@ foot ( 1 @.@ 8 m ) thick . On the south and west sides the wall is protected by a ditch , originally up to 80 @-@ foot ( 24 m ) deep , cut out of the rock and navigated by a bridge which still contains part of the ashlar stone of its 16th century predecessor . Within the inner bailey , a separate area , called the innermost bailey , was created by the addition of a 5 @-@ foot ( 1 @.@ 5 m ) thick stone wall around the south @-@ west corner in the early 13th century . The gatehouse to the inner bailey has the coats of arms of Sir Henry Sidney and Queen Elizabeth I displayed over it , dating to 1581 , and was originally a three @-@ storeyed building with transomed windows and fireplaces , probably used as the lodgings for the judges . There were probably additional heraldic supporters displayed alongside the arms , since lost . A porter 's lodge would have been on the right hand side of the entrance to control access , with the rooms accessed by a spiral staircase in a protruding tower , with prominent triple chimneys , since lost . Alongside the gatehouse was originally a half @-@ timbered building , possibly a laundry , approximately 48 by 15 feet ( 14 @.@ 6 by 4 @.@ 6 m ) , which has since been lost . On the east side of the bailey is the 12th @-@ century chapel of Saint Mary Magdalene . The circular , Romanesque design of the chapel is unusual , with only three similar examples existing in England , at Castle Rising , Hereford and Pevensey . Built from sandstone , the circular design imitates the shrine at the Church of the Holy Sepulchre . Originally the chapel had a nave , a square presbytery , 3 @.@ 8 by 3 @.@ 8 metres ( 12 by 12 ft ) in size , and a chancel , but this design was heavily altered in the 16th century and only the nave survives . Although roofless , the nave survives to its full height and is 26 feet 3 inches ( 8 @.@ 00 m ) in diameter , visibly divided into two sections by different bands of stonework , and with some plaster surviving on the lower level . Around the inside of the nave are 14 arcaded bays in the walls . The north end of the bailey is occupied by a range of buildings , the Solar block , the Great Hall and the Great Chamber block , with the Tudor Lodgings in the north @-@ east corner . The Tudor Lodgings take the form of two rhomboids to fit into the space provided by the curtain wall , divided by a cross @-@ wall , the west side being approximately 33 by 15 feet ( 10 @.@ 1 by 4 @.@ 6 m ) , and the east side 33 by 21 feet ( 10 @.@ 1 by 6 @.@ 4 m ) . They were entered by a shared spiral staircase , a design used in various episcopal palaces in the 16th century , and originally provided sets of individual offices and personal rooms for the court officials , later being converted into two distinct apartments . The Great Chamber block adjoining the Tudor Lodgings dates from around 1320 . Another rhomboid design , approximately 53 by 34 feet ( 16 by 10 m ) across , this originally had its main chamber on the first floor , but has been much altered over the subsequent years . The carved corbel heads that survive on the first floor may represent Edward II and Queen Isabella . Behind the Great Chamber block is the Guardrobe Tower , a four storeyed construction , providing a combination of bed chambers and guardrobes . In the 13th @-@ century Great Hall , the hall itself was also positioned on the first floor , originally fitted with a wooden floor supported by stone pillars in the basement , and a massive wooden roof . It was 60 by 30 feet ( 18 @.@ 3 by 9 @.@ 1 m ) across : this 2 : 1 ratio between length and width was typical for castle halls of this period . The hall was reached by a flight of stone steps at the west end , and lit by three tall , trefoiled windows , each originally with its own window seat and south @-@ facing to receive the sunlight . Originally the hall had an open fire in the centre , which was normal for the 13th century , but the middle window was turned into a more modern fireplace around 1580 . To the west of the Great Hall is the three @-@ storeyed Solar block , an irregular oblong measuring up to 26 by 39 feet ( 7 @.@ 9 by 11 @.@ 9 m ) in size . The first floor chamber would probably have been used as a solar , with the cellar being used as a service area . The Great Hall and Solar block were built at the same time in the 13th century , the builders carving out the inside of the old Norman tower behind them in the process . They were probably built in two phases and were originally intended to be smaller , less grand buildings , only for the design to be changed about halfway through construction ; they were finished in a rushed manner , the traces of which can still be seen , along with other changes made in the 16th and 17th centuries . The North @-@ West and North @-@ East towers behind the northern range are Norman in origin , from the 11th and early 12th century . When first built , they were created by pushing or folding the line of the curtain wall outwards to create the desired external shape , and then adding timber floors and a timber wall at the back , rather than being designed as individual buildings . The timber parts of the towers were later replaced in stone , and incorporated into the later range of buildings . The North @-@ East Tower , also known as the Pendover Tower , was originally two @-@ storeys high , with a third floor added on in the 14th century , followed by an extensive remodelling of the inside in the 16th century . It has chamfered angles on the external corners to make it harder to attack the stonework , although this has weakened the structural strength of the tower as a whole . The North @-@ West Tower had similar chamfered corners , but the Closet Tower was built alongside it in the 13th century , altering the external appearance . Two more Norman towers survive in the innermost bailey , the West Tower , also known as the Postern Tower , because it contained a postern gate , and the South @-@ West tower , also called the Oven Tower , on account of its cooking facilities . The Norman towers looked out towards Wales , probably to make a symbolic statement . A range , now lost , once stretched from the innermost bailey towards the Great Hall , including a large stone house running along the curtain wall , 54 by 20 feet ( 16 @.@ 5 by 6 @.@ 1 m ) in size , and on the other side of the innermost bailey , the Great Kitchen , 31 by 23 feet ( 9 @.@ 4 by 7 @.@ 0 m ) in size , built around the same time as the Great Hall , and an oven building , since lost , 21 by 27 feet ( 6 @.@ 4 by 8 @.@ 2 m ) . The Great Tower , or keep , is on the south side of the innermost bailey . A roughly square building , four storeys tall , most of its walls are 8 @-@ foot @-@ 6 @-@ inch ( 2 @.@ 59 m ) thick , with the exception of its newer northern facing wall , only 7 @-@ foot @-@ 6 @-@ inch ( 2 @.@ 29 m ) thick . The Great Tower was constructed in several stages . Originally it was a relatively large gatehouse in the original Norman castle , probably with accommodation over the gateway , before being extended to form the Great Tower in the mid @-@ 12th century , although still being used as a gatehouse for the inner bailey . When the innermost bailey was created in the early 13th century , the gateway was then filled in and a new gateway cut into the inner bailey wall just to the east of the Great Tower . Finally , the north side of the tower was rebuilt in the mid @-@ 15th century to produce the Great Tower that appears today . The keep has a vaulted basement , 20 @-@ foot ( 6 @.@ 1 m ) high , with Norman wall arcading , and a row of windows along the first floor , since mostly blocked . The arcading echoes that in the chapel , and probably dates from around 1080 . The windows and large entrance @-@ way would have looked impressive , but would also have been very hard to defend ; this form of tower probably reflected earlier Anglo @-@ Saxon high @-@ status towers and was intended to display lordship . The first floor originally formed a tall hall , 29 by 17 feet ( 8 @.@ 8 by 5 @.@ 2 m ) across , which was subsequently subdivided into two separate floors . = = = = Early 12th century chapel = = = =
= Photovoltaic power station = A photovoltaic power station , also known as a solar park , is a large @-@ scale photovoltaic system ( PV system ) designed for the supply of merchant power into the electricity grid . They are differentiated from most building @-@ mounted and other decentralised solar power applications because they supply power at the utility level , rather than to a local user or users . They are sometimes also referred to as solar farms or solar ranches , especially when sited in agricultural areas . The generic expression utility @-@ scale solar is sometimes used to describe this type of project . The solar power source is via photovoltaic modules that convert light directly to electricity . However , this differs from , and should not be confused with concentrated solar power , the other large @-@ scale solar generation technology , which uses heat to drive a variety of conventional generator systems . Both approaches have their own advantages and disadvantages , but to date , for a variety of reasons , photovoltaic technology has seen much wider use in the field . As of 2013 , PV systems outnumber concentrators by about 40 to 1 . In some countries , the nameplate capacity of a photovoltaic power stations is rated in megawatt @-@ peak ( MWp ) , which refers to the solar array 's DC power output . However , Canada , Japan , Spain and some parts of the United States often specify using the converted lower nominal power output in MWAC ; a measure directly comparable to other forms of power generation . A third and less common rating is the mega volt @-@ amperes ( MVA ) . Most solar parks are developed at a scale of at least 1 MWp . As of 2015 , the world 's largest operating photovoltaic power stations have capacities of close to 600 megawatts and projects up to 1 gigawatt are planned . As at the end of 2015 , about 3 @,@ 400 projects with a combined capacity of 60 GWAC were solar farms larger than 4 MW . Most of the existing large @-@ scale photovoltaic power stations are owned and operated by independent power producers , but the involvement of community- and utility @-@ owned projects is increasing . To date , almost all have been supported at least in part by regulatory incentives such as feed @-@ in tariffs or tax credits , but as levelized costs have fallen significantly in the last decade and grid parity has been reached in an increasing number of markets , it may not be long before external incentives cease to exist . = = History = = The first 1 MWp solar park was built by Arco Solar at Lugo near Hesperia , California at the end of 1982 , followed in 1984 by a 5 @.@ 2 MWp installation in Carrizo Plain . Both have since been decommissioned , though Carrizo Plain is the site for several large plants now being constructed or planned . The next stage followed the 2004 revisions to the feed @-@ in tariffs in Germany when a substantial volume of solar parks were constructed . Several hundred installations over 1 MWp have been since been installed in Germany , of which more than 50 are over 10 MWp . With its introduction of feed @-@ in tariffs in 2008 , Spain became briefly the largest market , with some 60 solar parks over 10 MW , but these incentives have since been withdrawn . The USA , China India , France , Canada , and Italy , amongst others , have also become major markets as shown on the list of photovoltaic power stations . The largest sites under construction have capacities of hundreds of MWp and projects at a scale of 1 GWp are being planned . = = Siting and land use = = The land area required for a desired power output , varies depending on the location , and on the efficiency of the solar modules , the slope of the site and the type of mounting used . Fixed tilt solar arrays using typical modules of about 15 % efficiency on horizontal sites , need about 1 hectare / MW in the tropics and this figure rises to over 2 hectares in northern Europe . Because of the longer shadow the array casts when tilted at a steeper angle , this area is typically about 10 % higher for an adjustable tilt array or a single axis tracker , and 20 % higher for a 2 @-@ axis tracker , though these figures will vary depending on the latitude and topography . The best locations for solar parks in terms of land use are held to be brown field sites , or where there is no other valuable land use . Even in cultivated areas , a significant proportion of the site of a solar farm can also be devoted to other productive uses , such as crop growing or biodiversity . = = = Agrivoltaics = = = Agrivoltaics is co @-@ developing the same area of land for both solar photovoltaic power as well as for conventional agriculture . A recent study found that the value of solar generated electricity coupled to shade @-@ tolerant crop production created an over 30 % increase in economic value from farms deploying agrivoltaic systems instead of conventional agriculture . = = = Co @-@ location = = = In some cases several different solar power stations , with separate owners and contractors , are developed on adjacent sites . This can offer the advantage of the projects sharing the cost and risks of project infrastructure such as grid connections and planning approval . Solar farms can also be co @-@ located with wind farms . Sometimes the title ' solar park ' is used , rather than an individual solar power station . Some examples of such solar clusters are the Charanka Solar Park , where there are 17 different generation projects ; Neuhardenberg , with eleven plants , and the Golmud solar parks with total reported capacity over 500MW . An extreme example is calling all of the solar farms in the Gujarat state of India a single solar park , the Gujarat Solar Park . = = Technology = = Most Solar parks are ground mounted PV systems , also known as free @-@ field solar power plants . They can either be fixed tilt or use a single axis or dual axis solar tracker . While tracking improves the overall performance , it also increases the system 's installation and maintenance cost . A solar inverter converts the array 's power output from DC to AC , and connection to the utility grid is made through a high voltage , three phase step up transformer of typically 10 kV and above . = = = Solar array arrangements = = = The solar arrays are the subsystems which convert incoming light into electrical energy . They comprise a multitude of solar modules , mounted on support structures and interconnected to deliver a power output to electronic power conditioning subsystems . A minority of utility @-@ scale solar parks are configured on buildings and so use building @-@ mounted solar arrays . The majority are ' free field ' systems using ground @-@ mounted structures , usually of one of the following types : = = = = Fixed arrays = = = = Many projects use mounting structures where the solar modules are mounted at a fixed inclination calculated to provide the optimum annual output profile . The modules are normally oriented towards the Equator , at a tilt angle slightly less than the latitude of the site . In some cases , depending on local climatic , topographical or electricity pricing regimes , different tilt angles can be used , or the arrays might be offset from the normal East @-@ West axis to favour morning or evening output . A variant on this design is the use of arrays , whose tilt angle can be adjusted twice or four times annually to optimise seasonal output . They also require more land area to reduce internal shading at the steeper winter tilt angle . Because the increased output is typically only a few percent , it seldom justifies the increased cost and complexity of this design . = = = = Dual axis trackers = = = = To maximise the intensity of incoming direct radiation , solar panels should be orientated normal to the sun 's rays . To achieve this , arrays can be designed using two @-@ axis trackers , capable of tracking the sun in its daily orbit across the sky , and as its elevation changes throughout the year . These arrays need to be spaced out to reduce inter @-@ shading as the sun moves and the array orientations change , so need more land area . They also require more complex mechanisms to maintain the array surface at the required angle . The increased output can be of the order of 30 % in locations with high levels of direct radiation , but the increase is lower in temperate climates or those with more significant diffuse radiation , due to overcast conditions . For this reason , dual axis trackers are most commonly used in subtropical regions , and were first deployed at utility scale at the Lugo plant . = = = = Single axis trackers = = = = A third approach achieves some of the output benefits of tracking , with a lesser penalty in terms of land area , capital and operating cost . This involves tracking the sun in one dimension – in its daily journey across the sky – but not adjusting for the seasons . The angle of the axis is normally horizontal , though some , such as the solar park at Nellis Airforce Base , which have a 20 ° tilt , incline the axis towards the equator in a north @-@ south orientation – effectively a hybrid between tracking and fixed tilt . Single axis tracking systems are aligned along axes roughly North @-@ South . Some use linkages between rows so that the same actuator can adjust the angle of several rows at once . = = = Power conversion = = = Solar panels produce direct current ( DC ) electricity , so solar parks need conversion equipment to convert this to alternating current ( AC ) , which is the form transmitted by the electricity grid . This conversion is done by inverters . To maximise their efficiency , solar power plants also incorporate maximum power point trackers , either within the inverters or as separate units . These devices keep each solar array string close to its peak power point . There are two primary alternatives for configuring this conversion equipment ; centralised and string inverters , although in some cases individual , or micro @-@ inverters are used . Single inverters allows optimizing the output of each panel , and multiple inverters increases the reliability by limiting the loss of output when an inverter fails . = = = = Centralised inverters = = = = These units have relatively high capacity , typically of the order of 1 MW , so they condition that the output of a substantial block of solar arrays , up to perhaps 2 hectares ( 4 @.@ 9 acres ) in area . Solar parks using centralised inverters are often configured in discrete rectangular blocks , with the related inverter in one corner , or the centre of the block . = = = = String inverters = = = = String inverters are substantially lower in capacity , of the order of 10 kW , and condition the output of a single array string . This is normally a whole , or part of , a row of solar arrays within the overall plant . String inverters can enhance the efficiency of solar parks , where different parts of the array are experiencing different levels of insolation , for example where arranged at different orientations , or closely packed to minimise site area . = = = = Transformers = = = = The system inverters typically provide power output at voltages of the order of 480 VAC . Electricity grids operate at much higher voltages of the order of tens or hundreds of thousands of volts , so transformers are incorporated to deliver the required output to the grid . Due to the long lead time , the Long Island Solar Farm chose to keep a spare transformer onsite , as transformer failure would have kept the solar farm offline for a long period . Transformers typically have a life of 25 to 75 years , and normally do not require replacement during the life of a photovoltaic power station . = = = System performance = = = The performance of a solar park is a function of the climatic conditions , the equipment used and the system configuration . The primary energy input is the global light irradiance in the plane of the solar arrays , and this in turn is a combination of the direct and the diffuse radiation . A key determinant of the output of the system is the conversion efficiency of the solar modules , which will depend in particular on the type of solar cell used . There will be losses between the DC output of the solar modules and the AC power delivered to the grid , due to a wide range of factors such as light absorption losses , mismatch , cable voltage drop , conversion efficiencies , and other parasitic losses . A parameter called the ' performance ratio ' has been developed to evaluate the total value of these losses . The performance ratio gives a measure of the output AC power delivered as a proportion of the total DC power which the solar modules should be able to deliver under the ambient climatic conditions . In modern solar parks the performance ratio should typically be in excess of 80 % . = = = System degradation = = = Early photovoltaic systems output decreased as much as 10 % / year , but as of 2010 the median degradation rate was 0 @.@ 5 % / year , with modules made after 2000 having a significantly lower degradation rate , so that a system would lose only 12 % of its output performance in 25 years . A system using modules which degrade 4 % / year will lose 64 % of its output during the same period . Many panel makers offer a performance guarantee , typically 90 % in ten years and 80 % over 25 years . The output of all panels is typically warranteed at plus or minus 3 % during the first year of operation . = = The business of developing solar parks = = Solar power plants are developed to deliver merchant electricity into the grid as an alternative to other renewable , fossil or nuclear generating stations . The plant owner is an electricity generator . Most solar power plants today are owned by independent power producers ( IPP 's ) , though some are held by investor- or community @-@ owned utilities . Some of these power producers develop their own portfolio of power plants , but most solar parks are initially designed and constructed by specialist project developers . Typically the developer will plan the project , obtain planning and connection consents , and arrange financing for the capital required . The actual construction work is normally contracted to one or more EPC ( engineering , procurement and construction ) contractors . Major milestones in the development of a new photovoltaic power plant are planning consent , grid connection approval , financial close , construction , connection and commissioning . At each stage in the process , the developer will be able to update estimates of the anticipated performance and costs of the plant and the financial returns it should be able to deliver . = = = Planning approval = = = Photovoltaic power stations occupy at least one hectare for each megawatt of rated output , so require a substantial land area ; which is subject to planning approval . The chances of obtaining consent , and the related time , cost and conditions , varying from jurisdiction to jurisdiction and location to location . Many planning approvals will also apply conditions on the treatment of the site after the station has been decommissioned in the future . A professional health , safety and environment assessment is usually undertaken during the design of a PV power station in order to ensure the facility is designed and planned in accordance with all HSE regulations . = = = Grid connection = = = The availability , locality and capacity of the connection to the grid is a major consideration in planning a new solar park , and can be a significant contributor to the cost . Most stations are sited within a few kilometres of a suitable grid connection point . This network needs to be capable of absorbing the output of the solar park when operating at its maximum capacity . The project developer will normally have to absorb the cost of providing power lines to this point and making the connection ; in addition often to any costs associated with upgrading the grid , so it can accommodate the output from the plant . = = = Operation and maintenance = = = Once the solar park has been commissioned , the owner usually enters into a contract with a suitable counterparty to undertake operation and maintenance ( O & M ) . In many cases this may be fulfilled by the original EPC contractor . Solar plants ' reliable solid @-@ state systems require minimal maintenance , compared to rotating machinery for example . A major aspect of the O & M contract will be continuous monitoring of the performance of the plant and all of its primary subsystems , which is normally undertaken remotely . This enables performance to be compared with the anticipated output under the climatic conditions actually experienced . It also provides data to enable the scheduling of both rectification and preventive maintenance . A small number of large solar farms use a separate inverter or maximizer for each solar panel , which provide individual performance data that can be monitored . For other solar farms , thermal imaging is a tool that is used to identify non @-@ performing panels for replacement . = = = Power delivery = = = A solar park 's income derives from the sales of electricity to the grid , and so its output is metered in real @-@ time with readings of its energy output provided , typically on a half @-@ hourly basis , for balancing and settlement within the electricity market . Income is affected by the reliability of equipment within the plant and also by the availability of the grid network to which it is exporting . Some connection contracts allow the transmission system operator to constrain the output of a solar park , for example at times of low demand or high availability of other generators . Some countries make statutory provision for priority access to the grid for renewable generators , such as that under the European Renewable Energy Directive . = = Economics and Finance = = In recent years , PV technology has improved its electricity generating efficiency , reduced the installation cost per watt as well as its energy payback time ( EPBT ) , and has reached grid parity in at least 19 different markets by 2014 . Photovoltaics is increasingly becoming a viable source of mainstream power . However , prices for PV systems show strong regional variations , much more than solar cells and panels , which tend to be global commodities . In 2013 , utility @-@ scale system prices in highly penetrated markets such as China and Germany were significantly lower ( $ 1 @.@ 40 / W ) than in the United States ( $ 3 @.@ 30 / W ) . The IEA explains these discrepancies due to differences in " soft costs " , which include customer acquisition , permitting , inspection and interconnection , installation labor and financing costs . = = = Grid parity = = = Solar generating stations have become progressively cheaper in recent years , and this trend is expected to continue . Meanwhile , traditional electricity generation is becoming progressively more expensive . These trends are expected to lead to a crossover point when the levelised cost of energy from solar parks , historically more expensive , matches the cost of traditional electricity generation . This point is commonly referred to as grid parity . For merchant solar power stations , where the electricity is being sold into the electricity transmission network , the levelised cost of solar energy will need to match the wholesale electricity price . This point is sometimes called ' wholesale grid parity ' or ' busbar parity ' . Some photovoltaic systems , such as rooftop installations , can supply power directly to an electricity user . In these cases , the installation can be competitive when the output cost matches the price at which the user pays for his electricity consumption . This situation is sometimes called ' retail grid parity ' , ' socket parity ' or ' dynamic grid parity ' . Research carried out by UN @-@ Energy in 2012 suggests areas of sunny countries with high electricity prices , such as Italy , Spain and Australia , and areas using diesel generators , have reached retail grid parity . = = = Incentive mechanisms = = = Because the point of grid parity has not yet been reached in many parts of the world , solar generating stations need some form of financial incentive to compete for the supply of electricity . Many legislatures around the world have introduced such incentives to support the deployment of solar power stations . = = = = Feed @-@ in tariffs = = = = Feed in tariffs are designated prices which must be paid by utility companies for each kilowatt hour of renewable electricity produced by qualifying generators and fed into the grid . These tariffs normally represent a premium on wholesale electricity prices and offer a guaranteed revenue stream to help the power producer finance the project . = = = = Renewable portfolio standards and supplier obligations = = = = These standards are obligations on utility companies to source a proportion of their electricity from renewable generators . In most cases , they do not prescribe which technology should be used and the utility is free to select the most appropriate renewable sources . There are some exceptions where solar technologies are allocated a proportion of the RPS in what is sometimes referred to as a ' solar set aside ' . = = = = Loan guarantees and other capital incentives = = = = Some countries and states adopt less targeted financial incentives , available for a wide range of infrastructure investment , such as the US Department of Energy loan guarantee scheme , which stimulated a number of investments in the solar power plant in 2010 and 2011 . = = = = Tax credits and other fiscal incentives = = = = Another form of indirect incentive which has been used to stimulate investment in solar power plant was tax credits available to investors . In some cases the credits were linked to the energy produced by the installations , such as the Production Tax Credits . In other cases the credits were related to the capital investment such as the Investment Tax Credits = = = = International , national and regional programmes = = = = In addition to free market commercial incentives , some countries and regions have specific programs to support the deployment of solar energy installations . The European Union 's Renewables Directive sets targets for increasing levels of deployment of renewable energy in all member states . Each has been required to develop a National Renewable Energy Action Plan showing how these targets would be met , and many of these have specific support measures for solar energy deployment . The directive also allows states to develop projects outside their national boundaries , and this may lead to bilateral programs such as the Helios project . The Clean Development Mechanism of the UNFCCC is an international programme under which solar generating stations in certain qualifying countries can be supported . Additionally many other countries have specific solar energy development programmes . Some examples are India 's JNNSM , the Flagship Program in Australia , and similar projects in South Africa and Israel . = = = Financial performance = = = The financial performance of the solar power plant is a function of its income and its costs . The electrical output of a solar park will be related to the solar radiation , the capacity of the plant and its performance ratio . The income derived from this electrical output will come primarily from the sale of the electricity , and any incentive payments such as those under Feed @-@ in Tariffs or other support mechanisms . Electricity prices may vary at different times of day , giving a higher price at times of high demand . This may influence the design of the plant to increase its output at such times . The dominant costs of solar power plants are the capital cost , and therefore any associated financing and depreciation . Though operating costs are typically relatively low , especially as no fuel is required , most operators will want to ensure that adequate operation and maintenance cover is available to maximise the availability of the plant and thereby optimise the income to cost ratio . = = Geography = = The first places to reach grid parity were those with high traditional electricity prices and high levels of solar radiation . Currently , more capacity is being installed in the rooftop than in the utility @-@ scale segment . However , the worldwide distribution of solar parks is expected to change as different regions achieve grid parity . This transition also includes a shift from rooftop towards utility @-@ scale plants , since the focus of new PV deployment has changed from Europe towards the Sunbelt markets where ground @-@ mounted PV systems are favored . Because of the economic background , large @-@ scale systems are presently distributed where the support regimes have been the most consistent , or the most advantageous . Total capacity of worldwide PV plants above 4 MWAC was assessed by Wiki @-@ Solar as 36 GW in c . 2 @,@ 300 installations at the end of 2014 and represents about 25 percent of total global PV capacity of 139 GW . The countries which had the most capacity , in descending order , were the United States , China , Germany , India , United Kingdom , Spain , Italy , Canada and South Africa . Activities in the key markets are reviewed individually below . = = = China = = = China was reported in early 2013 to have overtaken Germany as the nation with the most utility @-@ scale solar capacity . Much of this has been supported by the Clean Development Mechanism . The distribution of power plants around the country is quite broad , with the highest concentration in the Gobi desert and connected to the Northwest China Power Grid . = = = Germany = = = The first multi @-@ megawatt plant in Europe was the 4 @.@ 2 MW community @-@ owned project at Hemau , commissioned in 2003 . But it was the revisions to the German feed @-@ in tariffs in 2004 , which gave the strongest impetus to the establishment of utility @-@ scale solar power plants . The first to be completed under this programme was the Leipziger Land solar park developed by Geosol . Several dozen plants were built between 2004 and 2011 , several of which were at the time the largest in the world . The EEG , the law which establishes Germany ’ s feed @-@ in tariffs , provides the legislative basis not just for the compensation levels , but other regulatory factors , such as priority access to the grid . The law was amended in 2010 to restrict the use of agricultural land , since which time most solar parks have been built on so @-@ called ‘ development land ’ , such as former military sites . Partly for this reason , the geographic distribution of photovoltaic power plants in Germany is biased towards the former Eastern Germany . As of February 2012 , Germany had 1 @.@ 1 million photovoltaic power plants ( most are small kW roof mounted ) . = = = India = = = India has been rising up the leading nations for the installation of utility @-@ scale solar capacity . The Charanka Solar Park in Gujarat was opened officially in April 2012 and was at the time the largest group of solar power plants in the world . Geographically the majority of the stations are located in Gujarat and Maharashtra . Rajasthan has successfully been attempting to attract solar development . It and Gujarat share the Thar Desert , along with Pakistan . = = = Italy = = = Italy has a very large number of photovoltaic power plants , the largest of which is the 84 MW Montalto di Castro project . = = = Spain = = = The majority of the deployment of solar power stations in Spain to date occurred during the boom market of 2007 @-@ 8 . The stations are well distributed around the country , with some concentration in Extremadura , Castile @-@ La Mancha and Murcia . = = = United Kingdom = = = The introduction of Feed @-@ in tariffs in the United Kingdom in 2010 stimulated the first wave of utility @-@ scale projects , with c . 20 plants being completed before tariffs were reduced on 1 August 2011 following the ' Fast Track Review ' . A second wave of installations was undertaken under the UK 's Renewables Obligation , with the total number of plants connected by the end of March 2013 reaching 86 . This is reported to have made the UK Europe 's best market in the first quarter of 2013 . UK projects were originally concentrated in the South West , but have more recently spread across the South of England and into East Anglia and the Midlands . The first solar park in Wales came on stream in 2011 at Rhosygilwen , north Pembrokeshire . As of June 2014 there were 18 schemes generating more than 5 MW and 34 in planning or construction in Wales . = = = United States = = = The US deployment of photovoltaic power stations is largely concentrated in southwestern states . The Renewable Portfolio Standards in California and surrounding states provide a particular incentive . The volume of projects under construction in early 2013 has led to the forecast that the US will become the leading market . = = = Noteworthy solar parks = = = The following solar parks were , at the time they became operational , the largest in the world or their continent , or are notable for the reasons given : Solar power plants under development are not included here , but may be on this list .
= Joe Rice = Joe Rice ( born May 7 , 1967 ) is a former legislator in the U.S. state of Colorado , an Iraq War veteran , and a former mayor of Glendale , Colorado . Rice presently works for Lockheed Martin Space Systems and also is a member of the United States Army Reserve . He was elected to the city council of Glendale , Colorado in 1994 and to the post of mayor in 1996 on a platform of developing a " resident @-@ friendly " community in the Denver enclave . Rice was re @-@ elected in 2000 and later resigned from the post of mayor in 2003 when called up to serve the first of five tours on active duty in Iraq . In Iraq , he has served as an advisor to the Baghdad city council and to Iraqi security forces . Rice won election to the Colorado House of Representatives as a Democrat in 2006 and represented House District 38 , which encompassed Greenwood Village , Bow Mar , and Littleton , Colorado as well as parts of Englewood , Centennial , Aurora , and Columbine Valley . While in the legislature , Rice focused heavily on transportation issues and was a key sponsor of a 2009 transportation funding bill increasing vehicle registration fees in order to address a backlog of bridge and transportation requirements . Other key measures he promoted included the creation of a statewide cold case homicide unit and a reduction in the business personal property tax . Rice served 2 @-@ two year terms in the legislature , from 2007 to 2010 . He narrowly lost re @-@ election in 2010 , losing 51 % to 49 % . = = Biography = = = = = Personal life = = = Born in New Castle , Indiana , Rice earned an associates degree from New Mexico Military Institute in 1987 and a bachelor 's degree in history from Metropolitan State College of Denver in 1989 while serving in the Colorado National Guard . He later earned a Masters of Public Administration degree from the University of Colorado at Denver . Rice also earned a Masters of Strategic Studies degree from the United States Army War College in 2009 via their distance education program . After being discharged from active military duty at Fort Carson , Rice settled in Glendale , Colorado in 1990 . Rice and his wife , Dr. Kendall Kershner @-@ Rice , were married in 1990 , and have three children — twins Harrison and Alexandria , born in 2001 , and a younger son , Dalton , born in 2005 . They currently live in Littleton , Colorado . Among his hobbies , Rice enjoys jogging . = = = Military career = = = Rice enlisted in the United States Army at the age of 17 . After two years of enlisted service , and completing ROTC , Rice spent three years on active duty as an Airborne Ranger Infantry Officer . His military service included duty in Bosnia @-@ Herzegovina as a staff officer during UN peacekeeping operations , and as project officer for a Colorado National Guard program to provide medical care to poor civilians . Presently a colonel in the United States Army Reserve , Rice has been called up to serve five tours of duty in Iraq — from March 2003 to May 2004 , where he was a senior U.S. military advisor to the Baghdad City Council ; from October 2005 to February 2006 , where he advised coalition forces on interactions with Iraqi civilians ; from October 2007 to January 2008 , where , as an operations analyst , he evaluated Iraqi military and police forces ; and from May to October 2009 , where he was involved in training Iraqi security forces . In 2009 , having experienced the situation in Iraq firsthand for multiple years , Rice described progress in security and government and supported President Barack Obama 's military plans for Iraq and Afghanistan . Rice was called to serve a fifth tour of duty in Iraq with the Army Reserve from January thru August 2011 . His duties included helping to implement the drawdown of US forces from Iraq and establishing partnership programs between Iraq and the United States that continue beyond the final withdrawal of all US forces from Iraq in December 2011 . Rice has completed Airborne and Ranger training , and has been awarded the Combat Action Badge , the Expert Infantryman 's Badge , two Bronze Stars and the Joint Services Commendation Medal . Building upon his work in Baghdad , Rice has also helped coordinate the Baghdad @-@ Denver Region Partnership for Sister Cities International since 2004 . The partnership brought several delegations of Iraqis , including business leaders , government officials , and scholars . The most recent delegation was composed of Iraqi teenagers who lived with Colorado families . In 2008 , Rice was appointed to the Board of Directors for Sister Cities International , and in 2009 , he helped sponsor an Iraqi family 's relocation to the United States . = = = Private sector career = = = From 1993 to 1995 , Rice was the manager of Dismas House , a halfway house for ex @-@ convicts . In his first legislative campaign , Rice was criticized for his association with Dismas House founder Bob Sylvester , who was found guilty in 2000 of sexually abusing inmates . The incidents for which Sylvester was tried occurred after Rice left his employment at Dismas , and Rice testified on behalf of the prosecution during Sylvester 's trial . Between 1994 and 2003 , while in the National Guard and Army Reserve , Rice worked in the private sector as a customer service supervisor and trainer with MCI , JD Edwards , and Wells Fargo Bank . From 2004 to 2005 , Rice worked in government relations for the Colorado Department of Transportation . At the time of his first legislative campaign in 2006 , Rice also worked as a self @-@ employed management and training consultant , and was vice president of RIGOR Engineering Corporate Services , a consulting firm specializing in engineering project management . = = = Mayor of Glendale = = = In 1994 , Rice was elected to the Glendale , Colorado city council , running on a platform of shifting the small Denver enclave 's business base away from adult @-@ oriented businesses and towards a more " resident @-@ family community . " He was elected mayor in 1996 . During his first term , Rice proposed new regulations on erotic dancers at Glendale nightclubs , garnering strong opposition from local business owners , who formed the " Glendale Tea Party " and elected three members to the city council in 1998 in response to the new regulations . Running for re @-@ election , Rice faced opposition from Tea Party member Mike Dunafon , who promoted accusations that Rice used racial slurs and denigrated African @-@ American and Mexican citizens . Rice was also criticized for being absent from Glendale during six months of his term as mayor , while he attended the U.S. Army Command and General Staff College at Fort Leavenworth . However , after an election that saw record campaign spending and record turnout for Glendale , Rice defeated Dunafon and was re @-@ elected to a second term in 2000 . As mayor , Rice touted his efforts to lower city property taxes , expand city parks and open space , and open the city 's first pre @-@ school and recreation center . He served on the executive committee of the Denver Regional Council of Governments from 1995 to 2003 , as vice @-@ chair of the Denver Metro Mayors Caucus from 2001 to 2003 , and received the John V. Christensen Award from the Denver Regional Council of Governments in 2004 . In 2003 , Rice resigned from his post as mayor during the last year of his second term after being called up to active military duty in Iraq . = = Legislative career = = = = = 2006 election = = = Republican Rep. Joe Stengel was term @-@ limited in 2006 and could not stand for re @-@ election to the Colorado House of Representatives from House District 38 ; both Rice and Republican Matt Dunn sought election to Stengel 's house seat . The race was a top target for the Colorado GOP , who unsuccessfully tried to keep the seat in Republican hands during a year where Republicans lost ground both nationally and in Colorado . During the campaign , Rice was criticized in attack ads for his support , as mayor of Glendale , of the use of Mexican @-@ issued matricula consular cards as legal forms of identification for use by immigrants . In his campaign , Rice outlined his top legislative priorities as public safety , economic security , and quality of life . Rice was regarded by both conservative and liberal observers as a moderate Democrat , and is a member of the centrist Democratic Leadership Council . Rice was endorsed by the Denver Post and by both union groups ( including the local chapter of the teachers ' union Colorado Education Association , and the Colorado Association of Public Employees , a branch of the Service Employees International Union ) and business interests ( including the Colorado Subcontractors Association and the state Chamber of Commerce , the Colorado Association of Commerce and Industry ) . He was also endorsed by Colorado Conservation Voters and the Colorado Medical Society . Rice ultimately defeated Dunn , earning 53 percent of the vote , and was sworn into office on January 10 , 2007 . = = = 2007 legislative session = = = In the 2007 session of the Colorado General Assembly , Rice was vice @-@ chairman of the House Business Affairs and Labor Committee and a member of the House Transportation and Energy Committee . During the 2007 legislative session , Rice sponsored 16 pieces of legislation , including 11 as the primary sponsor in the House of Representatives . Among the most prominent of his bills was a measure to set up a cold case unit within the Colorado Bureau of Investigation to investigate Colorado 's 1200 unsolved homicides . After passage , Gov. Ritter signed the bill into law . Rice also pursued legislation to cut taxes for businesses by raising the personal property tax exemption . After having passed the state house unanimously , the measure died in a Senate committee . Rice worked with fellow military officer and state senator Steve Ward on several pieces of legislation during his first term in the legislature . Rice sponsored legislation to allow military personnel serving overseas to apply for absentee ballots electronically ; Ward was the Senate sponsor . Following the 2007 session , Rice and Ward called for Colorado to divest state pension funds from companies doing business in Iran . Rice was a key player during House debate on a resolution critical of the ongoing War in Iraq ; he supported amendments to the resolution to remove specific criticism of the 2007 troop surge , but supported the final compromise version , which called for eventual withdrawal from Iraq and passed on a party @-@ line vote . Rice was also the house sponsor of legislation introduced in the Colorado State Senate to make driving without a seat belt a primary offense ; the measure narrowly failed in the House despite Rice 's objections during a heated debate that defeating the bill would " kill kids . " For his voting record during the 2007 legislative session , Rice earned a 4 % rating from the fiscally conservative Colorado Union of Taxpayers and a 100 % rating from the environmentally @-@ oriented Colorado Conservation Voters ; both ratings placed him at opposite end of the Democratic caucus from average Republican ratings . Following the regular session , Rice served on the legislature 's Police Officers ' and Firefighters ' Pension Reform Commission and the interim Transportation Legislation Review Committee . = = = 2008 legislative session = = = At the start of the 2008 legislature year , Rice was still in Iraq on his third tour of duty . His absence was acknowledged by lawmakers during their opening speeches , his seat was decorated with yellow ribbons , and his children were invited to lead the Pledge of Allegiance on the first day of the session . During his time in Iraq , Rice met with Colorado Governor Bill Ritter , Congressman Ed Perlmutter , and Congressional candidate Jared Polis during their trips to the country , and also met with U.S. Marine and Colorado state senator Steve Ward , who was stationed in Iraq at the same time . Rice returned to the legislature on January 28 , 2008 , and was received with a standing ovation during the morning roll call . In the 2008 session of the Colorado General Assembly , Rice sits on the House Transportation and Energy Committee , and is vice @-@ chairman of the House Business Affairs and Labor Committee . During the session , Rice has explored introducing legislation to increase vehicle registration fees in order boost transportation funding , and plans on introducing legislation to make aggravated rape of a child under 12 a capital crime , eligible for the death penalty . Rice also introduced legislation to exempt some school fundraisers from sales tax , a measure which he placed on hold pending consideration of a broader measure by Rep. Jerry Sonnenberg . Rice and Sonnenberg ultimately combined their efforts and integrated the two bills , both of which became law . Rice re @-@ introduced a bill that had passed the House but failed in the Senate the previous year to raise the business personal property tax exemption , after the measure was endorsed by Gov. Ritter as part of his economic development platform . The legislation , which raised the exemption from $ 2 @,@ 500 to $ 7 @,@ 000 , was ultimately passed by the legislature and signed into law . Rice also hoped to sponsor legislation supported by Ritter to raise vehicle registration fees in order to fund road and bridge repairs , but failed to find a suitable cosponsor for the bill . Late in the session , though , Rice signed on as House sponsor on a measure to raise registration and rental fees to create trust funds for transportation ; the measure was later dropped in favor of a bipartisan study committee between legislative sessions . In March 2008 , Rice received the Bridge Builders Award from the Colorado Contractors Association for his work on transportation issues . = = = 2008 election = = = Rice sought a second term in the legislature in the 2008 statewide elections , facing Republican Dave Kerber . Holding office in a seat with voter registration numbers favoring Republicans , the race was expected to be strongly contested . As of early October , Rice had spent nearly $ 120 @,@ 000 on his re @-@ election campaign , the second @-@ highest level of spending among all Colorado House of Representatives candidates . Rice 's re @-@ election bid was endorsed by the Denver Post , and he ultimately won with 54 percent of the popular vote . = = = 2009 legislative session = = = Besides chairing the House Business Affairs Committee during the regular legislative session , in November 2008 , Rice was named vice @-@ chair of a special legislative Committee on Job Creation and Economic Growth , tasked with developing recommendations on bolstering Colorado 's economy before the 2009 legislative session . The committee presented a slate of jobs @-@ related legislation at the start of the 2009 session ; one measure , sponsored by Rice , would offer tax credits to companies that create 20 jobs in urban areas or 10 jobs in rural areas . With Republican Rep. Amy Stephens , Rice also sponsored legislation allowing health insurance providers to offer discounts for participation in wellness programs . At the request of the Colorado Association of Transit Agencies , Rice also sponsored legislation requiring drivers to yield to transit buses re @-@ entering traffic . Towards the end of the session , Rice prominently broke with Democrats to oppose the removal of capital gains tax breaks and to oppose granting unemployment benefits to locked @-@ out workers . Rice also sponsored legislation backed by the South Metro Denver Chamber of Commerce to create a hybrid public @-@ private health insurance system to cover all Colorado residents ; however , these plans were put on hold after proponents of a single payer health care system advanced their competing proposal in the state legislature . Rice was the sponsor of a major transportation funding proposal backed by Gov. Bill Ritter and other Democratic leaders , including Senate sponsor Dan Gibbs . The proposal , labeled " FASTER , " an acronym for Funding Advancement for Surface Transportation and Economic Recovery , would yield $ 250 million in funding , aimed primarily at road and bridge repair , by increasing a range of vehicle registration fees . FASTER passed the legislature without the support of Republicans , who objected to the level of fee increases and called for resources besides fees to be used to support transportation ; additional complaints surfaced from both Republican leaders and the public after the fee increases took effect . Following the 2009 session , Rice was named a legislator of the year by the Southeast Business Partnership , and received the Chairs ' Award for Outstanding Efforts in Economic Development from the Metro Denver Economic Development Corporation . = = = 2010 legislative session = = = In the 2010 Legislative Session , Rice sponsored legislation focused on job creation and public safety . He sponsored a bill to prevent those who have been arrested or charged with a serious crime from buying a gun while the charges are being adjudicated . This law , originally signed into law in 2000 by Republican Governor Bill Owens , was set to expire in July 2010 . Rice also sponsored a bill to make the invasion of privacy for sexual gratification a felony if committed by someone who has previously been convicted of a sexual offense or if the victim is a minor . Rice brought this bill in response to a “ peeping tom ” incident at an Arapahoe County hotel in 2009 . Rice partnered with Republican Amy Stephens in sponsoring a bill to allow small @-@ group and individual health @-@ care markets to offer wellness incentive programs in exchange for a discount on insurance premiums . Rice also sponsored two bills related to the creative industry sector of the Colorado economy . One bill dedicated 1 % of state capital construction spending towards funding public art for state capitol construction projects . Another consolidated several state agencies and offices into the Office of Creative Industries . = = = 2010 election = = = Rice 's district , which contained more registered Republicans than Democrats , was one of those targeted by Colorado Republicans hoping to make gains during the midterm 2010 legislative elections . Rice narrowly lost re @-@ election in 2010 to Kathleen Conti , losing 51 % to 49 % ( 892 votes out of 30 @,@ 510 votes cast ) in a district where Republicans outnumber Democrats by almost 10 points in voter registration . = = Life and public service after politics = = Following the election , Rice was called to serve a fifth tour of duty in Iraq with the United States Army Reserve from January through August 2011 . Upon release from active duty , Rice returned to work in the private sector . Though no longer in elected office , he remains active with a number of community organizations and civic groups .
