page
stringlengths 23
146k
|
|---|
= The Absent @-@ Minded Beggar =
" The Absent @-@ Minded Beggar " is an 1899 poem by Rudyard Kipling , set to music by Sir Arthur Sullivan and often accompanied by an illustration by Richard Caton Woodville . The song was written as part of an appeal by the Daily Mail to raise money for soldiers fighting in the South African War ( usually known as the Boer War ) and their families . The fund was the first such charitable effort for a war .
The chorus of the song exhorted its audience to " pass the hat for your credit 's sake , and pay — pay — pay ! " The patriotic poem and song caused a sensation and were constantly performed throughout the war and beyond . Kipling was offered a knighthood shortly after publication of the poem but declined the honour . Vast numbers of copies of the poem and sheet music were published , and large quantities of related merchandise were sold to aid the charity . The " Absent @-@ Minded Beggar Fund " was an unprecedented success and raised a total of more than £ 250 @,@ 000 .
= = History = =
In September 1899 , it was clear that the crisis in South Africa was likely to turn into war . By 2 October , all military leave had been cancelled , and urgent preparations were under way to send a large expeditionary force to the Cape , with horses and supplies being requisitioned and mobilised . On 7 October , a proclamation was issued calling out the Army Reserve . Of 65 @,@ 000 liable men , around 25 @,@ 000 were intended to be called up for service .
Many , if not all , of the men thus mobilised were ex @-@ soldiers in permanent employment for whom returning to military duty meant a significant cut in their income . In addition , there was no contemporary legislation of the time protecting the permanent employment of Reservists . Employers could – and often would – replace them with other workers , with no guarantee that if the soldier returned he would be able to take back his job . As a result , many families were quickly plunged into poverty , since a lifestyle comfortably maintained on a workman 's wage of twenty shillings could not be kept up on the infantryman 's " shilling a day " . As if this were not enough , there was no guarantee that the husband would have a job to return to , even without the prospect of injury or death . A number of charitable funds existed to support these individuals , most notably the Soldiers ' and Sailors ' Families Association , but a number of private appeals were also made .
Simultaneously , a wave of patriotism was sweeping the country , catered to by jingoist newspapers such as the Daily Mail . Many of these newspapers were also involved in the charitable fundraising efforts to benefit the Reservists and their dependents . The Daily Mail proprietor , Alfred Harmsworth , had publicised efforts to help soldiers and their families . This drew the attention of Rudyard Kipling , who produced " The Absent @-@ Minded Beggar " on 16 October 1899 and sent the verses to Harmsworth on 22 October with a note that " they are at your service . ... turn [ the proceeds ] over to any one of the regularly ordained relief @-@ funds , as a portion of your contribution . I don 't want my name mixed up in the business except as it will help to get money . It 's catchpenny verse and I want it to catch just as many pennies as it can . ... [ p.s. ] It isn 't a thing I shall care to reprint ; so there is no need of copyrighting it in America . If any one wants to sing it take care that the proceeds go to our men . " By 25 October , Kipling was plotting with Harmsworth on how to maximise the fundraising from the poem by having it recited at music halls . He suggested finding a composer to set it to a " common + catchy " tune .
The poem was first published in The Daily Mail on 31 October 1899 and was an immediate success . Maud Tree , the wife of actor @-@ manager Herbert Beerbohm Tree , recited it at the Palace Theatre , every night before the show , for fourteen months , and other performers recited it at music halls and elsewhere , giving part of the profits to the fund . The country 's premier composer , Sir Arthur Sullivan , was immediately asked to set the poem to music . Sullivan had written some 20 operas , including fourteen comic operas with W. S. Gilbert , and a large volume of songs , orchestral pieces and other music . Although he was in the middle of composing his next opera , The Rose of Persia ( which was to be his last completed opera ) , Sullivan agreed . Both Kipling and Sullivan declined proffered fees for creating the song . Artist Richard Caton Woodville , within several days , provided an illustration , titled " A Gentleman in Kharki " , showing a wounded but defiant British Tommy in battle . This illustration was included in " art editions " of the poem and song .
In 1897 , Sullivan had agreed to compose music for Rudyard Kipling 's poem Recessional , but he never completed the song . When asked to set " The Absent @-@ Minded Beggar " to music two years later , Sullivan found Kipling 's verses so difficult to set that he told his diary , " if it wasn 't for charity 's sake , I could never have undertaken the task " . Still , the experienced composer completed the music in four days , on 5 November 1899 . The first public performance was sung by John Coates , under Sullivan 's baton , at the Alhambra Theatre on 13 November 1899 , to a " magnificent reception " of an overflowing theatre .
= = Reception = =
Sullivan 's music captured Britain 's jingoistic mood , and Sullivan 's diary entry notes , " Wild enthusiasm . All sang chorus ! I stood on the stage and conducted the encore – funny sight ! " With characteristic grace , the composer wrote to Kipling , " Your splendid words went with a swing and enthusiasm which even my music cannot stifle " . Kipling , on the other hand , described the music as " a tune guaranteed to pull teeth out of barrel @-@ organs " .
The Daily Chronicle wrote that " It has not been often that the greatest of English writers and the greatest of English musicians have joined inspiring words and stirring melody in a song which expresses the heart feelings of the entire nation " . Sullivan 's manuscript was later auctioned for £ 500 towards the fund . Critic Fuller Maitland disapproved of the composition in The Times , but Sullivan asked a friend , " Did the idiot expect the words to be set in cantata form , or as a developed composition with symphonic introduction , contrapuntal treatment , etc . ? "
The poem , song and piano music sold in extraordinary numbers , as did all kinds of household items , postcards , memorabilia and other merchandise emblazoned , woven or engraved with the " Gentleman in Kharki " figure , the poem itself , the sheet music , or humorous illustrations . Some of these items were very expensive . 40 clerks answered 12 @,@ 000 requests a day for copies of the poem , and it was included in 148 @,@ 000 packets of cigarettes within two months of the first performance . Alternative arrangements of the song were published , such as " The Absent @-@ Minded Beggar March " .
The Daily Mail 's charitable fund was eventually titled the " Absent Minded Beggar Relief Corps " or the " Absent @-@ Minded Beggar Fund , " providing small comforts to the soldiers themselves as well as supporting their families . Among other activities of the Corps , it " met the soldiers on arrival in South Africa , welcomed them on their return to Britain and , more importantly , set up overseas centres to minister to the sick and wounded " . The fund raised the unprecedented amount of more than £ 250 @,@ 000 . The money was not raised solely by the Daily Mail ; the poem was publicly available , with anyone permitted to perform or print it in any way , so long as the copyright royalties went to the fund . Newspapers around the world published the poem , hundreds of thousands of copies were quickly sold internationally , and the song was sung widely in theatres and music halls , first being heard in Australia on 23 December 1899 . Local " Absent Minded Beggar Relief Corps " branches were opened in Trinidad , Cape Town , Ireland , New Zealand , China , India and numerous places throughout the world ; all of this contributed to the fund and to other war efforts , such as the building of hospitals . The fund was the first such charitable effort for a war and has been referred to as the origin of the welfare state . In December , after the first £ 50 @,@ 000 was raised , the Daily Mail asserted , " The history of the world can produce no parallel to the extraordinary record of this poem . "
The popularity of the poem was such that allusions to it were common . Mark Twain wrote that " The clarion @-@ peal of its lines thrilled the world " . By 18 November , less than a month after publication of the poem , " a new patriotic play " was advertised to open the next week , titled The Absent Minded Beggar , or , For Queen and Country . The same month , the Charity Organisation Society called " The Absent @-@ Minded Beggar " the " most prominent figure on the charitable horizon at present . " Even a critical book on the conduct of the war , published in 1900 , was titled An Absent @-@ Minded War . Kipling was offered a knighthood within a few weeks of publication of the song but declined , as he declined all offers of State honours . Historian Stephen M. Miller wrote in 2007 , " Kipling almost single @-@ handedly restored the strong ties between civilians and soldiers and put Britain and its army back together again . "
A performance of " The Absent @-@ Minded Beggar March " on 21 July 1900 at The Crystal Palace was Sullivan 's last public appearance , and the composer died four months later . " The Absent @-@ Minded Beggar " remained popular throughout the three @-@ year war and for years after the war ended . It became a part of popular culture of the time , with its title becoming a popular phrase and cartoons , postcards and other humorous representations of the character of the absent @-@ minded beggar becoming popular . The song is performed in John Osborne 's 1957 play The Entertainer .
The song is still heard on re @-@ issues of early recordings and on post World War II recordings by Donald Adams and others . In 1942 , George Orwell noted that " The phrase " killing Kruger with your mouth " ... was current till very recently " . In 2010 , a Kipling conference , called " Following The Absent @-@ minded Beggar " was held at the School of the Humanities of the University of Bristol , organised by Dr. John Lee , that included lectures and an exhibition of memorabilia and documents relating to the poem and song .
= = Lyrics = =
|
= Andriyivskyy Descent =
Andriyivskyy Descent ( Ukrainian : Андріївський узвіз , Andriyivs ’ kyi uzviz , literally : Andrew 's Descent ) is a historic descent connecting Kiev 's Upper Town neighborhood and the historically commercial Podil neighborhood . The street , often advertised by tour guides and operators as the " Montmartre of Kiev " , is a major tourist attraction of the city .
The descent , 720 metres ( 2 @,@ 360 ft ) in length , is constructed of laid cobblestones . It winds down steeply around the Zamkova Hora hill , ending near the Kontraktova Square in the Podil . The Andriyivskyy Descent is marked by a couple historic landmarks , including the Castle of Richard the Lionheart , the 18th century baroque Saint Andrew 's Church , famed Russian writer Mikhail Bulgakov 's house , and numerous other monuments .
Recent talk of the descent 's reconstruction has been going since 2006 , when a local grassroots organization aimed at saving the Andriyivskyy Descent collected more than 1 @,@ 000 signatures to petition local authorities to take action on the descent 's reconstruction . On June 23 , 2009 , the Kiev City Council administration approved the reconstruction of the Andriyivskyi Descent , which was officially announced a year earlier by Mayor Leonid Chernovetsky . The exact timeline for reconstruction has not yet been adopted , although the reconstruction 's budget has been drafted in the city 's 2010 budget .
= = Description = =
The Andriyivskyy Descent begins on the summit of the Starokyivska Hora ( Old Kiev mountain ) near the ornate late @-@ baroque Saint Andrew 's Church ( which gave the street its current name ) . The street continues on down and descends to the Podil district where it ends at the Kontraktova Square . In the past times , the descent was known as the Borychiv Descent mentioned as " Borichev uvoz " ( Old East Slavic : Боричев увоз ) by Nestor the Chronicler in his Primary Chronicle and in the 12th century poem , The Tale of Igor 's Campaign ( Slovo o polku Ihorevim ) . The descent 's current name is derived from the 18th century , at the time when the Saint Andrew 's Church was erected atop the hill .
In the 18th and 19th centuries , the street was mainly inhabited by merchants and craftspeople . Although they are long gone due to the sweeping demographic changes in Kiev during times of the late Russian Empire and the Soviet Union , the street is once again thriving thanks to its unique topology , architecture , rich history and also many gift shops and small art galleries showcasing various paintings and sculptures by Ukrainian artists . The descent is one of the favorite spots for tourists . It is also notable for the many festivals it holds , including various art festivals and the Kiev Day celebrations on the last weekend of May .
The street 's location in the city and its landmark attraction has made it lately a highly prestigious area , with several new luxurious restaurants . However , the descent 's sewer and water systems have not been upgraded within the past 100 years , thereby underlining the need for a new system to be installed . Although , city authorities have not yet scheduled a new sewer project system to be installed .
= = History = =
The descent , located between two hills , is the shortest passageway from the historic Old or Upper Town ( Ukrainian : Князівська Гора ; Kniazivs ’ ka Hora ) to the commercial Podil neighborhood . One of the hills , known as Uzdyhal ’ nytsia , was the place where pre @-@ Christian idols once stood ( see : Baptism of Kiev ) , and another hill , called Zamkova Hora , served as a castle hill during the Middle Ages . For many centuries , this passageway was very steep and inconvenient , that 's the reason why there are were not any settlements for a long time . The first buildings were erected here only in the 17th century , and the first apartment buildings began appearing towards the end of the 19th century .
In 1711 , by the order of then @-@ Governor of Kiev , the route between the Zamkova and Andriyivskyy mountains were expanded , thus allowing traffic to become more suitable for horses and wagon carriages . The Andriyivskyy Descent was renamed in 1920 in honor of young revolutionary Georgiy Liver . In 1944 , it was decided to return the street to its prior name ; in 1957 , the street was renamed back to Andreevsky Spusk — the Russian variant of Andriyivskyy Descent . In the 1980s , the Andriyivskyy Descent received a thorough reconstruction after years of disrepair .
On April 9 , 2012 , construction workers began demolishing legally protected historic structures , even though earlier that year , their safety was guaranteed at several news conferences and the buildings themselves were included in scale models of the " renovated " descent . The destruction of the buildings took place under the guise of " reconstruction " efforts , which began in October 2011 . Preliminary reports indicate that the buildings directly across from , and next to the Museum of Bulhakov , ( Buildings 10a , 10b , and 9 / 11 ) were all razed to the ground . The land was being redeveloped to make room for a new office and business complex to house Rinat Akhmetov 's Kyiv operations .
Several hundred protestors , including boxer / politician Vitali Klitschko , gathered outside the main Kyiv office of Akhmetov ’ s SCM Holdings . On April 12 , Akhmetov claimed he had canceled plans to build a multi @-@ story business center in the buildings ’ place , promising instead to build a cultural center and restore the facades .
= = Attractions = =
The Andriyivskyi Descent contains numerous historic attractions and museums . The 18th century baroque Saint Andrew 's Church ; the late 19th century Mikhail Bulgakov 's house @-@ museum ; the 20th century Castle of Richard the Lionheart ; the Museum of One Street , chronicling the Andriyivskyy Descent 's history ; and numerous other monuments attract tourists and Kievans alike to the area .
= = = Saint Andrew 's Church = = =
Another attraction of the Andriyivskyy Descent is the baroque Saint Andrew 's Church . It is located atop a hill overlooking the Podil neighborhood from the Andriyivskyy Descent . The idea to construct the Saint Andrew 's Church came from the Russian Tsaress Elizabeth Petrovna . When she visited Kiev in 1747 – 1754 , she laid the foundation brick of the church with her own hand , after which the church was constructed , to a design by the imperial architect Bartolomeo Rastrelli .
As the Tsaress planned to take personal care of the church , the church has no parish , and there is no belltower to call the congregation to divine service . But she died before the construction ended , so the church was never cared for by Elizabeth Petrovna . After Elizabeth 's death , the Kiev court took no interest maintaining in the church , last consecrated in 1767 . Later , there were not enough funds to maintain the church , which left the maintaining of the church to private and voluntary funds , such as Andrey Muraviov .
In 1963 , Rastrelli 's original plans for the building were found in Vienna , Austria . This made it possible to reconstruct the original images on the building . The plan of restoration was carried out in the 1970s , overlooked by the main architect @-@ restorer , V. Korneyeva . Since 1968 , the church has been opened as a museum to tourists and visitors . The church is now owned by the Ukrainian Autocephalous Orthodox Church .
= = = Castle of Richard the Lionheart = = =
The " Castle of Richard the Lionheart " house was built from 1902 – 1904 . It was originally supposed to be called Orlov House in reference to its constructor Dmitry Orlov . But because its owner failed to clear the house construction with the city 's authorities , a major scandal arose . Viktor Nekrasov named the building " The Castle of Richard the Lionheart " , after the 12th century English king in his book . It has been established that the modernized Gothic fronts were practically copied from a published design for a Saint Petersburg building by the architect R. Marfeld . But the stunning relief of Andriyivskyy Descent softened the effect of this plagiarism .
The cellar of the building contained a barber 's shop , a grocery store and a butcher shop . The remaining premises were used as apartments for rent . When Dimitri Orlov died in 1911 while building a railroad in the Russian Far East , his widow , left with five children , had to sell off the house to pay her family 's debts . In 1983 , renovation works were started on the building to convert it into a hotel . Since the fall of the Soviet Union in 1991 , various reconstruction works have been largely unsuccessful . As of 2009 , the Castle of Richard the Lionheart still stands empty and fenced off in renovation .
= = = Mikhail Bulgakov 's house = = =
Mikhail Bulgakov , a famous Kiev @-@ born Russian writer , and his family lived on the street at two different houses in the early @-@ 20th century . In Bulgakov 's novel The White Guard the author vividly describes the street and house ( he calls it Aleksey Descent - " Alekseevskiy Spusk " ) in the turbulent times of the 1917 Russian Revolution . The address , at No.13 Andriyivskyy Descent is still commonly called the Bulgakov House and displays a plaque with the address the writer used in his book ( No.13 Alekseevsky Spusk ) ( see image ) . Popular writer 's statue is also installed near museum .
A museum was opened inside the preserved building to mark the 100th birthday of Mikhail Bulgakov on May 15 , 1991 . The upper floor of the museum houses an exhibition of various Bulgakov objects , and the lower floor contains thematic exhibitions . The house , built in 1888 and designed by architect N. Gardenin , was thoroughly renovated before the opening of the museum . A memorial plaque with Bulgakov 's portrait is now hanging on the front of the building .
= = = One Street Museum = = =
The One Street Museum is another main attraction of the Andriyivskyy Descent , which houses many of the historic items of the descent , containing more than 6 @,@ 500 exhibits . They include information about the Saint Andrew 's Church , the castle of Richard Lionheart , and the many other buildings of the Descent .
Also , the museum has a unique collection of various works by Ukrainian philologist P. Zhitetsky , Arabist and professor of the Kiev University T. Kezma , journalist and public figure A.Savenko , Ukrainian writer G.Tyutyunnyk , which have lived in the house No. 34 in the different periods of the twentieth century . Another important part of the collection in the museum is the memorabilia of professors of Kiev Theological Academy A. Bulgakov , S. Golubev , P. Kudryavtsev , F. Titov , A.Glagolev , famed doctors Th . Janovsky and D. Popov , and other prominent local figures .
The museum also has a large collection of antique books . Book relics of the exposition include a famous Trebnik of the Metropolitan of Kiev Petro Mohyla , rare editions of works written by professors and graduates of the Kyiv @-@ Mohyla Academy , unique books written by the Ukrainian Walter Scott , M.Grabovsky , the Defender of Orthodoxy , A.Muravyov , and the works of Mikhail Bulgakov published in his lifetime .
= = = Monuments = = =
The Andriyivskyy Descent also has a number of monuments . One of them is the monument to Yaroslav the Wise , the Grand Prince of Novgorod and Kiev , which depicts him holding a model of the Saint Sophia Cathedral . Another is the monument to Pronya Prokopovna and Svirid Golohvastov , which was unveiled in 1989 , depicting two characters , Pronya Prokopovna and Svirid Golohvastov , from the play Chasing Two Rabbits , which was written by Mykhailo Starytskyi . Another main monument on the street is dedicated to the famous Ukrainian poet and artist Taras Shevchenko , located to the right of the monument to Yaroslav the Wise . Most recently , a monument to Mikhail Bulgakov was opened on the Andriyivskyy Descent , the first dedicated to the writer in the former Soviet Union .
= = Legends = =
During its long history , the Andriyivskyy Descent has a couple of legends surround it .
One legend states that when Andrew the Apostle visited the uninhabited mountains in the mid @-@ stream of the Dnieper River ( today 's Andriyvskyy Descent area ) , he put up a cross atop of the hill where the descent starts and prophesied a foundation of a great Christian city . Since that time , wooden churches sprang up around in the vicinity , completing his prophecy .
According to another legend , there was once a sea where the Dnieper River now flows . When Saint Andrew came to Kiev and erected a cross on the place where the Saint Andrew 's Church now stands , the sea went away . The only part that remained of the sea is under the mountain on which Kiev sits today . When the church was built there in the 18th century , a spring opened under the altar . The church has no bells , because , according to the legend , when the first bell strikes , the water can revive again and flood the left bank of Kiev .
= = Panorama = =
|
= Peng Dehuai =
Peng Dehuai ( Peng Te @-@ huai ; simplified Chinese : 彭德怀 ; traditional Chinese : 彭德懷 ; pinyin : Péng Déhuái ; Wade – Giles : P 'eng2 Te2 @-@ huai2 ) ( October 24 , 1898 – November 29 , 1974 ) was a prominent Chinese Communist military leader , and served as China 's Defense Minister from 1954 to 1959 . Peng was born into a poor peasant family , and received several years of primary education before his family 's poverty forced him to suspend his education at the age of ten , and to work for several years as a manual laborer . When he was sixteen , Peng became a professional soldier . Over the next ten years Peng served in the armies of several Hunan @-@ based warlord armies , raising himself from the rank of private second class to major . In 1926 Peng 's forces joined the Kuomintang , and Peng was first introduced to communism . Peng participated in the Northern Expedition , and supported Wang Jingwei 's attempt to form a left @-@ leaning Kuomintang government based in Wuhan . After Wang was defeated , Peng briefly rejoined Chiang Kai @-@ shek 's forces before joining the Chinese Communist Party , allying himself with Mao Zedong and Zhu De .
Peng was one of the most senior generals who defended the Jiangxi Soviet from Chiang 's attempts to capture it , and his successes were rivaled only by Lin Biao . Peng participated in the Long March , and supported Mao Zedong at the Zunyi Conference , which was critical to Mao 's rise to power . During the 1937 – 1945 Second Sino @-@ Japanese War , Peng was one of the strongest supporters of pursuing a ceasefire with the Kuomintang in order to concentrate China 's collective resources on resisting the Japanese Empire . Peng was the senior commander in the combined Kuomintang @-@ Communist efforts to resist the Japanese occupation of Shanxi in 1937 ; and , by 1938 , was in command of 2 / 3 of the Eighth Route Army . In 1940 , Peng conducted the Hundred Regiments Offensive , a massive Communist effort to disrupt Japanese logistical networks across northern China . The Hundred Regiments Offensive was modestly successful , but political disputes within the Communist Party led to Peng being recalled to Yan 'an , and he spent the rest of the war without an active command . After the Japanese surrendered , in 1945 , Peng was given command of Communist forces in Northwest China . He was the most senior commander responsible for defending the Communist leadership in Shaanxi from Kuomintang forces , saving Mao from being captured at least once . Peng eventually defeated the Kuomintang in Northwest China , captured huge amounts of military supplies , and actively incorporated the huge area , including Xinjiang , into the People 's Republic of China .
Peng was one of the few senior military leaders who supported Mao 's suggestions to involve China directly in the 1950 – 1953 Korean War , and he served as the direct commander of the Chinese People 's Volunteer Army for the first half of the war ( though Mao and Zhou Enlai were technically more senior ) . Peng 's experiences in the Korean War convinced him that the Chinese military had to become more professional , organized , and well @-@ equipped in order to prepare itself for the conditions of modern technical warfare . Because the Soviet Union was the only communist country then equipped with a fully modern , professional army , Peng attempted to reform China 's military on the Soviet model over the next several years , making the army less political and more professional ( contrary to the political goals of Mao ) . Peng resisted Mao 's attempts to develop a personality cult throughout the 1950s ; and , when Mao 's economic policies associated with the Great Leap Forward caused a nationwide famine , Peng became critical of Mao 's leadership . The rivalry between Peng and Mao culminated in an open confrontation between the two at the 1959 Lushan Conference . Mao won this confrontation , labeled Peng as a leader of an " anti @-@ Party clique " , and purged Peng from all influential positions for the rest of his life .
Peng lived in virtual obscurity until 1965 , when the reformers Liu Shaoqi and Deng Xiaoping supported Peng 's limited return to government , developing military industries in Southwest China . In 1966 , following the advent of the Cultural Revolution , Peng was arrested by Red Guards . From 1966 – 1970 , radical factions within the Communist Party , led by Lin Biao and Mao 's wife , Jiang Qing , singled out Peng for national persecution , and Peng was publicly humiliated in numerous large @-@ scale struggle sessions and subjected to physical and psychological torture in organized efforts to force Peng to confess his " crimes " against Mao Zedong and the Communist Party . In 1970 Peng was formally tried and sentenced to life imprisonment , and he died in prison in 1974 . After Mao died in 1976 , Peng 's old ally , Deng Xiaoping , emerged as China 's paramount leader . Deng led an effort to formally rehabilitate people who had been unjustly persecuted during the Cultural Revolution , and Peng was one of the first leaders to be posthumously rehabilitated , in 1978 . In modern China , Peng is considered one of the most successful and highly respected generals in the history of the early Chinese Communist Party .
= = Early life = =
= = = Childhood = = =
Peng was born in 1898 in the village of Shixiang , Xiangtan County , Hunan . His personal name at birth was " Dehua " . Peng 's family lived in a thatched @-@ straw hut and owned approximately 1 @.@ 5 acres of irrigated land , on which the family grew bamboo , sweet potatoes , tea , cotton , and various vegetables . His father also operated a bean curd shop . The income from the land and shop supported an extended family of eight people , including Peng , his three brothers , his parents , his grandmother , and a grand @-@ uncle . Peng 's grand @-@ uncle had joined and fought for the Taiping rebellion , and used to tell Peng about the old Taiping ideals : that everyone should have enough food to eat , that women should not bind their feet , and that land should be redistributed equally . Peng later described his own class background as " lower @-@ middle peasant " .
From 1905 – 1907 , Peng was enrolled in a traditional Confucian primary school . In 1908 Peng attended a modern primary school ; but , at the age of ten , was forced to withdraw from this school due to his family 's deteriorating financial situation . In 1905 – 1906 , there was a severe drought in Hunan . Peng 's mother died in 1905 , and Peng 's six @-@ month @-@ old brother died of hunger . Peng 's father was forced to sell most of his family possessions for food , and to pawn most of his family 's land . When Peng was withdrawn from school in 1908 , he and his brothers were sent to beg for food in their village . From 1908 – 1910 , Peng took a job looking after a pair of water buffaloes .
When Peng 's grand @-@ uncle died in 1911 , Peng left home and worked at a coalmine in Xiangtan , where he pushed carts of coal for thirteen hours a day for a wage of nine yuan a month . In 1912 , shortly after the founding of the Republic of China , the mine went bankrupt and the owners fled , cheating Peng out of half his annual wages . Peng returned home in 1912 and took a number of odd jobs . In 1913 Hunan suffered another drought , and Peng participated in a public demonstration that escalated into the seizure of a grain merchant 's storehouse , and the redistribution of grain among the peasants . Village police issued a warrant for Peng 's arrest , and he fled to northern Hunan , where he worked for two years as a construction laborer for the construction of a dam near Dongting Lake . When the dam was completed , in 1916 , Peng assumed that he was no longer in danger of being arrested and returned home , joining the army of a local Kuomintang @-@ aligned warlord , Tang Xiangming .
= = = Service in warlord armies = = =
Peng enlisted as a private second class , with a monthly wage of 5 @.@ 5 yuan , 2 yuan of which he sent back to support his family . Within seven months he was promoted to private first class , with a monthly wage of 6 yuan , 3 yuan of which he sent to his family . One of Peng 's commanding officers was an idealistic Nationalist who had participated in the 1911 Xinhai Revolution , who influenced Peng to sympathize with the Kuomintang goals of social reform and national reunification . When another civil war broke out in 1917 , Peng 's regiment split from the rest of its army and joined the forces of Tang Shengzhi , who was aligned with Tan Yankai and Sun Yat @-@ sen , against those aligned with the northern warlord Wu Peifu . During this period Peng received training in formal tactics from an officer in his brigade . In July 1918 Peng was captured while on a reconnaissance mission behind enemy lines , but was released after two weeks . In April 1919 Peng was promoted to master sergeant and acting platoon commander . Tang Shengzhi 's forces drove enemy troops out of Hunan in July 1920 , capturing the provincial capital of Changsha .
Peng participated in a failed mutiny over pay , but was pardoned . In August 1921 Peng was promoted to the rank of second lieutenant , and became acting company commander several weeks later . While stationed in a village in Nanxian , Peng noticed that the poor were being mistreated by a local landlord , and encouraged them to establish an " association to help the poor " . When the local villagers hesitated , Peng ordered his soldiers to arrest the landlord and execute him . Peng was reprimanded for his actions , but not demoted or reassigned . After the incident , Peng began to think seriously about leaving the service of his provincial warlord army . On February 1922 , after applying for extended unpaid leave , Peng and several other officers traveled to Guangdong to seek employment in the army of the Kuomintang .
Peng 's impression of the Kuomintang in 1922 was not favorable , and he left Guangzhou with the intention of settling back in Hunan as a farmer . Peng returned to his home village by sea via Shanghai ( then the farthest he had ever been from his home village ) , and farmed with his father for three months on land which his father had bought with money that Peng had sent home , but Peng did not find this occupation satisfying . When one of Peng 's old comrades suggested that Peng apply to the local Hunan Military Academy to seek employment as a formally trained professional officer , Peng accepted . Peng successfully gained admission in August 1922 , using the personal name " Dehuai " for the first time . In August 1923 , after nine months of training , Peng graduated from the academy and rejoined his old regiment with the rank of captain . He was promoted to acting battalion commander in April 1924 .
In 1924 Tang Shengzhi aligned himself with northern warlords against the warlord controlling Guangdong , who was aligned with the Kuomintang . Peng conducted skirmishes along the Hunan @-@ Guangdong border for nine months , but reorganized his battalion along pro @-@ Kuomintang political lines in 1925 . In late 1925 Chiang Kai @-@ shek established the National Revolutionary Army ( NRA ) and led the Kuomintang to take control of Guangdong . Tang then aligned himself with Chiang and joined him in the Northern Expedition , an effort to unify China by defeating the northern warlords . The Hunanese army was reorganized , and Peng was promoted to the rank of major . When Wu Peifu invaded Hunan and occupied Changsha , Chiang sent the NRA to Hunan , beginning the Northern Expedition . Peng 's forces then joined the Kuomintang , though Peng never joined the party as a formal member . It wasn 't until after Peng joined the Kuomintang , in 1925 , that he first heard of the Communist Party .
= = = Kuomintang officer = = =
Between July 1926 and March 1927 Peng campaigned in Hunan , participating in the capture of Changsha and Wuhan . Under general Ho Chien ( 何键 ) , Peng participated in the Battle of Fengtai , in which Kuomintang forces decisively defeated the warlord Wu Peifu . In 1927 , Wang Jingwei attempted to establish a left @-@ leaning Kuomintang government in Wuhan that threatened Chiang Kai @-@ shek 's leadership . Tang Shengzhi , who Peng served under , aligned himself with Wang , and Peng was promoted to lieutenant @-@ colonel and regimental commander . After Tang 's forces were decisively defeated by Chiang , Peng commanded the rear guard , protecting the retreat of Tang 's forces back into Hunan .
In 1927 Peng was approached several times by Communist Party members , some of which were old friends , who attempted to recruit him into the Communist Party . In August 1927 Peng was approached by an old military comrade , Huang Gonglue ( 黄公略 ) : Peng was sympathetic , but could not decide to join the Party . On October 12 , Peng was approached by Duan Dechang ( 段德昌 ) , a Communist Party representative : Peng again expressed sympathy and interest , but at that time considered himself a member of the " Kuomintang left wing " , and could not yet bring himself to break with the party . Peng considered joining the Communist Party for some time , met Duan again later that October , and began to study basic communist theory . Peng secretly joined the Chinese Communist Party in mid @-@ February 1928 .
In February 1928 Peng joined general Ho Chien when Ho defected back to Chiang 's forces , and gained a promotion to full colonel after rejoining Chiang . After rejoining Chiang 's Nanjing government , Peng was stationed in the mountainous Pingjiang County , northwest of Changsha . His orders were to eliminate local groups of communist guerrillas who had fled to the area following the Shanghai massacre of 1927 . Because Peng had secretly joined the Chinese Communist Party , he instead kept his unit passive and began to organize local Communist Party branches . Peng made contact with local communist guerillas , nominally attached to the forces of Mao Zedong and Zhu De , and decided to issue a pronouncement in favor of the Communists on July 18 , 1928 .
In July 22 , 1928 Peng 's forces , approximately 2000 men , occupied Pingjiang County , arresting and executing the county magistrate and over 100 landlords and local militia commanders . On July 23 Peng declared the establishment of the " Hunan Provincial Soviet Government " , formally aligning himself with Mao and Zhu . On July 29 Peng 's former superior , general Ho Chien , attacked Peng 's forces , inflicting heavy casualties . By September , Peng 's forces were driven into the mountains , and by October only several hundred men remained . Peng then abandoned his bases and left to join Mao and Zhu at their base in Jinggangshan . Peng 's forces successfully joined Mao and Zhu in November 1928 . Some of Peng 's subordinates in the rebellion survived and became important military figures themselves , including generals Huang Kecheng and Peng Shaohui ( 彭绍辉 ) .
= = Red Army commander = =
= = = Defending the Jiangxi Soviet = = =
After joining forces with communist guerrillas , one of Peng 's first actions was to save Mao , whose forces were being encircled by Kuomintang units : Peng broke the encirclement and drove the enemy off . Peng then met with Zhu and Mao , and they reorganized their forces and decided to form a base area around the Ruijin , Jiangxi , an agricultural city that was only defended by weak warlord units . Zhu and Mao occupied the area , informally beginning the Jiangxi Soviet in January 1929 .
Peng remained behind to guard Jinggangshan with a force of 800 soldiers , but withdrew from the area when it was attacked by a Hunanese Kuomintang force of 25 @,@ 000 soldiers , joining Zhu and Mao in Ruijin in March . Although he had saved his force from destruction , he was criticized by Mao for withdrawing . Peng returned to Jinggangshan with a force of 1 @,@ 000 men later that year , occupying the area after the Kuomintang withdrew . In mid @-@ 1929 Peng 's forces merged with the forces of two local bandit groups , but conflicts arose over supplies and the command structure , and the two groups rebelled against Peng in July 1929 . One of the bandit leaders was captured and executed by Peng , and the other committed suicide . The remaining forces were incorporated into Peng 's unit , bringing its strength up to 2 @,@ 000 men . Peng then organized a series of increasingly ambitious raids into southern Hunan throughout 1929 and 1930 , capturing an increasing amount of supplies and attracting more recruits .
On July 13 , 1930 , the de facto leader of the Chinese Communist Party , Li Lisan , issued a general order for communist units around China to " conquer one provincial capital " as a signal for a " nationwide revolutionary storm " . Peng took these general orders seriously , and launched an attack on Hunan 's capital , Changsha , on July 25 , with 17 @,@ 000 soldiers under his command , and with the support of another 10 @,@ 000 guerillas . Changsha was then defended by general Ho Chien , Peng 's former superior . Peng 's forces broke through the Kuomintang lines on July 28 , and occupied Changsha proper on July 30 , which Ho hastily evacuated . On August 1 Peng declared the establishment of a " Hunan Provincial Soviet Government " , with Li Lisan ( who was living in the French concession area in Shanghai ) named chairman , and Peng himself as vice @-@ chairman . On August 5 , Ho counterattacked with a force of 35 @,@ 000 men . Peng suffered 7 @,@ 500 casualties , and was forced to withdraw back to Jinggangshan . On September 1 , Peng again attempted to capture Changsha , but this attack was halted on the outskirts of the city with heavy casualties . Mao and Zhu kept their own forces from assisting Peng during his attempts to take Changsha , and Peng withdrew his forces into the Jiangxi Soviet in late 1930 .
Peng was one of the most important generals active in defending the Jiangxi Soviet , taking a leading role in defeating Chiang Kai @-@ shek 's first three Encirclement Campaigns , from December 1930 – May 1931 . His successes were outmatched only by Lin Biao . On November 7 , Peng was named to the Central Military Commission and to the Central Executive Committee of the Jiangxi Soviet , the first time that he had been named to a position of political leadership within the communist movement . After the consolidation of the Jiangxi Soviet , a number of USSR @-@ trained Communist Party leaders arrived and took power in the Soviet : Peng , like most communist military leaders , supported their leadership until the Jiangxi Soviet was eventually overrun . In August 1933 , Peng was named Vice @-@ Chairman of the Central Military Commission ; and , in January 1934 , Peng was appointed as an alternate member to the Sixth CCP Central Committee . Peng continued the defense of the Jiangxi Soviet throughout the early 1930s . In August 1933 , after the indecisive Fourth Encirclement Campaign , Peng broke through Kuomintang defenses and conquered a large area of western Fujian , capturing great quantities of arms and ammunition .
= = = The Long March = = =
In October 1933 Chiang Kai @-@ shek took command of nearly 800 @,@ 000 soldiers , leading the Fifth Encirclement Campaign against the Red Army 's force of 150 @,@ 000 men . By September 1934 the Fifth Encirclement Campaign was largely successful , and Peng 's own units suffered heavy casualties defending the Soviet , shrinking from 35 @,@ 000 to around 20 @,@ 000 men . On October 20 , 1934 the communists broke out of Chiang 's encirclement and began the Long March . Of the 18 @,@ 000 men under Peng 's command when the March began , only about 3 @,@ 000 remained when Peng 's forces reached their eventual destination in Shaanxi on October 20 , 1935 .
Peng was a strong supporter of Mao 's rise to power during the January 1935 Zunyi Conference . Peng continued to consolidate the communists ' base area after arriving in Shaanxi , campaigning in neighboring Shanxi and Gansu . In April 1937 , Peng was named vice commander @-@ in @-@ chief of all Chinese communist forces , outranked only by Zhu De , who was named commander @-@ in @-@ chief . Peng 's promotion was supported by Lin Biao , who had been actively supporting Peng for promotions to senior leadership as early as May 1934 . In early 1935 Lin responded to widespread discontent within the Red Army over Mao 's evasive tactics ( which were perceived inside the Red Army as unnecessarily exhausting ) by publicly proposing that Peng take overall command of the Red Army ; but Mao , who had recently been promoted to the position , attacked Peng and Lin for challenging him and successfully retained his position .
In October 1935 , following the last major battle between the KMT and the Red Army , Mao wrote and dedicated a poem to Peng . ( The poem was not published until 1947 ) .
The mountains are high , the road is long and full of potholes ,
Many soldiers are moving to and fro ,
Who is the courageous one , striking from his horse in all directions ?
None other than our great General Peng !
山高路远坑深
大军纵横驰奔
谁敢横刀立马
唯我彭大将军
In 1936 the American journalist , Edgar Snow , stayed for several days at Peng 's compound in Yuwang while Peng was campaigning in Ningxia , and had long conversations with him . Snow wrote two whole chapters about Peng in his book , Red Star Over China . He wrote more about Peng than any other individual , except for Mao Zedong .
= = = The Second Sino @-@ Japanese War = = =
After the 1937 Marco Polo Bridge Incident , China and Japan formally went to war . When the Kuomintang and Communist Party declared a united front to fight the Japanese , Peng was confirmed as a general in the unified command structure of the NRA . At the August 20 , 1937 Lochuan Conference ( 洛川会议 ) , Mao believed that the united front should be used as a feint , giving token resistance to the Japanese while saving the strength of the Red Army for the eventual confrontation with the Kuomintang , but Peng , along with most other senior military and political leaders at the time , disagreed , and believed that the Red Army should genuinely focus on fighting the Japanese . Mao was not able to force his position , and the communists cooperated with the Kuomintang and fought the Japanese .
When the Japanese invaded Shanxi , the Red Army ( renamed the Eighth Route Army ) assisted the Kuomintang warlord , Yan Xishan , in resisting the Japanese , and Peng travelled to the provincial capital of Taiyuan with Zhou Enlai to coordinate tactics . After the Japanese advanced towards Taiyuan on September 13 , 1937 , Peng directed overall operations from a base in Wutaishan , but was called from duty to attend a Politburo meeting on December 13 . At the meeting , Peng advocated a greater material commitment to the defense of Shanxi , but Mao disagreed and wanted the Red Army to reduce its commitment to fighting the Japanese . In 1938 , after Mao 's rival , Zhang Guotao , defected to the Kuomintang , Peng moved closer to Mao 's position . In late 1938 , Peng set up a base in Taihangshan , on the borders of Shanxi and Hebei , and directed guerrilla operations in both provinces . From Taihangshan , Peng commanded 2 / 3 of the Eighth Route Army , approximately 100 @,@ 000 soldiers .
In July 1940 Peng was given overall command of the largest communist operation of the anti @-@ Japanese war , the Hundred Regiments Offensive . 200 @,@ 000 regular troops from the Eighth Route Army participated in this operation , supported by 200 @,@ 000 irregular communist guerrillas . From August 20 – October 5 , 1940 , communist forces destroyed large numbers of bridges , tunnels , and railroad tracks in Japanese @-@ occupied China , and inflicted relatively heavy Japanese casualties . From October 6 – December 5 , the Japanese counterattacked , and the communists mostly repelled the counterattack successfully . Peng 's operation was successful in disrupting Japanese communication lines and logistics networks , which were not fully restored until 1942 , but the communists suffered heavy losses , In communist sources , the Japanese casualties have two figures , one of which is 20645 and the other of which is 12645 . Foreign sources give figures of 20900 . In early 1941 , the Japanese began a large @-@ scale effort to drive Peng from his base in Taihangshan , and Peng relocated closer to the communist base in Yan 'an in late 1941 .
After being recalled to Yan 'an , Peng was subjected to a political indoctrination campaign in which he was criticized as an " empiricist " for his good relations with the Comintern , and only survived professionally through an unconditional conversion to Mao 's leadership . Mao ordered Peng to be criticized for forty days for the " failings " of the Hundred Regiments Campaign ( even though Mao had supported it , and afterwards praised its successes ) . Peng was not allowed to reply , and was forced to make a self @-@ criticism . Privately , Peng resented Mao 's criticism of him , and in 1959 once told Mao : " At Yan 'an , you fucked my mother for forty days . "
From 1942 – 1945 , Peng 's role in the war was mostly political , and he supported Mao very closely . In June 1944 Peng was part of a team that conferenced with American military personnel that visited Yan 'an as part of the Dixie Mission , briefing the Americans about the military situation in Japanese @-@ occupied China .
= = = Defeating the Kuomintang = = =
The Japanese surrendered on September 3 , 1945 , ending China 's war with Japan and beginning the final stage of the Chinese Civil War . In October Peng took command of troops in northern China , occupied Inner Mongolia , and accepted the surrender of Japanese soldiers there . In March 1946 , Communist forces ( 1 @.@ 1 million soldiers ) were renamed the " People 's Liberation Army " . Peng himself was placed in command of 175 @,@ 000 soldiers , organized as the " Northwest Field Army " , most of which had been under the command of He Long during the war against Japan . He then became Peng 's second @-@ in @-@ command . Peng 's notable subordinates in the Northwest Field Army included Zhang Zongxun and Wang Zhen .
Peng 's forces were the most poorly armed of the newly reorganized army , but were responsible for the area around the communist capital , Yan 'an . In March 1947 , the Kuomintang general , Hu Zongnan , invaded this area with 260 @,@ 000 soldiers . Hu 's forces were among the best @-@ trained and most well @-@ supplied Nationalist units , but one of Zhou Enlai 's spies was able to provide Peng with information about Hu 's strategic plans , his forces ' troop distributions , strength , and positions , and details about the air cover available to Hu . Peng was forced to abandon Yan 'an in late March , but resisted Hu 's forces long enough for Mao and other senior Party leaders to evacuate safely . Mao wanted Peng to provoke a decisive confrontation with Hu immediately , but Peng dissuaded him , and by April Mao agreed that Peng 's objective was to " keep the enemy on the run ... tire him out completely , reduce his food supplies , and then look for an opportunity to destroy him " .
On May 4 Peng 's forces attacked an isolated supply depot in northeast Shaanxi , arrested its commander , and captured food reserves , 40 @,@ 000 army uniforms , and a collection of arms that included over a million pieces of artillery . Peng 's forces were pushed back to the border of Inner Mongolia , but finally managed to decisively defeat Hu 's forces in August , in the Battle of Shajiadian ( 沙家店战役 ) , saving Mao and other members from the Central committee from being taken prisoner . Peng eventually pushed Kuomintang forces out of Shaanxi in February 1948 .
Between 1947 and September 22 , 1949 , Peng 's forces occupied Gansu , Ningxia , and Qinghai . His forces repeatedly defeated , but were not able to destroy , the forces of Hu Zongnan and Ma Bufang , which retreated into Sichuan and were airlifted to Taiwan when the Kuomintang lost the Civil War in December 1949 . In October Peng 's forces , led directly by Wang Zhen , invaded Xinjiang . Most of Xinjiang 's defenders surrendered peacefully , and were incorporated as a new unit in Peng 's army , but some ethnic guerrilla bands resisted Chinese control for several years . After the People 's Republic of China was declared on October 1 , 1949 , Peng was appointed Chairman of the Northwest China Military and Administrative Commission and Commander @-@ in @-@ Chief and Political Commissar of Xinjiang , with Wang Zhen as his deputy . This appointment gave Peng responsibility over Shaanxi , Gansu , Ningxia , Qinghai , and Xinjiang , an area of over five million square kilometres ( 1 @.@ 9 million square miles ) but under thirty million people . Peng 's forces continued their gradual occupation of Xinjiang , which they completed in September 1951 .
= = The Korean War = =
North Korea invaded South Korea on June 25 , 1950 . After receiving its endorsement from the United Nations , the United States landed its first troops in Korea on September 15 . On October 1 , the first anniversary of the founding of the People 's Republic , UN forces crossed the 38th parallel into North Korea . There was some disagreement within China 's leadership about how to react to the American push to the Chinese border : Mao and Zhou wanted direct military intervention , while most Chinese leaders believed that China should not enter the war unless China was directly attacked . Lin Biao was Mao 's first choice to lead the Chinese People 's Volunteer Army ( PVA ) into Korea , but Lin refused , citing his bad health .
Mao then sought the support of Peng , who had not yet taken a strong position , to lead the PVA . Peng flew to Beijing from Xi 'an ( where he was still administering northwest China and directing the incorporation of Xinjiang into the PRC ) , and arrived on October 4 . Peng listened to both sides of the debate , and on October 5 decided to support Mao . Peng 's support for Mao 's position changed the atmosphere of the meeting , and most leaders changed their positions to support a direct Chinese intervention in the Korean War . On October 5 Peng was named the Commander and the Commissar of the People 's Volunteer Army and held both titles until the Korean Armistice Agreement in 1953 . Mao directed China 's general strategy , and Zhou was appointed general commander , coordinating Peng 's forces with the Soviet and North Korean governments , and the rest of the Chinese government . Over the next week , Peng established a headquarters in Shenyang , and prepared his invasion strategy with his officers .
After Zhou and Lin negotiated Stalin 's approval , Peng attended a conference in Beijing with Mao , Zhou , and Gao Gang on October 18 , and they ordered the first wave of Chinese soldiers — in total more than 260 @,@ 000 men — to cross into Korea on the night of October 19 . On October 25 the PVA had its first confrontation with UN troops at Onjong and Unsan , and pushed the UN forces south of the Chongchon River by November 4 in the aftermath of First Phase Campaign . From November 24 to December 24 , Peng directed 380 @,@ 000 PVA troops to confront UN forces in the Second Phase Campaign , and he successfully recovered the area north of the thirty @-@ eighth parallel . Despite his personal reservations , Peng then began an ambitious campaign to take the area south of the 38th parallel in order to fulfill Mao 's political objectives for the war . About 230 @,@ 000 Chinese soldiers crossed into South Korean territory on December 31 and captured Seoul as part of the Third Phase Campaign , but were forced to evacuate it with heavy losses on March 14 , 1951 as the UN forces counterattacked during the course of Fourth Phase Campaign . Peng launched a final Fifth Phase Campaign from April 22 – June 10 to retake Seoul with 548 @,@ 000 Chinese troops , but it failed , and the Korean War came to a standstill just above the 38th parallel . In the evaluation of Korean War historian Roy Edger Appleman , Peng 's performances in the war were unremarkable in terms of military talents despite his aggressiveness and leadership skills . During the Cultural Revolution , Red Guards claimed that Peng 's successful campaigns , from October – December 1950 , were fought under Mao 's direction , but that his unsuccessful campaigns , from January – May 1951 , were organized by Peng against Mao 's instructions . Modern scholars reject this interpretation , and credit Peng with both the successes and failures of the war .
PVA casualties during the first 12 months of the Korean War , from October 1950 to October 1951 , were heavy . Soviet material support was slight ; and , because the only available means to transport supplies into Korea for the first year of the war was a force of 700 @,@ 000 labourers , all available supplies were light and limited . The UN forces also had complete air superiority . These logistic constraints later caused 45 @,@ 000 Chinese soldiers to freeze to death between November 27 and December 12 , 1950 , due to inadequate winter clothing . China 's insufficient artillery , armor , and air support meant that Peng was forced to rely heavily on human wave tactics until the summer of 1951 : stealthy fireteams attacked in column against weak points in enemy defenses , hoping that surprise , attrition and perseverance would break the enemy lines . Participants even drank large quantities of Kaoliang in order to improve their courage . Some of the worst Chinese battle losses occurred during the Second and the Fifth Phase Campaign : up to 40 percent of all Chinese forces in Korea were rendered combat ineffective between November 25 and December 24 , 1950 , and about 12 Chinese divisions were lost in during April 22 – June 10 , 1951 . All in all , over a million Chinese soldiers became casualties during the course of the war . Peng justified the PVA 's high casualty rate by his almost religious belief in the cause of Communism and the Communist Party , and his belief that the ends of the conflict justified the means . Some accounts even claimed that Peng invented the human wave tactic under the name " short attack " in order to exploit his manpower advantage .
In November 19 , 1951 , Zhou called a conference in Shenyang to discuss improvements to China 's logistical network , but these did little to directly resolve China 's supply problems . Peng visited Beijing several times over the next several months to brief Mao and Zhou about the heavy casualties suffered by Chinese troops and the increasing difficulty of keeping the front lines supplied with basic necessities . By the winter of 1951 – 52 , Peng became convinced that the war would be protracted , and that neither side would be able to achieve victory in the foreseeable future . On February 24 , 1952 , the Central Military Commission , presided over by Zhou , discussed the PVA 's logistical problems with members of various government agencies involved in the war effort . After the government representatives emphasized their inability to meet the demands of the war , Peng , in an angry outburst , shouted : " You have this and that problem ... You should go to the front and see with your own eyes what food and clothing the soldiers have ! Not to speak of the casualties ! For what are they giving their lives ? We have no aircraft . We have only a few guns . Transports are not protected . More and more soldiers are dying of starvation . Can 't you overcome some of your difficulties ? " The atmosphere became so tense that Zhou was forced to adjourn the conference . Zhou subsequently called a series of meetings , where it was agreed that the PVA would be divided into three groups , to be dispatched to Korea in shifts ; to accelerate the training of Chinese pilots ; to provide more anti @-@ aircraft guns to the front lines ; to purchase more military equipment and ammunition from the Soviet Union ; to provide the army with more food and clothing ; and , to transfer the responsibility of logistics to the central government . Peng also became a zealous supporter of the Three @-@ anti Campaign due to his belief that corruption and waste were the main causes of the PVA 's hardship .
Truce talks began on July 10 , 1951 , but proceeded slowly . Peng was recalled back to China in April 1952 due to a head tumor , and Chen Geng and Deng Hua later assumed Peng 's responsibilities in the PVA . On July 27 , 1953 , Peng personally signed the Armistice agreement in Panmunjom , ending the Korean War . At a mass rally in Pyongyang on July 31 , Kim Il Sung awarded Peng his second North Korean " National Flag " Order of Merit , First Class ( the first had been awarded to Peng in 1951 ) , and awarded Peng the title of " Hero of the Korean Democratic People 's Republic " . Peng also received a hero 's welcome in Tiananmen Square on August 11 . Chinese troops remained in North Korea until 1958 .
Peng 's experiences in the Korean War strongly affected his outlook over the next decade . The heavy losses sustained during the first year of the war convinced him that the Chinese army needed to change by introducing modern equipment and standards of professionalism , and by developing new tactics more suited to modern conventional warfare . He came to believe strongly that military training should never be reduced in favour of political indoctrination , and that military commanders should enjoy seniority over commissars . Because the only communist country fully prepared for modern technical warfare was the Soviet Union , Peng grew to see the Soviet Red Army as a model for the development of China 's PLA . These perspectives , and Peng 's long @-@ held conviction that the primary role of the Communist Party was to improve the welfare of the common people , were contrary to Mao 's political goals , contributing to their eventual conflict in the late 1950s . Stalin once arbitrated in favor of Peng in a conflict with a Russian diplomat , saying " Trust him in everything ; Peng is a long @-@ tested , talented militarist " .
= = Defense Minister = =
After being recalled back to China in April 1952 , Peng succeeded Zhou in managing the day @-@ to @-@ day affairs of the Central Military Commission in July 1952 ; and , in the spring of 1954 , Peng was confirmed as the vice @-@ chairman of the Commission ( Mao was its chairman ) , becoming effectively the most senior military leader in China . On September 24 , 1954 , the First National People 's Congress confirmed Peng 's position , and appointed him Defense Minister and one of the ten vice @-@ ministers of the State Council . Lin Biao was senior to Peng on the State Council . Soon after accepting these appointments , on October 1 , 1954 , Peng produced an ambitious plan for the modernization of the PLA on the model of the Soviet military .
= = = Political activities = = =
Peng had been an alternate member of the Central Committee since 1934 , a full member since 1938 , and a member of the Politburo since 1945 , but it was not until he became the leader of the PLA and moved permanently to Beijing , in November 1953 , that Peng was able to attend regular political meetings and became active in domestic politics . Peng had been loyal to Mao 's leadership since the 1935 Zunyi Conference , and continued to support Mao for several years after moving to Beijing . Peng ( like Lin Biao ) was implicated in passively supporting Gao Gang 's effort to replace Liu Shaoqi as the second most powerful person in China in 1953 , but then opposed Gao in 1954 , once Mao made his own opposition clear . Mao did not take any action against Peng ( or Lin ) , but Peng 's involvement alienated Peng from Liu and Liu 's supporters . In 1955 Peng supported Mao 's efforts to collectivize agriculture . Along with Liu Shaoqi , Zhu De , Lin Biao , Lin Boqu , and Luo Ronghuan , Peng opposed Mao 's attempt to liberalize China 's culture and politics in the first stages of the 1957 Hundred Flowers Campaign , but then supported Mao 's efforts to arrest and persecute Chinese citizens who had criticized the CCP later that year .
During the late 1950s , Peng developed a personal dislike for Mao 's efforts to promote his own image in Chinese popular culture as a perfect , infallible hero singularly responsible for the Communist victories of his time . In 1955 – 56 Peng was involved in a large number of efforts to moderate Mao 's popular image , developing into a personal campaign . Peng 's preference for modesty and simplicity led Peng to oppose Mao 's efforts to develop his personality cult . In 1955 a draft copy of a book , The Military History of the PVA , was submitted to Peng so that he could edit and authorize it . In the preface of the book it was stated that " the military victories of the PVA " were won " under the correct leadership of the CCP and of Comrade Mao Zedong " : Peng authorized the text after removing the phrase " and of Comrade Mao Zedong " . In 1956 an anonymous Chinese citizen wrote a letter to Peng condemning the practices of hanging portraits of Mao in public places and singing songs in praise of Mao : Peng sent this letter to Huang Kecheng , his chief of staff , to be widely distributed . Peng successfully opposed efforts to place a bronze statue of Mao in the Beijing Military Museum , saying : " why take the trouble to put it up ? What is put up now will be removed in the future . " When greeted by a group of soldiers who shouted " Long Live Chairman Mao ! " ( literally " 10 @,@ 000 years for Chairman Mao " ) , Peng addressed the soldiers , saying : " You shout ' 10 @,@ 000 years for Chairman Mao ! ' – does he , then , live for 10 @,@ 000 years ? He will not even live for 100 years ! This is a personality cult ! " When one of Peng 's political commissars suggested to him that the song The East is Red ( a song that idealizes Mao , which Mao later had sung in place of the Chinese national anthem during the Cultural Revolution ) be widely taught throughout the PLA , Peng angrily rejected the suggestion , saying " That is a personality cult ! That is idealism ! " Later in 1956 a group of soldiers visited Peng in order to request an audience with the Chairman , but Peng rejected them , saying : " He is an old man , what is so beautiful about him ? "
In preparation for the Eighth National Congress , held in September 1956 , Peng attended a Politburo committee to redraft the new Party Constitution . At this meeting , Peng suggested that a section in the Constitution 's preamble referring to Mao Zedong Thought be removed . Liu Shaoqi , Deng Xiaoping , Peng Zhen , and most other senior CCP members present quickly agreed , and it was removed from the final version of the 1956 Party Constitution . At the Congress , Peng was re @-@ appointed to the Politburo and as a full member of the Central Committee .
Peng resented Mao 's personal lifestyle , which Peng considered decadent and luxurious . By the late 1950s Mao had developed a lifestyle that was out of touch with Peng 's preference for modesty and simplicity . Mao enjoyed a private pool in Zhongnanhai , and had many villas around China built for him , which he would travel to on a private train . Mao enjoyed the companionship of an ever @-@ changing succession of enthusiastic young women whom he met either on weekly dances in Zhongnanhai or on his journeys by train . Mao had a costly office suite built for him in Beijing , including a private , book @-@ lined study . When Peng 's wife suggested the couple spend more free time visiting Mao 's quarters , Peng was reluctant , stating that Mao 's surroundings were " too luxuriously furnished " for him to tolerate . Throughout the 1950s , Peng continued to refer to the Chairman as " Old Mao " , an egalitarian title that was used among senior CCP leaders in the 1930s and 1940s .
= = = Military activities = = =
Peng staged his first offensive after becoming Defense Minister in January 1955 , when he attacked and occupied a chain of islands , part of Zhejiang , which were still held by the Kuomintang , from which the Nationalists occasionally staged guerrilla raids as far as Shanghai . This operation led the United States to form a defense agreement with Taiwan , effectively preventing the communists from completely defeating the Kuomintang .
Peng participated in a number of foreign trips throughout the communist world after becoming Defense Minister , the first time that he had traveled outside of China and North Korea . In May 1955 Peng visited East Germany , Poland , and the Soviet Union , meeting with Wilhelm Pieck , Józef Cyrankiewicz , Nikita Krushchev , and the Soviet marshals Konstantin Rokossovsky and Georgy Zhukov . In September 1955 Peng traveled to Poland and the Soviet Union to attend the signing of the Warsaw Pact as an observer . In November 2 – December 3 , 1957 Peng accompanied Mao on his second visit to the Soviet Union . From April 24 – June 13 , 1959 Peng went on a " military goodwill tour " across the communist world , visiting Poland , East Germany , Czechoslovakia , Hungary , Romania , Bulgaria , Albania , the Soviet Union , and Mongolia .
After Peng returned from his first tour abroad , in September 1955 , he began to seriously implement his " Four Great Systems " : the implementation of standardized military ranks , salaries , awards , and rules of conscription . On September 23 , 1955 the State Council named Peng one of the ten marshals of the PLA , China 's highest military rank . ( Before 1955 , Chinese soldiers were assigned " functions " instead of ranks , such as " company commander " , or " division commander " ) . PLA leaders were promoted into Peng 's newly founded system of military ranks , and were awarded newly created orders of merit . Peng himself was awarded the First Class Medal of the Order of August 1 ( for his achievements in the Chinese Civil war from 1927 – 1937 ) , the First Class Medal of the Order of Independence and Freedom ( for his achievements in the Sino @-@ Japanese War ) , and the First Class Medal of the Order of Liberation ( for his achievements in the Chinese Civil war from 1945 – 1949 ) . Peng introduced military insignia for the first time , and issued military uniforms modeled on those worn by Soviet soldiers . From January 1 , 1956 Peng replaced conscription with voluntary service , and standardized career soldiers ' salaries on eighteen grades , from private second class to marshal . In May 1956 Peng introduced a clear prioritization of rank favoring commanders over political commissars . By September 1956 Peng 's doctrines of professionalism , strict training , discipline , and the mastery of modern equipment were entrenched within the structure of the PLA .
Mao Zedong opposed all of these initiatives , but first focused his dissatisfaction on other marshals , Liu Bocheng and Luo Ronghuan , who Mao accused of " dogmatism " ( uncritically assimilating methods borrowed from the Soviet Union ) . In 1958 Mao convinced Peng of the need to maintain a balance between military professionalism and political indoctrination , and Peng cooperated in removing Liu and Luo from high positions . Peng 's removal of Liu especially cost Peng the support of many other military leaders , and Mao used Liu 's resulting criticism of Peng to criticize Peng before other senior Chinese leaders the next year , when Mao then sought to remove Peng .
Peng was still in command of China 's armed forces when Mao ordered the shelling of Jinmen ( Quemoy ) and Matsu , islands off the coast of Fujian that were still held by the Kuomintang , in the late summer and autumn of 1958 . Peng developed a strategy with his Chief of Staff , Su Yu , to bombard the islands so intensely that the morale of their defenders would collapse , eventually leading to the islands ' surrender . After the islands ' surrender , the PLA would then use the islands to launch attacks against Taiwan . The saturated shelling of the islands included over half the artillery in China , and began on August 28 . The attack included a coordinated effort to cut off the islands ' air and sea supply lines .
The campaign ran into unexpected difficulties , and did not achieve its objectives . The Soviet Union did not give explicit support to the operation , and the United States provided air and sea cover to Kuomintang supply ships up to within three miles of the Chinese coast . Kuomintang fighter jets shot down thirty @-@ seven PRC fighters ( while only losing three themselves ) , and Nationalist artillery and naval bombardments destroyed fourteen PRC ships . Peng had quietly opposed the operation since its beginning , and began to gradually end hostilities after the PLA encountered serious difficulties , announcing a series of intermittent ceasefires before eventually halting the campaign in late October . Su Yu was blamed for the disaster and replaced with another ally of Peng 's , General Huang Kecheng . Peng 's position was not directly affected , but his personal prestige suffered , and the practical effects of his efforts to modernize China 's armed forces were called into question within the PLA . Su was accused of directing the aborted attack on Matzu and withdrawing troops from North Korea without authorization , and of secretly taking orders from the USSR . The conflict between Su and Peng lingered throughout Peng 's life , and Su was not rehabilitated until after his death .
= = Fall from power = =
= = = The Great Leap Forward = = =
In the autumn of 1957 Mao suggested a nationwide programme of mass collectivization , in which China 's farmers would be forcibly relocated to large agricultural communes and all private property would be eliminated . Mao 's theories on mass collectivization became the basis of the Great Leap Forward , a national economic plan that began in 1958 which caused a man @-@ made famine across the country that lasted for several years . By 1959 , tens of millions of people had starved to death . From October – December 1958 , the economic system in the countryside broke down as farmers refused to go to work in the fields , raided government granaries for food , and in Guangdong , Hubei , Hunan , Jiangxi , Sichuan , and Qinghai , rebelled . In December 1958 China 's leaders quietly decided to reverse the policies of the Great Leap .
Peng did not oppose Mao 's collectivizations in the first phase of the Great Leap , from late 1957 – early 1958 , but he increasingly opposed it from spring @-@ winter 1958 , as the problems which Mao 's policies had caused became more evident . In February 1958 Peng gave a speech for the fortieth anniversary of the Soviet Red Army , in which he suggested increased military cooperation between China and the Soviet Union . Mao opposed this suggestion , and began grooming Lin Biao as a viable successor to Peng for the position of Defense Minister . As part of the Great Leap Forward , Mao ordered the formation of a national militia that was controlled by Party members and independent of the PLA , eventually training and arming tens of millions of civilians .
Peng made regular inspection tours of the Chinese provinces after becoming Defense Minister in 1953 . In a tour on Guangzhou in April 1958 , he openly criticized Mao , saying " The Chairman talks all the time about more , faster , better , and more economical results . That is annoying . What does he want with chanting these liturgies all the time ? " On an inspection tour through Gansu in October 1958 , Peng observed many of the problems associated with the Great Leap Forward . Mature crops were left to die in the field because all of the young men had been drafted to operate primitive backyard furnaces . When Peng asked an old peasant why no one was collecting the harvest , he received the answer : " unless the centre sends down a great comrade , one cannot stand up against this storm . " On the same tour Peng heard complaints that household utensils were being melted down for " steel " , and that houses and orchards were cut and torn down in order to provide fuel for the backyard furnaces . In a subsequent tour through his native province of Hunan , later in 1958 , Peng observed the same problems associated everywhere with the Great Leap Forward : serious food shortages ; hungry children and babies ; elders who expressed bitterness and anger ; and arrogant , boasting Party cadres who administered local economic reforms . During his inspection tours through China in the fall of 1958 , Peng composed a poem that summarized his attitude towards the Great Leap Forward :
Grain scattered on the ground , potato leaves withered ;
Strong young people have left to make steel ;
Only children and old women reap the crops ;
How can they pass the coming year ?
Allow me to raise my voice for the people !
谷撒地 ， 薯叶枯
青壮炼铁去
收禾童与姑
来年日子怎么过
请为人民鼓咙胡
At an enlarged Politburo meeting in Shanghai , held from March 25 – April 1 , Peng openly criticized Mao in the Chairman 's presence for the first time , accusing him of " taking personal command " of national politics and disregarding the collective leadership of the Chinese government and the Party . Mao responded with vague criticisms of Peng , which Peng said was " provocative " . From April 24 – June 15 Peng left on a goodwill military tour through Eastern Europe . Peng met with Khrushchev on May 24 , and was criticized during the Cultural Revolution for having criticized Mao 's leadership to the Soviet leader , but the evidence that Peng criticized Mao to Khrushchev is very circumstantial , and Mao did not mention this during his efforts to have Peng purged . Peng 's absence from China during the seven weeks that he was abroad allowed Mao to freely spread negative rumors discrediting Peng within the Party , and to develop consensus among other senior Party leaders to oppose Peng when he returned .
= = = The Lushan Conference = = =
The Eighth Plenum of the Eighth CCP Central Committee was held in the scenic resort town of Lushan , Jiangxi , on July 2 , 1959 , to discuss Party members ' positions on the Great Leap Forward . Mao opened the conference by encouraging Party members to " criticize and offer opinions " on the government 's " mistakes and shortcomings " , and he promised that he would not attack any member personally as a " rightist " or " counter @-@ revolutionary " for any opinions expressed at the conference . Peng had returned to China just previous to the conference after spending seven weeks abroad and was not planning on attending the conference , but Mao personally phoned Peng and invited him to attend . Peng obeyed Mao and travelled to Lushan to participate in the conference .
Peng participated in group meetings in the early portion of the conference , gaining consensus among his peers for criticizing the widespread practice of inaccurately reporting agricultural statistics , and emphasizing that " everybody had a share of responsibility , including Comrade Mao Zedong " . Peng bluntly criticized the hesitation of senior Party members to disagree with the Party leadership , implying that many Party leaders were cowardly for following orders that they knew were not in the best interests of the Chinese people . After gaining the consensus of several of his peers , Peng developed his opinions more systematically , but was hesitant to bring up the full range of his criticisms in public . Peng discussed his thoughts with several other senior Party leaders ( notably the CCP Secretary of Hunan , Zhou Xiaozhou ( 周小舟 ) ) , and Peng 's colleagues encouraged Peng to visit Mao privately in order to win Mao 's support for a reversal of the policies of the Great Leap Forward . Peng visited Mao 's quarters on the night of July 13 , but found Mao asleep , and wrote Mao a " letter of opinion " articulating Peng 's ideas instead . Peng delivered the letter to Mao on the morning of July 14 , but Mao did not read the letter until July 17 . Later on July 17 Mao had Peng 's letter widely circulated among the other delegates at the conference . Peng did not intend his letter to be widely read and attempted to prevent its circulation , but was not successful . Most other senior leaders , including Liu Shaoqi , Zhou Enlai , and Deng Xiaoping , supported Peng 's position before Mao began to attack it , indicating that they shared Peng 's views and that they did not see Peng 's letter as an attack on the Chairman .
In Peng 's letter , Peng compared himself to the courageous but tactless Han dynasty general Zhang Fei . Because of Mao 's appreciation of Zhang 's enemy , Cao Cao , Mao interpreted this as implying a confrontational relationship . Peng criticized the poor allocation of labour across China , especially the inefficient , country @-@ wide practice of forcing farmers to work in backyard furnaces . He criticized the nationwide famine and severe shortage of cotton , and stated that the Chinese people were justified in demanding change from the present conditions . Peng blamed the problems of the Great Leap on what he called " problems in our way of thinking and style of work " , especially the tendency for Party administrators to submit exaggerated production reports , and for Party bureaucrats to accept these figures uncritically . Peng blamed the mistakes of the Party on a culture of " petty bourgeois fanaticism " , a tendency to believe in achieving change through blindly encouraging mass movements , and claimed that the acceptance of this culture had led to the Party leadership forgetting " the mass @-@ line and the style of seeking truth from facts " , which Peng believed had led to the Communist victories over the Japanese and Kuomintang . Peng criticized Mao 's policy of " putting politics in command " , substituting economic principles and productive work for political objectives .
Mao 's decision to have Peng 's letter widely circulated completely changed the direction of the conference . On July 21 , Zhang Wentian gave an independent , supplementary speech attacking Mao 's policies , and the same day a majority of delegates expressed their approval of Peng 's letter , making it an official conference document . Mao interpreted the letter as a personal attack , and began to defend himself on July 23 , attacking Peng and those who disagreed with his policies . Mao defended his commune system by claiming that " until now , not a single commune has collapsed " . He attacked Peng and those who shared his political opinions as " imperialists " " bourgeoisie " , and " rightists " , and associated their positions with other Communist leaders who had led failed oppositions to Mao 's leadership , including Li Lisan , Wang Ming , Gao Gang , and Rao Shushi . Mao brought up an ultimatum , stating that , if the delegates of the conference sided with Peng , Mao would split the Communist Party , retreating into the countryside and leading the peasants to " overthrow the government " . The other senior leaders of the Communist Party , including Zhou Enlai and Liu Shaoqi , were unwilling to risk splitting the Party , and sided with Mao in opposing Peng 's position .
From August 2 , the conference debated whether Peng should be disciplined , what punishment Peng should receive , and for what reasons . On August 16 the conference passed two resolutions . The first resolution condemned Peng as the leader of an " anti @-@ Party clique " , and called for Peng 's removal from the positions of Defense Minister and Vice @-@ Chairman of the Military Commission . The resolution did not eject Peng from the Communist Party , and it allowed Peng to retain his position in the Politburo , but he was excluded from Politburo meetings for years . The second resolution recognized Mao 's dominance within the Party and subtly called for an end to the policies of the Great Leap Forward . After Mao had rallied the rest of the Party against him , Peng 's options were limited to stubbornly standing his ground , engaging in a humiliating self @-@ criticism , or suicide . After private discussion with other senior leaders , Peng considered the prestige of Mao and the unity of the Party and agreed to make a self @-@ criticism , which was publicly reviewed at the conference , in which he admitted that he had made " severe mistakes " associated with his " rightist viewpoint " , that he had been a follower of Li Lisan and Wang Ming , and in which he openly implicated his supporters in his " mistakes " . After the conference , Peng said privately to Zhou Enlai regarding his self @-@ criticism : " For the first time in my life , I have spoken out against my very heart ! " Mao purged most of Peng 's supporters from important offices following the conference , almost completely isolating Peng politically for the rest of his life . Peng later reflected that he was confused that Mao could have interpreted his private letter as a political attack , and wondered why , after thirty years of working together , Mao could not have discussed the matter privately with him , if Peng had indeed made the mistakes Mao claimed he did .
= = Later life = =
In September 1959 Mao replaced Peng as Defense Minister with Lin Biao , effectively ending Peng 's military career . Peng was relocated to a suburb of Beijing , forfeiting his Marshal 's uniform and military decorations . Lin reversed Peng 's reforms , abolishing all signs and privileges of rank , purging officers considered sympathetic to the USSR , directing soldiers to work part @-@ time as industrial and agricultural labourers , and indoctrinating the armed forces in Mao Zedong Thought . Lin 's system of indoctrination made it clear that the Party was clearly in command of China 's armed forces , and Lin ensured that the army 's political commissars enjoyed great power and status in order to see that his directives were followed . Lin implemented these reforms in order to please Mao , but privately was concerned that they would weaken the PLA . Lin used his position as Minister of Defense to flatter Mao by using the army to promote Mao 's personality cult throughout China , devising and running a number of national Maoist propaganda campaigns based on the PLA . The most successful of Lin 's efforts to promote Mao 's personality cult was the " learn from Lei Feng " campaign , which Lin began in 1963 .
= = = Partial rehabilitation = = =
After his forced retirement , Peng lived alone , under constant surveillance from the Central Guard Unit of the PLA , accompanied by a secretary and a bodyguard . His wife remained in Beijing ; and , due to her work as the Party secretary of Beijing Normal University , was only able to visit infrequently . Peng 's guards prevented curious local farmers from visiting Peng , until Peng threatened to complain to Mao . Peng 's niece , Peng Meikui , visited frequently , and the two became close . Peng spent most of his free time renovating his home , gardening , and studying Marxist theory , agriculture , and economics . Peng was not completely purged : even though he could not participate in government meetings or decision @-@ making bodies , he still received and read all documents distributed to the members of the Politburo and State Council , which he was technically still a member of . In 1960 Peng attended the funeral of Lin Boqu .
In 1960 – 1961 , the effects of Mao 's economic policies continued to produce widespread economic collapse , improving Peng 's reputation among Party leaders who secretly believed that Mao 's policies were a mistake , and who desired to reverse them . Deng Xiaoping and Liu Shaoqi led Party efforts to revive the Chinese economy , and cultivated Peng 's friendship as part of a wider effort to gain widespread support for their activities . In November – December 1961 Peng received permission to leave his residence for the first time since 1959 in order to conduct an inspection tour of Hunan . Peng found the conditions there even worse than in 1959 ; and , in a January 1962 conference of 7 @,@ 000 Party leaders to determine Party economic policies , repeated most of the criticisms that he had made at Lushan . On June 16 , 1962 , Peng submitted a document , his " Letter of 80 @,@ 000 Words " , to Mao and the Politburo , in which he gave a full account of his life , admitted to several " mistakes " , defended himself against most of the accusations made against him at the Lushan Conference , requested to be readmitted to decision @-@ making government bodies , and sharply criticized the economic policies of the Great Leap Forward . In his letter Peng first wrote one of his most widely quoted sayings : " I want to be a Hai Rui ! " The efforts of Liu and Deng to rehabilitate Peng further were not initially successful . Peng was not allowed to attend the Tenth Plenum of the Eighth CCP Central Committee , held in September 1962 , and the efforts to reverse the verdict on Peng made at the Lushan Conference failed . From 1962 – 1965 , Peng continued to live in relative obscurity , though he was no longer under house arrest .
After Mao Zedong purged Peng in 1959 , Mao appointed Marshal He Long to the head of an office to investigate Peng 's past in order to find additional reasons to criticize Peng . He accepted the position but was sympathetic to Peng , and stalled for over a year before submitting his report . Mao 's prestige weakened when it became widely known that Mao 's Great Leap Forward had been a disaster , and He eventually presented a report that was positive , and which attempted to vindicate Peng .
In September 1965 Mao agreed to rehabilitate Peng by promoting him to a position managing the industrial development of Southwest China , a project known as the Third Front . Peng initially refused this position , so Mao called him personally , and convinced Peng to accept it by suggesting that the condemnation of Peng at the Lushan Conference may have been a mistake . Peng was then appointed " Deputy Commander of the Great Third Line of Construction in Southwest China " and " Third Secretary of the Control Commission of the CCP 's Southwest Bureau " . In practice , Peng 's responsibilities were to oversee the industrial development of Sichuan , Guizhou , Yunnan , and Tibet , with a focus on developing military industries and logistical networks . These positions were far below what Peng 's position had been before 1959 , but signaled his return to national politics . Peng worked energetically until August 1966 , when the beginning of the Cultural Revolution had him recalled to Chengdu and the first Red Guards began patrolling the streets , violently attacking their perceived enemies . Peng 's bodyguards warned him to avoid contact with the Red Guards , but Peng disregarded their advice , saying : " a CCP member does not have to be afraid of the masses . " Peng 's disregard for personal danger and his confidence in the Chinese Communist Party made him one of the Cultural Revolution 's first victims .
= = = Persecution during the Cultural Revolution = = =
Peng was one of the first public figures singled out for persecution in 1966 by the Cultural Revolution Group . The Party Secretariat attempted to shield Peng , but Mao 's wife , Jiang Qing , took a personal interest in Peng 's persecution and directed Red Guards in Sichuan to find Peng in Chengdu , arrest him , and deliver him to Beijing to be persecuted . Local Red Guards in Chengdu were not enthusiastic to follow these orders : they visited Peng 's house on December 22 , 1966 and attempted to intimidate Peng by informing him of the recent arrests of some of his friends and comrades , and of the imminent arrests of Liu Shaoqi and Deng Xiaoping . Because of local Red Guards ' lack of enthusiasm to carry out Jiang Qing 's orders , a more radical Red Guard leader , Wang Dabin , arrived in Chengdu on December 24 , and denounced his local comrades as " rightists " and " traitors " for delaying Peng 's arrest . The Red Guards then abducted Peng in the early morning of December 25 , put him in chains , and ransacked his house . Peng 's bodyguards arrived to save Peng at around 4 : 00 AM , but were already too late .
Prime Minister Zhou Enlai made an effort to save Peng by placing him under PLA surveillance . On December 25 , Zhou 's office ordered the Red Guards who had abducted Peng to accompany members of the PLA from Chengdu , to deliver Peng to Beijing by train ( instead of by plane , because the airports in Sichuan had been taken over by Red Guards ) , and then to deliver Peng to the Beijing PLA garrison . After the party arrived in Beijing , Wang Dabin successfully directed Red Guards under his command to delay the PLA unit scheduled to take possession of Peng , and succeeded in keeping Peng from being saved .
In January 1967 Peng was taken to his first " struggle session " , in which he was paraded in chains before several thousand jeering Red Guards , wearing a large paper dunce cap and with a wooden board hung from his neck , on which his " crimes " were written . In the fall Peng was held at a PLA military prison outside of Beijing , and was allowed to receive extra clothing . In July Mao and Lin Biao , cooperating with Jiang Qing 's faction , ordered the PLA to form an " investigation group " to determine Peng 's " crimes " , so that Peng could be more thoroughly humiliated in future struggle sessions . Peng 's jailers attempted to force Peng to confess that he was a " great warlord " , a " great ambitionist " , and a " great conspirator " who had " crept into the Party and the Army " . Peng refused to confess to these accusations or to " surrender to the masses " , so his jailers strapped Peng to the floor of an unlit cell , and did not allow him to stand or sit up , drink water , rise to go to the toilet , or move in his sleep for several days . After Peng still refused to " confess " , his jailers began routinely beating him , breaking several ribs , injuring his back , and damaging his internal organs , especially his lungs . Peng 's violent " interrogations " lasted over ten hours a day , but his interrogators were replaced every two hours in order to keep them from developing any sympathy for Peng ( a practice pioneered by Stalinist secret police in the 1930s ) . Peng was " interrogated " in this way over 130 times . During interrogations he shouted denials to the Red Guards who beat him , and it is reputed that he pounded the table so hard that the cell walls shook .
In late July 1967 , following the failed Wuhan Uprising , Party leaders decided that Peng should be used as an example by publicly humiliating him by name at a national level . On July 31 , an article appeared that was distributed nationally , and which directed the nation to take part in vilifying him . In this article , Peng was called a " capitalist " , a " great ambitionist and great conspirator " who had " always opposed Chairman Mao " , and who was " the representative of the greatest capitalist @-@ roader [ Liu Shaoqi ] in the army " . The article accused Peng of conspiring with foreign countries , allying with " imperialists , revisionists , and counter @-@ revolutionaries " , and waging " a wild attack against the Party " . The campaign of national vilification against Peng lasted several months , until late 1967 . On August 16 another article stated that Peng " was never a Marxist " , but that he had instead been a " capitalist great warlord " who had " crept into the Party and into the army ... we have to struggle against him until he falls , until he breaks down , until he stinks . " CCP propagandists made an effort to discredit Peng 's military career by portraying it as a long string of failures , except for those battles that were supposedly directed closely by Mao Zedong , and to convince the Chinese people that Peng was a subhuman villain who should be destroyed without compassion or mercy .
In August 1967 , Peng was taken to a " struggle meeting " , which was held in a stadium attended by 40 @,@ 000 PLA soldiers . At this meeting , Peng was led in chains to a stage , where he was forced to kneel for several hours while he listened to soldiers repeatedly denouncing him for his " crimes " . At the end of the meeting , Lin Biao personally appeared to the soldiers , where he addressed the assembled soldiers and Peng , who was still kneeling . Lin gave a speech in which he denounced Peng as a villainous element who must be purged , and that it was " in the interest of the whole Party , the whole army , and the whole people of the whole country " to persecute Peng so severely . Lin then addressed Peng directly , stating : " If you reform yourself , all right , if not , it is all right too . But of course we hope you reform yourself . " It is not known whether Peng eventually broke down and " confessed " at the rally .
Peng was imprisoned for the rest of his life . In 1969 the Party formed a " special investigation group " to reach a verdict in his case . Peng 's jailers then forced Peng to write a full biography of his life many times , but they did not believe that he ever fully confessed his " crimes " . Peng was then subjected to constant violent " interrogations " throughout most of 1970 , until a special military tribune sentenced Peng to life imprisonment . The sentence was immediately approved by Lin Biao 's General Chief of Staff , Huang Yongsheng .
After the 1971 Lin Biao incident , the military attempted to improve Peng 's living conditions , but the years of deprivation and torture from 1967 – 1970 had seriously weakened his physical health , and from late 1972 until his death Peng was seriously ill , probably with tuberculosis , thrombosis , or both . Peng was briefly hospitalized in 1973 before being returned to prison , the first time that he had been outside of prison since 1967 . Peng 's niece , Peng Meikui , visited Peng in the hospital and convinced his jailers to allow an operation , but the nature and results of this operation are unknown . Peng 's medical condition deteriorated further in 1974 ; but , because of direct orders from Mao not to treat him , he received no substantial medical aid . Peng died at 3 : 35 PM on November 29 , 1974 . His last wish was to see the sun and trees outside the windows of his hospital room ( the windows were covered with newspaper ) , but this request was denied . Peng Meikui was allowed to view Peng 's body for twenty minutes , but was then removed . Peng 's body was quickly cremated , and his ashes were sent to Chengdu , identified only by a note that read : " No. 327 – Wang Chuan , from Chengdu . "
= = Posthumous rehabilitation = =
The leadership of the CCP successfully concealed Peng 's death for several years , and successfully convinced the only civilian witness , Peng Meikui , not to tell anyone of Peng 's death . Peng 's former bodyguards did not learn of Peng 's death until 1976 . Peng 's wife , Pu Anxiu , had also been arrested by Red Guards and " sentenced " to a " labour reform camp " , where she remained until 1975 , when she was released to settle as a farmer in North China . She did not find out about Peng 's death until she was allowed to return to Beijing , in 1978 , when the news was first publicly disclosed .
Mao died in 1976 ; and , following a brief power struggle , Peng 's former ally , Deng Xiaoping , emerged as the paramount leader of China . One of Deng 's first political goals was to rehabilitate Party members who had been condemned and persecuted during the Cultural Revolution . By 1978 , many people , led by General Huang Kecheng ( who had been a comrade of Peng 's since Peng rebelled against the Kuomintang in 1928 ) were agitating for Peng 's posthumous rehabilitation . The Chinese government formally reversed the " erroneous " verdict of Peng during the Third Plenum of the Eleventh CCP Central Committee , held from December 18 – 22 , 1978 . Deng gave a speech announcing Peng 's rehabilitation , stating :
He was courageous in battle , open and straightforward , incorruptible and impeccable , and strict towards himself . He cared about the masses , and was never concerned about his own advantage . He was never afraid of difficulties , neither of carrying heavy loads . In his revolutionary work , he was dilligent , honest , and he had an utmost sense of responsibility .
Deng 's speech also stated that Mao 's decision in 1959 , which vilified Peng as the leader of an " anti @-@ Party clique " , had been " entirely wrong " , and that it had " undermined intra @-@ Party democracy " . From January 1979 , the Party encouraged historians and those who had known Peng to produce many memoirs , historical stories , and articles praising and remembering Peng . In 1980 the Intermediate Court of Justice in Wuhan sentenced Wang Dabin , the Red Guard who had directed Peng 's arrest in 1966 , to nine years in prison for " the persecution and torture of Comrade Peng Dehuai " . In 1986 , an " autobiography " , Memoirs of a Chinese Marshal , was compiled from various documents that Peng had written about his life . Much of the material for Memoirs was drawn from the " confessions " that Peng had written during the Cultural Revolution , and the book focused on Peng 's early life , before the Second Sino @-@ Japanese War . In 1988 , China released a set of stamps to commemorate the ninetieth anniversary of Peng 's birth . In modern China , Peng is considered one of the greatest military leaders of the twentieth century .
|
= Walking on Air ( Katy Perry song ) =
" Walking on Air " is a song recorded by American singer Katy Perry for her fourth studio album , Prism ( 2013 ) , included as its fourth track . It was released to digital retailers on September 30 , 2013 , by Capitol Records , as the record 's second promotional single , following the release of " Dark Horse " . The song was part of a poll promoted by Pepsi , along with " Dark Horse " , where fans could vote for which song they wanted to become the first promotional single from Prism . Inspired by CeCe Peniston and Crystal Waters , " Walking on Air " is a deep house song influenced by 1990s Eurodance .
Upon its release , " Walking on Air " received generally favorable reviews from music critics , who highlighted its catchiness , but were ambivalent towards its musical composition . The track entered several charts with moderate digital downloads , including reaching number 34 on the US Billboard Hot 100 . Internationally , it charted in the top 20 in various countries , including Australia , Canada , and New Zealand . Perry promoted " Walking on Air " with several live performances , including at the 2013 iTunes Festival and Saturday Night Live .
= = Background and release = =
" Walking on Air " was produced and programmed by Swedish record producers Klas Åhlund and Max Martin . It was recorded and engineered at Apmamman and MXM Studios , located in Stockholm , Sweden and Conway Recording Studios in Hollywood , California . It was engineered by Michael Illbert , Peter Carlsson , and Sam Holland , and assisted by Cory Bice . Serban Ghenea later mixed the song at MixStar Studios , in Virginia Beach , Virginia . Background vocals were provided by Sabina Ddumba and the Tensta Gospel Choir .
In a press release on August 20 , 2013 , PepsiCo announced a partnership with Perry to promote her fourth studio album Prism : the company announced a social " tweet @-@ to @-@ unlock " voting program , where fans could unlock song titles and their respective lyrics , by tweeting the hashtag # KATYNOW . The chosen tracks for the campaign were " Walking on Air " and " Dark Horse " . Once tweets voting for each song reached a certain number , their respective samples were unlocked and fans could start to vote for which one they wanted to have an early release on digital retailers . The winner was " Dark Horse " , which was released on September 17 , 2013 on the iTunes Store . However , after the release of the aforementioned song , the iTunes release of " Walking on Air " was announced , slated for September 30 .
= = Composition = =
Composed in the key of F ♯ minor , " Walking on Air " is a deep house song set in a 4 / 4 time signature at a moderately fast tempo of 128 beats per minute . The melody spans the tonal range of E3 to E5 , while the music follows the chord progression of F ♯ m – E – C ♯ m – D. Throughout the song , various elements of 90s Eurodance and disco music can be heard . The track opens with Perry singing in her lower register over stacatto synths until the song 's " propulsive " beat begins . The singer has cited CeCe Peniston 's " Finally " and Crystal Waters ' " 100 % Pure Love " as inspirations for the sound she was aiming for with this song . Perry 's vocals near the end of " Walking on Air " were also compared to those of Christina Aguilera .
Written by Perry , Klas Åhlund , Max Martin , Adam Baptiste , and Caméla Leierth , " Walking on Air " discusses a love " so strong that even heaven is jealous " . Gil Kaufman from MTV commented on the song 's composition : " Between her wailing diva vocals , a gospel choir that kicks in during the final minute and the driving beat , Perry has captured a unique sound that both recalls the classic 1970s disco era as well as the EDM thump of today 's clubs . " HitFix writer Melinda Newman opined that the song was " redolent of ' 90s dance thumpers and is light as cotton candy and just as enjoyable " , adding that it would " make you long for C + C Music Factory " . The song was also described as evoking the music of Swedish singer Robyn , an artist of whom Perry is a fan .
= = Reception = =
= = = Critical reaction = = =
Critical commentary of " Walking on Air " was mostly favorable : Sal Cinquemani from Slant Magazine was very positive of the song : he described it as " surprisingly soulful , throwback " to 1990s deep house , although he noted that Åhlund decided to give Perry a different sound from the Euro electro @-@ pop he had produced for Body Talk ( 2010 ) . Greg Kot from Chicago Tribune deemed the single a " catchy pop tune " , while Randall Roberts from the Los Angeles Times wrote that the song 's " euphoria " was " infectious " , and Rob Harvilla from Spin classified it as " delicious " . Also , Elysa Gardner from USA Today recommended readers to download " Walking on Air " .
Other reviews were mixed . Writing for The Guardian , Alexis Petridis criticized Prism for not having anything " sonically adventurous " , noting that the album mainly had 1990s pop @-@ house in its songs , giving the example of the " jangling piano riff " present on " Walking on Air " , but still found those melodies to be stronger than the ones found on Jessie J 's second studio album Alive ( 2013 ) . In a mixed to positive review of the song , Will Hermes from Rolling Stone described the song as " frothy " . Marah Eakin from The A.V. Club commented that " when Perry does stretch [ ..... ] she tends to falter " , and mentioned " Walking on Air " and " Dark Horse " as examples . Consequence of Sound 's Chris Bosman described the song as a " vanilla re @-@ interpretation of Hercules and Love Affair " .
Helen Brown from The Daily Telegraph classified " Walking on Air " as a " forgettable bit of Nineties rave nostalgia " , while James Reed from The Boston Globe deemed it " buoyant " , and ABC News music writer Mesfin Fekadu called it " irresistible " . Kyle Anderson from Entertainment Weekly described the track as a " David Guetta @-@ esque blast of dancefloor adrenaline " . Sam Lansky from website Idolator wrote that the song was " pleasurable " , while Trent Wolbe from The Verge said it was a " triumphant ode " to various artists from the 1990s .
= = = Commercial performance = = =
On the week ending October 7 , 2013 , " Walking on Air " debuted at number 12 on the New Zealand Singles Chart . In Australia , the song charted on the ARIA Digital Track Chart at number 18 . On the week ending October 19 , 2013 , " Walking on Air " debuted at number 34 on the Billboard Hot 100 and debuted at number eight on Billboard Hot Digital Songs with 113 @,@ 000 downloads . As of November 2013 , the song has sold a total of 150 @,@ 000 copies in the United States .
= = Live performances = =
On September 30 , 2013 , Perry performed " Walking on Air " during her headlining set of the 2013 iTunes Festival at the Roundhouse . For the performance , she wore a black leather corset , a tartan miniskirt and fishnet tights , all part of a " racy " outfit . On October 12 , 2013 , the singer performed the song again on Saturday Night Live , where she was the musical guest of the episode . She wore a " ' 90s schoolgirl outfit " composed of a plaid skirt , knee socks and a white crop top . Kelci Shipley from MTV wrote that Perry " caught a case of retro fever for her performance of ' Walking On Air ' " . On her 29th birthday , October 25 , 2013 , Perry performed the song at Lakewood High School in Lakewood , Colorado . On May 25 , 2014 , she performed it in Glasgow at Radio 1 's Big Weekend .
= = Credits and personnel = =
Recording places
Recorded at Apmamman and MXM Studios ( Stockholm , Sweden ) ; Conway Recording Studios ( Hollywood , California )
Mixed at MixStar Studios ( Virginia Beach , Virginia )
Personnel
Songwriting – Katy Perry , Klas Åhlund , Max Martin , Adam Baptiste , Caméla Leierth
Production – Klas Åhlund , Max Martin
Engineering – Michael Illbert , Peter Carlsson , Sam Holland
Engineering assistant – Cory Bice
Mixing – Serban Ghenea
Mixing engineer – John Hanes
Lead vocals – Katy Perry
Background vocals – Sabina Ddumba , Tensta Gospel Choir
Programming – Klas Åhlund , Max Martin
Credits adapted from Prism liner notes .
= = Charts = =
= = Release history = =
|
= Misty Copeland =
Misty Danielle Copeland ( born September 10 , 1982 ) is an American ballet dancer for American Ballet Theatre ( ABT ) , one of the three leading classical ballet companies in the United States . On June 30 , 2015 , Copeland became the first African American woman to be promoted to principal dancer in ABT 's 75 @-@ year history .
Copeland was considered a prodigy who rose to stardom despite not starting ballet until the age of 13 . By age 15 , her mother and ballet teachers , who were serving as her custodial guardians , fought a custody battle over her . Meanwhile , Copeland , who was already an award @-@ winning dancer , was fielding professional offers . The 1998 legal issues involved filings for emancipation by Copeland and restraining orders by her mother . Both sides dropped legal proceedings , and Copeland moved home to begin studying under a new teacher who was a former ABT member .
In 1997 , Copeland won the Los Angeles Music Center Spotlight Award as the best dancer in Southern California . After two summer workshops with ABT , she became a member of ABT 's Studio Company in 2000 and its corps de ballet in 2001 , and became an ABT soloist in 2007 . As a soloist from 2007 to mid @-@ 2015 , she was described as having matured into a more contemporary and sophisticated dancer .
In addition to her dance career , Copeland has become a public speaker , celebrity spokesperson and stage performer . She has written two autobiographical books and narrated a documentary about her career challenges , A Ballerina 's Tale . In 2015 , she was named one of the 100 most influential people in the world by Time , appearing on its cover . She performed on Broadway in On the Town , toured as a featured dancer for Prince and appeared on the reality television shows A Day in the Life and So You Think You Can Dance . She has endorsed products and companies such as T @-@ Mobile , Dr Pepper , Seiko and Under Armour .
= = Early life = =
Copeland was born in Kansas City , Missouri , and raised in the San Pedro community of Los Angeles , California . Copeland 's father , Doug Copeland , is German American and African American , while her mother , Sylvia DelaCerna , is Italian American and African American and was adopted by African American parents . Misty Copeland is the youngest of four children from her mother 's second marriage and has two younger half @-@ siblings , one each from her mother 's third and fourth marriages . Copeland did not see her father between the ages of two and twenty @-@ two . Her mother , a former Kansas City Chiefs cheerleader , had studied dance . She is a trained medical assistant , but worked mostly in sales .
Between the ages of three and seven , Copeland lived in Bellflower , California , with her mother and her mother 's third husband , Harold Brown , a Santa Fe Railroad sales executive . The family moved to San Pedro , where Sylvia eventually married her fourth husband , radiologist Robert DelaCerna , and where Misty attended Point Fermin Elementary School . When she was seven , Copeland saw the film Nadia on television and its subject Nadia Comăneci became her new role model . Copeland never studied ballet or gymnastics formally until her teenage years , but she enjoyed choreographing flips and dance moves to Mariah Carey songs in her youth . Following in the footsteps of her older sister Erica , who had starred on the Dana Middle School drill team that won statewide competitions , Copeland became captain of the Dana drill team . Her captaincy was only a part of her responsibilities . She was also the sixth grade class treasurer and a hall monitor that year . Copeland 's natural grace came to the attention of her classically trained Dana drill team coach , Elizabeth Cantine , in San Pedro .
By 1994 , Copeland 's mother had separated from Robert . After living with various friends and boyfriends , DelaCerna moved with all of her children into two small rooms at the Sunset Inn in Gardena , California . In early 1996 , Cantine convinced Copeland to attend a ballet class at her local Boys & Girls Club . Cynthia Bradley , a friend of Cantine 's , taught a free ballet class at the club once a week . Copeland attended several classes as a spectator before participating . DelaCerna allowed Copeland to go to the club after school until the workday ended . Bradley invited Copeland to attend class at her small local ballet school , San Pedro Dance Center . Copeland initially declined the offer , however , because her mother did not have a car , was working 12 – 14 hours a day , and her oldest sister Erica was working two jobs . Copeland began her ballet studies at the age of 13 at the San Pedro Dance Center when Cynthia Bradley began picking her up from school . After three months of study , Copeland was en pointe .
She told Copeland that she would have to give up ballet , but Bradley wanted Copeland to continue and offered to host her . DelaCerna agreed to this , and Copeland moved in with Bradley and her family . Eventually , Copeland and DelaCerna signed a management contract and a life @-@ story contract with Bradley . Copeland spent the weekdays with the Bradleys near the coast and the weekends at home with her mother , a two @-@ hour bus ride away . Copeland would spend most of her next three years with the Bradleys . By the age of fourteen , Copeland was the winner of a national ballet contest and won her first solo role . The Bradleys introduced Copeland to books and videos about ballet . When she saw Paloma Herrera , a principal ballerina with ABT , perform at the Dorothy Chandler Pavilion , Copeland began to idolize her as much as she did Mariah Carey . The media first noticed her when she drew 2 @,@ 000 patrons per show as she performed as Clara in the The Nutcracker at the San Pedro High School after only eight months of study . A larger role as Kitri in Don Quixote at the San Pedro Dance Center and a featured role in The Chocolate Nutcracker , an African American version of the tale , narrated by Debbie Allen , soon followed . The latter was presented at UCLA 's Royce Hall . Copeland 's role was modified especially for her , and included ethnic dances .
During this period , Copeland received far more personal attention from the Bradley family than her mother could give each of her six children , even attending a synagogue with Bradley 's parents and young son . In addition to Bradley 's intensive ballet training , her husband , a modern @-@ dance teacher , served as Copeland 's pas @-@ de @-@ deux instructor and partner . The summer before her fifteenth birthday , Bradley began to homeschool Copeland for 10th grade to free up more time for dance . At fifteen years old , Copeland won first place in the Los Angeles Music Center Spotlight Awards at the Chandler Pavilion in March 1998 . Copeland said it was the first time she ever battled nervousness . The winners received scholarships between $ 500 and $ 2500 . Copeland 's victory in the 10th annual contest among gifted high school students in Southern California secured her recognition by the Los Angeles Times as the best young dancer in the Greater Los Angeles Area .
Copeland attended the summer workshop at the San Francisco Ballet School in 1998 . She and Bradley selected the workshop over offers from the Joffrey Ballet , ABT and Dance Theater of Harlem , among others . Of the programs she auditioned for , only New York City Ballet declined to make her an offer . San Francisco Ballet , ABT and New York City Ballet are regarded as the three preeminent classical ballet companies in the US . During the six week workshop at San Francisco , Copeland was placed in the most advanced classes and was under a full tuition plus expenses scholarship . At the end of the workshop , she received one of the few offers to continue as a full @-@ time student at the school . She declined the offer because of the encouragement from her mother to return home , the prospect of continuing personal training from the Bradley family and dreams of a subsequent summer with ABT .
= = Custody battle = =
Copeland returned to her mother 's home and frequent arguments . Her mother resented the Bradleys ' influence and soon decided that Copeland would cease study with the Bradleys . Copeland was distraught with fear that she would not be able to dance . She had heard the term emancipation while in San Francisco ; the procedure was common among young performers to secure their financial and residential independence . The Bradleys introduced Copeland to Steven Bartell , a lawyer who explained the emancipation petition process . The Bradleys encouraged her to be absent from home when the emancipation petition was delivered to her mother . Copeland ran away from home for three days and stayed with a friend , while Bartell filed the emancipation papers . After her mother reported Copeland missing , she was told about the emancipation petition . Three days after running away , Copeland was returned to her mother by the police . DelaCerna engaged lawyer Gloria Allred and applied for a series of restraining orders , which included the Bradleys ' five @-@ year @-@ old son , who had been Copeland 's roommate , and Bartell . The order was partly intended to preclude contact between the Bradleys and Copeland , but it did not have proper legal basis , since there had been no stalking and no harassment .
The custody controversy was highly publicized in the press ( especially Los Angeles Times and Extra ) , starting in August and September 1998 . Parts of the press coverage spilled over into op @-@ ed articles . The case was heard in Torrance , in the Superior Court of Los Angeles County . DelaCerna claimed that the Bradleys had brainwashed Copeland into filing suit for emancipation from her mother , Allred claimed that the Bradleys had turned Copeland against her mother by belittling DelaCerna 's intelligence . The Bradleys noted that the management contract gave them authority over her career , but they stated that they would wait until Copeland became eighteen before seeking twenty percent of Copeland 's earnings .
After DelaCerna stated that she would always make sure Copeland could dance , both the emancipation papers and restraining orders were dropped . Copeland , who claimed she did not understand the term emancipation , withdrew the petition after informing the judge that such charges no longer represented her wishes . Still , DelaCerna wanted the Bradleys out of her daughter 's life . Copeland re @-@ enrolled at San Pedro High School for her junior year ( 1998 – 99 ) , on pace to graduate with her original class of 2000 . DelaCerna sought Cantine 's advice on finding a new ballet school . Copeland began ballet study at Lauridsen Ballet Centre with former ABT dancer Diane Lauridsen , although her dancing was now restricted to afternoons in deference to her schooling . Late in 1998 , all parties appeared on Leeza Gibbons ' talk show , Leeza , where Copeland sat silently as the adults " bickered shamelessly " . As a student , Copeland had a 3 @.@ 8 / 4 @.@ 0 GPA through her junior year of high school . In 2000 , DelaCerna stated that Copeland 's earnings from ballet were set aside in a savings account and only used as needed .
= = American Ballet Theatre = =
= = = Early ABT career = = =
Copeland auditioned for several dance programs in 1999 , and each made her an offer to enroll in its summer program . She performed with ABT as part of its 1999 and 2000 Summer Intensive programs . During the summer of 1999 , the topic of whether Copeland would stay if invited came up , and she responded affirmatively , although her mother insisted finishing high school was important . During that summer , she was told that she would likely be invited to stay after she graduated in 2000 , and by the end of the summer she was asked to skip her senior year and join the studio company . Copeland returned to California for her senior year , even though ABT arranged to pay for her performances , housing accommodations and academic arrangements . She studied at the Summer Intensive Program on full scholarship for both summers and was declared ABT 's National Coca @-@ Cola Scholar in 2000 . In the 2000 Summer Intensive Program , she danced the role of Kitri in Don Quixote . Copeland ' strongest memory from the summer is working with Tharp on what Copeland calls Tharp 's " seminal work " , Push Comes to Shove " . Of the 150 dancers in the 2000 Summer Intensive Program , she was one of six selected to join the junior dance troupe .
In September 2000 , she joined the ABT Studio Company , which is ABT 's second company , and became a member of its Corps de ballet in 2001 . As part of the Studio Company , she performed the Pas de Deux in Tchaikovsky 's The Sleeping Beauty . Eight months after joining the company , she was sidelined for nearly a year by a lumbar stress fracture . When Copeland joined the company , she weighed 108 pounds ( 49 @.@ 0 kg ) ( she is 5 feet 2 inches ( 1 @.@ 57 m ) tall ) . At age 19 , her puberty had been delayed , a situation common in ballet dancers . After the lumbar fracture , her doctor told her that inducing puberty would help to strengthen her bones , and he prescribed birth control pills . Copeland recalls that in one month she gained 10 pounds , and her small breasts swelled to double D @-@ cup size : " Leotards had to be altered for me ... to cover my cleavage , for instance . I hated this sign that I was different from the others . ... I became so self @-@ conscious that , for the first time in my life , I couldn ’ t dance strong . I was too busy trying to hide my breasts . " Management noticed and called her in to talk about her body . The professional pressure to conform to conventional ballet aesthetics resulted in body image struggles and a binge eating disorder . Copeland says that , over the next year , new friendships outside of ABT , including with Victoria Rowell and her boyfriend , Olu Evans , helped her to regain confidence in her body . She explained , " My curves became an integral part of who I am as a dancer , not something I needed to lose to become one . I started dancing with confidence and joy , and soon the staff at ABT began giving me positive feedback again . And I think I changed everyone ’ s mind about what a perfect dancer is supposed to look like . " During her years in the corps , as the only Black woman in the company , Copeland also felt the burden of her ethnicity in many ways and contemplated a variety of career choices . Recognizing that Copeland 's isolation and self @-@ doubt were standing in the way of her talent , ABT 's artistic director , Kevin McKenzie , asked writer and arts figure Susan Fales @-@ Hill , then vice @-@ chair of ABT 's Board of Directors , to mentor Copeland . Fales @-@ Hill introduced Copeland to Black women trailblazers who encouraged Copeland and helped her to gain perspective .
Early career reviews mentioned Copeland as more radiant than higher ranking dancers , and she was named to the 2003 class of Dance Magazine 's " 25 to Watch " . In 2003 , she was favorably reviewed for her roles as a member of the corps in La Bayadère and William Forsythe 's workwithinwork . Recognition continued in 2004 for roles in ballets such as Raymonda , workwithinwork , Amazed in Burning Dreams , Sechs Tänze , Pillar of Fire , " Pretty Good Year " , " VIII " and " Sinfonietta , where she " stood out in the pas de trois – whether she was gliding across the floor or in a full lift , she created the illusion of smoothness " . She also danced the Hungarian Princess in Tchaikovsky 's Swan Lake . The 2004 season is regarded as her breakthrough season . She was included in the 2004 picture book by former ABT dancer Rosalie O 'Connor titled Getting Closer : A Dancer 's Perspective . Also in 2004 , she met her biological father for the first time and regretted that she had not done so sooner .
In 2005 , her most notable performance was in George Balanchine 's Tarantella. she also danced the Lead Polovtsian Girl in " Polovtsian Dances " from Prince Igor . In 2006 , she was acknowledged for her meticulous classical performance style in Giselle and created a role in Jorma Elo 's Glow – Stop . That year , she also returned to Southern California to perform at Orange County Performing Arts Center and danced one of the cygnets and reprised her role as the Hungarian Princess in Swan Lake in New York . In both 2006 and 2007 , Copeland danced the role of Blossom in James Kudelka 's Cinderella . Copeland 's " old @-@ style " performance continued to earn her praise in 2007 . In 2007 , she danced the Fairy of Valor in The Sleeping Beauty . Other roles that Copeland played before she was appointed a soloist by ABT included Twyla Tharp roles in In the Upper Room and Sinatra Suite as well as a role in Mark Morris 's Gong .
= = = Soloist = = =
Copeland was appointed a soloist at ABT in August 2007 , one of the youngest ABT dancers promoted to soloist . Although , she was described by early accounts as the first African American woman promoted to soloist for ABT , Anne Benna Sims and Nora Kimball were soloists with ABT in the 1980s . Male soloist Keith Lee also preceded her . As of 2008 , Copeland was the only African @-@ American woman in the dance company during her entire ABT career , and the only male African American in the company , Danny Tidwell , left in 2005 . In an international ballet community with a lack of diversity , she was so unusual as an African American ballerina , that she endured cultural isolation . She has been described in the press as the Jackie Robinson of classical ballet . Copeland feels that since the female dancer is the focus of ballet , her history as a trail @-@ blazing performer and role model has extra significance .
Copeland was a standout among her peers . In her first season as a soloist at New York City Center , in which avant @-@ garde ballets works were performed , she presented a Balanchine Ballo della Regina role , earning praise . Also in 2007 , she created a leading role in C. to C. ( Close to Chuck ) , choreographed by Jorma Elo to A Musical Portrait of Chuck Close , Études 2 , 9 & 10 , by Philip Glass . Her performances of Tharp 's works in the same season were recognized , and she was described as more sophisticated and contemporary as a soloist than she had been as a corps dancer . Her summer 2008 Metropolitan Opera House ( the Met ) season performances in Don Quixote and Sleeping Beauty were also well received .
During the 2008 – 09 season , Copeland received publicity for roles in Twyla Tharp 's Baker 's Dozen and Paul Taylor 's Company B. During the 2009 Spring ABT season at the Met , Copeland performed Gulnare in Le Corsaire and leading roles in Taylor 's Airs and Balanchine 's Pas de Deux from Swan Lake . Her Annenberg Fellowship that year included training for the Pas de Deux . Late that year , she performed in ABT 's first trip to Beijing at the new National Center for the Performing Arts . In 2009 , Copeland created a role in Aszure Barton 's One of Three .
In 2010 , Copeland performed in Birthday Offering at the Met and at the Guggenheim Museum danced to David Lang 's music . She also created the Spanish Dance in ABT artist @-@ in @-@ residence Alexei Ratmansky 's new version of The Nutcracker , premiered at the Brooklyn Academy of Music . In early 2011 , she was well received at the Kennedy Center as the Milkmaid in Ratmansky 's The Bright Stream , a remake of a banned comic ballet . In Black History Month in 2011 , Copeland was selected by Essence as one of its 37 Boundary @-@ breaking black women in entertainment . That same month , she toured with Company B , performed at Sadler 's Wells Theatre in London . In May , she created a role in Ratmansky 's Dumbarton , danced to Stravinsky 's chamber concerto , Dumbarton Oaks . Alastair Macaulay of The New York Times found the piece too intimate for the cavernous Met , but he noted : " Misty Copeland gives sudden hints of need and emotional bleakness in a duet ... too much is going on to explain itself at one viewing ; but at once I know I ’ m emotionally and structurally gripped . " Her Summer 2011 ABT solos included the peasant pas de deux in Giselle and , in Ratmansky 's The Bright Stream at the Met in June , her reprise of the Milkmaid was called " luminous , teasingly sensual " . She reprised the role again in July at the Dorothy Chandler Pavilion in Los Angeles with a performance described as " sly " . As a flower girl , she was described as glittering in Don Quixote . In August , she performed at the Vail International Dance Festival in the Gerald Ford Amphitheater in Vail , Colorado . In November , she danced in Taylor 's Black Tuesday .
In 2012 , Copeland began achieving solo roles in full @-@ length standard repertory ballets rather than works that were mostly relatively modern pieces . She starred in The Firebird , with choreography by Ratmansky at the Segerstrom Center for the Arts in Costa Mesa , California . It premiered on March 29 , 2012 . The performance was hailed by Laura Bleiberg in the Los Angeles Times as one of the year 's best dance performances . That year , Copeland was recognized by The Council of Urban Professionals as their Breakthrough Leadership Award winner . She also danced the role of Gamzatti in La Bayadère at the Met to praise from Alastair Macaulay of The New York Times , who noted her " adult complexity and worldly allure " . The Firebird was again performed at the Met in June 2012 , with Copeland to alternate in the lead . It was Copeland 's first leading role at ABT . Backstage described it as her " most prestigious part " to date . After only one New York performance in the role , Copeland withdrew from the entire ABT season due to six stress fractures in her tibia . She was sidelined for seven months after her October surgery . Upon her return to the stage , she danced the Queen of the Dryads in Don Quixote in May 2013 . Nelson George began filming a documentary leverage the chance to present her comeback .
Copeland reprised her role as Gulnare in June 2013 in the pirate @-@ themed Le Corsaire . She also played an Odalisque in the same ballet . Later in the year , she danced in Tharp 's choreography of Bach Partita for Violin No. 2 in D minor for solo violin , and as Columbine in ABT 's revival of Ratmansky 's Nutcracker at the Brooklyn Academy of Music .
In May 2014 , Copeland performed the lead role of Swanilda in Coppélia at the Met . According to Los Angeles Times writer Jevon Phillips , she is the first African American woman to dance the role . The same month , she was praised in the dual role of Queen of the Dryads and Mercedes in Don Quixote by Brian Seibert of The New York Times , although Jerry Hochman of Critical Dance felt that she was not as impressive in the former role as in the latter . Later in May , the Met staged a program of one @-@ act ballets consisting of Theme and Variations , Duo Concertant and Gaîté Parisienne , featuring Copeland in all three . Siebert praised her work as the lead in Balanchine 's choreography of Igor Stravinsky 's Duo Concertant for violin and piano performed by Benjamin Bowman and Emily Wong . Of her Flower Girl in Gaîté Parisienne , Apollinaire Scherr of The Financial Times wrote that she " tips like a brimming watering can into the bouquets her wooers hold out to her " . Copeland was a " flawless " demi @-@ soloist in Theme and Variations , according to Colleen Boresta of Critical Dance .
In June 2014 at the Met , she danced the Fairy Autumn in the Frederick Ashton Cinderella , cited for her energetic exuberance in the role by Hochman , who missed the " varied texture and nuance that made it significantly more interesting " in the hands of ABT 's Christine Shevchenko . That month , she played Lescaut 's Mistress in Manon in which role Marjorie Liebert of BroadwayWorld.com described her as " seductive and ingratiating " . Also in June , she performed the role of Gamzatti in La Bayadère . Copeland performed the Odette / Odile double role in Swan Lake in September when the company toured in Brisbane , Australia . Her ascension to more prominent roles occurred as three ABT principal dancers ( Paloma Herrera , Julie Kent and Xiomara Reyes ) entered their final seasons before retirement . In early October , Copeland performed several pieces including a principal role in Tharp 's Bach Partita at Chicago 's Auditorium Theatre . In October , Copeland made her New York debut in one of the six principal roles in Tharp 's Bach Partita and created a role in Liam Scarlett 's With a Chance of Rain . That December , when ABT revived Ratmansky 's Nutcracker at the Brooklyn Academy of Music , Copeland played the role of Clara , the Princess . The same month , at the Kennedy Center Honors , she was described as " sublime " in Tchaikovsky 's Pas de Deux by the New York City CBS News affiliate .
In March 2015 , Copeland danced the role of Princess Florine in The Sleeping Beauty at the Segerstrom Center for the Arts in Costa Mesa , California . She made her American debut as Odette / Odile in Swan Lake with The Washington Ballet , opposite Brooklyn Mack as Prince Siegfried , in April at the Eisenhower Theater in the John F. Kennedy Center for the Performing Arts . The performance was the company 's first presentation of Swan Lake in its 70 @-@ year history . In May 2015 , she played Cowgirl in Rodeo , Bianca in Othello and Zulma in Giselle . She was selected for the 2015 Time 100 . As a result , Copeland appeared on the cover of Time , making her the first dancer on the cover since Bill T. Jones in 1994 . In June , Copeland created the small role of the Fairy Fleur de farine ( Wheat flower ) in Ratmansky 's The Sleeping Beauty . The same month , she made her debut in Romeo and Juliet on short notice a few days before her scheduled debut performance on June 20 . Later in June , Copeland made her New York debut in the Odette / Odile double role from Swan Lake that is described by Macauley as " the most epic role in world ballet " . Her performance at the Met was regarded as a success . Her performance in the role had been anticipated as a " a crowning achievement " in wide @-@ ranging media outlets and by a broad spectrum of fans and supporters . Wilkinson and Anderson were on hand to present her bouquets on stage . Some viewed this performance as a sign that her promotion to principal was forthcoming .
= = = Principal dancer = = =
On June 30 , 2015 , Copeland became the first African @-@ American woman to be promoted to principal ballerina in ABT 's 75 @-@ year history . Copeland 's achievement was groundbreaking , as there have been very few African @-@ American principal ballerinas at major companies . Lauren Anderson became a principal at Houston Ballet in 1990 , the first principal ballerina at any major American company . According to the 2015 documentary about Copeland , A Ballerina 's Tale , " there has never been a Black female principal dancer at a major international company " .
Copeland next accepted the role of Ivy Smith in the Broadway revival of On The Town , which she played for two weeks from August 25 to September 6 . Her debut on Broadway was favorably reviewed in The New York Times , The Washington Post , and other media .
In October in New York , Copeland performed in the revival of Tharp 's choreography of the Brahms @-@ Haydn Variations , in Frederick Ashton 's Monotones I , and " brought a seductive mix of demureness and sex appeal to ' Rum and Coca @-@ Cola ' " in Paul Taylor 's Company B. The same month , she created the role of His Loss in AfterEffect by Marcelo Gomes , danced to Tchaikovsky 's Souvenir de Florence , at Lincoln Center . When ABT brought Ratmansky 's Nutcracker to Segerstrom Center for the Arts in December 2015 , Copeland reprised the role of Clara .
In January 2016 , Copeland reprised the role of Princess Florine in The Sleeping Beauty at the Kennedy Center , choreographed by Ratmansky . Her spring 2016 schedule also includes leads in ABT productions of The Firebird , La Fille Mal Gardee , Le Corsaire , The Golden Cockerel , Swan Lake and Romeo and Juliet .
= = Other appearances , modeling , writings and ventures = =
= = = Other stage , television and film appearances = = =
In March 2009 , Copeland filmed a music video with Prince for a cover of " Crimson and Clover " , the first single from his 2009 studio album Lotusflower . Prince asked her to dance along to the song in improvised ballet movements . She described his instructions as " Be you , feel the music , just move " , and upon request for further instruction , " Keep doing what you 're doing " . She also began taking acting lessons in 2009 . During the New York City and New Jersey portions of Prince 's Welcome 2 America tour , Copeland performed a pas de deux en pointe to his song " The Beautiful Ones " , the opening number at the Izod Center and Madison Square Garden . Prince had previously invited her onstage at a concert in Nice , France . In April 2011 , she performed alongside Prince on the Lopez Tonight show , dancing to " The Beautiful Ones . "
In 2011 , she was featured in the Season 1 , episode 5 of the Hulu web series A Day in the Life . Copeland was a guest judge for the 11th season of FOX 's So You Think You Can Dance . New Line Cinema has optioned her memoir , Life in Motion , for a screen adaptation , and the Oxygen network has expressed interest in producing a reality docuseries about Copeland mentoring a Master Class of aspiring young dancers .
A Ballerina 's Tale , a documentary film about Copeland , debuted at the Tribeca Film Festival in April 2015 . The film was released through video on demand in October 2015 the day before its limited release in theaters . It was first aired in February 2016 as part of PBS ' Independent Lens series . In May 2015 , she was featured on 60 Minutes in a segment with correspondent Bill Whitaker . In June , she served as a presenter at the 69th Tony Awards . She was included in the 2015 International Best Dressed List , published by Vanity Fair. in October 2015 , she performed on The Late Show with Stephen Colbert with musical accompaniment by Yo @-@ Yo Ma , who played " Courante " from Bach 's Cello Suite No. 2 . She walked the runway at New York Fashion Week in February 2016 to support the American Heart Association 's " Go Red for Women " campaign to increase awareness of the dangers of heart disease for women . She appeared in the March issue of Harper 's Bazaar recreating Edgar Degas ballerina poses in a photospread ahead of a Museum of Modern Art exhibition : " Edgar Degas : A Strange New Beauty " . The feature was praised by several media outlets . Sebastian Smee of The Boston Globe , however , argued that contemporary ballet performers take Degas ' ballet @-@ themed work too seriously .
In February 2016 , Copeland and President Barack Obama were interviewed together in the first of a three part video series with Time and Essence magazines on topics of race , gender , achievement and creating opportunity for young people . Copeland has been cast to dance the lead ballerina role in a forthcoming Disney film , The Nutcracker and the Four Realms , based on the 1816 story " The Nutcracker and the Mouse King " .
= = = Ventures and writing = = =
In 2011 , she unveiled a line of dancewear , called M by Misty , that she designed . She has also produced celebrity calendars . In 2014 , Copeland released a memoir , Life in Motion : An Unlikely Ballerina , co @-@ authored by Charisse Jones . Her 2014 children 's picture book , titled Firebird , with illustrator Christopher Myers , has a message of empowerment for young people of color . In November 2015 , she announced a third book , Ballerina Body , planned to be a health and fitness guide .
= = = Modelling and endorsements = = =
Copeland was featured in T @-@ Mobile 's ads for the BlackBerry in 2010 and an ad for Dr. Pepper in 2013 . In 2013 , she became a spokesperson for Project Plié , a national initiative to broaden the pipeline of leadership within ballet . She also became a brand ambassador for Seiko in 2015 . In 2016 , Mattel created a Misty Copeland Barbie doll .
In 2014 , Copeland became a sponsored athlete for Under Armour , which paid her more than her ballet career . Her Under Armour women @-@ focused ad campaign was widely publicized , and resulted in her being named an ABC World News Person of the week . The ad campaign was recognized by Adweek as one of The 10 Best Ads of 2014 and as " The year 's best campaign targeting women " . Copeland ( along with Steph Curry and Jordan Spieth ) was credited with leading to a surge in demand for Under Armor products .
= = Honors = =
In 2008 , Copeland won the Leonore Annenberg Fellowship in the Arts , which funds study with master teachers and trainers outside of ABT . The two @-@ year fellowships are in recognition of " young artists of extraordinary talent with the goal of providing them with additional resources in order to fully realise their potential " . In 2013 , she was named National Youth of the Year Ambassador by the Boys & Girls Clubs of America . In 2014 , Copeland was named to the President 's Council on Fitness , Sports , and Nutrition and received an honorary doctorate from the University of Hartford for her contributions to classical ballet and helping to diversify the art form . Copeland was a Dance Magazine Awards 2014 honoree . After her promotion as principal dancer , Copeland was named one of Glamour 's Women of the Year for 2015 ; one of ESPN 's 2015 Impact 25 athletes and influencers who have made the greatest impact for women in sports ; and , by Barbara Walters , one of the 10 " most fascinating " people of 2015 . In 2016 , Copeland won a Shorty Award for Best in Dance in Social Media .
= = Personal life = =
Copeland lives with her fiancé , attorney Olu Evans , on Manhattan 's Upper West Side . The couple were introduced to each other around 2004 by Evans ' cousin , Taye Diggs . Copeland announced her engagement to Evans in a 2015 cover story in Essence magazine . Copeland , when she has free time , enjoys cooking and relaxing , preferring not " to be around a lot of people " .