= National anthem of Russia = The State Anthem of the Russian Federation ( Russian : Госуда ́ рственный гимн Росси ́ йской Федера ́ ции , tr . Gosudarstvenný gimn Rossijskoj Federací ; IPA : [ ɡɐsʊdarˈstvʲɪnɨj ˈɡʲimn rɐˈsʲijskoj fʲɪdʲɪˈratsɨj ] ) is the name of the official national anthem of Russia . Its musical composition and lyrics were adopted from the State Anthem of the Soviet Union , composed by Alexander Alexandrov , and lyricists Sergey Mikhalkov and Gabriel El @-@ Registan . The Soviet anthem was used from 1944 , replacing " The Internationale " with a more Russocentric song . The anthem had no lyrics after 1956 , due to the original lyrics having references to former leader Joseph Stalin . New lyrics were introduced in 1977 by Mikhalkov with lyrics placing less emphasis on World War II and more on the victory of communism . The Russian SFSR was the only republic of the USSR without its own anthem , although most republics within the federation did have anthems of their own . The lyric @-@ free " Patrioticheskaya Pesnya " , composed by Mikhail Glinka , was officially adopted in 1990 by the Supreme Soviet of Russia and confirmed in 1993 , after the dissolution of the Soviet Union , by President of Russia , Boris Yeltsin . The government sponsored contests to create lyrics for the unpopular anthem because of its inability to inspire Russian athletes during international competitions . None of the entries were adopted , resulting in President Vladimir Putin 's restoration of the Soviet anthem , albeit without lyrics . The government sponsored a contest to find lyrics , eventually settling upon a new composition by Mikhalkov ; according to the government , the lyrics were selected to evoke and eulogize the history and traditions of Russia . The new anthem was adopted in late 2000 , and became the second anthem used by Russia after the dissolution of the Soviet Union . Public perception of the anthem is mixed among Russians . The anthem reminds some of the best days of Russia and past sacrifices , while it reminds others of the violence that occurred under the rule of Stalin . The Russian government maintains that the anthem is a symbol of the unity of the people , and that it respects the past . A 2009 poll showed that 56 % of respondents felt proud when hearing the anthem , and that 25 % liked it . = = Historic anthems = = Before " Molitva russkikh " ( " The Prayer of the Russians " ) was chosen as the national anthem of Imperial Russia in 1816 , various church hymns and military marches were used to honor the country and the Tsars . Songs used include " Grom pobedy , razdavaysya ! " ( Let the thunder of victory sound ) and " Kol slaven " ( " How Glorious Is Our Lord " ) . " Molitva russkikh " was adopted around 1816 , and used lyrics by Vasily Zhukovsky set to the music of the British anthem , " God Save the King " . Russia 's anthem was also influenced by the anthems of France and the Netherlands , and by the British patriotic song " Rule , Britannia ! " . In 1833 , Zhukovsky was asked to set lyrics to a musical composition by Prince Alexei Lvov called " The Russian People 's Prayer " . Known more commonly as " God Save the Tsar ! " . It was well received by Nicholas I , who chose the song to be the next anthem of Imperial Russia . The song resembled a hymn , and its musical style was similar to that of other anthems used by European monarchs . " God Save the Tsar ! " was performed for the first time on 8 December 1833 , at the Bolshoi Theater in Moscow . It was later played at the Winter Palace on Christmas Day , by order of Nicholas I. Public singing of the anthem began at opera houses in 1834 , but it was not widely known across the Russian Empire until 1837 . " God Save the Tsar ! " was used until the February Revolution , when the Russian monarchy was overthrown . Upon the overthrow , in March 1917 , the " Worker 's Marseillaise " , Pyotr Lavrov 's modification of the French anthem " La Marseillaise " , was used as an unofficial anthem by the Russian Provisional Government . The modifications Lavrov made to " La Marseillaise " included a change in meter from 2 / 2 to 4 / 4 and music harmonization to make it sound more Russian . It was used at governmental meetings , welcoming ceremonies for diplomats and state funerals . After the Bolsheviks overthrew the provisional government in the 1917 October Revolution , the anthem of international revolutionary socialism , " L 'Internationale " ( usually known as " The Internationale " in English ) , was adopted as the new anthem . The lyrics had been written by Eugène Pottier , and Pierre Degeyter had composed the music in 1871 to honor the creation of the Second Socialist International organization ; in 1902 , Arkadij Jakovlevich Kots translated Pottier 's lyrics into Russian . Kots also changed the grammatical tense of the song , to make it more decisive in nature . The first major use of the song was at the funeral of victims of the February Revolution in Petrograd . Lenin also wanted " The Internationale " to be played more often because it was more socialist , and could not be confused with the French anthem ; other persons in the new Soviet government believed " La Marseillaise " to be too bourgeois . " The Internationale " was used as the anthem of Soviet Russia from 1918 , adopted by the newly created Union of Soviet Socialist Republics in 1922 , and was used until 1944 . = = Post @-@ 1944 Soviet anthem = = = = = Music = = = The music of the national anthem , created by Alexander Alexandrov , had previously been incorporated in several hymns and compositions . The music was first used in the Hymn of the Bolshevik Party , created in 1939 . When the Comintern was dissolved in 1943 , the government argued that " The Internationale " , which was historically associated with the Comintern , should be replaced as the National Anthem of the Soviet Union . Alexandrov 's music was chosen as the new anthem by the Soviet leader Joseph Stalin after a contest in 1943 . Stalin praised the song for fulfilling what a national anthem should be , though he criticized the song 's orchestration . In response , Alexandrov blamed the problems on Viktor Knushevitsky , who was responsible for orchestrating the entries for the final contest rounds . When writing the Bolshevik party anthem , Alexandrov incorporated pieces from the song " Žit ' stalo lučshe " ( " Life Has Become Better " ) , a musical comedy that he composed . This comedy was based on a slogan Stalin first used in 1935 . Over 200 entries were submitted for the anthem contest , including some by famous Soviet composers Dmitri Shostakovich , Aram Khachaturian and Iona Tuskiya . Later , the rejected joint entry by Khachaturian and Shostakovich became Song of the Red Army , and Khachaturian went on to compose the Anthem of the Armenian SSR . There was also an entry from Boris Alexandrov , the son of Alexander . His rejected entry , " Long Live Our State " ( Да здравствует наша держава ) , became a popular patriotic song and was adopted as the anthem of Transnistria . During the 2000 debate on the anthem , Boris Gryzlov , the leader of the Unity faction in the Duma , noted that the music which Alexandrov wrote for the Soviet anthem was similar to Vasily Kalinnikov 's 1892 overture , " Bylina " . Supporters of the Soviet anthem mentioned this in the various debates held in the Duma on the change of anthem , but there is no evidence that Alexandrov consciously used parts of " Bylina " in his composition . Another musical work has also been discovered , with identical or near @-@ identical music , that long predates Alexandrov 's 1943 involvement with the Anthem of the USSR . A Ukrainian Scouting ( Plast ) anthem from c . 1912 , with music composed by Jurij Piasećkij ( Юрій Пясецький ) known as " Plastovy Obit " ( Пластовий Oбіт - The Plast Oath ) , to lyrics by Plast founder Oleksander Tysovsky ( Oлександр Тисовський ) has been noted by Plast members to bear an extremely close or identical resemblance to the later Russian / Soviet anthem . The music and words are found in various Plast handbooks and songbooks , and a performance of this song in 2012 can be viewed on YouTube . The first line reads : " V pozhezhakh vsesvitnykh , u lunakh kryvavykh " - " В пожежах всесвітних , у лунах кривавих " . The Piasetsky @-@ Tysovsky anthem actually glorifies the Ukrainian independence movement , which had the support of the Plast organization . = = = Lyrics = = = After selecting the music by Alexandrov for the anthem , Stalin needed new lyrics . He thought that the anthem was short and , because of the Great Patriotic War , that it needed a statement about the impending defeat of Nazi Germany by the Red Army . The poets Sergey Mikhalkov and Gabriel El @-@ Registan were called to Moscow by one of Stalin 's staffers , and were told to fix the lyrics to Alexandrov 's music . They were instructed to keep the verses the same , but to find a way to change the refrains which described " a Country of Soviets " . Because of the difficulty of expressing the concepts of the Great Patriotic War in song , that idea was dropped from the version which El @-@ Registan and Mikhalkov completed overnight . After a few minor changes to emphasize the Russian Motherland , Stalin approved the anthem and had it published on 7 November 1943 , including a line about Stalin " inspir [ ing ] us to keep the faith with the people " . The revised anthem was announced to all of the USSR on January 1 , 1944 and became official on March 15 , 1944 . After Stalin 's death in 1953 , the Soviet government examined his legacy . The government began the de @-@ Stalinization process , which included downplaying the role of Stalin and moving his corpse from Lenin 's Mausoleum to the Kremlin Wall Necropolis . In addition , the anthem lyrics composed by Mikhalkov and El @-@ Registan were officially scrapped by the Soviet government in 1956 . The anthem was still used by the Soviet government , but without any official lyrics . In private , this anthem became known the " Song Without Words " . Mikhalkov wrote a new set of lyrics in 1970 , but they were not submitted to the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet until May 27 , 1977 . The new lyrics , which eliminated any mention of Stalin , were approved on 1 September , and were made official with the printing of the new Soviet Constitution in October 1977 . In the credits for the 1977 lyrics , Mikhalkov was mentioned , but references to El @-@ Registan , who died in 1945 , were dropped for unknown reasons . = = " Patrioticheskaya Pesnya " = = With the impending collapse of the Soviet Union in early 1990 , a new national anthem was needed to help define the reorganized nation and to reject the Soviet past . The Chairman of the Supreme Soviet of the Russian SFSR , Boris Yeltsin , was advised to revive " God Save The Tsar " with modifications to the lyrics . However , he instead selected a piece composed by Mikhail Glinka . The piece , known as " Patrioticheskaya Pesnya " , was a wordless piano composition discovered after Glinka 's death . " Patrioticheskaya Pesnya " was performed in front of the Supreme Soviet of the RSFSR on November 23 , 1990 . The song was decreed by the Supreme Soviet to be the new Russian anthem that same day . This anthem was intended to be permanent , which can be seen from the parliamentary draft of the Constitution , approved and drafted by Supreme Soviet , Congress of People 's Deputies and its Constitutional Commission ( with latter formally headed by President of Russia ) . The draft , among other things , reads that : The National Anthem of the Russian Federation is the Patriotic Song composed by Mikhail Glinka . The text of the National Anthem of the Russian Federation shall be endorsed by the federal law But conflict between President and Congress made passage of that draft less likely : the Congress shifted onto more and more rewriting of the 1978 Russian Constitution , while President pushed forward with new draft Constitution , which doesn 't define state symbols . After 1993 Russian constitutional crisis and just one day before the constitutional referendum ( i.e. on December 11 , 1993 ) Yeltsin , then President of the Russian Federation , issued a presidential decree on December 11 , 1993 , retaining " Patrioticheskaya Pesnya " the official anthem for Russia . , but this decree was provisional , since the draft Constitution ( which was passed a day later ) explicitly referred this matter to legislation , enacted by parliament . According to Article 70 of the Constitution , state symbols ( which are an anthem , flag and coat of arms ) required further definition by future legislation . As it was a constitutional matter , it had to be passed by a two @-@ thirds majority in the Duma . Between 1994 and 1999 , many votes were called for in the State Duma to retain " Patrioticheskaya Pesnya " as the official anthem of Russia . However , it faced stiff opposition from members of the Communist Party of the Russian Federation , who wanted the Soviet anthem restored . Because any anthem had to be approved by a two @-@ thirds supermajority , this disagreement between Duma factions for nearly a decade prevented passage of an anthem . = = = Call for lyrics = = = When " Patrioticheskaya Pesnya " was used as the national anthem , it never had official lyrics . The anthem struck a positive chord for some people because it did not contain elements from the Soviet past , and because the public considered Glinka to be a patriot and a true Russian . However , the lack of lyrics doomed " Patrioticheskaya Pesnya " . Various attempts were made to compose lyrics for the anthem , including a contest that allowed any Russian citizen to participate . A committee set up by the government looked at over 6000 entries , and 20 were recorded by an orchestra for a final vote . The eventual winner was Viktor Radugin 's " Be glorious , Russia " ( Славься , Россия ! ( " Slavsya , Rossiya ! ) ) . However , none of the lyrics were officially adopted by Yeltsin or the Russian government . One of the reasons that partially explained the lack of lyrics was the original use of Glinka 's composition : the praise of the Tsar and of the Russian Orthodox Church . Other complaints raised about the song were that it was hard to remember , uninspiring , and musically complicated . It was one of the few national anthems that lacked official lyrics during this period . The only other wordless national anthems in the period from 1990 to 2000 were " My Belarusy " of Belarus ( until 2002 ) , " Marcha Real " of Spain , and " Intermeco " of Bosnia and Herzegovina = = Modern adoption = = The anthem debate intensified in October 2000 when Yeltsin 's successor , Vladimir Putin , was approached by Russian athletes who were concerned that they had no words to sing for the anthem during the medal ceremonies at the 2000 Summer Olympic Games . Putin brought public attention to the issue and put it before the State Council . CNN also reported that members of the Spartak Moscow football club complained that the wordless anthem " affected their morale and performance " . Two years earlier , during the 1998 World Cup , members of the Russian team commented that the wordless anthem failed to inspire " great patriotic effort " . In a November session of the Federation Council , Putin stated that establishing the national symbols ( anthem , flag and coat of arms ) should be a top priority for the country . Putin pressed for the former Soviet anthem to be selected as the new Russian anthem , but strongly suggested that new lyrics be written . He did not say how much of the old Soviet lyrics should be retained for the new anthem . Putin submitted the bill " On the National Anthem of the Russian Federation " to the Duma for their consideration on 4 December . The Duma voted 381 – 51 – 1 in favor of adopting Alexandrov 's music as the national anthem on 8 December 2000 . Following the vote , a committee was formed and tasked with exploring lyrics for the national anthem . After receiving over 6 @,@ 000 manuscripts from all sectors of Russian society , the committee selected lyrics by Mikhalkov for the anthem . Before the official adoption of the lyrics , the Kremlin released a section of the anthem , which made a reference to the flag and coat of arms : Its mighty wings spread above us The Russian eagle is hovering high The Fatherland 's tricolor symbol Is leading Russia 's peoples to victory The above lines were omitted from the final version of the lyrics . After the bill was approved by the Federation Council on 20 December , " On the National Anthem of the Russian Federation " was signed into law by President Putin on 25 December , officially making Alexandrov 's music the national anthem of Russia . The law was published two days later in the official government Newspaper of record Rossiyskaya Gazeta . The new anthem was first performed on 30 December , during a ceremony at the Great Kremlin Palace in Moscow at which Mikhalkov 's lyrics were officially made part of the national anthem . Not everyone agreed with the adoption of the new anthem . Yeltsin argued that Putin should not have changed the anthem merely to " follow blindly the mood of the people " . Yeltsin also felt that the restoration of the Soviet anthem was part of a move to reject post @-@ communist reforms that had taken place since Russian independence and the dissolution of the Soviet Union . This was one of Yeltsin 's few public criticisms of Putin . The liberal political party Yabloko stated that the re @-@ adoption of the Soviet anthem " deepened the schism in [ Russian ] society " . The Soviet anthem was supported by the Communist Party and by Putin himself . The other national symbols used by Russia in 1990 , the white @-@ blue @-@ red flag and the double @-@ headed eagle coat of arms , were also given legal approval by Putin in December , thus ending the debate over the national symbols . After all of the symbols were adopted , Putin said on television that this move was needed to heal Russia 's past and to fuse the period of the Soviet Union with Russia 's history . He also stated that , while Russia 's march towards democracy would not be stopped , the rejection of the Soviet era would have left the lives of their mothers and fathers bereft of meaning . It took some time for the Russian people to familiarize themselves with the anthem 's lyrics ; athletes were only able to hum along with the anthem during the medal ceremonies at the 2002 Winter Olympics . = = Public perception = = The Russian national anthem is set to the melody of the Soviet anthem ( used since 1944 ) . As a result , there have been several controversies related to its use . For instance , some — including cellist Mstislav Rostropovich — have vowed not to stand during the anthem . Russian cultural figures and government officials were also troubled by Putin 's restoration of the Soviet anthem . A former adviser to both Yeltsin and Mikhail Gorbachev , the last President of the Soviet Union , stated that , when " Stalin 's hymn " was used as the national anthem of the Soviet Union , horrific crimes took place . At the 2007 funeral of Yeltsin , the Russian anthem was played as his coffin was laid to rest at the Novodevichy cemetery in Moscow . While it was common to hear the anthem during state funerals for Soviet civil and military officials , honored citizens of the nation , and Soviet leaders , as was the case for Alexei Kosygin , Leonid Brezhnev , Yuri Andropov and Konstantin Chernenko , writing in The Daily Telegraph Boris Berezovsky felt that playing the anthem at Yeltsin 's funeral " abused the man who brought freedom " to the Russian people . The Russian government states that the " solemn music and poetic work " of the anthem , despite its history , is a symbol of unity for the Russian people . Mikhalkov 's words evoke " feelings of patriotism , respect for the history of the country and its system of government . " In a 2009 poll conducted by the Russian Public Opinion Research Center and publicized just two days before Russia 's flag day ( 22 August ) , 56 % of respondents stated that they felt proud when hearing the national anthem . However , only 39 % could recall the words of the first line of the anthem . This was an increase from 33 % in 2007 . According to the survey , between 34 and 36 % could not identify the anthem 's first line . Overall , only 25 % of respondents said they liked the anthem . In the previous year , the Russian Public Opinion Research Center found out that 56 % of Russians felt pride and admiration at the anthem , even though only 40 % ( up from 19 % in 2004 ) knew the first words of the anthem . It was also noted in the survey that the younger generation was the most familiar with the words . In September 2009 , a line from the lyrics used during Stalin 's rule reappeared at the Moscow Metro station Kurskaya @-@ Koltsevaya : " We were raised by Stalin to be true to the people , inspiring us to feats of labour and heroism . " While groups have threatened legal action to reverse the re @-@ addition of this phrase on a stone banner at the vestibule 's rotunda , it was part of the original design of Kurskaya station and had been removed during de @-@ Stalinization . Most of the commentary surrounding this event focused on the Kremlin 's attempt to " rehabilitate the image " of Stalin by using symbolism sympathetic to or created by him . The Communist Party strongly supported the restoration of Alexandrov 's melody , but some members proposed other changes to the anthem . In March 2010 , Boris Kashin , a CPRF member of the Duma , advocated for the removal of any reference to God in the anthem . Kashin 's suggestion was also supported by Alexander Nikonov , a journalist with SPID @-@ INFO and an avowed atheist . Nikonov argued that religion should be a private matter and should not be used by the state . Kashin found that the cost for making a new anthem recording will be about 120 @,@ 000 rubles . The Russian Government quickly rejected the request because it lacked statistical data and other findings . Nikonov asked the Constitutional Court of Russia in 2005 if the lyrics were compatible with Russian law . = = Regulations = = Regulations for the performance of the national anthem are set forth in the law signed by President Putin on 25 December 2000 . While a performance of the anthem may include only music , only words , or a combination of both , the anthem must be performed using the official music and words prescribed by law . Once a performance has been recorded , it may be used for any purpose , such as in a radio or television broadcast . The anthem may be played for solemn or celebratory occasions , such as the annual Victory Day parade in Moscow , or the funerals of heads of state and other significant figures . When asked about playing the anthem during the Victory Day parades , Defense Minister Anatoliy Serdyukov stated that because of the acoustics of the Red Square , only an orchestra would be used because voices would be swallowed by the echo . The anthem is mandatory at the swearing @-@ in of the President of Russia , for opening and closing sessions of the Duma and the Federation Council , and for official state ceremonies . It is played on television and radio at the beginning and end of the broadcast day . If programming is continuous , the anthem is played once at 0600 hours and again at midnight . The anthem is also played on New Year 's Eve after a speech by the President . It is played at sporting events in Russia and abroad , according to the protocol of the organisation hosting the games . When the anthem is played , all headgear must be removed and all those in attendance must face the Russian flag , if it is present . Uniformed personnel must give a military salute when the anthem plays . The anthem is performed in 4 / 4 ( common time ) or in 2 / 4 ( half time ) in the key of C major , and has a tempo of 76 beats per minute . Using either time signature , the anthem must be played in a festive and quick tempo ( Russian : Торжественно and Распевно ) . The government has released different notations for orchestras , brass bands and wind bands . According to Russian copyright law , state symbols and signs are not protected by copyright . As such , the anthem 's music and lyrics may be used and modified freely . Although the law calls for the anthem to be performed respectfully and for performers to avoid causing offence , it does not define what constitutes offensive acts or penalties . Standing for the anthem is required by law but the law does not specify a penalty for refusing to stand . On one occasion in the summer of 2004 , President Putin chastised the national football team for their behavior during the playing of the anthem . During the opening ceremonies of the 2004 European Football Championship , the team was caught on camera chewing gum during the Russian anthem . Through Leonid Tyagachev , then head of the Russian Olympic Committee , Putin told the team to stop chewing gum and to sing the anthem . Gennady Shvets , then the Russian Olympic Committee 's press chief , denied being contacted by the Kremlin but said he was aware of displeasure with the players ' behaviour . = = Official lyrics = =
= Plan 9 from Bell Labs = Plan 9 from Bell Labs is a distributed operating system , originally developed by the Computing Sciences Research Center at Bell Labs between the mid @-@ 1980s and 2002 . It takes some of the principles of Unix , developed in the same research group , but extends these to a networked environment with graphics terminals . In Plan 9 , virtually all computing resources , including files , network connections , and peripheral devices , are represented through the file system rather than specialized interfaces . A unified network protocol called 9P ties a network of computers running Plan 9 together , allowing them to share all resources so represented . The name Plan 9 from Bell Labs is a reference to the Ed Wood 1959 cult science fiction Z @-@ movie Plan 9 from Outer Space . Also , Glenda , the Plan 9 Bunny , is presumably a reference to Wood 's film Glen or Glenda . The system continues to be used and developed by operating system researchers and hobbyists . = = History = = Plan 9 from Bell Labs was originally developed , starting mid @-@ 1980s , by members of the Computing Science Research Center at Bell Labs , the same group that originally developed Unix and C. The Plan 9 team was initially led by Rob Pike , Ken Thompson , Dave Presotto and Phil Winterbottom , with support from Dennis Ritchie as head of the Computing Techniques Research Department . Over the years , many notable developers have contributed to the project including Brian Kernighan , Tom Duff , Doug McIlroy , Bjarne Stroustrup and Bruce Ellis . Plan 9 replaced Unix as Bell Labs 's primary platform for operating systems research . It explored several changes to the original Unix model that facilitate the use and programming of the system , notably in distributed multi @-@ user environments . After several years of development and internal use , Bell Labs shipped the operating system to universities in 1992 . Three years later , in 1995 , Plan 9 was made available for commercial parties by AT & T via the book publisher Harcourt Brace . With source licenses costing $ 350 , AT & T targeted the embedded systems market rather than the computer market at large ; Ritchie commented that the developers did not expect to do " much displacement " given how established other operating systems had become . By early 1996 , the Plan 9 project had been " put on the back burner " by AT & T in favor of Inferno , intended to be a rival to Sun Microsystems ' Java platform . In the late 1990s , Bell Labs ' new owner Lucent Technologies dropped commercial support for the project and in 2000 , a third release was distributed under an open source license . A fourth release under a new free software license occurred in 2002 . A user and development community , including current and former Bell Labs personnel , produced minor daily releases in form of ISO images . Bell Labs hosted the development . The development source tree is accessible over the 9P and HTTP protocols and is used to update existing installations . In addition to the official components of the OS included in the ISOs , Bell Labs also hosts a repository of externally developed applications and tools . = = Design concepts = = Plan 9 is a distributed operating system , designed to make a network of heterogeneous and geographically separated computers function as a single system . In a typical Plan 9 installation , users work at terminals running the window system rio , and they access CPU servers which handle computation @-@ intensive processes . Permanent data storage is provided by additional network hosts acting as file servers and archival storage . Its designers state that : [ t ] he foundations of the system are built on two ideas : a per @-@ process name space and a simple message @-@ oriented file system protocol . The first idea means that , unlike on most operating systems , processes ( running programs ) each have their own view of the namespace , corresponding to what other operating systems call the file system ; a single path name may refer to different resources for different processes . The potential complexity of this setup is controlled by a set of conventional locations for common resources . The second idea means that processes can offer their services to other processes by providing virtual files that appear in the other processes ' namespace . The client process 's input / output on such a file becomes inter @-@ process communication between the two processes . This way , Plan 9 generalizes the Unix notion of the filesystem as the central point of access to computing resources . It carries over Unix 's idea of device files to provide access to peripheral devices ( mice , removable media , etc . ) and the possibility to mount filesystems residing on physically distinct filesystems into a hierarchical namespace , but adds the possibility to mount a connection to a server program that speaks a standardized protocol and treat its services as part of the namespace . For example , the original window system , called 8 ½ , exploited these possibilities as follows . Plan 9 represents the user interface on a terminal by means of three pseudo @-@ files : mouse , which can be read by a program to get notification of mouse movements and button clicks , cons , which can be used to perform textual input / output , and bitblt , writing to which enacts graphics operations ( see bit blit ) . The window system multiplexes these devices : when creating a new window to run some program in , it first sets up a new namespace in which mouse , cons and bitblt are connected to itself , hiding the actual device files to which it itself has access . The window system thus receives all input and output commands from the program and handles these appropriately , by sending output to the actual screen device and giving the currently focused program the keyboard and mouse input . The program does not need to know if it is communicating directly with the operating system 's device drivers , or with the window system ; it only has to assume that its namespace is set up so that these special files provide the kind of input and accept the kind of messages that it expects . Plan 9 's distributed operation relies on the per @-@ process namespaces as well , allowing client and server processes to communicate across machines in the way just outlined . For example , the cpu command starts a remote session on a compute server . The command exports part of its local namespace , including the user 's terminal 's devices ( mouse , cons , bitblt ) , to the server , so that remote programs can perform input / output using the terminal 's mouse , keyboard and display , combining the effects of remote login and a shared network filesystem . = = = 9P protocol = = = All programs that wish to provide services @-@ as @-@ files to other programs speak a unified protocol , called 9P . Compared to other systems , this reduces the number of custom programming interfaces . 9P is a generic , medium @-@ agnostic , byte @-@ oriented protocol that provides for messages delivered between a server and a client . The protocol is used to refer to and communicate with processes , programs , and data , including both the user interface and the network . With the release of the 4th edition , it was modified and renamed 9P2000 . Unlike most other operating systems , Plan 9 does not provide special application programming interfaces ( such as Berkeley sockets , X resources or ioctl system calls ) to access devices . Instead , Plan 9 device drivers implement their control interface as a file system , so that the hardware can be accessed by the ordinary file input / output operations read and write . Consequently , sharing the device across the network can be accomplished by mounting the corresponding directory tree to the target machine . = = = Union directories and namespaces = = = Plan 9 allows the user to collect the files ( called names ) from different directory trees in a single location . The resulting union directory behaves as the concatenation of the underlying directories ( the order of concatenation can be controlled ) ; if the constituent directories contain files having the same name , a listing of the union directory ( ls or lc ) will simply report duplicate names . Resolution of a single path name is performed top @-@ down : if the directories top and bottom are unioned into u with top first , then u / name denotes top / name if it exists , bottom / name only if it exists and top / name does not exist , and no file if neither exists . No recursive unioning of subdirectories is performed , so if top / subdir exists , the files in bottom / subdir are not accessible through the union . A union directory can be created by using the bind command : In the example above , / arm / bin is mounted at / bin , the contents of / arm / bin replacing the previous contents of / bin . Inferno 's bin directory is then union mounted after / bin , and Alice 's personal bin directory is union mounted before . When a file is requested from / bin , it is first looked for in / usr / alice / bin , then in / arm / bin , and then finally in / usr / inferno / Plan9 / arm / bin . The separate @-@ namespaces @-@ for @-@ separate @-@ processes thus replaces the notion of a search path in the shell . Where Unix shells have a list of directories to search for programs when given a command , the Plan 9 shell only looks in the directory / bin ; adding commands is done by binding several directories together to appear as a single / bin . Furthermore , the kernel can keep separate mount tables for each process , and can thus provide each process with its own file system namespace . Processes ' namespaces can be constructed independently , and the user may work simultaneously with programs that have heterogeneous namespaces . Namespaces may be used to create an isolated environment similar to chroot , but in a more secure way . Plan 9 's union directory architecture inspired 4.4BSD and Linux union file system implementations , although the developers of the BSD union mounting facility found the non @-@ recursive merging of directories in Plan 9 " too restrictive for general purpose use " . = = = Special virtual filesystems = = = = = = = / proc = = = = Instead of having system calls specifically for process management , Plan 9 provides the / proc file system . Each process appears as a directory containing information and control files which can be manipulated by the ordinary file IO system calls . The file system approach allows Plan 9 processes to be managed with simple file management tools such as ls and cat ; however , the processes cannot be copied and moved as files . = = = = / net = = = = Plan 9 does not have specialised system calls or ioctls for accessing the networking stack or networking hardware . Instead , the / net file system is used . Network connections are controlled by reading and writing control messages to control files . Sub @-@ directories such as / net / tcp and / net / udp are used as an interface to their respective protocols . = = = Unicode = = = To reduce the complexity of managing character encodings , Plan 9 uses Unicode throughout the system . The initial Unicode implementation was ISO 10646 . Ken Thompson invented UTF @-@ 8 , which became the native encoding in Plan 9 . The entire system was converted to general use in 1992 . UTF @-@ 8 preserves backwards compatibility with traditional null terminated strings , enabling more reliable information processing and the chaining of multilingual string data with Unix pipes between multiple processes . Using a single UTF @-@ 8 encoding with characters for all cultures and regions eliminates the need for switching between code sets . = = = Combining the design concepts = = = Though interesting on their own , the design concepts of Plan 9 were supposed to be most useful when combined together . For example , to implement a network address translation ( NAT ) server , a union directory can be created , overlaying the router 's / net directory tree with its own / net . Similarly , a virtual private network ( VPN ) can be implemented by overlaying in a union directory a / net hierarchy from a remote gateway , using secured 9P over the public Internet . A union directory with the / net hierarchy and filters can be used to sandbox an untrusted application or to implement a firewall . In the same manner , a distributed computing network can be composed with a union directory of / proc hierarchies from remote hosts , which allows interacting with them as if they are local . When used together , these features allow for assembling a complex distributed computing environment by reusing the existing hierarchical name system . = = Software for Plan 9 = = As a benefit from the system 's design , most tasks in Plan 9 can be accomplished by using ls , cat , grep , cp and rm utilities in combination with the rc shell ( the default Plan 9 shell ) . Factotum is an authentication and key management server for Plan 9 . It handles authentication on behalf of other programs such that both secret keys and implementation details need only be known to Factotum . = = = Graphical programs = = = Unlike Unix , Plan 9 was designed with graphics in mind . After booting , a Plan 9 terminal will run the rio windowing system , in which the user can create new windows displaying rc . Graphical programs invoked from this shell replace it in its window . The plumber provides an inter @-@ process communication mechanism which allows system @-@ wide hyperlinking . Sam and acme are Plan 9 's text editors . = = = Storage system = = = Plan 9 supports the Kfs , Paq , Cwfs , FAT , and Fossil file systems . The last was designed at Bell Labs specifically for Plan 9 and provides snapshot storage capability . It can be used directly with a hard drive or backed with Venti , an archival file system and permanent data storage system . = = = Software development = = = The distribution package for Plan 9 includes special compiler variants and programming languages , and provides a tailored set of libraries along with a windowing user interface system specific to Plan 9 . The bulk of the system is written in a dialect of C ( ANSI C with some extensions and some other features left out ) . The compilers for this language were custom built with portability in mind ; according to their author , they " compile quickly , load slowly , and produce medium quality object code " . A concurrent programming language called Alef was available in the first two editions , but was then dropped for maintenance reasons and replaced by a threading library for C. = = = Unix compatibility = = = Though Plan 9 was supposed to be a further development of Unix concepts , compatibility with preexisting Unix software was never the goal for the project . Many command line utilities of Plan 9 share the names of Unix counterparts , but work differently . Plan 9 can support POSIX applications and can emulate the Berkeley socket interface through the ANSI / POSIX Environment ( APE ) that implements an interface close to ANSI C and POSIX , with some common extensions ( the native Plan 9 C interfaces conform to neither standard ) . It also includes a POSIX @-@ compatible shell . APE 's authors claim to have used it to port the X Window System ( X11 ) to Plan 9 , although they do not ship X11 " because supporting it properly is too big a job " . Some Linux binaries can be used with the help of a " linuxemu " ( Linux emulator ) application ; however , it is still a work in progress . Vice versa , the vx32 virtual machine allows a slightly modified Plan 9 kernel to run as a user process in Linux , supporting unmodified Plan 9 programs . = = Reception = = = = = Comparison to contemporary operating systems = = = In 1991 , Plan 9 's designers compared their system to other early nineties operating systems in terms of size , showing that the source code for a minimal ( " working , albeit not very useful " ) version was less than one @-@ fifth the size of a Mach microkernel without any device drivers ( 5899 or 4622 lines of code for Plan 9 , depending on metric , vs. 25530 lines ) . The complete kernel comprised 18000 lines of code . ( According to a 2006 count , the kernel was then some 150 @,@ 000 lines , but this was compared against more than 4 @.@ 8 million in Linux . ) Within the operating systems research community , as well as the commercial Unix world , other attempts at achieving distributed computing and remote filesystem access were made concurrently with the Plan 9 design effort . These included the Network File System and the associated vnode architecture developed at Sun Microsystems , and more radical departures from the Unix model such as the Sprite OS from UC Berkeley . Sprite developer Welch points out that the SunOS vnode architecture is limited compared to Plan 9 's capabilities in that it does not support remote device access and remote inter @-@ process communication cleanly , even though it could have , had the preexisting UNIX domain sockets ( which " can essentially be used to name user @-@ level servers " ) been integrated with the vnode architecture . One critique of the " everything is a file " , communication @-@ by @-@ textual @-@ message design of Plan 9 pointed out limitations of this paradigm compared to the typed interfaces of Sun 's object @-@ oriented operating system , Spring : Plan 9 constrains everything to look like a file . In most cases the real interface type comprises the protocol of messages that must be written to , and read from , a file descriptor . This is difficult to specify and document , and prohibits any automatic type checking at all , except for file errors at run time . ( ... ) [ A ] path name relative to a process ' implicit root context is the only way to name a service . Binding a name to an object can only be done by giving an existing name for the object , in the same context as the new name . As such , interface references simply cannot be passed between processes , much less across networks . Instead , communication has to rely on conventions , which are prone to error and do not scale . A later retrospective comparison of Plan 9 , Sprite and a third contemporary distributed research operating system , Amoeba , found that the environments they [ Amoeba and Sprite ] build are tightly coupled within the OS , making communication with external services difficult . Such systems suffer from the radical departure from the UNIX model , which also discourages portability of already existing software to the platform ( ... ) . The lack of developers , the very small range of supported hardware and the small , even compared to Plan 9 , user base have also significantly slowed the adoption of those systems ( ... ) . In retrospect , Plan 9 was the only research distributed OS from that time which managed to attract developers and be used in commercial projects long enough to warrant its survival to this day . = = = Impact = = = Plan 9 demonstrated that an integral concept of Unix — that every system interface could be represented as a set of files — could be successfully implemented in a modern distributed system . Some features from Plan 9 , like the UTF @-@ 8 character encoding of Unicode , have been implemented in other operating systems . Unix @-@ like operating systems such as Linux have implemented 9P , Plan 9 's file system , and have adopted features of rfork , Plan 9 's process creation mechanism . Additionally , in Plan 9 from User Space , several of Plan 9 's applications and tools , including the sam and acme editors , have been ported to Unix and Linux systems and have achieved some level of popularity . Several projects seek to replace the GNU operating system programs surrounding the Linux kernel with the Plan 9 operating system programs . The 9wm window manager was inspired by 8 ½ , the older windowing system of Plan 9 ; wmii is also heavily influenced by Plan 9 . In computer science research , Plan 9 has been used as a grid computing platform and as a vehicle for research into ubiquitous computing without middleware . However , Plan 9 has never approached Unix in popularity , and has been primarily a research tool : [ I ] t looks like Plan 9 failed simply because it fell short of being a compelling enough improvement on Unix to displace its ancestor . Compared to Plan 9 , Unix creaks and clanks and has obvious rust spots , but it gets the job done well enough to hold its position . There is a lesson here for ambitious system architects : the most dangerous enemy of a better solution is an existing codebase that is just good enough . Other factors that contributed to low adoption of Plan 9 include the lack of commercial backup , the low number of end @-@ user applications , and the lack of device drivers . Plan 9 proponents and developers claim that the problems hindering its adoption have been solved , that its original goals as a distributed system , development environment , and research platform have been met , and that it enjoys moderate but growing popularity . Inferno , through its hosted capabilities , has been a vehicle for bringing Plan 9 technologies to other systems as a hosted part of heterogeneous computing grids . Several projects work to extend Plan 9 , including 9atom and 9front . These forks augment Plan 9 with additional hardware drivers and software , including an improved version of the Upas e @-@ mail system , the go compiler , Mercurial version control system support , and other programs . Plan 9 was ported to the Raspberry Pi single @-@ board computer . The Harvey project attempts to replace the custom Plan 9 C compiler with GCC , to leverage modern development tools such as GitHub and Coverity and speed up development . = = License = = Starting with the release of Fourth edition on April 2002 , the full source code of Plan 9 from Bell Labs was freely available under Lucent Public License 1 @.@ 02 , which is considered to be open source license by the Open Source Initiative ( OSI ) , free software license by the Free Software Foundation , and it passes the Debian Free Software Guidelines . In February 2014 , the University of California , Berkeley , has been authorized by the current Plan 9 copyright holder – Alcatel @-@ Lucent – to release all Plan 9 software previously governed by the Lucent Public License , Version 1 @.@ 02 under the GNU General Public License , Version 2 . = = Derivatives and forks = = Inferno is a descendant of Plan 9 , and shares many design concepts and even source code in the kernel , particularly around devices and the Styx / 9P2000 protocol . Inferno shares with Plan 9 the Unix heritage from Bell Labs and the Unix philosophy . Many of the command line tools in Inferno were Plan 9 tools that were translated to Limbo . 9atom augments the Plan 9 distribution with the addition of a 386 PAE kernel , an amd64 cpu and terminal kernel , nupas , extra pc hardware support , IL and Ken 's fs . 9front is a fork of Plan 9 . It was started to remedy a perceived lack of devoted development resources inside Bell Labs , and has accumulated various fixes and improvements . 9legacy is an alternative distribution . It includes a set of patches based on the current Plan 9 distribution . Akaros is designed for many @-@ core architectures and large @-@ scale SMP systems . Harvey OS is an effort to get the Plan 9 code working with gcc and clang .