= = Published works = =
Copeland , Misty ( with Charisse Jones ) ( 2014 ) . Life in Motion : An Unlikely Ballerina . Simon & Schuster . ISBN 978 @-@ 1 @-@ 4767 @-@ 3798 @-@ 0 .
Copeland , Misty ( 2014 ) . Firebird . G.P. Putnam 's Sons Books for Young Readers . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 399 @-@ 16615 @-@ 0 .
|
= Tumbler Ridge =
Tumbler Ridge is a district municipality in the foothills of the Canadian Rockies in northeastern British Columbia , Canada , and a member municipality of the Peace River Regional District . The municipality of 1 @,@ 558 square kilometres ( 602 sq mi ) , with its population of 2 @,@ 710 people , incorporates a townsite and a large area of mostly Crown Land . The housing and municipal infrastructure , along with regional infrastructure connecting the new town to other municipalities , were built simultaneously in 1981 by the provincial government to service the coal industry as part of the British Columbia Resources Investment Corporation 's Northeast Coal Development .
In 1981 , a consortium of Japanese steel mills agreed to purchase 100 million tonnes of coal over 15 years for US $ 7 @.@ 5 billion from two mining companies , Denison Mines Inc. and the Teck Corporation , who were to operate the Quintette mine and the Bullmoose mine respectively . Declining global coal prices after 1981 , and weakening Asian markets in the late 1990s , made the town 's future uncertain and kept it from achieving its projected population of 10 @,@ 000 people . The uncertainty dissuaded investment and kept the economy from diversifying . When price reductions were forced onto the mines , the Quintette mine was closed in 2000 production and the town lost about half its population . Coal prices began to rise after the turn of the century , leading to the opening of the Peace River Coal Trend mine by Northern Energy & Mining Inc . ( now owned by Anglo American Met Coal ) and the Wolverine Mine , originally owned by Western Canadian Coal , which was purchased by Walter Energy in 2010 .
After dinosaur footprints , fossils , and bones were discovered in the municipality , along with fossils of Triassic fishes and cretaceous plants , the Peace Region Paleontology Research Centre opened in 2003 . The research centre and a dinosaur museum were funded in part by the federal Western Economic Diversification Canada to decrease economic dependence on the coal industry .
In 2014 , both operating coal mines were put into " care and maintenance mode " . This means the mines are effectively closed , but are still allowed to restart without needing to go through the process of getting a new mines act permit .
Economic diversification has also occurred with oil and gas exploration , forestry , and recreational tourism . Nearby recreational destinations include numerous trails , mountains , waterfalls , snowmobiling areas and provincial parks , such as Monkman Provincial Park , Bearhole Lake Provincial Park , and Gwillim Lake Provincial Park .
= = History = =
Archaeological evidence show a human presence dating back 3 @,@ 000 years . The nomadic Sekani , followed by the Dunneza and then the Cree , periodically lived in temporary settlements around the future municipality . Formal exploratory and surveying expeditions were conducted by S. Prescott Fay , with Robert Cross and Fred Brewster in 1914 , J.C. Gwillim in 1919 , Edmund Spieker in 1920 , and John Holzworth in 1923 . Spieker coined the name Tumbler Ridge , referring to the mountains northwest of the future town , by altering Gwillim 's map that named them Tumbler Range . Permanent settlers were squatters , five families by 1920 , who maintained trap lines . In the 1950s and 1960s , oil and natural gas exploration and logging was conducted through the area , and 15 significant coal deposits were discovered . Coal prices rose after the 1973 oil crisis leading to 40 government studies examining the viability of accessing the coal , given the 1 @,@ 130 km ( 700 mi ) to the nearest port and the mountainous barrier .
With these coal deposits in mind , a purchasing agreement was signed in 1981 by two Canadian mining companies , a consortium of Japanese steel mills , and the governments of British Columbia and Canada . As part of the deal , the provincial government committed , under the North East Coal Development plan , to build a new town near the deposits , two highways off Highway 97 , a power line from the W. A. C. Bennett Dam at Hudson 's Hope , and a branch rail line through the Rocky Mountains . An alternative of using work camps staffed by people from Dawson Creek and Chetwynd was also considered . Massive initial investments were required as planning for the new town began in 1976 with the objective of having a fully functioning town ready before residents arrived . Coordinated through the provincial Ministry of Municipal Affairs the town , regional infrastructure , and mining plants were all built simultaneously . When the municipality was incorporated in April 1981 the area was completely forested . During that year building sites and roadways were cleared and in the winter the water and sewerage system was built . In 1982 , houses and other buildings were constructed . Full production at the mines was reached the following year .
In early 1983 , the families of the managers at the Bullmoose Minesite , led by Dean Sawas appealed to the British Columbia government and were able to create a new settlement , called Bullmoose Settlement . This was done because Dean 's wife was expecting and he wanted his child to have something different to say about her birthplace . He wanted her to be able to say that a settlement had been created for her and that she was , and would always be the only one born at that place . At her birth , Alicia V. Sawas was also written into the Tumbler Ridge records as the first child born in the Quintette area . Bullmoose Settlement was closed down after the reduction in mine activities with just the one birth .
In 1984 , world coal prices were dropping and the Japanese consortium requested a reduction in the price of coal from the Tumbler Ridge mines . As price reduction requests continued , the concern over the viability of the mines led the BC Assessment Authority to lower the 1987 property assessments for the Quintette mine from CAD $ 156 million to $ 89 million and the Bullmoose mine $ 70 million to $ 43 million . This lowered their taxes as they tried to enforce the purchasing agreement at the Supreme Court of Canada . Their 1990 ruling required the Quintette Operations Company to reduce coal prices and reimburse the Japanese consortium $ 4 @.@ 6 million . The company responded by reducing production , cutting employment , and applying for court protection from creditors . This allowed Teck to acquire 50 % interest and take over management of the Quintette mine , but it was unable to stop further job losses . As most residents left town , apartment blocks were closed and the mine companies bought back all but 11 houses in the town . After 30 % of the workforce had been laid off , new contracts with the Japanese consortium were signed in 1997 , allowing re @-@ hirings to begin , but with lower export levels . The North East Coal Development was projected to create a net benefit of CAD $ 0 @.@ 9 billion ( 2000 ) , but incurred a net loss of $ 2 @.@ 8 billion and half the expected regional employment .
The population declined as many residents were unable to find other work in the town , even as a sawmill for specialty woods opened in 1999 . After Teck closed the Quintette mine in August 2000 and shifted production to the lower cost Bullmoose mine , the town council established the Tumbler Ridge Revitalization Task Force to investigate ways to boost and diversify the economy . The Task Force negotiated the return of the housing stock from the mines to the free market , grants from the province to become debt @-@ free , and stabilized funds from the province for healthcare and education . The discovery of dinosaur tracks in 2000 by two local boys while playing near a creek , led to major fossil and bone discoveries from the Cretaceous Period . To survey and study the finds , government funding was secured to found both the Tumbler Ridge Museum Foundation and Peace Region Palaeontology Research Centre .
After the Bullmoose mine exhausted its supply of coal in 2003 , world coal prices increased , making exploration and mining in Tumbler Ridge economically feasible again . Western Canadian Coal opened new open @-@ pit mining operations creating the Dillon mine using Bullmoose mining infrastructure , the Brule mine near Chetwynd using new infrastructure ( projected 11 @-@ year life span ) , and the Wolverine mine . These mines were purchased by Walter Energy in 2010 , but world coal prices began to drop again in 2011 , and in April 2014 , Walter put their Canadian operations into " care and maintenance mode " , laying off nearly 700 people .
The Peace River Coal Trend Mine was issued its mines act permit in 2005 , and was a partnership between NEMI Northern Energy and Mining Inc . , Anglo American , Hillsborough Resources and Vitol Anker International . In 2011 , Anglo American bought out the rest of the partners to become sole owner of the property .
Anglo American started working on the Roman Pit next to their existing Trend operation in 2014 , hoping to reduce the cost of production per tonne of coal . However , in late 2014 , they announced the mine would be going into care and maintenance mode as well .
As of Fall , 2015 , there are no coal mines operating in Tumbler Ridge . However , HD Mining is continuing work on the Murray River Coal Mine , a proposed Underground Longwall Mine near Tumbler Ridge . The company was issued its Environmental Assessment Certificate from the BC Government in October 2015 , though construction on the mine , if it were to go ahead , is not expected to begin until after a Mines Act Permit is issued , which is not expected until late 2016 .
On September 22 , 2014 , the area around Tumbler Ridge was designated North America 's second Geopark .
= = Demographics = =
Population projections in 1977 were for 3 @,@ 568 residents in 1981 , 7 @,@ 940 in 1985 , and 10 @,@ 584 in 1987 , after which the level was expected to stabilize . However , requests for lower coal prices shortly after the production began placed a persistent insecurity over the viability of the mines , and therefore the town , discouraging long term investments . Temporary work camps , where workers numbered between 200 and 2 @,@ 000 , were used during the construction of the town and mines . The planners of the town advised the mining companies to hire workers who were married , believing they would live in Tumbler Ridge longer and reduce employment turn @-@ over . The population rose slowly to 3 @,@ 833 people in 1984 , nearly half the projected level . The 1986 Canadian census , the first census to include Tumbler Ridge , recorded 4 @,@ 566 residents after which in @-@ migration ended and the population level began to fluctuate . The population peaked in 1991 at 4 @,@ 794 people but then declined to a low of 1 @,@ 932 people in 2001 . Since then , population growth has been led by new mining activities and increased exploration following higher world energy prices . The town 's population is currently in a state of flux as people dependent on the mines for work leave , while other people , attracted by the town 's low rent , arrive .
The Canada 2006 Census reported 2 @,@ 454 residents living in 1 @,@ 045 households and 765 families . This was 27 % more people than the previous census five years earlier when the town was at its lowest population level since opening . The median age increased from 38 @.@ 8 years in 2001 to 42 @.@ 2 in 2006 , as the proportion of the population aged over 65 rose from 5 % to 11 % . In 2006 , of those over 15 years of age , 62 % were married , higher than the 54 % provincial average . The town has few visible minorities as 94 % of Tumbler Ridge residents were Canadian @-@ born and 93 % had English as their first language . Though not included as a minority , 9 % of residents claimed to have an Aboriginal identity . Reflecting the nature of the industrial jobs available in town , in 2001 , only 12 % of residents between 20 and 64 years of age completed university , half of the provincial average , and 26 % did not complete high school , much higher than the 19 % provincial average .
In 2005 , the five officer Tumbler Ridge Royal Canadian Mounted Police municipal detachment reported 346 Criminal Code offences . This translated into a crime rate of 137 Criminal Code offences per 1 @,@ 000 people , higher than the provincial average of 119 offences . During that year , the RCMP reported lower crime rates in Tumbler Ridge , compared with the provincial averages , in all categories except bicycle thefts , property damage , impaired driving , and cannabis @-@ related offences . Until 2005 , the town had a lower crime rate than the province , except between 2001 and 2003 after the Quintette mine closure and a large out @-@ migration from the town . In 2004 the Tumbler Ridge RCMP reported no robbery or shoplifting offences , and only 4 @.@ 5 theft @-@ from @-@ motor @-@ vehicle offences per 1 @,@ 000 people compared with 20 provincially .
= = Geography and climate = =
The townsite is located on a series of southern @-@ facing gravel terraces on a ridge of Mount Bergeron , overlooking the confluence of the Murray and Wolverine Rivers . The site , above the floodplain of the Murray River , has well @-@ drained soils with easy access to aquifers with potable water . The rocks , mostly shale and mudstone but lacking quartzite , make the mountains less rugged than their neighbouring ranges . The terraces grow Lodgepole Pine , White Spruce , Trembling Aspen trees . Moose and elk are common . Escarpments to the east and north could pose a snow avalanche threat but are kept forested for stability . In 2006 , the town was evacuated for several days as four forest fires approached the town .
Major coal deposits indicate the site was a swampy forest during the Cretaceous . Paleontologists have discovered tracks or fossils from ankylosauria , ornithopods ( including a Hadrosaurus ) , and theropods . Fossils of Cretaceous plants such as ferns , redwoods , cycads , and ginkgo , and Triassic fishes and reptiles such as coelacanth , weigeltisaurus , and ichthyosaur have been recovered .
The town experiences a continental climate . Arctic air masses move predominantly southwestly from the Mackenzie Valley towards the Rocky Mountains and through the mountains north of town . The town is in a rain shadow behind Mount Bergeron , though much of the precipitation is lost in the mountains beforehand . Town planners laid out the roads so that they run along wind breaks , and buildings and parks are located in wind shadows .
After examining other resource towns in Canada , the planners followed socio @-@ spatial guidelines and principles in physical planning . The coal mining facilities were well separated from the townsite to minimize the feeling of a company town . An attempt to mitigate potential lifestyle conflicts between families and childless households was made by separating the low @-@ density , single @-@ family dwellings from the low @-@ rise apartments . The apartment blocks were planned for areas with clusters of trees and excellent viewscapes , but close to the town plaza . The low @-@ density residences that were more likely to have children living in them were oriented around elementary schools and parks . Cul @-@ de @-@ sacs were avoided in favour of better linkages and pedestrian access .
= = Infrastructure = =
Two highways diverge from Highway 97 and intersect in Tumbler Ridge : Highway 52 ( Heritage Highway ) which runs 98 km ( 61 mi ) south at Arras , and Highway 29 which runs 90 km ( 56 mi ) southeast from Chetwynd . At the intersection Highway 29 ends but Highway 52 continues south through Tumbler Ridge , then unpaved , it runs northeast to Highway 2 near the Alberta border . In town , the 28 km ( 17 mi ) of paved roads are laid out in a curvilinear pattern that use two arterial roads , MacKenzie Way and Monkman Way , to connect each section of town . Service roads from the townsite to the mines and forestry areas are maintained by the industries but are unpaved .
The unmanned Tumbler Ridge Airport , with its 1 @,@ 219 m ( 4 @,@ 000 ft ) asphalt runway , is used by chartered and local flights . The closest airports with regularly scheduled flights are in Dawson Creek , Fort St John and Grande Prairie . The rail line into town is a 132 km ( 82 mi ) formerly electrified branch line through the Rocky Mountains constructed by BC Rail to transport coal to the Ridley Terminal at the Port of Prince Rupert . The branch line includes two major tunnels : the 9 km ( 6 mi ) Table Tunnel and the 6 km ( 4 mi ) Wolverine Tunnel .
The town funds its own 21 @-@ member volunteer fire department , water treatment system , and sewage disposal system . Drinking water is drawn from two springs south of the townsite where it is stored in a 7 million litre reservoir before being chlorinated and pumped into town . The storm sewers empty into the Murray River , but the sanitary sewage is processed through a lagoon system and released into the Murray River north of town . Both the town and the province , through the Northern Health Authority , operate the Tumbler Ridge Community Health Centre . The closest hospitals with over @-@ night beds are in Chetwynd and Dawson Creek . The two public schools , Tumbler Ridge Elementary School and Tumbler Ridge Secondary School are run by the School District 59 Peace River South . Post @-@ secondary courses , programs , and industry training are offered by Northern Lights College at the secondary school and community centre .
= = Economy = =
Tumbler Ridge was built to provide a labour force for the coal mining industry , which has remained the dominant employer throughout the town 's history . The mining companies had a contract to sell 100 million tons of coal to a consortium of Japanese steel mills over 15 years for US $ 7 @.@ 5 billion ( 1981 ) . The Quintette Operating Corporation ( QOC ) was formed by partnership between Denison Mines ( 50 % ) , Mitsui Mining ( 20 % ) , Tokyo Boeki ( 20 % ) , and other smaller firms , and began blasting at the Quintette mine in October 1982 . The Bullmoose Operating Corporation was formed by the Teck Corporation ( 51 % ) , Lornex ( 39 % ) , Nissho Iwai ( 10 % ) and worked the smaller Bullmoose mine . The economic viability of the mining companies were in question since the world coal prices began falling in the early 1980s and the Japanese consortium requested reduced prices . After the Supreme Court ruled that the coal prices must be reduced , the QOC filed for court protection from its creditors allowing the Teck Corporation to take over management in 1992 . By 1996 , even as lay @-@ offs continued , over half the town 's labour force were employed at one of the two mines . New contracts with the Japanese consortium , signed 1997 , moved production to the lower cost Bullmoose mine but guaranteed production until 2003 when that mine was expected to be exhausted . The Quintette mine was closed altogether on August 31 , 2000 .
While there was an intent by the town 's planners to move to a more diversified economy , the few initiatives in this direction were not supported by the industries or local decision @-@ makers . Uncertainty about the town 's future had been a serious concern to residents since the 1984 price reduction demands , but it was not until the closure of the Quintette mine that the town seriously investigate a diversification . Since then employment has been generated in tourism ( attractions from dinosaur fossil discoveries , outdoor recreation , and nearby provincial parks ) , forestry , and oil and gas exploration .
A $ 1 @.@ 4 billion Murray River coal mine project near Tumbler Ridge , operated by HD Mining International , a company majority @-@ owned by Huiyong Holdings Group , a private company from China uses long @-@ wall mining in which " coal is extracted along a wall in large blocks and then carried out on a conveyor belt . " Penggui Yan , CEO of HD Mining and its controlling shareholder , was a manager of the state @-@ owned China Shenhua Energy Co ( CSEC ) , China 's largest coal company , which had developed a highly advanced long @-@ wall mining technology . In 2013 HD mining brought in 52 workers from China through the federal Temporary Foreign Worker Program ( TFWP ) claiming a requirement of the job is an ability to speak Mandarin . The hiring was challenged in a Vancouver federal court by two labour unions in April 2013 , The unions claimed there were qualified Canadian job applicants , however the case was dismissed by Justice Russell Zinn who found there was nothing to support the unions claim .
= = Culture , recreation and media = =
After dinosaur trackways were discovered in 2000 , and bones in 2002 , the Tumbler Ridge Museum Foundation began excavations and opened the Peace Region Palaeontology Research Centre . Fossils and bones are displayed at both locations . Tours and educational programs related to dinosaur , the trackways , and the wilderness are offered .
Tumbler Ridge 's location among the Rocky Mountains has allowed for the development of numerous trail systems for motorized and non @-@ motorized recreation . The trails and open areas span numerous mountains . Kinuseo Falls along the Murray River in the Monkman Provincial Park is the most popular destination for visitors to Tumbler Ridge . Two other provincial parks are just outside the municipal boundaries : Bearhole Lake Provincial Park and Gwillim Lake Provincial Park .
Annual events held in Tumbler Ridge include the Grizfest Music Festival , Emperor 's Challenge – promoted as the most beautiful and most challenging half @-@ marathon in the world – and the Ridge Ramble Cross @-@ Country Ski Race . The Grizfest Music Festival ( formerly Grizzly Valley Days ) is a two @-@ day concert held on the August long weekend , and includes a parade , dance , art show , and other community @-@ wide events . The Emperor 's Challenge , also in August , is a 21 km ( 13 mi ) marathon up Roman Mountain .
Tumbler Ridge has one newspaper published in the community , the locally owned and operated Tumbler Ridge News ( formerly Community Connections ) . The Tumbler Ridge Observer formerly covered the town and was published by the Peace River Block Daily News in Dawson Creek . The Ridge Blog was a short @-@ lived online news source . One newsletter , Coffee Talk , based out of Chetwynd , is circulated in the town . No radio station , or television station broadcasts from the town but there are local repeaters for stations from larger centres .
In Fall 2014 Tumbler Ridge was designated a full member of UNESCO 's Global Geopark Network being only the second Geopark in North America and the first in the West . The Tumbler Ridge Geopark Committee is dedicated to developing tourism and business in the area .
= = Government and politics = =
The District of Tumbler Ridge 's council @-@ manager form of municipal government is headed by a mayor ( who also represents Tumbler Ridge on the Peace River Regional District 's governing board ) and a six @-@ member council ; these positions are subject to at @-@ large elections every three years . Don McPherson was elected mayor on November 15 , 2014 , succeeding Darwin Wren . Sherry Berringer was elected as school trustee for a third term , sitting on the board of School District 59 . The city funds a volunteer fire department headed by full @-@ time fire chief Matt Treit .
Tumbler Ridge is part of the Peace River South provincial electoral district , represented , since 2013 , by Mike Bernier in the Legislative Assembly of British Columbia . Prior to Bernier , the riding was represented by Blair Lekstrom who was elected in the 2001 provincial election , with 72 % support from the town 's polls and re @-@ elected in 2005 with 64 % and in 2009 with 70 % support . Before Lekstrom , Peace River South was represented by Jack Weisgerber as a member of the Social Credit Party of British Columbia ( 1986 – 1994 ) and Reform Party of British Columbia ( 1994 – 2001 ) . In 1996 , as leader of the Reform Party , Weisgerber won re @-@ election despite the Tumbler Ridge polls placing him second to the New Democratic Party candidate .
Federally , Tumbler Ridge is in the Prince George — Peace River riding , represented in the Canadian House of Commons by Conservative Party Member of Parliament Bob Zimmer . Before Zimmer , who was elected in May 2011 , the riding was represented by Jay Hill since 1993 . The riding was represented by Frank Oberle of the Progressive Conservative Party from 1972 to 1993 . Oberle served as Canada 's Minister of Science and Technology in 1985 and Minister of Forestry in 1989 .
|
= Surfer Rosa =
Surfer Rosa is the first full @-@ length album by the American alternative rock band Pixies , released in March 1988 on the British independent record label 4AD . The album 's unusual and offbeat subject matter includes references to mutilation and voyeurism ; this is augmented by experimental recording techniques and a distinctive drum sound . Surfer Rosa contains many of the elements present in Pixies ' earlier output , including Spanish lyrics and references to Puerto Rico .
Because of 4AD 's independent status , distribution in the United States was handled by British label Rough Trade Records ; however , it failed to chart in either the UK or the U.S. " Gigantic " was the only single taken from the release ( in a re @-@ recorded version ) , and only reached number 93 on the UK Singles Chart . Despite this , Surfer Rosa was re @-@ released in the U.S. by Elektra Records in 1992 , and in 2005 was certified gold by the Recording Industry Association of America .
Surfer Rosa is often cited as a favorite of music critics and is frequently included on professional lists of the all @-@ time best rock albums . Many alternative rock artists , including Billy Corgan and PJ Harvey , have cited the album as inspirational ; Nirvana 's Kurt Cobain frequently acknowledged that Surfer Rosa was a strong influence on Nevermind , and , in 1993 , Cobain hired the album 's recording engineer Steve Albini to record his band 's album In Utero .
= = Background = =
Before the release of Pixies ' debut mini @-@ album Come On Pilgrim in October 1987 , Ivo Watts @-@ Russell , head of 4AD , suggested they return to the studio to record a full @-@ length album . The original plan was to record new material at Fort Apache Studios , where the band had produced The Purple Tape and Come On Pilgrim . However , due to differences between the band 's manager Ken Goes and The Purple Tape producer Gary Smith , Pixies ended up looking for a new producer and recording studio . On the advice of a 4AD colleague , Watts @-@ Russell looked to hire Steve Albini , ex @-@ frontman of Big Black , as the record 's engineer and producer . Having sent a pre @-@ release tape of Come On Pilgrim to Albini , Pixies ' manager , Ken Goes , invited him to a Boston dinner party at drummer David Lovering 's house a few weeks after Come On Pilgrim 's release .
Albini met the band that evening , and they discussed how the next record should sound and be recorded . According to Albini , " [ the band and I ] were in the studio the next day . " Paul Kolderie , who had worked at Fort Apache Studios with Smith , recommended the Boston recording studio Q Division to Albini . This created tension between Smith and Kolderie , and Kolderie later remarked that " Gary almost killed me for the suggestion , he thought I was scheming to get the project . "
= = Recording and production = =
Pixies entered Q Division in December 1987 , booking ten working days of studio time in which to record the album . 4AD allocated the band a budget of US $ 10 @,@ 000 . Albini 's producer 's fee was US $ 1 @,@ 500 , and he received no royalties ; Albini has a practice of refusing royalties from records he produces , viewing it as " an insult to the band . " Along with Albini in the studio , Q Division 's Jon Lupfer acted as studio assistant . The recording process took the entire booked period of ten working days to complete , with extra vocal mixes subsequently added in the studio . Albini planned to mix the record " somewhere else " , but according to Lupfer , " He was unhappy there with it . "
Albini used unusual recording techniques . For Kim Deal 's backing vocals in " Where Is My Mind ? " and her lead vocals on " Gigantic " , Albini moved the studio equipment and recorded in a studio bathroom to achieve real , rather than studio , echo ; according to John Murphy , Deal 's husband at the time , " Albini didn 't like the studio sound . " Albini later said that the record could have been completed in a week , but " we ended up trying more experimental stuff basically to kill time and see if anything good materialized . " An example was " Something Against You " , where Albini filtered Black Francis ' voice through a guitar amp for " a totally ragged , vicious texture . "
= = = Studio banter = = =
The recording of a conversation held between Francis and Albini can be heard at the end of " Oh My Golly ! " . According to Lupfer , " it was a concept he [ Albini ] was going for to get some studio banter . " As Deal was leaving the studio to smoke a cigarette , she exclaimed " If anybody touches my stuff , I 'll kill ya . " Francis replied with " I 'll kill you , you fucking die , if anybody touches my stuff " . The track begins at this point , with Francis explaining the conversation to Albini , whose voice is not heard on the track . Lupfer later admitted that Albini knew " perfectly well what was going on . "
" I 'm Amazed " begins with Deal recounting a story in which one of her former teachers who was " into field hockey players " was discreetly fired . Francis finishes Deal 's sentences , joking that her response to hearing of the teacher 's activities was to try to join the team . Albini later observed the use of studio banter on Surfer Rosa : " It 's on their record forever so I think now they are obliged to say that they 're ok with it , but I honestly don 't know that that idea would 've ever come up if I hadn 't done it . There are times when things like that are revealing and entertaining and I kind of felt it was a bit gimmicky on this record . "
= = Music = =
Like Come On Pilgrim , Surfer Rosa displays a mix of musical styles ; pop guitar songs such as " Broken Face " , " Break My Body " , and " Brick Is Red " are featured alongside slower , more melodic tracks exemplified by " Where Is My Mind ? " . The album includes heavier material , and prominently features the band 's trademark quiet @-@ loud dynamic . Frontman and principal songwriter Black Francis wrote the material , the only exception being " Gigantic , " which was co @-@ written with Kim Deal . " Gigantic " is one of only two Pixies album tracks on which Deal sang lead vocals .
Surfer Rosa 's lyrical content includes examinations of mutilation and incest in " Break My Body " and " Broken Face " , while references to superheroes appear on " Tony 's Theme " . Voyeurism appears in " Gigantic " , and surrealistic lyrics are featured on " Bone Machine " and " Where Is My Mind ? " . Puerto Rico references and Spanish lyrics are found on the tracks " Oh My Golly ! " and " Vamos . " The latter track was previously featured on Come On Pilgrim , and appears on Surfer Rosa as a rerecorded version of the original song . Many of the themes explored on previous recordings are revisited on Surfer Rosa ; however , unlike on the band 's later albums , the songs in Surfer Rosa are not preoccupied with one overarching topic .
Other unusual and offbeat subject matter is raised on the album . " Cactus " is narrated by a prison inmate who requests his girlfriend smear her dress with blood and mail it to him . " Gigantic " is an " unabashed praisesong to a well @-@ endowed black man , " and borrows from the 1986 film Crimes of the Heart , in which a married woman falls in love with a teenager . Francis was inspired to write " Where Is My Mind ? " after scuba diving in the Caribbean . He later said he had " this very small fish trying to chase me . I don 't know why — I don 't know too much about fish behavior . "
= = Release = =
Surfer Rosa was released in the UK by 4AD on March 21 , 1988 , entering the UK Indie Chart the following week . It spent 60 weeks in the chart , peaking at number 2 . Until August of that year it was only available in the U.S. as an import . Although the label held worldwide distribution rights to Pixies , they did not have access to a distributor outside the UK . When 4AD signed a distribution deal with Rough Trade 's U.S. branch , the album was released on vinyl and cassette as part of the Surfer Rosa / Come On Pilgrim release . While Surfer Rosa / Come On Pilgrim has remained in print on CD in the UK , subsequent U.S. releases have seen the two released on separate CDs . These separate releases first appeared in January 1992 , when Elektra Records first reissued the band 's first two albums . After 4AD reacquired rights to the band 's U.S. distribution , they released both as separate CDs . Surfer Rosa was certified gold by the Recording Industry Association of America in 2005 , 17 years after its original release .
" Gigantic " was the only single taken from Surfer Rosa . The track and its B @-@ side , " River Euphrates " , were rerecorded by Gil Norton at Blackwing Studios in London , early in May 1988 . The remixed single was well met by critics . The single failed to sell , and spent just one week at number 93 on the UK Singles Chart . Despite the poor commercial performance of both Surfer Rosa and " Gigantic " , Ivo Watts @-@ Russell has said that the response to the album was " times five " compared with Come On Pilgrim .
= = Packaging = =
Surfer Rosa 's cover artwork features a photograph of a topless " friend of a friend " of the band , posing as a flamenco dancer , pitched against a wall which displays a crucifix and a torn poster . Simon Larbalestier , who contributed pictures to all Pixies album sleeves , decided to build the set because " we couldn 't find the atmosphere we wanted naturally . " According to Larbalestier , Black Francis came up with the idea for the cover as he wrote songs in his father 's " topless Spanish bar " ; Larbalestier added the crucifix and torn poster , and they " sort of loaded that with all the Catholicism . " Commenting on the cover in 2005 , Francis said , " I just hope people find it tasteful . " The cover booklet expands on the theme , and features photographs of the flamenco dancer in several other poses ; there are no song lyrics or written content , apart from album credits , in the booklet .
Albini 's name does not appear on the original record sleeve . The booklet 's photographs were taken in one day at a pub opposite the 4AD offices , because , according to Larbalestier , " it was one of the few places that had a raised stage " . In an 1988 interview with Joy Press , Black Francis described the concept as referring to " a surfer girl , " who " walks along the Beach of Binones , has a surfboard , very beautiful . " When questioned about the topless element , he replied , " For the first record , I told them I liked nudity . I like body lines — not necessarily something in bad taste , didn 't even have to be female , just body lines ... like that Obsession ad , you know ? " According to Melody Maker , the album was originally entitled " Gigantic " after Deal 's song , but the band feared misinterpretation of the cover and changed it to " Surfer Rosa . " The " name " of the cover woman , and the album title , comes from the " Oh My Golly ! " lyric , " Besando chichando con surfer rosa . "
= = Critical reception = =
The UK music press reviews of Surfer Rosa were generally positive . Q 's Ian Cranna wrote that " what sets the Pixies apart are their sudden bursts of memorable pop melody , " and noted that " they could have a bright future ahead of them . " NME 's Mark Sinker , reviewing the album in March 1988 , said " they force the past to sound like them " , while Dave Henderson from Underground magazine found the songs " well crafted , well delivered sketches which embrace commercial ideals as well as bizarre left @-@ field out of control moments " . American music magazine Spin described it as " beautifully brutal " , and named Pixies their musicians of the year . In a less enthusiastic review for The Village Voice , Robert Christgau found the band 's guitar riffs recognizable and their strong rhythms unique but felt they had been overrated by critics who hailed them as " the Amerindie find of the year " . In retrospect , he wrote that while Francis ' fey and philosophically limited lyrics were somewhat annoying , Surfer Rosa now seems " audaciously funny and musically prophetic " .
At the end of 1988 , Surfer Rosa was named one of the year 's best albums on English critics ' year @-@ end lists . Independent music magazines Melody Maker and Sounds named Surfer Rosa as their album of the year ; NME and Record Mirror placed the album 10th and 14th , respectively . However , Surfer Rosa failed to appear on The Village Voice 's Pazz & Jop , an annual poll of American critics . It also did not appear on any end @-@ of @-@ year list in the United States . A number of music magazines have since positioned Surfer Rosa as one of the quintessential alternative rock records of the 1980s . The album has appeared on several all @-@ time best album lists , and is consistently placed as one of the best albums of the 1980s in any genre .
= = Legacy = =
Both Surfer Rosa and Steve Albini 's production of the album have been influential on alternative rock , and on grunge in particular . Nirvana 's Kurt Cobain cited Surfer Rosa as the basis for Nevermind 's songwriting . When he first heard the album , Cobain discovered a template for the mix of heavy noise and pop he was aiming to achieve . He remarked in 1993 that he " heard songs off of Surfer Rosa that I 'd written but threw out because I was too afraid to play them for anybody . " Cobain hired Albini to produce Nirvana 's 1993 album In Utero , primarily due to his contribution to Surfer Rosa . The Smashing Pumpkins ' Billy Corgan described Surfer Rosa as " the one that made me go , ' holy shit ' . It was so fresh . It rocked without being lame . " Corgan was impressed by the album 's drum sound , and acknowledged that The Smashing Pumpkins used to study the record for its technical elements . Musician PJ Harvey said that Surfer Rosa " blew my mind , " and that she " immediately went to track down Steve Albini . " Cobain listed Surfer Rosa as number 2 of the top 50 albums he thought were most influential to Nirvana 's sound in his journal in 1993 .
People connected with the band were impressed by the record . Ivo Watts @-@ Russell recalled : " I remember when I first heard Surfer Rosa thinking , ' I didn 't know the Pixies could sound like The Fall . ' That was my immediate reaction , in other words , incredibly raw . " Gary Smith , who at the time was in a disagreement with the band , admitted he " was really happy that they had made such a forceful , aggressive , record . " Dinosaur Jr . ' s J Mascis , comparing the record to the later Pixies albums Bossanova and Trompe le Monde , said he thought that Steve Albini 's production " sounded way better than the other ones . "
In 1991 , as Pixies were recording Trompe le Monde , Albini described his impressions of Pixies during the recording of Surfer Rosa to the fan magazine Forced Exposure : " A patchwork pinch loaf from a band who at their top dollar best are blandly entertaining college rock . Their willingness to be ' guided ' by their manager , their record company and their producers is unparalleled . Never have I seen four cows more anxious to be led around by their nose rings . " Albini later apologized for his remarks , saying , " to this day I regret having done it . I don 't think that I regarded the band as significantly as I should have . "
= = Track listing = =
All tracks written by Black Francis , except where noted .
" Bone Machine " – 3 : 02
" Break My Body " – 2 : 05
" Something Against You " – 1 : 47
" Broken Face " – 1 : 30
" Gigantic " ( Francis / Kim Deal ) – 3 : 55
" River Euphrates " – 2 : 33
" Where Is My Mind ? " – 3 : 53
" Cactus " – 2 : 16
" Tony 's Theme " – 1 : 52
" Oh My Golly ! " – 1 : 48
" Vamos " – 4 : 18
" I 'm Amazed " – 1 : 42
" Brick Is Red " – 2 : 00
= = Personnel = =
All information taken from the CD release of Surfer Rosa .
Black Francis – vocals , rhythm guitar , acoustic guitar
Kim Deal – bass , backing vocals , vocals on " Gigantic " ( credited as Mrs. John Murphy )
Joey Santiago – lead guitar
David Lovering – drums
Steve Albini – production , audio engineering
Simon Larbalestier , Vaughan Oliver – Cover image , album booklet imagery
Published by Rice ' n ' Beans Music BMI
= = Accolades = =
The information regarding accolades attributed to Surfer Rosa is adapted from Acclaimedmusic.net.
( * ) designates unordered lists .
|
= Grolier Codex =
The Grolier Codex ( sometimes referred to as the Sáenz Codex ) is a Maya book of a pre @-@ Columbian type but of disputed authenticity . It first appeared in a private collection in the 20th century and was displayed at the Grolier Club in New York , hence its name . The codex consists of a fragment of a Maya book , containing almanacs of Venus represented in a simplistic fashion . The Grolier Codex would be only the fourth surviving pre @-@ Columbian Maya book if genuine . The codex is said to have been recovered from a cave in the Mexican state of Chiapas in the 1960s , together with a mosaic mask and some blank pages of pre @-@ Columbian fig @-@ bark paper . It was displayed at the Grolier Club from April 20 to June 5 , 1971 , and is now held in Mexico City . In 1973 , Michael D. Coe published the first half @-@ size recto @-@ side facsimile of the codex in The Maya Scribe and His World , produced by the Grolier Club . The codex contains a Venus almanac that , in structure , is closely related to the Venus almanac contained in the Dresden Codex .
The codex , although displaying Mixtec stylistic features , is judged to be Maya ( if genuine ) based upon the use of bark paper instead of the deerhide preferred for Mixtec codices and because of the presence of Maya day signs and numbering .
The codex is poorly preserved ; the surviving page fragments display a number of figures in central Mexican style , combined with Maya numbering and day glyphs . The document is currently held by the Museo Nacional de Antropología in Mexico city and is not on public display . The physics institute of the Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México subjected the codex to non @-@ destructive testing in an effort to determine its authenticity . The results were published in 2007 and were mixed ; the document apparently contains genuine pre @-@ Columbian materials but certain aspects , such as seemingly artificially induced wear and tear , are suspect . The researchers concluded that they were unable to prove or disprove the pre @-@ Columbian nature of the codex .
= = Physical characteristics = =
The Grolier Codex is a screenfold book fashioned from bark paper , coated with stucco on both sides and painted on one side . Eleven pages survive of a twenty @-@ page book . The lower portions of the pages are badly damaged by moisture , eroding and staining bottom of each page . The eleventh page is particularly badly damaged with only the central portion remaining , making it unclear whether this page belongs to the codex or not . The greatest height of any of the surviving page fragments is 18 centimetres ( 7 @.@ 1 in ) and the average page width is 12 @.@ 5 centimetres ( 4 @.@ 9 in ) .
Five single sheets of bark paper were found associated with the codex , they had no stucco coating and were brown and water stained . Two of these had adhered to the codex and the other three may have once been with the codex but had separated . One of these sheets had a painted line in the same red hematite pigment used in the codex itself . A smaller sheet of bark paper was attached to the lined sheet and this smaller piece was submitted for radiocarbon dating . This testing produced a date for the sheet of AD 1230 ± 130 .
= = Content = =
Each page of the codex has been painted on one side with a standing figure facing left . Each figure holds a weapon and most grip a rope leading to a restrained captive . Colours used on the codex include hematite red , black , blue @-@ green , a red wash and a brown wash , all upon a strong white background . The left @-@ hand side of each page is marked by a column of day signs ; where this column is complete these total thirteen in all . Each day sign is associated with a bar @-@ and @-@ dot numerical coefficient . Six pages depict a figure bearing weapons and accompanied by a captive ( pages 1 – 4 , 6 and 9 ) , two pages ( 5 and 8 ) both depict a figure hurling a dart at a temple . Page 7 of the codex shows a passive warrior standing in front of a tree . Page 11 depicts a death god with a javelin , pointing his weapon at a water vessel containing a snail . Page 10 is a badly damaged fragment with the subject largely obliterated . Based on the surviving portion , Michael Coe thought it depicted a standing figure wearing a waterbird headdress and bearing an atlatl . The figures represented on each page differ from those on the other Maya codices and are far more similar to the Mixtec codices and Toltec art styles of central Mexico . The heads of the death gods painted in the Grolier Codex are almost identical to those represented in the Laud Codex and Fejérváry @-@ Mayer Codex , including the red colouring of the portion of the teeth closest to the gums .
The pages of the Grolier Codex contain seven hieroglyphs representing days ; the style of these glyphs differs from that of the other three Maya codices but is most similar to the glyphs of the Dresden Codex . The glyphs are arranged in vertical columns incorporating day signs accompanied by a number ; each date corresponds to a manifestation of Venus . Whereas the Venus almanac in the Dresden Codex documents the planet after inferior conjunction as the morning star , the Grolier Codex documents all four of the stations of Venus : rising after inferior conjunction as morning star in the east , disappearance before superior conjunction , reappearance as evening star in the west and disappearance before inferior conjunction .
= = Discovery = =
The codex is said to have been found enclosed in a wooden box in a dry cave in the highlands of Chiapas near Tortuguero ; it was said to have been found with a turquoise mask that is now in the collection of Dumbarton Oaks . In 1965 Mexican collector Dr. Josué Sáenz was taken by two men on a light plane to a remote airstrip in the foothills of the Sierra Madre near Tortuguero in Tabasco state ; the compass of the plane was covered with a cloth but Sáenz recognized his approximate location . At the airstrip he was shown the codex along with some other looted Maya artifacts and was told that he could take the items back to Mexico City for authentication before purchasing them . The antiquities expert that Sáenz consulted declared that the artifacts were fakes but Sáenz later purchased the codex and permitted Michael Coe to display the codex at the Grolier Club in 1971 . In 1976 , the United States @-@ Mexico Artifacts Treaty of 1970 was invoked by the Attorney General of Mexico . This resulted in the seizure of the codex and its return to Mexico . Sáenz donated the codex to the Mexican government and it is currently kept in a vault in the Museo Nacional de Antropología in Mexico City and is not on public display . The claimed discovery of the Grolier Codex would make it the only pre @-@ Columbian codex discovered in the course of the 20th century , except for some codex fragments excavated by archaeologists .
= = Authenticity = =
English Mayanist J. Eric S. Thompson cast strong doubts upon the authenticity of the Grolier Codex in his 1975 article The Grolier Codex , published in volume 27 of the Contributions of the University of California . Thompson argued that the codex was a modern forgery and that the unusual mix of styles in the document was not due to the mixing of cultures but rather due to the hand of a forger . Thompson queried the illustration of all four stations of Venus in the codex , noting that other Mesoamerican codices only illustrated the more spectacular appearance of Venus as morning star .
Following Thompson 's attack upon the veracity of the codex , a number of scholars published their opinions that the document is genuine over the course of the 1980s and early 1990s , including John B. Carlson , Yuri Knorozov , Thomas A. Lee , Jr . , Jesús Ignacio Mora Echeverría , George E. Stuart , and Karl Taube . In 2000 , German epigrapher Nikolai Grube expressed his belief that the document is genuine , based upon the preciseness of the Venus almanac . However , in a later publication from 2012 , he clearly calls the codex a forgery . In 2002 , French archaeologist Claude @-@ François Baudez commented – like Thompson before – that the codex serves no divinatory purpose and was useless as an aid to a Maya priest ; he believes that the document is the product of a forger using pre @-@ Columbian materials but relatively ignorant of his subject . The codex is notable in its use of prominent illustrations of uniform size and the almost complete absence of hieroglyphic text ; the deities lack names and the cardinal directions are unmarked . In a paper published in 2003 , the authors ( including Mayanist Stephen D. Houston ) argue that the iconography and lack of hieroglyphic text are the result of a strong central Mexican stylistic influence .
The radiocarbon dating of an associated sheet of unstuccoed bark paper had been used to support a 13th @-@ century date for the Grolier Codex . Large quantities of pre @-@ Columbian bark paper have been found in dry caves , so a genuine piece of blank pre @-@ Columbian paper may have been used by a forger as a base for painting a falsified codex . The fact that the codex is painted on one side only while the three uncontested Maya codices are all painted on both sides has been used as an argument against its authenticity , although Michael Coe has argued that parts of non @-@ Maya Mesoamerican codices had sometimes been left blank for many years before being painted in a style distinct from the opposite side . Baudez , in his 2002 critique of the Grolier Codex , noted that the fact that the codex is only painted on one side is irrelevant in determining its authenticity , since there are many examples of Mesoamerican codices not being painted on both sides . Further doubts have been cast upon how Sáenz acquired the codex and the iconography of the document itself . Archaeologist Donna Yates considers that Coe 's account of Sáenz being contacted by an unnamed person and flown to a remote airstrip by unidentified persons to be " fantastical " . As of 2012 , the authenticity of the document was still disputed , although Carlson has published a further article reaffirming its legitimacy , citing 2002 radiocarbon testing of samples from the codex itself as well his own epigraphic and iconographic analyses .
= = = Iconography = = =
The artifact shows a number of idiosyncrasies that raise questions concerning its authenticity . The numbering systems used in the codex conflict . The Maya bar @-@ and @-@ dot system is used to mark units , but the central Mexican dot system is used to mark multiples of twenty ( for example by using 11 dots instead of 2 bars and a dot , as would be the case in the bar @-@ and @-@ dot system where a bar indicates 5 and a dot indicates 1 ) . Some bar @-@ and @-@ dot numbers are placed within a cartouche decorated with a knot at the top . The only other instance of such a cartouche being used with numbers is in the Dresden Codex , where the cartouche has a very specific function , indicating a negative date count from the zero year of the great cycle of the Mesoamerican Long Count calendar ( roughly equivalent to the function of BC in the Gregorian calendar ) . In the Grolier Codex , where the numbers mark intervals between stations of Venus , the use of this cartouche appears meaningless .
In the Grolier Codex captives are shown bound with cords leading to their necks , however the most common convention in Mesoamerican art is the depiction of captives bound by the arms or wrists . Some of the figures in the codex represent deities ( on pages 1 – 2 , 4 – 6 and 9 ) and some represent mortal warriors without supernatural attributes ( on pages 3 , 7 and 8 ) . Both the deities and the mortals are performing the same actions such as the capture of a prisoner , or conquest symbolised by a spear passing through a temple . Although the codex depicts the stations of Venus , none of the warlike figures is identified with attributes normally associated with the planet in Maya or central Mexican art . On page 9 , a bound captive is depicted from a high point of view with a sense of perspective that French Mesoamericanist and iconographer Claude @-@ François Baudez considers is alien to Mesoamerican art . God K ( K 'awiil ) is depicted twice in the codex but is incorrectly shown with human incisors instead of snake fangs .
= = = Materials = = =
The paper used for the Grolier Codex appears to be authentic pre @-@ Columbian bark paper and the contents of the document have not been copied directly from any of the generally accepted Maya codices , although they do resemble pages 46 to 50 of the Dresden Codex . A number of non @-@ destructive techniques have been applied to the codex in an effort to authenticate it , and the results were published in 2008 . The analysis revealed that only pre @-@ Columbian materials had been used in its creation ; no modern inorganic materials were detected . Some inconsistencies were revealed however ; cuts along the page edges seem to have been made with a sharp blade in order to give the appearance of natural wear and tear and the supposed water staining did not permeate the paper . The researchers commented that the staining appeared to be the result of drops of dye or ink being applied to the surface of the codex . In conclusion the researchers were unable to support or refute the pre @-@ Columbian nature of the codex . Unusually for a document that supposedly was stored in a cave for centuries , the paint of the codex still appears fresh .
= = = = Testing = = = =
The codex was tested in the Instituto de Física of the Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México in Mexico City using a 3 megaelectronvolt pelletron particle accelerator . Testing methods applied to the codex included ultraviolet imaging , infrared reflectography , optical microscopy , particle @-@ induced X @-@ ray emission and Rutherford backscattering spectrometry ( RBS ) . The specific aim of this non @-@ destructive testing was to compare the materials used in the codex with those used in other pre @-@ Columbian codices .
The testing showed that the base layer onto which the codex was painted is composed of gypsum , a material used as a base layer for paintings since antiquity . The black paint was analysed with RBS and found to be a carbon @-@ based pigment consistent with other pre @-@ Columbian Mexican codices . The red colour used in the codex is red ochre , an iron @-@ based pigment . There is not much blue colouration in the Grolier Codex and the presence of the distinctive Maya Blue pigment could not be confirmed . Analysis revealed the blue pigment used on the codex does not contain cobalt and does contain clay . The investigators concluded that the codex does contain some original pre @-@ Columbian materials but could not confirm that the document is authentic .
|
= Håkons Hall =
Håkons Hall , sometimes anglicized as Håkon Hall and Haakons Hall , is an arena located at Stampesletta in Lillehammer , Norway . With a spectator capacity of 11 @,@ 500 people , it is the largest handball and ice hockey venue in the country . Håkons Hall is regularly used for handball and ice hockey tournaments , concerts , exhibitions , conferences and banquets . The venue is owned by Lillehammer Municipality via the subsidiary Lillehammer Olympiapark , which owns all the Olympic venues in Lillehammer . The Norwegian Olympic Museum is located in the arena , which is located next to the smaller Kristins Hall .
The hall opened on 1 February 1993 having cost 238 million Norwegian krone ( NOK ) . It was built to host the ice hockey tournament at the 1994 Winter Olympics , and has since hosted the opening and closing ceremonies of the 1994 Winter Paralympics , the 1999 IIHF World Championship in ice hockey , the World Women 's Handball Championship in 1993 and 1999 , the Junior Eurovision Song Contest 2004 , the 2008 European Men 's Handball Championship and the 2010 European Women 's Handball Championship . Lillehammer IK has occasionally played ice hockey matches at the arena .
= = Construction = =
Lillehammer received its first indoor ice rink in 1988 , with the opening of Kristins Hall . That same year , the town was awarded the 1994 Winter Olympics , which required the construction of a larger venue for the Olympic ice hockey matches . The naming of the arena was decided by the Lillehammer Municipal Council in October 1988 , as part of a broader branding policy , based on the history of the Birkebeiner . Håkons Hall is named for Haakon Haakonarson , a medieval king of Norway who as a child was transported across by mountains by skiers . Kristin and Håkon became the mascots for the Olympics , and the twin arenas at Stampesletta were named accordingly . Protests were made in Bergen , as local patriots felt it was not suitable that a sports venue had such a similar name to Håkonshallen , a medieval hall in Bergen .
In June 1989 , the municipal council voted to locate most of the Lillehammer venues in the Stampesletta area , and to place Håkons Hall adjacent to Kristins Hall . This was controversial and many councilors voted for the original decentralized plan , with the venues spread out through the municipality . The application for the Olympics called for building up to five ice venues in Lillehammer . For post @-@ Olympic use , Kristins Hall was designated as the main ice rink for Lillehammer , while it was planned that Håkons Hall would be used for larger events . On 8 December 1989 , the International Olympic Committee rejected two demands from the International Ice Hockey Federation ( IIHF ) for the ability to host a minimum of 12 @,@ 000 spectators in the larger ice hockey venue and for a women 's ice hockey tournament .
The decision about the location of the ice hockey venues was made on 10 October 1990 . Håkons Hall would be the main venue , supplemented by Gjøvik Olympic Cavern Hall in Gjøvik . The proposal to have figure skating at Håkons Hall was rejected , and instead it was to be held at Hamar Olympic Amphitheatre in Hamar . In 1990 , the Norwegian Cycling Federation recommended Håkons Hall as one of several possible places to build a velodrome for the Union Cycliste Internationale 's 1993 UCI Track Cycling World Championships . The same year , Håkons Hall was proposed to supplement Oslo Spektrum as a venue for a proposed pan @-@ European professional ice hockey league . Construction was approved by the Parliament of Norway in April 1990 , including funding . Original design plans called for a simple hangar @-@ like design , and original cost estimates were for NOK 191 million . However , in March 1991 , the municipal council decided to increase spending on the venue to make it more aesthetic . The re @-@ design also included telescopic stands and better acoustics , to allow for more flexible use after the Olympics .
The main contractor was Veidekke and construction cost NOK 238 million . Grants were given from the Norwegian Water Resources and Energy Directorate and SINTEF for energy economization . The work on the hall was concluded on 1 February 1993 . It was the 27th indoor ice hockey rink in Norway .
= = Facilities = =
The structure is dug out of the ground so it does not appear monumental in size from the outside . The roof consists of four sections held up by double trussed beams in glued laminated timber , with lengths up to 85 @.@ 4 meters ( 280 ft ) . The hall is 127 meters ( 417 ft ) long and has a total surface area of 23 @,@ 000 square meters ( 250 @,@ 000 sq ft ) . The main hall has a floor area of 3 @,@ 500 square meters ( 38 @,@ 000 sq ft ) , with an activity area of 76 by 44 meters ( 249 by 144 ft ) . The maximum ceiling height is 40 meters ( 130 ft ) , and there is a direct drive @-@ in entrance to the hall for exhibitions . The venue has a capacity for 11 @,@ 500 seated spectators . The stands are flexible and telescopic , allowing for flexibility in hall use and seating capacity . The arena can be configured with a 330 square meters ( 3 @,@ 600 sq ft ) stage . The hall can be set up to serve 2 @,@ 000 people at a banquet , or divided up to serve smaller groups . The venue also features a cafeteria which can seat 200 people . For trade fairs , the venue offers 3 @,@ 500 square meters ( 38 @,@ 000 sq ft ) , in addition to the VIP and lobby facilities . The same area can also be used for conferences , and the venue can be split up into section to create group rooms , theme rooms and banquet rooms .
Håkons Hall Sports Centre is part of the complex which supplements the main hall with a recreational training facility . It can make use of the main hall for two handball or football courts , or six volleyball or badminton courts . In addition , there is a permanent health club , a climbing wall , an aerobic room , a golf center with two golf simulators and a putting green , and two badminton courts , all served by 13 changing rooms . The venue also features a 370 meters ( 1 @,@ 210 ft ) long running track . The cooling and heating systems for Håkons Hall and Kristins Hall are connected , allowing them to function as energy reserves for each other . The Norwegian Olympic Museum is located at Håkons Hall . The museum opened on 27 November 1997 , and is the only museum in Northern Europe dedicated to the entirety of Olympic history . Since 2006 , the museum has been operated as part of Maihaugen .
= = Events = =
During the 1994 Winter Olympics , Håkons Hall hosted the ice hockey tournament along with Gjøvik Olympic Cavern Hall between 12 and 26 February . Håkons Hall hosted 21 games , including the final which saw Sweden beat Canada in a penalty shootout . In the 1994 Winter Paralympics , Håkons Hall was used for the opening and closing ceremonies .
The first major international tournament in the hall was some matches of the 1993 World Women 's Handball Championship . Lillehammer IK plays its home matches at Kristins Hall , but in 1995 the play @-@ off match between it and neighbor town rivals Storhamar Dragons was played at Håkons Hall . The match saw more than 5 @,@ 000 spectators , the record for Lillehammer IK . In 1995 , the award ceremony for Spellemannsprisen , Norwegian music 's highest award , was held at Håkons Hall .
Norway hosted the 1999 IIHF Ice Hockey World Championship in Oslo , Lillehammer and Hamar . Håkons Hall featured Group D , consisting of Russia , Finland , Belarus and Kazakhstan , as well as the semi @-@ finals , the bronze final and the final . Tickets were sold as twins , with two games being staged with a one @-@ hour interlude on the same ticket . The same year , Håkons Hall was one of seven venues used for the 1999 World Women 's Handball Championship . In addition to group stage and play @-@ off matches , it was awarded the final . Oslo Spektrum was also considered to hold the final , but with only 8 @,@ 500 seats and a higher rent , Håkons Hall was preferred .
Håkons Hall hosted the Junior Eurovision Song Contest 2004 on 20 November 2004 , won by María Isabel with " Antes Muerta que Sencilla " . Norway was the host of the 2008 European Men 's Handball Championship ; the group stage games were played in four other Norwegian cities , while the play @-@ off and final was played in Håkons Hall in January 2008 . The final saw Denmark beat Croatia in front of 9 @,@ 052 spectators . In 2010 , Idrettsgallaen , a show to honor the past year 's Norwegian sports and athletes achievements , was hosted at Håkons Hall . Norway and Denmark co @-@ hosted the 2010 European Women 's Handball Championship in December 2010 , with the matches played in Norway being at Håkons Hall and Arena Larvik . Lillehammer featured Norway 's group in the first and second group stages , while the knockout stage was played in Denmark .
|
= Nausicaä of the Valley of the Wind ( film ) =
Nausicaä of the Valley of the Wind ( Japanese : 風の谷のナウシカ , Hepburn : Kaze no Tani no Naushika ) is a 1984 Japanese animated epic science fantasy adventure film written and directed by Hayao Miyazaki , based on his own 1982 manga of the same name . Isao Takahata produced the film for Tokuma Shoten and Hakuhodo , with Topcraft animating . Joe Hisaishi , in his first collaboration with Miyazaki , composed the film 's musical score . The film stars the voices of Sumi Shimamoto , Goro Naya , Yoji Matsuda , Yoshiko Sakakibara and Iemasa Kayumi .
Taking place in a post @-@ apocalyptic world in the far future , the film tells the story of Nausicaä ( Shimamoto ) , the young princess of the Valley of the Wind . She becomes embroiled in a struggle with Tolmekia , a kingdom that tries to use an ancient weapon to eradicate a jungle of mutant giant insects , and attempts to stop the Tolmekians from enraging these creatures .
The film was released in Japan on 11 March 1984 . While created before Studio Ghibli was founded , the film is considered to be the beginning of the studio and is often included as part of the Studio 's works , including the Studio Ghibli Collection DVDs and Blu @-@ rays . Widely acclaimed for its story , themes , characters and animation , Nausicaä of the Valley of the Wind is frequently ranked as one of the greatest animated films of all time .
= = Plot = =
One thousand years have passed since the Seven Days of Fire , an apocalyptic war that destroyed civilization and created the vast Toxic Jungle , a poisonous forest swarming with giant mutant insects . In the kingdom of the Valley of the Wind , a prophecy predicts a saviour " clothed in blue robes , descending onto a golden field , to join bonds with the great Earth and guide the people to the pure lands at last " . Nausicaä , the princess of the Valley of the Wind , explores the jungle and communicates with its creatures , including the gigantic , armored trilobite @-@ like creatures called Ohm . She hopes to understand the jungle and find a way for it and humans to co @-@ exist .
One night , during a visit by the Valley 's swordsmaster Lord Yupa , a cargo aircraft from the kingdom of Tolmekia crashes in the Valley . Nausicaä tries to rescue a passenger , the wounded Princess Lastelle of Pejite , who pleads with Nausicaä to destroy the cargo before dying . The cargo is an embryo of a Giant Warrior , one of the lethal bioweapons that caused the Seven Days of Fire . The Tolmekians , a military state , seized the embryo and Lastelle from Pejite , but their plane was attacked by mutant insects and crashed . One of the insects emerges wounded from the wreckage and seems poised to attack the frightened villagers , but Nausicaä uses a small bullroarer to calm it and guides it away from the Village on her jet @-@ powered glider .
The next morning , Tolmekian troops , led by Princess Kushana and Officer Kurotowa , kill Nausicaä 's father and take the Giant Warrior embryo . Kushana plans to mature the Giant Warrior and use it to burn the Toxic Jungle . Nausicaä kills several Tolmekian soldiers before Yupa intervenes . Kushana announces her decision to leave for Pejite with Nausicaä and five hostages from the Valley . Before they leave , Yupa discovers a secret garden of jungle plants reared by Nausicaä ; according to Nausicaä 's findings , plants that grow in clean soil and water are not toxic , but the jungle 's soil has been tainted by humankind .
An agile Pejite interceptor shoots down the Tolmekian ship carrying Kushana and her detachment . It crash @-@ lands in the jungle , disturbing several Ohm , which Nausicaä soothes . She leaves to rescue Asbel , the Pejite pilot and twin brother of Lastelle , but both are swallowed by quicksand and arrive in a non @-@ toxic area below the jungle . Nausicaä realizes that the jungle plants purify the polluted topsoil , producing clean water and soil underground .
Nausicaä and Asbel return to Pejite but find the capital ravaged by insects . A band of surviving Pejites reveal that they lured the creatures to eradicate the Tolmekians , and are doing the same in the Valley to recapture the Giant Warrior . They capture Nausicaä , but with the help of Asbel and his mother , Nausicaä escapes on a glider . While flying home , she finds a team of Pejite soldiers using a wounded baby Ohm to lead a furious herd of thousands of Ohm into the Valley . The Tolmekians deploy tanks and later the Giant Warrior against the herd , but their tanks ' firepower cannot harm the Ohm , and the Giant Warrior , hatched prematurely , disintegrates .
Nausicaä liberates the baby Ohm and gains its trust . Her dress stained by its blue blood , she and the baby Ohm stand before the raging herd and are both run over , killing Nausicaä . The herd calms , and the Ohm use their golden tentacles to revive her . She walks atop the hundreds of golden Ohm tentacles as through golden fields , revealing Nausicaä to be the saviour from the prophecy . The Ohm and Tolmekians leave the Valley and the Pejites remain with the Valley people , helping them to rebuild . Meanwhile , deep underneath the Toxic Jungle , a new non @-@ toxic tree sprouts next to Nausicaä 's lost aviation goggles .
= = Voice cast = =
= = Production = =
Hayao Miyazaki made his credited directorial debut in 1979 with The Castle of Cagliostro , a film which was a distinct departure from the antics of the Lupin III franchise , but still went on to receive the Ofuji Noburo Award at the 1979 Mainichi Film Concours . Although Cagliostro was not a box office success , Toshio Suzuki , editor of the magazine Animage , was impressed by the film and encouraged Miyazaki to produce works for Animage 's publisher , Tokuma Shoten . Miyazaki 's film ideas were rejected , and Tokuma asked him to do a manga : this led to the creation of Nausicaä of the Valley of the Wind . Miyazaki began writing and drawing the manga in 1982 , and it quickly became Animage 's most popular feature . Hideo Ogata and Yasuyoshi Tokuma , the founders of Animage and Tokuma Shoten respectively , encouraged Miyazaki to work on a film adaptation . Miyazaki initially refused , but agreed on the condition that he could direct .
In the early stages , Isao Takahata , credited as executive producer , reluctantly joined the project even before the animation studio was chosen . An outside studio to produce the film was needed because Tokuma Shoten did not own an animation studio : Miyazaki and Takahata chose the minor studio Topcraft . The production studio 's work was known to both Miyazaki and Takahata and was chosen because its artistic talent could transpose the sophisticated atmosphere of the manga to the film . On 31 May 1983 , work began on the pre @-@ production of the film . Miyazaki encountered difficulties in creating the screenplay , with only sixteen chapters of the manga to work with . Miyazaki would take elements of the story and refocus the narrative and characters to the Tolmekian invasion of Nausicaä 's homeland . Takahata would enlist the experimental and minimalist composer Joe Hisaishi to do the score for the film .
In August , the animation work began on the film and was produced by animators hired for the one film and paid per frame . One notable animator was Hideaki Anno , who later wrote and directed Neon Genesis Evangelion . Anno was assigned to draw the challenging God Warrior 's attack sequence , which according to Toshio Suzuki is a " high point in the film " . The film was released in March 1984 , with a production schedule of only nine months and with a budget equivalent to $ 1 million .
= = Themes = =
Miyazaki 's work on Nausicaä of the Valley of the Wind was inspired by a range of works including Ursula K. Le Guin 's Earthsea , Brian Aldiss 's Hothouse , Isaac Asimov 's Nightfall , and J.R.R Tolkien 's Lord of the Rings . Dani Cavallaro also suggests inspiration from The Princess Who Loved Insects folktale , and the works of William Golding . Nausicaä , the character , was inspired in name and personality , by Homer 's Phaeacian princess in the Odyssey . While a connection to Frank Herbert 's Dune is often made there is no confirmation apart from the name " Ohmu " being a syllabic rendition of the English " worm " . Miyazaki 's imagination was sparked by the mercury poisoning of Minamata Bay and how nature responded and thrived in a poisoned environment , using it to create the polluted world of Nausicaä of the Valley of the Wind . Ian DeWeese @-@ Boyd agrees , " Her commitment to love and understanding — even to the point of death — transforms the very nature of the conflict around her and begins to dispel the distorting visions that have brought it about . "
The most prominent themes are the anti @-@ war and environmental focus of the film . Nausicaä , the heroine , believes in the value of life regardless of its form and through her actions stops a war . Loy and Goodhew state there is no evil portrayed in the film , but the Buddhist roots of evil : greed , ill will and delusion . Fear is what drives the conflicts , the fear of the poisoned forest results in the greed and resentment . Nausicaä , in addition to being a transformative force , leads people to understand and respect nature which is portrayed as welcoming , spiritual , and restorative for those who enter it peacefully .
The film was released , in 1984 , with a recommendation from the World Wide Fund for Nature ( WWF ) . On 30 July 1995 , a subtitled version of the film was screened at the Institute of Contemporary Arts , in London , as part of the " Building Bridges " film festival , marking the fiftieth anniversary of the Atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki . In her 25 March 2013 presentation at Colorado College , on " Tapestries of Apocalypse : From Angers to ' Nausicaa ' and Beyond " , Dr. Susan J. Napier places the film and in particular the tapestry , depicted underneath the opening credits , within the tradition of artistic representation of apocalypses and apocalyptic visions . She explores the role such expressions play in understanding apocalyptic events and post @-@ event recovery .
= = Releases = =
The film was released by Toei Company on 11 March 1984 . The film would gross about 1 @.@ 48 billion yen at the box office , sell 914 @,@ 767 tickets and make an additional 742 million yen in distribution income . Home releases include the original April 1984 Laserdisc release and as part of Juburi ga Ippai Sutajio Jiburi LD Zenshuu ( Ghibli Complete Collection : Studio Ghibli Complete LD Collection ) from August 1996 , the original March 1984 VHS version by Animage and re @-@ release by Buena Vista on 19 September 1997 . Three DVD sets were released in Japan with a regular DVD and figure set released on 19 November 2003 and a collectors set following on 7 December 2003 .
= = = Warriors of the Wind = = =
New World Pictures produced a 95 @-@ minute English @-@ dubbed adaptation of the film , titled Warriors of the Wind , and it was released theatrically in the United States in June 1985 , with the VHS video release in December 1985 . In the late 1980s , Vestron Video would release the film and First Independent Video would re @-@ release it in 1993 with another minute cut from the film . The voice actors and actresses were not informed of the film 's plotline and the film was heavily edited to market it as a children 's action @-@ adventure film . Consequently , part of the film 's narrative meaning was lost : some of the environmentalist themes were diluted as was the main subplot of the Ohmu , altered to turn them into aggressive enemies . Most of the characters ' names were changed , including the titular character who became Princess Zandra . The United States cover for the VHS release featured a cadre of male characters who are not in the film , riding the resurrected God Warrior — including a still @-@ living Warrior shown briefly in a flashback . Approximately 22 minutes of the original film 's running time were edited for the release of Warriors of the Wind . Scenes deleted from that version include the opening and ending title sequences , most of Nausicaä 's interactions with the shed Ohm shell , Yupa 's discovery of her secret garden , flashbacks to Nausicaä 's childhood , most of the scene involving her and Asbel in the Toxic Jungle 's non @-@ toxic underground , and several scenes leading up to the Ohm stampede and the awakening of the Giant Warrior .
Dissatisfied with Warriors of the Wind , Miyazaki adopted a strict " no @-@ edits " clause for further foreign releases of Studio Ghibli 's films . On hearing Miramax co @-@ chairman Harvey Weinstein would attempt to edit Princess Mononoke to make it more marketable , one of Studio Ghibli 's production staff members sent an authentic katana with a simple message : " No cuts " . Warriors of the Wind also prompted Miyazaki to allow translator Toren Smith of Studio Proteus to create an official , faithful translation of the Nausicaä manga for Viz Media .
= = = 2005 English re @-@ release = = =
On October 18 , 2003 , Cindy and Donald Hewitt , the scriptwriters of Disney 's English dubs of Spirited Away and Porco Rosso , revealed that an uncut and redubbed version of Nausicaä was in pre @-@ production , and that Patrick Stewart and Uma Thurman had been cast . Natalie Portman was originally intended to voice Nausicaä , but Alison Lohman was eventually assigned the role .
Nausicaä was released on DVD by Buena Vista Home Entertainment on 22 February 2005 for Region 1 . This DVD includes both English dub and the Japanese audio track with English subtitles . Optimum Home Entertainment released the film in Region 2 and the Region 4 DVD is distributed by Madman Entertainment . A remastered Blu @-@ ray sourced from a 6K filmscan was released on 14 July 2010 in Japan . It includes an uncompressed Japanese LPCM stereo track , an English dub and English subtitles . On 18 October 2010 a Blu @-@ ray version was released in Region B by Optimum Home Entertainment . The film was released on Blu @-@ ray in the United States and Canada on 8 March 2011 by Walt Disney Studios Home Entertainment .
= = = Other language releases = = =
Spain first released two versions of the cut film , both called Guerreros del Viento ( " Warriors of the Wind " ) with the first in 1987 and again 1991 , and then a version of the original uncut film under the Nausicaä del Valle del Viento title in 2010 . France has had both versions of the movie appear with two cut versions named La Princesse des Etoiles ( " The Princess of the Stars " ) and Le vaisseau fantôme ( " The Ghost Ship " ) : the uncut film had a regular and collector 's DVD set released on 18 April 2007 . In Germany UFA released the 86 minute long cut version on VHS as Sternenkrieger ( literally " Star Warriors " ) in 1986 and Universum Anime released the uncut DVD release on 5 September 2005 . The 2007 Hungarian release , titled Nauszika - A szél harcosai ( " Nausicaä - The Warriors of the Wind " ) is uncut despite the title 's reference . The Korean DVD release of the uncut film was on 3 March 2004 . China has had three releases of Nausicaä : the first on Video CD and two DVD releases .
= = Reception = =
Nausicaä of the Valley of the Wind received largely positive reviews from film critics . The film is frequently ranked among the best animated films in Japan , and is seen by critics as a seminal influence on the development of anime , as the film 's success led to the foundation of Studio Ghibli and several other anime studios . Theron Martin of Anime News Network praised the film for its character designs , as well as Hayao Miyazaki 's direction and Joe Hisaishi 's score . He also said that the film " deserves a place on any short list of all @-@ time classic anime movies . " Common Sense Media , which serves to inform parents about media for children , rated the film positively and cited its good role models and positive messages , but also cautioned parents about its dramatic setting and violent scenes . As of August 2015 , review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes reports that 87 % of critics gave the film positive reviews , based on 15 reviews with an average rating of 8 / 10 .
Final Fantasy creator Hironobu Sakaguchi has cited the manga and film as an influence on his series . As such , the horseclaws in the film were used as an inspiration for the Chocobos in the games . Numerous games have used Ohmu @-@ like creatures , assumed to be reference to the film including Metal Slug 3 Cyber Core and Viewpoint . The game Crystalis , known in Japan as God Slayer : Haruka Tenkū no Sonata ( ゴッド ・ スレイヤー はるか天空のソナタ ) , shares common elements with the film , including an insect that resembles an Ohmu . Helen McCarthy in 500 Essential Anime Movies praised the animation techniques of Miyazaki , stating that " the real strength of this film is the script , packed with incident , excitement and passion , and the soundtrack " of Joe Hisaishi .
Disney 's English dub was well received by audiences and critics , especially in comparison to Warriors of the Wind , with the leading voice actors frequently being praised for their performances . However , in conducting a comparative analysis of the Japanese @-@ language anime with their English translations , Eriko Ogihara @-@ Schuck believes that although Disney 's dub eschewed the dualistic , good versus evil worldview of Warriors of the Wind , it also “ Christianiz [ ed ] Miyazaki 's animism ” . According to her , the translators of the film were working a language suffused with Judeo @-@ Christian idioms not found in Japanese , which they introduce to the text , such as the nature of man 's relationship with the environment and animals as seen in Judeo @-@ Christian narratives and cultural practices . Examples of these changes include when Nausicaä describes an insect as a " good boy " , a term often used in describing domesticated animals ( instead of a " good child " , as in the Japanese version ) , and when Nausicaä converses with the wounded baby Ohm - in Japanese , she does not consider forgiveness from the baby a possibility , while the English version has her asking for it , albeit admitting the difficulty for the Ohm to do so . As a result of these changes , Nausicaä 's death and subsequent resurrection by the Ohm herd present her as a Christ figure whose self @-@ sacrifices are for mankind , rather than for nature . Ogihara @-@ Schuck believes that Disney erased animistic motifs almost entirely from the film , even more so than Warriors of the Wind , in order to make it more accessible for American audiences due the film 's non @-@ specific setting , since animism was retained in their versions of My Neighbour Totoro , Princess Mononoke , Spirited Away and Ponyo , as well as their own production Pocahontas .
= = Gliders = =
Various gliders are seen in the film and the protagonist , Nausicaä , uses a jet @-@ assisted one @-@ person glider @-@ shaped machine with folding wings . According to the accompanying film book released in Japan , the glider is called Möwe ( メーヴェ , Mēve , or " mehve " in the English manga ) , the German word meaning gull . An official scale model lists it as having an approximate wingspan of 5 @.@ 8 meters ( 1 / 20 model measured to be 29 cm ) , while the design notes indicate it has a mass of only 12 kg . In 2004 , the Japanese @-@ led OpenSky Aircraft Project began attempts to build a real @-@ life , working personal jet glider based on the glider from the film . Two full @-@ size gliders with no power source carrying the code name M01 and M02 , with a half @-@ sized jet @-@ powered remote controlled mock up called moewe 1 / 2 was built . The designer and tester of the project refused the official endorsement of the project by Studio Ghibli and Hayao Miyazaki , noting that he did not want to cause trouble for them if an accident occurred . A jet powered version ( registration number JX0122 ) was finally able to take off under its own power for the first time on 3 September 2013 .
= = Soundtracks = =
The film 's score was composed by Joe Hisaishi , while the vocal theme song " Kaze no Tani no Naushika " was produced by Haruomi Hosono ( Yellow Magic Orchestra and Happy End member ) and sung by Narumi Yasuda . Numerous soundtracks and albums relating to the film have been released .
Nausicaä of the Valley of Wind : Image Album < Bird Person > ( 風の谷のナウシカ イメージアルバム 鳥の人 ) released 25 November 1983
Nausicaä of the Valley of Wind : Symphony < The Legend of Wind > ( 風の谷のナウシカ シンフォニー 風の伝説 ) released 25 February 1984
Nausicaä of the Valley of Wind : Soundtrack < Toward the Far Away Land > ( 風の谷のナウシカ サウンドトラック はるかな地へ ) released 25 March 1984
Nausicaä of the Valley of Wind : Drama Version < God of Wind > ( 風の谷のナウシカ ・ ドラマ編 ) released 25 April 1984
Nausicaä of the Valley of Wind : Best Collection ( 風の谷のナウシカ BEST ) released 25 November 1986
Nausicaä of the Valley of Wind : Hi @-@ tech Series ( 風の谷のナウシカ ・ ハイテックシリーズ ) released 25 October 1989
Nausicaä of the Valley of Wind : Piano Solo Album < For the Easy Use with Beyer > released 15 March 1992
= = Other media = =
= = = Manga = = =
Miyazaki 's manga version of Nausicaä was written over a period of 12 years , with breaks taken to work on Studio Ghibli films . Serialized in Tokuma Shoten 's Animage magazine , the first chapter was published in February 1982 and the last chapter in March 1994 . Miyazaki adapted and altered the work for the film because only sixteen chapters of the manga were written at the time of the film 's production . The manga would continue to be produced until the seventh and final book was released on 15 January 1995 . The English localization was initially done by Toren Smith and Dana Lewis of Studio Proteus . After Miyazaki resumed production of the manga , Viz Media chose a new team and continued to release the rest of manga .
= = = Video games = = =
Three video games were released based on the manga and the film . All three of the titles were developed by Technopolis Soft and published by Technopolis Soft and Tokuma Shoten . Nausicaä in the Nick of Time also known as Nausicaä 's Close Call ( Naushika Kiki Ippatsu or Nausicaä Kiki Ippatsu ) is a Japanese shoot ' em up video game developed and published by Technopolis Soft for the NEC PC @-@ 6001 computer system in 1984 . The game marketed as Nausicaä of the Valley of the Wind and known by its title screen as Kaze no Tani no Nausicaä ( 風の谷のナウシカ , Nausicaä Adventure Game ) , is an adventure game developed by Technopolis Soft for the NEC PC @-@ 8801 : it was released in the 1980s , most likely 1984 . The third game , Wasure ji no Nausicaä Game ( 忘れじのナウシカ ・ ゲーム , Nausicaä 's Forgotten Game ) for the MSX is the most well @-@ known of the releases and has been frequently and erroneously referred to as a game where the player kills the Ohmu . These games signaled the end of video game adaptations for Hayao Miyzaki 's films . The only other games based on Miyazaki films were the LaserDisc arcade game Cliff Hanger and the MSX2 platform @-@ adventure game Lupin III : The Castle of Cagliostro , both of which were based on The Castle of Cagliostro . Luke Plunkett describes these " two awful adaptations " as the reason Miyazaki does not allow further video game adaptations of his films .
= = = Other = = =
An art book titled , The Art of Nausicaä ( ジ ・ アート ・ オブ 風の谷のナウシカ , Ji āto Obu kaze no tani no naushika ) was released by Tokuma Shoten on 20 June 1984 . It contains artwork during the early stages of production of the film and commentary of assistant director Kazuyoshi Katayama . Kaze no tani no Naushika Miyazaki Hayao Suisaiga @-@ shū ( 風の谷のナウシカ 宮崎駿水彩画集 , literally " Nausicaä of the Valley of the Wind : Hayao Mizayaki Watercolor Art book " ) was released by Tokuma Shoten on 5 September 1995 . The art book contains artwork of the manga in watercolor , examples of storyboards for the film , autographed pictures by Hayao Miyazaki and interviews on the birth of Nausicaä . The book has been translated in English and French . Two bunkobon volumes containing the story boards were released , on 31 March 1984 . In 2001 , the Nausicaä storyboards were re @-@ released , bundled into a single , larger , volume as part 1 of the Studio Ghibli Story boards collection . A selection of layout designs for the film was also incorporated in the Studio Ghibli Layout Designs exhibition tour , which started in the Museum of Contemporary Art Tokyo ( 28 July 2008 to 28 September 2008 ) and subsequently travelled to different museums around Japan and Asia , concluding in the Fukuoka Asian Art Museum ( 12 October 2013 to 26 January 2014 ) . The exhibition catalogues contain annotated reproductions of the displayed artwork . Tokuma Shoten released a film comic , in four volumes , one each week from 20 November 1990 to 20 December 1990 . A two @-@ volume children 's version was released on 31 March 1998 .
|
= Porsche RS Spyder =
The RS Spyder ( Type 9R6 ) is a racing car designed by Porsche in conjunction with Penske to compete in Le Mans Prototype Class 2 ( LMP2 ) racing . The car takes its name from the legendary 550 Spyder of the 1950s ( combined with Porsche 's common " RennSport " ( lit . : racing sports ) designation ) . The car marked Porsche 's first return to the top level of sports prototype racing since the firm abandoned its Porsche LMP in 1999 .
The RS Spyder made its debut in the final event of the 2005 American Le Mans Series ( ALMS ) at Laguna Seca winning its class . Since then the RS Spyder has won the ALMS LMP2 Championship in 2006 , 2007 and 2008 and took class honours at Le Mans in 2008 and 2009 . The outright victory at the 2008 12 Hours of Sebring was the first major victory for Porsche in endurance racing for five years and it was also the first time in 24 years that the non @-@ premier class won the 12 Hours of Sebring overall . Regulation changes for the 2011 season rendered the RS Spyder obsolete but the car has left a legacy in the Porsche 918 , which uses a development of the Spyder 's engine and the 919 which carried Porsche 's racing program on into the LMP 1 category starting in 2014 .
= = Design = =
The RS Spyder was designed completely in @-@ house by Porsche engineers . The chassis is a rigid carbon fibre monocoque with both the engine and transmission being integral stressed members . The 3 @.@ 4 litre 90 @-@ degree V8 racing engine was designed from scratch as was the six @-@ speed electro @-@ pneumatic sequential gearbox . Braking is via six @-@ piston caliper carbon @-@ fibre brake mounted on suspension controlled by four @-@ way , spring / damper units activated by pushrods with adjustable torsion @-@ bar springs . The car has a dry weight of 825 kilograms ( 1 @,@ 819 lb ) in 2010 specification but was initially 750 kilograms ( 1 @,@ 650 lb ) .
Since its introduction in 2005 the engine , which initially produced 478 horsepower ( 356 kW ) has been developed and modified to meet the changing regulations of both the ALMS and the ACO . For 2008 the engine developed 503 horsepower ( 375 kW ) using direct fuel injection and 440 horsepower ( 330 kW ) in 2009 @-@ spec with air restrictor limitations .
= = Race results = =
= = = 2005 = = =
The RS Spyder made its race debut at the final round of the 2005 American Le Mans Series , the Monterey Sports Car Championship at Mazda Raceway Laguna Seca , entered by Penske Racing and driven by Lucas Luhr and Sascha Maassen from the Porsche Junioren factory team . The sole RS Spyder finished first in class and fifth overall .
= = = 2006 = = =
During 2006 , Penske entered two RS Spyders in the ALMS and won seven class victories including outright victory at the Mid @-@ Ohio race . This was the first LMP2 victory in a race since 2003 and the first major result for Porsche since the 1998 24 Hours of Le Mans . The results ensure victory for Penske in the LMP2 Championship and also for Sascha Maassen in the drivers ' standings .
= = = 2007 = = =
For 2007 , Porsche unveiled the 2007 @-@ spec RS Spyder ( known as the RS Spyder Evo ) , which included an increase in power to 503 horsepower ( 375 kW ) . Dyson Racing joined Penske in the ALMS . 2007 would be the most successful year for the RS Spyder with Penske repeating their outright victory in the ALMS series a further eight times and also securing an additional three class victories . Penske again won the LMP2 class in ALMS and Romain Dumas won the LMP2 Drivers Championship . During the season the RS Spyder won eight races while the Audi R10 TDI from the largest P1 class won only four .
= = = 2008 = = =
Rule changes increased the RS Spyder 's weight to 825 kg and Porsche introduce a new direct injection engine developing 503 horsepower ( 375 kW ) . A Penske car driven by Timo Bernhard , Romain Dumas , and Emmanuel Collard , secured the overall victory at the 2008 12 Hours of Sebring , winning it on the 20th anniversary of Porsche 's last overall win at the race . Penske had another outright victory at the Utah Grand Prix and also recorded an additional three class wins . At Petit Le Mans a 3rd RS Spyder was entered by Penske in an attempt to lock out the manufacturers ' championship against Acura . Penske won both the LMP2 Team and drivers ' championship for Timo Bernhard and Romain Dumas . Porsche won the manufacturers ' championship by 1 point ahead of Acura .
Danish Team Essex together with Van Merksteijn Motorsport of The Netherlands and Horag Racing of Switzerland participate in the Le Mans Series ( LMS ) all with 2008 @-@ spec RS Spyder . Team Essex and Van Merksteijn also entered the 24 Hours of Le Mans , marking the debut for the RS Spyder at the event . A RS Spyder from Van Merksteijn Motorsport driven by Jeroen Bleekemolen , Peter van Merksteijn and Jos Verstappen , came first in class and 10th overall with the Essex team coming second in class ( 12th overall ) . A RS Spyder won its class in every LMS race giving it a 1 @-@ 2 @-@ 3 in the LMP2 standing and securing the drivers championship for Jos Verstappen and the Team championship for Van Merksteijn Motorsport .
= = = 2009 = = =
New restrictor rules brought the RS Spyder 's power down to approximately 440 horsepower ( 330 kW ) , and the wingspan was limited by the rules , effectively decreasing downforce .
Penske did not compete in the ALMS in 2009 but Team CytoSport , who had previously competed in LMP1 in 2007 , purchased an ex @-@ Dyson Racing RS Spyder and took part in four races with a best result of second in class at Road America .
In LMS , Team Essex only competed in the 1000 km race at Spa taking the class victory and also securing the class victory at Le Mans , finishing 10th overall with Casper Elgaard , Kristian Poulsen and Emmanuel Collard at the wheel . Team Goh also took part in the race with an ex @-@ Van Merksteijn Motorsport car .
= = = 2010 = = =
CytoSport announced in February 2010 that it would contest the full ALMS in a RS Spyder . It was also announced that Sascha Maassen would join the regular drivers Klaus Graf and Greg Pickett at the longer races at Sebring , Laguna Seca and Road Atlanta . Cytosport used a full @-@ width rear wing for the entire season , unlike arch @-@ rivals Highcroft HPD . The CytoSport RS Spyder won the LMP2 class at the 12 Hours of Sebring and took their first outright victory at Northeast Grand Prix at Lime Rock . CytoSport continued their winning success by taking outright victory at a shortened race at Mosport . They also finished the season second behind Patrón Highcroft Racing in the championship and Klaus Graf finished second in the drivers ' standings .
No RS Spyders were entered in the 2010 24 Hours of Le Mans . The 2011 LMP2 regulations rendered the RS Spyder obsolete due to the costs exceeding the LMP2 budget limit .
= = Gallery = =
= = Race victories = =
* Bold indicates pole position * Italic indicates fastest lap
|
= Wujing Zongyao =
The Wujing Zongyao , known in English as the Complete Essentials for the Military Classics , is a Chinese military compendium written from around 1040 to 1044 . It contains the earliest known written formulas for gunpowder , made from saltpeter , sulphur , and charcoal , along with many added ingredients .
The book was compiled during the Northern Song dynasty by scholars such as Zeng Gongliang , Ding Du ( 丁度 ) and Yang Weide ( 楊惟德 ) , whose writing influenced many later Chinese military writers . The compendium was published under the auspices of Emperor Renzong , who also authored the book 's preface . The book covers a wide range of subjects , everything from naval warships to different types of catapults . In addition to formulas for gunpowder , the compendium contains details on various gunpowder weapons such as incendiary bombs , fire arrows , incendiary projectiles , grenades , and smoke bombs . It also describes an early form of the compass ( using thermoremanence ) , and has the oldest illustration of a Chinese Greek fire flamethrower with a double @-@ acting two @-@ piston cylinder @-@ pump capable of shooting a continuous blast of flame .
= = History = =
The Wujing Zongyao was compiled under the imperial sponsorship of Emperor Renzong of Song ( r . 1022 – 1063 AD ) , partially as a response to the Song dynasty 's war with the Tanguts of Western Xia . A team of Chinese scholars compiled the treatise of the Wujing Zongyao from 1040 to 1044 , in order to improve the knowledge of all the known martial techniques used in warfare . Its chief editor was Zeng Gongliang , while he was assisted by the prominent astronomer Yang Weide and the scholar Ding Du . After five years , the book was published with a preface authored by Emperor Renzong . Historian Peter Lorge theorizes that the purpose of the compendium was to disseminate military knowledge to a wider government audience . Emperor Renzong was concerned that many officials were unfamiliar with the military classics . Lorge remarks that Zeng Gongliang , the chief editor , was a government official rather than a military general . The book was likely written to be read by other government officials .
Parts of the Wujing Zongyao were copied form older sources ; historian Ralph D. Sawyer calls it " essentially a cut @-@ and @-@ paste job . " The book contains many passages from earlier classical military writings whose original authors are left unidentified , a common practice at the time . During the Song dynasty , the Wujing Zongyao was appended to two other books : the Xingjun xuzhi and the Baizhan qifa , which were written by anonymous authors .
The Wujing Zongyao was one of 347 military treatises listed in the biographical chapters of the Song Shi ( 1345 AD ) , the historical work that embodied part of the Twenty @-@ Four Histories . Of these 347 different military treatises from the Song dynasty period , only the Wujing Zongyao , the Huqianjing ( Tiger Seal Manual ) of Xu Dong in 1004 AD , and fragments of similar works found in the later Yonglo Datian have survived . The original text of the Wujing Zongyao was kept in the Imperial Library , while a number of hand @-@ written copies were distributed elsewhere , including a copy given to Wang Shao by Emperor Shenzong of Song in 1069 AD .
However , with the sacking of the capital Kaifeng in the Jin – Song wars by the invading Jurchens in 1126 AD , the enormous amount of prized literature found in the Imperial Library was lost , including the original copy of the Wujing Zongyao . After the original was lost , there was only a scarce number of surviving copies rewritten by hand . There was a scarcity because the book was meant to be kept a secret amongst a few trustees of the government , as publishing and printing many copies using woodblock printing would have allowed the possibility of it falling into enemy hands . Nevertheless , from a remaining copy of the Wujing Zongyao , it was remade into a newly published edition in 1231 AD during the Southern Song dynasty era . Then , during the Ming Dynasty ( 1368 – 1644 AD ) , a book published in 1439 AD featured fragments of the original Wujing Zongyao edition of 1231 while omitting some material and combining it with two other books , the preface of this book written by Li Jin . Then there was a reprinted edition of the entire Wujing Zongyao in 1510 AD , this complete version being the oldest extant copy available . Furthermore , the historian Joseph Needham asserts that this edition of 1510 AD is the most reliable in its faithfulness to the original version , since it was printed from blocks that were re @-@ carved directly from tracings of the edition made in 1231 AD .
After the edition of 1510 was printed , other Ming Dynasty copies were made . This included the Jiajing edition ( 1522 – 1566 AD ) , the Wanli edition ( 1573 – 1619 AD ) of Quanzhou , and the Wanli edition ( 1573 – 1619 ) of Jinling by Tang Xinyün ( preserved by Cunjingge ) . During the Qing Dynasty ( 1644 – 1911 AD ) it was also reprinted in two different editions during the 18th century , and again in 1934 with the Shanghai edition .
The Xu Wujing Zongyao ( 續武經總要 ; literally " Continuation of Wujing Zongyao " ) is a sequel or " continuation " of the Wujing Zongyao written in the late Ming dynasty . The book primarily discusses army formations and military deployments . It was written by Fan Jingwen ( 1587 – 1644 ) , who was then the Vice President of the Board of War ( 兵部尚書 ; bingbu shangshu ) . Fan wrote the book because he felt that reprints of the Wujing Zongyao circulating at that time were out of date and did not take into account the technological and strategic changes that had occurred since the Song dynasty . The only surviving copy of the Xu Wujing Zongyao is held by Fudan University Library .
= = Compass and navigation = =
In the 3rd century , the Chinese engineer Ma Jun invented the south @-@ pointing chariot . This was a wheeled vehicle that employed differential gearing in order to lock a figurine of an immortal in place on the end of a long wooden staff , the figure having its arm stretched out and always pointing to the southern cardinal direction . Although the authors of the Wujing Zongyao were mistaken in believing that the design of the south @-@ pointing chariot was not handed down ( as it was reinvented during the Song period and combined with an odometer ) , they described a new device which allowed one to navigate . This was the ' south pointing fish ' ( a thermoremanence compass ) , essentially a heated iron ( or preferably steel ) object cut in the shape of a fish and suspended in a bowl of water . The Wujing Zongyao part 1 volume 15 text stated :
When troops encountered gloomy weather or dark nights , and the directions of space could not be distinguished , they let an old horse go on before to lead them , or else they made use of the south @-@ pointing carriage , or the south @-@ pointing fish to identify the directions . Now the carriage method has not been handed down , but in the fish method a thin leaf of iron is cut into the shape of a fish two inches long and half an inch broad , having a pointed head and tail . This is then heated in a charcoal fire , and when it has become thoroughly red @-@ hot , it is taken out by the head with iron tongs and placed so that its tail points due north . In this position it is quenched with water in a basin , so that its tail is submerged for several tenths of an inch . It is then kept in a tightly closed box . To use it , a small bowl filled with water is set up in a windless place , and the fish is laid as flat as possible upon the water @-@ surface so that it floats , whereupon its head will point south .
It was during the Song dynasty that the compass became associated with maritime navigation . Several decades after the Wujing Zongyao was written , the scientist and statesman Shen Kuo ( 1031 – 1095 AD ) wrote of the first truly magnetized compass needle in his book Dream Pool Essays ( 1088 AD ) . With a more efficient compass magnetized by lodestone , the thermoremanence compass fell out of use . The later maritime author Zhu Yu soon wrote of the magnetic needle compass as a means to navigate at sea , in his book Pingzhou Table Talks of 1119 AD .
= = Gunpowder = =
= = = Gunpowder weapons = = =
The Wujing Zongyao records detailed descriptions of different gunpowder weapons such as incendiary projectiles , smoke bombs , fire arrows , and grenades . It documents incendiary projectiles containing low @-@ nitrate gunpowder , which were launched from catapults or lowered down from city walls at besiegers . Examples of these incendiaries include the " swallow @-@ tail " incendiary ( 燕尾炬 ; yanweiju ) and the flying incendiary ( 飛炬 ; feiju ) . The swallow @-@ tail incendiary was made of straw that had been tied together and dipped in fat or oil . Chinese soldiers defending a city under siege would light the incendiary and lower it onto any wooden structure of the invading army to engulf it in fire . The flying incendiary visually resembled the swallow @-@ tail incendiary , but was lowered using an iron chain from a swape lever installed within the walls of the city . The book also describes an ' igniter ball ' used in warfare and for finding the firing range . The Wujing Zongyao stated the following :
The ' igniter ball ' ( yin huo qiu ) is made of paper round like a ball , inside which is put between three and five pounds of powdered bricks . Melt yellow wax and let it stand until clear , then add powdered charcoal and make it into a paste permeating the ball ; bind it up with hempen string . When you want to find the range of anything , shoot off this fire @-@ ball first , then other incendiary balls can follow .
Gunpowder was attached to fire arrows ( 火箭 ) , an incendiary arrow that functioned like a rocket . The Wujing Zongyao records that fire arrows were launched from bows or crossbows . The gunpowder used for fire arrows was likely a low @-@ nitrate powder , and the quantity of gunpowder varied according to the type of bow . In the book , the force of gunpowder is said to be enough to launch an arrow , but only when the elasticity of the crossbow is sufficient .
The Wujing Zongyao discusses various types of incendiary bombs and grenades . They used a low @-@ nitrate gunpowder that , while not powerful enough to cause an explosion , was effective for incendiary weapons . The huoqiu ( 火毬 ; literally " fire ball " ) was filled with gunpowder and launched using a trebuchet . Upon impact , the huoqiu would start a fire among an invading army . Chinese bombs such as the thunder clap bomb or pili pao used a greater percentage of gunpowder than that of the huoqiu . The gunpowder mixture for a bomb was placed within a rigid container that held in the expanding gas , allowing for more powerful explosions . The thunder clap bomb was constructed with a container made from bamboo .
In the Wujing Zongyao and other military texts , the distinction between a bomb and a grenade is ambiguous . At the time , the Chinese usually did not categorize gunpowder weapons according to their delivery method . One of the few exceptions is the shoupao , or hand bomb , which is analogous to the hand grenade .
= = = Formulas = = =
Gunpowder was invented in the 9th century by Chinese alchemists . The earliest reference to gunpowder comes from the Daoist book Zhenyuan miaodao yaolue , written circa 850 . The use of gunpowder in warfare began in China during the early 10th century , with the advent of the black @-@ powder @-@ impregnated fuse that was used to light the burst of the Chinese two @-@ piston flamethrower . It was not until the Wujing Zongyao that the exact formulas for early Chinese black powder was revealed . In the Wujing Zongyao there are three formulas for black powder provided , including one for an explosive bomb launched from a trebuchet catapult , another for a similar bomb with hooks attached so that it could latch on to any wooden structure and set it on fire , and another formula specified for a poison @-@ smoke bomb used for chemical warfare .
The Wujing Zongyao 's first recorded black @-@ powder formula used in these bombs held a potassium nitrate level of 55 @.@ 4 % to 55 @.@ 5 % , sulfur content of 19 @.@ 4 % to 26 @.@ 5 % , and carbonaceous content of 23 % to 25 @.@ 2 % . The first step for making gunpowder is to powder and mix together sulphur , saltpetre , charcoal , pitch , and dried lacquer . Tung oil , dried plants , and wax are mixed next to create a paste . The paste and powder are combined and carefully stirred . Then the mixture is placed inside a paper container , wrapped up , and tied using hemp twine . Several precautions are taken to prevent the gunpowder from becoming damp .
For the second labeled formula , the inner ball alone had a nitrate percentage of 61 @.@ 5 % to 50 @.@ 2 % , a sulfur content of 30 @.@ 8 % to 25 @.@ 1 % , and if all carbonaceous matter was taken , 24 @.@ 7 % , if just taking the charcoal content alone , the carbon level was 7 @.@ 7 % . If the outer coating and inner ball are both included with the second black @-@ powder formula , that would yield a nitrate level of 34 @.@ 7 % to 54 @.@ 8 % , a sulfur content of 17 @.@ 4 % to 27 @.@ 4 % , and if all carbonaceous material is used , 47 @.@ 9 % carbon , if only charcoal is used , 17 @.@ 8 % . If the inner ball of the third black @-@ powder formula is only considered , it held nitrate levels of 39 @.@ 6 % if all carbonaceous matter was taken , 49 @.@ 4 % nitrate if excluding the poisons , and 60 % if charcoal is specified alone . The sulfur content was 19 @.@ 8 % if all carbonaceous matter was considered , 24 @.@ 7 % if this excluded poisons , and 30 % if charcoal is specified alone . The carbon content was 40 @.@ 5 % if all carbonaceous matter was considered , 25 @.@ 9 % if this excluded poisons , and 10 % if charcoal alone was specified . If both the inner ball and outer coating are considered for the third formula , that would yield a nitrate level of 27 % if all carbonaceous matter was taken , 31 @.@ 2 % if this excluded poisons , and 51 @.@ 7 % if charcoal alone was used . The sulfur content would be 13 @.@ 5 % if all carbonaceous matter was taken , 15 @.@ 6 % if this excluded the poisons , and 25 @.@ 9 % if only charcoal alone was specified . The carbon content was 59 @.@ 5 % if all carbonaceous matter was taken into account , 53 @.@ 2 % if this excluded poisons , and 22 @.@ 4 % if charcoal alone was specified .
The first black @-@ powder concoction was simply labeled as the " method for making the fire @-@ chemical " , with its ingredients and measured weight ( in ounces ) of each ingredient listed in the section below with the others listed in similar fashion .
1st formula
Total weight
= 82 @.@ 2 oz .
2nd formula
Total weight =
116 @.@ 3 oz .
3rd formula
Total weight = 114 @.@ 3 oz .
= = Naval technology = =
The Wujing Zongyao 's illustrated descriptions of warships had a significant influence on later naval handbooks and encyclopedias such as the naval section of the Wubei Zhi from circa 1628 . These works would incorporate illustrations of ships originally from the Wujing Zongyao . The use of pictures from the Wujing Zongyao would continue to appear in Japanese naval texts up until the 18th century . The illustrations were used by both Nishikawa Joken 's Ka @-@ i Tsūshō @-@ kō ( Studies on the Intercourse and Trade with Chinese and Barbarians ) in 1708 and Kanazawa Kanemitsu 's Wakan Senyōshū ( Collected Studies on the Ships used by the Chinese and Japanese ) in 1766 .
Wujing Zongyao divides Chinese warships into six categories : Tower ships ( lou chuan ) , combat or war junks ( dou xian or zhan xian ) , covered swoopers ( meng chong ) , flying barques ( zou ge ) , patrol boats ( you ting ) , and sea hawk ships ( hai hu ) . The Wujing Zongyao 's typology for classifying Chinese warships would reappear in later naval texts for many centuries .
= = Double @-@ acting piston flamethrower = =
The Wujing Zongyao describes a flamethrower with a double @-@ acting two @-@ piston cylinder @-@ pump capable of shooting a continuous blast of flame . The first Chinese battle to use the double @-@ piston pump flamethrower was the Battle of Langshan Jiang in 919 AD . In the Battle of Langshan Jiang ( Wolf Mountain River , 狼山江 ) , the naval fleet of the Wenmu King of Wuyue defeated the fleet of the Kingdom of Wu because he had used ' fire oil ' ( huo yóu , 火油 ) to burn his fleet ; this signified the first Chinese use of gunpowder in warfare , since a slow @-@ burning match fuse was required to ignite the flames . Greek fire is likely based on distilled petroleum and is a weapon of Byzantine origin . The Chinese author Lin Yu explained in his book of 919 AD that Greek fire was acquired from their Arab maritime trade contacts in the Indian Ocean . Furthermore , the Chinese had been using the piston syringe since the Han Dynasty ( 202 BC – 220 AD ) . However , it was the later Wujing Zongyao that would provide the first illustrated drawing and greater textual explanation for how this flamethrower operated . In describing the drawn illustration of the flamethrower in the book , the Wujing Zongyao states :
On the right is the petrol flamethrower ( lit. fierce fire oil @-@ shooter ) . The tank is made of brass , and supported on four legs . From its upper surface arise four ( vertical ) tubes attached to a horizontal cylinder above ; they are all connected with the tank . The head and the tail of the cylinder are large ( the middle ) is of narrow ( diameter ) . In the tail end there is a small opening as big as a millet grain . The head end has ( two ) round openings 1 ½ inches in diameter . At the side of the tank there is a hole with a ( little ) tube which is used for filling , and this is fitted with a cover . Inside the cylinder there is a ( piston- ) rod packed with silk floss , the head of which is wound round with hemp waste about ½ inches thick . Before and behind , the two communicating tubes are ( alternately ) occluded ( lit. controlled ) , and ( the mechanism ) thus determined . The tail has a horizontal handle ( the pump handle ) , in front of which there is a round cover . When ( the handle is pushed ) in ( the pistons ) close the mouth of the tubes ( in turn ) .
Before use the tank is filled with rather more than three catties of the oil with a spoon through a filter ; at the same time gunpowder ( composition ) is placed in the ignition chamber at the head . When the fire is to be started one applies a heated branding iron ( to the ignition chamber ) , and the piston @-@ rod is forced fully into the cylinder — then the man at the back is ordered to draw the piston rod fully backwards and work it ( back and forth ) as vigorously as possible . Whereupon the oil ( the petrol ) comes out through the ignition chamber and is shot forth as blazing flame .
Then the text goes on to provide further instructions about equipment , maintenance , and repair of flamethrowers :
When filling , use the bowl , the spoon and filter ; for igniting there is the branding iron ; for maintaining ( or renewing ) the fire there is the container . The branding iron is made sharp like an awl so that it may be used ot unblock the tubes if they get stopped up . There are tongs with which to pick up the glowing fire , and there is a soldering iron for stopping up leaks . If the tanks or the tubes get cracked and leak they may be mended by using green wax . Altogether there are 12 items of equipment , all of brass except the tongs , the branding iron , and the soldering iron . Another method is to fix a brass gourd @-@ shaped container inside a large tube ; below it has two feet , and inside there are two small feet communicating with them ( comm : all made of brass ) and there is also the piston . The method of shooting is as described above . If the enemy comes to attack a city , these weapons are placed on the great ramparts , or else in outworks , so that large numbers of assailants cannot get through .
= = Illustrations from the Wujing Zongyao = =
|
= Brazilian monitor Ceará =
The Brazilian monitor Ceará was the fifth ship of the Pará @-@ class river monitors built for the Brazilian Navy during the Paraguayan War in the late 1860s . Ceará arrived in Paraguay in mid @-@ 1868 and provided fire support for the army for the rest of the war . The ship was assigned to the Mato Grosso Flotilla after the war . Ceará was scrapped in 1884 .
= = Design and description = =
The Pará @-@ class monitors were designed to meet the need of the Brazilian Navy for small , shallow @-@ draft armoured ships capable of withstanding heavy fire . The monitor configuration was chosen as a turreted design did not have the same problems engaging enemy ships and fortifications as did the central battery ironclads already in Brazilian service . The oblong gun turret sat on a circular platform that had a central pivot . It was rotated by four men via a system of gears ; 2 @.@ 25 minutes were required for a full 360 ° rotation . A bronze ram was fitted to these ships as well . The hull was sheathed with Muntz metal to reduce biofouling .
The ships measured 39 meters ( 127 ft 11 in ) long overall , with a beam of 8 @.@ 54 meters ( 28 ft 0 in ) . They had a draft between of 1 @.@ 51 – 1 @.@ 54 meters ( 4 ft 11 in – 5 ft 1 in ) and displaced 500 metric tons ( 490 long tons ) . With only 0 @.@ 3 meters ( 1 ft 0 in ) of freeboard they had to be towed between Rio de Janeiro and their area of operations . Their crew numbered 43 officers and men .
= = = Propulsion = = =
The Pará @-@ class ships had two direct @-@ acting steam engines , each driving a single 1 @.@ 3 @-@ meter ( 4 ft 3 in ) propeller . Their engines were powered by two tubular boilers at a working pressure of 59 psi ( 407 kPa ; 4 kgf / cm2 ) . The engines produced a total of 180 indicated horsepower ( 130 kW ) which gave the monitors a maximum speed of 8 knots ( 15 km / h ; 9 @.@ 2 mph ) in calm waters . The ships carried enough coal for one day 's steaming .
= = = Armament = = =
Ceará had a single 120 @-@ pounder Whitworth rifled muzzle loader ( RML ) in her gun turret . The gun had a maximum range of about 5 @,@ 540 meters ( 6 @,@ 060 yd ) . The 7 @-@ inch ( 178 mm ) shell of the 120 @-@ pounder gun weighed 151 pounds ( 68 @.@ 5 kg ) while the gun itself weighed 16 @,@ 660 pounds ( 7 @,@ 556 @.@ 8 kg ) . Most unusually the guns ' Brazilian @-@ designed iron carriage was designed to pivot vertically at the muzzle ; this was done to minimize the size of the gunport through which splinters and shells could enter .
= = = Armor = = =
The hull of the Pará @-@ class ships was made from three layers of wood that alternated in orientation . It was 457 millimeters ( 18 @.@ 0 in ) thick and was capped with a 102 @-@ millimeter ( 4 in ) layer of peroba hardwood . The ships had a complete wrought iron waterline belt , 0 @.@ 91 meters ( 3 @.@ 0 ft ) high . It had a maximum thickness of 102 millimetres amidships , decreasing to 76 millimeters ( 3 in ) and 51 millimeters ( 2 in ) at the ship 's ends . The curved deck was armored with 12 @.@ 7 millimeters ( 0 @.@ 5 in ) of wrought iron .
The gun turret was shaped like a rectangle with rounded corners . It was built much like the hull , but the front of the turret was protected by 152 millimeters ( 6 in ) of armor , the sides by 102 millimetres and the rear by 76 millimetres . Its roof and the exposed portions of the platform it rested upon were protected by 12 @.@ 7 millimetres of armor . The armored pilothouse was positioned ahead of the turret .
= = Service = =
Ceará was laid down at the Arsenal de Marinha da Côrte in Rio de Janeiro on 8 December 1866 , during the Paraguayan War , which saw Argentina and Brazil allied against Paraguay . She was launched on 22 March 1868 and commissioned the following month . The monitor arrived in Paraguay in May 1868 . On 31 August she bombarded enemy positions on the Tebicuary River to provide cover for advancing troops . The ship destroyed Paraguayan defenses on the Manduvirá River on 18 April 1869 . Ceará , together with her sister ships Piauí and Santa Catharina , broke through the Paraguayan defenses at Guaraio on 29 April and drove off the defenders . After the war she was assigned to the Mato Grosso Flotilla and was scrapped in 1884 .
|
= Anytime You Need a Friend =
" Anytime You Need a Friend " is a song by American singer @-@ songwriter Mariah Carey . The song was written and produced by Carey and Walter Afanasieff , for her third studio album , Music Box ( 1993 ) . It was released on May 31 , 1994 through Columbia Records , as the fourth and final single from the album . The song is influenced by pop , R & B and gospel music genres . While the album focused heavily on pop oriented and radio friendly material , " Anytime You Need a Friend " deviated from the formula , finishing as the only gospel @-@ infused song on Music Box . Lyrically , the song 's protagonist tells her love interest that anytime he may need a friend , she will be there unconditionally for him . Throughout the song 's bridge and climax , critics noted the lyrics altering from those of a friend , to those of a lover .
The song was well received by contemporary music critics , many of which praised Carey 's large spanning vocal range , as well as its gospel influence that they felt was missing on most of Music Box . Aside from its critical acceptance , the song achieved strong worldwide chart positions and peaked at number twelve on the US Billboard Hot 100 , but became her first single to miss out the top @-@ ten . Additionally , it peaked at number five in Canada and topped the singles charts in Finland and the Netherlands . The song attained a top @-@ twenty peak position in Australia , France , Ireland , New Zealand , Switzerland and the United Kingdom .
Carey performed " Anytime You Need a Friend " live on several televised talk and award shows around the world , including the Late Show with David Letterman , the British music chart program Top of the Pops and German entertainment show Wetten , dass .. ? . Additionally , the song served as a closing number on Carey 's Music Box and Daydream World Tours , and was featured on her compilation albums , Greatest Hits ( 2001 ) and The Ballads ( 2008 ) . Although several remixes were commissioned for the song , the C + C remix became the most notable , being produced by C + C Music Factory 's David Cole and Robert Clivillés , and the first of Carey 's remixes to feature her on production credits .
The song 's music video was filmed by Danielle Federici , in New York during the summer of 1994 . The video was filmed in black @-@ and @-@ white fashion , and features Carey 's first image makeover , where she appears with a straightened hairstyle for the first time in her career . Additionally , the music video showcases scenes of Carey singing by a large church choir in a foyer , as well as several people , ranging from a small child to an elderly man , who are alone and depressed . As the video progresses , the child and man are befriended after brief interludes and prayers to God . The song 's C + C remix also features its own music video , displaying behind the scenes footage of Carey and her staff enjoying themselves during the original video 's filming .
= = Background and recording = =
For her third studio effort , Columbia Records decided to market Carey in a similar fashion to that of her debut , only having her produce a more commercial and radio @-@ friendly album . Their plans were to tone down Carey 's vocals , and soften the album 's production , leaving a more contemporary pop record . Agreeing to the change , Carey and Afanasieff began writing and recording material for her third studio effort , Music Box ( 1993 ) . On the album 's first track " Dreamlover " , Carey worked with Dave Hall throughout the song 's entire production . In order to help with some of the song 's arrangements , Mottola enrolled the help of Walter Afanasieff , who took on the completed track and transformed it into a more commercial hit . Music Box received mixed critical response from contemporary critics , who suggested that in lowering Carey 's vocal bombast , her energy level decreased and felt the album had an " absence of passion . " The only song that was not subject to the common criticism was " Anytime You Need a Friend , " which some called the album 's only real glimpse of Carey 's upper vocal registers , and one of the only passionate and gospel moments on Music Box . In an interview , Carey described that although the album 's main goal was to be more commercial and radio @-@ friendly than her previous release , she felt the need to include at least one song that featured a church choir and traces of the music that influenced her growing up as a child .
= = Composition = =
" Anytime You Need a Friend " is a mid @-@ tempo song which draws influence from pop , R & B and gospel musical genres . According to the sheet music published at Musicnotes.com by EMI Music Publishing , the song is written in the key of C major , while the beat is set in the signature of common time , which moves at a moderate pace of 83 beats per minute . It has a sequence of Am / C – Bm7 ( no5 ) – E7 / G ♯ – Am as its chord progression . Carey 's vocals in the song span over three octaves , from the low note of an E3 to the high note of a B ♭ 6 . The song was written by Carey and Afanasieff , with production helmed by the pair as well . After the song 's bridge , a church choir is introduced and featured throughout its final chorus and climax . Carey 's vocals are layered over the background gospel @-@ styled vocals on the final chorus , after which she uses the whistle register to close the song . The song 's lyrics describe a relationship the protagonist has with another individual , telling them that anytime they need a friend , she will be there unconditionally .
Throughout the song , the lyrics seemingly show the evolving relationship between the couple . Carey sings Anytime you need a friend / I will be here / You 'll never be alone again / So don 't you fear / Even if you 're miles away / I 'm by your side / So don 't you ever be lonely / Love will make it alright , which hints at a current friendship where more still uncovered emotions are present . Author Chris Nickson explains on the song 's switch in relationship , as the lyrics change to If you just believe in me / I will love you endlessly / Take my hand / Take me into your heart / I 'll be there forever baby / I won 't let go / I 'll never let go . The protagonist is willing to accept the relationship as only a friend , but tells her partner that no matter his feelings for her , she loves him and still wishes to be loved by him , something she will never forget or " let go . "
= = Critical reception = =
" Anytime You Need a Friend " was generally well received by contemporary music critics , many of whom praised the song 's gospel influence as well as Carey 's vocal range . Following the mixed reception to the song 's parent album , Music Box , " Anytime You Need a Friend " was deemed a strong contrast to the album 's pop influence . Critics agreed that through lowering Carey 's vocal bombast , the album suffered due to lowered passion and energy levels . The song however , was considered the only standout from the album , altering heavily from the pop oriented formula of Music Box . J.D. Considine from The Baltimore Sun wrote " Where another singer might have been tempted to turn " Anytime You Need a Friend " into a full @-@ blown sanctified sing @-@ out , Carey and producer Walter Afanasieff use the gospel harmonies on the chorus as contrast for Carey 's pop soul vocal . " A writer from Portland Press Herald called the song one of Carey 's " original classics " , and felt it earned a place on her compilation album # 1 's , even though it did not top the Billboard Hot 100 . In an article from the Fort Worth Star @-@ Telegram , a writer commented that Carey 's vocal range in the song sounds as if it 's from a " glass @-@ shattering dimension " and complimented her incorporation of the gospel genre and church choir into the song 's climax . Christopher John Farley from Time described the song as " gospel flavored " and wrote " ' Anytime You Need a Friend ' demonstrates Carey 's vocal power , although too fleetingly . " While calling it " undeniably strong " , David Browne from Entertainment Weekly gave the song a mixed review , writing " ' Anytime You Need a Friend ' feature gospel @-@ inflected choirs seemingly intended to demonstrate that Carey has soul — which she doesn 't — but they 're beautifully arranged , and they serve as a nice counterpoint to Carey 's own lapses into show @-@ offy vocal gymnastics . " Suraya Attas from The Straits Times described Carey 's voice as husky , and felt it " exploited her vocal range to the fullest . " In 2003 , The Daily Record named " Anytime You Need a Friend " one of the " World 's Greatest First Dance Songs . " USA Today critic John T. Jones called the song " inspirational " , while a writer from The Atlanta Journal @-@ Constitution branded it " the center of the album . " " Anytime You Need A Friend " won a BMI Pop Award and an ASCAP Pop Music Award for the Songwriter Award in 1995 .
= = Chart performance = =
" Anytime You Need a Friend " became the first of Carey 's singles to not reach the top @-@ ten on the US Billboard Hot 100 . The song debuted at number 45 on the chart and eventually peaked at number 12 , remaining in the top @-@ 40 for 18 weeks and on the chart for 21 . Despite this , it was popular on US radio and was ranked number thirty @-@ seven on the 1994 Year @-@ End Charts , giving Carey three singles in the top half of the chart . On the Year @-@ End Hot Adult Contemporary Tracks , " Anytime You Need a Friend " finished at number 21 and number 39 on the Hot Dance Music Club Play Singles Year @-@ End Chart . In Canada , the song debuted at number 82 on the Canadian RPM Singles Chart during the week of May 23 , 1994 . Seven weeks later , the song reached its peak of number five on the singles chart , spending three consecutive weeks at the position and a total of 20 weeks on the chart . On the RPM Year @-@ End Charts , " Dreamlover " finished at number 39 . On the week dated June 19 , 1994 on the Australian Singles Chart , the song entered at number 48 . Weeks later , it ascended to its peak position of number 12 , where it stayed for one week , and a total of 17 weeks fluctuating inside the singles chart . " Anytime You Need a Friend " was certified gold by the Australian Recording Industry Association ( ARIA ) , denoting shipments of over 35 @,@ 000 units . On the Dutch Top 40 chart , " Anytime You Need a Friend " reached the number one position on the singles chart .
In France , the single entered the chart at number 43 during the week of October 29 , 1994 . After spending one week at its peak position of number 12 , the song fluctuated inside the singles chart for a total of 16 weeks . In Germany and Ireland , " Anytime You Need a Friend " reached numbers 31 and 16 on their respective singles charts . On the New Zealand Singles Chart dated June 26 , 1994 , the song entered the chart at number nine . After spending two weeks at its peak position of number five , and a total of 14 weeks in the singles chart , the song was certified gold by the Recording Industry Association of New Zealand ( RIANZ ) , denoting shipments of over 7 @,@ 500 units . In Switzerland , " Anytime You Need a Friend " peaked at number 15 , however spending 17 weeks fluctuating in the Swiss Singles Chart . On the UK Singles Chart week dated June 18 , 1994 , the song debuted at number nine . The following week , it reached its peak position of number eight , spending a total of ten weeks in the singles chart . Following a live performance of the song by Eoghan Quigg on the fifth series of the British talent show The X Factor , " Anytime You Need a Friend " re @-@ surged onto the singles chart at number 96 on November 22 , 2008 . As of 2010 , MTV estimates sales of the song in the United Kingdom to be at 100 @,@ 000 units .
= = Remixes = =
" Anytime You Need a Friend " was remixed by David Cole and Robert Clivillés of C + C Music Factory . Although over fifteen various edits and extended mixes were created , for the most part they are based on the " C + C Club Mix . " Other variations , extended mixes , and edits include but are not limited to the " All That and More Mix , " " Dave 's Empty Pass , " and the " Boriqua Tribe Mix " . Cory Rooney and Mark Morales created a " Soul Convention Mix " and a stringapella for the song . Because of the large number of remixes , two maxi singles were released in the US Carey was given co @-@ producing credit for both the C & C mixes and the Soul Convention / Stringapella , the first time that she had been given producing credit on remixes of her songs . Gregg Shapiro from the Windy City Times complimented the remix , writing " the presence of each improves on the original . They have something new to say ; even with the songs that began as dance tracks . " Jose F. Promis gave the C + C remix two and a half out of five stars , writing how the remix found Carey " getting quite gritty and earthy . " He concluded his review with " It made for a topnotch dancefloor number , and stands as an excellent example of early- to mid- ' 90s dance music , not to mention being one of the singer 's most compelling , underrated , and forgotten efforts . "
= = Music videos = =
The music video , directed by Danielle Federici , was filmed during the early summer of 1994 . It was filmed in black @-@ and @-@ white , and features Carey walking along the streets of New York , watching several different people , ranging from a small child to an elderly man , lonely and in need of a friend . Additionally , aside from several scenes of Carey and a large church choir in a large antechamber , the video is known as the first video in which Carey appears with straightened hair . Throughout her career up until that point , Carey had famously sported long , auburn curls . However , the video presented Carey 's first image makeover , where she appears with bangs and a long straightened hairstyle . The video begins with scenes of Carey walking down a long New York street , with the addition of close ups of Carey 's face . As she stares down the road , she witnesses a small girl , sitting alone in an alley corner , glaring into the sky . As the first chorus begins , Carey enters a large foyer , with a choir dressed in black singing perched atop a large staircase . During the second verse , she similarly witnesses an older man , who is sitting on a withered stoop .
Consecutively , during the song 's bridge , Carey watches as the small child 's mother carries her to a nearby playground where her friends are frolicking and playing . Similarly , the elderly man is met with some other elderly citizens , who accompany him to another building nearby . During the song 's climax , Carey joins the choir , flailing her hands wildly towards the sky , and smiling and gazing into the cloudy morning . Renee Graham from The Boston Globe gave the video two out of four stars . She complimented on the fact that the video captured the song 's lyrical essence and how it managed to portray it in a clear and concise way . Although calling it " simple , " Graham commented that " Videos have never really been Mariah Carey 's thing , and frankly , they 've never had to be . Carey has a killer voice , so the last thing she 'd want to do is overshadow her singing with a lot of choreography , complicated story lines or explosions . " Author Chris Nickson compared several parts of the video to religion and belief in God . During such scenes when Carey appears with the choir , he felt it seemed as though they were both channeling a common entity through music ; God . Additionally , he claimed it was more evident with each passing scene of the video , as each of the lonely people in the video gaze up into the skies , possibly praying or searching for an answer to their loneliness . A video was commissioned for the C + C club mix of the song . Known as the C + C video edit , it was also directed by Danielle Federici and serves as a behind the scenes addendum to the main music video . It is also filmed in black and white , and is composed of clips of Carey and her friends during filming of the video , where they chat , laugh and enjoy time with each other . Carey 's husband at the time Tommy Mottola made a cameo appearance in the video , appearing alongside Carey during the second verse . The remix video was later included on the 1995 home video release , Fantasy : Mariah Carey at Madison Square Garden .
= = Live performances = =
Carey promoted " Anytime You Need a Friend " on several live televised performances throughout the United States , Europe and Asia . Carey 's performance of the song at an intimate concert at Proctor 's Theatre on July 15 , 1993 was filmed and released as the VHS Here Is Mariah Carey . Carey performed the song during a live appearance on the Late Show with David Letterman , which was followed by an interview regarding the album . During the performance , a live band and several male and female background vocalists were featured . Promotion through Europe included a visit and performance on the British music chart program Top of the Pops , German entertainment show Wetten , dass .. ? , Hey Hey It 's Saturday in Australia , and the 1993 Japanese Music Fair . Aside from the several televised appearances , Carey performed the song throughout her Music Box Tour ( 1993 ) and Daydream World Tour ( 1996 ) . During the shows in 1993 , Carey featured the song as the fifteenth song on the set @-@ list , and was performed in a similar fashion as on her televised appearances .
Prior to beginning the song , Carey urged the crowd to " never be lonely " and " always try and find that special person in your life . " Following the show in Chicago , Chicago Tribune critic Greg Kot felt that her performance of the song truly " demonstrated that her multi @-@ octave voice is no studio fabrication . " During her shows at the Tokyo Dome during 1996 , Carey sported a long and wavy hairstyle , while wearing a long black gown . She sang the original version of the song , up until half way through the last chorus , until merging into the C + C remix . Several background vocalists were once again featured on stage , all donning black garbs . However , once the remix began , six male dancers made their way to the right and left sides of the stage , performing heavy dance routines as Carey walked around the stage . Once the remix began , the lighting was altered . Aside from the usual fluorescent lighting that was used throughout the show , additional pink and purple lighting was added for the number , as it served for the shows closing and final song . During her succeeding shows in Europe , Carey 's outfits altered as well as her hairstyle . She wore a long , white strapless gown and sported her hair in a straightened ponytail style . Since 1996 , Carey has not performed the song live on television or on her tours .