= Boys ' Club ( Parks and Recreation ) = " Boys ' Club " is the fourth episode of the first season of the American comedy television series Parks and Recreation . It originally aired on NBC in the United States on April 30 , 2009 . It was written by Alan Yang and directed by Michael McCullers . In the episode , Leslie tries to integrate herself into the local " boys club " by drinking wine from an illegal gift basket , and gets into trouble as she tries to accept responsibility for her supposed mistake . In a B story , Andy cleans his apartment while Ann is at work . The episode included beer and props from Upland Brewing Company , a real @-@ life company based in Bloomington , Indiana , in an attempt to give Pawnee an authentic Indiana atmosphere . " Boys ' Club " received positive to fair reviews , with some commentators praising the episode for better developing the show 's supporting characters . According to Nielsen Media Research , it was watched by 5 @.@ 28 million households in its original airing , which was consistent with the previous week . " Boys ' Club " and the rest of the first season of Parks and Recreation was released on DVD in the United States on September 8 , 2009 . = = Plot = = The episode opens with Leslie ( Amy Poehler ) and Tom ( Aziz Ansari ) responding to an incident at a park trail , where teenage boys are picking up plastic baggies of dog droppings and throwing them at each other . Leslie tries to stop them but ends up playing along with the boys and admitting that it is fun . Later , at the Pawnee town hall , a construction company has sent a gift basket with wine and cheese to the parks department , but Leslie locks it away because they are not allowed to accept gifts over $ 25 . Later , she and the others in the department look at a new social @-@ networking site that April ( Aubrey Plaza ) has set up for the pit construction project . The site already has seven friends , including city planner Mark ( Paul Schneider ) , who Leslie is disappointed to see is friends with many scantily clad young women . Leslie and Ann ( Rashida Jones ) see Mark and other city planners drinking beer in the town hall courtyard . Leslie describes it as the exclusive " boys ' club " and proposes that she and Ann crash it . When they come outside , Mark and the others welcome them warmly . Leslie enjoys herself at the party and , when the beer runs out and the party is about to end , she keeps it going by retrieving the wine and cheese from the gift basket . The next morning , she feels guilty and , despite her boss Ron 's ( Nick Offerman ) assurance that " [ i ] t 's not that big a deal , " Leslie issues a public apology to every government official in Pawnee , including a link to the new pit website . Later , however , she learns April has placed a drunken video of herself drinking the rest of the wine on the site , even though she is only 19 . Ron tells Leslie an ethics board has called for a disciplinary hearing with Leslie . Leslie apologizes to the board and defends April , accepting responsibility for the video . As the questions from the board continue , Ron angrily defends Leslie , insisting , " Leslie has never broken a rule in her life , to the point that it 's annoying . " He abruptly ends the meeting and insists they will have to go through him to give Leslie anything more than a slap on the wrist . Later , Leslie learns she will receive a letter in her file , which disappoints her strongly until Mark tells her he has seven in his file , and that most of the guys have at least one . Mark welcomes Leslie " to the team " , which makes her proud . In a B story , Ann 's normally lazy boyfriend Andy ( Chris Pratt ) decides to surprise her by cleaning up their messy house while she is gone . He cleans up the house ( although he throws their garbage into the pit ) . After cleaning it , he bathes himself in a children 's pool in the backyard and plays music on his boombox . Angry neighbor Lawrence steals his boombox , prompting Andy ( who has two broken legs ) to chase the neighbor naked through the streets on his crutches . Later , Ann arrives home and is pleased with Andy 's housework , with Andy telling the documentary crew he expects to get " gently laid " later . = = Production = = " Boys ' Club " was written by Alan Yang and directed by Michael McCullers . McCullers co @-@ wrote two of the Austin Powers films and directed Poheler in the comedy film Baby Mama . The cold open scene , with kids throwing bags of dog feces at Leslie , was added to the episode after the rest had already been filmed , and was directed personally by series co @-@ creator Greg Daniels . The bags were actually filled with mashed potatoes . Daniels said of the opening , " There were a lot of people who felt this was not in good taste , but to me , this was one of the most fun things about the show . " The restriction prohibiting Pawnee employees from accepting gifts over $ 25 was based on real @-@ life municipal regulations the Parks and Recreation producers encountered during their research . The scenes filmed in the town hall outside courtyard were filmed on a studio sound stage , and the ethics board review scene was filmed inside the city hall building of Pasadena , California . Like most episodes of Parks and Recreation , a great deal of the scenes in " Boys ' Club " were improvised by the actors . For example , Nick Offerman improvised the line " Put it in an e @-@ mail ? " , which he said when Leslie told him she had a very long story to tell him . Schur thought the line was " my favorite thing in the show " , and they made him say in it every subsequent take during filming . Aziz Ansari also improvised a majority of the scene in which he helped Leslie prepare for her ethics board review . Dean Holland , Parks and Recreation 's editor , said it was his favorite scene from the entire first season . Amy Poehler improvised the line at the courtyard gathering , after she accidentally spilled several beer bottles , " I feel like I 'm already in the boys ' club . Look at those bitches cleanin ' up after me . " Schur said the line helped develop Leslie 's character in future episodes because " we realized that Leslie can be a little bit cooler than we had originally thought " . The scene with Ron describing his ideal government was written for a different episode , but was moved to " Boys ' Club " when the producers decided it fit better there . Schur said it was his favorite moment in the episode . " Boys ' Club " ends with Leslie and Mark toasting a beer to each other because Schur said , " It 's a running joke in the writer 's room that every episode should end with clinking beers . " Photos of Parks and Recreation producers were included among the photos of past city council members on the town hall walls . The photo of Hiscock is the one Leslie said she believes , " No matter what direction I move , he 's always staring at my chest . Mark 's social networking site featured in " Boys ' Club " included the character with a wide range of promiscuous women . The pictures were shot during a photo session during which , according to series co @-@ creator Michael Schur , " We brought in a lot of women and basically said , you 're really trashy . You 're trashy women , and we 're going to take your picture now . " During the courtyard party scenes , a brief clip shows Poehler , Jones and Schneider dancing together . The clip was actually the three actors out @-@ of @-@ character playing around between takes , but the Parks producers decided to add it to the episode . Michael Schur , co @-@ creator of Parks and Recreation , said " Boys ' Club " marked an attempt to better develop Andy Dwyer . Schur said , " We definitely wanted to dimensionalize his character and not make him just a one @-@ dimensional douchebag . " In the episode , Andy plays a tape of himself singing a song called " Ann " , which he wrote as a romantic ballad for her . Chris Pratt actually wrote and performed the song himself for the show , although he said in an interview , " it really wasn 't much " . Pratt actually appeared on set naked while filming the scene in which he chases Lawrence through the streets without clothes on . Schur said the scene was written because Pratt " loves taking his clothes off " . It proved difficult to film the scenes with Pratt bathing in the children 's pool because the bubbles disappeared so quickly that multiple takes were required . The scenes with Andy running naked through the streets with his crutches to get his boombox back were inspired by a real @-@ life experience from the set . During filming , an announcement was made that specialty coffees were available for the cast and crew , and Pratt ran quickly after them with the crutches . Greg Daniels added it to " Boys ' Club " because he found the experience extremely funny . In an attempt to lend authenticity to the fictional Pawnee , Indiana setting , Parks and Recreation producers contacted the Bloomington , Indiana @-@ based Upland Brewing Company and asked them to provide empty beer bottles and labels for the scene with the characters drinking in the town hall courtyard . The company provided props for their beer brand Dragonfly IPA , and Upland officials said their prominent appearances in the episode generated positive publicity for the company : Scott Johnson , marketing operations manager for the brewing company , said , " As soon as it went off , everyone starts calling me and e @-@ mailing me . " They also drink Vernors ginger ale , a soft drink very popular in Indiana . Windell D. Middlebrooks makes a guest appearance as Brian , one of the men attending the during the courtyard party . Middlebrooks was cast simply based on his work on Miller High Life commercials , in which he steals beer from bars that he deems unworthy of it . On the day of the episode 's original American broadcast on April 30 , 2009 , the official NBC Parks and Recreation website launched a duplicate of the Sullivan Street Pit social networking site which was featured in the episode , complete with photos of the pit , the list of " friends " from the show and a link to Mark 's page and his photos with scantily clad women . The pit page , as well as the regular NBC website , also included the actual video of Aubrey Plaza pretending to drink wine and get drunk , as it was featured on the episode . Schur said for those scenes , " We just gave Aubrey a camera and told her to just drink wine and talk to the camera . " = = Cultural references = = The social networking site developed for the pit project is inspired by sites like MySpace and Facebook , which were extremely popular when the episode was first broadcast . Leslie makes a public apology to all female government officials in alphabetical order , starting with Minnesota Republican Rep. Michele Bachmann , Wisconsin Democratic Rep. Tammy Baldwin ( Democrat , Wisconsin ) and Illinois Democratic Rep. Melissa Bean . On her desk , Leslie has framed photos of U.S. Secretary of State Hillary Rodham Clinton and former Supreme Court Justice Sandra Day O 'Connor . The apology scene was filmed with the camera on a tripod , something seldom done in the documentary @-@ style series . An online game of Scrabble is visible on the computer screen in Ron 's office during one scene . It is exactly the same Scrabble game he had been playing with Tom in the previous episode , " The Reporter " . While preparing Leslie for her ethics board review , Tom asks if she has ever fantasized about Ron " covered in Powerade " . This is a reference to commercials for the sports drink , in which athletes sweat the multi @-@ colored liquid while working out . = = Reception = = In its original American broadcast on April 30 , 2009 , " Boys ' Club " was watched by 5 @.@ 28 million households , according to Nielsen Media Research . This rating was consistent with the previous week even as other NBC shows , like the new Southland , saw a drop in ratings . " Boys ' Club " received a 2 @.@ 3 rating / 8 share among viewers aged between 18 and 34 , and a 2 @.@ 3 rating / 7 share among viewers between 18 and 49 . The episode received positive to fair reviews . Alan Sepinwall , television journalist for The Star @-@ Ledger , said " Boys ' Club " was funnier that previous episode and included scenes with good physical comedy involving Leslie , particularly when she spilled the beer bottles ; he also praised Andy 's " naked crutch chase " . Matt Fowler of IGN said the episode gave a little more insight into Leslie 's " aspirations about wanting to be a woman who succeeds in government , which is a step in the right direction " , but Fowler said her constant mistakes and wrong decisions bog down the story . Fowler said the best part of the episode was Andy 's subplot , particularly the scene in which he hops down the street naked on his crutches . Keith Phipps of The A.V. Club gave the episode a B- grade , and said the Amy Poehler character needs to be more fully formed in future episodes . Phipps said most of the show 's laughs came from supporting characters Andy , Tom and Ron ; he also particularly praised Ron 's shutdown of Leslie 's hearing and his monologues of the ideal government : " One guy , who sits in a small room at a desk . And the only thing he ’ s allowed to decide is who to nuke . " Jeremy Medina of Entertainment Weekly liked that the episode included a moral crisis of sorts for Leslie , who he described as " a fully @-@ realized character instead of a caricature " . = = DVD release = = " Boys ' Club " , along with the five other first season episodes of Parks and Recreation , was released on a one @-@ disc DVD set in the United States on September 8 , 2009 . The DVD included cast and crew commentary tracks for each episode , as well as about 30 minutes of deleted scenes . The deleted scenes included on the DVD were originally featured on the official Parks and Recreation website after the episode aired . In one of the scenes , Leslie bought a gift basket and returned it to the business that provided the original one , in an attempt at what she called " ethical restitution " . In another scene , Leslie apologized to April for introducing her to alcohol , prompting April to later tell the camera she has had fake IDs in Indiana , North Dakota and Delaware since she was 14 years old .
= Lovell Telescope = The Lovell Telescope / ˈlʌvəl / is a radio telescope at Jodrell Bank Observatory , near Goostrey , Cheshire in the north @-@ west of England . When construction was finished in 1957 , the telescope was the largest steerable dish radio telescope in the world at 76 @.@ 2 m ( 250 ft ) in diameter ; it is now the third largest , after the Green Bank telescope in West Virginia , USA , and the Effelsberg telescope in Germany . It was originally known as the " 250 ft telescope " or the Radio Telescope at Jodrell Bank , before becoming the Mark I telescope around 1961 when future telescopes ( the Mark II , III , and IV ) were being discussed . It was renamed to the Lovell Telescope in 1987 after Sir Bernard Lovell , and became a Grade I listed building in 1988 . The telescope forms part of the MERLIN and European VLBI Network arrays of radio telescopes . Both Bernard Lovell and Charles Husband were knighted for their roles in creating the telescope . In September 2006 , the telescope won the BBC 's online competition to find the UK 's greatest " Unsung Landmark " . 2007 marked the 50th anniversary of the telescope . If the air is clear enough , the Mark I telescope can be seen from high @-@ rise buildings in Manchester such as the Beetham Tower , and from as far away as the Pennines , Winter Hill in Lancashire , Snowdonia , Beeston Castle in Cheshire , and the Peak District . It can also be seen from the Terminal 1 restaurant area and departure lounges of Manchester Airport . = = Construction = = = = = Conception and construction of the Mark I = = = Bernard Lovell built the Transit Telescope at Jodrell Bank in the late 1940s . This was a 218 ft ( 66 m ) -diameter radio telescope that could only point directly upwards ; the next logical step was to build a telescope that could look at all parts of the sky so that more sources could be observed , as well as for longer integration times . Although the Transit Telescope had been designed and constructed by the astronomers that used it , a fully steerable telescope would need to be professionally designed and constructed ; the first challenge was to find an engineer willing to do the job . This turned out to be Charles Husband , whom Lovell first met on 8 September 1949 . Two bearing assemblies from 15 @-@ inch ( 38 @-@ cm ) gun turrets were bought cheaply in 1950 ; these came from the World War I battleships HMS Revenge and Royal Sovereign , which were being broken up at the time . The bearings became the two main altitude rotator bearings of the telescope , with the appropriate parts of the telescope being designed around them . Husband presented the first drawings of the proposed giant , fully steerable radio telescope in 1950 . After refinements , these plans were detailed in a " Blue Book " , which was presented to the DSIR on 20 March 1951 ; the proposal was approved in March 1952 . Construction began on 3 September 1952 . The foundations for the telescope were completed on 21 May 1953 after being sunk 90 ft ( 27 m ) into the ground. it then took until Mid @-@ March 1954 to get the double railway lines completed due to their required accuracy . The central pivot was delivered to the site on 11 May 1954 , and the final bogie in mid @-@ April 1955 . The telescope bowl was originally going to have a wire mesh surface to observe at wavelengths between 1 and 10 meters ( 3 @.@ 2 and 32 feet ) ; this was changed to a steel surface so that the telescope could observe at the 21 cm ( 8 in ) hydrogen line , which was discovered in 1951 . Also , in February 1954 Lovell and the Air Ministry met to see if funding could be made available for improving the accuracy of the dish so that it could be used on centimetre wavelengths , for research at these wavelengths for the Ministry as well as " other purposes " . Although the funding was not ultimately made available from the Air Ministry , the planning process had already progressed too far and so this improvement was made anyway . The telescope was constructed so that the bowl could be completely inverted . Originally , it was intended to use a movable tower at the base of the telescope to change the receivers at the focus . However , the movable tower was never built , due jointly to funding constraints and the fact that much of the receiver equipment was placed at the base of the telescope rather than at the focus . Instead , receivers were mounted on 50 @-@ foot ( 15 @-@ m ) long steel tubes , which were then inserted by a winch into the top of the aerial tower while the bowl was inverted . The cables from the receivers then ran down the inside of this tube , which could then be connected when the telescope was pointed at the zenith . Associated receiver equipment could then be placed either in the small , swinging laboratory directly underneath the surface ; in rooms at the tops of the two towers ; at the base girders , or in the control building . The telescope moved for the first time on 3 February 1957 : by an inch . It was first moved azimuthally under power on 12 June 1957 ; the bowl was tilted under power for the first time on 20 June 1957 . By the end of July the dish surface was completed , and first light was on 2 August 1957 ; the telescope did a drift scan across the Milky Way at 160 MHz , with the bowl at the zenith . The telescope was first controlled from the control room on 9 October 1957 , by a purpose @-@ built analogue computer . There were large cost overruns with the telescope 's construction , mainly due to the steeply rising cost of steel at the time the telescope was constructed . The original grant for the telescope 's construction came jointly from the Nuffield Foundation and the government ; this amounted to £ 335 @,@ 000 . The government increased its share of the funding several times as the cost of the telescope rose ; other money came from private donations . The final part of the debt from the construction of the telescope , £ 50 @,@ 000 , was paid off by Lord Nuffield and the Nuffield Foundation on 25 May 1960 ( partly due to the telescope 's early , very public role in space probe tracking ; see below ) , and Jodrell Bank observatory was renamed to the Nuffield Radio Astronomy Laboratories . The final total cost for the telescope was £ 700 @,@ 000 . = = = Upgrade to Mark IA = = = Shortly after the telescope was originally completed , Lovell and Husband started contemplating the idea of upgrading the telescope so that it had a more accurate surface , and was controlled by a digital computer . Plans for this upgrade were created by Husband and Co . , and were presented to Lovell in April 1964 . Their plans became more urgent when fatigue cracks were discovered in the elevation drive system in September 1967 . The telescope was only expected to have an operational lifespan of 10 years , and Husband had been warning about the decay of the telescope since 1963 . The appearance of fatigue cracks was the first of these problems that threatened to stop the telescope working ; had they been left in place , then the elevation system could have failed and perhaps jammed . The telescope was therefore repaired and upgraded to become the Mark IA ; the £ 400 @,@ 000 of funding to do this was announced on 8 July 1968 by the SRC to upgrade and repair the telescope to the Mark IA . The upgrade was carried out in three phases , phase 1 lasting between September 1968 and February 1969 , phase 2 between September and November 1969 and phase 3 between August 1970 and November 1971 . The first phase saw the addition of an inner railway track , which was designed to take a third of the weight of the telescope . The outer railway track , which had been decaying and sinking over the previous years , was relaid in the second phase . Also , four bogies were added on the inner track , along with their steelwork , and the existing bogies on the outer track were overhauled . The third phase saw the biggest changes ; a new , more accurate bowl surface was constructed in front of the old surface , meaning that the telescope could be used on wavelengths as small as 6 cm , and the central " bicycle wheel " support was added . A new computer control system was also put in place ( reusing the Ferranti Argus 104 computer from the Mark II ) ; fatigue cracks in the cones connecting the bowl to the towers were repaired and the central antenna was lengthened and strengthened . Tragically , in January 1972 the hoist holding two engineers to the central antenna snapped , causing grave injuries to both engineers and resulting in the death of one of them . The Mark IA upgrade was formally completed on 16 July 1974 , when the telescope was handed back to the University of Manchester . Due to increases in the cost of steel during the upgrade , the final amount for the upgrade was £ 664 @,@ 793 @.@ 07 . = = = Later upgrades and repairs = = = The Gale of January 1976 on 2 January , brought winds of around 90 mph ( 140 km / h ) which almost destroyed the telescope . The towers bowed , and one of the bearings connecting the dish to the towers slipped . After an expensive repair , diagonal bracing girders were added to the towers to prevent this happening again . By the 1990s , the telescope surface was becoming badly corroded . In 2001 @-@ 2003 , the telescope was resurfaced , increasing its sensitivity at 5 GHz by a factor of five . A holographic profiling technique was used on the surface , meaning that the surface works optimally at wavelengths of 5 cm ( compared to 18 cm on the old surface ) . A new drive system was installed , which provides a much higher pointing accuracy . The outer track was relaid , and the focal tower was strengthened so that it could support heavier receivers . In 2007 the telescope needed a new drive wheel , as one of the sixty four original wheels had cracked ; in 2008 another new steel tyre was needed after a second wheel cracked . These are the only two wheel changes needed since the telescope started operation in 1957 . The presence ( as at 2010 ) of two breeding pairs of wild peregrine falcons ( nesting one in each of the telescope 's two support towers ) prevents the nuisance of pigeon infestation ( by droppings fouling , and their body heat affecting sensitive instrument readings ) that some other radio telescopes suffer from . = = Statistics = = = = Space probe tracking = = = = = Sputnik and artificial satellites = = = The telescope became operational in the summer of 1957 , just in time for the launch of Sputnik 1 , the world 's first artificial satellite . While the transmissions from Sputnik itself could easily be picked up by a household radio , the Lovell Telescope was the only telescope capable of tracking Sputnik 's booster rocket by radar ; it first located it just before midnight on 12 October 1957 . It also located Sputnik 2 's carrier rocket at just after midnight on 16 November 1957 . The telescope also took part in some of the early work on satellite communication . In February and March 1963 , the telescope transmitted signals via the moon and Echo II , a NASA balloon satellite at 750 km ( 466 mi ) altitude , to the Zimenki Observatory in the USSR . Some signals were also relayed from the USA to the USSR via Jodrell Bank . = = = The race to the Moon = = = The Lovell Telescope was used to track both Soviet and American probes aimed at the Moon in the late 1950s and early 1960s . In terms of American space probes , the telescope tracked Pioneer 1 from 11 to 13 November 1958 , Pioneer 3 in December 1958 , and Pioneer 4 in March 1959 . The telescope tracked Pioneer 5 between 11 March and 26 June 1960 , and was also used to send commands to the probe , including the one to separate the probe from its carrier rocket and the ones to turn on the more powerful transmitter when the probe was 8 million miles ( 12 @.@ 9 million km ) away . It also received data from Pioneer 5 , and was the only telescope in the world capable of doing so at the time . The last signal was picked up from the probe at a distance of 36 @.@ 2 million kilometers on the 26 June 1960 . The telescope also tracked the Soviet moon probes , including Lunik II from 13 to 14 September 1959 as it hit the moon ; this was proven by the telescope by measuring the effect of the moon 's gravity on the probe , and Luna 3 around 4 October 1959 . Also , the telescope tracked Luna 9 in February 1966 , the first spacecraft to make a soft landing on the Moon . The telescope listened in on its facsimile transmission of photographs from the moon 's surface . The photos were sent to the British press - the probe transmitted , likely intentionally to increase chances of reception , in the international format for image transmission by newswire - and published before the Soviets themselves had made the photos public . The telescope tracked Luna 10 , a Russian satellite put into orbit around the Moon , in April 1966 , and Zond 5 in September 1968 , a Russian probe that was launched at the moon , around which it sling @-@ shotted before returning to Earth . The telescope did not track Apollo 11 , as it was tracking Luna 15 in July 1969 . However , a 50 ft ( 15 m ) telescope at Jodrell Bank was used at the same time to track Apollo 11 . = = = Venus probes = = = The telescope possibly detected signals from Venera 1 , a Russian satellite en route to Venus , in 19 – 20 May 1961 . However , it was not possible to confirm the origin of the signals . A few years later , in December 1962 , the telescope tracked and received data from Mariner 2 . On 18 October 1967 , the telescope received signals from , and tracked , Venera 4 , a Russian probe to Venus . = = = Mars probes = = = The telescope tracked Mars 1 in 1962 @-@ 3 , and Mars 2 and Mars 3 in 1971 ( amidst the upgrade of the telescope to the Mark IA ) . In more recent years , it has also searched for several lost Mars spacecraft , including NASA 's Mars Observer spacecraft in 1993 , Mars Polar Lander in 2000 , and the Beagle 2 lander on Mars in 2003 . However , it did not succeed in locating any of them . = = = ICBM watchdog = = = As a stopgap measure while RAF Fylingdales was being built , the telescope was on standby for " Project Verify " ( also known by the codewords " Lothario " and " Changlin " ) between April 1962 and September 1963 . During strategic alerts , a ' pulse transmitter , receiver and display equipment ' could be connected to the telescope to scan known Russian launch sites for indications of launches of ICBMs and / or IRBMs . During the Cuban Missile Crisis in October 1962 , the telescope was discreetly turned towards the Iron Curtain to provide a few minute 's warning of any missiles that might have been launched . = = Scientific observations = = When the telescope was proposed , a series of objectives for the telescope 's observations were set out . These included : Surveys of galactic and extragalactic radio emission Observations of the sun Radar echoes from the planets Investigation of meteor detections Observations of the Gegenschein Studies of the Aurora Detections of radio reflections from cosmic ray ionization in the atmosphere However , the actual observations made with the telescope differ from these original objectives , and are outlined in the following sections . = = = Solar system = = = In Autumn 1958 , the telescope was used to bounce " Hellos " off the Moon for a demonstration in Lovell 's third Reith Lecture . The telescope was also used to receive messages bounced off the Moon ( a " moonbounce " ) as part of the 50th anniversary First Move festival . In April 1961 , a radar echo from Venus was achieved using the telescope while the planet was at a close approach , confirming measurements of the distance of the planet made by American telescopes . = = = 21cm Hydrogen line = = = The 21 cm Hydrogen line was discovered during the telescope 's construction ; the telescope was subsequently redesigned so that it could observe at that frequency . Using this line emission , hydrogen clouds both in the Milky Way galaxy and in other galaxies can be observed ; for example , the telescope discovered a large cloud around the M81 and M82 galaxies . The motion of these clouds either towards or away from us either redshifts or blueshifts the line , allowing the velocity to the cloud to be measured . This provides a probe of the internal dynamics of galaxies , and can also provide a measurement of the rate of expansion of the universe . = = = Masers = = = In 1963 , the telescope discovered OH emissions from star @-@ forming regions and giant stars ; the first astronomical masers . OH masers emit on four frequencies around 18 cm ( 7 in ) , which are easily observable on the telescope . As part of MERLIN , the telescope is regularly used to construct maps of maser regions . = = = Pulsars = = = In 1968 , the telescope observed the coordinates of the recently discovered pulsar , confirming its existence and investigating the dispersion measure . It was also used to make the first detection of polarization of the pulsar 's radiation . This marked the start of a substantial amount of work investigating pulsars at Jodrell , which is still ongoing . In the 30 years following the discovery of pulsars , the telescope discovered over 100 new pulsars ( and astronomers at Jodrell Bank discovered around 2 / 3 of the total number using the Lovell and other telescopes ) . 300 pulsars are regularly observed using either the Lovell , or a nearby 42 @-@ foot ( 13 @-@ m ) dish . The telescope was involved in the discovery of millisecond pulsars , and also discovered the first pulsar in a globular cluster in 1986 — a millisecond pulsar in the Messier 28 globular cluster . In September 2006 , the results of three years of observing a double pulsar , PSR J0737 @-@ 3039 , with the Lovell telescope , as well as with the Parkes and Green Bank Telescopes , were announced — confirming that the general theory of relativity is accurate to 99 @.@ 5 % . = = = Gravitational lensing = = = Between 1972 and 1973 , the telescope was used for " a detailed survey of the radio sources in a limited area of the sky … up to the sensitivity limit of the instrument " . Among the objects catalogued was the first gravitational lens , which was confirmed optically in 1979 after its position was found to coincide with a pair of faint blue stars by using the Mark I as an interferometer with the Mark II . The telescope was also involved in the detection of the first Einstein ring in 1998 , in conjunction with observations made with the Hubble Space Telescope . = = = Quasars and Interferometry = = = The early investigation into the size and nature of quasars drove the development of interferometry techniques in the 1950s ; the Lovell telescope had an advantage due to its large collecting area , meaning that high sensitivity interferometer measurements can be made relatively quickly using it . As a result , the telescope featured heavily in the discovery of quasars . Interferometry at Jodrell Bank started before the Lovell telescope was constructed , using the Transit Telescope with a 35 square meter broadside array to determine the size of radio @-@ loud nebulae . Once construction of the Lovell telescope was complete , the broadside array was put on a steerable mount and the pair were used as a tracking radio interferometer . This was then used to determine the 2D shape of quasars on the sky . In the summer of 1961 , a 25 @-@ foot ( 8 @-@ m ) diameter paraboloid telescope was constructed ( it was made of aluminium tubing and was mounted on the rotating structure of an old defence radar ) . This was then used as a steerable interferometer with the Mark I , with a resolution of 0 @.@ 3 arcseconds , to determine the sizes of some high @-@ redshift ( z ~ 0 @.@ 86 ) quasars . The Mark II telescope once constructed was also used as an interferometer with the Lovell telescope . This has a baseline of 425 m ( 1 @,@ 394 ft ) ( meaning that it can synthesize a telescope with 425 m diameter ) , giving it a resolution of around 0 @.@ 5 arcminutes . This telescope pair has been used to carry out survey work , and to determine the positions of faint radio objects . Also , one of the drivers behind the construction of the Mark III was to use it as an interferometer with the Mark I to carry out a survey of radio sources . The telescope took part in the first transatlantic interferometer experiment in 1968 , with other telescopes being those at Algonquin and Penticton in Canada . It was first used as an interferometer with the Arecibo radio telescope in 1969 . In 1980 , it was used as part of the new MERLIN array with a series of smaller radio telescopes controlled from Jodrell Bank . With baselines of up to 217 km ( 135 mi ) , this gave a resolution around 0 @.@ 05 arcminutes . An upgraded version of this became a national facility in 1992 . It has also been used in Very Long Baseline Interferometry , with telescopes across Europe ( the European VLBI Network ) , giving a resolution of around 0 @.@ 001 arcseconds . Around half of the telescope 's observing time is now spent doing interferometry with other telescopes . It is planned that the telescope will work as part of an interferometer with the Radioastron ( Russian ) and VLBI Space Observatory Programme ( Japanese ) orbital radio satellites , providing yet larger baselines and higher resolutions . = = = Other notable observations = = = The telescope was used as a follow @-@ up instrument for possible SETI detections made at Arecibo between 1998 and the end of 2003 . No signals were detected . In February 2005 , astronomers using the Lovell Telescope discovered the galaxy VIRGOHI21 that appears to be made almost entirely of dark matter . = = Popular culture = = A 1 : 200 scale model of the telescope , made in 1961 , resides in the Science Museum , London . In 1962 , the telescope was mentioned in a sci @-@ fi novel A for Andromeda , by Fred Hoyle and John Elliot . The 1981 Doctor Who episode Logopolis , which was filmed at Crowsley Park , used a model of the Lovell Telescope as the Pharos Project , from which the Doctor played by Tom Baker fell and regenerated . The model was based on the Mark I telescope , but it also featured some modifications from the Mark IA telescope such as the rim around the edge of the dish . Actress Sophie Aldred portrayed the Seventh Doctor 's companion Ace McShane , standing on both the superstructure and dish in the 1990 Doctor Who educational special , " Search Out Science : Search Out Space " . In 1992 , the telescope was featured on the cover of Sub Sub 's " Space Face " single . The telescope also made a brief appearance in the film version of The Hitchhiker 's Guide to the Galaxy in 2005 . Three bands have shot music videos in the bowl of the telescope : D : Ream in 1995 ( Party Up the World ) , Placebo in 2003 ( " The Bitter End " ) , and Public Service Broadcasting in 2015 ( " Sputnik " ) . Long shots of the telescope feature in the music video of Secret Messages by ELO . The Royal Mail depicted the telescope as " J for Jodrell Bank " in their alphabetical landmarks stamp series ; it has also previously featured on stamps from Haiti , Hungary , Ascension Island , Barbuda , Liechtenstein and Tanzania . = = = Books = = = Lovell , Bernard ( 1968 ) . The Story of Jodrell Bank . Oxford University Press . ISBN 0 @-@ 19 @-@ 217619 @-@ 6 . Lovell , Bernard ( 1973 ) . Out of the Zenith : Jodrell Bank 1957 @-@ 1970 . Oxford University Press . ISBN 0 @-@ 19 @-@ 217624 @-@ 2 . Lovell , Bernard ( 1985 ) . The Jodrell Bank Telescopes . Oxford University Press . ISBN 0 @-@ 19 @-@ 858178 @-@ 5 . Lovell , Bernard ( 1990 ) . Astronomer by Chance . London : Macmillan . ISBN 0 @-@ 333 @-@ 55195 @-@ 8 . Piper , Roger . The Story of Jodrell Bank ( Carousel ed . ) . London : Carousel . ISBN 0 @-@ 552 @-@ 54028 @-@ 5 . = = = Journal articles = = = Lovell , Bernard ( 1957 ) . " The Jodrell Bank Radio Telescope " . Nature 180 ( 4576 ) : 60 – 62 . Bibcode : 1957Natur.180 ... 60L. doi : 10 @.@ 1038 / 180060a0 . Rowson , B. ( 1963 ) . " High resolution observations with a tracking radio interferometer " . MNRAS 125 : 177 . Bibcode : 1963MNRAS.125 .. 177R. doi : 10 @.@ 1093 / mnras / 125 @.@ 2 @.@ 177 . Spinardi , G. ( August 2006 ) . " Science , Technology , and the Cold War : The Military Uses of the Jodrell Bank Radio Telescope " . Cold War History 6 ( 3 ) : 279 – 300 @.@ doi : 10 @.@ 1080 / 14682740600795428 .