= = Other versions = =
In a review done by Digital Spy for Leona Lewis ' debut album , Spirit , Nick Levine felt the song " Footprints in the Sand " borrowed heavily from Carey 's track , writing " ' Footprints In The Sand ' seems hellbent on revisiting Mariah Carey 's schlock @-@ pop masterwork ' Anytime You Need A Friend . ' " " Anytime You Need a Friend " was covered on several different occasions on a variety of reality and talent competitions . Some became heavily popularized by the media due to the nature of the performance or performer . On the fifth season of the British talent program The X Factor , contestant Eoghan Quigg performed a live cover of the song during a " Mariah Carey " themed week . The song was chosen by Simon Cowell , who felt it would fit his younger vocals . Following the performance , he received acclaim from all three judges . Following the show 's end , Quigg embarked on a live tour throughout 2009 alongside the other finalists , performing the song at each show alongside fellow contestant , Diana Vickers . Similarly , on the fourth season of the reality talent show America 's Got Talent , a trio of children named Michael , Avery and Nadia , together forming " The Voices of Glory , " performed a live rendition of the song . Their performance was well received by the judges , with David Hasselhoff exclaiming " Wonderful , wonderful , wonderful job . "
= = Track listings = =
= = Credits and personnel = =
These credits were adapted from the Music Box liner notes .
" Anytime You Need a Friend " was recorded at Right Track Studios , New York , and mixed at Sony Music Studios , New York .
= = Charts and certifications = =
|
= Turban Head eagle =
The Turban Head eagle , also known as the Capped Bust eagle , was a ten @-@ dollar gold piece , or eagle , struck by the United States Mint from 1795 to 1804 . The piece was designed by Robert Scot , and was the first in the eagle series , which continued until the Mint ceased striking gold coins for circulation in 1933 . The common name is a misnomer ; Liberty does not wear a turban but a cap , believed by some to be a pileus or Phrygian cap ( Liberty cap ) : her hair twisting around the headgear makes it resemble a turban .
The eagle was the largest denomination authorized by the Mint Act of 1792 , which established the Bureau of the Mint . It was not struck until 1795 , as the Mint at first struck copper and silver coins . The number of stars on the obverse was initially intended to be equal to the number of states in the Union , but with the number at 16 , that idea was abandoned in favor of using 13 stars in honor of the original states . The initial reverse , featuring an eagle with a wreath in its mouth , proved unpopular and was replaced by a heraldic eagle .
Increases in the price of gold made it profitable for the coins to be melted for their precious metal content , and in 1804 , President Thomas Jefferson ended coinage of eagles ; the denomination was not struck again for circulation for more than thirty years . Four 1804 @-@ dated eagles were struck in 1834 for inclusion in sets of US coins to be given to foreign potentates . These 1804 " Plain 4 " coins differ from the eagles actually struck in 1804 in the way the " 4 " in the date is styled , and are among the most valuable US coins .
= = Inception = =
In 1791 , Congress passed a resolution authorizing President George Washington to establish a mint . Feeling that the resolution was inadequate , President Washington asked legislators to pass a comprehensive law which would govern the new facility . The result was the Mint Act of 1792 , which prescribed the specifications of the new US coins , the highest denomination being the eagle , or ten @-@ dollar piece .
The passage of the Mint Act was followed by the establishment in Philadelphia of the Mint , which by 1793 was striking cents and half cents . Coinage of precious metal pieces was delayed ; Congress had required that the assayer and chief coiner each post a security bond of $ 10 @,@ 000 , a huge sum in those days . In 1794 , Congress lowered the chief coiner 's bond to $ 5 @,@ 000 and the assayer 's to $ 1 @,@ 000 , and President Washington 's appointees to those positions were able to qualify and take office . Silver coinage began that year .
The first deposit of gold to be struck into coins was made at the Mint in February 1795 , by Moses Brown of Boston . Around May 1795 , the first Mint director , David Rittenhouse , set engraver Robert Scot the task of preparing dies for an issue of gold coins . Rittenhouse resigned in June , before the work came to fruition , and was replaced by Henry deSaussure . The new director took office on July 9 , 1795 , and pressed to have the gold coin project completed with great speed . DeSaussure also publicized that the Mint would be striking gold pieces , the new nation 's first ; the first half eagles ( five @-@ dollar pieces ) were struck 22 days later . Dies for the eagle coinage were prepared , most likely by Scot and by long @-@ time Mint employee Adam Eckfeldt .
= = Design = =
The three designs for the Turban Head eagle — the obverse and the two reverses — are all by Scot . They are identical to designs used on other silver and gold coins of the period — the Mint did not yet put denominations on gold pieces . The origin of Scot 's obverse is uncertain . Art historian Cornelius Vermeule suggests a similarity between Scot 's portrayal of Liberty on the eagle and the portrait on the 1792 half disme ( deemed by some the first Federal coinage ) , and speculates that the ultimate inspiration may have been Martha Washington , the President 's wife . He also contends that a bust should have drapery only if intended as part of a statue : " Greco @-@ Roman classicism has been misunderstood here " . Numismatic historian Walter Breen believes that Scot probably " copied some unlocated contemporaneous engraving of a Roman copy of a Hellenistic goddess , altering the hair , adding drapery and an oversize soft cap " . Breen disputes Vermeule 's contention that the cap is a pileus , the hat given to emancipated slaves as a symbol of their freedom . In support of his argument , he reproduces an 1825 letter from then Mint Director Samuel Moore , stating that the cap on the gold coins was " not the Liberty cap in form , but probably conforming to the fashionable dress of the day " . Numismatic author David Lange contends the headgear is a mob cap , much in fashion at the time .
The reverse that appeared on the eagle from 1795 to mid @-@ 1797 depicts an eagle clutching a victory wreath , perched on a branch and surrounded by the nation 's name . Vermeule contends that the appearance of the bird is " difficult to describe " but that it has " a healthy individuality and an almost @-@ rustic charm " . Breen suggests that the branch is from a palm tree , and that this is in tribute to deSaussure , a South Carolinian . The reverse coined from 1797 featured a heraldic eagle based on the Great Seal of the United States . Breen points to what he deems a blunder on Scot 's part : the bird holds arrows and an olive branch , but carries the arrows in the dexter , or dominant right claw , symbolizing a preference for war over peace .
= = Production = =
Coinage of eagles followed shortly after production of half eagles began , although the exact date is uncertain . The first group produced is believed to have been struck in August and September 1795 ; 1 @,@ 097 eagles were made available for circulation on September 22 . Four hundred of these were immediately paid out to the Bank of Pennsylvania , which had deposited gold at the Mint for striking into eagles . One piece was put aside for the Mint 's coin collection by Eckfeldt .
Numismatic author Dean Albanese considers the legend that Washington provided the gold for the first 400 eagles to be improbable ; holding $ 4 @,@ 000 in coin would have tied up much of Washington 's capital in unproductive cash . Albanese suggests that as many surviving 1795 eagles are found with little wear , Washington may have had the government purchase pieces to give to dignitaries . By some reports , one eagle was presented to Washington , though whether it was from this first coinage is uncertain .
In the 1790s , the production of coin dies was difficult , expensive , and time @-@ consuming . Mechanical reproduction of such dies was not yet possible ; accordingly , coins of the same year struck from different dies can be distinguished from each other . Dies still in use at the end of the year often saw continued use , sometimes with the date re @-@ engraved . These different dies are reflected in significant varieties today : some 1795 eagles have 13 leaves on the palm branch , others only nine .
Minting of eagles was interrupted in late 1795 because of the death of the Assayer to the United States Mint , Albion Cox . At that time , the Mint used unpowered screw presses to strike coins : striking such large coins using muscle power was difficult , and few Turban Head eagles show the entire design strongly . At the end of 1795 , the Mint had 176 eagles on hand ; coinage resumed ( with 1795 @-@ dated dies ) in late March 1796 , after most of the stock on hand had been paid out .
As the half eagle approximated the size of a number of foreign gold coins , such as the British guinea and the French louis d 'or , it was accepted readily in international commerce and was of a suitable value for many business transactions . DeSaussure is believed to have struck half eagles first for that reason , after consultation with bank officials . The eagle lacked such equivalents , was too high in value for many transactions , and rapidly became unpopular .
The eagles originally had 15 stars on the obverse , representing the fifteen states as of 1795 . With the admission of Tennessee as a state in 1796 , a sixteenth star was added to the obverse . The first 1796 eagles were delivered by the Mint on June 2 , the day after Tennessee 's admission . Breen notes that as Tennessee 's statehood had been uncertain owing to opposition in Congress until shortly before the actual admission , the 16 @-@ star eagles most likely were not prepared until just before it became a state on June 1 . Other 1796 coins , with smaller denominations , are known to have been struck on polished blanks for presentation in connection with the statehood celebrations ; it is likely eagles were struck in this way as well . With the possibility of additional states being added to the Union in years to come , Mint officials decided to have the obverse feature only 13 stars , representing the original states of the Union . The Mint 's coinage was decreased due to yellow fever epidemics in Philadelphia in 1796 , 1797 , 1801 , and 1803 ; it struck fewer eagles in those four years , giving priority to more popular coins .
The public disliked Scot 's original reverse design , deeming the depicted eagle scrawny and unworthy of a great nation such as the United States aspired to be . The new Mint director , Elias Boudinot , asked Scot to redesign the reverse . The so @-@ called Heraldic Eagle design was struck on quarter eagles as early as 1796 , but did not appear on the eagle until the following year , with the other gold denomination , the half eagle , following in 1798 . The initial design ( dubbed by some the " Plain Eagle " ) had been struck in relatively small numbers , 13 @,@ 344 over the design 's three @-@ year life . Some 1797 dies were re @-@ engraved with an 8 over the final 7 ( catalogued as 1798 / 7 ) , to allow them to bear the year of issue ; coins struck from them are the only 1798 @-@ dated eagles . Nevertheless , unaltered 1797 dies were used even after the 1798 / 7 pieces ; this can be shown because the same reverse die was used for both issues , and on the 1797 @-@ dated pieces , the reverse die displays greater wear . All 1798 and later eagles have only 13 stars on the obverse , however some 1798 / 7 eagles have nine stars on the left and four on the right , while others have seven on the left and six on the right . Only 2 @,@ 000 pieces were struck in 1798 , but the following year demand for the eagle surged , and over 37 @,@ 000 were struck .
The precious metal composition of US coins was calculated such that gold would be fifteen times as valuable per ounce as silver . By the turn of the 19th century , the price of gold in terms of silver had risen to approximately 15 @.@ 75 to one . This made it profitable for merchants to buy gold coins at face value using silver coins , and export the gold to Europe . Gold vanished from circulation in the United States by 1800 . By 1801 , almost no bullion was being deposited at the Mint , causing the Jefferson administration to consider its closure . The eagle was especially desired by exporters , as the larger size and value made it more convenient to handle . Although the Mint remained open , on December 31 , 1804 , President Thomas Jefferson ordered that eagles and silver dollars no longer be struck , ending the Turban Head eagle series . Coin dealer and author Q. David Bowers suggests that while a majority of eagles remained in the United States , enough were exported to make continuing their mintage an exercise in futility .
Coinage of eagles did not resume until 1838 ( after Congress decreased the gold content of American coins , eliminating the incentive to export them ) , when a new design , by Christian Gobrecht , was struck .
= = 1804 issues = =
Although the Mint coined 1803 @-@ dated eagles in 1804 , a total of 3 @,@ 757 eagles dated 1804 were struck in that year . These pieces , dubbed the " Crosslet 4 " variety ( Plain 4 eagles have a short projection of the cross @-@ stroke of the 4 extending to the right of the upright , Crosslet 4 have short vertical extensions of the cross @-@ stroke at the end of the projection ) , were extensively melted at the time , and the few known today are very collectible . R.S. Yeoman , in his " Red Book " valuing US coins published during 2012 , values the Crosslet 4 at $ 125 @,@ 000 in MS @-@ 63 ranging down to $ 55 @,@ 000 in more circulated , Almost Uncirculated @-@ 50 condition . Many surviving Turban Head eagles were sold by exchange agents to coin dealers or collectors in the 1850s and afterwards as the hobby became more popular and the pieces acquired a modest premium over their melt value .
In 1834 , the United States Government intended to present a set of then @-@ current US coins to four Asian rulers the US had either made agreements with or else hoped to treat with . Neither the silver dollar nor the eagle had been struck since 1804 , but they were still considered current coins . Putting the date of striking on the pieces would make them appear to be in violation of Jefferson 's prohibition which remained in force . Mint Director Moore decided to strike 1804 @-@ dated dollars and eagles for the sets , and four 1804 eagles were struck . They differ from the pieces struck thirty years earlier , lacking a crosslet on the right side of the crossbar of the 4 . Two were presented , to the Sultan of Muscat and the King of Siam , before the diplomat in charge of the expedition , Edmund Roberts , died of disease in Macao , and his mission was abandoned . The remaining two sets were returned to the United States .
The existence of the Plain 4 pieces was revealed in 1869 , when one was reproduced in the American Journal of Numismatics . The significance and history of the pieces was at first unrecognized , and the revelation prompted no particular excitement . How the pieces returned to US authorities came to be dispersed is unknown . The set given to the King of Siam was sold at auction by descendants of Anna Leonowens , who served as schoolteacher to the children of King Mongkut of Siam in the 1860s , although how it came into her possession is uncertain . Today , three of the pieces are in private collections , the fourth is in the Harry W. Bass , Jr . Collection , displayed in the Money Museum of the American Numismatic Association in Colorado Springs , Colorado . The Siam set sold most recently for $ 8 @.@ 5 million . From his experience of many years as a coin dealer , Albanese believes that the eagle in that set is not the original , but another of the four 1804 Plain 4 eagles , purchased to replace one sold to a collector .
|
= Mellon Collie and the Infinite Sadness =
Mellon Collie and the Infinite Sadness is the third studio album by the American alternative rock band The Smashing Pumpkins , released on October 24 , 1995 on Virgin Records . Produced by frontman Billy Corgan with Flood and Alan Moulder , the 28 @-@ track album was released as a two @-@ disc CD and triple LP . The album features a wide array of styles , as well as greater musical input from bassist D 'arcy Wretzky and second guitarist James Iha .
Led by the single " Bullet with Butterfly Wings " , the record debuted at number one on the Billboard charts , the only such occurrence for the group with first week sales of 246 @,@ 500 units . The album spawned five more singles — " 1979 " , " Zero " , " Tonight , Tonight " , the promotional " Muzzle " , and " Thirty @-@ Three " — over the course of 1996 , and was certified diamond by the RIAA , equivalent to over 10 million units sold . Praised by critics for its ambition and scope , Mellon Collie and the Infinite Sadness earned the band seven Grammy Award nominations in 1997 , including Album of the Year and Record of the Year ( " 1979 " ) , as well as 9 MTV Music Video Awards nominations , 8 of which were for " Tonight , Tonight " , including " Video of the Year " . Not only did they all become hits on both mainstream rock and modern rock stations , but " Bullet with Butterfly Wings " , " 1979 " , " Tonight , Tonight " , and " Thirty @-@ Three " also became the band 's first Top 40 hits , crossing over to pop radio stations .
= = Recording and production = =
After the 13 @-@ month tour in support of The Smashing Pumpkins ' second album Siamese Dream ( 1993 ) , Billy Corgan immediately began writing songs for the band 's next record . From the outset , the band intended the new record to be a double album , partly inspired by The Beatles ' eponymous album . Corgan said , " We almost had enough material to make Siamese Dream a double album . With this new album , I really liked the notion that we would create a wider scope in which to put other kinds of material we were writing . " Corgan felt that the band 's musical approach was running its course , and wanted the band to approach the album as if it were its last . Corgan described the album at the time to the music press as " The Wall for Generation X " , a comparison with Pink Floyd 's 1979 album , one of the highest selling and best known concept albums of all time .
The band decided to forgo working with Butch Vig , who had produced the group 's previous albums , and selected Flood and Alan Moulder as co @-@ producers . Corgan explained , " To be completely honest , I think it was a situation where we 'd become so close to Butch that it started to work to our disadvantage ... I just felt we had to force the situation , sonically , and take ourselves out of normal Pumpkin recording mode . I didn 't want to repeat past Pumpkin work . "
Flood immediately pushed the band to change its recording practices . Corgan later said , " Flood felt like the band he would see live wasn 't really captured on record " . In April 1995 , the band began recording in a rehearsal space , instead of entering the studio straight away . At these sessions , the band recorded rough rhythm tracks with Flood . Originally designed to create a rough draft for the record , the rehearsal space sessions ended up yielding much of the new album 's rhythm section parts . Flood also insisted the band set aside time each day devoted to jamming or songwriting , practices the band had never engaged in before during recording sessions . Corgan said , " Working like that kept the whole process very interesting — kept it from becoming a grind . "
Corgan sought to eliminate the tension that permeated the Siamese Dream recording sessions . Corgan said regarding the problems with recording Siamese Dream , " [ T ] o me , the biggest offender was the insidious amounts of time that everyone spends waiting for guitar parts to be overdubbed . There were literally weeks where no one had anything to do but sit and wait . " The band decided to counter idleness by using two recording rooms at the same time . This tactic allowed Corgan to work on vocals and song arrangements while recording was done in the other . During these sessions , Flood and Corgan would work in one room as Moulder , guitarist James Iha , and bassist D 'arcy Wretzky worked in a second . Iha and Wretzky had a much greater role in the recording of the album , unlike the prior albums where Corgan was rumored to have recorded all the bass and guitar parts himself . James Iha commented about the recording sessions ,
The big change is that Billy is not being the big ' I do this — I do that ' . It 's much better . The band arranged a lot of songs for this record , and the song writing process was organic . The circumstances of the last record and the way that we worked was really bad .
Following the rehearsal space sessions , the band recorded overdubs at the Chicago Recording Company . Pro Tools was used for recording guitar overdubs as well as for post @-@ production electronic looping and sampling . Wretzky also recorded numerous backup vocal parts , but all were cut except the one recorded for " Beautiful " . When the recording sessions concluded , the band had 57 completed songs which were up for contention to be included on Mellon Collie . The album was originally going to have 32 songs , but this was cut back to 28 songs . Corgan jokingly stated in a 1995 interview with MTV News that the tracks were narrowed down through playing parcheesi .
= = Music = =
The songs of Mellon Collie and the Infinite Sadness are intended to hang together conceptually , with the two halves of the album representing day and night . Despite this , Corgan has rejected the term concept album to describe it , and it was at the time described as more " loose " and " vague " than the band 's previous records . However , Billy Corgan has also said that the album is based on " the human condition of mortal sorrow " . Corgan aimed the album 's message at people aged 14 to 24 years , hoping " to sum up all the things I felt as a youth but was never able to voice articulately . " He summed up by stating , " I 'm waving goodbye to me in the rear view mirror , tying a knot around my youth and putting it under the bed . "
The sprawling nature of the album means that it utilizes several different diverse styles amongst the songs , contrasting what some critics felt was the " one dimensional flavor " of the previous two albums . A much wider variety of instrumentation is used , such as piano ( " Mellon Collie and the Infinite Sadness " ) , synthesizers and drum loops ( " 1979 " ) , a live orchestra ( " Tonight , Tonight " ) , and even salt shakers and scissors ( " Cupid de Locke " ) .
All guitars on the album were tuned down a half @-@ step in order to " make the music a little lower " , according to Corgan . On some songs , like " Jellybelly " , the first string was tuned down an additional whole step to C ♯ ( referred to by Corgan as " the ' grunge tuning ' " ) . There was a greater variety to the number of guitar overdubs utilized than on previous albums . Iha said , " [ I ] n the past , everything had to be overdubbed and layered — guitar overkill . That wasn 't really the train of thought this time , although we did that too . " " To Forgive " consists of only one live guitar take , while " Thru the Eyes of Ruby " contains approximately 70 guitar tracks . The various sections of " Porcelina of the Vast Oceans " were recorded at various times , with different instruments and recording setups , and were digitally composited in Pro Tools . Corgan and Iha shared soloing duties ; Iha estimated that the guitar solo duties were divided " half and half " on the record .
Corgan has said that " For the solo in ' Fuck You ( An Ode to No One ) , ' I played until my fingers saw blood , You can 't play a weak guitar solo in such a propulsive song . It 's got to be attack @-@ style . " He explains this method by saying " ... I put on the headphones and stand one foot away from the amp . I turn the amp up so loud that I literally have to play harder than the feedback , because if I stop playing even for an instant , the whole thing explodes . "
All but two songs on the album were written by Corgan . The closing track from the first disc , " Take Me Down " , was written and sung by Iha , while the album 's final track , " Farewell and Goodnight " , features lead vocals by all four band members and , according to the BMI database , was written solely by Iha , despite being credited on the album liner notes as being written by both Iha and Corgan . Iha wrote additional songs during the making of the album , but they did not make the final cut . Corgan said in a 1995 Rolling Stone interview , " [ T ] here are some B sides that James did that are really good . They just don 't fit in the context of the album . And part of me feels bad . But over the seven years we 've been together , the least uptight part of the band has been the music . "
= = Release and reception = =
Mellon Collie and the Infinite Sadness was released on October 24 , 1995 . The night before , the band played a release party show at the Riviera Theater in Chicago and took part in a live FM broadcast across the United States The following week , Mellon Collie and the Infinite Sadness debuted at number one on the Billboard 200 , an unusual feat for a double @-@ disc album that cost over US $ 20 . The album was certified diamond by the Recording Industry Association of America . Originally 5 @,@ 000 vinyl triple LP ( 3xLP ) copies were pressed . The vinyl edition has two additional tracks ( " Tonite Reprise " & " Infinite Sadness " ) which are not included in CD and cassette releases . Later re @-@ pressing led up to 23 @,@ 000 pressed but unnumbered copies . In 2012 , a remastered 4xLP vinyl edition was repressed .
= = = Critical reception = = =
The album received critical acclaim . Christopher John Farley of Time called the album " the group 's most ambitious and accomplished work yet " . Farley wrote , " One gets the feeling that the band [ ... ] charged ahead on gut instincts ; the sheer scope of the album ( 28 songs ) didn 't allow for second @-@ guessing or contrivance . " Time selected Mellon Collie and the Infinite Sadness as the best album of the year in its year @-@ end " Best of 1995 " list . Entertainment Weekly gave the album an A rating ; reviewer David Browne praised the group 's ambition and wrote , " Mellon Collie and the Infinite Sadness is more than just the work of a tortured , finicky pop obsessive . Corgan presents himself as one of the last true believers : someone for whom spewing out this much music results in some sort of high art for the ages . He doesn 't seem concerned with persistent alterna @-@ rock questions of ' selling out ' , and good for him : He 's aiming for something bigger and all @-@ conquering . " IGN gave the album a score of 9 @.@ 5 out of 10 and said , " As the band 's magnum opus it single @-@ handedly changed the face of Alternative Rock . That said , it 's not just music , but a work of art . " The Music Box gave it all five stars and said , " Indeed , for all its melodramatic self @-@ indulgence , Mellon Collie and the Infinite Sadness is one of the best double albums of new material to be released by anyone in a long time . "
Rolling Stone gave the album three out of five stars . Reviewer Jim DeRogatis praised the album as " one of the rare epic rock releases whose bulk is justified in the grooves " . The writer stated that the album 's main flaw was Corgan 's lyrics , describing the songwriter as " wallowing in his own misery and grousing about everyone and everything not meeting his expectations . " DeRogatis contended that while Mellon Collie and the Infinite Sadness " may even match The Wall in its sonic accomplishments " , Corgan 's lyrics lacked in comparison . Mojo reviewer Ben Edmunds also praised the music while criticizing Corgan 's lyrics . Edmunds wrote , " [ Corgan 's ] lyrics appear to be the repository for the worst aspects of his most treasured influences . He writes with a heavy metal aptitude for wordplay and an inflated prog @-@ rock conviction of its worth , a deadening combination . But there 's a sliver of distance in his rage @-@ mongering now that comments as well as expresses . " In his Consumer Guide , Robert Christgau picked out one song from the album , " 1979 " , as a " choice cut " ( ) .
= = = Singles = = =
The album spawned five singles . While Corgan considered issuing " Jellybelly " as the album 's first single , he told Chart it was passed over in favor of " Bullet with Butterfly Wings " because " ' Bullet 's one of those songs where , you know , it 's easy to sing along to and [ he affects a drawl ] ya gotta sell them records . " " Bullet with Butterfly Wings " was The Smashing Pumpkins ' first single to reach the Top 40 on the Billboard Hot 100 , peaking at number 22 . " 1979 " , the album 's second single , charted at number 12 , becoming the band 's highest @-@ charting American hit . The " Zero " single was released as an EP with six b @-@ sides . All three of these singles were certified gold by the RIAA . " Tonight , Tonight " and " Thirty @-@ Three " , the album 's final singles , reached number 36 and number 39 on the Billboard charts , respectively . While it was not commercially released as a single , the song " Muzzle " reached number eight on the Modern Rock Tracks chart and number ten on the Mainstream Rock Tracks chart .
= = = Accolades = = =
Mellon Collie and the Infinite Sadness earned The Smashing Pumpkins nominations in seven categories at the 1997 Grammy Awards , the second @-@ highest number of nominations that year . The group was nominated for Album of the Year , Record of the Year ( " 1979 " ) , Best Alternative Music Performance , Best Rock Performance by a Duo or Group with Vocal ( " 1979 " ) , Best Hard Rock Performance with Vocal ( " Bullet with Butterfly Wings " ) , Best Pop Instrumental Performance ( " Mellon Collie and the Infinite Sadness " ) , and Best Music Video , Short Form ( " Tonight , Tonight " ) at the 1997 Grammy Awards . The band won a single award , for Best Hard Rock Performance with Vocal for " Bullet with Butterfly Wings " ; it was the group 's first . Mellon Collie and the Infinite Sadness also ranked at number 14 on the 1995 Village Voice Pazz & Jop critics ' poll , and 487 on Rolling Stone 's list of The 500 Greatest Albums of All Time .
= = Track listing = =
Mellon Collie and the Infinite Sadness was intended as a two @-@ record set . The CD and cassette versions of the album are divided into two discs , entitled Dawn to Dusk and Twilight to Starlight . The vinyl version , however , is divided into three records with six sides , entitled Dawn / Tea Time , Dusk / Twilight , and Midnight / Starlight . The vinyl release also features two bonus songs ( " Tonite Reprise " and " Infinite Sadness " ) , and a completely rearranged track order . In 2012 the album was remastered and re @-@ released as a 6 disc edition , with 3 bonus discs of music and a DVD and also on 4 Vinyl LPs which contained the regular CD track order instead of the original LP order .
All songs written by Billy Corgan , except where noted .
= = = Compact disc / cassette version / 2012 vinyl reissue = = =
= = = Original vinyl version = = =
= = = 2012 CD / DVD reissue = = =
As part of EMI Music 's extensive reissue campaign , a special edition of the album was released on December 4 , 2012 . The 5 @-@ CD disc set consists of 64 bonus tracks of previously unreleased material , demos and alternate versions of Mellon Collie era songs — including full versions of tracks notably featured as parts of the " Pastichio Medley " from the Zero EP — as well as six new mixes of original album songs .
The package also includes a DVD consisting of footage from two live shows : Tracks 1 – 11 taken from the group 's concert of May 15 , 1996 at the Brixton Academy in London , England , originally filmed by MTV Europe , and tracks 12 – 15 from their show of April 7 , 1996 at the Philipshalle in Düsseldorf , Germany that was filmed by the German TV show Rockpalast . The bonus content and special features were curated from the band 's archives by Corgan , and have been remastered from the original master tapes by Bob Ludwig .
= = Chart positions and sales certifications = =
= = Personnel = =
The Smashing Pumpkins
Jimmy Chamberlin – drums , vocals on " Farewell and Goodnight "
Billy Corgan – lead vocals , lead and rhythm guitar , piano , mellotron , production , mixing , string arrangement on " Tonight , Tonight " , art direction and design
James Iha – lead and rhythm guitar ; backing vocals , mixing , and additional production on " Take Me Down " and " Farewell and Goodnight "
D 'arcy Wretzky – bass guitar , vocals on " Beautiful " and " Farewell and Goodnight "
Additional musicians
Chicago Symphony Orchestra – orchestra in " Tonight , Tonight "
Greg Leisz – pedal and lap steel guitar on " Take Me Down "
Technical staff
Roger Carpenter – technical assistance
John Craig – illustration
Flood – production , mixer
Andrea Giacobbe – photograph
Barry Goldberg – additional vocal recording , mixing assistance
Adam Green – technical assistance
Dave Kresl – string recording assistance
Tim " Gooch " Lougee – technical assistance
Guitar Dave Mannet – technical assistance
Jeff Moleski – technical assistance
Alan Moulder – production , mixer
Frank Olinsky – art direction and design
Claudine Pontier – recording assistance
Audrey Riley – string arrangement on " Tonight , Tonight "
Chris Shepard – recording
Russ Spice – technical assistance
Howie Weinberg – mastering
Bob Ludwig – mastering ( 2012 remaster )
|
= Crystallographic defects in diamond =
Imperfections in the crystal lattice of diamond are common . Such crystallographic defects in diamond may be the result of lattice irregularities or extrinsic substitutional or interstitial impurities , introduced during or after the diamond growth . The defects affect the material properties of diamond and determine to which type a diamond is assigned ; the most dramatic effects are on the diamond color and electrical conductivity , as explained by the band theory .
The defects can be detected by different types of spectroscopy , including electron paramagnetic resonance ( EPR ) , luminescence induced by light ( photoluminescence , PL ) or electron beam ( cathodoluminescence , CL ) , and absorption of light in the infrared ( IR ) , visible and UV parts of the spectrum . Absorption spectrum is used not only to identify the defects , but also to estimate their concentration ; it can also distinguish natural from synthetic or enhanced diamonds .
= = Labeling of diamond centers = =
There is a tradition in diamond spectroscopy to label a defect @-@ induced spectrum by a numbered acronym ( e.g. GR1 ) . This tradition has been followed in general with some notable deviations , such as A , B and C centers . Many acronyms are confusing though :
Some symbols are too similar ( e.g. , 3H and H3 ) .
Accidentally , same labels were given to different centers detected by EPR and optical techniques ( e.g. , N3 EPR center and N3 optical center have no relation ) .
Whereas some acronyms are logical , such as N3 ( N for natural , i.e. observed in natural diamond ) or H3 ( H for heated , i.e. observed after irradiation and heating ) , many are not . In particular , there is no clear distinction between the meaning of labels GR ( general radiation ) , R ( radiation ) and TR ( type @-@ II radiation ) .
= = Defect symmetry = =
The symmetry of defects in crystals is described by the point groups . They differ from the space groups describing the symmetry of crystals by absence of translations , and thus are much fewer in number . In diamond , only defects of the following symmetries have been observed thus far : tetrahedral ( Td ) , tetragonal ( D2d ) , trigonal ( D3d , C3v ) , rhombic ( C2v ) , monoclinic ( C2h , C1h , C2 ) and triclinic ( C1 or CS ) .
The defect symmetry allows predicting many optical properties . For example , one @-@ phonon ( infrared ) absorption in pure diamond lattice is forbidden because the lattice has an inversion center . However , introducing any defect ( even " very symmetrical " , such as N @-@ N substitutional pair ) breaks the crystal symmetry resulting in defect @-@ induced infrared absorption , which is the most common tool to measure the defect concentrations in diamond .
In synthetic diamond grown by the high @-@ pressure high @-@ temperature synthesis or chemical vapor deposition , defects with symmetry lower than tetrahedral align to the direction of the growth . Such alignment has been also been observed in gallium arsenide and thus is not unique to diamond .
= = Extrinsic defects = =
Various elemental analyses of diamond reveal a wide range of impurities . They mostly originate , however , from inclusions of foreign materials in diamond , which could be nanometer @-@ small and invisible in an optical microscope . Also , virtually any element can be hammered into diamond by ion implantation . More essential are elements which can be introduced into the diamond lattice as isolated atoms ( or small atomic clusters ) during the diamond growth . By 2008 , those elements are nitrogen , boron , hydrogen , silicon , phosphorus , nickel , cobalt and perhaps sulfur . Manganese and tungsten have been unambiguously detected in diamond , but they might originate from foreign inclusions . Detection of isolated iron in diamond has later been re @-@ interpreted in terms of micro @-@ particles of ruby produced during the diamond synthesis . Oxygen is believed to be a major impurity in diamond , but it has not been spectroscopically identified in diamond yet . Two electron paramagnetic resonance centers ( OK1 and N3 ) have been assigned to nitrogen – oxygen complexes . However , the assignment is indirect and the corresponding concentrations are rather low ( few parts per million ) .
= = = Nitrogen = = =
The most common impurity in diamond is nitrogen , which can comprise up to 1 % of a diamond by mass . Previously , all lattice defects in diamond were thought to be the result of structural anomalies ; later research revealed nitrogen to be present in most diamonds and in many different configurations . Most nitrogen enters the diamond lattice as a single atom ( i.e. nitrogen @-@ containing molecules dissociate before incorporation ) , however , molecular nitrogen incorporates into diamond as well .
Absorption of light and other material properties of diamond are highly dependent upon nitrogen content and aggregation state . Although all aggregate configurations cause absorption in the infrared , diamonds containing aggregated nitrogen are usually colorless , i.e. have little absorption in the visible spectrum . The four main nitrogen forms are as follows :
= = = = C @-@ nitrogen center = = = =
The C center corresponds to electrically neutral single substitutional nitrogen atoms in the diamond lattice . These are easily seen in electron paramagnetic resonance spectra ( in which they are confusingly called P1 centers ) . C centers impart a deep yellow to brown color ; these diamonds are classed as type Ib and are commonly known as " canary diamonds " , which are rare in gem form . Most synthetic diamonds produced by high @-@ pressure high @-@ temperature ( HPHT ) technique contain a high level of nitrogen in the C form ; nitrogen impurity originates from the atmosphere or from the graphite source . One nitrogen atom per 100 @,@ 000 carbon atoms will produce yellow color . Because the nitrogen atoms have five available electrons ( one more than the carbon atoms they replace ) , they act as " deep donors " ; that is , each substituting nitrogen has an extra electron to donate and forms a donor energy level within the band gap . Light with energy above ~ 2 @.@ 2 eV can excite the donor electrons into the conduction band , resulting in the yellow color .
The C center produces a characteristic infrared absorption spectrum with a sharp peak at 1344 cm − 1 and a broader feature at 1130 cm − 1 . Absorption at those peaks is routinely used to measure the concentration of single nitrogen . Another proposed way , using the UV absorption at ~ 260 nm , has later been discarded as unreliable .
Acceptor defects in diamond ionize the fifth nitrogen electron in the C center converting it into C + center . The latter has a characteristic IR absorption spectrum with a sharp peak at 1332 cm − 1 and broader and weaker peaks at 1115 , 1046 and 950 cm − 1 .
= = = = A @-@ nitrogen center = = = =
The A center is probably the most common defect in natural diamonds . It consists of a neutral nearest @-@ neighbor pair of nitrogen atoms substituting for the carbon atoms . The A center produces UV absorption threshold at ~ 4 eV ( 310 nm , i.e. invisible to eye ) and thus causes no coloration . Diamond containing nitrogen predominantly in the A form as classed as type IaA .
The A center is diamagnetic , but if ionized by UV light or deep acceptors , it produces an electron paramagnetic resonance spectrum W24 , whose analysis unambiguously proves the N = N structure .
The A center shows an IR absorption spectrum with no sharp features , which is distinctly different from that of the C or B centers . Its strongest peak at 1282 cm − 1 is routinely used to estimate the nitrogen concentration in the A form .
= = = = B @-@ nitrogen center = = = =
There is a general consensus that B center ( sometimes called B1 ) consists of a carbon vacancy surrounded by four nitrogen atoms substituting for carbon atoms . This model is consistent with other experimental results , but there is no direct spectroscopic data corroborating it . Diamonds where most nitrogen forms B centers are rare and are classed as type IaB ; most gem diamonds contain a mixture of A and B centers , together with N3 centers .
Similar to the A centers , B centers do not induce color , and no UV or visible absorption can be attributed to the B centers . Early assignment of the N9 absorption system to the B center have been disproven later . The B center has a characteristic IR absorption spectrum ( see the infrared absorption picture above ) with a sharp peak at 1332 cm − 1 and a broader feature at 1280 cm − 1 . The latter is routinely used to estimate the nitrogen concentration in the B form .
Note that many optical peaks in diamond accidentally have similar spectral positions , which causes much confusion among gemologists . Spectroscopists use for defect identification the whole spectrum rather than one peak , and consider the history of the growth and processing of individual diamond .
= = = = N3 nitrogen center = = = =
The N3 center consists of three nitrogen atoms surrounding a vacancy . Its concentration is always just a fraction of the A and B centers . The N3 center is paramagnetic , so its structure is well justified from the analysis of the EPR spectrum P2 . This defect produces a characteristic absorption and luminescence line at 415 nm and thus does not induce color on its own . However , the N3 center is always accompanied by the N2 center , having an absorption line at 478 nm ( and no luminescence ) . As a result , diamonds rich in N3 / N2 centers are yellow in color .
= = = Boron = = =
Diamonds containing boron as a substitutional impurity are termed type IIb . Only one percent of natural diamonds are of this type , and most are blue to grey . Boron is an acceptor in diamond : boron atoms have one less available electron than the carbon atoms ; therefore , each boron atom substituting for a carbon atom creates an electron hole in the band gap that can accept an electron from the valence band . This allows red light absorption , and due to the small energy ( 0 @.@ 37 eV ) needed for the electron to leave the valence band , holes can be thermally released from the boron atoms to the valence band even at room temperatures . These holes can move in an electric field and render the diamond electrically conductive ( i.e. , a p @-@ type semiconductor ) . Very few boron atoms are required for this to happen — a typical ratio is one boron atom per 1 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 carbon atoms .
Boron @-@ doped diamonds transmit light down to ~ 250 nm and absorb some red and infrared light ( hence the blue color ) ; they may phosphoresce blue after exposure to shortwave ultraviolet light . Apart from optical absorption , boron acceptors have been detected by electron paramagnetic resonance .
= = = Phosphorus = = =
Phosphorus could be intentionally introduced into diamond grown by chemical vapor deposition ( CVD ) at concentrations up to ~ 0 @.@ 01 % . Phosphorus substitutes carbon in the diamond lattice . Similar to nitrogen , phosphorus has one more electron than carbon and thus acts as a donor ; however , the ionization energy of phosphorus ( 0 @.@ 6 eV ) is much smaller than that of nitrogen ( 1 @.@ 7 eV ) and is small enough for room @-@ temperature thermal ionization . This important property of phosphorus in diamond favors electronic applications , such as UV light emitting diodes ( LEDs , at 235 nm ) .
= = = Hydrogen = = =
Hydrogen is one of the most technological important impurities in semiconductors , including diamond . Hydrogen @-@ related defects are very different in natural diamond and in synthetic diamond films . Those films are produced by various chemical vapor deposition ( CVD ) techniques in an atmosphere rich in hydrogen ( typical hydrogen / carbon ratio > 100 ) , under strong bombardment of growing diamond by the plasma ions . As a result , CVD diamond is always rich in hydrogen and lattice vacancies . In polycrystalline films , much of the hydrogen may be located at the boundaries between diamond ' grains ' , or in non @-@ diamond carbon inclusions . Within the diamond lattice itself , hydrogen @-@ vacancy and hydrogen @-@ nitrogen @-@ vacancy complexes have been identified in negative charge states by electron paramagnetic resonance . In addition , numerous hydrogen @-@ related IR absorption peaks are documented .
It is experimentally demonstrated that hydrogen passivates electrically active boron and phosphorus impurities . As a result of such passivation , shallow donor centers are presumably produced .
In natural diamonds , several hydrogen @-@ related IR absorption peaks are commonly observed ; the strongest ones are located at 1405 , 3107 and 3237 cm − 1 ( see IR absorption figure above ) . The microscopic structure of the corresponding defects is yet unknown and it is not even certain whether or not those defects originate in diamond or in foreign inclusions . Gray color in some diamonds from the Argyle mine in Australia is often associated with those hydrogen defects , but again , this assignment is yet unproven .
= = = Nickel and cobalt = = =
When diamonds are grown by the high @-@ pressure high @-@ temperature technique , nickel , cobalt or some other metals are usually added into the growth medium to facilitate catalytically the conversion of graphite into diamond . As a result , metallic inclusions are formed . Besides , isolated nickel and cobalt atoms incorporate into diamond lattice , as demonstrated through characteristic hyperfine structure in electron paramagnetic resonance , optical absorption and photoluminescence spectra , and the concentration of isolated nickel can reach 0 @.@ 01 % . This fact is by all means unusual considering the large difference in size between carbon and transition metal atoms and the superior rigidity of the diamond lattice .
Numerous Ni @-@ related defects have been detected by electron paramagnetic resonance , optical absorption and photoluminescence , both in synthetic and natural diamonds . Three major structures can be distinguished : substitutional Ni , nickel @-@ vacancy and nickel @-@ vacancy complex decorated by one or more substitutional nitrogen atoms . The " nickel @-@ vacancy " structure , also called " semi @-@ divacancy " is specific for most large impurities in diamond and silicon ( e.g. , tin in silicon ) . Its production mechanism is generally accepted as follows : large nickel atom incorporates substitutionally , then expels a nearby carbon ( creating a neighboring vacancy ) , and shifts in @-@ between the two sites .
Although the physical and chemical properties of cobalt and nickel are rather similar , the concentrations of isolated cobalt in diamond are much smaller than those of nickel ( parts per billion range ) . Several defects related to isolated cobalt have been detected by electron paramagnetic resonance and photoluminescence , but their structure is yet unknown .
= = = Silicon = = =
Silicon is a common impurity in diamond films grown by chemical vapor deposition and it originates either from silicon substrate or from silica windows or walls of the CVD reactor . It was also observed in natural diamonds in dispersed form . Isolated silicon defects have been detected in diamond lattice through the sharp optical absorption peak at 738 nm and electron paramagnetic resonance . Similar to other large impurities , the major form of silicon in diamond has been identified with a Si @-@ vacancy complex ( semi @-@ divacancy site ) . This center is a deep donor having an ionization energy of 2 eV , and thus again is unsuitable for electronic applications .
Si @-@ vacancies constitute minor fraction of total silicon . It is believed ( though no proof exists ) that much silicon substitutes for carbon thus becoming invisible to most spectroscopic techniques because silicon and carbon atoms have the same configuration of the outer electronic shells .
= = = Germanium = = =
Germanium is normally absent in diamond , but it can be introduced during the growth or by subsequent ion implantation . Germanium in diamond can be detected optically via the germanium @-@ vacancy center , which has similar properties to those of the Si @-@ vacancy center .
= = = Sulfur = = =
Around the year 2000 , there was a wave of attempts to dope synthetic CVD diamond films by sulfur aiming at n @-@ type conductivity with low activation energy . Successful reports have been published , but then dismissed as the conductivity was rendered p @-@ type instead of n @-@ type and associated not with sulfur , but with residual boron , which is a highly efficient p @-@ type dopant in diamond .
So far ( 2009 ) , there is only one reliable evidence ( through hyperfine interaction structure in electron paramagnetic resonance ) for isolated sulfur defects in diamond . The corresponding center called W31 has been observed in natural type @-@ Ib diamonds in small concentrations ( parts per million ) . It was assigned to a sulfur @-@ vacancy complex – again , as in case of nickel and silicon , a semi @-@ divacancy site .
= = Intrinsic defects = =
The easiest way to produce intrinsic defects in diamond is by displacing carbon atoms through irradiation with high @-@ energy particles , such as alpha ( helium ) , beta ( electrons ) or gamma particles , protons , neutrons , ions , etc . The irradiation can occur in the laboratory or in the nature ( see Diamond enhancement – Irradiation ) ; it produces primary defects named frenkel defects ( carbon atoms knocked off their normal lattice sites to interstitial sites ) and remaining lattice vacancies . An important difference between the vacancies and interstitials in diamond is that whereas interstitials are mobile during the irradiation , even at liquid nitrogen temperatures , however vacancies start migrating only at temperatures ~ 700 ° C.
Vacancies and interstitials can also be produced in diamond by plastic deformation , though in much smaller concentrations .
= = = Isolated carbon interstitial = = =
Isolated interstitial has never been observed in diamond and is considered unstable . Its interaction with a regular carbon lattice atom produces a " split @-@ interstitial " , a defect where two carbon atoms share a lattice site and are covalently bonded with the carbon neighbors . This defect has been thoroughly characterized by electron paramagnetic resonance ( R2 center ) and optical absorption , and unlike most other defects in diamond , it does not produce photoluminescence .
= = = Interstitial complexes = = =
The isolated split @-@ interstitial moves through the diamond crystal during irradiation . When it meets other interstitials it aggregates into larger complexes of two and three split @-@ interstitials , identified by electron paramagnetic resonance ( R1 and O3 centers ) , optical absorption and photoluminescence .
= = = Vacancy @-@ interstitial complexes = = =
Most high @-@ energy particles , beside displacing carbon atom from the lattice site , also pass it enough surplus energy for a rapid migration through the lattice . However , when relatively gentle gamma irradiation is used , this extra energy is minimal . Thus the interstitials remain near the original vacancies and form vacancy @-@ interstitials pairs identified through optical absorption .
Vacancy @-@ di @-@ interstitial pairs have been also produced , though by electron irradiation and through a different mechanism : Individual interstitials migrate during the irradiation and aggregate to form di @-@ interstitials ; this process occurs preferentially near the lattice vacancies .
= = = Isolated vacancy = = =
Isolated vacancy is the most studied defect in diamond , both experimentally and theoretically . Its most important practical property is optical absorption , like in the color centers , which gives diamond green , or sometimes even green – blue color ( in pure diamond ) . The characteristic feature of this absorption is a series of sharp lines called GR1 @-@ 8 , where GR1 line at 741 nm is the most prominent and important .
The vacancy behaves as a deep electron donor / acceptor , whose electronic properties depend on the charge state . The energy level for the + / 0 states is at 0 @.@ 6 eV and for the 0 / - states is at 2 @.@ 5 eV above the valence band .
= = = Multivacancy complexes = = =
Upon annealing of pure diamond at ~ 700 ° C , vacancies migrate and form divacancies , characterized by optical absorption and electron paramagnetic resonance . Similar to single interstitials , divacancies do not produce photoluminescence . Divacancies , in turn , anneal out at ~ 900 ° C creating multivacancy chains detected by EPR and presumably hexavacancy rings . The latter should be invisible to most spectroscopies , and indeed , they have not been detected thus far . Annealing of vacancies changes diamond color from green to yellow @-@ brown . Similar mechanism ( vacancy aggregation ) is also believed to cause brown color of plastically deformed natural diamonds .
= = = Dislocations = = =
Dislocations are the most common structural defect in natural diamond . The two major types of dislocations are the glide set , in which bonds break between layers of atoms with different indices ( those not lying directly above each other ) and the shuffle set , in which the breaks occur between atoms of the same index . The dislocations produce dangling bonds which introduce energy levels into the band gap , enabling the absorption of light . Broadband blue photoluminescence has been reliably identified with dislocations by direct observation in an electron microscope , however , it was noted that not all dislocations are luminescent , and there is no correlation between the dislocation type and the parameters of the emission .
= = = Platelets = = =
Most natural diamonds contain extended planar defects in the < 100 > lattice planes , which are called platelets . Their size ranges from nanometers to many micrometers , and large ones are easily observed in an optical microscope via their luminescence . For a long time , platelets were tentatively associated with large nitrogen complexes — nitrogen sinks produced as a result of nitrogen aggregation at high temperatures of the diamond synthesis . However , direct measurement of nitrogen in the platelets by EELS ( an analytical technique of electron microscopy ) revealed very little nitrogen . The currently accepted model of platelets is a large regular array of carbon interstitials .
Platelets produce sharp absorption peaks at 1359 – 1375 and 330 cm − 1 in IR absorption spectra ; remarkably , the position of the first peak depends on the platelet size . As with dislocations , a broad photoluminescence centered at ~ 1000 nm was associated with platelets by direct observation in an electron microscope . By studying this luminescence , it was deduced that platelets have a " bandgap " of ~ 1 @.@ 7 eV .
= = = Voidites = = =
Voidites are octahedral nanometer @-@ sized clusters present in many natural diamonds , as revealed by electron microscopy . Laboratory experiments demonstrated that annealing of type @-@ IaB diamond at high temperatures and pressures ( > 2600 ° C ) results in break @-@ up of the platelets and formation of dislocation loops and voidites , i.e. that voidites are a result of thermal degradation of platelets . Contrary to platelets , voidites do contain much nitrogen , in the molecular form .
= = Interaction between intrinsic and extrinsic defects = =
Extrinsic and intrinsic defects can interact producing new defect complexes . Such interaction usually occurs if a diamond containing extrinsic defects ( impurities ) is either plastically deformed or is irradiated and annealed .
Most important is the interaction of vacancies and interstitials with nitrogen . Carbon interstitials react with substitutional nitrogen producing a bond @-@ centered nitrogen interstitial showing strong IR absorption at 1450 cm − 1 . Vacancies are efficiently trapped by the A , B and C nitrogen centers . The trapping rate is the highest for the C centers , 8 times lower for the A centers and 30 times lower for the B centers . The C center ( single nitrogen ) by trapping a vacancy forms the famous nitrogen @-@ vacancy center , which can be neutral or negatively charged ; the negatively charged state has potential applications in quantum computing . A and B centers upon trapping a vacancy create corresponding 2N @-@ V ( H3 and H2 centers , where H2 is simply a negatively charged H3 center ) and the neutral 4N @-@ 2V ( H4 center ) . The H2 , H3 and H4 centers are important because they are present in many natural diamonds and their optical absorption can be strong enough to alter the diamond color ( H3 or H4 – yellow , H2 – green ) .
Boron interacts with carbon interstitials forming a neutral boron – interstitial complex with a sharp optical absorption at 0 @.@ 552 eV ( 2250 nm ) . No evidence is known so far ( 2009 ) for complexes of boron and vacancy .
In contrast , silicon does react with vacancies , creating the described above optical absorption at 738 nm . The assumed mechanism is trapping of migrating vacancy by substitutional silicon resulting in the Si @-@ V ( semi @-@ divacancy ) configuration .
A similar mechanism is expected for nickel , for which both substitutional and semi @-@ divacancy configurations are reliably identified ( see subsection " nickel and cobalt " above ) . In an unpublished study , diamonds rich in substitutional nickel were electron irradiated and annealed , with following careful optical measurements performed after each annealing step , but no evidence for creation or enhancement of Ni @-@ vacancy centers was obtained .
|
= 1894 – 95 Small Heath F.C. season =
The 1894 – 95 season was the 14th season of competitive association football and third season in the Football League played by Small Heath F.C. , an English football club based in Birmingham . In 1893 – 94 , Small Heath finished in second place in the divisional championship and gained promotion by defeating Darwen 3 – 1 in a test match . The club had struggled financially during the season , and there were suggestions that it might have disbanded had promotion not been secured . In their first season in the First Division , they finished in 12th place in the 16 @-@ team division , thus avoiding the possibility of relegation via the test matches .
Small Heath entered the 1894 – 95 FA Cup at the first round proper , and for the second consecutive year lost in that round to the eventual losing finalists , who this season were West Bromwich Albion . In local competitions , they were eliminated in the semi @-@ final of the Birmingham Senior Cup , also by West Bromwich Albion , and lost to Aston Villa in the final of the Mayor of Birmingham 's Charity Cup . The committee opted not to compete in the United Counties League , a supplementary competition .
Twenty @-@ one different players represented the club in nationally organised competitive matches during the season and there were nine different goalscorers . Two players , Bill Purves and – for the third consecutive season – Billy Ollis , appeared in every League match , and none of the first @-@ choice eleven missed more than four League matches . The top scorer , for the second year running , was inside @-@ forward Frank Mobley with 13 goals . The match against Sunderland attracted a crowd estimated at 15 @,@ 000 , around double the highest attendance from previous years .
= = Background = =
Having won the inaugural Second Division title in 1892 – 93 but missed out on promotion via the test match system , in 1893 – 94 they finished second in the division and were promoted to the First Division by defeating Darwen 3 – 1 in the test match . The club had been in financial difficulty during the season , and the Birmingham Daily Post speculated that failure in the test match " would in all probability have meant the disbanding of the club " . The accounts showed income of £ 1 @,@ 816 and expenditure of £ 2 @,@ 039 , a deficit of £ 222 on the year . Nevertheless , in preparation for the new season , the club began work on a grandstand and relaid the pitch .
All the regular first @-@ choice players signed on again for the new campaign , apart from goalkeeper George Hollis . Of the less regular team members , Bernard Pumfrey left for Midland League club Gainsborough Trinity , William Reynolds and Gilbert Smith were released to join Birmingham & District League club Berwick Rangers , and Chris Charsley retired from League football to concentrate on his police career . Small Heath signed the former Sunderland full back Jack Oliver , whom they had failed to recruit earlier in the season , and forward Charlie Letherbarrow from Walsall , but those were the only major signings . The squad was boosted by players from local football , who included Alec Leake , Bill Lewis and a young Billy Pratt . Alfred Jones continued as secretary @-@ manager , and Caesar Jenkyns retained the captaincy . There were no changes to the team 's kit of light blue shirts with navy collar trim , cuffs and pocket , white knickerbockers and navy socks .
= = Review = =
= = = September – October = = =
Small Heath 's First Division campaign began on Saturday 1 September with a visit to local rivals and League champions Aston Villa , which turned out rather closer than predicted . Jack Hallam opened the scoring from a Tommy Hands cross with the first League goal of the season , " for the match was started punctually , and it would have been a sheer impossibility to score faster than the Small Heath player did . " Villa equalised some 20 minutes later , took the lead immediately afterwards , and retained that lead to the end . The Birmingham Daily Post picked out Hallam and Caesar Jenkyns for praise , was disappointed by Fred Wheldon , " usually the bright particular star of the front rank " , and suggested that Jack Oliver would be a success " when he has lost a little superfluous flesh " .
On the Sunday , Jenkyns was involved in an incident after he and an acquaintance staked a quart of beer on a bicycle race . Solihull Police Court later heard how , after Jenkyns lost the race , he knocked his opponent off his bicycle , hit another man , and returned to the public house where he struck a third man in the face . He was convicted on three counts of assault , and fined 20s plus costs on each count . In the following day 's visit to Everton , Small Heath had Oliver and Charles Partridge to thank for the score being restricted to 5 – 0 .
The new grandstand was open for the first home match of the season , against Bolton Wanderers , and those spectators not distracted by the visit to the city of the Duke and Duchess of York ( the future George V and Queen Mary ) saw a much improved performance from the forwards that produced a 2 – 1 win with goals from Frank Mobley and Wheldon . The visit to Wolverhampton Wanderers ended in defeat by the same score . Oliver conceded a penalty kick for a foul on Charlie Reynolds , Wheldon equalised before half @-@ time , and Wolverhampton regained the lead straight after the interval .
" The surprise of Saturday 's football " came when a late goal from Hands was enough to beat Preston North End , though there was a suggestion in the press that the team would do well to moderate their tactics , which " were not of the gentlest " . For Preston 's visit to Coventry Road the following weekend , the club applied for a licence to sell alcohol within the ground , as it was the only First Division club without such a licence . The application was refused , the licensing magistrate " remarking that if the public wanted drink they could go outside to get it . "
The Leicester Chronicle suspected that " it will be a long time , perhaps , before we have another match so keenly contested " . The visitors scored early on , but Small Heath 's shoot @-@ on @-@ sight policy produced goals for Hands , after a clash with Mobley left Preston goalkeeper James Trainer on the floor , and for Wheldon , before Edward Brueton , deputising in goal for the injured Partridge , let in a soft goal just before half @-@ time . The second half brought " more finesse and less vigour " from the home side , but Preston grew stronger , took the lead , and Small Heath " appeared to be done with " . Then Trainer could only turn Mobley 's lob in off the post , the same player gave his side the lead , but " before the Small Heath contingent had finished congratulating one another " , " North End charging down the field finely from the centre kick scored again before the whistle sounded " to make the final score 4 – 4 . Match receipts totalled nearly £ 250 , a ground record .
After Wolverhampton Wanderers took a three @-@ goal lead at Coventry Road , the Daily Post suggested that Caesar Jenkyns must have spent the interval " exhorting his men to make a famous effort " , for " they responded nobly to his appeal " . Adopting a strategy of all @-@ out attack , running the ball upfield at full speed before crossing to as many of the forwards as could converge on goal , they scored four times in 25 minutes to demoralise the opposition and win the match . The quality of Hands ' movement and crosses was singled out for particular praise . Small Heath then played West Bromwich Albion in a benefit match for Fred Wheldon , who had first played for the club on trial in 1890 , and since signing , before the 1890 – 91 season , had not missed a game in League or FA Cup . Hands and triallist goalkeeper Charlie Williams of Swindon Town were injured during the game , and unfortunately for the beneficiary , only 2 @,@ 000 spectators turned up .
A creditable performance in a losing cause at Burnley , marred only by the forwards ' lack of composure in front of goal , was followed by the visit of Aston Villa . Bob Gordon scored early , but thereafter was marked out of the game by Jenkyns . Villa had the better of the first half but Wheldon tied the scores from a penalty kick just before half @-@ time ; just after , the home side took the lead with " a determined and characteristic rush " , but Dennis Hodgetts equalised , again from a penalty . The defences , Partridge and Jenkyns for Small Heath and the Villa backs in particular , had the best of the remaining time , and the match was drawn . After only four games , gate receipts , including the £ 450 paid by that day 's 14 @,@ 600 spectators , already amounted to half that of the preceding season . Small Heath finished October with a 2 – 2 draw on a waterlogged pitch at Stoke which left them in ninth place in the League .
= = = November – December = = =
Three goals behind in the first 20 minutes , Small Heath had fought back to level terms when a powerful shot from Everton 's Alex Latta was given as a goal , despite having gone well wide , the referee believing it had passed through a hole in the net . William McGregor , former president of the League , suggested that it " was the worst decision he had seen since the establishment of the goal @-@ nets " , and Latta himself agreed that the ball had gone wide . The crowd were unimpressed – " ironical shouts of ' Goal ' were the reception of any shots by Everton , of good or bad quality , that followed " – until with ten minutes left , Jenkyns tied the scores with a header from a free kick . While confirming that the result had to stand , the League appointed a committee to look into the circumstances of the phantom goal , and issued an instruction to referees to " inspect and observe the condition " of goalnets before each match in the future .
In contrast , Small Heath put on " a very indifferent display " in losing 4 – 1 at West Bromwich Albion . They scored twice , very much against the run of play , to come back from 2 – 0 down to beat Stoke 4 – 2 , and their good fortune continued at Bolton Wanderers . The home goalscorer , Alex Paton , left the field injured before half @-@ time , goalkeeper John Willie Sutcliffe was insistent that Jack Hallam 's equaliser had been punched into the goal – Hallam was equally insistent that it had not – and after Wheldon scored Small Heath 's winner , the referee ended the game a few minutes early . Bolton applied to the League for the match to be replayed because of the short time – the referee admitted to having ended the game 2 ½ minutes early , though not the 5 alleged by Bolton – but the result stood .
Unusually , Small Heath led at half @-@ time at home to Sheffield United . Charlie Letherbarrow , in only his second appearance for the club , scored after ten minutes and again approaching the interval to regain the lead . Between the two legitimate scores , he hit a swerving shot which looped up off the chest of goalkeeper William Foulke and into the net , but the referee judged that the ball had been played in from behind the goal @-@ line . In the second half , Wheldon converted a penalty kick when Foulke pushed Hallam out of the way as he attempted to reach a cross from Tommy Hands , and Letherbarrow completed his hat @-@ trick as Small Heath won 4 – 1 . Jack Oliver received a good reception when he returned to his former club – Small Heath were introduced as " Oliver 's team " – but Sunderland took no pity , winning 7 – 1 . At Liverpool , an exciting game produced a 3 – 1 defeat . The three home forwards worked as one , putting extra pressure on the centre of the visiting midfield , and the defence was unable to hold them out . The game was rough at times , Liverpool 's Joe McQue attracting particular attention because of an incident in the corresponding match the previous season when Caesar Jenkyns was sent off for his violent reaction to McQue kicking Frank Mobley in the abdomen .
Playing a close @-@ passing game that made them better able to cope with the high winds and blizzards that had caused the postponement of several League matches , Nottingham Forest earned themselves a Christmas bonus of 10s a man for inflicting Small Heath 's first home defeat of the season . Boxing Day produced a 2 – 0 defeat to a Sheffield Wednesday team playing a better all @-@ round game , and the next day , Small Heath beat a touring Scottish Borderers side 11 – 1 . Injury deprived Small Heath of four regular first @-@ team players for the last game of the year , at home to Liverpool , and both Tilson Pritchard and Ernie Moore made their debuts at full @-@ back . Jenkyns moved back to play behind the other half @-@ backs to protect the understandably nervous reserves , and once the nerves wore off , Pritchard in particular " could scarcely be improved upon . " Mobley opened the scoring in the first half , and with the wind behind them in the second half , Small Heath won 3 – 0 to go into the new year in 10th place in the League .