= The Ingenuity Gap = The Ingenuity Gap is a non @-@ fiction book by Canadian academic Thomas Homer @-@ Dixon . It was written over the course of eight years from 1992 to 2000 when it was published by Knopf . The book argues that the nature of problems faced by our society are becoming more complex and that our ability to implement solutions is not keeping pace . Homer @-@ Dixon focuses upon complexities , unexpected non @-@ linear results , and emergent properties . He takes an inter @-@ disciplinary approach connecting political science with sociology , economics , history , and ecology . After Robert D. Kaplan referenced Homer @-@ Dixon 's work in the 1994 The Atlantic Monthly article , " The Coming Anarchy " , Homer @-@ Dixon was offered a book deal . He spent the next half decade preparing until it was finally published in 2000 in North America and the United Kingdom . While it spent three weeks at # 1 on a Canadian best @-@ seller list , it did not sell many copies in the United States . Critics were pleased with Homer @-@ Dixon 's scholarship , straightforward presentation , and the book 's breadth but some found the writing to have a self @-@ indulgent quality . Homer @-@ Dixon was awarded the Governor General 's Award for English language non @-@ fiction in 2001 and the book went on to be translated into French and Spanish . = = Background = = Author Thomas Homer @-@ Dixon was a 44 @-@ year @-@ old academic and director at the University of Toronto 's Peace and Conflict Studies program at the time of publication . While the book took eight years to write , Homer @-@ Dixon had been developing the ideas behind it for most of his career . As a youth , an interest in current events was fostered by his parents and led him to study causes of human violence at university . He graduated from Carleton University with a Bachelor of Arts and , in 1989 , the Massachusetts Institute of Technology with a doctorate in Political science . He accepted the director position at the Peace and Conflict Studies program in 1990 . Homer @-@ Dixon and his theories were featured in an article written by Robert D. Kaplan , in the February 1994 edition of The Atlantic Monthly , entitled " The Coming Anarchy " . The article made him into an emerging academic celebrity and resulted in several book deal offers . By 1997 Homer @-@ Dixon , working out of his home office , had accumulated more than 100 kilometres ( 62 mi ) of paper and was overwhelmed by the project , stating , " I 'm living the problem I 'm describing . " In 1999 , Homer @-@ Dixon and Princeton University Press published Environment , Scarcity , and Violence containing Homer @-@ Dixon 's research on resource scarcity leading to violence . For The Ingenuity Gap , he re @-@ organized the framework along three strands , thematic , geographical , and metaphoric , and structured it like a travelogue from which he could launch examples . = = Content = = Homer @-@ Dixon begins by presenting his personal and academic background that led to the drafting of this book . He establishes that the nature of problems are becoming overly burdensome , including providing resources for exponentially growing populations , managing international environmental impacts , and creating a secure global economic market . Modern problems often contain numerous factors that interact to create hidden complexities and non @-@ linear results . The 1997 Asian Financial Crisis is used to illustrate a system in which professed experts had confidence in but internal and external factors compounded upon each other to create a sudden , unexpected drop . The delusion of control , or the assumption that experts were in control , led to overconfidence in an economic system that was not well understood . Homer @-@ Dixon finds that the experts are just as susceptible to groupthink as non @-@ experts and that they have boundless capacity for hindsight rationalization of unexpected movements . As older problems are solved , more complexities are being introduced , like adding additional parts to an engine . Interaction of these new parts , or niches , create emergent properties , like time @-@ saving office devices ( e.g. email , mobile computers , etc . ) make communication more efficient but also expand the network of contacts and increase the amount of time spent on such duties . Homer @-@ Dixon relates this to complexity theory explaining that as new niches are filled there is a synergistic burst of simplicity . However , this can also lead to less control or freedom as emergent properties are created , like a new government program leading to a sprawling bureaucracy . Information theory is touched upon relating the amount of information required to describe a system and the degree of that system 's complexity . Chaos theory is used to describe how small changes can lead to widely varying results and path dependence . Homer @-@ Dixon explains how his theory was influenced by endogenous or new growth theory in which ideas are a factor of production independent of labour and capital . He distinguishes his stance from Neo @-@ Malthusianism which seeks to manage systems by controlling demand and from market fundamentalism which believe free markets can provide timely solutions to any problem . Several problems in advancing basic science are identified : human cognitive limits , intrinsic complexity of field , limits of scientific institutions , and social and cultural values regarding science . = = Style = = The Ingenuity Gap is a popular science book . Homer @-@ Dixon takes an inter @-@ disciplinary approach connecting political science with sociology , economics , history , biology , and ecology . The narrative is structured as a travelogue as the author travels to meet experts and construct his theory . His observations along the way illustrate the concepts he is explaining and supplement interviews and research . Collecting pieces of his theory from each of his interviews and destinations appears as a recurring metaphor . He includes anecdotes and social commentary . = = Publication and reception = = The book was published in September 2000 as a hardcover , and Homer @-@ Dixon shortly after began a 10 @-@ city tour across Canada with stops in Toronto , Ottawa , Kingston , Hamilton , London , Winnipeg , Calgary , Edmonton , Vancouver , and Victoria , amongst several other smaller venues . Promotional events were also held in the United States and England . It was published by Knopf in North America and by Jonathan Cape in the United Kingdom . An excerpt was published in the October issue of Report on Business Magazine . In the Canadian market , the book spent seven weeks on the Maclean 's nonfiction best sellers ' list , including three weeks at the # 1 spot . It did not sell well in the United States . Homer @-@ Dixon was awarded the 2001 Governor General 's Award for English language non @-@ fiction for the book . The trade paperback was released a year after the hardcover edition . It was translated into French and published in 2002 by Éditions du Boréal . A Spanish version was published by Espasa in 2003 . Homer @-@ Dixon went on to write a similar book , The Upside of Down : Catastrophe , Creativity , and the Renewal of Civilization , in which he elaborates upon the idea that societies are becoming less able to cope with problems , like global warming or population imbalances , as complexities compound each other and the readily available resources , like fossil fuels , are rapidly consumed . The book 's scholarship was very well received by critics . The research behind the book was called impressive for its breadth , and its presentation was said to be straightforward and thought @-@ provoking . Critics called Homer @-@ Dixon 's writing clear , accessible , and engaging . In his review in the Quill & Quire , Mark Shainblum wrote " [ d ] espite the book 's serious import and prodigious endnotes , The Ingenuity Gap is a surprisingly engaging and even exciting read . Homer @-@ Dixon spins parables masterfully , using comprehensible examples to represent the almost incomprehensible complexity of our social system . " The Library Journal highly recommended it for academic and general public libraries . Several critics were disappointed by the lack of recommendations to address the problems he raises . The reviewers for Books in Canada , The Canadian Geographer , and the National Post found Homer @-@ Dixon 's writing self @-@ indulgent because it overly details his travels and experiences , and because of his overly authoritative tone that compliments people that agree with him and shows little consideration of differing perspectives .
= Report of 1800 = The Report of 1800 was a resolution drafted by James Madison arguing for the sovereignty of the individual states under the United States Constitution and against the Alien and Sedition Acts . Adopted by the Virginia General Assembly in January 1800 , the Report amends arguments from the 1798 Virginia Resolutions and attempts to resolve contemporary criticisms against the Resolutions . The Report was the last important explication of the Constitution produced before the 1817 Bonus Bill veto message by Madison , who has come to be regarded as the " Father of the Constitution . " The arguments made in the Resolutions and the Report were later used frequently during the nullification crisis of 1832 , when South Carolina declared federal tariffs to be unconstitutional and void within the state . Madison rejected the concept of nullification and the notion that his arguments supported such a practice . Whether Madison 's theory of Republicanism really supported the nullification movement , and more broadly whether the ideas he expressed between 1798 and 1800 are consistent with his work before and after this period , are the main questions surrounding the Report in the modern literature . = = Background = = Madison , a member of the Democratic @-@ Republican Party , was elected to the Democratic @-@ Republican @-@ dominated Virginia General Assembly from Orange County in 1799 . A major item on his agenda was the defense of the General Assembly 's 1798 Virginia Resolutions , of which Madison had been the draftsman . The Resolutions , usually discussed together with Thomas Jefferson 's contemporaneous Kentucky Resolutions , were a response to various perceived outrages perpetrated by the Federalist @-@ dominated national government . The most significant of these were the Alien and Sedition Acts , four laws that allowed the President to deport aliens at will , required a longer period of residence before aliens could become citizens , and made it a crime to publish malicious or defamatory material against the government or its officials . Democratic @-@ Republicans were outraged by the legislation , and Madison and Jefferson drafted the highly critical Resolutions adopted in response by the Virginia and Kentucky state legislatures . The Virginia and Kentucky Resolutions had in the year since publication received highly critical replies from state legislatures . Seven states formally responded to Virginia and Kentucky by rejecting the Resolutions and three other states passed resolutions expressing disapproval , with the other four states taking no action . No other state endorsed the Resolutions . The reason for the criticism was that the General Assembly , led in the effort by state @-@ sovereignty advocate John Taylor of Caroline , had put a state @-@ sovereignty spin on the Virginia Resolutions of 1798 despite Madison 's hopes . These replies contended that the Supreme Court of the United States had the ultimate responsibility for deciding whether federal laws were constitutional , and that the Alien and Sedition Acts were constitutional and necessary . The Federalists accused the Democratic @-@ Republicans of seeking disunion , even contemplating violence . At the time , some leading Virginia Democratic @-@ Republican figures such as Rep. William Branch Giles ( in public ) and Taylor ( in private ) actually were contemplating disunion , and the Virginia General Assembly chose this juncture for finally constructing a new state armory in Richmond , so there was some truth to the charge . Jefferson , the leader of the Democratic @-@ Republican Party and then – Vice President , wrote to Madison in August 1799 outlining a campaign to strengthen public support for the principles expressed in the Virginia and Kentucky Resolutions of 1798 ( commonly referred to as " the principles of ' 98 " ) : That the principles already advanced by Virginia & Kentucky are not to be yielded in silence , I presume we all agree . I should propose a declaration of Resolution by their legislatures on this plan . 1st . Answer the reasonings of such of the states as have ventured in the field of reason , & that of the Committee of Congress . ... 2 . Make a firm protestation against the principle & the precedent ; and a reservation of the rights resulting to us from these palpable violations of the constitutional compact by the Federal government , ... 3 . Express in affectionate and conciliatory language our warm attachment to union with our sister @-@ states , and to the instrument & principles by which we are united ; … fully confident that the good sense of the American people and their attachment to rally with us round the true principle of our federal compact . But determined , were we to be disappointed in this , to sever ourselves from that union we so much value , rather than give up the rights of self government which we have reserved , & in which alone we see liberty , safety & happiness . In response to this letter , Madison visited Jefferson at Monticello during the first week of September . Their discussion was important in that it persuaded Jefferson to depart from his radical stance on dissociation from the Union , which is expressed at the end of the excerpt above . At the very least , Virginia or Kentucky taking such a stance publicly would have justified the Federalist attacks against the secessionist tendencies of the Democratic @-@ Republicans . Madison won over Jefferson , who shortly thereafter wrote to Wilson Cary Nicholas that : " From [ this position ] I retreat readily , not only in deference to [ Madison 's ] judgment but because as we should never think of separation but for repeated and enormous violations , so these , when they occur , will be cause enough of themselves . " Adrienne Koch and Harry Ammon , examining Jefferson 's later writing , conclude that Madison had a significant role " in softening Jefferson 's more extreme views . " Jefferson hoped for further involvement with the production of the Report and planned to visit Madison at Montpelier on his way to Philadelphia , the national capital , for the winter session of the United States Congress . However , James Monroe , who would become Governor of Virginia before the end of the year , visited Jefferson at Monticello and cautioned him against meeting with Madison , since another meeting between two of the most important Democratic @-@ Republican leaders would provoke significant public comment . The task of writing the Virginia Report was left solely to Madison . Jefferson underlined the importance of this work in a November 26 letter to Madison in which he identified " protestations against violations of the true principles of our constitution " as one of the four primary elements of the Democratic @-@ Republican Party plan . = = Production and passage = = The Assembly session began in early December . Once at Richmond , Madison began drafting the Report , though he was delayed by a weeklong battle with dysentery . On December 23 , Madison moved for the creation of a special seven @-@ member committee with himself as chairman to respond to " certain answers from several of the states , relative to the communications made by the Virginia legislature at their last session . " The committee members were Madison , John Taylor , William Branch Giles , George Keith Taylor , John Wise , John Mercer , and William Daniel . The next day , Christmas Eve , the committee produced a first version of the Report . The measure came before the House of Delegates , the lower house of the General Assembly , on January 2 . Though certain to pass due to the Democratic @-@ Republican majority , which had recently been solidified by the election of a Democratic @-@ Republican clerk and speaker of the House , the Report was debated for five days . The main point of contention was the meaning of the third of the Virginia Resolutions : this Assembly doth explicitly and peremptorily declare , that it views the powers of the federal government , as resulting from the compact to which the states are parties ; ... and that in case of a deliberate , palpable , and dangerous exercise of other powers not granted by said compact , the states who are parties thereto have the right … to interpose for arresting the progress of the evil … the authorities , rights , and liberties appertaining to them . This resolution had been the principal target of the Federalist attack on the Resolutions . Particularly at issue was the sense in which the states were parties to the federal compact . The Report was ultimately amended to provide greater clarity on this issue by emphasizing that when the Virginians claimed that the " states " were parties to the federal Constitution , the referent of the word " state " was the sovereign people of the particular state . Thus , to say that " the state of Virginia ratified the Constitution " was to say that the sovereign people of Virginia ratified the Constitution . The amended Report passed the House of Delegates on January 7 by a margin of 60 to 40 . At some point in the next two weeks , it passed the Senate by a margin of 15 to 6 . The Report was received warmly by Virginia Democratic @-@ Republicans . The General Assembly arranged for five thousand copies to be printed and distributed in the state , but there was not much public response to the Report , and it appears to have had relatively little impact on the presidential election of 1800 ( which was , nevertheless , a major victory for the Democratic @-@ Republicans and a repudiation of Federalist policies ) . Parties outside Virginia seemed uninterested in the rehashing of the 1798 Resolutions , and in other states there was very little public comment . Jefferson eagerly sought copies for distribution to Democratic @-@ Republican members of Congress departing for their home states , and when they failed to arrive he entreated Monroe for at least one copy that he could reproduce . Despite Jefferson 's approval of and attempt to distribute Madison 's work , the national reaction was tepid . Though it had little impact on the immediate election , Madison 's Report clarified the legal argument against the Acts and for states ' rights in general , particularly in its advancement of the Tenth Amendment rather than the Ninth as the main bulwark against federal encroachment on state autonomy . = = Argument = = The general purpose of the Report was the affirmation and expansion of the principles expressed in the Virginia Resolutions . The first major goal of the Resolutions was to bring about the repeal of the Alien and Sedition Acts by generating public opposition that would be expressed through the state legislatures . Madison sought to accomplish this by demonstrating conclusively that the Acts violated the constitution . Laying into the Acts in his Report , Madison described many breaches of constitutional limits . The Alien Act granted the President the unenumerated power of deporting friendly aliens . Contrary to the Sedition Act , the federal government had no power to protect officials from dissent or libelous attack , beyond the protection it accorded to every citizen ; indeed , such special intervention against the press was " expressly forbidden by a declaratory amendment to the constitution . " As well , Madison attacked Federalist carriage laws and bank laws as unconstitutional . To remedy the defects revealed by the passage of the Alien and Sedition Acts , Madison called for citizens to have an absolute right to free speech . Madison writes that the ability to prosecute speech amounts to " a protection of those who administer the government , if they should at any time deserve the contempt or hatred of the people , against being exposed to it . " Freedom of the press was necessary , because " chequered as it is with abuses , the world is indebted to the press for all the triumphs which have been gained by reason and humanity over error and oppression . " The Report supported a strict interpretation of the First Amendment . While the Federalists interpreted the amendment as limiting the power of Congress over the press , but implying that such power existed , Madison argued that the First Amendment wholly prohibited Congress from any interference with the press . More generally , the Report made the argument in favor of the sovereignty of the individual states , for which it is best known . The basic message was that the states were the ultimate parties constituting the federal compact , and that therefore the individual states were ultimate arbiters of whether the compact had been broken by the usurpation of power . This doctrine is known as the compact theory . It was the presence of this argument in the Resolutions that had allowed the Federalists to paint the Democratic @-@ Republicans as leaning toward secession ; in the amended Report the line is moderated , with an emphasis that it is the states as political societies of the people ( and therefore , one reads in , not the state legislatures alone ) which possess this power . Either formulation would help the Democratic @-@ Republican cause by refuting the finality of any constitutional interpretation advanced by the Congress and federal judiciary , both of which were dominated by Federalists . In defense of Virginia Democratic @-@ Republicans and the Resolutions , Madison emphasized that even if one disagreed with the compact theory , the Virginia Resolutions and the Report of 1800 themselves were simply protests , which states were surely entitled to produce . Madison indicated that a declaration of unconstitutionality would be an expression of opinion , with no legal force . The purpose of such a declaration , said Madison , was to mobilize public opinion . Madison indicated that the power to make binding constitutional determinations remained in the federal courts : It has been said , that it belongs to the judiciary of the United States , and not the state legislatures , to declare the meaning of the Federal Constitution . ... [ T ] he declarations of [ the citizens or the state legislature ] , whether affirming or denying the constitutionality of measures of the Federal Government ... are expressions of opinion , unaccompanied with any other effect than what they may produce on opinion , by exciting reflection . The expositions of the judiciary , on the other hand , are carried into immediate effect by force . The former may lead to a change in the legislative expression of the general will ; possibly to a change in the opinion of the judiciary ; the latter enforces the general will , whilst that will and that opinion continue unchanged . Madison argued that a state , after declaring a federal law unconstitutional , could take action by communicating with other states , attempting to enlist their support , petitioning Congress to repeal the law in question , introducing amendments to the Constitution in Congress , or calling a constitutional convention . Madison did not assert that the states could legally nullify an objectionable federal law or that they could declare it void and unenforceable . By eschewing direct action in favor of influencing popular opinion , Madison tried to make clear that the Democratic @-@ Republicans were not moving toward disunion . = = Analysis = = The Report was regarded in the early 19th century as among the more important expressions of Democratic @-@ Republican principles . Spencer Roane described it as " the Magna Charta on which the republicans settled down , after the great struggle in the year 1799 . " Henry Clay said on the floor of the House of Representatives that it was from the Report of 1800 , above other documents , that he had developed his own theories on constitutional interpretation . H. Jefferson Powell , a modern jurist , identifies three persistent themes of Democratic @-@ Republican constitutionalism which emerged from the Resolutions and the Report : ( 1 ) a textual approach to the Constitution , ( 2 ) the compact theory , and ( 3 ) that caution , not trust , should characterize our approach to those who hold political power . In more recent years , the main practical interest in the Report has been its absolutist understanding of the First Amendment . Multiple Supreme Court decisions have cited the case as evidence of the Framers ' ideas on free speech . In the 1957 Roth v. United States opinion by William Brennan , Madison 's Report is cited as evidence that " the fundamental freedoms of speech and press have contributed greatly to the development and well @-@ being of our free society and are indispensable to its continued growth . " Other cases to cite the Report for a similar purpose include Thornhill v. Alabama ( 1940 ) and Nixon v. Shrink Missouri Government PAC ( 2000 ) . In modern scholarship outside the legal arena the Report is mostly studied for its discussion of states ' rights with regard to federalism and republicanism . According to Kevin Gutzman , the Report , together with the Kentucky and Virginia Resolutions , forms a foundation for the " radical southern states ' rights tradition . " However , Madison rebuffed charges that his writings supported the constitutional interpretation advanced by pro @-@ nullification Southerners . The Report of 1800 , Madison argued , did not say the government was a compact of the individual states , as the pro @-@ nullification elements suggested . Rather the Report of 1800 described a compact of " the people in each of the States , acting in their highest sovereign capacity . " The state governments themselves , no less than the federal judiciary , possess only delegated power and therefore cannot decide questions of fundamental importance . Madison thought the Resolutions and Report were consistent with this principle while the Ordinance of Nullification was not .
= Pericles = Pericles ( / ˈpɛrɪkliːz / ; Greek : Περικλῆς Periklēs , pronounced [ pe.ri.klɛ ̂ ːs ] in Classical Attic ; c . 495 – 429 BC ) was arguably the most prominent and influential Greek statesman , orator and general of Athens during the Golden Age — specifically the time between the Persian and Peloponnesian wars . He was descended , through his mother , from the powerful and historically influential Alcmaeonid family . Pericles had such a profound influence on Athenian society that Thucydides , a contemporary historian , acclaimed him as " the first citizen of Athens " . Pericles turned the Delian League into an Athenian empire , and led his countrymen during the first two years of the Peloponnesian War . The period during which he led Athens , roughly from 461 to 429 BC , is sometimes known as the " Age of Pericles " , though the period thus denoted can include times as early as the Persian Wars , or as late as the next century . Pericles promoted the arts and literature ; it is principally through his efforts that Athens holds the reputation of being the educational and cultural center of the ancient Greek world . He started an ambitious project that generated most of the surviving structures on the Acropolis ( including the Parthenon ) . This project beautified and protected the city , exhibited its glory , and gave work to the people . Pericles also fostered Athenian democracy to such an extent that critics call him a populist . = = Early years = = Pericles was born c . 495 BC , in Athens , Greece . He was the son of the politician Xanthippus , who , though ostracized in 485 – 484 BC , returned to Athens to command the Athenian contingent in the Greek victory at Mycale just five years later . Pericles ' mother , Agariste , a member of the powerful and controversial noble family of the Alcmaeonidae , and her familial connections played a crucial role in kickstarting Xanthippus ' political career . Agariste was the great @-@ granddaughter of the tyrant of Sicyon , Cleisthenes , and the niece of the Athenian reformer Cleisthenes . According to Herodotus and Plutarch , Agariste dreamed , a few nights before Pericles ' birth , that she had borne a lion . Interestingly , legends say that Philip II of Macedon had a similar dream before the birth of his son , Alexander the Great . One interpretation of the dream treats the lion as a traditional symbol of greatness , but the story may also allude to the unusually large size of Pericles ' skull , which became a popular target of contemporary comedians ( who called him " Squill @-@ head " , after the Squill or Sea @-@ Onion ) . Although Plutarch claims that this deformity was the reason that Pericles was always depicted wearing a helmet , this is not the case ; the helmet was actually the symbol of his official rank as strategos ( general ) . Pericles belonged to the tribe of Acamantis ( Ἀκαμαντὶς φυλή ) . His early years were quiet ; the introverted young Pericles avoided public appearances , instead preferring to devote his time to his studies . His family 's nobility and wealth allowed him to fully pursue his inclination toward education . He learned music from the masters of the time ( Damon or Pythocleides could have been his teacher ) and he is considered to have been the first politician to attribute importance to philosophy . He enjoyed the company of the philosophers Protagoras , Zeno of Elea , and Anaxagoras . Anaxagoras , in particular , became a close friend and influenced him greatly . Pericles ' manner of thought and rhetorical charisma may have been in part products of Anaxagoras ' emphasis on emotional calm in the face of trouble and skepticism about divine phenomena . His proverbial calmness and self @-@ control are also often regarded as products of Anaxagoras ' influence . = = Political career until 431 BC = = = = = Entering politics = = = In the spring of 472 BC , Pericles presented The Persians of Aeschylus at the Greater Dionysia as a liturgy , demonstrating that he was one of the wealthier men of Athens . Simon Hornblower has argued that Pericles ' selection of this play , which presents a nostalgic picture of Themistocles ' famous victory at Salamis , shows that the young politician was supporting Themistocles against his political opponent Cimon , whose faction succeeded in having Themistocles ostracized shortly afterwards . Plutarch says that Pericles stood first among the Athenians for forty years . If this was so , Pericles must have taken up a position of leadership by the early 460s BC- in his early or mid @-@ thirties . Throughout these years he endeavored to protect his privacy and to present himself as a model for his fellow citizens . For example , he would often avoid banquets , trying to be frugal . In 463 BC , Pericles was the leading prosecutor of Cimon , the leader of the conservative faction who was accused of neglecting Athens ' vital interests in Macedon . Although Cimon was acquitted , this confrontation proved that Pericles ' major political opponent was vulnerable . = = = Ostracizing Cimon = = = Around 461 BC , the leadership of the democratic party decided it was time to take aim at the Areopagus , a traditional council controlled by the Athenian aristocracy , which had once been the most powerful body in the state . The leader of the party and mentor of Pericles , Ephialtes , proposed a reduction of the Areopagus ' powers . The Ecclesia ( the Athenian Assembly ) adopted Ephialtes ' proposal without opposition . This reform signaled the beginning of a new era of " radical democracy " . The democratic party gradually became dominant in Athenian politics , and Pericles seemed willing to follow a populist policy in order to cajole the public . According to Aristotle , Pericles ' stance can be explained by the fact that his principal political opponent , Cimon , was both rich and generous , and was able to gain public favor by lavishly handing out portions of his sizable personal fortune . The historian Loren J. Samons II argues , however , that Pericles had enough resources to make a political mark by private means , had he so chosen . In 461 BC , Pericles achieved the political elimination of this opponent using ostracism . The accusation was that Cimon betrayed his city by aiding Sparta . After Cimon 's ostracism , Pericles continued to promote a populist social policy . He first proposed a decree that permitted the poor to watch theatrical plays without paying , with the state covering the cost of their admission . With other decrees he lowered the property requirement for the archonship in 458 – 457 BC and bestowed generous wages on all citizens who served as jurymen in the Heliaia ( the supreme court of Athens ) some time just after 454 BC . His most controversial measure , however , was a law of 451 BC limiting Athenian citizenship to those of Athenian parentage on both sides . Such measures impelled Pericles ' critics to hold him responsible for the gradual degeneration of the Athenian democracy . Constantine Paparrigopoulos , a major modern Greek historian , argues that Pericles sought for the expansion and stabilization of all democratic institutions . Hence , he enacted legislation granting the lower classes access to the political system and the public offices , from which they had previously been barred . According to Samons , Pericles believed that it was necessary to raise the demos , in which he saw an untapped source of Athenian power and the crucial element of Athenian military dominance . ( The fleet , backbone of Athenian power since the days of Themistocles , was manned almost entirely by members of the lower classes . ) Cimon , on the other hand , apparently believed that no further free space for democratic evolution existed . He was certain that democracy had reached its peak and Pericles ' reforms were leading to the stalemate of populism . According to Paparrigopoulos , history vindicated Cimon , because Athens , after Pericles ' death , sank into the abyss of political turmoil and demagogy . Paparrigopoulos maintains that an unprecedented regression descended upon the city , whose glory perished as a result of Pericles ' populist policies . According to another historian , Justin Daniel King , radical democracy benefited people individually , but harmed the state . On the other hand , Donald Kagan asserts that the democratic measures Pericles put into effect provided the basis for an unassailable political strength . After all , Cimon finally accepted the new democracy and did not oppose the citizenship law , after he returned from exile in 451 BC . = = = Leading Athens = = = Ephialtes ' murder in 461 BC paved the way for Pericles to consolidate his authority . Without opposition after the expulsion of Cimon , the unchallengeable leader of the democratic party became the unchallengeable ruler of Athens . He remained in power until his death in 429 BC . = = = = First Peloponnesian War = = = = Pericles made his first military excursions during the First Peloponnesian War , which was caused in part by Athens ' alliance with Megara and Argos and the subsequent reaction of Sparta . In 454 BC he attacked Sicyon and Acarnania . He then unsuccessfully tried to conquer Oeniadea on the Corinthian gulf , before returning to Athens . In 451 BC , Cimon returned from exile and negotiated a five years ' truce with Sparta after a proposal of Pericles , an event which indicates a shift in Pericles ' political strategy . Pericles may have realized the importance of Cimon 's contribution during the ongoing conflicts against the Peloponnesians and the Persians . Anthony J. Podlecki argues , however , that Pericles ' alleged change of position was invented by ancient writers to support " a tendentious view of Pericles ' shiftiness " . Plutarch states that Cimon struck a power @-@ sharing deal with his opponents , according to which Pericles would carry through the interior affairs and Cimon would be the leader of the Athenian army , campaigning abroad . If it was actually made , this bargain would constitute a concession on Pericles ' part that he was not a great strategist . Kagan believes that Cimon adapted himself to the new conditions and promoted a political marriage between Periclean liberals and Cimonian conservatives . In the mid @-@ 450s the Athenians launched an unsuccessful attempt to aid an Egyptian revolt against Persia , which led to a prolonged siege of a Persian fortress in the Nile Delta . The campaign culminated in disaster ; the besieging force was defeated and destroyed . In 451 – 450 BC the Athenians sent troops to Cyprus . Cimon defeated the Persians in the Battle of Salamis @-@ in @-@ Cyprus , but died of disease in 449 BC . Pericles is said to have initiated both expeditions in Egypt and Cyprus , although some researchers , such as Karl Julius Beloch , argue that the dispatch of such a great fleet conforms with the spirit of Cimon 's policy . Complicating the account of this period is the issue of the Peace of Callias , which allegedly ended hostilities between the Greeks and the Persians . The very existence of the treaty is hotly disputed , and its particulars and negotiation are ambiguous . Ernst Badian believes that a peace between Athens and Persia was first ratified in 463 BC ( making the Athenian interventions in Egypt and Cyprus violations of the peace ) , and renegotiated at the conclusion of the campaign in Cyprus , taking force again by 449 – 448 BC . John Fine , on the other hand , suggests that the first peace between Athens and Persia was concluded in 450 – 449 BC , due to Pericles ' calculation that ongoing conflict with Persia was undermining Athens ' ability to spread its influence in Greece and the Aegean . Kagan believes that Pericles used Callias , a brother @-@ in @-@ law of Cimon , as a symbol of unity and employed him several times to negotiate important agreements . In the spring of 449 BC , Pericles proposed the Congress Decree , which led to a meeting ( " Congress " ) of all Greek states in order to consider the question of rebuilding the temples destroyed by the Persians . The Congress failed because of Sparta 's stance , but Pericles ' intentions remain unclear . Some historians think that he wanted to prompt a confederation with the participation of all the Greek cities ; others think he wanted to assert Athenian pre @-@ eminence . According to the historian Terry Buckley the objective of the Congress Decree was a new mandate for the Delian League and for the collection of " phoros " ( taxes ) . During the Second Sacred War Pericles led the Athenian army against Delphi and reinstated Phocis in its sovereign rights on the oracle . In 447 BC Pericles engaged in his most admired excursion , the expulsion of barbarians from the Thracian peninsula of Gallipoli , in order to establish Athenian colonists in the region . At this time , however , Athens was seriously challenged by a number of revolts among its subjects . In 447 BC the oligarchs of Thebes conspired against the democratic faction . The Athenians demanded their immediate surrender , but after the Battle of Coronea , Pericles was forced to concede the loss of Boeotia in order to recover the prisoners taken in that battle . With Boeotia in hostile hands , Phocis and Locris became untenable and quickly fell under the control of hostile oligarchs . In 446 BC , a more dangerous uprising erupted . Euboea and Megara revolted . Pericles crossed over to Euboea with his troops , but was forced to return when the Spartan army invaded Attica . Through bribery and negotiations , Pericles defused the imminent threat , and the Spartans returned home . When Pericles was later audited for the handling of public money , an expenditure of 10 talents was not sufficiently justified , since the official documents just referred that the money was spent for a " very serious purpose " . Nonetheless , the " serious purpose " ( namely the bribery ) was so obvious to the auditors that they approved the expenditure without official meddling and without even investigating the mystery . After the Spartan threat had been removed , Pericles crossed back to Euboea to crush the revolt there . He then punished the landowners of Chalcis , who lost their properties . The residents of Histiaea , meanwhile , who had butchered the crew of an Athenian trireme , were uprooted and replaced by 2 @,@ 000 Athenian settlers . The crisis was brought to an official end by the Thirty Years ' Peace ( winter of 446 – 445 BC ) , in which Athens relinquished most of the possessions and interests on the Greek mainland which it had acquired since 460 BC , and both Athens and Sparta agreed not to attempt to win over the other state 's allies . = = = = Final battle with the conservatives = = = = In 444 BC , the conservative and the democratic factions confronted each other in a fierce struggle . The ambitious new leader of the conservatives , Thucydides ( not to be confused with the historian of the same name ) , accused Pericles of profligacy , criticizing the way he spent the money for the ongoing building plan . Thucydides initially managed to incite the passions of the ecclesia regrading these charges in his favor . However , when Pericles took the floor , his resolute arguments put Thucydides and the conservatives firmly on the defensive . Finally , Pericles proposed to reimburse the city for all questionable expenses from his private property , with the proviso that he would make the inscriptions of dedication in his own name . His stance was greeted with applause , and Thucydides was soundly , if unexpectedly , defeated . In 442 BC , the Athenian public voted to ostracize Thucydides from the city for 10 years and Pericles was once again the unchallenged ruler of the Athenian political arena . = = = = Athens ' rule over its alliance = = = = Pericles wanted to stabilize Athens ' dominance over its alliance and to enforce its pre @-@ eminence in Greece . The process by which the Delian League transformed into an Athenian empire is generally considered to have begun well before Pericles ' time , as various allies in the league chose to pay tribute to Athens instead of manning ships for the league 's fleet , but the transformation was speeded and brought to its conclusion by Pericles . The final steps in the shift to empire may have been triggered by Athens ' defeat in Egypt , which challenged the city 's dominance in the Aegean and led to the revolt of several allies , such as Miletus and Erythrae . Either because of a genuine fear for its safety after the defeat in Egypt and the revolts of the allies , or as a pretext to gain control of the League 's finances , Athens transferred the treasury of the alliance from Delos to Athens in 454 – 453 BC . By 450 – 449 BC the revolts in Miletus and Erythrae were quelled and Athens restored its rule over its allies . Around 447 BC Clearchus proposed the Coinage Decree , which imposed Athenian silver coinage , weights and measures on all of the allies . According to one of the decree 's most stringent provisions , surplus from a minting operation was to go into a special fund , and anyone proposing to use it otherwise was subject to the death penalty . It was from the alliance 's treasury that Pericles drew the funds necessary to enable his ambitious building plan , centered on the " Periclean Acropolis " , which included the Propylaea , the Parthenon and the golden statue of Athena , sculpted by Pericles ' friend , Phidias . In 449 BC Pericles proposed a decree allowing the use of 9 @,@ 000 talents to finance the major rebuilding program of Athenian temples . Angelos Vlachos , a Greek Academician , points out the utilization of the alliance 's treasury , initiated and executed by Pericles , as one of the largest embezzlements in human history ; this misappropriation financed , however , some of the most marvellous artistic creations of the ancient world . = = = = Samian War = = = = The Samian War was one of the last significant military events before the Peloponnesian War . After Thucydides ' ostracism , Pericles was re @-@ elected yearly to the generalship , the only office he ever officially occupied , although his influence was so great as to make him the de facto ruler of the state . In 440 BC Samos went to war against Miletus over control of Priene , an ancient city of Ionia on the foot @-@ hills of Mycale . Worsted in the war , the Milesians came to Athens to plead their case against the Samians . When the Athenians ordered the two sides to stop fighting and submit the case to arbitration in Athens , the Samians refused . In response , Pericles passed a decree dispatching an expedition to Samos , " alleging against its people that , although they were ordered to break off their war against the Milesians , they were not complying " . In a naval battle the Athenians led by Pericles and nine other generals defeated the forces of Samos and imposed on the island an Athenian administration . When the Samians revolted against Athenian rule , Pericles compelled the rebels to capitulate after a tough siege of eight months , which resulted in substantial discontent among the Athenian sailors . Pericles then quelled a revolt in Byzantium and , when he returned to Athens , gave a funeral oration to honor the soldiers who died in the expedition . Between 438 – 436 BC Pericles led Athens ' fleet in Pontus and established friendly relations with the Greek cities of the region . Pericles focused also on internal projects , such as the fortification of Athens ( the building of the " middle wall " about 440 BC ) , and on the creation of new cleruchies , such as Andros , Naxos and Thurii ( 444 BC ) as well as Amphipolis ( 437 – 436 BC ) . = = = = Personal attacks = = = = Pericles and his friends were never immune from attack , as preeminence in democratic Athens was not equivalent to absolute rule . Just before the eruption of the Peloponnesian War , Pericles and two of his closest associates , Phidias and his companion , Aspasia , faced a series of personal and judicial attacks . Phidias , who had been in charge of all building projects , was first accused of embezzling gold meant for the statue of Athena and then of impiety , because , when he wrought the battle of the Amazons on the shield of Athena , he carved out a figure that suggested himself as a bald old man , and also inserted a very fine likeness of Pericles fighting with an Amazon . Aspasia , who was noted for her ability as a conversationalist and adviser , was accused of corrupting the women of Athens in order to satisfy Pericles ' perversions . The accusations against her were probably nothing more than unproven slanders , but the whole experience was very bitter for Pericles . Although Aspasia was acquitted thanks to a rare emotional outburst of Pericles , his friend , Phidias , died in prison and another friend of his , Anaxagoras , was attacked by the ecclesia for his religious beliefs . Beyond these initial prosecutions , the ecclesia attacked Pericles himself by asking him to justify his ostensible profligacy with , and maladministration of , public money . According to Plutarch , Pericles was so afraid of the oncoming trial that he did not let the Athenians yield to the Lacedaemonians . Beloch also believes that Pericles deliberately brought on the war to protect his political position at home . Thus , at the start of the Peloponnesian War , Athens found itself in the awkward position of entrusting its future to a leader whose pre @-@ eminence had just been seriously shaken for the first time in over a decade . = = Peloponnesian War = = The causes of the Peloponnesian War have been much debated , but many ancient historians lay the blame on Pericles and Athens . Plutarch seems to believe that Pericles and the Athenians incited the war , scrambling to implement their belligerent tactics " with a sort of arrogance and a love of strife " . Thucydides hints at the same thing , believing the reason for the war was Sparta 's fear of Athenian power and growth . However , as he is generally regarded as an admirer of Pericles , Thucydides has been criticized for bias towards Sparta . = = = Prelude to the war = = = Pericles was convinced that the war against Sparta , which could not conceal its envy of Athens ' pre @-@ eminence , was inevitable if unfortunate . Therefore , he did not hesitate to send troops to Corcyra to reinforce the Corcyraean fleet , which was fighting against Corinth . In 433 BC the enemy fleets confronted each other at the Battle of Sybota and a year later the Athenians fought Corinthian colonists at the Battle of Potidaea ; these two events contributed greatly to Corinth 's lasting hatred of Athens . During the same period , Pericles proposed the Megarian Decree , which resembled a modern trade embargo . According to the provisions of the decree , Megarian merchants were excluded from the market of Athens and the ports in its empire . This ban strangled the Megarian economy and strained the fragile peace between Athens and Sparta , which was allied with Megara . According to George Cawkwell , a praelector in ancient history , with this decree Pericles breached the Thirty Years ' Peace " but , perhaps , not without the semblance of an excuse " . The Athenians ' justification was that the Megarians had cultivated the sacred land consecrated to Demeter and had given refuge to runaway slaves , a behavior which the Athenians considered to be impious . After consultations with its allies , Sparta sent a deputation to Athens demanding certain concessions , such as the immediate expulsion of the Alcmaeonidae family including Pericles and the retraction of the Megarian Decree , threatening war if the demands were not met . The obvious purpose of these proposals was the instigation of a confrontation between Pericles and the people ; this event , indeed , would come about a few years later . At that time , the Athenians unhesitatingly followed Pericles ' instructions . In the first legendary oration Thucydides puts in his mouth , Pericles advised the Athenians not to yield to their opponents ' demands , since they were militarily stronger . Pericles was not prepared to make unilateral concessions , believing that " if Athens conceded on that issue , then Sparta was sure to come up with further demands " . Consequently , Pericles asked the Spartans to offer a quid pro quo . In exchange for retracting the Megarian Decree , the Athenians demanded from Sparta to abandon their practice of periodic expulsion of foreigners from their territory ( xenelasia ) and to recognize the autonomy of its allied cities , a request implying that Sparta 's hegemony was also ruthless . The terms were rejected by the Spartans , and with neither side willing to back down , the two cities prepared for war . According to Athanasios G. Platias and Constantinos Koliopoulos , professors of strategic studies and international politics , " rather than to submit to coercive demands , Pericles chose war " . Another consideration that may well have influenced Pericles ' stance was the concern that revolts in the empire might spread if Athens showed itself weak . = = = First year of the war ( 431 BC ) = = = In 431 BC , while peace already was precarious , Archidamus II , Sparta 's king , sent a new delegation to Athens , demanding that the Athenians submit to Sparta 's demands . This deputation was not allowed to enter Athens , as Pericles had already passed a resolution according to which no Spartan deputation would be welcomed if the Spartans had previously initiated any hostile military actions . The Spartan army was at this time gathered at Corinth , and , citing this as a hostile action , the Athenians refused to admit their emissaries . With his last attempt at negotiation thus declined , Archidamus invaded Attica , but found no Athenians there ; Pericles , aware that Sparta 's strategy would be to invade and ravage Athenian territory , had previously arranged to evacuate the entire population of the region to within the walls of Athens . No definite record exists of how exactly Pericles managed to convince the residents of Attica to agree to move into the crowded urban areas . For most , the move meant abandoning their land and ancestral shrines and completely changing their lifestyle . Therefore , although they agreed to leave , many rural residents were far from happy with Pericles ' decision . Pericles also gave his compatriots some advice on their present affairs and reassured them that , if the enemy did not plunder his farms , he would offer his property to the city . This promise was prompted by his concern that Archidamus , who was a friend of his , might pass by his estate without ravaging it , either as a gesture of friendship or as a calculated political move aimed to alienate Pericles from his constituents . In any case , seeing the pillage of their farms , the Athenians were outraged , and they soon began to indirectly express their discontent towards their leader , who many of them considered to have drawn them into the war . Even when in the face of mounting pressure , Pericles did not give in to the demands for immediate action against the enemy or revise his initial strategy . He also avoided convening the ecclesia , fearing that the populace , outraged by the unopposed ravaging of their farms , might rashly decide to challenge the vaunted Spartan army in the field . As meetings of the assembly were called at the discretion of its rotating presidents , the " prytanies " , Pericles had no formal control over their scheduling ; rather , the respect in which Pericles was held by the prytanies was apparently sufficient to persuade them to do as he wished . While the Spartan army remained in Attica , Pericles sent a fleet of 100 ships to loot the coasts of the Peloponnese and charged the cavalry to guard the ravaged farms close to the walls of the city . When the enemy retired and the pillaging came to an end , Pericles proposed a decree according to which the authorities of the city should put aside 1 @,@ 000 talents and 100 ships , in case Athens was attacked by naval forces . According to the most stringent provision of the decree , even proposing a different use of the money or ships would entail the penalty of death . During the autumn of 431 BC , Pericles led the Athenian forces that invaded Megara and a few months later ( winter of 431 – 430 BC ) he delivered his monumental and emotional Funeral Oration , honoring the Athenians who died for their city . = = = Last military operations and death = = = In 430 BC , the army of Sparta looted Attica for a second time , but Pericles was not daunted and refused to revise his initial strategy . Unwilling to engage the Spartan army in battle , he again led a naval expedition to plunder the coasts of the Peloponnese , this time taking 100 Athenian ships with him . According to Plutarch , just before the sailing of the ships an eclipse of the sun frightened the crews , but Pericles used the astronomical knowledge he had acquired from Anaxagoras to calm them . In the summer of the same year an epidemic broke out and devastated the Athenians . The exact identity of the disease is uncertain , typhus or typhoid fever are suspected , but this has been the source of much debate . In any case , the city 's plight , caused by the epidemic , triggered a new wave of public uproar , and Pericles was forced to defend himself in an emotional final speech , a rendition of which is presented by Thucydides . This is considered to be a monumental oration , revealing Pericles ' virtues but also his bitterness towards his compatriots ' ingratitude . Temporarily , he managed to tame the people 's resentment and to ride out the storm , but his internal enemies ' final bid to undermine him came off ; they managed to deprive him of the generalship and to fine him at an amount estimated between 15 and 50 talents . Ancient sources mention Cleon , a rising and dynamic protagonist of the Athenian political scene during the war , as the public prosecutor in Pericles ' trial . Nevertheless , within just a year , in 429 BC , the Athenians not only forgave Pericles but also re @-@ elected him as strategos . He was reinstated in command of the Athenian army and led all its military operations during 429 BC , having once again under his control the levers of power . In that year , however , Pericles witnessed the death of both his legitimate sons from his first wife , Paralus and Xanthippus , in the epidemic . His morale undermined , he burst into tears and not even Aspasia 's companionship could console him . He himself died of the plague in the autumn of 429 BC . Just before his death , Pericles ' friends were concentrated around his bed , enumerating his virtues during peace and underscoring his nine war trophies . Pericles , though moribund , heard them and interrupted them , pointing out that they forgot to mention his fairest and greatest title to their admiration ; " for " , said he , " no living Athenian ever put on mourning because of me " . Pericles lived during the first two and a half years of the Peloponnesian War and , according to Thucydides , his death was a disaster for Athens , since his successors were inferior to him ; they preferred to incite all the bad habits of the rabble and followed an unstable policy , endeavoring to be popular rather than useful . With these bitter comments , Thucydides not only laments the loss of a man he admired , but he also heralds the flickering of Athens ' unique glory and grandeur . Pausanias ( c . 150 C.E. ) records ( I.29 ) seeing the tomb of Pericles along a road near the Academy . = = Personal life = = Pericles , following Athenian custom , was first married to one of his closest relatives , with whom he had two sons , Paralus and Xanthippus , but around 445 BC , Pericles divorced his wife . He offered her to another husband , with the agreement of her male relatives . The name of his first wife is not known ; the only information about her is that she was the wife of Hipponicus , before being married to Pericles , and the mother of Callias from this first marriage . The woman whom he really adored was Aspasia of Miletus . She became Pericles ' mistress and they began to live together as if they were married . This relationship aroused many reactions and even Pericles ' own son , Xanthippus , who had political ambitions , did not hesitate to slander his father . Nonetheless , these persecutions did not undermine Pericles ' morale , although he had to burst into tears in order to protect his beloved Aspasia when she was accused of corrupting Athenian society . His greatest personal tragedy was the death of his sister and of both his legitimate sons , Xanthippus and Paralus , all affected by the epidemic , a calamity he never managed to overcome . Just before his death , the Athenians allowed a change in the law of 451 BC that made his half @-@ Athenian son with Aspasia , Pericles the Younger , a citizen and legitimate heir , a decision all the more striking in consideration that Pericles himself had proposed the law confining citizenship to those of Athenian parentage on both sides . = = Assessments = = Pericles marked a whole era and inspired conflicting judgments about his significant decisions . The fact that he was at the same time a vigorous statesman , general and orator makes more complex the objective assessment of his actions . = = = Political leadership = = = Some contemporary scholars call Pericles a populist , a demagogue and a hawk , while other scholars admire his charismatic leadership . According to Plutarch , after assuming the leadership of Athens , " he was no longer the same man as before , nor alike submissive to the people and ready to yield and give in to the desires of the multitude as a steersman to the breezes " . It is told that when his political opponent , Thucydides , was asked by Sparta 's king , Archidamus , whether he or Pericles was the better fighter , Thucydides answered without any hesitation that Pericles was better , because even when he was defeated , he managed to convince the audience that he had won . In matters of character , Pericles was above reproach in the eyes of the ancient historians , since " he kept himself untainted by corruption , although he was not altogether indifferent to money @-@ making " . Thucydides , an admirer of Pericles , maintains that Athens was " in name a democracy but , in fact , governed by its first citizen " . Through this comment , the historian illustrates what he perceives as Pericles ' charisma to lead , convince and , sometimes , to manipulate . Although Thucydides mentions the fining of Pericles , he does not mention the accusations against Pericles but instead focuses on Pericles ' integrity . On the other hand , in one of his dialogues , Plato rejects the glorification of Pericles and quote as saying : " as I know , Pericles made the Athenians slothful , garrulous and avaricious , by starting the system of public fees " . Plutarch mentions other criticism of Pericles ' leadership : " many others say that the people were first led on by him into allotments of public lands , festival @-@ grants , and distributions of fees for public services , thereby falling into bad habits , and becoming luxurious and wanton under the influence of his public measures , instead of frugal and self @-@ sufficing " . Thucydides argues that Pericles " was not carried away by the people , but he was the one guiding the people " . His judgement is not unquestioned ; some 20th @-@ century critics , such as Malcolm F. McGregor and John S. Morrison , proposed that he may have been a charismatic public face acting as an advocate on the proposals of advisors , or the people themselves . According to King , by increasing the power of the people , the Athenians left themselves with no authoritative leader . During the Peloponnesian War , Pericles ' dependence on popular support to govern was obvious . = = = Military achievements = = = For more than 20 years Pericles led many expeditions , mainly naval ones . Being always cautious , he never undertook of his own accord a battle involving much uncertainty and peril and he did not accede to the " vain impulses of the citizens " . He based his military policy on Themistocles ' principle that Athens ' predominance depends on its superior naval power and believed that the Peloponnesians were near @-@ invincible on land . Pericles also tried to minimize the advantages of Sparta by rebuilding the walls of Athens , which , it has been suggested , radically altered the use of force in Greek international relations . During the Peloponnesian War , Pericles initiated a defensive " grand strategy " whose aim was the exhaustion of the enemy and the preservation of the status quo . According to Platias and Koliopoulos , Athens as the strongest party did not have to beat Sparta in military terms and " chose to foil the Spartan plan for victory " . The two basic principles of the " Periclean Grand Strategy " were the rejection of appeasement ( in accordance with which he urged the Athenians not to revoke the Megarian Decree ) and the avoidance of overextension . According to Kagan , Pericles ' vehement insistence that there should be no diversionary expeditions may well have resulted from the bitter memory of the Egyptian campaign , which he had allegedly supported . His strategy is said to have been " inherently unpopular " , but Pericles managed to persuade the Athenian public to follow it . It is for that reason that Hans Delbrück called him one of the greatest statesmen and military leaders in history . Although his countrymen engaged in several aggressive actions soon after his death , Platias and Koliopoulos argue that the Athenians remained true to the larger Periclean strategy of seeking to preserve , not expand , the empire , and did not depart from it until the Sicilian Expedition . For his part , Ben X. de Wet concludes his strategy would have succeeded had he lived longer . Critics of Pericles ' strategy , however , have been just as numerous as its supporters . A common criticism is that Pericles was always a better politician and orator than strategist . Donald Kagan called the Periclean strategy " a form of wishful thinking that failed " , Barry S. Strauss and Josiah Ober have stated that " as strategist he was a failure and deserves a share of the blame for Athens ' great defeat " , and Victor Davis Hanson believes that Pericles had not worked out a clear strategy for an effective offensive action that could possibly force Thebes or Sparta to stop the war . Kagan criticizes the Periclean strategy on four counts : first that by rejecting minor concessions it brought about war ; second , that it was unforeseen by the enemy and hence lacked credibility ; third , that it was too feeble to exploit any opportunities ; and fourth , that it depended on Pericles for its execution and thus was bound to be abandoned after his death . Kagan estimates Pericles ' expenditure on his military strategy in the Peloponnesian War to be about 2 @,@ 000 talents annually , and based on this figure concludes that he would only have enough money to keep the war going for three years . He asserts that since Pericles must have known about these limitations he probably planned for a much shorter war . Others , such as Donald W. Knight , conclude that the strategy was too defensive and would not succeed . On the other hand , Platias and Koliopoulos reject these criticisms and state that " the Athenians lost the war only when they dramatically reversed the Periclean grand strategy that explicitly disdained further conquests " . Hanson stresses that the Periclean strategy was not innovative , but could lead to a stagnancy in favor of Athens . It is a popular conclusion that those succeeding him lacked his abilities and character . = = = Oratorical skill = = = Modern commentators of Thucydides , with other modern historians and writers , take varying stances on the issue of how much of the speeches of Pericles , as given by this historian , do actually represent Pericles ' own words and how much of them is free literary creation or paraphrase by Thucydides . Since Pericles never wrote down or distributed his orations , no historians are able to answer this with certainty ; Thucydides recreated three of them from memory and , thereby , it cannot be ascertained that he did not add his own notions and thoughts . Although Pericles was a main source of his inspiration , some historians have noted that the passionate and idealistic literary style of the speeches Thucydides attributes to Pericles is completely at odds with Thucydides ' own cold and analytical writing style . This might , however , be the result of the incorporation of the genre of rhetoric into the genre of historiography . That is to say , Thucydides could simply have used two different writing styles for two different purposes . Ioannis Kakridis and Arnold Gomme were two scholars who debated the originality of Pericles ’ oratory and last speech . Kakridis believes that Thucydides altered Pericles words . Some of his strongest arguments included in the Introduction of the speech , ( Thuc.11.35 ) . Kakridis proposes that it is impossible to imagine Pericles deviating away from the expected funeral orator addressing the mourning audience of 430 after the Peloponnesian war . The two groups addressed were the ones who were prepared to believe him when he praised the dead , and the ones who did not . Gomme rejects Kakridis position , defending the fact that " Nobody of men has ever been so conscious of envy and its workings as the Greeks , and that the Greeks and Thucydides in particular had a passion for covering all ground in their generalizations , not always relevantly . " . Kagan states that Pericles adopted " an elevated mode of speech , free from the vulgar and knavish tricks of mob @-@ orators " and , according to Diodorus Siculus , he " excelled all his fellow citizens in skill of oratory " . According to Plutarch , he avoided using gimmicks in his speeches , unlike the passionate Demosthenes , and always spoke in a calm and tranquil manner . The biographer points out , however , that the poet Ion reported that Pericles ' speaking style was " a presumptuous and somewhat arrogant manner of address , and that into his haughtiness there entered a good deal of disdain and contempt for others " . Gorgias , in Plato 's homonymous dialogue , uses Pericles as an example of powerful oratory . In Menexenus , however , Socrates ( through Plato ) casts aspersions on Pericles ' rhetorical fame , claiming ironically that , since Pericles was educated by Aspasia , a trainer of many orators , he would be superior in rhetoric to someone educated by Antiphon . He also attributes authorship of the Funeral Oration to Aspasia and attacks his contemporaries ' veneration of Pericles . Sir Richard C. Jebb concludes that " unique as an Athenian statesman , Pericles must have been in two respects unique also as an Athenian orator ; first , because he occupied such a position of personal ascendancy as no man before or after him attained ; secondly , because his thoughts and his moral force won him such renown for eloquence as no one else ever got from Athenians " . Ancient Greek writers call Pericles " Olympian " and extol his talents ; referring to him " thundering and lightening and exciting Greece " and carrying the weapons of Zeus when orating . According to Quintilian , Pericles would always prepare assiduously for his orations and , before going on the rostrum , he would always pray to the Gods , so as not to utter any improper word . = = = Legacy = = = Pericles ' most visible legacy can be found in the literary and artistic works of the Golden Age , most of which survive to this day . The Acropolis , though in ruins , still stands and is a symbol of modern Athens . Paparrigopoulos wrote that these masterpieces are " sufficient to render the name of Greece immortal in our world " . In politics , Victor L. Ehrenberg argues that a basic element of Pericles ' legacy is Athenian imperialism , which denies true democracy and freedom to the people of all but the ruling state . The promotion of such an arrogant imperialism is said to have ruined Athens . Pericles and his " expansionary " policies have been at the center of arguments promoting democracy in oppressed countries . Other analysts maintain an Athenian humanism illustrated in the Golden Age . The freedom of expression is regarded as the lasting legacy deriving from this period . Pericles is lauded as " the ideal type of the perfect statesman in ancient Greece " and his Funeral Oration is nowadays synonymous with the struggle for participatory democracy and civic pride .
= Crossback stingaree = The crossback stingaree or banded stingaree ( Urolophus cruciatus ) is a species of stingray in the family Urolophidae . It is endemic to southeastern Australia , mainly off Victoria and Tasmania but also marginally to New South Wales and South Australia .. This bottom @-@ dwelling fish generally inhabits sand and reef habitats deeper than 100 m ( 330 ft ) off Victoria , and muddy habitats in shallow bays and estuaries off Tasmania . Befitting its name , the crossback stingaree has a distinctive dark pattern on its back , consisting of a midline stripe that is crossed by three transverse bars . It has an oval pectoral fin disc with a blunt snout and a skirt @-@ shaped curtain of skin between the nostrils . Its tail is short with no skin fold along the sides , and a deep , leaf @-@ shaped caudal fin . The youngest rays may have a small dorsal fin in front of the stinging tail spine . This species reaches 50 cm ( 20 in ) in length . During the day the crossback stingaree is usually inactive and can be found partially or completely buried in sand on the sea floor . It is a carnivore and adults forage for crustaceans , polychaete worms and other small invertebrates on the seafloor . Juveniles feed on smaller crustaceans such as isopods , amphipods and shrimps . The species is aplacental viviparous , with the developing embryos sustained to term by histotroph ( " uterine milk " ) produced by the mother . Females bear litters of up to four pups every other year , after a gestation period of at least six months . This species is closely related to , and may hybridize with , the yellowback stingaree ( U. sufflavus ) . The venomous sting of the crossback stingaree is potentially injurious to humans . This common species is seldom caught by commercial fisheries other than in the northernmost extent of its range . Thus , its population is largely secure and the International Union for Conservation of Nature ( IUCN ) has listed it under Least Concern . = = Taxonomy = = French naturalist Bernard Lacépède originally described the crossback stingaree as Raja cruciata , in an 1804 volume of the scientific journal Annales du Muséum d 'Histoire Naturelle Paris . The specific epithet means " cross @-@ like " in Latin , referring to the distinctive markings on its back . The origin of the type specimen was given simply as New Holland ( Australia ) . In their 1838 – 41 Systematische Beschreibung der Plagiostomen , German biologists Johannes Müller and Jakob Henle placed this species in the newly created genus Urolophus . The Victorian and Tasmanian subpopulations of the crossback stingaree differ markedly in habitat preferences and merit further taxonomic investigation , according to the International Union for Conservation of Nature ( IUCN ) . This ray is closely related to the yellowback stingaree ( U. sufflavus ) . In addition to morphological similarities , the two may also hybridize ( see below ) and , in a 2007 study of 388 fishes by Robert Ward and Bronwyn Holmes , were the only species that could not be distinguished on the basis of their cytochrome c gene sequences , attesting to a close evolutionary relationship . = = Distribution and habitat = = The distribution of the crossback stingaree mainly encompasses the coastal waters of Victoria and Tasmania , where it is quite abundant ; it ranges as far east as Jervis Bay in New South Wales , and as far west as Beachport in South Australia . Bottom @-@ dwelling in nature , this species has been reported from the intertidal zone to a depth of 210 m ( 690 ft ) on the upper continental slope . Rays of the Victorian subpopulation prefer sandy flats and rocky reefs and are seldom seen in less than 25 m ( 82 ft ) of water , occurring most commonly at depths greater than 100 m ( 330 ft ) . By contrast , rays of the Tasmanian subpopulation are usually found over muddy bottoms in very shallow bays and large estuaries , occasionally penetrating into brackish water . = = Description = = The crossback stingaree 's pectoral fin disc is slightly wider than long and oval in shape , with the anterior margins nearly straight and converging at a very obtuse angle . The snout is fleshy and blunt , generally not protruding from the disc . The eyes are small and immediately followed by teardrop @-@ shaped spiracles , which have rounded to angular posterior rims . The outer rim of each nostril may form a small knob at the back . Between the nostrils is a skirt @-@ shaped curtain of skin with a deeply fringed posterior margin . The mouth is small and strongly arched , containing 3 – 6 papillae ( nipple @-@ like structures ) on the floor and an additional patch of papillae is present on the outside of the lower jaw . Both upper and lower teeth are small with roughly oval bases , and are arranged in a quincunx pattern . The five pairs of gill slits are short . The pelvic fins are small , with rounded margins . The rather short tail measures 63 – 84 % of the disc 's length and is a flattened oval in cross @-@ section , without lateral skin folds . A single serrated , stinging spine is positioned on top , about halfway along the tail 's length . In newborns , the sting is preceded by a small dorsal fin ; the fin is lost with age , though it may be evidenced by a small ridge or scar . At the end of the tail is a very short , deep , leaf @-@ shaped caudal fin . The skin is entirely devoid of dermal denticles . The crossback stingaree is grayish to yellowish brown above with a pattern of dark markings , including a stripe running along the midline and crossed by three transverse bars : one near the eyes , one over the gill region , and one over the center of the disc . The pattern is strongest in rays from the southern portion of its range . A few dark brown or black individuals have been recorded . The underside is off @-@ white , sometimes becoming slightly darker at the disc margin . The caudal fin is more grayish than the body , and there may be dusky blotches on the tail . This species attains a maximum known length of 50 cm ( 20 in ) . Females generally grow larger than males . = = Biology and ecology = = Generally nocturnal , the crossback stingaree spends long stretches of the day lying motionless on the sea floor , partially or completely buried in sediment . It has been known to form groups of varying size , sometimes mixing with other stingaree species . This ray is a generalist predator that forages for small organisms on or buried in the bottom . Off Victoria , over three @-@ quarters of prey consumed are crustaceans , of which isopods ( particularly Natalolana woodjonesi and N. wowine ) comprise the majority and amphipods and decapods the remainder . Polychaete worms are also eaten in significant quantities , while priapulids and the burrowing squid Euprymna tasmanica are infrequently taken . Young rays under 30 cm ( 12 in ) across feed mainly on smaller isopods , amphipods , and shrimps ; with age a progressively greater diversity of larger prey , such as penaeid prawns , priapulids , and polychaetes , are incorporated into its diet . The broadnose sevengill shark ( Notorynchus cepedianus ) is known to prey on the crossback stingaree . When threatened , this ray raises its tail warningly above its body in a scorpion @-@ like fashion . Parasites documented from this species include a tapeworm in the genus Acanthobothrium , and the monogenean Calicotyle urolophi . Like other stingrays , the crossback stingaree is aplacental viviparous : when the developing embryos exhaust their supply of yolk , their mother provisions them with nutrient @-@ rich histotroph ( " uterine milk " ) through specialized extensions of the uterine epithelium called " trophonemata " . Females produce litters of 1 – 4 pups every other year . Embryonic development proceeds rapidly over a six @-@ month period , though the total gestation period may be much longer if there is a period of dormancy for the eggs after fertilization , as has been reported in other stingarees . Off Tasmania , large estuaries such as at the mouth of the River Derwent serve as nursery areas . Different authors have variously reported the birth length at between 10 and 15 cm ( 3 @.@ 9 and 5 @.@ 9 in ) , and the maturation length at between 20 and 32 cm ( 7 @.@ 9 and 12 @.@ 6 in ) , with females usually maturing at a slightly larger size than males . This range of sizes may reflect life history differences in crossback stingarees across different parts of its range . Both sexes mature at around six years of age , and can live to at least 11 years . The crossback stingaree may hybridize naturally with the closely related yellowback stingaree off southern New South Wales , where the distributions of the two species overlap and apparent hybrid offspring with intermediate color patterns have been found . If true , this would represent one of the few known cases of hybridization among cartilaginous fishes . = = Human interactions = = The crossback stingaree can inflict an excruciating injury on an unwary human with its venomous sting , that may require surgical intervention if the serrated tip of the sting breaks off inside the wound . The base of its tail is highly flexible , allowing it to strike a person touching any part of its body . In the 19th century , the hazard posed by this species led to persecution by fishery workers in the form of " spiking " , in which a metal spike is used to pierce the ray 's cranium and remove it from the net . The IUCN has listed the crossback stingaree under Least Concern , as it is exposed to minimal fishing activity in the Bass Strait and off western Tasmania , which constitute most of its distribution . The impact of Tasmanian inshore fisheries is unquantified but unlikely to be severe . Off New South Wales , it is caught incidentally in otter trawls and gillnets used by the Southern and Eastern Scalefish and Shark Fishery ( SESSF ) . Captured rays likely experience high mortality , and also tend to abort any unborn young . While the SESSF has caused an overall decline in deepwater stingarees within its area of operations , it only affects a small portion of this species ' range .