= = = January – February = = =
On a hard pitch in very cold weather , Small Heath had already conceded twice at Blackburn Rovers before Billy Ollis was injured midway through the first half and played no further part . The visitors put up a fight , but the numerical disavantage was too much for them and the final score of 9 – 1 remains the club 's joint @-@ record defeat . With no competitive fixture scheduled for the next two weeks , the club undertook a tour . Their opening match , in Plymouth , was the first visit of a professional club to the south @-@ west of England . The Home Park club had ambitions to bring professional league football to the region , and in front of a crowd of 4 @,@ 000 their team performed well before conceding three second @-@ half goals . Small Heath 's tour ended with a 2 – 1 defeat at Manchester City , and they returned to a celebratory dinner in honour of the club 's promotion to the First Division . The chairman presented medals to the players , congratulated them on their showing thus far , and proposed a toast to their health , in the hope that a full @-@ strength team might be available by the next League match in ten days time .
In a " remarkable encounter " , Burton Swifts led 3 – 2 at half @-@ time in the Birmingham Senior Cup first round . Their second goal was something of a freak , as an errant clearance by Purves was met on the volley and returned into the net by Davie Willocks . Swifts took a two @-@ goal lead for a third time before Small Heath drew level , after which they " pressed hotly , but were kept out until twenty seconds from the finish , and when extra time seemed inevitable , Walton headed the ball through amidst great cheering " and the referee blew the final whistle .
A visit to the Brine Baths at Droitwich Spa failed to help the players adjust to Nottingham Forest 's pitch , which had been flooded when the River Trent burst its banks a few days before . They conceded two early goals , but " kept up a strong pressure " thereafter , and the Birmingham Daily Post suggested that " the forwards played magnificently , and had the half @-@ backs supported them a little more efficiently they might have broken down even the stalwart defence " of the home club . The Nottinghamshire Guardian had predicted that Forest " should have but little difficulty in disposing of Small Heath " , but later admitted that the latter " gave the Forest a far better game than had generally been anticipated . "
February opened with the FA Cup tie at home to West Bromwich Albion . Albion scored first , charging both ball and goalkeeper into the net , and doubled their lead after a misunderstanding between Oliver and Jenkyns . Half an hour into the game , Wheldon made a " characteristic " dribble , his shot was parried and Walton scored from the rebound . The pitch was very muddy , but the Small Heath forwards persisted with a close @-@ passing game when " a kick and a rush would have served better " , and although " the Birmingham enthusiasts nearly shouted themselves hoarse in encouraging the Heathens " , there were no more goals . A collection was taken at the match for the families of the 77 miners killed in flooding at the Diglake Colliery , at Audley , Staffordshire .
Joe Fountain made his debut against Sunderland as a late replacement for Wheldon , whose sister had died on the morning of the match . On a slippery pitch " thickly strewn with chaff and hayseeds " , Small Heath fell a goal behind in a first half dominated by the defences of both teams . The special training undertaken by the home side in preparation for the match took effect , as " in the closing stages they looked winners all over " , and Sunderland had goalkeeper Ned Doig to thank for restricting the scoring to just Tommy Hands ' equaliser . The attendance of 15 @,@ 000 was nearly double the highest recorded in previous seasons .
Both clubs having been eliminated from the FA Cup , Small Heath arranged a friendly with Notts County , refereed by the Test cricketer and former England international footballer Billy Gunn , which gave them an opportunity to try out reserve players Jack Jones and Alec Leake . On a hard , snow @-@ covered pitch , Billy Walton scored all three goals in a 3 – 3 draw , but the attendance of under a thousand , though understandable because of the weather conditions , was disappointing . Jones made his competitive debut , standing in for the injured Hallam , as Small Heath again struggled in muddy conditions and , for the fourth time this season , lost to West Bromwich Albion .
Reserve Tom Watson replaced Partridge in goal and Hallam returned to the forward line for the second round of the Birmingham Cup , at home to Wolverhampton Wanderers . Wheldon scored with two minutes left to take the lead , but the Wanderers still had time to tie the scores at 3 – 3 . After consulting both captains , the referee ordered half @-@ an @-@ hour 's extra time , but Wanderers , whose players had already returned to the dressing @-@ rooms , refused to play , so Jenkyns claimed the game for Small Heath .
= = = March – April = = =
After seven defeats in the last nine League matches , Small Heath did little in the draw with Blackburn Rovers to allay the prospect of the relegation test matches . Numerous chances were wasted . According to the Birmingham Daily Post , " not one of the forwards seemed capable of administering a sharp kick " , and " have themselves to blame for not securing a victory " . With five matches remaining , they were in 11th position in the League , but only two points clear of the test match zone .
On a lighter note , the annual theatrical sports , hosted in conjunction with the Prince of Wales Theatre , featured a fancy @-@ dress procession from the city centre to the Coventry Road ground for athletic events including sprint and 440 @-@ yard ( 400 m ) races for the footballers ( won by Caesar Jenkyns and Teddy Jolly respectively ) , a skipping race for the ladies of the theatre , sack race ( won by Harry Lupino ) and egg @-@ and @-@ spoon race open to all , and a handicap race for the members of the orchestra – the handicap being that they had to carry their instruments . The entertainment finished with a football match between Small Heath F.C. and a theatre XI , refereed by music hall artiste Vesta Tilley . Despite the cold wind and intermittent snow , the event attracted 8 @,@ 000 spectators and raised £ 100 for each of three local hospitals .
Small Heath withdrew their claim to the Birmingham Cup match , and the Birmingham Association ordered a replay , again at Coventry Road . This time round , Small Heath held on to their 3 – 2 lead . The League match at home to Sheffield Wednesday was one of several victims of the weather . The referee had initially passed the ground fit for play , but continued heavy rain turned the pitch into a quagmire and forced a late postponement . Derby County took what the local newspaper described as " the last chance the County had of escaping the test matches " , scoring three times in the first 15 minutes as they beat Small Heath by five goals to three .
Caesar Jenkyns , who " has been playing so well with Small Heath this season that his selection as centre half was a foregone conclusion " , " proved himself clever in tackling the English forwards and often getting the ball from them " , as Wales drew with England at Queen 's Club . In the semi @-@ final of the Birmingham Cup , a weakened Small Heath team lost to West Bromwich Albion in a rough game . Albion 's Tom Hutchinson was accompanied off the field by a policeman when sent off for injuring Charles Partridge , and during extra time , Charlie Perry was carried off with a leg injury .
The players went to Malvern for special training before the home game with Burnley . Joe Fountain was an " excellent " stand @-@ in for the injured Tommy Hands at outside left and Jenkyns was " a tower of strength " as Wheldon scored the only goal of a scrappy game to bring Small Heath 's points total to 22 with three matches left . The Daily Post predicted that 24 would be enough to avoid the test matches . On Easter Monday , Hands returned to the team for the last home League match of the season , a goalless draw with Sheffield Wednesday in which both teams had numerous chances to score .
At Derby , County took the lead after 17 minutes when an attempted clearance by Jenkyns was turned into his own net , and increased it to 4 – 0 in the second half before Frank Mobley broke away to score a late consolation . As the players were leaving the field , they were verbally abused by a section of the crowd , who believed the play had been unnecessarily rough . Jenkyns , who appeared to be singled out for particular abuse , grabbed one of the spectators by the throat . Other players separated the pair , and the police became involved . After an investigation , the club committee decided to suspend Jenkyns for the rest of the season , and release him thereafter . The Dart suggested that " the supporters of this club praise the executive for their maintenance of discipline and decorum " . Jack Oliver took over the captaincy and Teddy Jolly played at centre @-@ half for the Birmingham Charity Cup semi @-@ final , in which Small Heath finally beat West Bromwich Albion at the sixth attempt .
In their last game of the League season , away to Sheffield United , Small Heath scored first when Foulkes ' attempted clearance rebounded off his teammate Walter Hill into the net , and Mobley extended the lead after a break down the left by Hands . Although United came close to scoring from a second @-@ half scrimmage when the ball appeared to cross the line , Small Heath held on to ensure their First Division survival with an unexpected victory .
After overturning a two @-@ goal deficit to beat Woolwich Arsenal 4 – 3 in a friendly at Plumstead , Small Heath took on Aston Villa in their last match of the season , the final of the Birmingham Charity Cup . Unfortunately for the charities , the weather was poor and the attendance low , but those spectators present saw an exciting game . Wheldon scored first with a fierce shot that entered the net off the goalkeeper and the underside of the bar , then Bob Chatt equalised from a free kick and Charlie Athersmith outpaced Oliver and his parried shot was forced over the line . Mobley tied the scores with a long shot , but in the second half with the wind behind them , Villa scored three times to Jack Hallam 's one to take the match 5 – 3 .
= = Summary and aftermath = =
Small Heath conceded more goals than any other team in the division , but finished 12th of 16 , thus avoiding the risk of relegation via the test matches . Despite the misgivings of the Daily Post that " it cannot be expected that eleven or twelve men will stand the strain of a season 's work amongst the first division clubs " , no member of the first @-@ choice team missed more than four League matches . Bill Purves and Billy Ollis were ever @-@ present , Ollis for the third season running , and Fred Wheldon missed a match for the first time in five years . Ten other men appeared at least once . Frank Mobley was leading scorer , with 13 goals , followed by Wheldon with 11 ; no other player reached double figures .
Apart from Caesar Jenkyns , who signed for Woolwich Arsenal where he was appointed captain , all the regular first @-@ team players remained with the club . Goalkeeper Joe Fall signed from Newton Heath for a fee reported as £ 20 , and defender Harry Haynes joined from Wolverhampton Wanderers . The Dart thought that Jenkyns would be missed " a great deal more than some of [ the ] supporters imagine " , and that apart from Fall , who was expected to be " a big improvement " on Partridge , the 1895 – 96 team would be noticeably weaker than that of the season just ended .
= = Squad statistics = =
This table includes appearances and goals in nationally organised competitions – the Football League and FA Cup – only . For a description of the playing positions , see Formation ( association football ) # 2 – 3 – 5 ( Pyramid ) .
= = Match details = =
For consistency , attendances and goalscorers ' names in the League and FA Cup match details tables are sourced from Matthews ' Complete Record . Information in contemporary newspaper reports could , and often did , differ . League positions are sourced from Statto .
= = = Football League First Division = = =
= = = FA Cup = = =
= = = Birmingham Senior Cup = = =
= = = Mayor of Birmingham 's Charity Cup = = =
= = = Other matches = = =
|
= Richard Garnons Williams =
Not to be confused with the rugby union and rugby league footballer of the 1940s and ' 50s Dickie Williams
Not to be confused with the Australian rugby league footballer Richard Williams ( rugby league )
Colonel Richard Davies Garnons Williams ( 15 June 1856 – 27 September 1915 ) was a British Army officer and Welsh rugby union player who represented Wales , Brecon and Newport . He played in the first Wales international rugby union match in 1881 .
Garnons Williams became an officer in the British Army in 1876 , and retired from regular service in 1892 , though he continued to serve in a voluntary capacity until 1906 . Already aged 58 at the outbreak of the First World War , he rejoined the army and was killed in action in 1915 .
= = Early life and family = =
Richard Garnons Williams was born on 15 June 1856 in Llowes , Radnorshire , the second child of the Reverend Garnons Williams of Abercamlais , Powys , and his wife Catherine Frances , the daughter of Fenton Hort , of Leopardstown , Dublin , and sister of Fenton John Anthony Hort . Garnons Williams was educated at Magdalen College School , Oxford before being prepared for University by private tuition in Wimbledon , Surrey . He then went to Trinity College , Cambridge , in October 1874 .
His siblings were Reverend Arthur , Richard Davies , Captain Aylmer Herbert , Gerald , Katharine Frances Helena , Annabella Mary , Hugh , who died an infant , Mark Penry Fenton , and Mary Elizabeth . Aylmer Herbert joined the Royal Navy in 1871 and , after receiving his commission in 1880 , served until his retirement in 1902 , having reached the rank of captain . He then took command of the training ship HMS Cornwall until 1904 when he was appointed to command the Lancashire Navy League Sea Training Home at Liscard . He died on 8 February 1916 aged 58 . Gerald was married in April 1892 to Minnie Lilian Court , the youngest daughter of Major Henry Court of Iverfarne , Buckinghamshire . Mark Penry was Fleet Surgeon aboard HMS Hampshire and died when his vessel was wrecked in 1916 .
Richard Garnons Williams married Alice Jessie Bircham on 8 January 1885 . They had a daughter , Barbara , who married Captain Hume Buckley Roderick of the Welsh Guards on 9 November 1916 . Her husband was killed in action on the Western Front in 1917 . She was herself serving in France at the time .
= = Rugby = =
After going up to Trinity College , Garnons Williams represented Cambridge at rugby , but did not win a Blue . He played three matches for Newport RFC in 1880 , after he had joined the army : against Manchester Rangers ( 2 October ) , Gloucester ( 4 December ) , and Cardiff ( 18 December ) . In 1881 he was selected to represent Wales in its first ever match , against England on 19 February at Blackheath . The challenge to England came from Richard Mullock of Newport , who was not an official of the South Wales Football Union , but wanted to bring Wales up to the same level as the other home nations , rather than settle for playing against English and Irish provincial teams . England , for its part , had recently beaten Ireland by two tries and two goals to none , and the previous season had become the first winners of the Calcutta Cup by beating Scotland by three tries and two goals to one goal . The date offered to Mullock by the English Rugby Football Union ( RFU ) , 19 February , coincided with a match for the South Wales Cup between Llanelli and cup holders Swansea , thereby limiting Mullock 's selection options . England won by eight goals to nil . It was Garnons Williams ' only appearance for Wales .
International appearance
= = Military career = =
Deciding to follow a military career Garnons Williams was accepted into the Royal Military College Sandhurst , and is also recorded as representing the Sandhurst rugby team . He completed his officer training in 1876 , and was commissioned as a sub @-@ lieutenant on 26 February . He was posted to the 38th Regiment of Foot , promoted lieutenant on 17 January 1877 , and with his army rank ( but not regimental seniority ) backdated to his original commission as sub @-@ lieutenant , and a month later , on 17 February 1877 , transferred to the 7th Regiment of Foot .
By February 1885 he had been promoted to captain , and his unit had been renamed the Royal Fusiliers ( City of London Regiment ) . On 10 January 1887 he was appointed adjutant of the 4th Battalion of the regiment , the Militia unit of the regiment . A regular officer was normally given this post in Militia units to organise training and generally maintain standards . His posting lasted the usual 5 years . He then retired from the regular army on 4 May 1892 . On 8 August 1894 he was commissioned major in the 1st ( Brecknockshire ) Volunteer Battalion , South Wales Borderers , and on 1 November 1895 was appointed Brigade Major for the South Wales Brigade of the Volunteer Force . On 12 July 1899 he was granted the honorary rank of lieutenant colonel . He resigned his Volunteer commission on 26 May 1906 , retaining his rank and with permission to continue wearing his uniform .
= = = First World War = = =
He rejoined the British Army shortly after the outbreak of World War I and was posted to his original regiment , joining the 12th ( Service ) Battalion of the Royal Fusiliers as a major on 26 September 1914 . He was promoted temporary lieutenant colonel on 3 October 1914 , and transferred back to the South Wales Borderers to command the Brecknockshire Battalion . He was later posted back to 12th Royal Fusiliers , and , according to official sources , was killed on 25 September 1915 while leading his battalion at the Battle of Loos . He is commemorated on the Loos Memorial to the Missing . At 59 years of age , he was the eldest of the 13 Wales international players to be killed during the war .
A soldier under the command of Colonel Garnons Williams wrote an account of his commanding officer 's death , which puts the date of his death as 27 September . Col Garnons Williams was in temporary command of the 12th Royal Fusiliers when on 25 September he led his battalion in an attack on German trenches . However , the flanks were exposed and on 27 September , Garnons Williams gave the order to retreat . He was at that moment shot in the head from a house nearby . The soldier who gave the account said : " I was very sorry for him , as we could not have had a better , braver officer . He was with us all the time in the front trench , and looked after us as well as he could ; no man could have done better . Nobody could get back to him . " The following evening , the battalion was relieved , Garnons Williams being declared officially wounded and missing in action , unofficially reported killed .
|
= Helen Mayo =
Helen Mary Mayo , OBE ( 1 October 1878 – 13 November 1967 ) was an Australian medical doctor and medical educator , born and raised in Adelaide . In 1896 , she enrolled at the University of Adelaide , where she studied medicine . After graduating , Mayo spent two years working in infant health in England , Ireland and India . She returned to Adelaide in 1906 , starting a private practice and taking up positions at the Adelaide Children 's Hospital and Adelaide Hospital . In 1909 , she co @-@ founded the School for Mothers , where mothers could receive advice on infant health . This organisation , which became the Mothers ' and Babies ' Health Association in 1927 , eventually established branches across South Australia and incorporated a training school for maternal nurses . In 1914 , after unsuccessfully campaigning for the Children 's Hospital to treat infants , Mayo co @-@ founded the Mareeba Hospital for infants .
In addition to her medical achievements , Mayo participated in a number of other organisations . She was heavily involved in the University of Adelaide , serving on the university council from 1914 to 1960 ( the first woman in Australia to be elected to such a position ) and establishing a women 's club and boarding college there . She was also the founder of the Adelaide Lyceum Club , an organisation for professional women . Mayo died on 13 November 1967 , with the Medical Journal of Australia attributing the success of South Australia 's infant welfare system to her efforts .
= = Early life and education = =
Helen Mary Mayo was born in Adelaide , Australia on 1 October 1878 . She was the eldest of the seven children of George Gibbes Mayo , a civil engineer , and Henrietta Mary Mayo , née Donaldson , and granddaughter of George Mayo , a prominent Adelaide doctor . Her formal education commenced at the age of 10 , when she began receiving regular lessons with a tutor . At the age of 16 , she was enrolled in the Advanced School for Girls on Grote Street ( the forerunner of the Adelaide High School ) , from which she matriculated after one year , at the end of 1895 .
Despite never having heard of female doctors , from an early age Mayo had been set on pursuing a career in medicine . However , Edward Rennie , then a professor at the University of Adelaide advised Helen 's father that she was too young to commence study in Medicine , so in 1896 , Mayo enrolled in the Faculty of Arts at the University of Adelaide . The death of her younger sister Olive at the end of her first year of study meant that Mayo was unable to sit her final exams for that year , and when she repeated her first year in 1897 , she failed two of her five subjects ( Latin and Greek ) . Having gained her father 's permission , Mayo enrolled in medicine in 1898 . She was a distinguished medicine student , coming top of her class and winning the Davis Thomas scholarship and the Everard Scholarship in her fourth and fifth years of study , respectively .
= = Medical career = =
Upon her graduation in at the end of 1902 , Mayo took up a position as a resident medical officer at the Adelaide Hospital . In February 1904 , she left for England to gain practical experience . There she worked as a clinical clerk at Hospital for Sick Children in Great Ormond Street , London . To gain experience in midwifery , she went to Coombe Women 's Hospital in Dublin , and after returning to London to complete a course in tropical medicine , she travelled to India where she worked for a year as a midwife in a Cambridge Mission hospital for women and children . In 1906 , Mayo returned to Adelaide and started a private practice in premises owned by her father on Morphett Street , next to the family home . With spare time on her hands , she began laboratory work at the Adelaide Hospital and took up an appointment as honorary anaesthetist at the Adelaide Children 's Hospital .
= = = The Mothers and Babies ' Health Association = = =
In May 1909 , Mayo presented a paper to an interstate conference on the subject of infant mortality . In it , she addressed the high infant mortality rate in South Australia , and claimed that more needed to be done to educate women for motherhood . Later that year , after hearing a talk about the success of a school for mothers in London , she and Harriet Stirling ( the daughter of Edward Stirling ) founded the School for Mothers in Adelaide . The Kindergarten Union made a room in its offices available for one afternoon a week , where a nurse would weigh babies and Mayo and Stirling would give advice . At the first annual meeting of the School a prominent medical doctor criticised the organisation for thinking that spinsters could teach mothers , who were guided by the " mother instinct " ( both Mayo and Stirling were childless ) . In spite of this , the organisation flourished , and in 1911 a cottage in Wright Street was purchased and became the headquarters of the School . In 1927 , the organisation became the Mothers ' and Babies ' Health Association , and by 1932 , it had branches throughout South Australia . Mayo served as the honorary medical officer of the association until her death in 1967 , by which time the organisation gained a training school for maternal nurses and a hospital . In her honour , the Association inaugurated the annual Helen Mayo lecture . Eventually , in 1981 , the Mothers and Babies ' Association was incorporated into the Department of Health of the South Australian Government .
After visiting Melbourne to learn how to make vaccines , in 1911 Mayo was appointed clinical bacteriologist at the Adelaide hospital , a position she would hold for 22 years .
= = = The Mareeba Hospital = = =
In the early part of the 1910s , there was an urgent need for medical facilities to treat infants in South Australia since , due to the risks of cross @-@ infection , the Adelaide Children 's Hospital would not treat those under the age of two . In 1913 , Mayo and Stirling called a meeting of medical practitioners to discuss the prospect of a hospital for these children . After doubts about the practicality of such a plan were expressed , the group raised some funds and presented to the board of the Adelaide Children 's Hospital a plan to use the funds to build a separate ward on the grounds of the hospital . The board rejected the proposal , so Mayo and her group rented a two @-@ story house in St. Peter 's and opened a hospital for infants in 1914 . Financial difficulties for the hospital eventually became overwhelming and the state government took over the hospital , moving it to Woodville and renaming it the Mareeba Hospital .
Mayo played a central role in establishing Mareeba Hospital and forming its policy , serving as honourable physician at Mareeba , and as honorary responsible officer from 1921 to 1946 . To combat the risks of cross @-@ infection , she instituted a policy of strict isolation of babies from other patients . Each child had their own locker , where their own equipment would be kept , gowns used by nurses to tend to one child would only be used for that child , and blankets , bottles and floors were all sterilised . Mareeba eventually became a 70 @-@ bed hospital , complete with a surgical unit and a ward for premature babies .
= = = Later medical career = = =
In 1919 , The Adelaide Children 's Hospital advertised for honorary physicians . Believing that her gender would prevent her being given the position , Mayo initially declined to apply . However , following a recommendation by Adelaide surgeon Henry Simpson Newland , Mayo applied for the post , and that year was appointed honorary Assistant Physician in charge of outpatients . With positions at the Royal Adelaide Hospital , the Children 's Hospital and the Mareeba Hospital , as well as commitments at her private practice , Mayo commenced her Doctor of Medicine degree in 1925 . She used her experiences as a clinical bacteriologist at the Adelaide Hospital as the basis for her thesis , which she was forced to write on the weekends , such was the volume of her workload . The following year , she became the first woman to receive an MD from the University of Adelaide . She was subsequently appointed honorary physician to inpatients at the Children 's Hospital , and a clinical lecturer at the University of Adelaide . In May 1935 Mayo was appointed an Officer of the Order of the British Empire ( OBE ) " for services in connection with maternal and child welfare in the state of South Australia . "
She retired in 1938 and became an honorary consulting physician at the Children 's Hospital , but when the Second World War broke out , she returned to the hospital as senior paediatric adviser , at the same time organising the Red Cross donor transfusion service . Dr. Elma Linton Sandford @-@ Morgan ( 22 February 1890 – ) , author of ABC of Mothercraft , was appointed medical officer for M.B.H.A. in 1937 . She was a daughter of industrialist and politician A. Wallace Sandford .
= = Other activities = =
Mayo became the first woman in Australia to be elected to a university council when , in 1914 , she was elected to the Council of the University of Adelaide , a position she held for 46 years . She founded , in 1922 , the Adelaide Lyceum Club , and was its inaugural president . The club provided a place for women who were leaders in their respective fields to meet , and aimed to " advance the status of women in the world of arts and letters " .
Mayo was also heavily involved in the life of female students and graduates of the University of Adelaide . She spearheaded the foundation of the Women Student 's Club ( eventually the Women 's Union ) in 1909 , and in 1921 initiated efforts to unify the various student bodies at that University into what would eventually become the Adelaide University Union . The construction of the Lady Simon Building for the Women 's Union was due in large part to her efforts , as was the founding of St. Ann 's College , where she served as chairperson from 1939 to 1959 .
Mayo died 13 November 1967 , aged 89 . In its obituary , the Medical Journal of Australia described her as " the doyen of medical women in South Australia ( and most probably Australia ) " , and credited her with the efficiency of South Australia 's infant health welfare system . The Federal Division of Mayo is named for her .
|
= New Amerykah Part One ( 4th World War ) =
New Amerykah Part One ( 4th World War ) is the fourth studio album by American neo soul singer Erykah Badu . After a hiatus from recording music due to writer 's block , Badu communicated with several hip hop producers over the Internet and worked on new music using the GarageBand software program on her laptop . Once the songs were composed , she went on to record most of the album at Electric Lady Studios in New York City .
New Amerykah Part One is an esoteric concept album titled as a pun on Badu 's first name and a reflection of the record 's political leanings . It features social commentary and themes related to the plight of the African @-@ American community , including poverty , urban violence , complacency , and cultural identity . The record 's densely produced music incorporates funk , R & B , hip hop , soul , jazz , and electronica styles .
When New Amerykah Part One was released by Universal Motown on February 26 , 2008 , it received widespread critical acclaim and debuted at number two on the Billboard 200 albums chart . At the end of the year , it was named by many critics as one of 2008 's best records , and by December 2009 , it had sold 359 @,@ 000 copies in the United States . Badu promoted the album with a supporting tour , The Vortex World Tour , during May to July 2008 .
= = Background = =
Dealing with writer 's block and conflicted about her mainstream success , Erykah Badu embarked on her Frustrated Artist Tour in 2003 . Her increasing popularity brought upon some backlash towards her public image and expectations of her as " queen of neo soul " , an honorific nickname that she found limiting . Her third studio album , Worldwide Underground ( 2003 ) , was released to mostly positive reviews and was certified gold , although it was underpromoted and sold less than her previous albums . Badu herself was not satisfied with the album and felt she had nothing substantial to express with her music at the time . She took time off from her recording career to deal with her creative block and focus on caring for her children , although she continued to tour in the period between albums .
In 2004 , Badu gave birth to a daughter , Puma Rose , with her former boyfriend , rapper The D.O.C .. Later that year , she received her first computer as a Christmas gift from drummer and producer Ahmir " Questlove " Thompson , and began communicating with and receiving music from him and other producers such as Q @-@ Tip and J Dilla . Beginning in 2005 , Badu worked from her home in Dallas and used the software application GarageBand as a digital audio workstation , which she was introduced to by her son , Seven . He taught her how to use her laptop as a mini recording studio , and she used it to construct various backing tracks for songs . Using GarageBand , she recorded demos of her vocals by singing into the computer 's microphone .
Badu composed more than 75 songs within the year and intended on splitting them among her planned series of New Amerykah albums . She said of her productivity with her laptop , " I could be here , in my own space , with headphones on , and the kids could be doing what they doing , and I ’ m cooking dinner still , I ’ m making juices still , and it ’ s so easy just to sing . You got an idea — boom ! Idea , boom ! " Badu 's iChat contacts , including hip hop producers Questlove , Madlib , 9th Wonder , and J Dilla , instant messaged her to get back into the studio and sent her tracks . Such exchanges inspired a creative spark for Badu , which she explained in an interview for the Dallas Observer , " I started to accept that maybe it 's OK for me to put out music , and it doesn 't have to be something dynamic or world @-@ changing . But just as I was accepting that , here comes this burst of light and energy and creativity . And that 's the process , I guess , of life — the detachment and the release of something gives you even more room to grow or be creative . "
With the album , Badu sought to augment her music 's production , expose the work of underground hip hop producers , and exceed listeners ' expectations of contemporary music . She discussed her creative intentions in an interview for Billboard , stating " In taking on a project like this , I 'm taking the responsibility to talk for my race and my planet . " In an interview for the New York Post , she explained the album to be about " the war against self ... against your inner being " , and said of her hiatus , " I 've always taken my time between albums . I 'm a performing artist - recording is secondary to me . My performances are what drive me . It 's like my therapy . I like to write a lot while I 'm on the road before I even think about recording . " Badu also said that she now had a relevant message to express for listeners and was no longer struggling with a creative block .
= = Recording = =
For New Amerykah Part One , Badu collaborated principally with Questlove , Madlib , 9th Wonder , Karriem Riggins , James Poyser , audio engineer Mike " Chav " Chavarria , and the members of musical group Sa @-@ Ra , who made production and lyrical contributions to most of the tracks . She later explained choosing which producers to work with , saying " All of these people have a reputation for being visionaries and knowing them well , I felt ' Okay , now it 's time to put together a project that not only takes us to another place , another dimension , but highlights these sights . ' And that 's what I had in mind for this project " .
Badu began recording New Amerykah Part One at Luminous Sound Recording in Dallas , where she was assisted by Chavarria in recording vocals and basic tracks to 2 @-@ tracks . Her vocal harmonies were recorded to a Studer A820 ½ -inch , an Analog Playback Tape machine , using RMG magnetic tape . Poyser , who was heavily involved as musician and producer in all of Badu 's previous work , had his role on the album reduced amicably to accommodate her minimalist , beat @-@ driven approach in production . He discussed Badu 's direction for the album in an interview for Shook , stating " she wanted a dirtier , more organic underground hip hop sound . So she dealt with cats that brought that sound to the table . "
Additional recording sessions and programming took place at Sa @-@ Ra 's Cosmic Dust Studio . Sa @-@ Ra member Om 'mas Keith remarked on Badu 's role at their studio , " Sometimes she ’ d come through and pick a skeletal and other times the beats would get made right then and there . " Keith played instruments such as the Fender Rhodes , Roland Juno @-@ 106 , and Roland SH @-@ 101 . Of all her collaborators , Badu only let Husayn write lyrics for her on the album . Husayn said that because Badu had not allowed anyone to do this before , " she had to go through some personal things to come to the point where she 'd let somebody write for her in the manner that we did . It was spontaneous but at the same time there was structure to it . It might not have the right expression , or the right enunciation . Writing is so personal . That was a big thing . "
= = = Electric Lady sessions = = =
Badu subsequently held recording sessions at Electric Lady Studios in New York City , where the album was completed . In her interview for Remix , she elaborated on the recording process , stating " Everything that the producers e @-@ mailed me I put into GarageBand . Then we would try to duplicate it at Electric Lady . I did vocals on my laptop , babies crying and everything . I also EQ 'd the tracks using effects like GarageBand 's Vocal Reflection . " Badu worked with audio engineers Chris Bell , Tom Soares , and Chavarria , who had spent numerous hours with Badu listening to her previous albums , including her 1997 debut Baduizm and its 2000 follow @-@ up Mama 's Gun , and older albums such as The Dark Side of the Moon ( 1973 ) by progressive rock band Pink Floyd and Innervisions ( 1973 ) by Stevie Wonder . They worked with the producers ' emailed music and embellished their own 2 @-@ tracks by using Pro Tools to incorporate live instrumentation such as bass , guitar , flutes , percussion , and keyboards . Contributing musicians included vocalist Georgia Anne Muldrow , trumpeter Roy Hargrove , vibraphonist Roy Ayers , guitarist Omar Rodríguez @-@ López , and vocalist Bilal .
Inspired by Badu 's creativity and their time listening to music , Chavarria added special effects and delays to the tracks by using and manipulating a variety of plug @-@ ins and guitar pedals , subsequently reworking effects frequency and modulation parameters . Chavarria said they were able to expand on the producers ' tracks rather than change them , because " Erykah made this record to display to the world that there is this whole group of producers out there who are outside of the mainstream making great music . " Badu said of the approach , " I work in layers . The first layer is the track . The second layer is the songs . The third would be the musicians who add a certain nuance . And when they play , they play like they are a sample . Or we take a piece of what they played , and we sample and loop it . "
Along with a talking drum , Badu used tuning forks when recording New Amerykah Part One to evoke a certain feeling through its frequency , a practice she had done on her previous albums : " Each tuning fork has a certain vibrational energy that is conducive to a feeling or a color or a smell . They 're related to different chakras in the body , too . Some may make you feel good or sexy or conscious of what you 're saying . " The album was mastered at Electric Lady Studios in February 2008 . Before it was edited down to 11 tracks , New Amerykah Part One was originally intended as a double album , with 18 songs over two discs .
= = = Vocal production = = =
At Electric Lady , Badu applied a multifaceted approach to recording her vocals and opted against editing them in post @-@ production . Using her voice impressionistically , her vocals were characterized by high scales , varied frequencies , wide intervals , and time @-@ stretched harmonies . Chavarria , who engineered the vocals with Badu , remarked on her singing , " Her voice has so many frequencies , from a subharmonic of her tonic to a thin raspiness , and she wants to hear all of that . " Badu used a Shure SM57 dynamic microphone , finding it to have enough bottom for her voice type , and cut vocal takes while situated between two speakers in the studio 's control room with the monitor mix playing . She explained this setting to be more comfortable , noting the ability to hear herself sing and hold the microphone when moving around . Badu preferred to sing in one take rather than edit different takes together : " When I do vocals , I am singing with a certain volume in my voice . I am singing the double and triple harmonies at different volumes . You don 't have to adjust it ; I have already done it . We mix as we go , so by the time we put the vocals to ½ -inch tape , I know it . If you touch a damn thing , I will know it . "
To adjust to potential audio feedback and leakage and obtain a usable take , Chavarria tried having Badu sit in an overstuffed chair six feet behind the mixing console and use alternate microphones such as a Neumann M 269 or AEA R44 ribbon microphone with Sony MDR @-@ V900 headphones into a Furman headphone mixer . However , Badu felt she could not perceive all of her voice 's frequencies with the headphones and often discarded them to move towards the studio monitors . He also considered situating her in an equilateral triangle with the two speakers , one of which would be placed out of phase in order to have the leakage cancel itself . However , according to him , the mic has to be stationary , while Badu " likes to hold the mic like an MC . She is at home as a live performer . " He said of working around audio spills and adapting to Badu 's methods , " We worked to make her vocals fit into the track , phase @-@ wise ... What did work was to keep the monitors fairly low and turn the microphone out of phase , and we would move her around the room until she found a spot where the leakage was reasonable and where she felt comfortable and could hear herself . But just as often she would just sit in that chair behind the board in the A Room . "
= = Music and lyrics = =
The album 's music is a dense , stylistic amalgam that primarily incorporates funk , soul , and hip hop genres , as well as jazz and electronica . The New Yorker called it " a politically charged neo @-@ soul suite with cutting @-@ edge production " , while Nelson George described the record as " a complicated mesh of soul , electro sounds and references , simple and obscure ... a musically challenging album that owes much to Radiohead and Curtis Mayfield " . Expanding of the loose , jam @-@ oriented style of Worldwide Underground , it features groove @-@ based instrumentation , murky tones , hip hop musical phrasing , eccentric interludes , and various beats , digital glitches , and samples . Sputnikmusic 's Nick Butler said the album " moved beyond the ideas and conventions that have defined neo @-@ soul over the past decade . " Greg Kot wrote that , " Like her peers D 'Angelo ( with Voodoo in 2000 ) , Common ( Electric Circus in 2002 ) and the Roots ( Phrenology in 2002 ) , Badu has made a record that defies efforts to categorize it . " He remarked that its " murkier , funkier vibe " draws on the " hypnotic funk " of early 1970s albums such as Miles Davis 's On the Corner ( 1972 ) , Herbie Hancock 's Sextant ( 1973 ) , and Sly & the Family Stone 's There 's a Riot Goin ' On ( 1971 ) .
Similar to Voodoo and On the Corner , New Amerykah Part One emphasizes sound and mood over choruses and verses . The album is unified by a musical theme , with songs sequenced together and typified by ominous musical elements , minor @-@ key melodies , and atmospheric beats . Songs on the album also incorporate experimental hip hop backing tracks and other hip hop elements in a surrealistic manner . The majority of the beats are dark , blunted , and hazy , and have been noted by music writers as conveying an urban soundscape and feeling of paranoia . Lauren Carter of the Boston Herald said the songs often have " the feel of a seance " . Most of them were either produced or co @-@ written by members of Sa @-@ Ra , who were known for their sonically dissonant music , characterized by eccentric chord placements and off @-@ time beats . Sasha Frere @-@ Jones believed the record " isn 't so much hip @-@ hop as it is a reorganization of the historical flotsam and jetsam that were recycled and turned into hip @-@ hop . "
Lyrically , New Amerykah Part One is an esoteric concept album with sociopolitical themes and mostly downbeat subject matter . It features more impersonal topics and social commentary than on Badu 's previous work . Its subject matter deals with social concerns and struggles within the African @-@ American community , exploring topics such as institutional racism , religion , poverty , urban violence , the abuse of power , complacency , drug addiction , and nihilism . Badu said she wrote about " poor families , the undermining of the working class , the so @-@ called minority . " According to New York critic Nitsuh Abebe , the record 's main theme was the struggle for African Americans to determine their cultural identity in light of the " Civil Rights and post @-@ Civil Rights " era . In Ratliff 's opinion , the album 's subject matter has been explored before by Mayfield , Marvin Gaye , and Funkadelic , which " suggests that little has changed in nearly 40 years , and perhaps ... that 's her point . " Quentin B. Huff from PopMatters believed that like Suzanne Vega 's 2007 album Beauty & Crime , New Amerykah Part One also incorporated " a post @-@ 9 / 11 worldview , plus a few shots of community spirit , individual growth , pleas for social activism and spiritual enlightenment , and ... the realities of death . " He felt that like the " clash in musical styles " , some songs " seem committed to having America honor " the promise of the American Dream for African @-@ Americans , while other songs " seem to reject the promise , or at least the idea that the promise can be fulfilled without considerable effort " .
Badu 's songwriting was characterized by pointillism , stream of consciousness , and scenic narrative . Her lyrics are alternately overtly political and deeply personal , interlaced with Five Percenter notions and references to the Nation of Islam . Badu expresses a motherly perspective and feelings of dismay and empathy for the subjects in the songs . Charles Aaron commented that " a sense of history and maternal compassion ... grounds even her most oblique forays . " Abebe wrote similarly , " her keen writing about people " gives songs " much of their shape " and views that her candor helps communicate the album 's " social concerns , which could otherwise sound like a laundry list of black @-@ community struggles " .
= = = Songs = = =
The opening track " Amerykahn Promise " samples the 1977 song " The American Promise " by American band RAMP as its backing track . The original song was co @-@ written and produced by Roy Ayers , who gave Badu the original master tape for her to rework on her album . Ayers and Edwin Birdsong were inspired to write the song by President Lyndon B. Johnson 's 1965 speech " The American Promise " , which called for justice and equal rights in the United States . " Amerykahn Promise " features explicit political satire , with themes of disfranchisement and the hindrance of the American Dream . Its tongue @-@ in @-@ cheek subject matter portrays America as a land of broken promises . The song opens with a blaxploitation trailer blurb , saying " more action , more excitement , more everything " , and features an improvisatory funk vamp , RAMP vocalists Sibel Thrasher and Sharon Matthews , and an authoritative male voice , performed by Keith . The authoritative character is portrayed as a circus @-@ barker whose smoke and mirrors presentation of the American Dream leads to contentious dialogue with Badu . A female voice at the end of the song asks , " Has anyone seen my 42 laws ? " , an arcane allusion to the 42 divine laws of ancient Egyptian goddess Maat .
Produced by Madlib , " The Healer " is an ode to hip hop culture and a proclamation of its scope . It opens with a brief snippet from a song by Malcolm McLaren featuring the World 's Famous Supreme Team . Frere @-@ Jones notes " bells , unidentifiable knocks , a lonesome instrument that might be a sitar , or a guitar , and lots of empty space " in the musical backdrop , adding that " the music flirts with total stasis , though it still has an audible beat . " Badu 's lyrics , delivered in an incantation style , make reference to various names of God , including Allah , Jehovah , Yahweh , Jah , and Rastafari , while asserting hip hop to be " bigger than " social institutions such as religion and government . She explained the lyrics and religious references , saying " to me , hip @-@ hop is felt in all religions - it has a healing power . I 've recently been to Palestine , Jerusalem , Africa and a bunch of other places , and everyone is listening to hip @-@ hop . There 's something about that kicking snare sound that all kinds of people find meaning in . " The autobiographical song " Me " discusses Badu 's thoughts and feelings about her life , including the struggle of growing as a public figure . She mocks others ' perception of her , which she has explained as " everything you can see of Erykah Badu — the Ankhs , the powers , the 5 Percenters , the mysteries , it ’ s all true . The lies ; it ’ s all true . Had two babies with different daddies . Thirty @-@ six years old and addicted to a variety of spending . " The song 's jazz conclusion has Badu singing about her mother 's life and resilience in unison with a muted trumpet .
" Soldier " was written by Badu immediately after receiving Riggins ' beat for the song . He said Badu wanted it to have a sound similar to J Dilla and his Detroit hip hop scene , which Riggins was inspired by : " A lot of producers from Detroit have a certain sound , and I think it just comes from being in the city . " Its sociopolitical lyrics have Badu expressing sympathy and solidarity for those facing oppression , with references to police corruption , black @-@ on @-@ black crime , and Hurricane Katrina . " The Cell " was produced by Husayn and features a lively , choral style and hard bop feel . Titled as a metaphor for both heredity and confinement , the song is a tableau of crime , drugs , and desperation in urban decay , streamlined by a stark story about Brenda , a character who falls victim to her environment . Cited by Chavarria as the album 's most effects @-@ heavy track , " Twinkle " features a futuristic sound , a convoluted beat , and abstract aural elements such as white noise bursts , high @-@ pitched voices , abrasive instruments , and layers of twinkling keyboard bass . The lyrics lament the plight of the Black community and the cyclical effects on African Americans by the various failures of American social institutions such as the health care , education , and prison systems . Badu raps in the song 's verse , " Children of the matrix be hittin ’ them car switches / Seen some virgin Virgos hanging out with Venus bitches " , followed by her singing , " They don ’ t know their language , they don ’ t know their God " . Over humming keyboards , the closing minutes of the song feature a speech in the ancient African language of Mdw Ntchr , followed by a speaker 's rant inspired by actor Peter Finch 's own rant in the 1976 film Network . The speaker angrily laments the state of the world and the complacency of people . Philadelphia Weekly 's Craig D. Linsey likened " Twinkle " to a denser version of Marvin Gaye 's 1971 song " Inner City Blues ( Make Me Wanna Holler ) " .
" Master Teacher " was conceived by Georgia Anne Muldrow on her Rhodes piano at Sa @-@ Ra 's Cosmic Dust Studio with Badu present and was originally intended for one of their albums . Its idyllic music blends mellow soul and glitchy hip hop , featuring a chopped sample of Curtis Mayfield 's 1972 song " Freddie 's Dead " . The song 's lyrics envision a higher degree of African @-@ American identity . Its vocalists ask in refrain , " What if there was no niggas , only master teachers ? " , and answering " I stay woke " , with Badu responding " I 'm in the search of something new / Search inside me , searching inside you " . Midway through the song , Poyser 's keyboards lower the music 's tempo , with a fluid , jazzy sound . " That Hump " concerns the topic of drug dependency . The closing track " Telephone " is a tribute to J Dilla , who died in 2006 from complications with blood disorder , and has themes of sorrow and hope . It serves as a departure from the preceding songs ' edgier musical direction , featuring soft melodies and an acoustic feel similar to Badu 's live sound . The song opens with the sound of ominous sirens , referencing J Dilla 's 2006 album Donuts . The song 's lyrics are based on a story told to Badu by J Dilla 's mother on the day of his death . Poyser explained in an interview , " Dilla 's mom told Erykah about one day when he was telling her about this dream he had where Ol 'Dirty was telling him to get on a different color bus and giving him directions home " . According to Poyser , the song 's music was inspired by Dilla 's passing :
We were in the studio right after Dilla ’ s funeral and we were working on stuff for the Edith Funker album . The focus there was more emotional than sonic . It was just feeling Dilla . It was something that wasn ’ t thought out , it just naturally took place . We were sitting there and we just started jamming and the song just happened instantly .
The hidden track " Honey " is a percussive , lighthearted love song that contains a sample of singer Nancy Wilson 's 1978 song " I 'm in Love " . The track opens with a reprise of " Amerykahn Promise " , with an announcer saying , " We hope you enjoyed your journey and now we ’ re putting control of you back to you " , and a countdown leading to " Honey " . According to Badu , the song is about " a lover , a fictitious character named Slim , who I 'm chasing . " Allmusic 's Andy Kellman commented that the song is included as an unlisted track as " it doesn 't fit into the album 's fabric , what with its drifting , deeply sweetened , synth @-@ squish @-@ and @-@ string @-@ drift groove . "
= = Title and packaging = =
Before New Amerykah 's release , the album was tentatively called KahBa , which Badu derived from her name , as a reference to Islam and Kemetism . The title of the album series , New Amerykah , is a pun of Badu 's name . She has explained one meaning of it as " a statement that simply says , ' This is the beginning of the new world ' -for both the slaves and the slave masters . In other words , everybody has to wake up and see . This new world moves much faster . We don 't even realize how fast we 're moving . " Part One 's subtitle , 4th World War , reflects the content 's objective , political leanings , which Badu explained to be " outside of me ... What ’ s going on outside is the left brain " . Badu further explained New Amerykah 's title in an interview for Remix :
In 1997 , a 25 @-@ year @-@ old Erykah Badu came out as an artist , pregnant , a mother @-@ to @-@ be . We used to bring cassettes home as our listening from the studio . No one had a cell phone , only a couple people with these great big contraptions . The Internet was not our form of communication ; we still had the library . We were creating from sand and scrap . So quickly it 's turned into this technological society . I can send the album to millions of fans from Antarctica to Mexico City with one push of the button . The way our children think and the things they see ? It 's new , and it 's happened so quick . And I am in the middle of that . Me on the platform with a microphone — that is how I envision New Amerykah .
The album 's cover and interior artwork were designed by Badu and graphic artist Emek . The cover features an abstract portrayal of Badu , who dons vintage nameplate knuckle rings bearing the album title and an Afro decorated in a bric @-@ a @-@ brac manner with various emblems . Badu and Emek sought to reflect the former 's perspective on various topics , including music , religion , governments , and economics , and incorporate emblems to depict American culture and modern society . Images featured in the Afro include those of flowers , spray cans , dollar signs , power plants , musical notes , toilets , raised fists , needles , laptops , turntables , handcuffs , broken chains , bar codes , drugs , and guns . The album 's interior artwork features ominous , psychedelic , futuristic , and apocalyptic imagery . The artwork includes illustrations of a red @-@ eyed Uncle Sam pointing a gun , robotic creatures tattooing each other , a bar code bearing the alphanumeric message " 50C1AL 5Y5T3M " , and a suited skeleton with a dollar sign on its skull lecturing to a headless audience from a podium that bears the pyramid image from the reverse of the Great Seal of the United States . The illustration of a soft melting fork , hypodermic needle , and spoon is an adaptation of Salvador Dalí 's 1931 painting The Persistence of Memory .
= = Release and promotion = =
The album 's lead single , " Honey " , was released on December 11 , 2007 . It reached number 88 on the US Billboard Hot 100 , on which it spent three weeks . On the Hot R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Songs , it charted for 17 weeks and peaked at number 22 . A music video for the song was directed by Badu and Chris Robinson , and released on January 28 , 2008 . Badu wanted to pay homage to classic records with the video , which is set in a small business record store and follows a customer as she looks through vintage R & B , hip hop , and rock LPs , whose album covers are depicted as moving images with Badu cast in them . In January 2008 , Badu also previewed songs from the album as a headlining act at the Barbados Jazz Festival . On April 23 , she released " Soldier " as the album 's second single and announced The Vortex World Tour , a supporting tour to promote the album . The tour 's 42 concert dates included shows in the United States , Canada , and Aruba , spanned from May to June , and featured hip hop band The Roots as Badu 's opening act . She later toured in Europe during June and July .
New Amerykah Part One was released by Universal Motown Records in the United States on February 26 , Badu 's 37th birthday . That same day , a release party took place at the House of Blues in Dallas , and Badu performed songs from the album on VH1 Soul 's SoulStage . The record was released in several European countries on February 29 , the United Kingdom on March 3 , and Japan on March 12 . The Japanese and UK editions feature the bonus track " Real Thang " . The album 's digital release to the iTunes Store featured the song 's " Tumbling Dice Remix " as a bonus track . It was also released as a double vinyl LP on March 11 , and on USB stick format . In an interview for the Chicago Tribune , Badu discussed the album 's accompanying USB stick , stating " I might as well give a digital world what they need and what they want . And that 's to just cut out the middle man , which is the CD , which will be extinct , I would say , in about seven to eight years — right along with the record labels . "
= = Reception = =
In the United States , New Amerykah debuted at number two on the Billboard 200 chart , selling 125 @,@ 000 copies in its first week . It was Badu 's best opening week since her debut album Baduizm in 1997 . It also entered at number two on the Billboard Top R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Albums . In its second week , the album sold 41 @,@ 466 copies , and 35 @,@ 000 in its third week . It spent 15 weeks on the Billboard 200 and 29 weeks on the Top R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Albums . By December 2009 , New Amerykah Part One had sold 359 @,@ 000 copies , according to Nielsen SoundScan . In the United Kingdom , the album charted at number 55 on the UK Albums Chart , on which it spent one week . In France , it debuted at number 49 and spent 11 weeks on the French Albums Chart . In Switzerland , it debuted at number 10 and spent six weeks on the Swiss Albums Top 100 . In the Netherlands , the album entered at number 25 and spent seven weeks on the Mega Album Top 100 . In Poland , it reached number nine and spent eight weeks on the Polish Albums Chart . The album 's highest international charting was number five in Sweden , where it charted for seven weeks .
New Amerykah Part One received widespread acclaim from critics . At Metacritic , which assigns a normalized rating out of 100 to reviews from mainstream publications , the album received an average score of 83 , based on 25 reviews . Slant Magazine 's Eric Henderson said it is a powerful listen that stands as Badu 's most musically ambitious work . Sasha Frere @-@ Jones from The New Yorker described the album as " a brilliant resurgence of black avant @-@ garde vocal pop " and " the work of a restless polymath ignoring the world around her and opting for an idiosyncratic , murky feeling that reflects her impulses . " In the Chicago Tribune , Kot wrote that " art this deeply personal " is rarely an easy listen , while Alex Macpherson of The Guardian deemed it a rewarding listen that " demands to be explored . " Rolling Stone magazine 's Christian Hoard was more critical , finding Badu 's socially conscious lyrics unexceptional and too ambiguous , and some songs " absent @-@ minded doodles " . In MSN Music , Robert Christgau deemed it an enjoyable effort , citing " Amerykahn Promise " and " The Cell " as highlights , but said some of the themes seemed dated in comparison to the music : " When your funk is this futuristic , not to say abstract , astrology and Farrakhan sound old , not to say ignorant " . According to Pitchfork Media 's Nitsuh Abebe :
A lot of the critical love for New Amerykah seems rooted in a love for the music of ... a time in which popular black artists made records filled not only with visionary , avant @-@ garde sounds , but with a social expansiveness , a fire and ambition to say something important to and for a community ... This album doesn 't just have the personal and social ambitions of those old records — plenty of charmless " nu @-@ soul " records aspire to that — but some of the sonic ones , too . Big tracks aside , it 's an awfully static record , which gives it the kind of high @-@ art " difficulty " that we critics have been known to like .
At the end of 2008 , New Amerykah Part One was ranked on several critics ' lists of the year 's best records , including the Associated Press ( number 1 ) , The Austin Chronicle ( number 9 ) , Entertainment Weekly ( number 5 ) , New York ( number 8 ) , The New York Times ( number 4 ) , The A.V. Club ( number 8 ) , PopMatters ( number 4 ) , Slant Magazine ( number 8 ) , and The Guardian ( number 9 ) . Spin ranked the album number 12 on its year @-@ end list , calling it " laptop R & B that uses hip @-@ hop as its muse " . Pitchfork Media later ranked it at number 133 on their list of top 200 albums of the 2000s decade , while Rhapsody named it the decade 's best R & B record .
= = Track listing = =
• ( add . ) Additional production • ( co . ) Co @-@ producer
Sample credits
" The Healer " contains a sample of " Kono Samuraï " ( 1971 ) by The Yamasuki Singers .
" My People " contains a sample of " My People ... Hold On " ( 1972 ) by Eddie Kendricks .
" Soldier " contains samples of " Theme " ( 1973 ) by Solution and " Upon This Rock " by Joe Farrell .
" Master Teacher " contains a sample of " Freddie 's Dead " ( 1972 ) by Curtis Mayfield .
" That Hump " contains a sample of " There 'll Never Be " ( 1978 ) by Switch .
" Telephone " contains a sample of " King of the Beats " ( 1988 ) by Mantronix .
" Honey " contains a sample of " I 'm in Love " ( 1978 ) by Nancy Wilson .
= = Personnel = =
Credits are adapted from the album 's liner notes .
= = Charts = =
|
= Here I Stand ( Usher song ) =
" Here I Stand " is a song by American recording artist Usher . It was sent to urban adult contemporary radio on August 18 , 2008 by LaFace Records and RCA Records as the fifth single from Usher 's fifth studio album , Here I Stand ( Usher album ) . Penned by the singer with Polow da Don , Adam Blackstone , Gerrell Gaddis , and Dre & Vidal , and produced by Dre & Vidal , " Here I Stand " is a slow soul ballad and contains similarities to Stevie Wonder 's music . The record received critical acclaim , and was nominated for the Best Male R & B Vocal Performance award at the 51st Grammy Awards . " Here I Stand " maintained a position on the United States Hot R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Songs for several weeks in 2008 and 2009 , reaching the top twenty . It also appeared on the US Radio Songs and Bubbling Under Hot 100 Singles charts , peaking at numbers seventy @-@ two and six , respectively .
= = Background and composition = =
" Here I Stand " was written by Usher , Polow da Don , Adam Blackstone and Gerrell Gaddis , as well as Dre & Vidal , who also produced the track . The song was recorded by Vincent Dilorenzo , with assistance from Geoff Rice , at Sony Music Studios , New York City and Zac Recording , Atlanta . Dilorenzo also mixed the record , with assistance from Matt DeSando , at Studio 609 , Philadelphia . According to Josh Eells of Blender , " Here I Stand " was written for Tameka Foster , whom Usher married in August 2007 . Composed before their engagement , " Here I Stand " was played at Usher and Foster 's wedding , on Foster 's request . The tune is an assurance of sexual fidelity and commitment . In an interview with MTV News , Usher stated , " If you listen to the words [ of ' Here I Stand ' ] , it is very heartfelt , simplistic , yet very soulful . ... It 's a man 's words to his woman : a vow to say that you are the one , and I 'll be there for you . " A slow jam soul ballad , " Here I Stand " has been compared to the work of Stevie Wonder by critics . It was included on Usher 's fifth studio album of the same name , released on May 13 , 2008 by LaFace Records .
= = Release and promotion = =
The song was released to urban adult contemporary radio by LaFace and RCA Records on August 18 , 2008 , serving as the fifth single from Here I Stand . Usher sang " Here I Stand " along with " Trading Places " and " What 's Your Name " at the warmup concert for the 2008 National Football League Kickoff game on September 4 . Usher performed " Here I Stand " at Sony 's keynote address at the 2009 Consumer Electronics Show . The song was performed on his One Night Stand : Ladies Only Tour , with a slower tempo .
= = Reception = =
Leah Greenblatt of Entertainment Weekly called " Here I Stand " a throwback to Stevie Wonder , and was disappointed that it was placed near the end of the parent album . USA Today 's Steve Jones noted the track as a highlight of the album . Joshua Alston from The A.V. Club wrote that the song " lyrically and musically sounds more passionate and more adult than Usher ever has , " and called it a " syrupy ballad " . However , Blender 's Josh Eells called the " chivalrous " number " sweet but taxing , like looking at photos from someone else ’ s wedding , " while Jim Farber of the Daily News wrote that " the [ song 's ] melody fails [ Usher ] . " The song ranked at number one on AOL Radio 's list of top Usher songs . At the 51st Grammy Awards , " Here I Stand " was nominated for the Best Male R & B Vocal Performance award , but lost to Ne @-@ Yo 's " Miss Independent " from his 2008 album , Year of the Gentleman .
Following its radio release , " Here I Stand " debuted on the Hot R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Songs at number seventy @-@ five on the issue dated September 20 , 2008 , and peaked at number eighteen on March 14 , 2009 . On July 18 , 2009 it fell off the chart , having spent forty @-@ three weeks on the chart . " Here I Stand " entered the Bubbling Under Hot 100 Singles at number fourteen on the chart of December 17 , 2008 . It peaked at number six on January 3 , 2009 , before it slipped off the chart the following week , having lasted four weeks there . On February 7 , 2009 , the song appeared on the Hot 100 Airplay ( Radio Songs ) at number seventy @-@ three , but failed to reappear on the chart the next week . It re @-@ entered one place higher , at number seventy @-@ two , on March 14 , 2009 , but again did not gain any traction , with no place achieved on the following chart .
= = Credits = =
Source :
= = Charts = =
|
= Half of Me ( Rihanna song ) =
" Half of Me " is a song recorded by Barbadian recording artist Rihanna for her seventh studio album Unapologetic ( 2012 ) . It was written by Emeli Sandé , Naughty Boy and Stargate , with production done by the latter two . It is a chamber pop song that sees Rihanna deliver vocals in an " experimental " fashion . Its lyrics have been described as a " personal essay " , with lyrics that discuss Rihanna 's unrepentant attitude in letting people into her life . She references Oprah Winfrey in the line " You saw me on the television " . The song garnered positive reviews from music critics , some of whom felt that it is " heartfelt " and " psychedelic " . Upon the release of Unapologetic , the song charted in Canada , France , Ireland , Switzerland and the United Kingdom . It debuted at number 10 on the UK R & B Chart .
= = Background and production = =
" Half of Me " was co @-@ written by Scottish recording artist Emeli Sandé together with Shahid Khan , Mikkel S. Eriksen and Tor Erik Hermansen . Production of the song was helmed by Khan under his production name Naughty Boy as well as Eriksen and Hermansen under their production name StarGate . It was recorded by Eriksen and Miles Walker at Roc the Mic Studios located in New York City . Rihanna 's vocals were recorded by Marcus Tovar and Kuk Harrell at R Studios in Los Angeles , California , while it was mixed by Manny Marroquin at Larrabee Studios in Burbank , California . Harrell also handled production of Rihanna 's vocals . All instrumentation and programming was carried out by Eriksen , Hermansen , Khan and Sandé .
= = Composition and lyrical interpretation = =
" Half of Me " is a chamber pop song which lasts for a duration of three minutes and twelve seconds . The line " You saw me on the television " is a possible reference to her interview with Oprah Winfrey after her boyfriend , Chris Brown assaulted her . Christina Lee for Idolator thought that this is because of how Rihanna 's popularity and personal life combined with her " paparazzi @-@ documented interactions " with Brown has generated headlines and news stories around the world . " Half of Me " can be interpreted as a " personal essay " rather than just a song . Stacy @-@ Ann Ellis for Vibe noted that the singer appears to have improved her vocals with regard to " experimentation " , which she cites as being evident on " Half of Me " , as well as " Diamonds " and " Stay " . Ellis also noted that co @-@ writer Emeli Sandé 's " candid and immediate charm " is present on the song , and described it as the " perfect " ending to the album . Concluding her opinion of the song , Ellis wrote that " Half of Me " is delivered in a " firm and steady voice " which is filled with irony , as she feels that Rihanna is saying no one truly knows who she is and that is half the fun of working her out , but is in no way " remorseful " about letting people in completely :
You know me / I 'm the life of the party
Beautiful people surround me / Everybody falling in love
Oh , you know me / Everybody knows that I ’ m crazy
Sticks and stones , they never break me
And I 'm the type that don 't give a fuck
And that 's just the half of it .
= = Reception = =
Jim Farber for New York Daily News wrote that Unapologetic contains more ballads than what Rihanna 's previous albums have featured , and further noted that " Half of Me " " proves the star can be as evocative as she is provocative " . Christina Lee of website Idolator wrote that there are two songs on the album which show " how ubiquitous she ’ s [ Rihanna ] become " , " Love Without Tragedy / Mother Mary " and " Half of Me " . A reviewer for Billboard was surprised at how many " heartfelt ballads " are included on the album , and listed " Half of Me " as one of the examples . Michael Gallucci for PopCrush wrote that " Half of Me " , along with " Pour It Up " , are songs for the " haters " . He further wrote that the singer pushes the track as she has an " agenda " , but criticised the use of " fuck " , which he points out as being used in the majority of Unapologetic 's tracks . Upon the release of Unapologetic , " Half of Me " charted in several territories due to strong digital downloads . It debuted on the Irish Singles Chart at number 84 on November 22 , 2012 . On November 25 , 2012 , the song entered the UK Singles Chart at number 75 , and the UK R & B Chart at number ten . In Switzerland , the song debuted at number 46 . It also debuted at number 96 on the Canadian Hot 100 chart .