= State Route 74 ( New York – Vermont ) = New York State Route 74 ( NY 74 ) and Vermont Route 74 ( VT 74 ) are adjoining state highways in the northeastern United States , connected by one of the last remaining cable ferries in North America . Together they extend for 35 miles ( 56 km ) through Essex County , New York , and Addison County , Vermont . NY 74 begins at exit 28 off Interstate 87 ( I @-@ 87 ) in the hamlet of Severance in the Adirondack Mountains region of the northern part of New York State . It extends 20 @.@ 44 miles ( 32 @.@ 89 km ) to the western shore of Lake Champlain in Ticonderoga . There , the seasonal Fort Ticonderoga – Larrabees Point Ferry carries cars across the state border into Vermont , where VT 74 starts at the lake 's eastern shore and terminates 13 @.@ 26 miles ( 21 @.@ 34 km ) later at a junction with VT 30 in the town of Cornwall . NY 74 is a descendant of the historic Ticonderoga and Schroon Turnpike , which was a privately owned highway chartered in 1832 , and segments of NY 74 follow the alignment of the original 19th @-@ century turnpike . The connecting ferry route predates both NY 74 and VT 74 and began operation in 1759 on an informal basis . The ferry operation formalized at the close of the 18th century and upgraded to a cable system in 1946 . Due to extensive changes in designations in both states during the 20th century , the entire length of the present highway consists of renamed segments from other highways . The New York portion of the cross @-@ state Route 74 west of Ticonderoga was designated as part of NY 73 in the 1930 renumbering of state highways in New York , while the Vermont section carried several different designations from the 1920s to the late 1930s , when it became solely part of Vermont Route F @-@ 9 . NY 73 was extended east to Lake Champlain in the 1950s — replacing New York State Route 347 — and VT F @-@ 9 was split into VT 73 and VT 74 shortly afterward . The Schroon – Ticonderoga highway was redesignated as NY 74 c . 1973 after NY 73 was cut back to its current eastern terminus in Elizabethtown . = = Route description = = = = = NY 74 = = = NY 74 originates at exit 28 of the Adirondack Northway ( I @-@ 87 ) in the town of Schroon . The starting interchange is located near local landmark Severance Hill , which reaches an altitude of 1 @,@ 600 feet ( 490 m ) . NY 74 intersects with the north – south U.S. Route 9 ( US 9 ) shortly after the northbound ramps of the Adirondack Northway . It then meets Stowell Road just before crossing the Schroon River . The highway meets a few local road intersections just south of Goosebury Hill before encountering Paradox Lake . NY 74 runs mostly parallel to the lake and intersects with a local campground entrance road as it continues eastward from Schroon . Cotters Pond is a small landmark located beyond a few mountains and hills on the southern side of NY 74 near the end of Paradox Lake . Cotters Pond , by state law , is a water body that cannot be used for baitfishing . This was designated by the New York State Department of Environmental Conservation . Shortly afterward , NY 74 passes Bumbo Pond and enters the hamlet of Paradox . After leaving Paradox , NY 74 turns to the southeast along the base of Skiff Mountain . The highway then approaches a creek that flows into Eagle Lake . NY 74 crosses over Eagle Lake and runs along the base of Eagle Cliff and the shores of the lake . After leaving Eagle Lake , the highway intersects with County Route 2 ( CR 2 ) , the first numbered highway that NY 74 encounters after US 9 . This stretch of NY 74 skirts the base of Keeney Mountain , which peaks at 1 @,@ 400 feet ( 430 m ) . NY 74 then intersects with CR 56 , which parallels the main route to the south . CR 56 merges back with NY 74 , which leaves the mountainous region for the hamlet of Ticonderoga . NY 74 intersects with NY 9N and NY 22 in the hamlet ; the latter of the two highways becomes concurrent with NY 74 . NY 22 and NY 74 continue to the east , heading around the outskirts of Ticonderoga . NY 74 intersects with CR 49 before NY 74 turns to the southeast . NY 22 and NY 74 head southward toward the center of Ticonderoga . At the intersection with Montcalm Street , NY 74 turns eastward off NY 22 , which heads southward for Washington County . NY 74 crosses local roads as it continues eastward toward Lake Champlain . The highway passes the entrance to Fort Ticonderoga and the Ticonderoga Amtrak station . The New York portion of NY 74 terminates at a ferry landing by Lake Champlain at the state border . = = = Fort Ticonderoga – Larrabees Point Ferry = = = The Fort Ticonderoga – Larrabees Point Ferry is the oldest and southernmost ferry on Lake Champlain . Its cable system consists of two 1 @.@ 1 @-@ inch ( 2 @.@ 8 cm ) steel cables in parallel alignment . The current ferry barge , in operation since 1959 , is powered by a sixteen @-@ ton tugboat built in 1979 that can hold up to 18 cars . The seasonal ferry is half a mile long and operates from May through October . The seven @-@ minute passage operates during daylight hours . = = = VT 74 = = = After crossing the state line via the Fort Ticonderoga – Larrabees Point Ferry , VT 74 begins its track into Vermont . The highway heads a short distance to the north , passing a thinly populated area in Shoreham , as intermittent forest yields to fields and farmlands . After 0 @.@ 49 miles ( 0 @.@ 79 km ) from the border , VT 74 intersects with VT 73 before encountering Barnum Hill Road . Near the Barnum Hill intersection , VT 74 passes developed areas and bends more toward the north . VT 74 then turns to the northeast at Smith Street and enters a patch of forest . Afterward VT 74 climbs a hill and intersects with Harrington Hill Road where it turns northward once again . Fields and forests surround this thinly populated stretch of highway . At the intersection with Blue Harbor Road , VT 74 turns to the east and heads toward downtown Shoreham . Within central Shoreham , VT 74 is known as Main Street and has a short concurrency with VT 22A . As VT 74 leaves the densely populated portion of Shoreham , the concurrency ends and VT 74 takes an eastward turn toward Cornwall . As VT 74 returns to the rural countryside it bends toward the northeast for most of the distance to Cornwall . Through this stretch the highway winds through forests and occasional farmland . VT 74 straightens at an intersection with Bates Road . A connector road called North Palmer Road merges with VT 74 shortly afterward . VT 74 winds again for a stretch and straightens a second time near the intersection with Elmendorf Road as it continues toward Cornwall , intersecting with several township highways and approaching increasingly residential areas . At Clark Road in Cornwall , VT 74 turns to the northeast once again , passing through more forests before terminating at VT 30 in Cornwall . = = Early history = = = = = Schroon and its early highways = = = Settlers of European descent began to populate the region near modern Schroon around 1797 . The area 's first municipality was the town of Crown Point , which originally included considerable portions of thinly populated land that later developed into separate townships . The first of these divisions occurred on March 20 , 1804 with the establishment of the town of Schroon . Minerva split from Crown Point in March 1817 , before another municipal reorganization in 1840 implemented further reductions to the land area of Crown Point . During this period two thoroughfares served the area that correspond to parts of modern NY 74 and US 9 . One of these old state roads traversed the route covered by the current alignment of NY 74 from Schroon to Ticonderoga . = = = Ticonderoga and Schroon Turnpike = = = The entire length of NY 74 from Ticonderoga to Schroon covers the same route as the 19th century Ticonderoga and Schroon Turnpike . The turnpike , chartered in April 1832 , was built to a stretch of highway from the two towns . Two toll gates were erected specifically for use on the highway , and the charter allowed for additional toll gates at a spacing of approximately one for every ten miles of completed highway . The turnpike management raised funds by selling 600 shares valued at $ 25 ( equivalent to $ 593 in 2016 ) each . $ 20 @,@ 000 ( equivalent to $ 474 @,@ 067 in 2016 ) was also set aside for properties along the highway . = = Designation history = = = = = Designations from 1913 to the 1930s = = = In 1913 , the New York State Legislature designated most of modern NY 74 as Route 22 @-@ b , an unsigned legislative route . It ran for 17 @.@ 06 miles ( 27 @.@ 46 km ) from Route 22 ( now US 9 ) in Schroon to the western edge of the then @-@ village of Ticonderoga . On March 1 , 1921 , Route 22 @-@ b became part of Route 48 , a new route created as part of a partial renumbering of New York 's legislative route system . In 1924 , when state highways were first publicly signed with route numbers , the highway from Schroon to Ticonderoga remained unnumbered . During the 1930 renumbering of state highways in New York , the segment of modern NY 74 between US 9 in Schroon and NY 22 in Ticonderoga was designated as part of NY 73 , a route extending from NY 28N in Tahawus to Ticonderoga . NY 73 followed the Blue Ridge Road from Tahawus to North Hudson and had an overlap with US 9 from North Hudson to Schroon . The portion of NY 73 between Tahawus and North Hudson was removed from the state highway system c . 1936 . As a result , NY 73 was truncated to a new western terminus at US 9 in Schroon , eliminating the concurrency with US 9 . The Blue Ridge Road is now designated as CR 84 from NY 28N in Tawahus to the Adirondack Northway in North Hudson , and as NY 910K , a short unsigned reference route , from the Northway to US 9 . On the Vermont side , the road connecting Larrabees Point to the main north – south highways in the area was designated as VT F @-@ 9 by 1926 . VT F @-@ 9 began at the ferry landing at Larrabees Point and continued northeast to Shoreham Center , where it briefly overlapped with then @-@ VT 30A ( modern VT 22A ) . Past VT 30A , VT F @-@ 9 continued east along what are now town highways through Whiting to Leicester , where it ended at a junction with US 7 . At the time , modern VT 74 between Shoreham and Cornwall centers was known as VT F @-@ 9A while what is now VT 73 from Larrabees Point to Brown Lane north of the town center of Orwell was part of VT F @-@ 10A . = = = Changes from 1933 onward = = = By 1933 , the highway linking NY 22 in Ticonderoga to the ferry for Larrabees Point became part of NY 8 . NY 8 was realigned c . 1934 to follow NY 22 north from Ticonderoga to Crown Point , where it left NY 22 to follow NY 347 ( modern NY 185 ) to the Champlain Bridge . The NY 347 designation was reassigned to NY 8 's former routing between NY 22 and the ferry landing east of Ticonderoga . VT F @-@ 9 , meanwhile , was extended southward to Orwell over VT F @-@ 10A by 1938 . Like VT F @-@ 10A , it initially bypassed Orwell to the north on Brown Lane ; however , it was realigned in the late 1930s to follow modern VT 73 into Orwell . Around the same time , VT F @-@ 9 was realigned east of Shoreham to follow VT F @-@ 9A northeast to Cornwall . The VT F @-@ 9A designation was eliminated while the former routing of VT F @-@ 9 between Shoreham and Leicester became unnumbered . In the early 1950s , New York extended NY 73 east to the ferry landing by way of NY 347 and Wicker and Montcalm Streets . Vermont renumbered the Larrabees Point – Orwell section of VT F @-@ 9 to VT 73 in the mid @-@ 1950s in order to match the New York route number . At the same time , the Larrabees Point – Cornwall section of VT F @-@ 9 was renumbered by Vermont to VT 74 . NY 73 was truncated to its current eastern terminus in Underwood c . 1973 , eliminating a lengthy overlap with US 9 , while its former routing from Schroon to Lake Champlain was renumbered to NY 74 , matching the other Vermont route number that ends in Larrabees Point . The already existing NY 74 in Chautauqua County ( in the Jamestown area ) was renumbered to NY 474 as a result . The opening of the Adirondack Northway in 1967 also resulted in a slight shift of the western terminus of NY 74 from US 9 to I @-@ 87 . By 1981 , NY 74 was rerouted to follow its current alignment around the northeastern edge of Ticonderoga , on a concurrency with NY 22 . The highway has remained the same since that date . The New York State Department of Transportation has announced a project to repave NY 74 from Chilson to Paradox . The project is in preliminary development , with construction is expected to begin in early 2013 and reach completion about a year later . Funding will come from state sources and run an estimated cost of $ 8 @.@ 6 million . = = Ferry history = = According to its website , the ferry operated informally from 1759 and in an organized way from 1799 . The earliest ferries are believed to have been rowboats or canoes ; " a double @-@ ended sailing scow was in service by 1800 . This vessel was about 30 feet ( 9 @.@ 1 m ) long , with a mainsail that would swing completely around the mast to provide a simple means of reversing course . " Ferry size continued to increase with traffic until the system upgraded to a cable guidance system in 1946 . John S. Larrabee of Vermont established the first regular ferry at the location in the late 18th century . The Vermont State Legislature approved a franchise for a ferry from Larrabees Point to Ticonderoga in 1907 , to the Shoreham and Ticonderoga Ferry Company . The New York State Legislature granted the ferry a franchise in 1918 . = = Major intersections = =
= Forrest Gump = Forrest Gump is a 1994 American epic romantic @-@ comedy @-@ drama film based on the 1986 novel of the same name by Winston Groom . The film was directed by Robert Zemeckis and stars Tom Hanks , Robin Wright , Gary Sinise , Mykelti Williamson , and Sally Field . The story depicts several decades in the life of Forrest Gump , a slow @-@ witted but kind @-@ hearted , good @-@ natured and athletically prodigious man from Alabama who witnesses , and in some cases influences , some of the defining events of the latter half of the 20th century in the United States ; more specifically , the period between Forrest 's birth in 1944 and 1982 . The film differs substantially from Winston Groom 's novel , including Gump 's personality and several events that were depicted . Principal photography took place in late 1993 , mainly in Georgia , North Carolina , and South Carolina . Extensive visual effects were used to incorporate the protagonist into archived footage and to develop other scenes . A comprehensive soundtrack was featured in the film , using music intended to pinpoint specific time periods portrayed on screen . Its commercial release made it a top @-@ selling soundtrack , selling over twelve million copies worldwide . Released in the United States on July 6 , 1994 , Forrest Gump became a commercial success as the top grossing film in North America released in that year , being the first major success for Paramount Pictures since the studio 's sale to Viacom , earning over US $ 677 million worldwide during its theatrical run . In 1995 it won the Academy Awards for Best Picture , Best Director for Robert Zemeckis , Best Actor for Tom Hanks , Best Adapted Screenplay for Eric Roth , Best Visual Effects , and Best Film Editing . It also garnered multiple other awards and nominations , including Golden Globes , People 's Choice Awards , and Young Artist Awards , among others . Since the film 's release varying interpretations have been made of the film 's protagonist and its political symbolism . In 1996 , a themed restaurant , Bubba Gump Shrimp Company , opened based on the film and has since expanded to multiple locations worldwide . The scene of Gump running across the country is often referred to when real @-@ life people attempt the feat . In 2011 , the Library of Congress selected Forrest Gump for preservation in the United States National Film Registry as being " culturally , historically , or aesthetically significant " . = = Plot = = In 1981 , Forrest Gump ( Tom Hanks ) sits at a bus stop in Savannah , Georgia as a feather floats down toward him , which he then picks up and begins telling his life story to strangers who sit next to him , beginning with his childhood in the town of Greenbow , Alabama during the 1950s . As a child , Forrest had to wear leg braces for which he was often ridiculed . He was raised by a single mother ( Sally Field ) who ran a boarding house for travelers . Despite being intellectually challenged , Forrest is admitted to public school , but only after Mrs. Gump agrees to a one night stand with the school principal . On his first day of school , Forrest meets Jenny Curran , who becomes his best friend . He learns that Jenny 's mother had died when she was very young and her father is an alcoholic . Forrest 's recounting implies that Jenny 's father had been sexually abusive towards her . Jenny encourages Forrest to run away when he gets bullied by a group of older boys , and he struggles to outrun them until his leg braces fall off and he is able to run at very high speed . Years later , while fleeing from the same group of bullies , he runs onto the football field during a game and catches the attention of University of Alabama Coach Bear Bryant , which gets him into college on a football scholarship . After his college graduation , he enlists in the army , where he manages to excel at drill exercises and befriends fellow recruit Benjamin Buford Blue , nicknamed Bubba ( Mykelti Williamson ) , who convinces Gump to go into the shrimping business with him when the war is over . They are sent to Vietnam where they report to Lieutenant Dan Taylor ( Gary Sinise ) . Their platoon is ambushed , leaving many of their fellow soldiers wounded . Bubba is killed and Lieutenant Dan loses both his legs as a result his of injuries . Forrest saves many members of his platoon including Lieutenant Dan , who is resentful of being crippled , while he himself is wounded in the buttocks . Gump is awarded the Congressional Medal of Honour for his actions which is presented to him by President Lyndon B. Johnson at the White House . At an anti @-@ war rally in Washington , Forrest reunites with Jenny , who has joined the Hippie movement after being expelled from college over topless photos of herself and has experimented with drugs . While recovering from his wounds , Forrest discovers an uncanny ability for ping @-@ pong , eventually gaining popularity and rising to celebrity status , later playing ping @-@ pong competitively against Chinese teams in ping @-@ pong diplomacy . He runs into Lieutenant Dan , now in a wheelchair , who has become an embittered drunk and receives Disability pension . Forrest moves in with Dan and they spend the holidays together , with Forrest explaining his and Bubba 's plan to go into the shrimping business and his own intentions to fulfill Bubba 's dream . After being discharged from the Army , Gump returns to Alabama and endorses a company that makes ping @-@ pong paddles , earning himself US $ 25 @,@ 000 , which he uses to buy a shrimping boat , fulfilling his promise to Bubba . Lieutenant Dan joins Gump , and although they initially have little success , after Hurricane Carmen they are the only boat in the area left standing and they begin to pull in huge amounts of shrimp . They use their income to buy an entire fleet of shrimp boats . Lieutenant Dan invests the money in Apple and they are financially secure for the rest of their lives . Forrest returns home when his mother falls terminally ill and stays with her until her death . Forrest donates much of his money to various causes and continues to live in the house where he grew up , taking a job as a grounds keeper . However he is lonely and often thinks of Jenny , who has been living a life of promiscuity and substance abuse . One day , she returns to Alabama and stays with Forrest . He asks her to marry him , but she declines due to her troubled past . However , they end up making love that night . She leaves early the next morning . On a whim , Forrest decides to go for a run , which turns into a coast @-@ to @-@ coast three @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half year journey , bringing him national attention . In present @-@ day , Gump reveals that he is waiting at the bus stop because he received a letter from Jenny , who is now living in Savannah and had seen him on TV during his running and invited him to visit her . Once reunited with Jenny , he discovers she has a young son named Forrest , and that Gump himself is the father . Jenny reveals she is suffering from an unknown virus ( possibly HIV , though this is never specified ) . She asks to marry him and he accepts . Forrest and Jenny return to Greenbow with Forrest Jr and are married . Forrest cares for Jenny during her illness . Jenny eventually dies and Forrest becomes a devoted father to Forrest Jr . In the film 's final scene , Gump is waiting with his son for the School Bus to pick him up for his first day of school . As the bus departs , the feather from the beginning of the film floats off into the air . = = Cast = = Tom Hanks as Forrest Gump : Though at an early age he is deemed to have a below average IQ of 75 , he has an endearing character and shows devotion to his loved ones and duties , character traits which bring him into many life @-@ changing situations . Along the way , he encounters many historical figures and events throughout his life . Tom 's younger brother Jim Hanks is his acting double in the movie for the scenes when Forrest runs across America . Tom 's daughter Elizabeth Hanks appears in the movie as the girl on the school bus who refuses to let young Forrest ( Michael Conner Humphreys ) sit next to her . John Travolta was the original choice to play the title role , and admits passing on the role was a mistake . Bill Murray and Chevy Chase were also considered for the role . Hanks revealed that he signed onto the film after an hour and a half of reading the script . He initially wanted to ease Forrest 's pronounced Southern accent , but was eventually persuaded by director Robert Zemeckis to portray the heavy accent stressed in the novel . Hanks agreed to take the role only on the condition that the film was historically accurate . Michael Conner Humphreys portrayed the young Forrest Gump . Hanks revealed in interviews that after hearing Michael 's unique accented drawl , he incorporated it into the older character 's accent . Winston Groom , who wrote the original novel , describes the film as having taken the " rough edges " off of the character , and envisioned him being played by John Goodman . Robin Wright as Jenny Curran : Forrest 's childhood friend whom he immediately falls in love with and never stops loving throughout his life . A victim of child sexual abuse at the hands of her bitterly widowed father , Jenny embarks on a different path from Forrest , leading a self @-@ destructive life and becoming part of the hippie movement in the 1960s and the 1970s / 1980s drug culture . She re @-@ enters Forrest 's life at various times in adulthood . Jenny eventually becomes a waitress in Savannah , Georgia , where she lives in an apartment with her ( and Forrest 's ) son , Forrest Jr . They eventually get married , but soon afterwards she dies of an unspecified illness caused by a kind of virus . Her illness is implied to be HIV / AIDS ; however , Hepatitis C is also a strong possibility as Forrest Sr. was never portrayed as contracting any illness ( and although either would 've had a chance to have been passed to Forrest Jr. through childbirth , he too does not fall ill ) and the Hepatitis C virus was not discovered until 1989 – long after Jenny 's death . Hanna R. Hall portrayed the young Jenny . Gary Sinise as Lieutenant Dan Taylor : Forrest and Bubba Blue 's platoon leader during the Vietnam War , whose ancestors have died in every American war and regards it as his destiny to do the same . After losing his legs in an ambush and being rescued against his will by Forrest , he is initially bitter and antagonistic towards Forrest for leaving him a " cripple " and denying him his family 's destiny , falling into a deep depression . He later serves as Forrest 's first mate at the Bubba Gump Shrimp Company , gives most of the orders , and regains his will to live . He ultimately forgives and thanks Forrest for saving his life . By the end of the film , he is engaged to be married and is sporting " magic legs " – titanium alloy prosthetics which allow him to walk again . Mykelti Williamson as Benjamin Buford " Bubba " Blue : Bubba is Forrest 's friend whom he meets upon joining the Army . Bubba was originally supposed to be the senior partner in the Bubba Gump Shrimp Company , but due to his death in Vietnam , their platoon leader , Dan Taylor , took his place . The company posthumously carried his name . Forrest and Dan later gave Bubba 's mother Bubba 's share of the business . Throughout filming , Williamson wore a lip attachment to create Bubba 's protruding lip . David Alan Grier , Ice Cube and Dave Chappelle were all offered the role but turned it down . Chappelle said he believed the film would be unsuccessful , and also acknowledged that he regrets not taking the role . Sally Field as Mrs. Gump : Forrest 's devoted mother , who raises him after his father abandons them . Field reflected on the character , " She 's a woman who loves her son unconditionally . … A lot of her dialogue sounds like slogans , and that 's just what she intends . " Haley Joel Osment as Forrest Gump , Jr . : Forrest and Jenny 's son . Osment was cast in the film after the casting director had noticed him in a Pizza Hut commercial . Peter Dobson as Elvis : A house guest Forrest encounters . Although Kurt Russell was uncredited , he provided the voice over for Elvis in the scene where Elvis meets Forrest . Dick Cavett as himself : Cavett played the 1970s version of himself , with makeup applied to make him appear younger . Consequently , Cavett is the only well @-@ known figure in the film to play a cameo role rather than be represented through the use of archival footage like John Lennon or President John F. Kennedy Sam Anderson as Principal Hancock : Forrest 's elementary school principal . Geoffrey Blake as Wesley : A member of the SDS group and Jenny 's abusive boyfriend . Siobhan Fallon Hogan as Dorothy Harris : The school bus driver who drives both Forrest , and later his son , to school . Sonny Shroyer as Coach Paul " Bear " Bryant : Forrest 's football coach at the University of Alabama . Grand L. Bush , Michael Jace , Conor Kennelly , and Teddy Lane Jr. as the Black Panthers : Members of an organization that protests the Vietnam War , President Lyndon B. Johnson , and anti @-@ black racism . Jed Gillin as the voice of President Kennedy , who Forrest meets in the White House Oval Office . Michael Conner Humphreys - Young Forrest = = Production = = = = = Script = = = The film is based on the 1986 novel by Winston Groom . Both center on the character of Forrest Gump . However , the film primarily focuses on the first eleven chapters of the novel , before skipping ahead to the end of the novel with the founding of Bubba Gump Shrimp Co. and the meeting with Forrest , Jr . In addition to skipping some parts of the novel , the film adds several aspects to Gump 's life that do not occur in the novel , such as his needing leg braces as a child and his run across the United States . Gump 's core character and personality are also changed from the novel ; among other things his film character is less of an autistic savant — in the novel , while playing football at the university , he fails craft and gym , but receives a perfect score in an advanced physics class he is enrolled in by his coach to satisfy his college requirements . The novel also features Gump as an astronaut , a professional wrestler , and a chess player . Two directors were offered the opportunity to direct the film before Robert Zemeckis was selected . Terry Gilliam turned down the offer . Barry Sonnenfeld was attached to the film , but left to direct Addams Family Values . = = = Filming = = = Filming began in August 1993 and ended in December of that year . Although most of the film is set in Alabama , filming took place mainly in and around Beaufort , South Carolina , as well as parts of coastal Virginia and North Carolina , including a running shot on the Blue Ridge Parkway . Downtown portions of the fictional town of Greenbow were filmed in Varnville , South Carolina . The scene of Forrest running through Vietnam while under fire was filmed on Fripp Island , South Carolina . Additional filming took place on the Biltmore Estate in Asheville , North Carolina , and along the Blue Ridge Parkway near Boone , North Carolina . The most notable place was Grandfather Mountain where a part of the road is named " Forrest Gump Curve " . The Gump family home set was built along the Combahee River near Yemassee , South Carolina , and the nearby land was used to film Curran 's home as well as some of the Vietnam scenes . Over 20 palmetto trees were planted to improve the Vietnam scenes . Forrest Gump narrated his life 's story in Chippewa Square in Savannah , Georgia as he sat at a bus stop bench . There were other scenes filmed in and around the Savannah area as well , including a running shot on the Richard V. Woods Memorial Bridge in Beaufort while he was being interviewed by the press , and on West Bay Street in Savannah . Most of the college campus scenes were filmed in Los Angeles at the University of Southern California . The lighthouse that Forrest runs across to reach the Atlantic Ocean the first time is the Marshall Point Lighthouse in Port Clyde , Maine . Additional scenes were filmed in Arizona , Utah 's Monument Valley , and Montana 's Glacier National Park . = = = Visual effects = = = Ken Ralston and his team at Industrial Light & Magic were responsible for the film 's visual effects . Using CGI techniques , it was possible to depict Gump meeting deceased personages and shaking their hands . Hanks was first shot against a blue screen along with reference markers so that he could line up with the archive footage . To record the voices of the historical figures , voice actors were filmed and special effects were used to alter lip @-@ syncing for the new dialogue . Archival footage was used and with the help of such techniques as chroma key , image warping , morphing , and rotoscoping , Hanks was integrated into it . In one Vietnam War scene , Gump carries Bubba away from an incoming napalm attack . To create the effect , stunt actors were initially used for compositing purposes . Then , Hanks and Williamson were filmed , with Williamson supported by a cable wire as Hanks ran with him . The explosion was then filmed , and the actors were digitally added to appear just in front of the explosions . The jet fighters and napalm canisters were also added by CGI . The CGI removal of actor Gary Sinise 's legs , after his character had them amputated , was achieved by wrapping his legs with a blue fabric , which later facilitated the work of the " roto @-@ paint " team to paint out his legs from every single frame . At one point , while hoisting himself into his wheelchair , his legs are used for support . The scene where Forrest spots Jenny at a peace rally at the Lincoln Memorial and Reflecting Pool in Washington , D.C. , required visual effects to create the large crowd of people . Over two days of filming , approximately 1 @,@ 500 extras were used . At each successive take , the extras were rearranged and moved into a different quadrant away from the camera . With the help of computers , the extras were multiplied to create a crowd of several hundred thousand people . = = Release = = = = = Critical reception = = = The film received generally positive reviews . The review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes reported that 72 % of critics gave the film a positive review based on a sample of 83 reviews . At the website Metacritic , the film earned a rating of 82 / 100 based on 19 reviews by mainstream critics . CinemaScore reported that audiences gave the film a rare " A + " grade . The story was commended by several critics . Roger Ebert of the Chicago Sun @-@ Times wrote , " I 've never met anyone like Forrest Gump in a movie before , and for that matter I 've never seen a movie quite like ' Forrest Gump . ' Any attempt to describe him will risk making the movie seem more conventional than it is , but let me try . It 's a comedy , I guess . Or maybe a drama . Or a dream . The screenplay by Eric Roth has the complexity of modern fiction ... The performance is a breathtaking balancing act between comedy and sadness , in a story rich in big laughs and quiet truths ... What a magical movie . " Todd McCarthy of Variety wrote that the film " has been very well worked out on all levels , and manages the difficult feat of being an intimate , even delicate tale played with an appealingly light touch against an epic backdrop . " The film did receive notable pans from several major reviewers . Anthony Lane of The New Yorker called the film " Warm , wise , and wearisome as hell . " Owen Gleiberman of Entertainment Weekly said that the film " reduces the tumult of the last few decades to a virtual @-@ reality theme park : a baby @-@ boomer version of Disney 's America . " Critics have compared Gump with various characters and people including Huckleberry Finn , Bill Clinton , and Ronald Reagan . Peter Chomo writes that Gump acts as a " social mediator and as an agent of redemption in divided times " . Peter Travers of Rolling Stone called Gump " everything we admire in the American character – honest , brave , and loyal with a heart of gold . " The New York Times reviewer Janet Maslin called Gump a " hollow man " who is " self @-@ congratulatory in his blissful ignorance , warmly embraced as the embodiment of absolutely nothing . " Marc Vincenti of Palo Alto Weekly called the character " a pitiful stooge taking the pie of life in the face , thoughtfully licking his fingers . " Bruce Kawin and Gerald Mast 's textbook on film history notes that Forrest Gump 's dimness was a metaphor for glamorized nostalgia in that he represented a blank slate by which the Baby Boomer generation projected their memories of those events . The film is commonly seen as a polarizing one for audiences , with Entertainment Weekly writing in 2004 , " Nearly a decade after it earned gazillions and swept the Oscars , Robert Zemeckis 's ode to 20th @-@ century America still represents one of cinema 's most clearly drawn lines in the sand . One half of folks see it as an artificial piece of pop melodrama , while everyone else raves that it 's sweet as a box of chocolates . " = = = Box office performance = = = Produced on a budget of $ 55 million , Forrest Gump opened in 1 @,@ 595 theaters in its first weekend of domestic release , earning $ 24 @,@ 450 @,@ 602 . Motion picture business consultant and screenwriter Jeffrey Hilton suggested to producer Wendy Finerman to double the P & A ( film marketing budget ) based on his viewing of an early print of the film . The budget was immediately increased , per his advice . The film placed first in the weekend 's box office , narrowly beating The Lion King , which was in its fourth week of release . For the first ten weeks of its release , the film held the number one position at the box office . The film remained in theaters for 42 weeks , earning $ 329 @.@ 7 million in the United States and Canada , making it the fourth @-@ highest grossing film at that time ( behind only E.T. the Extra @-@ Terrestrial , Star Wars IV : A New Hope , and Jurassic Park ) . Box Office Mojo estimates that the film sold over 78 @.@ 5 million tickets in the US in its initial theatrical run . The film took 66 days to surpass $ 250 million and was the fastest grossing Paramount film to pass $ 100 million , $ 200 million , and $ 300 million in box office receipts ( at the time of its release ) . The film had gross receipts of $ 329 @,@ 694 @,@ 499 in the U.S. and Canada and $ 347 @,@ 693 @,@ 217 in international markets for a total of $ 677 @,@ 387 @,@ 716 worldwide . Even with such revenue , the film was known as a " successful failure " — due to distributors ' and exhibitors ' high fees , Paramount 's " losses " clocked in at $ 62 million , leaving executives realizing the necessity of better deals . This has , however , also been associated with Hollywood accounting , where expenses are inflated in order to minimize profit sharing . It is Robert Zemeckis ' highest @-@ grossing film to date . = = = Home media = = = Forrest Gump was first released on VHS tape on April 27 , 1995 , as a two @-@ disc Laserdisc set on April 28 , 1995 , ( including the " Through the Eyes of Forrest " special feature ) , before being released in a two @-@ disc DVD set on August 28 , 2001 . Special features included director and producer commentaries , production featurettes , and screen tests . The film was released on Blu @-@ ray disc in November 2009 . = = = Accolades = = = Forrest Gump won Best Picture , Best Actor in a Leading Role , Best Director , Best Visual Effects , Best Adapted Screenplay , and Best Film Editing at the 67th Academy Awards . The film was nominated for seven Golden Globe Awards , winning three of them : Best Actor – Motion Picture Drama , Best Director – Motion Picture , and Best Motion Picture – Drama . The film was also nominated for six Saturn Awards and won two for Best Fantasy Film and Best Supporting Actor ( Film ) . In addition to the film 's multiple awards and nominations , it has also been recognized by the American Film Institute on several of its lists . The film ranks 37th on 100 Years ... 100 Cheers , 71st on 100 Years ... 100 Movies , and 76th on 100 Years ... 100 Movies ( 10th Anniversary Edition ) . In addition , the quote " Mama always said life was like a box of chocolates . You never know what you 're gonna get , " was ranked 40th on 100 Years ... 100 Movie Quotes . The film also ranked at number 240 on Empire 's list of the 500 Greatest Movies of All Time . In December 2011 , Forrest Gump was selected for preservation in the Library of Congress ' National Film Registry . The Registry said that the film was " honored for its technological innovations ( the digital insertion of Gump seamlessly into vintage archival footage ) , its resonance within the culture that has elevated Gump ( and what he represents in terms of American innocence ) to the status of folk hero , and its attempt to engage both playfully and seriously with contentious aspects of the era 's traumatic history . " American Film Institute Lists AFI 's 100 Years ... 100 Movies – # 71 AFI 's 100 Years ... 100 Laughs – Nominated AFI 's 100 Years ... 100 Passions – Nominated AFI 's 100 Years ... 100 Heroes and Villains : Forrest Gump – Nominated Hero AFI 's 100 Years ... 100 Movie Quotes : " Mama always said life was like a box of chocolates . You never know what you 're gonna get . " – # 40 " Mama says , ' Stupid is as stupid does . ' " – Nominated AFI 's 100 Years of Film Scores – Nominated AFI 's 100 Years ... 100 Cheers – # 37 AFI 's 100 Years ... 100 Movies ( 10th Anniversary Edition ) – # 76 AFI 's 10 Top 10 – Nominated Epic Film = = Author controversy = = Winston Groom was paid $ 350 @,@ 000 for the screenplay rights to his novel Forrest Gump and was contracted for a 3 percent share of the film 's net profits . However , Paramount and the film 's producers did not pay him , using Hollywood accounting to posit that the blockbuster film lost money . Tom Hanks , by contrast , contracted for the film 's gross receipts instead of a salary , and he and director Zemeckis each received $ 40 million . Additionally , Groom was not mentioned once in any of the film 's six Oscar @-@ winner speeches . Groom 's dispute with Paramount was later effectively resolved after Groom declared he was satisfied with Paramount 's explanation of their accounting , this coinciding with Groom receiving a seven @-@ figure contract with Paramount for film rights to another of his books , Gump & Co . = = Symbolism = = = = = Feather = = = Various interpretations have been suggested for the feather present at the opening and conclusion of the film . Sarah Lyall of The New York Times noted several suggestions made about the feather : " Does the white feather symbolize the unbearable lightness of being ? Forrest Gump 's impaired intellect ? The randomness of experience ? " Hanks interpreted the feather as : " Our destiny is only defined by how we deal with the chance elements to our life and that 's kind of the embodiment of the feather as it comes in . Here is this thing that can land anywhere and that it lands at your feet . It has theological implications that are really huge . " Sally Field compared the feather to fate , saying : " It blows in the wind and just touches down here or there . Was it planned or was it just perchance ? " Visual effects supervisor Ken Ralston compared the feather to an abstract painting : " It can mean so many things to so many different people . " = = = Political interpretations = = = In Tom Hanks ' words , " The film is non @-@ political and thus non @-@ judgmental . " Nevertheless , in 1994 , CNN 's Crossfire debated whether the film promoted conservative values or was an indictment of the counterculture movement of the 1960s . Thomas Byers , in a Modern Fiction Studies article , called the film " an aggressively conservative film " . It has been noted that while Gump follows a very conservative lifestyle , Jenny 's life is full of countercultural embrace , complete with drug usage , promiscuity , and antiwar rallies , and that their eventual marriage might be a kind of reconciliation . Jennifer Hyland Wang argued in a Cinema Journal article that Jenny 's death to an unnamed virus " ... symbolizes the death of liberal America and the death of the protests that defined a decade [ 1960s ] . " She also notes the film 's screenwriter , Eric Roth , when developing the screenplay from the novel , had " ... transferred all of Gump 's flaws and most of the excesses committed by Americans in the 1960s and 1970s to her [ Jenny ] . " Other commentators believe the film forecast the 1994 Republican Revolution and used the image of Forrest Gump to promote movement leader Newt Gingrich 's traditional , conservative values . Jennifer Hyland Wang observes the film idealizes the 1950s , as made evident by the lack of " whites only " signs in Gump 's southern childhood , and " revisions " the 1960s as a period of social conflict and confusion . She argues this sharp contrast between the decades criticizes the counterculture values and reaffirms conservatism . As viewed by political scientist Joe Paskett , this film is " one of the best films of all time " . Wang argued the film was used by Republican politicians to illustrate a " traditional version of recent history " to gear voters towards their ideology for the congressional elections . In addition , presidential candidate Bob Dole cited the film 's message in influencing his campaign due to its " ... message that has made [ the film ] one of Hollywood 's all @-@ time greatest box office hits : no matter how great the adversity , the American Dream is within everybody 's reach . " In 1995 , National Review included Forrest Gump in its list of the " Best 100 Conservative Movies " of all time . Then , in 2009 , the magazine ranked the film number four on its 25 Best Conservative Movies of the Last 25 Years list . " Tom Hanks plays the title character , an amiable dunce who is far too smart to embrace the lethal values of the 1960s . The love of his life , wonderfully played by Robin Wright Penn , chooses a different path ; she becomes a drug @-@ addled hippie , with disastrous results . " James Burton , a communication arts professor at Salisbury University , argued that conservatives claimed Forrest Gump as their own due less to the content of the film and more to the historical and cultural context of 1994 . Burton claimed the film 's content and advertising campaign were affected by the cultural climate of the 1990s , which emphasized family values and " American values " — values epitomized in the successful book Hollywood vs. America . He claimed this climate influenced the apolitical nature of the film , which allowed for many different political interpretations . Burton points out that many conservative critics and magazines ( John Simon , James Bowman , the World Report ) initially either criticized the film or praised it only for its non @-@ political elements . Only after the popularity of the film was well @-@ established did conservatives embrace the film as an affirmation of traditional values . Burton implies the liberal @-@ left could have prevented the conservatives from claiming rights to the film , had it chosen to vocalize elements of the film such as its criticism of military values . Instead , the liberal @-@ left focused on what the film omitted , such as the feminist and civil rights movements . Some commentators see the conservative readings of Forrest Gump as indicants of the death of irony in American culture . Vivian Sobchack notes that the film 's humor and irony relies on the assumption of the audience 's historical ( self- ) consciousness . = = Soundtrack = = The 32 @-@ song soundtrack from the film was released on July 6 , 1994 . With the exception of a lengthy suite from Alan Silvestri 's score , all the songs are previously released ; the soundtrack includes songs from Elvis Presley , Fleetwood Mac , Creedence Clearwater Revival , Aretha Franklin , Lynyrd Skynyrd , Three Dog Night , The Byrds , The Doors , The Mamas & the Papas , The Doobie Brothers , Simon & Garfunkel , Bob Seger , and Buffalo Springfield among others . Music producer Joel Sill reflected on compiling the soundtrack : " We wanted to have very recognizable material that would pinpoint time periods , yet we didn 't want to interfere with what was happening cinematically . " The two @-@ disc album has a variety of music from the 1950s – 1980s performed by American artists . According to Sills , this was due to Zemeckis ' request , " All the material in there is American . Bob ( Zemeckis ) felt strongly about it . He felt that Forrest wouldn 't buy anything but American . " The soundtrack reached a peak of number 2 on the Billboard album chart . The soundtrack went on to sell twelve million copies , and is one of the top selling albums in the United States . The score for the film was composed and conducted by Alan Silvestri and released on August 2 , 1994 . = = Proposed sequel = = The screenplay for the sequel was written by Eric Roth in 2001 . It is based on the original novel 's sequel , Gump and Co. written by Winston Groom in 1995 . Roth 's script begins with Forrest sitting on a bench waiting for his son to return from school . After the September 11 attacks , Roth , Zemeckis , and Hanks decided the story was no longer " relevant . " In March 2007 , however , it was reported Paramount producers took another look at the screenplay . On the very first page of the sequel novel , Forrest Gump tells readers " Don 't never let nobody make a movie of your life 's story , " though " Whether they get it right or wrong , it doesn 't matter . " The first chapter of the book suggests the real @-@ life events surrounding the film have been incorporated into Forrest 's storyline , and that Forrest got a lot of media attention as a result of the film . During the course of the sequel novel , Gump runs into Tom Hanks and at the end of the novel in the film 's release , including Gump going on The David Letterman Show and attending the Academy Awards .
= Hemigrapsus estellinensis = Hemigrapsus estellinensis is an extinct species of crab , formerly endemic to the Texas Panhandle . It was discovered by Gordon C. Creel in 1962 and was probably already extinct before his description was published in 1964 , after the Estelline Salt Springs where it lived were contained by the United States Army . H. estellinensis is closely related to species from the Pacific Ocean such as Hemigrapsus oregonensis , but lived 500 mi ( 800 km ) inland in a hypersaline spring . It differed from its relatives by the pattern of spots on its back , and by the relative sizes of its limbs . = = Description = = H. estellinensis has a rectangular carapace with almost parallel sides . Males have a carapace length of up to 18 @.@ 5 millimetres ( 0 @.@ 73 in ) and a carapace width of up to 22 mm ( 0 @.@ 87 in ) , while females have a carapace up to 17 mm ( 0 @.@ 67 in ) long and 22 mm ( 0 @.@ 87 in ) wide . The front corners of the carapace are developed into three strong teeth on each side . The chief difference between H. estellinensis and other species in the genus is the extensive pattern of rust @-@ red spots on the animal 's " drab green " carapace . H. estellinensis also has a pair of conspicuous white spots near the ends of the H – shaped indentation on the animal 's back , and another spot between each of those spots and the lateral margin of the carapace . The legs are marked with larger spots than the carapace , and both the chelipeds and the walking legs are shorter than in other species . There are no spots on the animal 's underside , including the abdomen . In males , the chelipeds bear a hairy patch containing chemoreceptors on the ventral side of the claw . Creel collected 6 males and ten females ; one of the males is the holotype and all the others are paratypes . All sixteen are held in the National Museum of Natural History as specimens USNM 107855 and USNM 107856 . A few living specimens were taken to Wayland College ( now Wayland Baptist University ) , but died within 17 hours for unknown reasons . Two of the females laid eggs before dying , one laying 3 @,@ 000 and the other 8 @,@ 000 . = = Distribution and ecology = = H. estellinensis lived in Estelline Salt Springs east of the town of Estelline in Hall County , Texas , 500 miles ( 800 km ) from the nearest ocean . Before its extinction , it was the only troglobitic crab in the contiguous United States . Its occurrence so far from the ocean has been described as " curious " , and the species was " probably a Pleistocene relic " . The springs originally produced water with a salinity of 43 ‰ that fed the Prairie Dog Town Fork of the Red River . The salinity derives from Permian red beds , and has a strong structuring effect on the Red River 's biota . It had a flow of approximately 3 @,@ 000 US gallons ( 11 @,@ 000 l ; 2 @,@ 500 imp gal ) per minute , and the pool was 65 ft ( 20 m ) wide at the surface , which was at an altitude of 1 @,@ 742 @.@ 5 feet ( 531 @.@ 1 m ) above sea level . At a depth of 25 ft ( 8 m ) , it was only 20 ft ( 6 m ) wide , and then widened slightly down to a depth of 120 ft ( 37 m ) . Below that , an opening 3 ft ( 0 @.@ 9 m ) wide led into a cavern completely filled with water . The United States Army Corps of Engineers built a dike around the Estelline Salt Springs in January 1964 , which has reduced the chloride load on the Red River by 240 tonnes ( 530 @,@ 000 lb ) per day . Before it was contained , the spring had a rich biota , comprising the cyanobacteria Oscillatoria and Lyngbya , the green algae Ulva clathrata and U. intestinalis , twenty species of diatom , many invertebrates – including a species of barnacle – and a single fish species , Cyprinodon rubrofluviatilis . The springs have since increased in salinity , and many species have been driven to extinction , including H. estellinensis and the undescribed barnacle . As early as December 1962 , attempts to find further living individuals of H. estellinensis were unsuccessful , and it was probably extinct before Creel 's description was published in 1964 . The closest relative of H. estellinensis is the shore crab Hemigrapsus oregonensis , which lives along the coast of the Pacific Ocean . The entire genus is restricted to the Pacific Ocean , except for Hemigrapsus affinis which lives along the Atlantic coasts of South America , from Cape San Roque ( Rio Grande do Norte state , Brazil ) to the Gulf of San Matías ( Patagonia , Argentina ) , and population of Hemigrapsus sanguineus which have been introduced from the species ' native range in East Asia to the Atlantic coast of the United States from Portland , Maine to North Carolina , and to the English Channel and North Sea .
= Helvella acetabulum = Helvella acetabulum is a species of fungus in the family Helvellaceae , order Pezizales . This relatively large cup @-@ shaped fungus is characterized by a tan fruit body with prominent branching ribs resembling a cabbage leaf ; for this reason it is commonly known as the cabbage leaf Helvella . Other colloquial names include the vinegar cup and the brown ribbed elfin cup . The fruit bodies reaches dimensions of 8 cm ( 3 @.@ 1 in ) by 4 cm ( 1 @.@ 6 in ) tall . It is found in Asia , Europe , and North America , where it grows in sandy soils , under both coniferous and deciduous trees . Although it may be considered edible , the fungus is not recommended for consumption unless cooked thoroughly , as it contains the toxin gyromitrin . = = Taxonomy = = The fungus was first named as Peziza acetabulum by Carl Linnaeus in his 1753 Species Plantarum . It was given its current name by French mycologist Lucien Quélet in 1874 . Other genera to which the species has been transferred include Macroscyphus by Samuel Frederick Gray in 1821 , Octospora by Joachim Christian Timm in 1788 , and Paxina by Otto Kuntze in 1891 ; the binomials resulting from these transfers are synonyms . Additional synonyms include Acetabula sulcata ( Pers . ) Fuckel , Acetabula vulgaris Fuckel , Paxina sulcata ( Pers . ) Kuntze , and Peziza sulcata Pers . The specific epithet acetabulum means " little vinegar cup " , and was the Latin word for a small vessel used for storing vinegar ( see acetabulum ) . Common names include the " cabbage leaf Helvella " , the " vinegar cup " , the " ribbed @-@ stalk cup " , and the " brown ribbed elfin cup " . = = Description = = Helvella acetabulum has a deeply cup @-@ shaped fruit body ( technically an apothecium ) that is up to 8 cm ( 3 @.@ 1 in ) in diameter , and 4 cm ( 1 @.@ 6 in ) deep . The inner spore @-@ bearing surface , the hymenium , is brown , and may be smooth or slightly wavy ; the exterior surface is cream @-@ colored , and is covered with minute " hairs " . The ribs start from the cream @-@ colored stem and extend almost to the edge of the fruit body . The stem is typically 1 to 6 cm ( 0 @.@ 4 to 2 @.@ 4 in ) tall by 1 to 3 cm ( 0 @.@ 4 to 1 @.@ 2 in ) thick . The odor and taste of this mushroom are not distinctive . The spores are smooth , elliptical , translucent ( hyaline ) , and contain a single central oil droplet ; they have dimensions of 18 – 20 by 12 – 14 µm . The spore @-@ bearing cells , the asci , are 350 – 400 by 15 – 20 µm , are operculate — meaning they have an apical " lid " that releases the spores . The tips of the asci are inamyloid , so they do not adsorb iodine when stained with Melzer 's reagent . The paraphyses are club @-@ shaped , and have a pale brown color , with tips that are up to 10 µm thick . Although the edibility of the fruit bodies is often listed as " unknown " , consumption of this fungus is not recommended as similar species in the family Helvellaceae contain the toxin gyromitrin . Gyromitrin is heat sensitive , and is broken down by cooking . = = = Similar species = = = Helvella queletii has a roughly similar form and appearance , but the ribbing in that species does not extend up the margin as does H. acetabulum . H. griseoalba has ribs that extend halfway up the sides of the fruit body , but the color of the cup is pale to dark gray rather than cream . The fruit bodies also resemble those of H. costifera , but the latter species is distinguished by its grayish to grayish @-@ brown hymenium ; like H. acetabulum , it has ribs that extend to most of the outside of the fruit body . There are sometimes intermediate forms between the two species , making them difficult to distinguish . H. robusta is also similar to H. acetabulum , but has a lighter @-@ colored hymenium , a robust stem , and the margin of the fruit body is often bent over the stem at maturity . In contrast , H. acetabulum never has the edge of the fruit body bent over the stem , and the stem is " indistinct or prominent , but never robust " . = = Distribution and habitat = = This fungus is widespread in North America and Europe . In North America , the distribution extends north to Alberta , Canada . In Mexico , it has been collected from State of Mexico , Guanajuato , Guerrero , and Tlaxcala . It is also found in Israel , Jordan , Turkey , Iran China ( Xinjiang ) and Japan . The fruit bodies grows solitary , scattered , or clustered together on soil in both coniferous and deciduous woods , typically in spring and summer . A preference for growing in association with coast live oak ( Quercus agrifolia ) has been noted for Californian populations .
= Benjamin Mountfort = Benjamin Woolfield Mountfort ( 13 March 1825 – 15 March 1898 ) was an English emigrant to New Zealand , where he became one of that country 's most prominent 19th @-@ century architects . He was instrumental in shaping the city of Christchurch 's unique architectural identity and culture , and was appointed the first official Provincial Architect of the developing province of Canterbury . Heavily influenced by the Anglo @-@ Catholic philosophy behind early Victorian architecture , he is credited with importing the Gothic revival style to New Zealand . His Gothic designs constructed in both wood and stone in the province are considered unique to New Zealand . Today , he is considered the founding architect of the province of Canterbury . = = Early life = = Mountfort was born in Birmingham , an industrial town in the Midlands of England , the son of perfume manufacturer and jeweller Thomas Mountfort and his wife Susanna ( née Woolfield ) . As a young adult he moved to London , where he was an early pupil of George Gilbert Scott ( from 1841 – 46 ) . He also studied architecture under the Anglo @-@ Catholic architect Richard Cromwell Carpenter , whose medieval Gothic style of design was to have a lifelong influence on Mountfort . After completion of his training in 1848 , Mountfort practised architecture in London . He married Emily Elizabeth Newman on 20 August 1850 , and 18 days later the couple emigrated to New Zealand . They were some of the first settlers to the province of Canterbury , arriving on one of the famed First Four Ships , the Charlotte @-@ Jane on 16 December 1850 . These first settlers , known as " The Pilgrims " , have their names engraved on marble plaques in Cathedral Square , Christchurch , in front of the cathedral that Mountfort helped to design . = = New Zealand = = Mountfort arrived in Canterbury full of ambition and drive to begin designing in 1850 as one of a wave of settlers encouraged to immigrate to the new colony of New Zealand by the British Government . With him and his wife from England came also his brother Charles , his sister Susannah , and Charles ' wife , all five of them aged between 21 and 26 . Life in New Zealand at first was hard and disappointing : Mountfort found that there was little call for architects . Christchurch was little more than a large village of basic wooden huts on a windswept plain . The new émigré 's architectural life in New Zealand had a disastrous beginning . His first commission in New Zealand was the Church of the Most Holy Trinity in Lyttelton , built in 1852 by Isaac Luck . The building proved vulnerable to high winds and was considered unsafe . It was demolished in 1857 . This calamity was attributed to the use of unseasoned wood and his lack of knowledge of the local building materials . Whatever the cause , the result was a crushing blow to his reputation . A local newspaper called him " ... a half @-@ educated architect whose buildings ... have given anything but satisfaction , he being evidently deficient in all knowledge of the principles of construction , though a clever draughtsman and a man of some taste . " . Due to this blow to his reputation , he began running a stationery shop , working as a newspaper agent , and giving drawing lessons until 1857 to supplement his architectural work . It was during this period in the architectural wilderness that he developed a lifelong interest in photography and supplemented his meagre income by taking photographic portraits of his neighbours . Mountfort was a Freemason and an early member of the Lodge of Unanimity , the main building of which he designed in 1863 . The Lodge of Unanimity was the first Masonic Lodge in the South Island . = = Return to architecture = = In 1857 he returned to architecture and entered into a business partnership with his sister Susannah 's new husband , Isaac Luck . Mountfort 's career received a fillip when he was commissioned to design the St John 's Anglican church at Waikouaiti in Otago . A small timber structure in the Gothic style , it was completed on 19 December 1858 on land donated by the ex @-@ whaler Johnny Jones . It is still in use as a church , the oldest such structure in southern New Zealand . Now within the boundaries of the city of Dunedin its simple pit @-@ sawn timber interior successfully conjures a sense of spirituality . Christchurch was under heavy development at this time , as it had just been granted city status and was the new administrative capital of the province of Canterbury . This provided Mountfort and Luck ample opportunity to practice their trade . In 1855 they produced a preliminary design for the new Canterbury Provincial Council Buildings in timber . The buildings were constructed from 1857 – 59 , but in a more limited form than the original design . As the Provincial Council gained new functions with growth in the population and economy of the province , the buildings were enlarged with a North wing in stone and an iron clock tower from 1859 – 60 , and further enlarged with a stone council chamber and refreshment rooms in 1864 – 65 . The buildings today are regarded as one of Mountfort 's most important works . From the exterior , the building appears austere , as was much of Mountfort 's early work : a central tower dominates two flanking gabled wings in the Gothic revival style . However the interior was a riot of colour and medievalism as perceived through Victorian eyes ; it included stained glass windows , and a large double @-@ faced clock , thought to be one of only five around the globe . The chamber is decorated in a rich , almost Ruskinesque style , with carvings by a local sculptor William Brassington . Included in the carvings are representations of indigenous New Zealand species . = = Gothic architecture = = The Gothic revival style of architecture began to gain in popularity from the late 18th century as a romantic backlash against the more classical and formal styles which had predominated the previous two centuries . At the age of 16 , Mountfort acquired two books written by the Gothic revivalist Augustus Pugin : The True Principles of Christian or Pointed Architecture and An Apology for the Revival of Christian Architecture . From this time onwards , Mountfort was a disciple of Pugin 's strong Anglo @-@ Catholic architectural values . These values were further cemented in 1846 , at the age of 21 , Mountfort became a pupil of Richard Cromwell Carpenter . Carpenter was , like Mountfort , a devout Anglo @-@ Catholic and subscribed to the theories of Tractarianism , and thus to the Oxford and Cambridge Movements . These conservative theological movements taught that true spirituality and concentration in prayer was influenced by the physical surroundings , and that the medieval church had been more spiritual than that of the early 19th century . As a result of this theology , medieval architecture was declared to be of greater spiritual value than the classical Palladian @-@ based styles of the 18th and early 19th centuries . Augustus Pugin even pronounced that medieval architecture was the only form suitable for a church and that Palladianism was almost heretical . Such theory was not confined to architects , and continued well into the 20th century . This school of thought led intellectuals such as the English poet Ezra Pound to prefer Romanesque buildings to Baroque on the grounds that the latter represented an abandonment of the world of intellectual clarity and light for a set of values based on the notion of hell and the increasing dominance of society by bankers , a breed to be despised . Whatever the philosophy behind the Gothic revival , in London the 19th @-@ century rulers of the British Empire felt that Gothic architecture was suitable for the colonies because of its then strong Anglican connotations , representing hard work , morality and conversion of native peoples . The irony of this was that many of Mountfort 's churches were for Roman Catholics , as so many of the new immigrants were of Irish origin . To the many middle @-@ class English empire builders , Gothic represented a nostalgic reminder of the parishes left behind in Britain with their true medieval architecture ; these were the patrons who chose the architects and designs . Mountfort 's early Gothic work in New Zealand was of the more severe Anglican variety as practised by Carpenter , with tall lancet windows and many gables . As his career progressed , and he had proved himself to the employing authorities , his designs developed into a more European form , with towers , turrets and high ornamental roof lines in the French manner , a style which was in no way peculiar to Mountfort but was endorsed by such architects as Alfred Waterhouse in Britain . Mountfort 's skill as an architect lay in adapting these flamboyant styles to suit the limited materials available in New Zealand . While wooden churches are plentiful in certain parts of the US , they are generally of a simple classic design , whereas Mountfort 's wooden churches in New Zealand are as much ornate Gothic fantasies as those he designed in stone . Perhaps the flamboyance of his work can be explained in a statement of principles he and his partner Luck wrote when bidding to win the commission to design Government House , Auckland in 1857 : Accordingly , we see in Nature 's buildings , the mountains and hills ; not regularity of outline but diversity ; buttresses , walls and turrets as unlike each other as possible , yet producing a graduation of effect not to be approached by any work , moulded to regularity of outline . The simple study of an oak or an elm tree would suffice to confute the regularity theory . = = Provincial Architect = = As the " Provincial Architect " — a newly created position to which Mountfort was appointed in 1864 — Mountfort designed a wooden church for the Roman Catholic community of the city of Christchurch . This wooden erection was subsequently enlarged several times until it was renamed a cathedral . It was eventually replaced in 1901 by the Cathedral of the Blessed Sacrament , a more permanent stone building by the architect Frank Petre , though the cenotaph by Mountfort was preserved . Mountfort often worked in wood , a material he in no way regarded as an impediment to the Gothic style , though he was unique in this respect as Gothic buildings were often created from stone and mortar . Between 1869 and 1882 he designed the Canterbury Museum and subsequently Canterbury College and its clock tower in 1877 . Construction on the buildings for the Canterbury College , which later became the University of Canterbury , began with the construction of the clock tower block . This edifice , which opened in 1877 , was the first purpose built university in New Zealand . The College was completed in two subsequent stages in Mountfort 's usual Gothic style . George Gilbert Scott , the architect of ChristChurch Cathedral , and an empathiser of Mountfort 's teacher and mentor Carpenter , wished his former pupil Mountfort to be the clerk of works and supervising architect of the new cathedral project . This proposal was originally vetoed by the Cathedral Commission . Nevertheless , following delays in the building work attributed to financial problems , the position of supervising architect was finally given to Mountfort in 1873 . Mountfort was responsible for several alterations to the absentee main architect 's design , most obviously the tower and the west porch . He also designed the font , the Harper Memorial , and the north porch . The cathedral was however not finally completed until 1904 , six years after Mountfort 's death . The cathedral is very much in the European decorated Gothic style with an attached campanile tower beside the body of the cathedral , rather than towering directly above it in the more English tradition . In 1872 Mountfort became a founding member of the Canterbury Association of Architects , a body which was responsible for all subsequent development of the new city . Mountfort was now at the pinnacle of his career . Mountfort notably altered the use of a segmented arch rather than one in the Romanesque style ; the latter of which was considered by Augustus Pugin to be fundamentally important to the Gothic style . The college posed a challenge in its main hall ; on the hall 's completion in 1882 , it was the largest public space in Christchurch . Additionally , a level of detail not possible in previous works was present in the hall 's design due to the superior funding for the college . The completion of the first stage was met with praise and optimism , though extensions such as a biological lab were added in the early 1890s . By the 1880s , Mountfort was hailed as New Zealand 's premier ecclesiastical architect , with over forty churches to his credit . In 1888 , he designed St John 's Cathedral in Napier . This brick construction was demolished in the disastrous 1931 earthquake that destroyed much of Napier . Between 1886 and 1897 , Mountfort worked on one of his largest churches , the wooden St Mary 's , the cathedral church of Auckland . Covering 9 @,@ 000 square feet ( 840 m2 ) , St Mary 's is the largest and last timber church built by Mountfort , and the largest wooden Gothic church in the world . At its completion , it was said that " in point of design , completeness and beauty [ it ] reaches a high level mark not yet approached in the diocese " . The emphasis placed on the sweeping roof by the great aisle windows struck a balance to the great area the church enclosed . In 1982 the entire church , complete with its stained glass windows , was transported to a new site , across the road from its former position where a new cathedral was to be built . St Mary 's church was consecrated in 1898 , one of Mountfort 's final grand works . Outside of his career , Mountfort was keenly interested in the arts and a talented artist , although his artistic work appears to have been confined to art pertaining to architecture , his first love . He was a devout member of the Church of England and a member of many Anglican church councils and diocese committees . Mountfort 's later years were blighted by professional jealousies , as his position as the province 's first architect was assailed by new and younger men influenced by new orders of architecture . Benjamin Mountfort died in 1898 , aged 73 . He was buried in the cemetery of Holy Trinity Avonside , the church which he had extended in 1876 . = = Legacy = = Evaluating Mountfort 's works today , one has to avoid judging them against a background of similar designs in Europe . In the 1860s , New Zealand was a developing country , where materials and resources freely available in Europe were conspicuous by their absence . When available they were often of inferior quality , as Mountfort discovered with the unseasoned wood in his first disastrous project . His first buildings in his new homeland were often too tall , or steeply pitched , failing to take account of the non @-@ European climate and landscape . However , he soon adapted , and developed his skill in working with crude and unrefined materials . Christchurch and its surrounding areas are unique in New Zealand for their particular style of Gothic architecture , something that can be directly attributed to Benjamin Mountfort . While Mountfort did accept small private domestic commissions , he is today better known for the designs executed for public , civic bodies , and the church . His monumental Gothic stone civic buildings in Christchurch , which would not be out of place in Oxford or Cambridge , are an amazing achievement over adversity of materials . His hallmark wooden Gothic churches today epitomise the 19th @-@ century province of Canterbury . They are accepted , and indeed appear as part of the landscape . In this way , Benjamin Mountfort 's achievement was to make his favoured style of architecture synonymous with the identity of the province of Canterbury . Following his death , one of his seven children , Cyril , continued to work in his father 's Gothic style well into the 20th century . Cyril Mountfort was responsible for the church of St Luke 's in the City , which was an unexecuted design of his father 's . In this way , and through the daily public use of his many buildings , Mountfort 's legacy lives on . He ranks today with his contemporary R A Lawson as one of New Zealand 's greatest 19th @-@ century architects . = = Selected buildings = = Most Holy Trinity in Lyttelton , 1852 ( demolished , 1857 ) Canterbury Provincial Council Buildings , 1858 – 1865 ( partially collapsed in the 2011 Canterbury earthquake ) Christchurch Cathedral , begun 1864 ( replaced with new building , 1901 ; partially collapsed in the 2011 Canterbury earthquake ) Canterbury Museum , 1869 – 1882 St. Augustine 's Church , Waimate 1872 ( photo ) Trinity Church , Christchurch , 1872 ( partially collapsed in the 2011 Canterbury earthquake , but will be restored ) Holy Trinity Avonside Church Chancel , 1874 – 1877 ( photo ) St Paul 's Anglican Church , Papanui , 1876 – 1877 Canterbury College Hall , Christchurch , 1882 ( photo ) Church of the Good Shepherd , Phillipstown , 1884 – 1885 St Mary 's Church , Auckland , begun 1886 ( relocated , 1982 ) St John 's Cathedral , Napier , 1886 – 1888 Sunnyside Asylum , Christchurch , 1881 – 1893
= 25th Battalion ( New Zealand ) = The 25th Battalion was an infantry battalion of the New Zealand Military Forces , which served during the Second World War as part of the 6th Infantry Brigade , 2nd New Zealand Division . The 25th Battalion was formed in New Zealand in 1940 and after a period of training , it , along with the rest of the 6th Brigade , embarked for the Middle East where it joined up with the 2nd New Zealand Division . Moved to Greece to help defend against a German invasion , the battalion participated in the Battle of Greece but was evacuated at the conclusion of the fighting in the country . It then fought in the North African Campaign and suffered heavy losses during Operation Crusader , when it was effectively destroyed by the 15th Panzer Division . From December 1941 to February 1942 the battalion was brought back up to strength before being transferred to Syria . It returned to Egypt in March 1942 and suffered heavy casualties during the First Battle of El Alamein . After the fighting in North Africa ceased in 1943 , the 25th Battalion participated in the Italian Campaign , fighting in actions at Orsogna and later at Cassino . It finished the war in Trieste , and remained there to counter the presence of Yugoslav partisans that had entered the city . After the withdrawal of the partisans several weeks later , the battalion moved to Florence while its long @-@ serving personnel began returning to New Zealand . Not required for service in the Pacific theatre of operations , the battalion was disestablished in late 1945 . = = Formation = = Following the outbreak of the Second World War , the New Zealand government authorised the formation of the 2nd New Zealand Expeditionary Force ( 2NZEF ) , for service at home and abroad . Following consultation with the British government , it was decided that the main New Zealand contribution to the war effort would be in the form of an infantry division , the 2nd New Zealand Division , which would require nine battalions of infantry . Consequently , several infantry battalions were formed from 1939 to 1940 with New Zealand volunteers . The 25th Battalion was the eighth such unit raised for the 2NZEF and was formed on 15 May 1940 at Trentham Military Camp with personnel drawn largely from Wellington , Hawke 's Bay and the Taranaki region . With an establishment of around 780 men , it was organised into four rifle companies , a headquarters company consisting of specialised personnel such as signals and a battalion headquarters . It was one of three infantry battalions that were part of what was initially known as the Third Echelon of the 2NZEF and which would later be designated the 6th Infantry Brigade , one of three infantry brigades of the 2nd New Zealand Division . Under the command of Lieutenant Colonel Allan Wilder , who had served with the Wellington Mounted Rifles during the First World War , the battalion embarked for active service aboard the Cunard liner RMS Mauretania on 27 August 1940 . After transferring to the Orient liner SS Ormonde at Bombay , the battalion arrived in the Middle East on 29 September and immediately commenced intensive training at Maadi Camp , the 2NZEF base near the town of Maadi , in Egypt . = = Greece = = The British Government anticipated an invasion of Greece by the Germans in 1941 and decided to send troops to support the Greeks , who were already engaged against the Italians in Albania . The 2nd New Zealand Division was one of a number of Allied units dispatched to Greece in early March . The 6th Infantry Brigade was tasked with the defence of the coastal portion of the Aliakmon Line in northern Greece , with the 25th Battalion preparing and manning the defences around Agios Ilias . On 6 April , the Germans invaded Greece and their advance was so rapid that it quickly threatened to outflank the Aliakmon Line . The brigade had to abandon its positions and was withdrawn to the Olympus Pass on 9 April . This marked the beginning of a gradual retreat down the country , during which a series of rearguard actions were fought by elements of the division . The battalion fought off a sharp attack by the German 5th Panzer Division on its positions around Thermopylae on 24 April , its only major engagement of the campaign in Greece , before it successfully disengaged later that day . It was evacuated from Greece on 29 April along with the rest of the 6th Brigade , the 4th and 5th Brigades having been taken off beaches to the east of Athens . While the latter brigades disembarked at Crete , the 6th Brigade continued onto Egypt . Casualties during the 25th Battalion 's campaign in Greece amounted to nearly 30 killed and wounded with 150 personnel captured and made prisoners of war . The majority of the captured personnel were from the battalion 's reinforcement company , which had been left in Athens when the 6th Brigade moved up to the Aliakmon Line , as well as a truckload of infantrymen that had been misdirected to Kalamata during the retreat . One soldier managed to escape and eventually make his way to Turkey by sea , an act for which he was later awarded the Distinguished Conduct Medal . = = North Africa = = By late May , and after a period of training and refitting , the 25th Battalion was back up to full strength and moved to Kantara West , near the Suez Canal . Here , along with the rest of the 6th Brigade , the battalion manned defences against a possible attack from German Fallschirmjäger ( paratroopers ) , recent events in Crete demonstrating the threat these forces could pose . The battalion shifted to the Baggush Box , near Mersa Matruh and to the west of Alexandria , in September 1941 . At the same time , its commander , Wilder , was promoted to brigadier and given command of the New Zealand Training Group at Maadi Camp . The battalion 's new commander was Lieutenant Colonel Gifford McNaught who had recently been involved in the fighting on Crete before being evacuated . At Baggush , the battalion improved the defences in the area and underwent intensive training in open desert warfare . This training was in preparation for the 2nd New Zealand Division 's role in the upcoming Operation Crusader , which was planned to lift the siege of Tobruk . The New Zealanders were to be one of the 8th Army 's infantry divisions that were to surround and capture the main strong points along the front while the armoured divisions were to seek out and engage Generalleutnant ( Lieutenant General ) Erwin Rommel 's Afrika Korps . At the same time , the Tobruk garrison was to attempt a breakout . = = = Operation Crusader = = = In November , the 6th Brigade moved to its starting positions in Libya to be held in reserve while the initial part of the offensive commenced . The brigade entered the fray on 21 November , and moved to Bir el Hariga with the 25th Battalion leading alongside the 24th Battalion , while the 4th Brigade targeted the Bardia – Tobruk highway and the 5th Brigade the area around Bardia and Sollum . However , the following day , the 6th Brigade was ordered to advance to Point 175 , set up a perimeter and then make contact with the 5th South African Brigade , which was in some difficulty , at Sidi Rezegh . Leaving early in the morning of 23 November , the 25th and 26th Battalions led the advance . At daybreak , they stopped and bivouacked in a wadi . Units of the Afrika Korps , later discovered to be its headquarters element , moved into the wadi from the far end and this initiated a battle in which the battalion took several prisoners . The 6th Brigade moved on quickly to take Point 175 , which was held by German forces . Point 175 marked the start of the Sidi Rezegh escarpment , 40 kilometres ( 25 mi ) from Tobruk . Arriving a few hours after their initial contact with the enemy earlier in the morning , the 25th Battalion made its first attempt to capture Point 175 , having received orders to do so from the brigade 's commander , Brigadier Harold Barrowclough . Initial impressions that Point 175 was only lightly defended proved incorrect and the attack needed additional support with two companies of the 24th Battalion and a squadron of Valentine tanks from 8th Royal Tank Regiment called upon to assist . After initially proceeding well , a German counterattack caused significant casualties amongst the battalion and the remaining two companies of the 24th Battalion moved forward that evening to help secure the little ground that had been won . Lieutenant Colonel Clayden Shuttleworth , commander of the 24th Battalion , took over command of the overall position following the wounding and subsequent evacuation of McNaught . The losses incurred by 25th Battalion on this day were 100 dead , 125 wounded , and another 100 made prisoners @-@ of @-@ war . It was not until 27 November that all of Sidi Rezegh was under the control of the New Zealanders , with the 25th Battalion at little more than company strength following the events of 23 November . Barrowclough made the 25th Battalion , together with the 21st Battalion which had been moved to Sidi Rezegh , his brigade reserve . However , Rommel had inflicted a significant defeat on the British armour and was now returning to the Tobruk area . The 6th Brigade was strung out along Sidi Rezegh in pockets , vulnerable to a counter @-@ attack , and elements of the 15th Panzer Division made contact on 28 November . By 30 November , the 6th Brigade was surrounded and the 15th Panzer Division began attacking after midday with tanks and infantry . Despite the support of anti @-@ tank guns , the New Zealanders were overrun . Shuttleworth was made a prisoner @-@ of @-@ war along with his surviving company commanders . The survivors of the 25th Battalion , now commanded by Major Henry Burton , the sole surviving company commander , had been moved into reserve a few days previously and managed to withdraw before Sidi Rezegh was overrun . = = = Syria = = = The battalion was reformed at Baggush from those who had escaped capture at Sidi Rezegh ( about 300 @-@ odd ) and other personnel who had been left out of battle , along with replacements from New Zealand . The battalion 's second @-@ in @-@ command , Major C.D.A. George , who had been left behind at Baggush when the New Zealanders moved into Libya , was promoted to lieutenant colonel and became its commander . The battalion was stationed at Baggush until late January 1942 before being moved to Maadi . Shortly afterwards it was called into Cairo for four days to increase the Allied presence there and counter potential unrest amongst the civilian population of the city . Once tensions decreased it returned to Maadi , and resumed training and this included practice in amphibious operations . From late February to mid @-@ March , the 2nd New Zealand Division was transferred to Syria . The Allied high command was concerned that the Middle East was at risk from an invasion by the Germans and the New Zealanders were part of the force tasked with blocking their likely route from the Caucasus . The 25th Battalion was stationed close to the border with Turkey , near the town of Idlib , and its platoons manned frontier posts for several weeks . The battalion later shifted to the Djedeide fortress area where it would prepare defences . However , following the attack on the 8th Army 's Gazala Line by Panzer Army Africa , the 2nd New Zealand Division was recalled to Egypt . By the end of June , the 25th Battalion , along with the rest of the 6th Brigade , was setting up camp in the Alamein area . = = = Egypt = = = The 2nd New Zealand Division was dispatched to the lines of El Alamein and while the 4th and 5th Brigades went south to Minqar Qaim , the 6th Brigade , now commanded by Brigadier George Clifton , was initially held in reserve before being ordered to man the Kaponga Box at Bab el Qattara . Arriving on 28 June , the 25th Battalion guarded the western side of the box , while the 24th and 26th Battalions were responsible for the northern and southern sides respectively . The brigade remained here , watching first the retreating British stream by and then the Germans , at a distance , for several days before moving to Amiriya . It missed the action of 14 – 15 July at Ruweisat Ridge which saw the destruction of a large part of the 4th and 5th Brigades when , after securing the ridge , no armour was available to defend a counterattack by the Germans . The 6th Brigade was recalled back to the El Alamein lines to relieve what was left of the 4th Brigade . A few days later , it was involved in a night @-@ time attack on the El Mrier Depression . The aim was to secure the depression to create a route through which British armour could penetrate . The brigade , with the 25th Battalion as its reserve , successfully achieved its objective and was consolidating its positions when the 21st Panzer Division attacked on 22 July . At daylight , German tanks caught the 24th and 25th Battalions , positioned in the relatively shallow El Mrier Depression together with 6th Brigade headquarters , by surprise . Firing from the edge of a low cliff overlooking the depression , the Germans caused heavy losses amongst the 24th and 25th Battalions before passing through their positions in pursuit of the British armour . George , the battalion 's commander , was captured along with 149 others . Over 200 other men were also killed or wounded . The survivors , back under the command of Burton who was once again the senior surviving company commander , were aggrieved at the lack of armoured support . The 6th Brigade moved to the southern section of the Alamein line where it manned defensive positions during the Battle of Alam Halfa , Rommel 's failed attempt to cut off the 8th Army . The battalion at this time numbered 362 personnel , which included one company which had been left back at Maadi and brought forward to rejoin the survivors of the El Mrier battle . Burton , promoted to lieutenant colonel , commanded the battalion until 12 September at which time he went on leave and was replaced by Lieutenant Colonel Ian Bonifant . The 8th Army was now under the command of General Bernard Montgomery , who was planning for offensive operations against the Panzer Army Africa , which had formed a defensive position at Alamein . Minus its 4th Brigade , which had incurred significant losses at Ruweisat Ridge and had been withdrawn from the front so it could be converted to armour , the 2nd New Zealand Division was to play a major role in the forthcoming attack . In the first of its three phases , beginning on 23 October , the New Zealanders advanced behind a creeping artillery barrage which commenced at 9 : 40 pm and quickly attained all its objectives and began consolidating them . Bonifant was wounded during a bombing raid the day after the attack and was later awarded the Distinguished Service Order ( DSO ) for his role in the battle . The New Zealanders were withdrawn from their positions four days later and remained out of the fighting while the Australian 9th Division took up the offensive in the northern sector of the front . Along with two British infantry brigades , the 2nd New Zealand Division resumed the fight on 2 November in Operation Supercharge , which was intended to break the frontlines in the south . The German defences collapsed and on 4 November they began retreating with the New Zealanders in pursuit . The 9th Armoured Brigade was attached to the 2nd New Zealand Division in support , and led the initial advance along with the 6th Brigade but rain turned the ground boggy and halted the advance temporarily before it could resume on 8 November . In mid @-@ November , the division was withdrawn for rest and re @-@ organisation and shortly afterwards Bonifant , recovered from the wounds that he had received on 24 October , resumed command of the batalion . = = = Advance into Libya and Tunisia = = = After a month engaged in reorganisation and training at Sidi Azeiz , the New Zealanders re @-@ entered the campaign in mid @-@ December at El Agheila in an attempt to trap the Panzer Army Africa . On 11 December , the division carried out a flanking move to the south and west , led by the 6th Brigade with the 25th Battalion on the right of the advance . The move was unopposed for five days until the evening of 15 December , when a reconnaissance element that included the brigade 's commander , Brigadier William Gentry , came under fire from a ridge . The 25th Battalion supported the 24th Battalion 's subsequent attack on the ridge but it was found that the trap had failed , with the Germans slipping through the gap between the 5th and 6th Brigades . A second attempt to trap the Germans was made at Nofilia a few days later but this also failed when the rearguard prevented the 5th Brigade from closing the road along which the retreat was being made . The advance continued and on 23 January 1943 , the 2nd New Zealand Division entered Tripoli . Shortly after reaching the city , Bonifant was given command of the New Zealand Divisional Cavalry with Lieutenant Colonel Thomas Morten taking over the 25th Battalion . Initially stationed outside of Tripoli , it moved into the city proper later in February with the rest of the 6th Brigade as part of the occupying force . In the meantime , the Panzer Army Africa had withdrawn to the Mareth Line in Tunisia and following a failed attack by the Germans on the 8th Army at Medenine in early March , the Allied response was for the New Zealanders , along with British and Free French forces , to drive forward to the Tebaga Gap south of the Mareth Line . On 21 March , the 6th Brigade mounted a night @-@ time attack on a feature known as Point 201 , which was defended by Italian forces . The attack was on a two battalion frontage , with the 25th Battalion on the left and tasked with the capture of Point 201 itself , and the 26th Battalion making a corresponding movement forward . Although the objective was achieved with just 50 casualties , of whom 11 were killed , many more were incurred the following day due to artillery fire on Point 201 , which was quite exposed . The breach that the attacking battalions made was not exploited by the supporting British armour . The next attempt to capture the Tebaga Gap was mounted on 27 March by the infantry of the 5th Brigade along with the 6th Brigade 's 24th Battalion , supported by a regiment of the British 8th Armoured Brigade . The 25th Battalion only played a minor role , securing the extreme left flank , carrying out diversionary operations , and generally supporting the 24th Battalion during its advance . The attack was a total success and the next day the 2nd New Zealand Division moved forward with the 25th Battalion bringing up the rear of the 6th Brigade . Over the coming days , the 2nd New Zealand Division , which briefly halted its advance for a week for rest and maintenance of its vehicles , advanced towards the town of Enfidaville , over 130 kilometres ( 81 mi ) to the north . Only minor opposition was encountered as it moved forward , with the 25th Battalion leading the 6th Brigade . The outskirts of Enfidaville were reached by the battalion 's carriers on 14 April , but resistance prevented the rifle companies from entering the town that day . Preparations for a full @-@ scale attack on the town had begun but the 6th Brigade was relieved before they could be implemented , with the 25th Battalion moving 14 kilometres ( 8 @.@ 7 mi ) to the rear . Focus then shifted to Takrouna , the 2nd New Zealand Division 's objective in Operation Oration , X Corps ' offensive towards Tunis . The 6th Brigade , with the 25th Battalion in reserve , was to attack north of the Takrouna – Enfidaville road , flanking 5th Brigade 's attack on Takrouna . The attack commenced on the evening of 19 April ; while the 6th Brigade easily secured its objectives , the 5th Brigade struggled and it took two days for Takrouna to fall . Shortly afterwards , the 25th Battalion was temporarily attached to the 5th Brigade , and relieved its 23rd Battalion . It remained on the frontlines to keep pressure on the enemy while other Allied units broke through to Tunis elsewhere on the front . In early May , the Axis forces in North Africa surrendered and the 2nd New Zealand Division began to return to Egypt . = = Italy = = With the close of the North African campaign in May 1943 , the Allies ' attention then turned to the European Theatre of Operations . Despite a preference amongst some sections of the New Zealand government for the 2nd New Zealand Division to be redeployed in the Pacific Theatre of Operations , it was decided that the division , having served with the 8th Army throughout the desert campaign would remain in Europe and take part in the fighting in Italy . Having been based in Maadi Camp since early June , the battalion left Egypt on 6 October as part of the division 's shift to Italy and reached Taranto three days later . The 2nd New Zealand Division , now including the fully armoured 4th Brigade with three regiments of Sherman tanks , moved to the banks of the Sangro River later in the month and the 6th Brigade was scheduled to mount a night crossing on 21 November . Two companies of the 24th Battalion had crossed the previous night to reconnoitre the opposite bank but the attack was postponed due to bad weather . The brigade eventually crossed , with the 25th Battalion in the centre , on 27 November . As the river was forded on foot , several personnel disrobed for the crossing . Although briefly disturbed during the crossing by a German machinegun , there were no casualties , and the battalion pushed forward and seized its objective , a range of hills over 900 metres ( 980 yd ) beyond the river . = = = Orsogna = = = In the following weeks , the battalion was involved in the 6th Brigade 's attack on Orsogna , as part of the Moro River Campaign . The 25th Battalion made the initial attack on Orsogna on the evening of 2 December , which was launched without the use of supporting armour as Brigadier Graham Parkinson , commander of the 6th Brigade , did not anticipate any difficulty . The leading platoons penetrated into the town square but soon robust defence , supported by German tanks of the 26th Panzer Division , forced them back . Two platoons of infantry were captured . Two tank troops from the 18th Armoured Regiment were ordered forward but by the time they had reached the outskirts of Orsogna , the infantry were withdrawing from the town . The battalion supported further attacks on Orsogna by the 5th Infantry Brigade in the following days , but the German defences were too strong and the attack soon faded into a stalemate , with a number of back and forth actions as winter set in . Offensive operations around Orsogna ceased in late December and the 6th Brigade maintained its sector with two battalions , rotating the 24th , 25th and 26th Battalions out of the line in three @-@ day spells . During this time , Morten fell ill and was medically evacuated . The battalion 's second @-@ in @-@ command , Major Edward Norman , was made its commander in Morten 's stead . The New Zealanders withdrew from the area altogether on 13 January 1944 . = = = Cassino = = = Following its withdrawal from the Orsogna area , the 2nd New Zealand Division was one of a number of divisions that were transferred from the British Eighth Army to the U.S. Fifth Army , then engaged on the western side of the Apennines . This was part of an overall strategy to breach the Gustav Line and break an otherwise deadlocked Italian front . Together with the 4th Indian Division and supporting British and American artillery , the division became part of the newly formed New Zealand Corps , under the command of the New Zealand divisional commander , Lieutenant @-@ General Sir Bernard Freyberg . The corps moved to Cassino , the defenders of which had resisted American forces for several weeks . In the interim , the 25th Battalion had rested for several days in the Volturno valley , 50 miles ( 80 km ) from Cassino . During this time it received some reinforcements , although these were not enough to bring it up to full strength . By mid @-@ February , Morten had recovered from his illness and resumed command of the battalion which , along with the rest of the division , was moved forward to the south of Cassino , taking over part of the sector of the U.S. 36th Infantry Division with the 6th Brigade in reserve . An initial attack on Cassino , which involved the 4th Indian Division , the 28th Maori Battalion and New Zealand engineers , was mounted on 15 February but failed due to a lack of air and armoured support . Two days later , the 5th Brigade attempted to capture the town 's railway station but this too failed . It was soon to be the 6th Brigade 's turn . It moved out of its reserve positions and relieved the 133rd Infantry Regiment , part of the U.S. 34th Infantry Division , positioned nearly 2 kilometres ( 1 @.@ 2 mi ) to the north of Cassino . The 24th and 25th Battalions manned the front lines , uncomfortably exposed to machinegun fire from an overlooking ridge . It was planned for the 6th Brigade to mount its attack on Cassino on 24 February but rainfall delayed it by over three weeks . In the interim , command of the 25th Battalion passed to Lieutenant Colonel John McDuff , who replaced Major Norman , who in turn had taken over from Morten who , earlier in the month , had once again fallen ill and been evacuated . When the 6th Brigade 's attack finally commenced , on 15 March , the town had been thoroughly shelled and bombed during the intervening period . Supported by the 19th Armoured Regiment , the 25th Battalion pushed into Cassino . The 25th Battalion was tasked with capturing the western side of the town up to the Continental Hotel whereupon the 26th Battalion was to take up the advance . However , it was unable to achieve its objectives ; the Germans defended strongly , assisted by the rubble that hampered the easy movement of the supporting armour . After spending 16 March consolidating what gains it had made , the next day a further attempt was made but this was again largely unsuccessful with each of the 25th Battalion 's rifle companies being whittled down to strengths of around 50 men . The other battalions of the 6th Brigade were in a similar state but Parkinson , now commanding the 2nd New Zealand Division , was reluctant to commit more infantry to the battle . However , he finally ordered the 5th Brigade into the town on 20 March and the 25th Battalion was withdrawn to a secondary defensive position . The 5th Brigade was no more successful than the 6th Brigade and was reduced to simply holding what ground it had gained amongst the rubble of Cassino . On 26 March , the New Zealand Corps disbanded and Freyberg reverted to command of the division which , a few days later , began to disengage from Cassino . The 6th Brigade was withdrawn on 1 April and the 25th Battalion moved 24 kilometres ( 15 mi ) to the south . Casualties amongst the battalion amounted to 220 personnel killed or wounded in action and it was left to II Polish Corps to capture Cassino in mid @-@ May . In June , McDuff was made commander of the Advance Base of 2NZEF , and Norman , promoted to lieutenant colonel , took up permanent command of 25th Battalion . The 2nd New Zealand Division was held in reserve until 9 July , having spent the intervening period recuperating in Avezzano , and assigned to XIII Corps . The infantry brigades advanced onto Florence and duly entered the city in August . After this , the 2nd New Zealand Division was transferred to I Canadian Corps , then on the Adriatic Coast , and advanced up to Rimini . During the advance , the 25th Battalion formed a " Battalion Battle Group " ; this included a squadron of Shermans from 20th Armoured Regiment , a platoon of machineguns and heavy mortars , and an anti @-@ tank troop . The 24th Battalion was similarly expanded , and these two battle groups alternated as the advance guard of 6th Brigade , which in turn led the division in a series of river crossings throughout September up to and beyond Rimini . The 5th Brigade took over the advance at the end of September and the 25th Battalion was withdrawn into reserve for a rest . After a week , the battalion re @-@ entered the front lines , taking over the positions of the 21st Battalion in preparation for an assault across the Fiumicino River by the 24th and 26th Battalions ; the 25th was to be held in reserve . However , weather delayed the attack and it was abandoned altogether when the Canadians took over the sector . Later in October , the New Zealanders were relieved and sent to Fabriano for rest and recuperation . During this time , the division was reorganised , with each of the infantry brigades expanding from three to four battalions . It reentered the frontlines , near the town of Faenza , in late November , under V Corps . The following month , the battalion crossed the Lamone River and joined the other infantry battalions of the 6th Brigade in attacks in and around Faenza . Along with the rest of the 2nd New Zealand Division , it then wintered along the Senio River , remaining there until March 1945 . = = = Advance to Trieste = = = On 9 April , the 2nd New Zealand Division crossed the Senio River . The crossing was carried out by the 5th and 6th Infantry Brigades , with the 25th Battalion on the right of the 6th Brigade 's frontage , alongside the 24th Battalion . The battalion had armoured support , including a squadron of the 20th Armoured Regiment which was under its direct command . The crossing , covered by artillery , fighter bombers , and flamethrowers , was achieved with minimal opposition ; nearly 60 Germans were captured by the leading companies . Despite suffering casualties due to being accidentally bombed by Allied bombers , the battalion continued to lead the advance of the 6th Brigade to the Santerno , which it crossed on 11 April . Ordered to continue its advance to the Scolo Sillaro , the battalion established a bridgehead over which tanks were able to cross . It was relieved by the 23rd Battalion on 16 April , leaving the 25th Battalion as the brigade reserve . Since beginning its attack across the Senio , the battalion had advanced 23 kilometres ( 14 mi ) , taken at least 68 prisoners @-@ of @-@ war and inflicted numerous casualties on the enemy for the loss of 14 men killed in action . After a few days out of the line , the battalion resumed its advance on 20 April with the 6th Brigade , still as its reserve . However , a few days later the vehicle in which Norman , the battalion 's commander , was travelling ran over a landmine . Norman was wounded and had to be medically evacuated . He was replaced by the second @-@ in @-@ command of the 26th Battalion , Major A. Barnett , who was promoted to lieutenant colonel . The advance continued , effectively unopposed , with the 25th Battalion leading . Despite expecting the worst , it crossed the Po River with minimal difficulty on 25 April and the Adige River was traversed the next day , again with relative ease . The 9th Infantry Brigade then took over the advance , with the 6th Brigade taking over as the divisional reserve . Although the war was nearly over , care was still required as the battalion moved forward through the towns of Padua and Gorizia , before the surrender of all German forces in Italy on 2 May . On 4 May , the 25th Battalion moved to the village of Sgonico , just to the north of Trieste . Along with other elements of the 2nd New Zealand Division , the battalion remained in and around Trieste for several weeks to counter the presence of Yugoslav partisans , who had laid claim to the city . In mid @-@ June the partisans withdrew from the city and several weeks later the New Zealand government decided that the division would not be required for service in the Pacific Theatre of Operations . In early August , the battalion began demobilisation with long serving men leaving for New Zealand via Bari while the remaining personnel withdrew to wintering positions near Florence . In October , Barnett took over command of what was left of the 6th Brigade . This left command of the battalion in its final days to Major D. Muir , who oversaw its disbandment on 2 December 1945 . During the war , the 25th Battalion lost 531 personnel either killed in action or who later died of their wounds , while nearly 550 others were made prisoners @-@ of @-@ war . = = Honours = = Some of the personnel of the 25th Battalion were highly decorated , including Lieutenant Colonel Bonifant , who received the DSO and a bar to the DSO during his time with the battalion . Five other personnel of the battalion , including some of its commanders , were also awarded the DSO . Ten officers , including Norman , were awarded the Military Cross . Four non @-@ commissioned officers were awarded the Distinguished Conduct Medal and 36 were awarded the Military Medal . The 25th Battalion was awarded the following battle honours : Mount Olympus , Servia Pass , Olympus Pass , Elasson , Molos , Greece 1941 , Crete , Maleme , Galatas , Canea , 42nd Street , Withdrawal to Sphakia , Middle East 1941 – 44 , Tobruk 1941 , Sidi Rezegh 1941 , Sidi Azeiz , Belhamed , Zemla , Alam Hamza , Mersa Matruh , Minqar Qaim , Defence of Alamein Line , Ruweisat Ridge , El Mreir , Alam el Halfa , North Africa 1940 – 42 , El Alamein , El Agheila , Tebaga Gap , Point 201 ( Roman Wall ) , El Hamma , Enfidaville , Takrouna , North Africa 1940 – 43 , The Sangro , Castel Frentano , Orsogna , Cassino I , Arezzo , Monte Lignano , Advance to Florence , Cerbala , San Michele , Paula Line , Celle , Faenza Pocket , Rio Fontanaccia , St. Angelo in Salute , Pisciatello , The Senio , Santerno Crossing , Bologna , Sillaro Crossing , Gaiana Crossing , Idice Bridgehead , Italy 1943 – 45 . = = Commanding officers = = The following officers commanded the 25th Battalion during the war : Lieutenant Colonel A. S. Wilder ( May 1940 – September 1941 ) ; Lieutenant Colonel G. J. McNaught ( September – November 1941 ) ; Lieutenant Colonel H. G. Burton ( November – December 1941 ; July – September 1942 ) ; Lieutenant Colonel C. D. A. George ( December 1941 – July 1942 ) ; Lieutenant Colonel I. L. Bonifant ( September – October 1942 ; November 1942 – January 1943 ) ; Major J. C. Porter ( October – November 1942 ) ; Lieutenant Colonel T. B. Morten ( January – December 1943 ; February 1944 ) ; Lieutenant Colonel E. K. Norman ( December 1943 – February 1944 ; March 1944 ; June 1944 – April 1945 ) ; Lieutenant Colonel J. L. McDuff ( March – June 1944 ) ; Lieutenant Colonel A. W. Barnett ( April – October 1945 ) ; Major D. F. Muir ( October 1945 – disbandment ) .