= = Credits and personnel = =
Recording
Recorded at Roc the Mic Studios , New York City .
Vocals recorded at R Studios , Los Angeles , CA .
Mixed at Larrabee Studios , Burbank , CA .
Personnel
Songwriting – Emeli Sandé , Shahid Khan , Mikkel S. Eriksen , Tor Erik Hermansen
Production – StarGate , Naughty Boy
Recording – Mikkel S. Eriksen , Miles Walker
Vocal recording – Marcus Tovar , Kuk Harrell
Vocal production – Kuk Harrell
All instrumentation and programming – Mikkel S. Eriksen , Tor Erik Hermansen , Shahid Khan , Emeli Sandé
Credits adapted from the liner notes of Unapologetic , Def Jam Recordings , SRP Records .
= = Charts = =
|
= Downloaded ( Battlestar Galactica ) =
" Downloaded " is the eighteenth episode of the second season of the reimagined Battlestar Galactica television series . It aired originally on the Sci Fi Channel on February 24 , 2006 .
The episode takes place alongside the rest of the re @-@ imagined series , with 49 @,@ 579 human survivors left in the Fleet . The episode primarily details the lives of two specific Cylon models after their apparent destruction who were declared Cylon heroes . One model is " Caprica @-@ Six " , the copy of Number Six who was responsible for disabling the Colonial defense system prior to the events of the miniseries . The other model is Sharon " Boomer " Valerii , a sleeper agent who was a member of the crew of Galactica .
The concept of a Cylon @-@ centric episode was proposed long before the episode aired , in an episode which would have seen the Cylons discuss their equivalent of the " Final Solution " . " Downloaded " instead focuses on showing the personality of the Cylon race , in particular , Caprica @-@ Six and Boomer . The episode was universally well @-@ received despite its unconventional format .
= = Plot = =
The episode primarily takes place on Cylon @-@ occupied Caprica . After the Fall of the Twelve Colonies , the copy of Number Six ( Tricia Helfer ) that was responsible for disabling the Colonial defense system ( affectionately known as " Caprica @-@ Six " ) and Sharon " Boomer " Valerii ( Grace Park ) were both " downloaded " : a standard Cylon practice of rebirth which takes place if a model is to perish , and have both been hailed as Cylon heroes due to their efforts in infiltrating human society .
Both are having difficulties in adjusting to life on Caprica . In particular , Caprica @-@ Six is having visions of Gaius Baltar ( James Callis ) that only she can see , much like Baltar 's visions of Caprica @-@ Six , and Boomer is having problems accepting her Cylon nature to the point of the denial , even in danger of being " boxed " , which means storing a Cylon 's memories without consciousness out of its body . Number Three ( Lucy Lawless ) asks Caprica @-@ Six to help Boomer in this regard . However , when Caprica @-@ Six starts to associate more with Boomer , they both realize that the holocaust the Cylons effected was a sin .
Caprica @-@ Six and Boomer are next shown conversing with Number Three . While the three move up a stairwell , explosives set by the resistance led by Samuel T. Anders ( Michael Trucco ) detonate , trapping Anders , Three , Boomer , and Caprica @-@ Six in a parking garage . While Anders is originally shielded and hidden by the blast , Caprica @-@ Six is injured , so much so that Number Three tries to euthanize her before finding Anders , whom she tries to kill instead . Number Three goads the other survivors so much that Caprica @-@ Six kills her and forms a pact with Boomer to attempt to change Cylon opinion of humans .
The episode 's secondary plot takes place on Galactica . The copy of Number Eight that defected from the Cylons gives birth by cesarian section to a baby who she and Karl Agathon ( Tahmoh Penikett ) call " Hera " . However , President Laura Roslin , and her secretary , Tory Foster , and Dr. Cottle conspire to fake Hera 's death fearing what would happen if the Cylons knew the child lived . President Roslin also did not want Hera to be raised by her Cylon mother , Sharon , whom she still does not trust . At the end of the episode , the child is given to a woman who believes the child was born on Pegasus , while Helo and Chief Tyrol ( Aaron Douglas ) scatter the ashes they believe to be Hera 's into space .
= = Production = =
The concept of a Cylon @-@ perspective episode was originally proposed for an episode called " The Raid " , which would have consisted on a Cylon meeting not unlike the Wannsee Conference , but was dropped as the equivalent " final solution " had already happened during the miniseries . Nevertheless , Sci @-@ Fi liked the concept , and commissioned this episode .
A major theme of the episode is the humanization of " Caprica @-@ Six " – while Caprica @-@ Six shows her manipulative streak in parts of the episode , in particular during her conversation in the beach @-@ side house with Boomer , the destruction of the Twelve Colonies and her love of Baltar have somewhat changed her psychology . Conversely , Boomer shows resistance to her Cylon nature . Series creator Ronald D. Moore found the scene that took place in Boomer 's apartment interesting as it showed a major amount of her backstory . It also serves the purpose of Boomer 's denial that her memories were manufactured , and that the Cylons are more passive than humans . Another major subplot is the " Virtual Baltar " only visible by Caprica @-@ Six , which Moore commented was a " delicious symmetry " to Baltar 's " Virtual Six " . Both were intended to show how the couple had been changed through experience , in particular , the events of the miniseries .
Several scenes were cut from the episode . Of these , the most notable is an entire subplot centering on Gina and D 'Anna kidnapping Hera Agathon , which was excised as Moore felt there would be " too many Cylons " .
The production team also had significant problems with the scenes in the parking garage , and how to avoid the anatopism of contemporary cars being found on Caprica . In order to avoid this , the production team used cars mostly found in Eastern Europe , for the purpose that the audience would not immediately recognise the types of cars , but still to keep a sense of realism .
= = Reception = =
Ronald D. Moore stated that " Downloaded " is his favorite episode of the series , and especially admired the acting of Park , Helfer , and Callis , the latter especially for his change in role . Jacob Clifton of Television Without Pity gave the episode an " A + " rating . Keith McDuffee of TV Squad commented that the episode was " perfect " , and made up for any issues he had about the show before the episode . He found the storyline concerning the birth of Hera Agathon , the hybrid baby , a " clever twist " , and appreciated the episode 's general Cylon perspective . The Chicago Tribune appreciated Park , Helfer , and Lawless ' acting and the appearance of Dr. Cottle , and concluded by saying that it was well @-@ crafted and added to the " deftly drawn moral confusion " over whether the Cylons were good or evil . The episode was nominated by the World Science Fiction Society for the 2007 Best Dramatic Presentation , Short Form , an award that was won by the Doctor Who episode " The Girl in the Fireplace " .
|
= Wind =
Wind is the flow of gases on a large scale . On the surface of the Earth , wind consists of the bulk movement of air . In outer space , solar wind is the movement of gases or charged particles from the Sun through space , while planetary wind is the outgassing of light chemical elements from a planet 's atmosphere into space . Winds are commonly classified by their spatial scale , their speed , the types of forces that cause them , the regions in which they occur , and their effect . The strongest observed winds on a planet in the Solar System occur on Neptune and Saturn . Winds have various aspects , an important one being its velocity ; another the density of the gas involved ; another its energy content or wind energy .
In meteorology , winds are often referred to according to their strength , and the direction from which the wind is blowing . Short bursts of high speed wind are termed gusts . Strong winds of intermediate duration ( around one minute ) are termed squalls . Long @-@ duration winds have various names associated with their average strength , such as breeze , gale , storm , and hurricane . Wind occurs on a range of scales , from thunderstorm flows lasting tens of minutes , to local breezes generated by heating of land surfaces and lasting a few hours , to global winds resulting from the difference in absorption of solar energy between the climate zones on Earth . The two main causes of large @-@ scale atmospheric circulation are the differential heating between the equator and the poles , and the rotation of the planet ( Coriolis effect ) . Within the tropics , thermal low circulations over terrain and high plateaus can drive monsoon circulations . In coastal areas the sea breeze / land breeze cycle can define local winds ; in areas that have variable terrain , mountain and valley breezes can dominate local winds .
In human civilization , wind has inspired mythology , influenced the events of history , expanded the range of transport and warfare , and provided a power source for mechanical work , electricity and recreation . Wind powers the voyages of sailing ships across Earth 's oceans . Hot air balloons use the wind to take short trips , and powered flight uses it to increase lift and reduce fuel consumption . Areas of wind shear caused by various weather phenomena can lead to dangerous situations for aircraft . When winds become strong , trees and man @-@ made structures are damaged or destroyed .
Winds can shape landforms , via a variety of aeolian processes such as the formation of fertile soils , such as loess , and by erosion . Dust from large deserts can be moved great distances from its source region by the prevailing winds ; winds that are accelerated by rough topography and associated with dust outbreaks have been assigned regional names in various parts of the world because of their significant effects on those regions . Wind also affects the spread of wildfires . Winds can disperse seeds from various plants , enabling the survival and dispersal of those plant species , as well as flying insect populations . When combined with cold temperatures , wind has a negative impact on livestock . Wind affects animals ' food stores , as well as their hunting and defensive strategies .
= = Causes of wind = =
Wind is caused by differences in the atmospheric pressure . When a difference in atmospheric pressure exists , air moves from the higher to the lower pressure area , resulting in winds of various speeds . On a rotating planet , air will also be deflected by the Coriolis effect , except exactly on the equator . Globally , the two major driving factors of large @-@ scale wind patterns ( the atmospheric circulation ) are the differential heating between the equator and the poles ( difference in absorption of solar energy leading to buoyancy forces ) and the rotation of the planet . Outside the tropics and aloft from frictional effects of the surface , the large @-@ scale winds tend to approach geostrophic balance . Near the Earth 's surface , friction causes the wind to be slower than it would be otherwise . Surface friction also causes winds to blow more inward into low pressure areas . A new , controversial theory suggests atmospheric gradients are caused by forest induced water condensation resulting in a positive feedback cycle of forests drawing moist air from the coastline .
Winds defined by an equilibrium of physical forces are used in the decomposition and analysis of wind profiles . They are useful for simplifying the atmospheric equations of motion and for making qualitative arguments about the horizontal and vertical distribution of winds . The geostrophic wind component is the result of the balance between Coriolis force and pressure gradient force . It flows parallel to isobars and approximates the flow above the atmospheric boundary layer in the midlatitudes . The thermal wind is the difference in the geostrophic wind between two levels in the atmosphere . It exists only in an atmosphere with horizontal temperature gradients . The ageostrophic wind component is the difference between actual and geostrophic wind , which is responsible for air " filling up " cyclones over time . The gradient wind is similar to the geostrophic wind but also includes centrifugal force ( or centripetal acceleration ) .
= = Measurement = =
Wind direction is usually expressed in terms of the direction from which it originates . For example , a northerly wind blows from the north to the south . Weather vanes pivot to indicate the direction of the wind . At airports , windsocks indicate wind direction , and can also be used to estimate wind speed by the angle of hang . Wind speed is measured by anemometers , most commonly using rotating cups or propellers . When a high measurement frequency is needed ( such as in research applications ) , wind can be measured by the propagation speed of ultrasound signals or by the effect of ventilation on the resistance of a heated wire . Another type of anemometer uses pitot tubes that take advantage of the pressure differential between an inner tube and an outer tube that is exposed to the wind to determine the dynamic pressure , which is then used to compute the wind speed .
Sustained wind speeds are reported globally at a 10 meters ( 33 ft ) height and are averaged over a 10 ‑ minute time frame . The United States reports winds over a 1 ‑ minute average for tropical cyclones , and a 2 ‑ minute average within weather observations . India typically reports winds over a 3 ‑ minute average . Knowing the wind sampling average is important , as the value of a one @-@ minute sustained wind is typically 14 % greater than a ten @-@ minute sustained wind . A short burst of high speed wind is termed a wind gust , one technical definition of a wind gust is : the maxima that exceed the lowest wind speed measured during a ten @-@ minute time interval by 10 knots ( 19 km / h ) . A squall is a doubling of the wind speed above a certain threshold , which lasts for a minute or more .
To determine winds aloft , rawinsondes determine wind speed by GPS , radio navigation , or radar tracking of the probe . Alternatively , movement of the parent weather balloon position can be tracked from the ground visually using theodolites . Remote sensing techniques for wind include SODAR , Doppler lidars and radars , which can measure the Doppler shift of electromagnetic radiation scattered or reflected off suspended aerosols or molecules , and radiometers and radars can be used to measure the surface roughness of the ocean from space or airplanes . Ocean roughness can be used to estimate wind velocity close to the sea surface over oceans . Geostationary satellite imagery can be used to estimate the winds throughout the atmosphere based upon how far clouds move from one image to the next . Wind engineering describes the study of the effects of the wind on the built environment , including buildings , bridges and other man @-@ made objects .
= = Wind force scale = =
Historically , the Beaufort wind force scale ( Created by Beaufort ) provides an empirical description of wind speed based on observed sea conditions . Originally it was a 13 @-@ level scale , but during the 1940s , the scale was expanded to 17 levels . There are general terms that differentiate winds of different average speeds such as a breeze , a gale , a storm , tornado , or a hurricane . Within the Beaufort scale , gale @-@ force winds lie between 28 knots ( 52 km / h ) and 55 knots ( 102 km / h ) with preceding adjectives such as moderate , fresh , strong , and whole used to differentiate the wind 's strength within the gale category . A storm has winds of 56 knots ( 104 km / h ) to 63 knots ( 117 km / h ) . The terminology for tropical cyclones differs from one region to another globally . Most ocean basins use the average wind speed to determine the tropical cyclone 's category . Below is a summary of the classifications used by Regional Specialized Meteorological Centers worldwide :
= = = Enhanced Fujita scale = = =
The Enhanced Fujita Scale ( EF Scale ) rates the strength of tornadoes in the United States based on the damage they cause . Below is that scale .
= = = Station model = = =
The station model plotted on surface weather maps uses a wind barb to show both wind direction and speed . The wind barb shows the speed using " flags " on the end .
Each half of a flag depicts 5 knots ( 9 @.@ 3 km / h ) of wind .
Each full flag depicts 10 knots ( 19 km / h ) of wind .
Each pennant ( filled triangle ) depicts 50 knots ( 93 km / h ) of wind .
Winds are depicted as blowing from the direction the barb is facing . Therefore , a northeast wind will be depicted with a line extending from the cloud circle to the northeast , with flags indicating wind speed on the northeast end of this line . Once plotted on a map , an analysis of isotachs ( lines of equal wind speeds ) can be accomplished . Isotachs are particularly useful in diagnosing the location of the jet stream on upper level constant pressure charts , and are usually located at or above the 300 hPa level .
= = Wind power = =
Wind energy is the kinetic energy of the air in motion . The kinetic energy of a packet of air of mass m with velocity v is given by ½ m v2 . To find the mass of the packet passing through an area A perpendicular its velocity ( which could be the rotor area of a turbine ) , we multiply its volume after time t has passed with the air density ρ , which gives us m = A v t ρ . So , we find that the total wind energy is :
<formula>
Differentiating with respect to time to find the rate of increase of energy , we find that the total wind power is :
<formula>
Wind power is thus proportional to the third power of the wind velocity .
= = = Theoretical power captured by a wind turbine = = =
Total wind power could be captured only if the wind velocity is reduced to zero . In a realistic wind turbine this is impossible , as the captured air must also leave the turbine . A relation between the input and output wind velocity must be considered . Using the concept of stream tube , the maximal achievable extraction of wind power by a wind turbine is 59 % of the total theoretical wind power ( see : Betz ' law ) .
= = = Practical wind turbine power = = =
Further insufficiencies , such as rotor blade friction and drag , gearbox losses , generator and converter losses , reduce the power delivered by a wind turbine . The basic relation that the turbine power is ( approximately ) proportional to the third power of velocity remains .
= = Global climatology = =
Easterly winds , on average , dominate the flow pattern across the poles , westerly winds blow across the mid @-@ latitudes of the earth , polewards of the subtropical ridge , while easterlies again dominate the tropics .
Directly under the subtropical ridge are the doldrums , or horse latitudes , where winds are lighter . Many of the Earth 's deserts lie near the average latitude of the subtropical ridge , where descent reduces the relative humidity of the air mass . The strongest winds are in the mid @-@ latitudes where cold polar air meets warm air from the tropics .
= = = Tropics = = =
The trade winds ( also called trades ) are the prevailing pattern of easterly surface winds found in the tropics towards the Earth 's equator . The trade winds blow predominantly from the northeast in the Northern Hemisphere and from the southeast in the Southern Hemisphere . The trade winds act as the steering flow for tropical cyclones that form over the world 's oceans . Trade winds also steer African dust westward across the Atlantic Ocean into the Caribbean Sea , as well as portions of southeast North America .
A monsoon is a seasonal prevailing wind that lasts for several months within tropical regions . The term was first used in English in India , Bangladesh , Pakistan , and neighboring countries to refer to the big seasonal winds blowing from the Indian Ocean and Arabian Sea in the southwest bringing heavy rainfall to the area . Its poleward progression is accelerated by the development off a heat low over the Asian , African , and North American continents during May through July , and over Australia in December .
= = = Westerlies and their impact = = =
The Westerlies or the Prevailing Westerlies are the prevailing winds in the middle latitudes between 35 and 65 degrees latitude . These prevailing winds blow from the west to the east , and steer extratropical cyclones in this general manner . The winds are predominantly from the southwest in the Northern Hemisphere and from the northwest in the Southern Hemisphere . They are strongest in the winter when the pressure is lower over the poles , and weakest during the summer and when pressures are higher over the poles .
Together with the trade winds , the westerlies enabled a round @-@ trip trade route for sailing ships crossing the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans , as the westerlies lead to the development of strong ocean currents on the western sides of oceans in both hemispheres through the process of western intensification . These western ocean currents transport warm , sub tropical water polewards toward the polar regions . The westerlies can be particularly strong , especially in the southern hemisphere , where there is less land in the middle latitudes to cause the flow pattern to amplify , which slows the winds down . The strongest westerly winds in the middle latitudes are within a band known as the Roaring Forties , between 40 and 50 degrees latitude south of the equator . The Westerlies play an important role in carrying the warm , equatorial waters and winds to the western coasts of continents , especially in the southern hemisphere because of its vast oceanic expanse .
= = = Polar easterlies = = =
The polar easterlies , also known as Polar Hadley cells , are dry , cold prevailing winds that blow from the high @-@ pressure areas of the polar highs at the north and south poles towards the low @-@ pressure areas within the Westerlies at high latitudes . Unlike the Westerlies , these prevailing winds blow from the east to the west , and are often weak and irregular . Because of the low sun angle , cold air builds up and subsides at the pole creating surface high @-@ pressure areas , forcing an equatorward outflow of air ; that outflow is deflected westward by the Coriolis effect .
= = Local considerations = =
= = = Sea and land breezes = = =
In coastal regions , sea breezes and land breezes can be important factors in a location 's prevailing winds . The sea is warmed by the sun more slowly because of water 's greater specific heat compared to land . As the temperature of the surface of the land rises , the land heats the air above it by conduction . The warm air is less dense than the surrounding environment and so it rises . This causes a pressure gradient of about 2 millibars from the ocean to the land . The cooler air above the sea , now with higher sea level pressure , flows inland into the lower pressure , creating a cooler breeze near the coast . When large @-@ scale winds are calm , the strength of the sea breeze is directly proportional to the temperature difference between the land mass and the sea . If an offshore wind of 8 knots ( 15 km / h ) exists , the sea breeze is not likely to develop .
At night , the land cools off more quickly than the ocean because of differences in their specific heat values . This temperature change causes the daytime sea breeze to dissipate . When the temperature onshore cools below the temperature offshore , the pressure over the water will be lower than that of the land , establishing a land breeze , as long as an onshore wind is not strong enough to oppose it .
= = = Near mountains = = =
Over elevated surfaces , heating of the ground exceeds the heating of the surrounding air at the same altitude above sea level , creating an associated thermal low over the terrain and enhancing any thermal lows that would have otherwise existed , and changing the wind circulation of the region . In areas where there is rugged topography that significantly interrupts the environmental wind flow , the wind circulation between mountains and valleys is the most important contributor to the prevailing winds . Hills and valleys substantially distort the airflow by increasing friction between the atmosphere and landmass by acting as a physical block to the flow , deflecting the wind parallel to the range just upstream of the topography , which is known as a barrier jet . This barrier jet can increase the low level wind by 45 % . Wind direction also changes because of the contour of the land .
If there is a pass in the mountain range , winds will rush through the pass with considerable speed because of the Bernoulli principle that describes an inverse relationship between speed and pressure . The airflow can remain turbulent and erratic for some distance downwind into the flatter countryside . These conditions are dangerous to ascending and descending airplanes . Cool winds accelerating through mountain gaps have been given regional names . In Central America , examples include the Papagayo wind , the Panama wind , and the Tehuano wind . In Europe , similar winds are known as the Bora , Tramontane , and Mistral . When these winds blow over open waters , they increase mixing of the upper layers of the ocean that elevates cool , nutrient rich waters to the surface , which leads to increased marine life .
In mountainous areas , local distortion of the airflow becomes severe . Jagged terrain combines to produce unpredictable flow patterns and turbulence , such as rotors , which can be topped by lenticular clouds . Strong updrafts , downdrafts and eddies develop as the air flows over hills and down valleys . Orographic precipitation occurs on the windward side of mountains and is caused by the rising air motion of a large @-@ scale flow of moist air across the mountain ridge , also known as upslope flow , resulting in adiabatic cooling and condensation . In mountainous parts of the world subjected to relatively consistent winds ( for example , the trade winds ) , a more moist climate usually prevails on the windward side of a mountain than on the leeward or downwind side . Moisture is removed by orographic lift , leaving drier air on the descending and generally warming , leeward side where a rain shadow is observed . Winds that flow over mountains down into lower elevations are known as downslope winds . These winds are warm and dry . In Europe downwind of the Alps , they are known as foehn . In Poland , an example is the halny wiatr . In Argentina , the local name for downsloped winds is zonda . In Java , the local name for such winds is koembang . In New Zealand , they are known as the Nor 'west arch , and are accompanied by the cloud formation they are named after that has inspired artwork over the years . In the Great Plains of the United States , the winds are known as a chinook . In California , downsloped winds are funneled through mountain passes , which intensify their effect , and examples into Santa Ana and sundowner winds . Wind speeds during downslope wind effect can exceed 160 kilometers per hour ( 99 mph ) .
= = Average wind speeds = =
As described earlier , prevailing and local winds are not spread evenly across the earth , which means that wind speeds also differ by region . In addition , the wind speed also increases with the altitude .
= = = Wind power density = = =
Nowadays , a yardstick used to determine the best locations for wind energy development is referred to as wind power density ( WPD ) . It is a calculation relating to the effective force of the wind at a particular location , frequently expressed in terms of the elevation above ground level over a period of time . It takes into account wind velocity and mass . Color coded maps are prepared for a particular area are described as , for example , " mean annual power density at 50 meters . " The results of the above calculation are included in an index developed by the National Renewable Energy Lab and referred to as " NREL CLASS . " The larger the WPD calculation , the higher it is rated by class . At the end of 2008 , worldwide nameplate capacity of wind @-@ powered generators was 120 @.@ 8 gigawatts . Although wind produced only about 1 @.@ 5 % of worldwide electricity use in 2009 , it is growing rapidly , having doubled in the three years between 2005 and 2008 . In several countries it has achieved relatively high levels of penetration , accounting for approximately 19 % of electricity production in Denmark , 10 % in Spain and Portugal , and 7 % in Germany and the Republic of Ireland in 2008 . One study indicates that an entirely renewable energy supply based on 70 % wind is attainable at today 's power prices by linking wind farms with an HVDC supergrid.Wind power has expanded quickly , its share of worldwide electricity usage at the end of 2014 was 3 @.@ 1 % .
= = Shear = =
Wind shear , sometimes referred to as windshear or wind gradient , is a difference in wind speed and direction over a relatively short distance in the Earth 's atmosphere . Wind shear can be broken down into vertical and horizontal components , with horizontal wind shear seen across weather fronts and near the coast , and vertical shear typically near the surface , though also at higher levels in the atmosphere near upper level jets and frontal zones aloft .
Wind shear itself is a microscale meteorological phenomenon occurring over a very small distance , but it can be associated with mesoscale or synoptic scale weather features such as squall lines and cold fronts . It is commonly observed near microbursts and downbursts caused by thunderstorms , weather fronts , areas of locally higher low level winds referred to as low level jets , near mountains , radiation inversions that occur because of clear skies and calm winds , buildings , wind turbines , and sailboats . Wind shear has a significant effect during take @-@ off and landing of aircraft because of their effects on control of the aircraft , and was a significant cause of aircraft accidents involving large loss of life within the United States .
Sound movement through the atmosphere is affected by wind shear , which can bend the wave front , causing sounds to be heard where they normally would not , or vice versa . Strong vertical wind shear within the troposphere also inhibits tropical cyclone development , but helps to organize individual thunderstorms into living longer life cycles that can then produce severe weather . The thermal wind concept explains how differences in wind speed with height are dependent on horizontal temperature differences , and explains the existence of the jet stream .
= = Usage of wind = =
= = = History = = =
As a natural force , the wind was often personified as one or more wind gods or as an expression of the supernatural in many cultures . Vayu is the Hindu God of Wind . The Greek wind gods include Boreas , Notus , Eurus , and Zephyrus . Aeolus , in varying interpretations the ruler or keeper of the four winds , has also been described as Astraeus , the god of dusk who fathered the four winds with Eos , goddess of dawn . The Ancient Greeks also observed the seasonal change of the winds , as evidenced by the Tower of the Winds in Athens . Venti are the Roman gods of the winds . Fūjin is the Japanese wind god and is one of the eldest Shinto gods . According to legend , he was present at the creation of the world and first let the winds out of his bag to clear the world of mist . In Norse mythology , Njörðr is the god of the wind . There are also four dvärgar ( Norse dwarves ) , named Norðri , Suðri , Austri and Vestri , and probably the four stags of Yggdrasil , personify the four winds , and parallel the four Greek wind gods . Stribog is the name of the Slavic god of winds , sky and air . He is said to be the ancestor ( grandfather ) of the winds of the eight directions .
Kamikaze ( 神風 ) is a Japanese word , usually translated as divine wind , believed to be a gift from the gods . The term is first known to have been used as the name of a pair or series of typhoons that are said to have saved Japan from two Mongol fleets under Kublai Khan that attacked Japan in 1274 and again in 1281 . Protestant Wind is a name for the storm that deterred the Spanish Armada from an invasion of England in 1588 where the wind played a pivotal role , or the favorable winds that enabled William of Orange to invade England in 1688 . During Napoleon 's Egyptian Campaign , the French soldiers had a hard time with the khamsin wind : when the storm appeared " as a blood @-@ stint in the distant sky " , the natives went to take cover , while the French " did not react until it was too late , then choked and fainted in the blinding , suffocating walls of dust . " During the North African Campaign of the World War II , " allied and German troops were several times forced to halt in mid @-@ battle because of sandstorms caused by khamsin ... Grains of sand whirled by the wind blinded the soldiers and created electrical disturbances that rendered compasses useless . "
= = = Transportation = = =
There are many different forms of sailing ships , but they all have certain basic things in common . Except for rotor ships using the Magnus effect , every sailing ship has a hull , rigging and at least one mast to hold up the sails that use the wind to power the ship . Ocean journeys by sailing ship can take many months , and a common hazard is becoming becalmed because of lack of wind , or being blown off course by severe storms or winds that do not allow progress in the desired direction . A severe storm could lead to shipwreck , and the loss of all hands . Sailing ships can only carry a certain quantity of supplies in their hold , so they have to plan long voyages carefully to include appropriate provisions , including fresh water .
For aerodynamic aircraft which operate relative to the air , winds affect groundspeed , and in the case of lighter @-@ than @-@ air vehicles , wind may play a significant or solitary role in their movement and ground track . The velocity of surface wind is generally the primary factor governing the direction of flight operations at an airport , and airfield runways are aligned to account for the common wind direction ( s ) of the local area . While taking off with a tailwind may be necessary under certain circumstances , a headwind is generally desirable . A tailwind increases takeoff distance required and decreases the climb gradient .
= = = Power source = = =
Historically , the ancient Sinhalese of Anuradhapura and in other cities around Sri Lanka used the monsoon winds to power furnaces as early as 300 BCE . The furnaces were constructed on the path of the monsoon winds to exploit the wind power , to bring the temperatures inside up to 1 @,@ 200 ° C ( 2 @,@ 190 ° F ) . An early historical reference to a rudimentary windmill was used to power an organ in the first century CE . The first practical windmills were later built in Sistan , Afghanistan , from the 7th century CE . These were vertical @-@ axle windmills , which had long vertical driveshafts with rectangle shaped blades . Made of six to twelve sails covered in reed matting or cloth material , these windmills were used to grind corn and draw up water , and were used in the gristmilling and sugarcane industries . Horizontal @-@ axle windmills were later used extensively in Northwestern Europe to grind flour beginning in the 1180s , and many Dutch windmills still exist . High altitude wind power is the focus of over 30 companies worldwide using tethered technology rather than ground @-@ hugging compressive @-@ towers . Oil is being saved by using wind for powering cargo ships by use of the mechanical energy converted from the wind 's kinetic energy using very large kites .
= = = Recreation = = =
Wind figures prominently in several popular sports , including recreational hang gliding , hot air ballooning , kite flying , snowkiting , kite landboarding , kite surfing , paragliding , sailing , and windsurfing . In gliding , wind gradients just above the surface affect the takeoff and landing phases of flight of a glider . Wind gradient can have a noticeable effect on ground launches , also known as winch launches or wire launches . If the wind gradient is significant or sudden , or both , and the pilot maintains the same pitch attitude , the indicated airspeed will increase , possibly exceeding the maximum ground launch tow speed . The pilot must adjust the airspeed to deal with the effect of the gradient . When landing , wind shear is also a hazard , particularly when the winds are strong . As the glider descends through the wind gradient on final approach to landing , airspeed decreases while sink rate increases , and there is insufficient time to accelerate prior to ground contact . The pilot must anticipate the wind gradient and use a higher approach speed to compensate for it .
= = Role in the natural world = =
In arid climates , the main source of erosion is wind . The general wind circulation moves small particulates such as dust across wide oceans thousands of kilometers downwind of their point of origin , which is known as deflation . Westerly winds in the mid @-@ latitudes of the planet drive the movement of ocean currents from west to east across the world 's oceans . Wind has a very important role in aiding plants and other immobile organisms in dispersal of seeds , spores , pollen , etc . Although wind is not the primary form of seed dispersal in plants , it provides dispersal for a large percentage of the biomass of land plants .
= = = Erosion = = =
Erosion can be the result of material movement by the wind . There are two main effects . First , wind causes small particles to be lifted and therefore moved to another region . This is called deflation . Second , these suspended particles may impact on solid objects causing erosion by abrasion ( ecological succession ) . Wind erosion generally occurs in areas with little or no vegetation , often in areas where there is insufficient rainfall to support vegetation . An example is the formation of sand dunes , on a beach or in a desert . Loess is a homogeneous , typically nonstratified , porous , friable , slightly coherent , often calcareous , fine @-@ grained , silty , pale yellow or buff , windblown ( Aeolian ) sediment . It generally occurs as a widespread blanket deposit that covers areas of hundreds of square kilometers and tens of meters thick . Loess often stands in either steep or vertical faces . Loess tends to develop into highly rich soils . Under appropriate climatic conditions , areas with loess are among the most agriculturally productive in the world . Loess deposits are geologically unstable by nature , and will erode very readily . Therefore , windbreaks ( such as big trees and bushes ) are often planted by farmers to reduce the wind erosion of loess .
= = = Desert dust migration = = =
During mid @-@ summer ( July in the northern hemisphere ) , the westward @-@ moving trade winds south of the northward @-@ moving subtropical ridge expand northwestward from the Caribbean Sea into southeastern North America . When dust from the Sahara moving around the southern periphery of the ridge within the belt of trade winds moves over land , rainfall is suppressed and the sky changes from a blue to a white appearance , which leads to an increase in red sunsets . Its presence negatively impacts air quality by adding to the count of airborne particulates . Over 50 % of the African dust that reaches the United States affects Florida . Since 1970 , dust outbreaks have worsened because of periods of drought in Africa . There is a large variability in the dust transport to the Caribbean and Florida from year to year . Dust events have been linked to a decline in the health of coral reefs across the Caribbean and Florida , primarily since the 1970s . Similar dust plumes originate in the Gobi Desert , which combined with pollutants , spread large distances downwind , or eastward , into North America .
There are local names for winds associated with sand and dust storms . The Calima carries dust on southeast winds into the Canary islands . The Harmattan carries dust during the winter into the Gulf of Guinea . The Sirocco brings dust from north Africa into southern Europe because of the movement of extratropical cyclones through the Mediterranean Sea . Spring storm systems moving across the eastern Mediterranean Sea cause dust to carry across Egypt and the Arabian peninsula , which are locally known as Khamsin . The Shamal is caused by cold fronts lifting dust into the atmosphere for days at a time across the Persian Gulf states .
= = = Effect on plants = = =
Wind dispersal of seeds , or anemochory , is one of the more primitive means of dispersal . Wind dispersal can take on one of two primary forms : seeds can float on the breeze or alternatively , they can flutter to the ground . The classic examples of these dispersal mechanisms include dandelions ( Taraxacum spp . , Asteraceae ) , which have a feathery pappus attached to their seeds and can be dispersed long distances , and maples ( Acer ( genus ) spp . , Sapindaceae ) , which have winged seeds and flutter to the ground . An important constraint on wind dispersal is the need for abundant seed production to maximize the likelihood of a seed landing in a site suitable for germination . There are also strong evolutionary constraints on this dispersal mechanism . For instance , species in the Asteraceae on islands tended to have reduced dispersal capabilities ( i.e. , larger seed mass and smaller pappus ) relative to the same species on the mainland . Reliance upon wind dispersal is common among many weedy or ruderal species . Unusual mechanisms of wind dispersal include tumbleweeds . A related process to anemochory is anemophily , which is the process where pollen is distributed by wind . Large families of plants are pollinated in this manner , which is favored when individuals of the dominant plant species are spaced closely together .
Wind also limits tree growth . On coasts and isolated mountains , the tree line is often much lower than in corresponding altitudes inland and in larger , more complex mountain systems , because strong winds reduce tree growth . High winds scour away thin soils through erosion , as well as damage limbs and twigs . When high winds knock down or uproot trees , the process is known as windthrow . This is most likely on windward slopes of mountains , with severe cases generally occurring to tree stands that are 75 years or older . Plant varieties near the coast , such as the Sitka spruce and sea grape , are pruned back by wind and salt spray near the coastline .
Wind can also cause plants damage through sand abrasion . Strong winds will pick up loose sand and topsoil and hurl it through the air at speeds ranging from 25 miles per hour ( 40 km / h ) to 40 miles per hour ( 64 km / h ) . Such windblown sand causes extensive damage to plant seedlings because it ruptures plant cells , making them vulnerable to evaporation and drought . Using a mechanical sandblaster in a laboratory setting , scientists affiliated with the Agricultural Research Service studied the effects of windblown sand abrasion on cotton seedlings . The study showed that the seedlings responded to the damage created by the windblown sand abrasion by shifting energy from stem and root growth to the growth and repair of the damaged stems . After a period of four weeks the growth of the seedling once again became uniform throughout the plant , as it was before the windblown sand abrasion occurred .
= = = Effect on animals = = =
Cattle and sheep are prone to wind chill caused by a combination of wind and cold temperatures , when winds exceed 40 kilometers per hour ( 25 mph ) , rendering their hair and wool coverings ineffective . Although penguins use both a layer of fat and feathers to help guard against coldness in both water and air , their flippers and feet are less immune to the cold . In the coldest climates such as Antarctica , emperor penguins use huddling behavior to survive the wind and cold , continuously alternating the members on the outside of the assembled group , which reduces heat loss by 50 % . Flying insects , a subset of arthropods , are swept along by the prevailing winds , while birds follow their own course taking advantage of wind conditions , in order to either fly or glide . As such , fine line patterns within weather radar imagery , associated with converging winds , are dominated by insect returns . Bird migration , which tends to occur overnight within the lowest 7 @,@ 000 feet ( 2 @,@ 100 m ) of the Earth 's atmosphere , contaminates wind profiles gathered by weather radar , particularly the WSR @-@ 88D , by increasing the environmental wind returns by 15 knots ( 28 km / h ) to 30 knots ( 56 km / h ) .
Pikas use a wall of pebbles to store dry plants and grasses for the winter in order to protect the food from being blown away . Cockroaches use slight winds that precede the attacks of potential predators , such as toads , to survive their encounters . Their cerci are very sensitive to the wind , and help them survive half of their attacks . Elk have a keen sense of smell that can detect potential upwind predators at a distance of 0 @.@ 5 miles ( 800 m ) . Increases in wind above 15 kilometers per hour ( 9 @.@ 3 mph ) signals glaucous gulls to increase their foraging and aerial attacks on thick @-@ billed murres .
= = = Sound generation = = =
Wind causes the generation of sound . The movement of air causes movements of parts of natural objects , such as leaves or grass . These objects will produce sound if they touch each other . Even a soft wind will cause a low level of environmental noise . If the wind is blowing harder , it may produce howling sounds of varying frequencies . This may be caused by the wind blowing over cavities , or by vortices created in the air downstream of an object . Especially on high buildings , many structural parts may be a cause of annoying noise at certain wind conditions . Examples of these parts are balconies , ventilation openings , roof openings or cables .
= = Related damage = =
High winds are known to cause damage , depending upon their strength . Infrequent wind gusts can cause poorly designed suspension bridges to sway . When wind gusts are at a similar frequency to the swaying of the bridge , the bridge can be destroyed more easily , such as what occurred with the Tacoma Narrows Bridge in 1940 . Wind speeds as low as 23 knots ( 43 km / h ) can lead to power outages due to tree branches disrupting the flow of energy through power lines . While no species of tree is guaranteed to stand up to hurricane @-@ force winds , those with shallow roots are more prone to uproot , and brittle trees such as eucalyptus , sea hibiscus , and avocado are more prone to damage . Hurricane @-@ force winds cause substantial damage to mobile homes , and begin to structurally damage homes with foundations . Winds of this strength due to downsloped winds off terrain have been known to shatter windows and sandblast paint from cars . Once winds exceed 135 knots ( 250 km / h ) , homes completely collapse , and significant damage is done to larger buildings . Total destruction to man @-@ made structures occurs when winds reach 175 knots ( 324 km / h ) . The Saffir @-@ Simpson scale and Enhanced Fujita scale were designed to help estimate wind speed from the damage caused by high winds related to tropical cyclones and tornadoes , and vice versa .
Australia 's Barrow Island holds the record for the strongest wind gust , reaching 408 km / h ( 253 mph ) during tropical cyclone Olivia on 10 April 1996 , surpassing the previous record of 372 km / h ( 231 mph ) set on Mount Washington ( New Hampshire ) on the afternoon of 12 April 1934 . The most powerful gusts of wind on Earth were created by nuclear detonations . The blast wave is similar to a strong wind gust over the ground . The largest nuclear explosion ( 50 – 58 megatons at an altitude of about 13 @,@ 000 feet ( 4 @,@ 000 m ) ) generated a 20 bar blast pressure at ground zero , which is similar to a wind gust of 3 @,@ 100 miles per hour ( 5 @,@ 000 km / h ) .
Wildfire intensity increases during daytime hours . For example , burn rates of smoldering logs are up to five times greater during the day because of lower humidity , increased temperatures , and increased wind speeds . Sunlight warms the ground during the day and causes air currents to travel uphill , and downhill during the night as the land cools . Wildfires are fanned by these winds and often follow the air currents over hills and through valleys . United States wildfire operations revolve around a 24 @-@ hour fire day that begins at 10 : 00 a.m. because of the predictable increase in intensity resulting from the daytime warmth .
= = In outer space = =
The solar wind is quite different from a terrestrial wind , in that its origin is the sun , and it is composed of charged particles that have escaped the sun 's atmosphere . Similar to the solar wind , the planetary wind is composed of light gases that escape planetary atmospheres . Over long periods of time , the planetary wind can radically change the composition of planetary atmospheres .
The fastest wind ever recorded is coming from the accretion disc of the IGR J17091 @-@ 3624 black hole . Its speed is 20 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 miles per hour ( 32 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 km / h ) , which is 3 % of the speed of light .
= = = Planetary wind = = =
The hydrodynamic wind within the upper portion of a planet 's atmosphere allows light chemical elements such as hydrogen to move up to the exobase , the lower limit of the exosphere , where the gases can then reach escape velocity , entering outer space without impacting other particles of gas . This type of gas loss from a planet into space is known as planetary wind . Such a process over geologic time causes water @-@ rich planets such as the Earth to evolve into planets like Venus . Additionally , planets with hotter lower atmospheres could accelerate the loss rate of hydrogen .
= = = Solar wind = = =
Rather than air , the solar wind is a stream of charged particles — a plasma — ejected from the upper atmosphere of the sun at a rate of 400 kilometers per second ( 890 @,@ 000 mph ) . It consists mostly of electrons and protons with energies of about 1 keV . The stream of particles varies in temperature and speed with the passage of time . These particles are able to escape the sun 's gravity , in part because of the high temperature of the corona , but also because of high kinetic energy that particles gain through a process that is not well @-@ understood . The solar wind creates the Heliosphere , a vast bubble in the interstellar medium surrounding the Solar System . Planets require large magnetic fields in order to reduce the ionization of their upper atmosphere by the solar wind . Other phenomena caused by the solar wind include geomagnetic storms that can knock out power grids on Earth , the aurorae such as the Northern Lights , and the plasma tails of comets that always point away from the sun .
= = On other planets = =
Strong 300 kilometers per hour ( 190 mph ) winds at Venus 's cloud tops circle the planet every four to five earth days . When the poles of Mars are exposed to sunlight after their winter , the frozen CO2 sublimates , creating significant winds that sweep off the poles as fast as 400 kilometers per hour ( 250 mph ) , which subsequently transports large amounts of dust and water vapor over its landscape . Other Martian winds have resulted in cleaning events and dust devils . On Jupiter , wind speeds of 100 meters per second ( 220 mph ) are common in zonal jet streams . Saturn 's winds are among the Solar System 's fastest . Cassini – Huygens data indicated peak easterly winds of 375 meters per second ( 840 mph ) . On Uranus , northern hemisphere wind speeds reach as high as 240 meters per second ( 540 mph ) near 50 degrees north latitude . At the cloud tops of Neptune , prevailing winds range in speed from 400 meters per second ( 890 mph ) along the equator to 250 meters per second ( 560 mph ) at the poles . At 70 ° S latitude on Neptune , a high @-@ speed jet stream travels at a speed of 300 meters per second ( 670 mph ) .
|
= Reculver =
Reculver is a village and coastal resort about 3 miles ( 5 km ) east of Herne Bay in south @-@ east England , in a ward of the same name , in the City of Canterbury district of Kent . It once occupied a strategic location at the north @-@ western end of the Wantsum Channel , a sea lane that separated the Isle of Thanet and the Kent mainland until the late Middle Ages . This led the Romans to build a small fort there at the time of their conquest of Britain in 43 AD , and , starting late in the 2nd century , they built a larger fort , or castrum , called Regulbium , which later became one of the chain of Saxon Shore forts . The military connection resumed in the Second World War , when the sea off Reculver was used for testing Barnes Wallis 's bouncing bombs .
By the 7th century Reculver had become a landed estate of the Anglo @-@ Saxon kings of Kent . The site of the Roman fort was given over for the establishment of a monastery dedicated to St Mary in 669 AD , and King Eadberht II of Kent was buried there in the 760s . During the Middle Ages Reculver was a thriving township with a weekly market and a yearly fair , and it was a member of the Cinque Port of Sandwich . The settlement declined as the Wantsum Channel silted up , and coastal erosion claimed many buildings constructed on the soft sandy cliffs . The village was largely abandoned in the late 18th century , and most of the church was demolished in the early 19th century . Protecting the ruins and the rest of Reculver from erosion is an ongoing challenge .
The 20th century saw a revival as local tourism developed and there are now two caravan parks . The census of 2001 recorded 135 people in the Reculver area , nearly a quarter of whom were in caravans at the time . The Reculver coastline is within a Site of Special Scientific Interest , a Special Protection Area and a Ramsar site , including most of Reculver Country Park , which itself includes much of Bishopstone Cliffs local nature reserve . While nationally scarce plants and insects are found there , the location is also important for migrating birds and is of significant geological interest .
= = History = =
= = = Toponymy = = =
The earliest recorded form of the name , Regulbium , dates from the early 5th century or before and is Celtic in origin , meaning " at the promontory " or " great headland " ; in Old English this became corrupted to Raculf , sometimes given as Raculfceastre , giving rise to the modern " Reculver " . The form " Raculfceastre " includes the Old English place @-@ name element " ceaster " , which frequently relates to " a [ Roman ] city or walled town " .
= = = Prehistoric and Roman = = =
Stone Age flint tools have been washed out from the cliffs to the west of Reculver , and a Mesolithic tranchet axe was found near the centre of the Roman fort in 1960 . This was probably an accidental loss , rather than suggesting a human settlement , evidence for which begins with late Bronze Age and Iron Age ditches . These indicate an extensive settlement , where a Bronze Age palstave and Iron Age gold coins have been found . This was followed by a " fortlet " built by the Romans during their conquest of Britain , which began in 43 AD , and the existence of a Roman road leading to Canterbury , about 8 @.@ 5 miles ( 13 @.@ 7 km ) to the south @-@ west , indicates a Roman presence at Reculver from then onwards . A full @-@ size fort , or castrum , was started late in the 2nd century . This date is derived in part from a reconstruction of a uniquely detailed plaque , fragments of which were found by archaeologists in the 1960s . The plaque effectively records the establishment of the fort , since it commemorates the construction of two of its principal features , the basilica and the sacellum , or shrine , both being parts of the headquarters building , or principia :
this [ was ] the first time the inscribed phrase aedes principiorum [ could ] be ... identified with the official shrine of [ a Roman military ] headquarters building , hitherto unmentioned in any inscription ... [ It was ] also the first certain ... application of the name basilica to [ this element of the building ] .
These structures were found by archaeologists , together with probable officers ' quarters , barracks and a bath house . A Roman oven found 200 feet ( 61 m ) south @-@ east of the fort was probably used for drying food such as corn and fish ; its main chamber measured about 16 feet ( 4 @.@ 9 m ) by 15 feet ( 4 @.@ 8 m ) overall .
The fort was located on a low hill at what was then the north @-@ eastern extremity of mainland Kent , overlooking the sea lane later known as the Wantsum Channel , which lay between it and the Isle of Thanet : the fort 's location thus allowed observation from the fort on all sides , including the sea . It was probably built by soldiers of the Cohors I Baetasiorum , originally from Lower Germany , who had previously served at the Roman fort of Alauna at Maryport in Cumbria at least until the early 180s , since tiles recovered from the fort are stamped " CIB " . The Notitia Dignitatum , a Roman administrative document from the early 5th century , also records the presence of the Cohors I Baetasiorum at Reculver , then known as Regulbium . There must also have been a harbour nearby in Roman times , and , though this has not yet been found , it was probably near to the fort 's southern or eastern side .
The walls of the fort originally stood about 14 @.@ 8 feet ( 4 @.@ 5 m ) high and were 10 feet ( 3 m ) thick at their base , reducing to 8 feet ( 2 @.@ 4 m ) at the top ; they were reinforced internally by an earthen bank . The entrance to the fort 's headquarters building faced north , indicating that the main gate was on the north side , facing the eponymous promontory and the sea . The north wall has been lost to the sea , along with the adjoining part of the east wall and most of the west wall ; the east wall is most complete and includes the remains of the eastern gateway and guard post . Parts of the surviving walls are all that remains of the fort above ground , and all have suffered from stone @-@ robbing , especially near the south @-@ western corner . The walls were originally faced with ragstone , but very little of this remains : otherwise only the cores of the walls are visible , consisting mostly of flint and concrete and standing only 8 @.@ 6 feet ( 2 @.@ 6 m ) high at their highest .
Roman forts were normally accompanied by a civilian settlement , or vicus : at Reculver this lay outside the north and west sides of the fort , much of it in areas now lost to the sea , and was extensive , perhaps covering " some ten hectares [ 25 acres ] in all . " In 1936 R.F. Jessup noted that " a Roman building with a hypocaust and tesselated [ floor once ] stood considerably to the northward of the fort " : this structure had been observed by the 17th- to 18th @-@ century antiquarian John Battely , and was probably " an external bath house ... relating to [ an early phase of ] the fort . " In the same area Battely described " several cisterns " between 10 and 12 feet ( 3 – 3 @.@ 7 m ) square , lined with oak planks and sealed at the bottom with puddled clay . He believed that these were for storing rainwater , and noted that a Roman strigil , which would have been used in a bath house , had been found in a similar cistern at Reculver ; he also observed that " such a multitude [ of cisterns ] has been discovered , almost in our memory , as proves that the ancient inhabitants of the place were very numerous . " In the 20th century twelve wells of the Roman period were identified to the west of the fort , ten of which were square ; all were cut into the hard layer of sandstone below the soft sandstone of the Thanet Beds , thus tapping into the water table . These and other 20th @-@ century finds from the Roman period extend to 1 @,@ 120 feet ( 341 @.@ 4 m ) west of the fort , and date to a period between 170 and 360 , roughly coinciding with the period of occupation at the fort itself .
At least 10 infant burials were found within the fort , all of babies , of which six were associated with Roman buildings : five sets of infant remains were found within the foundations and walls of buildings , as were coins dating from 270 – 300 AD . It was suspected that more such burials might be found in the walls of a building in the south @-@ western area of the fort if it were excavated further . A baby 's feeding bottle was also found in an excavated floor within 10 feet ( 3 m ) of one of the infant skeletons , though it may have been unconnected with the burials . The babies were probably buried in the buildings as ritual sacrifices , but it is unknown whether they were selected for burial because they were already dead , perhaps stillborn , or if they were buried alive or killed for the purpose . A local tale subsequently developed that the grounds of the fort were haunted by the sound of a crying baby .
Towards the end of the 3rd century a Roman naval commander named Carausius , who later declared himself emperor in Britain , was given the task of clearing pirates from the sea between Britain and the European mainland . In so doing he established a new chain of command , the British part of which was later to pass under the control of a Count of the Saxon Shore . The Notitia Dignitatum shows that the fort at Reculver became part of this arrangement , and its location meant that it lay at the " main point of contact in the system [ of Saxon Shore forts ] " . Archaeological evidence indicates that it was abandoned in the 370s .
= = = Medieval = = =
Reculver was part of a landed estate of the Anglo @-@ Saxon kings of Kent by the 7th century , possibly with a royal toll @-@ station or a " significant coastal trading settlement , " given the types and quantity of coins found there . Other early Anglo @-@ Saxon finds include a fragment of a gilt bronze brooch , or fibula , which was originally circular and set with coloured stones or glass , a claw beaker and pottery . Antiquarians such as the 18th @-@ century clergyman John Duncombe believed that King Æthelberht of Kent moved his royal court there from Canterbury in about 597 , and built a palace on the site of the Roman ruins . However , archaeological excavation has shown no evidence of this ; Æthelberht 's household would have been peripatetic , and the story has been described as probably a " pious legend " . A church was built on the site of the Roman fort in about 669 , when King Ecgberht of Kent granted land for the foundation of a monastery , which was dedicated to St Mary .
The monastery developed as the centre of a " large estate , a manor and a parish " , and , by the early 9th century , it had become " extremely wealthy " , but it then fell under the control of the archbishops of Canterbury . In 811 Archbishop Wulfred is recorded as having deprived the monastery of some of its land , and soon after it featured in a " monumental showdown " between Wulfred and King Coenwulf of Mercia over the control of monasteries . In 838 control of all monasteries under Canterbury 's authority was passed to the kings of Wessex , by the agreement of Archbishop Ceolnoth in exchange for protection from Viking attacks . By the 10th century the monastery at Reculver and its estate were both royal property : they were given back to the archbishops of Canterbury in 949 by King Eadred of England , at which time the estate included Hoath and Herne , and land at Chilmington , about 23 @.@ 5 miles ( 37 @.@ 8 km ) to the south @-@ west , and in the west of the Isle of Thanet .
By 1066 the monastery had become a parish church . However , in 1086 Reculver was named in Domesday Book as a hundred , and the manor was valued at £ 42.7s. ( £ 42 @.@ 35 ) . Included in the Domesday account for the manor , as well as the church , farmland , a mill , salt pans and a fishery , are 90 villeins and 25 bordars : these numbers can be multiplied four or five times to account for dependents , as they only represent " adult male heads of households " . In the 13th century Reculver was a parish of " exceptional wealth " , and the considerable enlargement of the church building during the Middle Ages indicates that the settlement had become a " thriving township " , with " dozens of houses " . The parish was broken up in 1310 when chapelries at Herne and , on the Isle of Thanet , St Nicholas @-@ at @-@ Wade and All Saints were converted into parishes , though Hoath was still a perpetual curacy belonging to Reculver parish in the 20th century . Records for the poll tax of 1377 show that there were then 364 individuals of 14 years and above , not including " honest beggars " , in the reduced parish , who paid a total of £ 6.1s.4d. ( £ 6 @.@ 07 ) towards the tax .
= = = Decline and loss to the sea = = =
The thriving medieval township depended partly on its position on a maritime trade route through the Wantsum Channel , already present in Anglo @-@ Saxon times and exemplified by Reculver 's membership of the Cinque Port of Sandwich later in the Middle Ages . The importance of the Wantsum Channel was such that , when the River Thames froze in 1269 , trade between Sandwich and London had to be carried out overland . Historical records for the channel are sparse after 1269 , perhaps " because the route was so well known as to be taken for granted [ in the Middle Ages ] , the whole waterway from London to Sandwich being occasionally spoken of as the ' Thames ' " . But silting and inning had closed the channel to trading vessels sailing along it by about 1460 or soon after , and the first bridge was built over it at Sarre in 1485 , since ferries could no longer operate across it .
Reculver was also diminished by coastal erosion . By 1540 , when John Leland recorded a visit there , the coastline to the north had receded to within little more than a quarter of a mile ( 400 m ) of the " Towne [ which ] at this tyme [ was ] but Village lyke " . Soon afterwards , in 1576 , William Lambarde described Reculver as " poore and simple " . In 1588 there were 165 communicants – people taking part in services of holy communion at the church – and in 1640 there were 169 , but a map of about 1630 shows that the church then stood only about 500 feet ( 152 m ) from the shore . In January 1658 the local justices of the peace were petitioned concerning " encroachments of the sea ... [ which had ] since Michaelmas last [ 29 September 1657 ] encroached on the land near six rods [ 99 feet ( 30 m ) ] , and will doubtless do more harm " . The village 's failure to support two " beer shops " in the 1660s points clearly to a declining population , and the village was mostly abandoned around the end of the 18th century , its residents moving to Hillborough , about 1 @.@ 25 miles ( 2 km ) south @-@ west of Reculver but within the same parish .
Concern about erosion of the cliff on which the church stood , and the possible inundation of the village , had led the commissioners of sewers to install costly sea defences consisting of planking and piling before 1783 , when it was reported that the commissioners had adopted a scheme proposed by Sir Thomas Page to protect the church : the sea defences had proven counter @-@ productive , since sea water collected behind them and continued to undermine the cliff . Before this , according to John Duncombe , " the commissioners of sewers , and the occupiers who pay scots , [ had ] no view nor interest but to secure the level [ ground ] , which must be overflowed when the hill is washed away . " By 1787 Reculver had " dwindled into an insignificant village , thinly decked with the cottages of fishermen and smugglers . "
[ At about this time , ] from the present shore as far as a place called the Black Rock , seen at lowwater mark , where tradition says , a parish church once stood , there [ were ] found quantities of tiles , bricks , fragments of walls , tesselated pavements , and other marks of a ruinated town , and the household furniture , dress , and equipment of the horses belonging to the inhabitants of it , [ were ] continually found among the sands ...
In September 1804 a high tide and strong winds led to the destruction of five houses , one of which was " an ancient building , immediately opposite the public house , and had the appearance of having been part of some monastic erection " . The following year , according to a set of notes written by the parish clerk John Brett , " Reculver Church and willage stood in safety " , but in 1806 the sea began to encroach on the village , and in 1807 the local farmers dismantled the sea defences , after which " the village became a total [ wreck ] to the mercy of the sea . "
A further scheme to protect the cliff and church was proposed by John Rennie , but a decision was taken on 12 January 1808 to demolish the church . By March 1809 , erosion of the cliff had brought it to within 12 feet ( 4 m ) of the church , and demolition was begun in September that year . Trinity House intervened to ensure that the towers were preserved as a navigational aid , and in 1810 it bought what was left of the structure for £ 100 and built the first groynes , designed to protect the cliff on which the ruined church stands . The vicarage was abandoned at the same time as the church , or a little later , and a replacement parish church was built at Hillborough , opening in 1813 .
After the sea undermined the foundations of the Hoy and Anchor Inn at Reculver in January 1808 , the building was taken down and the redundant vicarage was used as a temporary replacement under the same name . Although it was reported in 1800 that there were then only five or six houses left in the village , a new Hoy and Anchor Inn was built by 1809 , and this was renamed as the King Ethelbert Inn by 1838 . Further construction work is indicated by a stone over the doorway to the inn bearing a date of 1843 , and it was later extended into the form in which it stands today , " probably ... in 1883 " .
Today the site of the church is managed by English Heritage , and the village has all but disappeared . The present appearance of the cliff below the church , a grassy slope above a large stone groyne , was in place by April 1867 , and the sea defences there continue to be maintained by Trinity House . In 2000 the surviving fragments of an early medieval cross that once stood inside the old church were used to design a Millennium Cross to commemorate two thousand years of Christianity . This stands at the entrance to the car park and was commissioned by Canterbury City Council .
= = = Bouncing bombs = = =
During the Second World War , the coastline east of the village was used to test prototypes of Barnes Wallis 's bouncing bomb . This area was chosen for its seclusion , while the clear landmark of the church towers and the ease of recovering prototypes from the shallow water were probably also factors . Different , inert versions of the bomb were tested at Reculver , leading to the development of the operational version known as " Upkeep " . This bomb was used by the RAF 's 617 Squadron in Operation Chastise , otherwise known as the Dambuster raids , in which dams in the Ruhr district of Germany were attacked on the night of 16 – 17 May 1943 by formations of Lancaster bombers . On 17 May 2003 , a Lancaster bomber overflew the Reculver testing site to commemorate the 60th anniversary of the exploit .
Two prototype bouncing bombs , about 6 feet ( 2 m ) long and 3 feet ( 1 m ) wide , lay in marshland behind the sea wall until about 1977 , when they were removed by the Army . Other prototypes were recovered from the shoreline in 1997 , one of which is in Herne Bay Museum and Gallery , a little over 3 miles ( 5 km ) west of Reculver . Others are on display in Dover Castle and in the Spitfire & Hurricane Memorial Museum at the former RAF Manston , on the Isle of Thanet .
= = Governance = =
In the 10th @-@ century charter by which King Eadred gave Reculver to the archbishops of Canterbury , the boundary of the mainland part of the estate was about the same as those for the adjoining parishes of Reculver , Hoath and Herne in the 20th century , and the estate included part of the Isle of Thanet . In 1086 , Domesday Book named Reculver as a hundred , meaning that it was probably the meeting @-@ place for the local hundred court . The hundred included Hoath and Herne , and it may also have included the neighbouring area of Thanet . In 1274 – 75 the local hundred was much larger : it was then named after Bleangate , in a detached part of Chislet parish , and was divided into northern and southern halves ; it also included part of Thanet . By 1540 Bleangate hundred no longer included land on Thanet , its members being listed then as Sturry , Chislet , Reculver and Herne for the archaic taxes known as " fifteenths and tenths " , and in 1659 they were listed as Chislet , Herne , Hoath , Reculver , Stourmouth , Sturry and Westbere . In 1808 the members of the northern half @-@ hundred , or " Bleangate Upper " , were listed as Herne , Reculver , Stourmouth and Hoath . The constable for the northern half @-@ hundred was chosen at the court leet of the manor of Reculver , which by 1800 was usually held at Herne .