= History of Sheffield = The history of Sheffield , a city in South Yorkshire , England , can be traced back to the founding of a settlement in a clearing beside the River Sheaf in the second half of the 1st millennium AD . The area now known as Sheffield had seen human occupation since at least the last ice age , but significant growth in the settlements that are now incorporated into the city did not occur until the Industrial Revolution . Following the Norman conquest of England , Sheffield Castle was built to control the Saxon settlements and Sheffield developed into a small town , no larger than Sheffield City Centre . By the 14th century Sheffield was noted for the production of knives , and by 1600 , overseen by the Company of Cutlers in Hallamshire , it had become the second centre of cutlery production in England after London . In the 1740s the crucible steel process was improved by Sheffield resident Benjamin Huntsman , allowing a much better production quality . At about the same time , Sheffield plate , a form of silver plating , was invented . The associated industries led to the rapid growth of Sheffield ; the town was incorporated as a borough in 1843 and granted a city charter in 1893 . Sheffield remained a major industrial city throughout the first half of the 20th century , but the downturn in world trade following the 1973 oil crisis , technological improvements and economies of scale , and a wide @-@ reaching restructuring of steel production throughout the European Economic Community led to the closure of many of the steelworks from the early 1970s onward . Urban and economic regeneration schemes were initiated in the late 1980s . The city centre was blighted by empty shops and improvements were halted by the Great Recession . = = Early history = = The earliest known evidence of human occupation in the Sheffield area was found at Creswell Crags to the east of the city . Artefacts and rock art found in caves at this site have been dated by archaeologists to the late Upper Palaeolithic period , at least 12 @,@ 800 years ago . Other prehistoric remains found in Sheffield include a Mesolithic " house " — a circle of stones in the shape of a hut @-@ base dating to around 8000 BC , found at Deepcar , in the northern part of the city . During the Bronze Age ( about 1500 BC ) tribes sometimes called the Urn people started to settle in the area . They built numerous stone circles , examples of which can be found on Moscar Moor , Froggatt Edge and Hordron Edge ( Hordron Edge stone circle ) . Two Early Bronze Age urns were found at Crookes in 1887 , and three Middle Bronze Age barrows found at Lodge Moor ( both suburbs of the modern city ) . = = = Iron Age = = = During the British Iron Age the area became the southernmost territory of the Pennine tribe called the Brigantes . It is this tribe who in around 500 BC are thought to have constructed the hill fort that stands on the summit of a steep hill above the River Don at Wincobank , in what is now northeastern Sheffield . Other Iron Age hill forts in the area are Carl Wark on Hathersage Moor to the southwest of Sheffield , and one at Scholes Wood , near Rotherham . The rivers Sheaf and Don may have formed the boundary between the territory of the Brigantes and that of a rival tribe called the Corieltauvi who inhabited a large area of the northeastern Midlands . = = = Roman Britain = = = The Roman invasion of Britain began in AD 43 . By 51 the Brigantes had submitted to the clientship of Rome , eventually being placed under direct rule in the early 70s . Few Roman remains have been found in the Sheffield area . A minor Roman road linking the Roman forts at Templeborough and Brough @-@ on @-@ Noe possibly ran through the centre of the area covered by the modern city , and Icknield Street is thought to have skirted its boundaries . The routes of these roads within this area are mostly unknown , although sections of the former can still be seen between Redmires and Stanage , and remains possibly linked to the latter were discovered in Brinsworth in 1949 . In April 1761 , tablets dating from the Roman period were found in the Rivelin Valley south of Stannington , close to the likely course of the Templeborough to Brough @-@ on @-@ Noe road . These tablets included a grant of citizenship and land or money to a retiring Roman auxiliary of the Sunuci tribe of Belgium . In addition there have been finds dating from the Roman period on Walkley Bank Road , which leads onto the valley bottom . There have been small finds of Roman coins throughout the Sheffield area , for example 19 coins were found near Meadowhall in 1891 , 13 in Pitsmoor in 1906 , and ten coins were found at a site alongside Eckington cemetery in December 2008 . Roman burial urns were also found at Bank Street near Sheffield Cathedral , which , along with the name of the old lane behind the church ( Campo Lane ) , has led to speculation that there may have been a Roman camp at this site . It is unlikely that the settlement that grew into Sheffield existed at this time . In 2011 excavations revealed remains of a substantial 1st or 2nd century AD Roman rural estate centre , or ' villa ' on what is believed to be a pre @-@ existing Brigantian farmstead site at Whirlow Hall Farm in South @-@ west Sheffield . Following the departure of the Romans , the Sheffield area may have been the southern part of the Celtic kingdom of Elmet , with the rivers Sheaf and Don forming part of the boundary between this kingdom and the kingdom of Mercia . Gradually , Anglian settlers pushed west from the kingdom of Deira . The Britons of Elmet delayed this English expansion into the early part of the 7th century . An enduring Celtic presence within this area is evidenced by the settlements called Wales and Waleswood close to Sheffield — the word Wales derives from the Germanic word Walha , and was originally used by the Anglo @-@ Saxons to refer to the native Britons . = = The origins of Sheffield = = The name Sheffield is Old English in origin . It derives from the River Sheaf , whose name is a corruption of shed or sheth , meaning to divide or separate . Field is a generic suffix deriving from the Old English feld , meaning a forest clearing . It is likely then that the origin of the present @-@ day city of Sheffield is an Anglo @-@ Saxon settlement in a clearing beside the confluence of the rivers Sheaf and Don founded between the arrival of the Anglo @-@ Saxons in this region ( roughly the 6th century ) and the early 9th century . The names of many of the other areas of Sheffield likely to have been established as settlements during this period end in ley , which signifies a clearing in the forest , or ton , which means an enclosed farmstead . These settlements include Heeley , Longley , Norton , Owlerton , Southey , Tinsley , Totley , Wadsley , and Walkley . The earliest evidence of this settlement is thought to be the shaft of a stone cross dating from the early 9th century that was found in Sheffield in the early 19th century . This shaft may be part of a cross removed from the church yard of the Sheffield parish church ( now Sheffield Cathedral ) in 1570 . It is now kept in the British Museum . A document from around the same time , an entry for the year 829 in the Anglo @-@ Saxon Chronicle , refers to the submission of King Eanred of Northumbria to King Egbert of Wessex at the hamlet of Dore ( now a suburb of Sheffield ) : " Egbert led an army against the Northumbrians as far as Dore , where they met him , and offered terms of obedience and subjection , on the acceptance of which they returned home " . This event made Egbert the first Saxon to claim to be king of all of England . The latter part of the 9th century saw a wave of Norse ( Viking ) settlers and the subsequent establishment of the Danelaw . The names of hamlets established by these settlers often end in thorpe , which means a farmstead . Examples of such settlements in the Sheffield area are Grimesthorpe , Hackenthorpe , Jordanthorpe , Netherthorpe , Upperthorpe , Waterthorpe , and Woodthorpe . By 918 the Danes south of the Humber had submitted to Edward the Elder , and by 926 Northumbria was under the control of King Æthelstan . In 937 the combined armies of Olaf Guthfrithson , Viking king of Dublin , Constantine , king of Scotland and King Owain of Strathclyde invaded England . The invading force was met and defeated by an army from Wessex and Mercia led by King Æthelstan at the Battle of Brunanburh . The location of Brunanburh is unknown , but some historians have suggested a location between Tinsley in Sheffield and Brinsworth in Rotherham , on the slopes of White Hill . After the death of King Athelstan in 939 Olaf III Guthfrithson invaded again and took control of Northumbria and part of Mercia . Subsequently , the Anglo @-@ Saxons , under Edmund , re @-@ conquered the Midlands , as far as Dore , in 942 , and captured Northumbria in 944 . The Domesday Book of 1086 , which was compiled following the Norman Conquest of 1066 , contains the earliest known reference to the districts around Sheffield as the manor of " Hallun " ( or Hallam ) . This manor retained its Saxon lord , Waltheof , for some years after the conquest . The Domesday Book was ordered written by William the Conqueror so that the value of the townships and manors of England could be assessed . The entries in the Domesday Book are written in a Latin shorthand ; the extract for this area begins : TERRA ROGERII DE BVSLI M. hi Hallvn , cu XVI bereuvitis sunt . XXIX. carucate trae Ad gld . Ibi hb Walleff com aula ... Translated it reads : LANDS OF ROGER DE BUSLI In Hallam , one manor with its sixteen hamlets , there are twenty @-@ nine carucates [ ~ 14 km2 ] to be taxed . There Earl Waltheof had an " Aula " [ hall or court ] . There may have been about twenty ploughs . This land Roger de Busli holds of the Countess Judith . He has himself there two carucates [ ~ 1 km2 ] and thirty @-@ three villeins hold twelve carucates and a half [ ~ 6 km2 ] . There are eight acres [ 32 @,@ 000 m2 ] of meadow , and a pasturable wood , four leuvae in length and four in breadth [ ~ 10 km2 ] . The whole manor is ten leuvae in length and eight broad [ 207 km2 ] . In the time of Edward the Confessor it was valued at eight marks of silver [ £ 5 @.@ 33 ] ; now at forty shillings [ £ 2 @.@ 00 ] . In Attercliffe and Sheffield , two manors , Sweyn had five carucates of land [ ~ 2 @.@ 4 km2 ] to be taxed . There may have been about three ploughs . This land is said to have been inland , demesne [ domain ] land of the manor of Hallam . The reference is to Roger de Busli , tenant @-@ in @-@ chief in Domesday and one of the greatest of the new wave of Norman magnates . Waltheof , Earl of Northumbria had been executed in 1076 for his part in an uprising against William I. He was the last of the Anglo @-@ Saxon earls still remaining in England a full decade after the Norman conquest . His lands had passed to his wife , Judith of Normandy , niece to William the Conqueror . The lands were held on her behalf by Roger de Busli . The Domesday Book refers to Sheffield twice , first as Escafeld , then later as Scafeld . Sheffield historian S. O. Addy suggests that the second form , pronounced Shaffeld , is the truer form , as the spelling Sefeld is found in a deed issued less than one hundred years after the completion of the survey . Addy comments that the E in the first form may have been mistakenly added by the Norman scribe . Roger de Busli died around the end of the 11th century , and was succeeded by a son , who died without an heir . The manor of Hallamshire passed to William de Lovetot , the grandson of a Norman baron who had come over to England with the Conqueror . William de Lovetot founded the parish churches of St Mary at Handsworth , St Nicholas at High Bradfield and St. Mary 's at Ecclesfield at the start of the 12th century in addition to Sheffield 's own parish church . He also built the original wooden Sheffield Castle , which stimulated the growth of the town . Also dating from this time is Beauchief Abbey , which was founded by Robert FitzRanulf de Alfreton . The abbey was dedicated to Saint Mary and Saint Thomas Becket , who had been canonised in 1172 . Thomas Tanner , writing in 1695 , stated that it was founded in 1183 . Samuel Pegge in his History of Beauchief Abbey notes that Albinas , the abbot of Derby , who was one of the witnesses to the charter of foundation , died in 1176 , placing foundation before that date . = = Medieval Sheffield = = Following the death of William de Lovetot , the manor of Hallamshire passed to his son Richard de Lovetot and then his son William de Lovetot before being passed by marriage to Gerard de Furnival in about 1204 . The de Furnivals held the manor for the next 180 years . The fourth Furnival lord , Thomas de Furnival , supported Simon de Montfort in the Second Barons ' War . As a result of this , in 1266 a party of barons , led by John de Eyvill , marching from north Lincolnshire to Derbyshire passed through Sheffield and destroyed the town , burning the church and castle . A new stone castle was constructed over the next four years and a new church was consecrated by William de Wickwane the Archbishop of York around 1280 . In 1295 Thomas de Furnival 's son ( also Thomas ) was the first lord of Hallamshire to be called to Parliament , thus taking the title Lord Furnivall . On 12 November 1296 Edward I granted a charter for a market to be held in Sheffield on Tuesday each week . This was followed on 10 August 1297 by a charter from Lord Furnival establishing Sheffield as a free borough . The Sheffield Town Trust was established in the Charter to the Town of Sheffield , granted in 1297 . De Furnival , granted land to the freeholders of Sheffield in return for an annual payment , and a Common Burgery administrated them . The Burgery originally consisted of public meetings of all the freeholders , who elected a Town Collector . Two more generations of Furnivals held Sheffield before it passed by marriage to Sir Thomas Nevil and then , in 1406 , to John Talbot , the first Earl of Shrewsbury . In 1430 the 1280 Sheffield parish church building was pulled down and replaced . Parts of this new church still stand today and it is now Sheffield city centre 's oldest surviving building , forming the core of Sheffield Cathedral . Other notable surviving buildings from this period include the Old Queen 's Head pub in Pond Hill , which dates from around 1480 , with its timber frame still intact , and Bishops ' House and Broom Hall , both built around 1500 . The fourth Earl of Shrewsbury , George Talbot took up residence in Sheffield , building the Manor Lodge outside the town in about 1510 and adding a chapel to the Parish Church c1520 to hold the family vault . Memorials to the fourth and sixth Earls of Shrewsbury can still be seen in the church . In 1569 George Talbot , the sixth Earl of Shrewsbury , was given charge of Mary , Queen of Scots . Mary was regarded as a threat by Elizabeth I , and had been held captive since her arrival in England in 1568 . Talbot brought Mary to Sheffield in 1570 , and she spent most of the next 14 years imprisoned in Sheffield Castle and its dependent buildings . The castle park extended beyond the present Manor Lane , where the remains of Manor Lodge are to be found . Beside them is the Turret House , an Elizabethan building , which may have been built to accommodate the captive queen . A room , believed to have been the queen 's , has an elaborate plaster ceiling and overmantel , with heraldic decorations . During the English Civil War , Sheffield changed hands several times , finally falling to the Parliamentarians , who demolished the Castle in 1648 . The Industrial Revolution brought large @-@ scale steel making to Sheffield in the 18th century . Much of the medieval town was gradually replaced by a mix of Georgian and Victorian buildings . Large areas of Sheffield 's city centre have been rebuilt in recent years , but among the modern buildings , some old buildings have been retained . = = Industrial Sheffield = = Sheffield 's situation — amongst fast @-@ flowing rivers and streams surrounded by hills containing raw materials such as coal , iron ore , ganister , and millstone grit for grindstones — made it an ideal place for water @-@ powered industries to develop . Water wheels were often built for the milling of corn , but many were converted to the manufacture of blades . As early as the 14th century Sheffield was noted for the production of knives : Ay by his belt he baar a long panade , And of a swerd ful trenchant was the blade . A joly poppere baar he in his pouche ; Ther was no man , for peril , dorste hym touche . A Sheffeld thwitel baar he in his hose . Round was his face , and camus was his nose ; By 1600 Sheffield was the main centre of cutlery production in England outside London , and in 1624 The Company of Cutlers in Hallamshire was formed to oversee the trade . Examples of water @-@ powered blade and cutlery workshops from around this time can be seen at the Abbeydale Industrial Hamlet and Shepherd Wheel museums in Sheffield . Around a century later , Daniel Defoe in his book A tour thro ' the whole island of Great Britain , wrote : This town of Sheffield is very populous and large , the streets narrow , and the houses dark and black , occasioned by the continued smoke of the forges , which are always at work : Here they make all sorts of cutlery @-@ ware , but especially that of edged @-@ tools , knives , razors , axes , & . and nails ; and here the only mill of the sort , which was in use in England for some time was set up , ( viz . ) for turning their grindstones , though now ' tis grown more common . Here is a very spacious church , with a very handsome and high spire ; and the town is said to have at least as many , if not more people in it than the city of York . In the 1740s Benjamin Huntsman , a clock maker in Handsworth , invented a form of the crucible steel process for making a better quality of steel than had previously been available . At around the same time Thomas Boulsover invented a technique for fusing a thin sheet of silver onto a copper ingot producing a form of silver plating that became known as Sheffield plate . Originally hand @-@ rolled Old Sheffield Plate was used for making silver buttons . Then in 1751 Joseph Hancock , previously apprenticed to Boulsover 's friend Thomas Mitchell , first used it to make kitchen and tableware . This prospered and in 1762 – 65 Hancock built the water @-@ powered Old Park Silver Mills at the confluence of the Loxley and the Don , one of the earliest factories solely producing an industrial semi @-@ manufacture . Eventually Old Sheffield Plate was supplanted by cheaper electroplate in the 1840s . In 1773 Sheffield was given a silver assay office . In the late 18th century , Britannia metal , a pewter @-@ based alloy similar in appearance to silver , was invented in the town . Huntsman 's process was only made obsolete in 1856 by Henry Bessemer 's invention of the Bessemer converter , but production of crucible steel continued until well into the 20th century for special uses , as Bessemer 's steel was not of the same quality , in the main replacing wrought iron for such applications as rails . Bessemer had tried to induce steelmakers to take up his improved system , but met with general rebuffs , and finally was driven to undertake the exploitation of the process himself . To this end he erected steelworks in Sheffield . Gradually the scale of production was enlarged until the competition became effective , and steel traders generally became aware that the firm of Henry Bessemer & Co. was underselling them to the extent of £ 20 a ton . One of Bessemer 's converters can still be seen at Sheffield 's Kelham Island Museum . In 1857 Sheffield Football Club was formed , which is now the world 's oldest association football club . This was followed by a rapid growth of football teams in the area . Stainless steel was discovered by Harry Brearley in 1912 , at the Brown Firth Laboratories in Sheffield . His successor as manager at Brown Firth , Dr William Hatfield , continued Brealey 's work . In 1924 he patented ' 18 @-@ 8 stainless steel ' , which to this day is probably the most common alloy of this type . These innovations helped Sheffield to gain a worldwide recognition for the production of cutlery ; utensils such as the bowie knife were mass @-@ produced and shipped to the United States . The population of the town increased rapidly . In 1736 Sheffield and its surrounding hamlets held about 7000 people , in 1801 there were 60 @,@ 000 , and by 1901 , the population had grown to 451 @,@ 195 . This growth spurred the reorganisation of the governance of the town . Prior to 1818 , the town was run by a mixture of bodies . The Sheffield Town Trust and the Church Burgesses , for example , divided responsibility for the improvement of streets and bridges . By the 19th century both organisations lacked funds and struggled even to maintain existing infrastructure . The Church Burgesses organised a public meeting on 27 May 1805 and proposed to apply to Parliament for an act to pave , light and clean the city 's streets . The proposal was defeated . The idea of a Commission was revived in 1810 , and later in the decade Sheffield finally followed the model adopted by several other towns in petitioning for an Act to establish an Improvement Commission . This eventually led to the Sheffield Improvement Act 1818 , which established the Commission and included several other provisions . In 1832 the town gained political representation with the formation of a Parliamentary borough . A municipal borough was formed by an Act of Incorporation in 1843 , and this borough was granted the style and title of " City " by Royal Charter in 1893 . From the mid @-@ 18th century , a succession of public buildings were erected in the town . St Paul 's Church , now demolished , was among the first , while the old Town Hall and the present Cutlers ' Hall were among the major works of the 19th century . The town 's water supply was improved by the Sheffield Waterworks Company , who built reservoirs around the town . Parts of Sheffield were devastated when , following a five @-@ year construction project , the Dale Dyke dam collapsed on Friday 11 March 1864 , resulting in the Great Sheffield Flood . Sheffield 's transport infrastructure was also improved . In the 18th century turnpike roads were built connecting Sheffield with Barnsley , Buxton , Chesterfield , Glossop , Intake , Penistone , Tickhill , and Worksop . In 1774 a 2 @-@ mile ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) wooden tramway was laid at the Duke of Norfolk 's Nunnery Colliery . The tramway was destroyed by rioters , who saw it as part of a plan to raise the price of coal . A replacement tramway that used L @-@ shaped rails was laid by John Curr in 1776 and was one of the earliest cast @-@ iron railways . The Sheffield Canal opened in 1819 allowing the large @-@ scale transport of freight . This was followed by the Sheffield and Rotherham Railway in 1838 , the Sheffield , Ashton @-@ under @-@ Lyne and Manchester Railway in 1845 , and the Midland Railway in 1870 . The Sheffield Tramway was started in 1873 with the construction of a horse tram route from Lady 's Bridge to Attercliffe . This route was later extended to Brightside and Tinsley , and further routes were constructed to Hillsborough , Heeley , and Nether Edge . Due to the narrow medieval roads the tramways were initially banned from the town centre . An improvement scheme was passed in 1875 ; Pinstone Street and Leopold Street were constructed by 1879 , and Fargate was widened in the 1880s . The 1875 plan also called for the widening of the High Street ; disputes with property owners delayed this until 1895 . Steel production in the 19th century involved long working hours , in unpleasant conditions that offered little or no safety protection . Friedrich Engels in his The Condition of the Working Class in England in 1844 described the conditions prevalent in the city at that time : In Sheffield wages are better , and the external state of the workers also . On the other hand , certain branches of work are to be noticed here , because of their extraordinarily injurious influence upon health . Certain operations require the constant pressure of tools against the chest , and engender consumption in many cases ; others , file @-@ cutting among them , retard the general development of the body and produce digestive disorders ; bone @-@ cutting for knife handles brings with it headache , biliousness , and among girls , of whom many are employed , anæmia . By far the most unwholesome work is the grinding of knife @-@ blades and forks , which , especially when done with a dry stone , entails certain early death . The unwholesomeness of this work lies in part in the bent posture , in which chest and stomach are cramped ; but especially in the quantity of sharp @-@ edged metal dust particles freed in the cutting , which fill the atmosphere , and are necessarily inhaled . The dry grinders ' average life is hardly thirty @-@ five years , the wet grinders ' rarely exceeds forty @-@ five . Sheffield became one of the main centres for trade union organisation and agitation in the UK . By the 1860s , the growing conflict between capital and labour provoked the so @-@ called ' Sheffield Outrages ' , which culminated in a series of explosions and murders carried out by union militants . The Sheffield Trades Council organised a meeting in Sheffield in 1866 at which the United Kingdom Alliance of Organised Trades — a forerunner of the Trades Union Congress ( TUC ) — was founded . = = The 20th century to the present = = In 1914 Sheffield became a diocese of the Church of England , and the parish church became a cathedral . During the First World War the Sheffield City Battalion suffered heavy losses at the Somme and Sheffield itself was bombed by a German zeppelin . The recession of the 1930s was only halted by the increasing tension as the Second World War loomed . The steel factories of Sheffield were set to work making weapons and ammunition for the war . As a result , once war was declared , the city once again became a target for bombing raids . In total there were 16 raids over Sheffield , but it was the heavy bombing over the nights of 12 and 15 December 1940 ( now known as the Sheffield Blitz ) when the most substantial damage occurred . More than 660 lives were lost and numerous buildings were destroyed . Following the war , the 1950s and 1960s saw many large scale developments in the city . The Sheffield Tramway was closed , and a new system of roads , including the Inner Ring Road , were laid out . Also at this time many of the old slums were cleared and replaced with housing schemes such as the Park Hill flats , and the Gleadless Valley estate . Sheffield 's traditional manufacturing industries ( along with those of many other areas in the UK ) , declined during the 20th century . The building of the Meadowhall shopping centre on the site of a former steelworks in 1990 was a mixed blessing , creating much needed jobs but speeding the decline of the city centre . Attempts to regenerate the city were kick @-@ started by the hosting of the 1991 World Student Games and the associated building of new sporting facilities such as the Sheffield Arena , Don Valley Stadium and the Ponds Forge complex . Sheffield began construction of a tram system in 1992 , with the first section opening in 1994 . Starting in 1995 , the Heart of the City Project has seen public works in the city centre : the Peace Gardens were renovated in 1998 , the Millennium Gallery opened in April 2001 , and a 1970s town hall extension was demolished in 2002 to make way for the Winter Garden , which opened on 22 May 2003 . A series of other projects grouped under the title Sheffield One aim to regenerate the whole of the city centre . On 25 June 2007 , flooding caused millions of pounds worth of damage to buildings in the city and led to the loss of two lives . In July 2013 the Sevenstone project , which aimed to demolish and rebuild a large part of the city centre , and had been on hold since 2009 , was further delayed and the company developing it was dropped . The city council is looking for partners to take a new version of the plan forwards . In April 2014 the council , together with Sheffield University , proposed a plan to reduce the blight of empty shops in the city centre by offering them free of charge to small businesses on a month @-@ by @-@ month basis .
= Casa de Estudillo = The Casa de Estudillo , also known as the Estudillo House , is a historic adobe house in San Diego , California , United States . It was constructed in 1827 by José María Estudillo and his son José Antonio Estudillo , early settlers of San Diego , and was considered one of the finest houses in Mexican California . It is located in Old Town San Diego State Historic Park , and is designated as both a National and a California Historical Landmark in its own right . Besides being one of the oldest surviving examples of Spanish architecture in California , the house gained much prominence by association with Helen Hunt Jackson 's wildly popular 1884 novel Ramona . The Casa de Estudillo is one of three National Historic Landmarks in Southern California that were closely tied to Ramona , a novel of Californio life shortly after the American acquisition of California ; the other two are Rancho Camulos and Rancho Guajome . = = Description = = The large building is a U @-@ shaped structure , measuring 113 feet ( 34 @.@ 4 m ) on the front side , and 98 feet ( 29 @.@ 9 m ) on each of the wings . It is constructed in the Spanish Colonial style , meaning that the house 's 13 rooms are set consecutively in the building and connected only by an external covered corredor ( as opposed to an interior hallway ) . The main portion ( the center ) contains the entrance , facing west . To its left is the chapel and to its right is the schoolroom . Both rooms originally were smaller , with bedrooms located at the ends of building , but a 1910 restoration eliminated those walls to enlarge the rooms . Two bedrooms , a living room , a kitchen ( which was added at a later date ) , and the servants ' dining room are in the north wing , while the south wing has three bedrooms and the family dining room . The house is topped by a cupola from which bullfights and festivals in the adjacent plaza could be seen . = = Ramona = = = = = Association with the novel = = = José Antonio Estudillo died in 1852 , and his family stayed until 1887 , when they moved to Los Angeles , leaving the house in the hands of a caretaker . Meanwhile , the 1884 publication of Ramona , a novel set in Southern California which painted a romanticized portrait of Californio life , generated a nationwide interest in the region . This , combined with the opening of the Southern Pacific and Santa Fe Railway lines ( and the ensuing rate war , which drove prices down to as low as $ 1 from St. Louis , Missouri to Los Angeles ) , meant that hordes of tourists made their way to Southern California to see the locations in the novel . Unfortunately , Jackson died in 1885 without ever having disclosed what the actual locations in the novel were , which caused a great deal of speculation . In 1887 , a front page article of the San Diego Union declared the Estudillo home to be " Ramona 's Marriage Place " , saying , " To sleepy Old Town ( the house ) is known as the Estudillos , but the outside world knows it as the marriage place of ' Ramona . ' " This was despite Jackson never having visited the house , but in the novel , Ramona was married in a " long , low adobe building which had served no mean purpose in the old Presidio days , but was now fallen in decay ; and all its rooms , except those occupied by the Father , had been long uninhabited " . Despite the novel being a work of fiction , visitors flocked to the building thinking it was the actual location of Ramona 's marriage . To be clear , the Union did not simply invent this story ; a tourist had already scratched the name " Alessandro " ( Ramona 's husband in the novel ) in one of the walls . The caretaker decided to capitalize on the attendant publicity and began selling off pieces of the house as souvenirs . Naturally , the building 's condition began to deteriorate rapidly . = = = 1910 restoration = = = In 1906 , the dilapidated building was purchased by the San Diego Electric Railway Company , owned by prominent San Diego citizen John D. Spreckels ( who also owned the Union ) . In his vision , the house would anchor a number of tourist attractions connected via his railway which would realize his twin goals of developing San Diego into a popular locale and generate revenue for his company . To this end , he hired architect Hazel Wood Waterman to renovate the house to a condition more closely matching descriptions in the novel . The original cupola and balcony was removed because there was none mentioned in the novel , and several doors and windows were moved . Waterman was exacting in her specifications : She wanted the building to look aged as well as have the " charm of the work of half @-@ skilled Indian hands " , although modern conveniences such as electricity and indoor plumbing were included . Upon its completion in 1910 , it was marketed as a Ramona @-@ related tourist attraction , and remained popular as such for years to come , drawing 1 @,@ 632 visitors on one day in 1940 . Spreckels hired Tommy Getz , a theater showman , to manage the property , and it was under Getz 's guidance that the property truly gained its Ramona association . He began strongly marketing the property : Tchotchkes of all sorts were labeled with " Ramona 's Marriage Place " , and more postcards were printed for the adobe than any other Ramona attraction . Due to its association with Ramona 's marriage , the house was used to host weddings as well . Getz eventually purchased the adobe from Spreckels in 1924 . The association with the novel was so keen that the application for National Historic Landmark status was entitled , " Casa Estudillo / Ramona 's Marriage Place . " The Journal of San Diego History goes so far as to say that without the novel 's influence and the popularity of the house , the historic buildings that make up Old Town San Diego would have been razed . In fact , for a time , the Estudillos ' relationship to the house was nearly forgotten . After Getz 's death in 1934 , his daughter Margeurite Weiss continued to operate the business for another thirty years , finally selling it 1964 to the Title Insurance and Trust Company , which then sold it to local businessman Legler Benbough , who donated it to the State of California in 1968 . = = = 1968 restoration = = = The state Park Service then set about restoring it to its pre @-@ Ramona state , including the missing cupola . The house now stands as a museum and is furnished as it would likely have been during Estudillo 's ownership , but with an added kitchen . The state seemed embarrassed at the property 's association with the novel : The long @-@ standing " Ramona 's Marriage Place " sign was removed , and brochures printed in the 1970s make no mention of the novel at all . By the 1990s , the state began to acknowledge the long @-@ standing relationship to the book . Ramona no longer has the same hold on the country 's imagination as it once did . It is estimated that only 1 % of visitors to the Casa de Estudillo now are aware of the house 's ties to the novel . = = Photo gallery = =

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