The parish was represented by two tithings – known in Kent as " borghs " – in the Hundred Rolls of 1274 – 75 and , 400 years later , for the purposes of the Hearth Tax , levied between 1662 and 1689 . In 1274 – 75 these borghs appear as Reculver borgh and Brookgate borgh ; in 1663 they appear as Reculver Street borgh and Brookgate borgh , which were recorded under a parish heading for Reculver , together with Hoath borgh ; and in 1673 Reculver borgh and Brookgate borgh were recorded under a heading for Herne parish , while Hoath was recorded under its own parish heading . However , borghs in Kent , and tithings generally , were related to the manorial and hundredal administration of the county , rather than to the parishes in which they lay .
The parishes of Herne and , on the Isle of Thanet , St Nicholas @-@ at @-@ Wade were created from parts of Reculver parish in 1310 , although they continued to have a subordinate relationship with their original parish into the 19th century , while Hoath remained a perpetual curacy into the 20th . Thereafter Reculver 's parish boundary , enclosing an area of about 2 square miles ( 5 km2 ) , remained the same for both ecclesiastical and civil purposes until 1934 , and included the settlements of Hillborough , Bishopstone and Brook , now Brook Farm . The parish extended west almost to Beltinge , in Herne parish , and to Broomfield in the south @-@ west , where the boundary with Herne parish ran along the centre of the main thoroughfare , now Margate Road ; it was bounded in open country on the south @-@ east and east by the parish of Chislet . In 1934 the civil functions of the parish were merged into the civil parish of Herne Bay . Conversely , Reculver is now in an electoral ward of the same name , in the local government district of Canterbury , which includes Beltinge , Bishopstone , Brook Farm and Hillborough , and extends into the eastern part of the town of Herne Bay . This ward has three seats on Canterbury City Council , and , in the local elections of 2011 , they were won by the existing councillors Jennie Edwards , Gillian Reuby and Ann Taylor , all Conservative .
At the national level Reculver is in the English parliamentary constituency of North Thanet , for which Roger Gale ( Conservative ) has been MP since 1983 . In the general election of 2015 , Gale won 23 @,@ 045 votes ( 49 @.@ 0 % ) , giving him a majority of 10 @,@ 948 ; the United Kingdom Independence Party won 12 @,@ 097 votes ( 25 @.@ 7 ) and the Labour Party won 8 @,@ 411 votes ( 17 @.@ 9 % ) ; while the Green Party and the Liberal Democrats each won fewer than 2 @,@ 000 votes , the Green Party performed slightly better of the two . For European elections Reculver is in the South East England constituency .
= = Geography = =
The ruins of the Roman fort and medieval church at Reculver stand on the remnant of a promontory , a low hill with a maximum height of 50 feet ( 15 m ) , which is the " last seaward extension of the Blean Hills . " Sediments laid down around 55 million years ago are particularly well displayed in the cliffs to the west . Nearby Herne Bay is the type location for the Thanet Sand Formation , or Thanet Beds , consisting of a fine @-@ grained sand that can be clayey and glauconitic and is of Thanetian ( late Paleocene ) age . It rests unconformably on the Chalk Group , and forms the base of the cliffs in the Reculver and Herne Bay area . Above the Thanet Sand are the Upnor Formation , a medium sandstone , and the sandy clays of the Harwich Formation at the Paleocene / Eocene boundary . The highest cliffs , rising to a maximum height of about 115 feet ( 35 m ) to the west of Reculver , have a cap of London Clay , a fine silty clay of Eocene age . The surface consists mainly of flint gravel with some areas of brickearth , both of which are glacial deposits .
Rocks such as these are easily washed away by the sea . It has been estimated that the Roman fort was originally about 1 mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) from the sea to the north , but the cliffs are eroding at a rate of approximately 3 @.@ 3 feet ( 1 m ) per year . Coastal erosion had washed away most of Reculver village by 1800 , leading residents to re @-@ locate to Hillborough , within Reculver parish . A plan is in place to manage this erosion whereby some parts of the coastline such as the country park will be allowed to continue eroding , and others – including the site of the Roman fort and the medieval church – will be protected from further erosion . New sea defences were built in the 1990s , including covering the beaches around the church with boulders .
The warmest time of year in Kent is in July and August , with average maximum temperatures of around 21 ° C ( 70 ° F ) , and the coolest is in January and February , with average minimum temperatures of around 1 ° C ( 34 ° F ) . Average maximum and minimum temperatures are about 0 @.@ 5 ° C ( 0 @.@ 3 ° F ) higher than they are nationally . Locations on the north coast of Kent , like Reculver , are sometimes warmer than areas further inland , owing to the influence of the North Downs to the south . Average annual rainfall in Kent is about 728 millimetres ( 28 @.@ 7 in ) , with the highest rainfall from October to January . This is lower than the national average annual rainfall of 838 millimetres ( 33 in ) . Occasional drought conditions can lead to the imposition of Temporary Use Bans to conserve water supplies , and it was announced in 2013 that a water desalination plant was to be built at Reculver to increase supplies .
= = Demography = =
In the census of 1801 the number of people present in the parish of Reculver , enclosing an area of about 2 square miles ( 5 km2 ) and including the settlements of Hillborough , Bishopstone and part of Broomfield , was given as 252 , and this figure remained roughly stable until the 20th century when a dramatic increase was recorded : in the census of 1931 , the number was given as 829 . But this included holidaymakers , and in 2005 the number of people at Reculver was estimated to increase to " over 1 @,@ 000 at the height of the [ summer ] holiday season " .
In the 2001 census the relevant census area covered 2 @.@ 79 square miles ( 7 km2 ) and included only Reculver and outlying farms and houses , in which 135 people were found , almost a quarter of whom were in caravans . All were born in the United Kingdom except for three individuals from the Republic of Ireland and three from South Africa . Gender was given as 69 female and 66 male , and the age distribution was 12 individuals aged 0 – 5 years ( 8 @.@ 8 % ) , 16 aged 6 – 16 years ( 14 % ) , 30 aged 17 – 35 years ( 22 @.@ 2 % ) , 14 aged 36 – 45 years ( 10 @.@ 3 % ) , 44 aged 46 – 64 years ( 32 @.@ 5 % ) and 21 aged 65 years and over ( 15 @.@ 5 % ) . Half ( 67 ) of all the individuals recorded were described as economically active , with 58 of these having employers and nine being self @-@ employed ; none were recorded as full @-@ time students or unemployed . Twenty @-@ four people ( 17 @.@ 7 % ) were described as retired . Of those aged 16 – 74 years , 14 ( 12 @.@ 8 % ) were placed at the highest level for education or qualification . Christianity was the only religion represented , by 99 individuals , with 22 recorded as having no religion and 14 whose religion was not stated . From April 2001 to March 2002 the average gross weekly income of households in the electoral ward of Reculver was estimated by the Office for National Statistics as £ 560 , or £ 29 @,@ 120 per year ; this was below the average for the south @-@ east of England , excluding London , which was £ 660 , or £ 34 @,@ 320 .
In the 2011 census the relevant census area was identical to the electoral ward , an area of 3 @.@ 55 square miles ( 9 km2 ) , and produced information for the area as a whole . Therefore , while the total resident population of the ward at the 2011 census numbered 8 @,@ 845 , detailed information comparable to that of the 2001 census is unavailable .
= = Economy = =
In the Middle Ages , probably beginning in the 11th century , Reculver was one of several members , or " limbs " , of the Cinque Port of Sandwich . Like other limbs at Fordwich , Deal , Sarre and Stonar , it was then involved in maritime trade , and it shared in the Cinque Ports ' duty to supply ships and men for the king 's use , in return for concessions such as tax exemption . In 1220 King Henry III granted the archbishop of Canterbury a market to be held weekly at Reculver on Thursdays , and an annual fair was held there on Saint Giles 's Day , 1 September .
Oysters from the " Rutupian shore " – the shoreline around Richborough , a little over 8 miles ( 13 km ) to the south @-@ east – were noted as a delicacy by the 1st – 2nd @-@ century Roman poet Juvenal , and in 1576 oysters from Reculver itself were " reputed as farre to passe those of Whitstaple , as Whitstaple doe surmount the rest of this shyre [ of Kent ] in savorie saltnesse . " An enclosed area of salt water known as the Dene was leased for the breeding of oysters and lobsters in 1867 ; as of 2014 there is a hatchery for oysters in saltwater ponds on the eastern side of Reculver belonging to a seafood company which is based there . Young oysters are transplanted from the hatchery to the sea bed at Whitstable . In May 1914 , Anglo @-@ Westphalian Kent Coalfield Ltd drilled a borehole at Reculver in search of coal , since it had found a seam of coal 48 feet ( 14 @.@ 6 m ) thick at nearby Chislet and was developing a colliery there ; possible samples of coal were retrieved from the borehole at a depth of 1 @,@ 129 feet ( 344 @.@ 1 m ) , but it was abandoned , no workable seam having been found .
Today Reculver is dominated by static caravan parks , the first of which appeared after the Second World War . Also present are a country park , the King Ethelbert public house , which is a free house , and a nearby shop and cafe . Reculver was defined as a " key heritage area " in 2008 , and there are plans for its development as a destination for green tourism . Canterbury City Council 's Reculver Masterplan , adopted in 2009 , envisaged the creation of 100 touring pitches in its caravan park , south @-@ east of the Roman fort , which was then leased to the Camping and Caravanning Club . That caravan park was closed by 2015 , when Canterbury City Council undertook a consultation on its incorporation into the country park .
= = = Community facilities = = =
Reculver Church of England Primary School is adjacent to the church at Hillborough . The school 's site also hosts Beltinge Day Nursery and Reculver Breakfast and Afterschool Club . The nearest school for older children is Herne Bay High School .
The nearest post office is in Beltinge , about 1 @.@ 9 miles ( 3 @.@ 1 km ) to the west @-@ southwest . The nearest general practitioner ( GP ) surgery is about 1 @.@ 4 miles ( 2 @.@ 3 km ) to the south @-@ west , between Bishopstone and Hillborough , with others in Beltinge , Herne Bay , Broomfield and St Nicholas @-@ at @-@ Wade . While the nearest general hospital is the Queen Victoria Memorial Hospital , about 2 @.@ 5 miles ( 4 km ) to the west in Herne Bay , the closest hospital with an Accident and Emergency ( A & E ) department is the Queen Elizabeth The Queen Mother Hospital , about 8 @.@ 2 miles ( 13 @.@ 2 km ) to the east in Margate . The nearest community centre is Reculver and Beltinge Memorial Hall , about 1 @.@ 9 miles ( 3 @.@ 1 km ) to the west @-@ southwest .
= = Landmarks = =
= = = Ruined church of St Mary = = =
The medieval towers of the ruined church of St Mary are Reculver 's " most dominant features " . They were added in the late 12th century to a church founded in 669 , when King Ecgberht of Kent granted land to Bassa the priest for the foundation of a monastery . The church was sited near the centre of the Roman fort , and was built " almost completely from demolished Roman structures " . In 692 the monastery 's abbot Berhtwald was elected archbishop of Canterbury , and King Eadberht II of Kent was buried inside the church in the 760s . The church building was considerably enlarged over time , the last additions being made in the 15th century . But it retained many prominent Anglo @-@ Saxon features , including a triple chancel arch and a stone high cross , though this had been removed by 1784 .
The church was demolished in 1809 , in what has been described as " an act of vandalism for which there can be few parallels even in the blackest records of the nineteenth century " . Archaeological excavations in the 19th and 20th centuries established the building sequence of the church , and areas of missing wall are marked on the ground by concrete edged with flint . The ruins are now in the care of English Heritage , and the sea defences protecting them have been maintained by Trinity House since 1810 . Fragments of the cross , and two stone columns that had been part of the church 's triple chancel arch , are on display in Canterbury Cathedral .
A byname for the towers is the " Twin Sisters " , and an account of how this first arose was current about a hundred years after its supposed happening in the late 15th century , but in its usual form , for example in a 19th @-@ century travel guide , it is mostly an invention created around " pseudo @-@ historical detail " . The Ingoldsby Legends includes a re @-@ invention of the story in which two brothers , Robert and Richard de Birchington , are substituted for the two sisters .
= = = Country park = = =
Reculver Country Park is a nature reserve managed by Canterbury City Council and the Kent Wildlife Trust . It covers 64 acres ( 26 ha ) and comprises a narrow strip of protected , cliff @-@ top land about 1 @.@ 5 miles ( 2 km ) long , running from the remaining enclosure of the Roman fort west to Bishopstone Glen . Most of the cliff @-@ top and all of the foreshore in this area are included in the Thanet Coast SSSI , the Thanet Coast and Sandwich Bay SPA and the similarly named Ramsar site ; most of the Country Park is also part of the Bishopstone Cliffs local nature reserve , which covers 166 @.@ 5 acres ( 67 @.@ 4 ha ) of the coastline between Beltinge and Reculver . In winter brent geese and wading birds such as sanderlings and turnstones may be seen ; during the summer months the largest colony of sand martins in Kent nests in the soft cliffs , on top of which fulmars were also reported to have begun nesting in 2013 , and wading curlews may be seen at any time . The grasslands on the cliff top are among the few remaining cliff @-@ top wildflower meadows left in Kent , and are home to butterflies and skylarks . Also present are the nationally scarce hog 's fennel and two species of digger wasp , Alysson lunicornis and Ectemnius ruficornis . The coastline here forms part of the " key on @-@ land Palaeocene site in the London Basin " , and is the only location in the Woolwich Beds to contain wood . The foreshore displays a " rich invertebrate and vertebrate fossil fauna ... and the section has been extensively studied over many years . " The park first won a Green Flag Award in 2005 , and it is estimated that over 200 @,@ 000 people visit it each year , including up to 3 @,@ 500 students for educational trips . Canterbury City Council 's Reculver Masterplan envisages purchasing farmland to the south of the country park to replace land lost to the sea through coastal erosion .
In 2011 it was found that the shoreline in the Herne Bay area , including Reculver , had come under threat from an invasive species , the carpet sea squirt ( Didemnum vexillum ) , also known as " marine vomit " . First recorded in UK waters in 2008 , the carpet sea squirt is indigenous to the sea around Japan , but it has been carried to other parts of the world , including New Zealand and the USA , on boat hulls , fishing equipment and floating seaweed . Carpet sea squirt can overgrow other , sessile species , " potentially smothering species living in gravel and affecting fisheries . "
= = = Centre for renewable energy = = =
A visitor centre in Reculver Country Park re @-@ opened in 2009 as the Reculver Renewable Energy and Interpretation Centre , " marking 200 years of the moving of Reculver village " . The centre features a log burner fuelled by logs from the Blean woodland , solar and photovoltaic panels provide electrical power , and there are displays describing the history , geography and wildlife of the area .
= = Transport = =
Reculver is at the end of an unclassified road , Reculver Lane , and is about 2 miles ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) by road from the nearest major junction of the A299 , or Thanet Way . From Roman times there was a connection to Canterbury by road , the presence of which is reflected in parish boundaries for much of its length . An estate map of 1685 shows the Reculver end of this road as " The King 's highe Way " , which may have been in use until 1875 , when it was reported that a public road had been diverted because of a cliff fall near Love Street Farm . Remains of a Roman road leading to the east gate of the fort have also been found , which were " substantial ... consisting of a sandstone platform [ 10 – 13 feet ( 3 – 4 m ) ] wide and at least [ 11 inches ( 30 cm ) ] deep . "
In 1817 the nearest coaching route was that running between London , Canterbury and the Isle of Thanet , which passed through Upstreet , about 4 miles ( 6 @.@ 4 km ) south of Reculver , before entering Thanet . In 1839 coaches and vans ran daily from Herne Bay to Canterbury and on to destinations on the southern and eastern coasts of Kent , with access to the English Channel , at Deal , Dover , Sandgate and Hythe . In 1865 transport from Herne Bay was available by " fly " – a type of one @-@ horse hackney carriage .
As of 2014 a bus service , route 7 / 7A , connects Reculver directly with Herne Bay and Canterbury daily except Sundays and bank holidays . Other destinations on this route include Reculver Church of England Primary School at Hillborough , Broomfield , Chislet , Hoath and the railway station at Sturry , on the Ashford to Ramsgate line . Route 36 connects Reculver with Herne Bay and Margate daily except Sundays . Other destinations on this route include Reculver Church of England Primary School at Hillborough , Beltinge , Birchington @-@ on @-@ Sea and Westgate @-@ on @-@ Sea . The bus stop at Reculver is adjacent to the King Ethelbert Inn .
The nearest railway stations are at Herne Bay , about 3 @.@ 8 miles ( 6 @.@ 1 km ) to the west , and Birchington @-@ on @-@ Sea , about 4 @.@ 5 miles ( 7 @.@ 2 km ) to the east . Both stations are on the Chatham Main Line , running between London 's Victoria station and Ramsgate , on the south @-@ eastern coast of the Isle of Thanet . The railway first reached Herne Bay from the west in 1861 and was extended to Ramsgate Harbour railway station by 1863 , but no provision was made for public access from Reculver , although purchase of land for a station there had been envisaged and a short @-@ lived goods station was opened in 1864 . In the same year a passenger station was proposed for Reculver , primarily to serve tourists , but it was not built . In 1884 the South Eastern Railway proposed building a branch line from its station at Grove Ferry on the Ashford to Ramsgate line to join the London , Chatham and Dover Railway 's Chatham Main Line at Reculver , thereby linking Canterbury and Herne Bay . The Canterbury and Kent Coast Railway Bill was presented to a select committee of MPs in January 1885 : the London , Chatham and Dover Railway objected to it , particularly the junction with their main line at Reculver , so the Bill was rejected and the line was not built . Rudimentary houses were erected by the East Kent Railway company on nearby marshland in 1858 for the navvies who constructed the line through the area ; these had been taken over by enginemen of the South Eastern and Chatham Railway by October 1904 , when they were replaced by cottages .
There is no provision for access to Reculver from the sea , but there were maritime connections from at least the 1st century , when the Roman fort of Regulbium had a supporting harbour . The quantity and variety of coins found at Reculver dating from the 7th century to the 8th are almost certainly related to its location on a major trade route through the Wantsum Channel ; there was probably still a harbour in Anglo @-@ Saxon times , and the monastery may well have operated a " fleet of ships and its own boatyard . " Details in the 10th @-@ century charter in which King Eadred gave Reculver to the archbishops of Canterbury suggest that there was then an island immediately to the north , creating a " mini @-@ Wantsum [ Channel that ] could have provided a sheltered channel for beaching and berthing ships " ; the present day Black Rock beyond the shoreline may be a remnant of this island .
In the 17th century an inlet to the north @-@ west was described as " anciently for a harber of ships , called now The Old Pen " . In the 18th century there was a place for landing passengers and goods at the village , and the former name of the King Ethelbert Inn , the " Hoy and Anchor " , makes reference to hoys , a local type of merchant sailing vessel . These continued to serve the coastline of northern Kent in the mid @-@ 19th century . In 1810 a canal was proposed to run from the coast between Reculver and St Nicholas @-@ at @-@ Wade to Canterbury , with a harbour for sea @-@ going vessels at the northern end , which would be accessible from Reculver by a new road beginning at the inn , but none of this was built . Passenger steamships called at Herne Bay pier on their route between London and destinations along the north coast of Kent from 1832 , but this service ceased in the first half of the 20th century . A travel guide of 1865 advised that
[ the ] best way to visit Reculver from Margate is by means of a sailing or rowing boat ... [ although ] Herne Bay is by far the most convenient place to get to Reculver from , as you can be rowed to the foot of the twin towers in little more than half an hour ... [ after which ] we run the boat on the beach , and plant our foot on the famous " Rutupian shore , " sung by Juvenal ...
Coastguards were stationed at Reculver from the mid @-@ 19th century until they were withdrawn in the mid @-@ 20th century , but the towers of the ruined church remain a landmark for mariners , both practically and through their use to mark the division between areas covered by Thames Maritime Rescue Coordination Centre ( MRCC ) and Dover MRCC .
= = Religion = =
A new Anglican parish church was built at Hillborough , about 1 @.@ 25 miles ( 2 km ) south @-@ west of Reculver , as a replacement for the old church of St Mary . The new church was given the same dedication to St Mary and , standing on a plot of land bought for £ 30 , it was consecrated on 13 April 1813 . A " miserable little [ church ] ... built in a rough and poverty @-@ stricken style " , it had a leaking roof and was already decaying by 1874 , and was replaced by the present structure , begun in 1876 and consecrated on 12 June 1878 .
The church begun in 1876 was designed in the Gothic Revival style by the architect Joseph Clarke , who was surveyor for the diocese of Canterbury at the time . It has seating for about 100 people , and is a " simple and relatively plain building " , though it incorporates stonework from the old church at Reculver . The medieval baptismal font in the church is probably from the former chapel of All Saints , Shuart , on the Isle of Thanet , which was demolished in the 15th century . A war memorial stands at the edge of the churchyard , facing into the adjacent Reculver Lane , and records the names of 27 parishioners who died fighting in the First World War and the Second World War .
= = Notable people = =
King Eadberht II of Kent was buried in the church at Reculver in the 760s . His tomb was in the south porticus of the church , adjacent to the chancel , though this later became part of the church 's south aisle . This was traditionally believed to be the tomb of King Æthelberht I of Kent , and was " of an antique form , mounted with two spires " . Simon of Faversham , a 14th @-@ century philosopher and theologian , was appointed as rector but was forced to defend his appointment to the Pope , and died in France , either on his way to the papal curia in Avignon or after his arrival , some time before 19 July 1306 .
The first recorded owner of Brook , about 0 @.@ 8 miles ( 1 km ) south @-@ southwest of Reculver , was Nicholas Tingewick , physician to King Edward I and rector of Reculver until 1310 , when he became its first recorded vicar . He was regarded as the " best doctor for the king 's health " , and there are more records of his medical practice than there are for " most physicians of his time . " Brook subsequently passed to James de la Pine , sheriff of Kent in the early 1350s . His grandson sold it to an ancestor of Henry Cheyne , who was elected knight of the shire for Kent in 1563 , and was created " Lord Cheyney " in 1572 . He had sold all of his possessions in Kent by 1574 to " finance his extravagance " , and Brook subsequently became the property of Sir Cavalliero Maycote , who was a leading courtier to Elizabeth I and James I. He had a " handsome monument [ on the south wall of the chancel in the church at Reculver ] representing Sir Cavalliero and Lady Maycote , with their eight children , all in alabaster figures , kneeling " . Brook is now Brook Farm , where there is a remnant of Maycote 's home in the form of a gateway , which is a " very rustic Elizabethan affair " , all of brick , with mouldings .
Thomas Broke , alderman and MP for Calais in the mid @-@ 16th century , may have been a son of Thomas Brooke of Reculver , as well as being a " religious radical " . Ralph Brooke , officer of arms as Rouge Croix Pursuivant and York Herald under Elizabeth I and James I , died in 1625 and was buried inside the church , where he was commemorated by a black marble tablet on the south wall of the chancel , showing him dressed in his herald 's coat .
Robert Hunt , vicar of Reculver from 1595 to 1602 , became minister of religion to the English colonial settlement at Jamestown , Virginia , sailing there in the ship Susan Constant in 1606 , and celebrated probably " the first known service of holy communion in what is today the United States of America on 21 June 1607 . " Barnabas Knell was vicar from 1602 to 1646 : during the English Civil War his son Paul Knell , born in about 1615 , was chaplain to a regiment of Royalist cuirassiers , to whom he preached a sermon , " The convoy of a Christian " , at the siege of Gloucester in August 1643 . An estate map of 1685 shows that much of the land around Reculver then belonged to James Oxenden , who spent much of his life as an MP for Kent constituencies between 1679 and 1702 .
|
= Troilus =
Troilus ( English pronunciation : / ˈtrɔɪləs / or / ˈtroʊələs / ; Ancient Greek : Τρωΐλος Troïlos ; Latin : Troilus ) is a legendary character associated with the story of the Trojan War . The first surviving reference to him is in Homer 's Iliad , which scholars believe was composed by bards and sung in the late 9th or 8th century BC .
In Greek mythology , Troilus is a young Trojan prince , one of the sons of King Priam ( or sometimes Apollo ) and Hecuba . Prophecies link Troilus ' fate to that of Troy and so he is ambushed and murdered by Achilles . Sophocles was one of the writers to tell this tale . It was also a popular theme among artists of the time . Ancient writers treated Troilus as the epitome of a dead child mourned by his parents . He was also regarded as a paragon of youthful male beauty .
In Western European medieval and Renaissance versions of the legend , Troilus is the youngest of Priam 's five legitimate sons by Hecuba . Despite his youth he is one of the main Trojan war leaders . He dies in battle at Achilles ' hands . In a popular addition to the story , originating in the 12th century , Troilus falls in love with Cressida , whose father has defected to the Greeks . Cressida pledges her love to Troilus but she soon switches her affections to the Greek hero Diomedes when sent to her father in a hostage exchange . Chaucer and Shakespeare are among the authors who wrote works telling the story of Troilus and Cressida . Within the medieval tradition , Troilus was regarded as a paragon of the faithful courtly lover and also of the virtuous pagan knight . Once the custom of courtly love had faded , his fate was regarded less sympathetically .
Little attention was paid to the character during the 18th and 19th centuries . However , Troilus has reappeared in 20th and 21st century retellings of the Trojan War by authors who have chosen elements from both the classical and medieval versions of his story .
= = The story in the ancient world = =
For the ancient Greeks , the tale of the Trojan War and the surrounding events appeared in its most definitive form in the Epic Cycle of eight narrative poems from the archaic period in Greece ( 750 BC – 480 BC ) . The story of Troilus is one of a number of incidents that helped provide structure to a narrative that extended over several decades and 77 books from the beginning of the Cypria to the end of the Telegony . The character 's death early in the war and the prophecies surrounding him demonstrated that all Trojan efforts to defend their home would be in vain . His symbolic significance is evidenced by linguistic analysis of his Greek name " Troilos " . It can be interpreted as an elision of the names of Tros and Ilos , the legendary founders of Troy , as a diminutive or pet name " little Tros " or as an elision of Troië ( Troy ) and lyo ( to destroy ) . These multiple possibilities emphasise the link between the fates of Troilus and of the city where he lived . On another level , Troilus ' fate can also be seen as foreshadowing the subsequent deaths of his murderer Achilles , and of his nephew Astyanax and sister Polyxena , who , like Troilus , die at the altar in at least some versions of their stories .
Given this , it is unfortunate that the Cypria — the part of the Epic Cycle that covers the period of the Trojan War of Troilus ' death — does not survive . Indeed , no complete narrative of his story remains from archaic times or the subsequent classical period ( 479 – 323 BC ) . Most of the literary sources from before the Hellenistic age ( 323 – 30 BC ) that even referred to the character are lost or survive only in fragments or summary . The surviving ancient and medieval sources , whether literary or scholarly , contradict each other , and many do not tally with the form of the myth that scholars now believe to have existed in the archaic and classical periods .
Partially compensating for the missing texts are the physical artifacts that remain from the archaic and classical periods . The story of the circumstances around Troilus ' death was a popular theme among pottery painters . ( The Beazley Archive website lists 108 items of Attic pottery alone from the 6th to 4th centuries BC containing images of the character . ) Troilus also features on other works of art and decorated objects from those times . It is a common practice for those writing about the story of Troilus as it existed in ancient times to use both literary sources and artifacts to build up an understanding of what seems to have been the most standard form of the myth and its variants . The brutality of this standard form of the myth is highlighted by commentators such as Alan Sommerstein , an expert on ancient Greek drama , who describes it as " horrific " and " [ p ] erhaps the most vicious of all the actions traditionally attributed to Achilles . "
= = = The standard myth : the beautiful youth murdered = = =
Troilus is an adolescent boy or ephebe , the son of Hecuba , queen of Troy . As he is so beautiful , Troilus is taken to be the son of the god Apollo . However , Hecuba 's husband , King Priam , treats him as his own much @-@ loved child .
A prophecy says that Troy will not fall if Troilus lives into adulthood . So the goddess Athena encourages the Greek warrior Achilles to seek him out early in the Trojan War . The youth is known to take great delight in his horses . Achilles ambushes him and his sister Polyxena when he has ridden with her for water from a well in the Thymbra – an area outside Troy where there is a temple of Apollo .
The Greek is struck by the beauty of both Trojans and is filled with lust . It is the fleeing Troilus whom swift @-@ footed Achilles catches , dragging him by the hair from his horse . The young prince refuses to yield to Achilles ' sexual attentions and somehow escapes , taking refuge in the nearby temple . But the warrior follows him in , and beheads him at the altar before help can arrive . The murderer then mutilates the boy 's body . The mourning of the Trojans at Troilus ' death is great .
This sacrilege leads to Achilles ’ own death , when Apollo avenges himself by helping Paris strike Achilles with the arrow that pierces his heel .
= = = Ancient literary sources supporting the standard myth = = =
= = = = Homer and the missing texts of the archaic and classical periods = = = =
The earliest surviving literary reference to Troilus is in Homer 's Iliad , which formed one part of the Epic Cycle . It is believed that Troilus ' name was not invented by Homer and that a version of his story was already in existence . Late in the poem , Priam berates his surviving sons , and compares them unfavourably to their dead brothers including Trôïlon hippiocharmên . The interpretation of hippiocharmên is controversial but the root hipp- implies a connection with horses . For the purpose of the version of the myth given above , the word has been taken as meaning " delighting in horses " . Sommerstein believes that Homer wishes to imply in this reference that Troilus was killed in battle , but argues that Priam 's later description of Achilles as andros paidophonoio ( " boy @-@ slaying man " ) indicates that Homer was aware of the story of Troilus as a murdered child ; Sommerstein believes that Homer is playing here on the ambiguity of the root paido- meaning boy in both the sense of a young male and of a son .
Troilus ' death was also described in the Cypria , one of the parts of the Epic Cycle that is no longer extant . The poem covered the events preceding the Trojan War and the first part of the war itself up to the events of the Iliad . Although the Cypria does not survive , most of an ancient summary of the contents , thought to be by Eutychius Proclus , remains . Fragment 1 mentions that Achilles killed Troilus , but provides no more detail . However , Sommerstein takes the verb used to describe the killing ( phoneuei ) as meaning that Achilles murders Troilus .
In Athens , the early tragedians Phrynicus and Sophocles both wrote plays called Troilos and the comic playwright Strattis wrote a parody of the same name . Of the esteemed Nine lyric poets of the archaic and classical periods , Stesichorus may have referred to Troilus ' story in his Iliupersis and Ibycus may have written in detail about the character . With the exception of these authors , no other pre @-@ Hellenistic written source is known to have considered Troilus at any length .
Unfortunately , all that remains of these texts are the smallest fragments or summaries and references to them by other authors . What does survive can be in the form of papyrus fragments , plot summaries by later authors or quotations by other authors . In many cases these are just odd words in lexicons or grammar books with an attribution to the original author . Reconstructions of the texts are necessarily speculative and should be viewed with " wary but sympathetic scepticism " . In Ibycus ' case all that remains is a parchment fragment containing a mere six or seven words of verse accompanied with a few lines of scholia . Troilus is described in the poem as godlike and is killed outside Troy . From the scholia , he is clearly a boy . The scholia also refer to a sister , someone " watching out " and a murder in the sanctuary of Thymbrian Apollo . While acknowledging that these details may have been reports of other later sources , Sommerstein thinks it probable that Ibycus told the full ambush story and is thus the earliest identifiable source for it . Of Phrynicus , one fragment remains considered to refer to Troilus . This speaks of " the light of love glowing on his reddening cheeks " .
Of all these fragmentary pre @-@ Hellenistic sources , the most is known of Sophocles Troilos . Even so , only 54 words have been identified as coming from the play . Fragment 619 refers to Troilus as an andropais , a man @-@ boy . Fragment 621 indicates that Troilus was going to a spring with a companion to fetch water or to water his horses . A scholion to the Iliad states that Sophocles has Troilus ambushed by Achilles while exercising his horses in the Thymbra . Fragment 623 indicates that Achilles mutilated Troilus ' corpse by a method known as maschalismos . This involved preventing the ghost of a murder victim from returning to haunt their killer by cutting off the corpse 's extremities and stringing them under its armpits . Sophocles is thought to have also referred to the maschalismos of Troilus in a fragment taken to be from an earlier play Polyxene .
Sommerstein attempts a reconstruction of the plot of the Troilos , in which the title character is incestuously in love with Polyxena and tries to discourage the interest in marrying her shown by both Achilles and Sarpedon , a Trojan ally and son of Zeus . Sommerstein argues that Troilus is accompanied on his fateful journey to his death , not by Polyxena , but by his tutor , a eunuch Greek slave . Certainly there is a speaking role for a eunuch who reports being castrated by Hecuba and someone reports the loss of their adolescent master . The incestuous love is deduced by Sommerstein from a fragment of Strattis ' parody , assumed to partially quote Sophocles , and from his understanding that the Sophocles play intends to contrast barbarian customs , including incest , with Greek ones . Sommerstein also sees this as solving what he considers the need for an explanation of Achilles ' treatment of Troilus ' corpse , the latter being assumed to have insulted Achilles in the process of warning him off Polyxena . Italian professor of English and expert on Troilus , Piero Boitani , on the other hand , considers Troilus ' rejection of Achilles ' sexual advances towards him as sufficient motive for the mutilation .
= = = = The Alexandra = = = =
The first surviving text with more than the briefest mention of Troilus is a Hellenistic poem dating from no earlier than the 3rd century BC : the Alexandra by the tragedian Lycophron or a namesake of his . The poem consists of the obscure prophetic ravings of Cassandra :
This passage is explained in the Byzantine writer John Tzetzes ' scholia as a reference to Troilus seeking to avoid the unwanted sexual advances of Achilles by taking refuge in his father Apollo 's temple . When he refuses to come out , Achilles goes in and kills him on the altar . Lycophron 's scholiast also says that Apollo started to plan Achilles ' death after the murder . This begins to build up the elements of the version of Troilus ' story given above : he is young , much loved and beautiful ; he has divine ancestry , is beheaded by his rejected Greek lover and , we know from Homer , had something to do with horses . The reference to Troilus as a " lion whelp " hints at his having the potential to be a great hero , but there is no explicit reference to a prophecy linking the possibility of Troilus reaching adulthood and Troy then surviving .
= = = = Other written sources = = = =
No other extended passage about Troilus exists from before the Augustan Age by which time other versions of the character 's story have emerged . The remaining sources compatible with the standard myth are considered below by theme .
Parentage
The Apollodorus responsible for the Library lists Troilus last of Priam and Hecuba 's sons – a detail adopted in the later tradition – but then adds that it is said that the boy was fathered by Apollo . On the other hand , Hyginus includes Troilus in the middle of a list of Priam 's sons without further comment . In the early Christian writings the Clementine Homilies , it is suggested that Apollo was Troilus ' lover rather than his father .
Youthfulness
Horace emphasises Troilus ' youth by calling him inpubes ( " unhairy " , i.e. pre @-@ pubescent or , figuratively , not old enough to bear arms ) . Dio Chrysostom derides Achilles in his Trojan discourse , complaining that all that the supposed hero achieved before Homer was the capture of Troilus who was still a boy .
Prophecies
The First Vatican Mythographer reports a prophecy that Troy will not fall if Troilus reaches the age of twenty and gives that as a reason for Achilles ' ambush . In Plautus , Troilus ' death is given as one of three conditions that must be met before Troy would fall .
Beauty
Ibycus , in seeking to praise his patron , compares him to Troilus , the most beautiful of the Greeks and the Trojans . Dio Chrysostom refers to Troilus as one of many examples of different kinds of beauty . Statius compares a beautiful dead slave missed by his master to Troilus .
Object of pederastic love
Servius , in his scholia to the passage from Virgil discussed below , says that Achilles lures Troilus to him with a gift of doves . Troilus then dies in the Greek 's embrace . Robert Graves interprets this as evidence of the vigour of Achilles ' love @-@ making but Timothy Gantz considers that the " how or why " of Servius ' version of Troilus ' death is unclear . Sommerstein favours Graves 's interpretation saying that murder was not a part of ancient pederastic relations and that nothing in Servius suggests an intentional killing .
Location of ambush and death
A number of reports have come down of Troilus ' death variously mentioning water , exercising horses and the Thymbra , though they do not necessarily build into a coherent whole : the First Vatican Mythographer reports that Troilus was exercising outside Troy when Achilles attacked him ; a commentator on Ibycus says that Troilus was slain by Achilles in the Thymbrian precinct outside Troy ; Eustathius of Thessalonica 's commentary on the Iliad says that Troilus was exercising his horses there ; Apollodorus says that Achilles ambushed Troilus inside the temple of Thymbrian Apollo ; finally , Statius reports that Troilus was speared to death as he fled around Apollo 's walls . Gantz struggles to make sense of what he sees as contradictory material , feeling that Achilles ' running down of Troilus ' horse makes no sense if Troilus was just fleeing to the nearby temple building . He speculates that the ambush at the well and the sacrifice in the temple could be two different versions of the story or , alternatively , that Achilles takes Troilus to the temple to sacrifice him as an insult to Apollo .
Mourning
Trojan and , especially , Troilus ' own family 's mourning at his death seems to have epitomised grief at the loss of a child in classical civilization . Horace , Callimachus and Cicero all refer to Troilus in this way .
= = = Ancient art and artifact sources = = =
Ancient Greek art , as found in pottery and other remains , frequently depicts scenes associated with Troilus ' death : the ambush , the pursuit , the murder itself and the fight over his body . Depictions of Troilus in other contexts are unusual . One such exception , a red @-@ figure vase painting from Apulia c.340BC , shows Troilus as a child with Priam .
In the ambush , Troilus and Polyxena approach a fountain where Achilles lies in wait . This scene was familiar enough in the ancient world for a parody to exist from c.400BC showing a dumpy Troilus leading a mule to the fountain . In most serious depictions of the scene , Troilus rides a horse , normally with a second next to him . He is usually , but not always , portrayed as a beardless youth . He is often shown naked ; otherwise he wears a cloak or tunic . Achilles is always armed and armoured . Occasionally , as on the vase picture at [ 40 ] , or the fresco from the Tomb of the Bulls shown at the head of this article , either Troilus or Polyxena is absent , indicating how the ambush is linked to each of their stories . In the earliest definitely identified version of this scene , ( a Corinthian vase c.580BC ) , Troilus is bearded and Priam is also present . Both these features are unusual . More common is a bird sitting on the fountain ; normally a raven , symbol of Apollo and his prophetic powers and thus a final warning to Troilus of his doom ; sometimes a cock , a common love gift suggesting that Achilles attempted to seduce Troilus . In some versions , for example an Attic amphora in the Museum of Fine Arts , Boston dating from c.530BC ( seen here [ 41 ] ) Troilus has a dog running with him . On one Etruscan vase from the 6th century BC , doves are flying from Achilles to Troilus , suggestive of the love gift in Servius . The fountain itself is conventionally decorated with a lion motif .
The earliest identified version of the pursuit or chase is from the third quarter of the 7th century BC . Next chronologically is the best known version on the François Vase by Kleitias . The number of characters shown on pottery scenes varies with the size and shape of the space available . The François Vase is decorated with several scenes in long narrow strips . This means that the Troilus frieze is heavily populated . In the centre , ( which can be seen at the Perseus Project at [ 42 ] , ) is the fleeing Troilus , riding one horse with the reins of the other in his hand . Below them is the vase — which Polyxena ( partially missing ) , who is ahead of him , has dropped . Achilles is largely missing but it is clear that he is armoured . They are running towards Troy [ 43 ] where Antenor gestures towards Priam . Hector and Polites , brothers of Troilus , emerge from the city walls in the hope of saving Troilus . Behind Achilles [ 44 ] are a number of deities , Athena , Thetis , ( Achilles ' mother , ) Hermes , and Apollo ( just arriving ) . Two Trojans are also present , the woman gesturing to draw the attention of a youth filling his vase . As the deities appear only in pictorial versions of the scene , their role is subject to interpretation . Boitani , sees Athena as urging Achilles on and Thetis as worried by the arrival of Apollo who , as Troilus ' protector , represents a future threat to Achilles . He does not indicate what he thinks Hermes may be talking to Thetis about . The classicist and art historian Professor Thomas H. Carpenter sees Hermes as a neutral observer , Athena and Thetis as urging Achilles on and the arrival of Apollo as the artist 's indication of the god 's future role in Achilles ' death . As Athena is not traditionally a patron of Achilles , Sommerstein sees her presence in this and other portrayals of Troilus ' death as evidence of the early standing of the prophetic link between Troilus ' death and the fall of Troy , Athena being driven , above all , by her desire for the city 's destruction .
The standard elements in the pursuit scene are Troilus , Achilles , Polyxena , the two horses and the fallen vase . On two tripods , an amphora and a cup , Achilles already has Troilus by the hair . A famous vase in the British Museum , which gave the Troilos Painter the name by which he is now known , shows the two Trojans looking back in fear , as the beautiful youth whips his horse on . This vase can be seen at the Perseus Project site [ 45 ] . The water spilling from the shattered vase below Troilus ' horse , symbolises the blood he is about to shed .
The iconography of the eight legs and hooves of the horses can be used to identify Troilus on pottery where his name does not appear ; for example , on a Corinthian vase where Troilus is shooting at his pursuers and on a peaceful scene on a Chalcidian krater where the couples Paris and Helen , Hector and Andromache are labelled , but the youth riding one of a pair of horses is not .
A later Southern Italian interpretation of the story is on vases held respectively at the Boston Museum of Fine Arts and the Hermitage Museum in St Petersburg . On the krater from c.380 @-@ 70BC at [ 46 ] Troilus can be seen with just one horse trying to defend himself with a throwing spear ; on the hydria from c.325 @-@ 320BC at [ 47 ] , Achilles is pulling down the youth 's horse .
The earliest known depictions of the death or murder of Troilus are on shield bands from the turn of the 7th into the 6th century BC found at Olympia . On these , a warrior with a sword is about to stab a naked youth at an altar . On one , Troilus clings to a tree ( which Boitani takes for the laurel sacred to Apollo ) . A crater contemporary with this shows Achilles at the altar holding the naked Troilus upside down while Hector , Aeneas and an otherwise unknown Trojan Deithynos arrive in the hope of saving the youth . In some depictions Troilus is begging for mercy . On an amphora , Achilles has the struggling Troilus slung over his shoulder as he goes to the altar . Boitani , in his survey of the story of Troilus through the ages , considers it of significance that two artifacts ( a vase and a sarcophagus ) from different periods link Troilus ' and Priam 's death by showing them on the two sides of the same item , as if they were the beginning and end of the story of the fall of Troy . Achilles is the father of Neoptolemus , who slays Priam at the altar during the sack of Troy . Thus the war opens with a father killing a son and closes with a son killing a father .
Some pottery shows Achilles , already having killed Troilus , using his victim 's severed head as a weapon as Hector and his companions arrive too late to save him ; some includes the watching Athena , occasionally with Hermes . At [ 48 ] is one such picture showing Achilles fighting Hector over the altar . Troilus ' body is slumped and the boy 's head is either flying through the air , or stuck to the end of Achilles ' spear . Athena and Hermes look on . Aeneas and Deithynos are behind Hector .
Sometimes details of the closely similar deaths of Troilus and Astyanax are exchanged . [ 49 ] shows one such image where it is unclear which murder is portrayed . The age of the victim is often an indicator of which story is being told and the relative small size here might point towards the death of Astyanax , but it is common to show even Troilus as much smaller than his murderer , ( as is the case with the kylix pictured to the above right ) . Other factors in this case are the presence of Priam ( suggesting Astyanax ) , that of Athena ( suggesting Troilus ) and the fact that the scene is set outside the walls of Troy ( again suggesting Troilus ) .
= = = A variant myth : the boy @-@ soldier overwhelmed = = =
A different version of Troilus ' death appears on a red @-@ figure cup by Oltos . Troilus is on his knees , still in the process of drawing his sword when Achilles ' spear has already stabbed him and Aeneas comes too late to save him . Troilus wears a helmet , but it is pushed up to reveal a beautiful young face . This is the only such depiction of Troilus ' death in early figurative art . However , this version of Troilus as a youth defeated in battle appears also in written sources .
= = = = Virgil and other Latin sources = = = =
This version of the story appears in Virgil 's Aeneid , in a passage describing a series of paintings decorating the walls of a temple of Juno . The painting immediately next to the one depicting Troilus shows the death of Rhesus , another character killed because of prophecies linked to the fall of Troy . Other pictures are similarly calamitous .
In a description whose pathos is heightened by the fact that it is seen through a compatriot 's eyes , Troilus is infelix puer ( " unhappy boy " ) who has met Achilles in " unequal " combat . Troilus ' horses flee while he , still holding their reins , hangs from the chariot , his head and hair trailing behind while the backward @-@ pointing spear scribbles in the dust . ( The First Vatican Mythographer elaborates on this story , explaining that Troilus 's body is dragged right to the walls of Troy . )
In his commentary on the Aeneid , Servius considers this story as a deliberate departure from the " true " story , bowdlerized to make it more suitable for an epic poem . He interprets it as showing Troilus overpowered in a straight fight . Gantz , however , argues that this might be a variation of the ambush story . For him , Troilus is unarmed because he went out not expecting combat and the backward pointing spear was what Troilus was using as a goad in a manner similar to characters elsewhere in the Aeneid . Sommerstein , on the other hand believes that the spear is Achilles ' that has struck Troilus in the back . The youth is alive but mortally wounded as he is being dragged towards Troy .
An issue here is the ambiguity of the word congressus ( " met " ) . It often refers to meeting in a conventional combat but can have reference to other types of meetings too . A similar ambiguity appears in Seneca and in Ausonius ' 19th epitaph , narrated by Troilus himself . The dead prince tells how he has been dragged by his horses after falling in unequal battle with Achilles . A reference in the epitaph comparing Troilus ' death to Hector 's suggests that Troilus dies later than in the traditional narrative , something that , according to Boitani , also happens in Virgil .
= = = = Greek writers in the boy @-@ soldier tradition = = = =
Quintus of Smyrna , in a passage whose atmosphere Boitani describes as sad and elegiac , retains what for Boitani are the two important issues of the ancient story , that Troilus is doomed by Fate and that his failure to continue his line symbolises Troy 's fall . In this case , there is no doubt that Troilus entered battle knowingly , for in the Posthomerica Troilus 's armour is one of the funerary gifts after Achilles ' own death . Quintus repeatedly emphasises Troilus 's youth : he is beardless , virgin of a bride , childlike , beautiful , the most godlike of all Hecuba 's children . Yet he was lured by Fate to war when he knew no fear and was struck down by Achilles ' spear just as a flower or corn that has borne no seed is killed by the gardener .
In the Ephemeridos belli Trojani ( Journal of the Trojan War ) , supposedly written by Dictys the Cretan during the Trojan War itself , Troilus is again a defeated warrior , but this time captured with his brother Lycaon . Achilles vindictively orders that their throats be slit in public , because he is angry that Priam has failed to advance talks over a possible marriage to Polyxena . Dictys ' narrative is free from gods and prophecy but he preserves Troilus ' loss as something to be greatly mourned :
= = The story in the medieval and Renaissance eras = =
In the sources considered so far , Troilus ' only narrative function is his death . The treatment of the character changes in two ways in the literature of the medieval and renaissance periods . First , he becomes an important and active protagonist in the pursuit of the Trojan War itself . Second , he becomes an active heterosexual lover , rather than the passive victim of Achilles ' pederasty . By the time of John Dryden 's neo @-@ classical adaptation of Shakespeare 's Troilus and Cressida it is the ultimate failure of his love affair that defines the character .
For medieval writers , the two most influential ancient sources on the Trojan War were the purported eye @-@ witness accounts of Dares the Phrygian , and Dictys the Cretan , which both survive in Latin versions . In Western Europe the Trojan side of the war was favoured and therefore Dares was preferred over Dictys . Although Dictys ' account positions Troilus ' death later in the war than was traditional , it conforms to antiquity 's view of him as a minor warrior if one at all . Dares ' De excidio Trojae historia ( History of the Fall of Troy ) introduces the character as a hero who takes part in events beyond the story of his death .
Authors of the 12th and 13th centuries such as Joseph of Exeter and Albert of Stade continued to tell the legend of the Trojan War in Latin in a form that follows Dares ' tale with Troilus remaining one of the most important warriors on the Trojan side . However , it was two of their contemporaries , Benoît de Sainte @-@ Maure in his French verse romance and Guido delle Colonne in his Latin prose history , both also admirers of Dares , who were to define the tale of Troy for the remainder of the medieval period . The details of their narrative of the war were copied , for example , in the Troy Books of Laud and Lydgate and also Raoul Lefevre 's Recuyell of the Historyes of Troye . Lefevre , through Caxton 's 1474 printed translation , was in turn to become the best known retelling of the Troy story in Renaissance England and influenced Shakespeare among others . The story of Troilus as a lover , invented by Benoît and retold by Guido , generated a second line of influence . It was taken up as a tale that could be told in its own right by Boccaccio and then by Chaucer who established a tradition of retelling and elaborating the story in English @-@ language literature , which was to be followed by Henryson and Shakespeare .
= = = The second Hector , wall of Troy = = =
As indicated above , it was through the writings of Dares the Phrygian that the portrayal of Troilus as an important warrior was transmitted to medieval times . However , some authors have argued that the tradition of Troilus as a warrior may be older . The passage from the Iliad described above is read by Boitani as implying that Priam put Troilus on a par with the very best of his warrior sons . The description of him in that passage as hippiocharmên is rendered by some authorities as meaning a warrior charioteer rather than merely someone who delights in horses . The many missing and partial literary sources might include such a hero . Yet only the one ancient vase shows Troilus as a warrior falling in a conventional battle .
= = = = Dares = = = =
In Dares , Troilus is the youngest of Priam 's royal sons , bellicose when peace or truces are suggested and the equal of Hector in bravery , " large and most beautiful ... brave and strong for his age , and eager for glory . " He slaughters many Greeks , wounds Achilles and Menelaus , routs the Myrmidons more than once before his horse falls and traps him and Achilles takes the opportunity to put an end to his life . Memnon rescues the body , something that didn 't happen in many later versions of the tale . Troilus ' death comes near the end of the war not at its beginning . He now outlives Hector and succeeds him as the Trojans ' great leader in battle . Now it is in reaction to Troilus 's death that Hecuba plots Achilles ' murder .
As the tradition of Troilus the warrior advances through time , the weaponry and the form of combat change . Already in Dares he is a mounted warrior , not a charioteer or foot warrior , something anachronistic to epic narrative . In later versions he is a knight with armour appropriate to the time of writing who fights against other knights and dukes . His expected conduct , including his romance , conforms to courtly or other values contemporary to the writing .
= = = = Description in medieval texts = = = =
The medieval texts follow Dares ' structuring of the narrative in describing Troilus after his parents and four royal brothers Hector , Paris , Deiphobus and Helenus .
Joseph of Exeter , in his Daretis Phrygii Ilias De bello Troiano ( The Iliad of Dares the Phrygian on the Trojan War ) , describes the character as follows :
Benoît de Sainte @-@ Maure 's description in Le Roman de Troie ( The Romance of Troy ) is too long to quote in full , but influenced the descriptions that follow . Benoît goes into details of character and facial appearance avoided by other writers . He tells that Troilus was " the fairest of the youths of Troy " with :
Guido delle Colonne 's Historia destructionis Troiae ( History of the Destruction of Troy ) says :
The Laud Troy Book :
The boy who in the ancient texts was never Achilles ' match has now become a young knight , a worthy opponent to the Greeks .
= = = = Knight and war leader = = = =
In the medieval and renaissance tradition , Troilus is one of those who argue most for war against the Greeks in Priam 's council . In several texts , for example the Laud Troy Book , he says that those who disagree with him are better suited to be priests . Guido , and writers who follow him , have Hector , knowing how headstrong his brother can be , counsel Troilus not to be reckless before the first battle .
In the medieval texts , Troilus is a doughty knight throughout the war , taking over , as in Dares , after Hector 's death as the main warrior on the Trojan side . Indeed he is named as a second Hector by Chaucer and Lydgate . These two poets follow Boccaccio in reporting that Troilus kills thousands of Greeks . However , the comparison with Hector can be seen as acknowledging Troilus ' inferiority to his brother through the very need to meention him .
In Joseph , Troilus is greater than Alexander , Hector , Tydeus , Bellona and even Mars , and kills seven Greeks with one blow of his club . He does not strike at opponents ' legs because that would demean his victory . He only fights knights and nobles , and disdains facing the common warriors .
Albert of Stade saw Troilus as so important that he is the title character of his version of the Trojan War . He is " the wall of his homeland , Troy 's protection , the rose of the military .... "
The list of Greek leaders Troilus wounds expands in the various re @-@ tellings of the war from the two in Dares to also include Agamemnon , Diomedes and Menelaus . Guido , in keeping his promise to tell of all Troilus ' valorous deeds , describes many incidents . Troilus is usually victorious but is captured in an early battle by Menestheus before his friends rescue him . This incident reappears in the imitators of Guido , such as Lefevre and the Laud and Lydgate Troy Books .
= = = = Death = = = =
Within the medieval Trojan tradition , Achilles withdraws from fighting in the war because he is to marry Polyxena . Eventually , so many of his followers are killed that he decides to rejoin the battle leading to Troilus ' death and , in turn , to Hecuba , Polyxena and Paris plotting Achilles ' murder .
Albert and Joseph follow Dares in having Achilles behead Troilus as he tries to rise after his horse falls . In Guido and authors he influenced , Achilles specifically seeks out Troilus to avenge a previous encounter where Troilus has wounded him . He therefore instructs the Myrmidons to find Troilus , surround him and cut him off from rescue .
In the Laud Troy Book , this is because Achilles almost killed Troilus in the previous fight but the Trojan was rescued . Achilles wants to make sure that this does not happen again . This second combat is fought as a straight duel between the two with Achilles , the greater warrior , winning .
In Guido , Lefevre and Lydgate Troilus ' killer 's behaviour is very different , shorn of any honour . Achilles waits until his men have killed Troilus ' horse and cut loose his armour . Only then
does Achilles attack and behead him .
In an echo of the Iliad , Achilles drags the corpse behind his horse . Thus , the comparison with the Homeric Hector is heightened and , at the same time , aspects of the classical Troilus 's fate are echoed .
= = = The lover = = =
The last aspect of the character of Troilus to develop in the tradition has become the one for which he is best known . Chaucer 's Troilus and Criseyde and Shakespeare 's Troilus and Cressida both focus on Troilus in his role as a lover . This theme is first introduced by Benoît de Sainte @-@ Maure in the Roman de Troie and developed by Guido delle Colonne . Boccaccio 's Il Filostrato is the first book to take the love @-@ story as its main theme . Robert Henryson and John Dryden are other authors who dedicate works to it .
The story of Troilus ' romance developed within the context of the male @-@ centred conventions of courtly love and thus the focus of sympathy was to be Troilus and not his beloved . As different authors recreated the romance , they would interpret it in ways affected both by the perspectives of their own times and their individual preoccupations . The story as it would later develop through the works of Boccaccio , Chaucer and Shakespeare is summarised below .
= = = = The story of Troilus and Cressida = = = =
Troilus used to mock the foolishness of other young men 's love affairs . But one day he sees Cressida in the temple of Athena and falls in love with her . She is a young widow and daughter of the priest Calchas who has defected to the Greek camp .
Embarrassed at having become exactly the sort of person he used to ridicule , Troilus tries to keep his love secret . However , he pines for Cressida and becomes so withdrawn that his friend Pandarus asks why he is unhappy and eventually persuades Troilus to reveal his love .
Pandarus offers to act as a go @-@ between , even though he is Cressida 's relative and should be guarding her honour . Pandarus convinces Cressida to admit that she returns Troilus ' love and , with Pandarus 's help , the two are able to consummate their feelings for each other .
Their happiness together is brought to an end when Calchas persuades Agamemnon to arrange Cressida 's return to him as part of a hostage exchange in which the captive Trojan Antenor is freed . The two lovers are distraught and even think of eloping together but they finally cooperate with the exchange . Despite Cressida 's initial intention to remain faithful to Troilus , the Greek warrior Diomedes wins her heart . When Troilus learns of this , he seeks revenge on Diomedes and the Greeks and dies in battle . Just as Cressida betrayed Troilus , Antenor was later to betray Troy .
= = = = Benoît and Guido = = = =
In the Roman de Troie , the daughter of Calchas whom Troilus loves is called Briseis . Their relationship is first mentioned once the hostage exchange has been agreed :
In Guido , Troilus ' and Diomedes ' love is now called Briseida . His version ( a history ) is more moralistic and less touching , removing the psychological complexity of Benoît 's ( a romance ) and the focus in his retelling of the love triangle is firmly shifted to the betrayal of Troilus by Briseida . Although Briseida and Diomedes are most negatively caricatured by Guido 's moralising , even Troilus is subject to criticism as a " fatuous youth " prone , as in the following , to youthful faults .
Briseis , at least for now , is equally affected by the possibility of separation from her lover . Troilus goes to her room and they spend the night together , trying to comfort each other . Troilus is part of the escort to hand her over the next day . Once she is with the Greeks , Diomedes is immediately struck by her beauty . Although she is not hostile , she cannot accept him as her lover . Meanwhile Calchas tells her to accept for herself that the gods have decreed Troy 's fall and that she is safer now she is with the Greeks .
A battle soon takes place and Diomedes unseats Troilus from his horse . The Greek sends it as a gift to Briseis / Briseida with an explanation that it had belonged to her old lover . In Benoît , Briseis complains at Diomedes ' seeking to woo her by humbling Troilus , but in Guido all that remains of her long speech in Benoît is that she " cannot hold him in hatred who loves me with such purity of heart . "
Diomedes soon does win her heart . In Benoît , it is through his display of love and she gives him her glove as a token . Troilus seeks him out in battle and utterly defeats him . He saves Diomedes ' life , only so that he can bring her a message of Troilus ' contempt . In Guido , Briseida 's change of heart comes after Troilus wounds Diomedes seriously . Briseida tends Diomedes and then decides to take him as her lover , because she does not know if she will ever meet Troilus again .
In later medieval tellings of the war , the episode of Troilus and Briseida / Cressida is acknowledged and often given as a reason for Diomedes and Troilus to seek each other out in battle . The love story also becomes one that is told separately .
= = = = Boccaccio = = = =
The first major work to take the story of Troilus ' failed love as its central theme is Giovanni Boccaccio 's Il Filostrato . The title means " the one struck down by love " . There is an overt purpose to the text . In the proem , Boccaccio himself is Filostrato and addresses his own love who has rejected him .
Boccaccio introduces a number of features of the story that were to be taken up by Chaucer . Most obvious is that Troilus ' love is now called Criseida or Cressida . An innovation in the narrative is the introduction of the go @-@ between Pandarus . Troilus is characterised as a young man who expresses whatever moods he has strongly , weeping when his love is unsuccessful , generous when it is .
Boccaccio fills in the history before the hostage exchange as follows . Troilus mocks the lovelorn glances of other men who put their trust in women before falling victim to love himself when he sees Cressida , here a young widow , in the Palladium , the temple of Athena . Troilus keeps his love secret and is made miserable by it . Pandarus , Troilus ' best friend and Cressida 's cousin in this version of the story , acts as go @-@ between after persuading Troilus to explain his distress . In accordance with the conventions of courtly love , Troilus ' love remains secret from all except Pandarus , until Cassandra eventually divines the reason for Troilus ' subsequent distress .
After the hostage exchange is agreed , Troilus suggests elopement , but Cressida argues that he should not abandon Troy and that she should protect her honour . Instead , she promises to meet him within ten days . Troilus spends much of the intervening time on the city walls , sighing in the direction where Cressida has gone . No horses or sleeves , as used by Guido or Benoît , are involved in Troilus ' learning of Cressida 's change of heart . Instead a dream hints at what has happened , and then the truth is confirmed when a brooch – previously a gift from Troilus to Cressida – is found on Diomedes ' looted clothing . In the mean time , Cressida has kept up the pretence in their correspondence that she still loves Troilus . After Cressida 's betrayal is confirmed , Troilus becomes ever fiercer in battle .
= = = = Chaucer and his successors = = = =
Geoffrey Chaucer 's Troilus and Criseyde reflects a more humorous world @-@ view than Boccaccio 's poem . Chaucer does not have his own wounded love to display and therefore allows himself an ironic detachment from events and Criseyde is more sympathetically portrayed . In contrast to Boccaccio 's final canto , which returns to the poet 's own situation , Chaucer 's palinode has Troilus looking down laughing from heaven , finally aware of the meaninglessness of earthly emotions . About a third of the lines of the Troilus are adapted from the much shorter Il Filostrato , leaving room for a more detailed and characterised narrative .
Chaucer 's Criseyde is swayed by Diomedes playing on her fear . Pandarus is now her uncle , more worldly @-@ wise and more active in what happens and so Troilus is more passive . This passivity is given comic treatment when Troilus passes out in Criseyde 's bedroom and is lifted into her bed by Pandarus . Troilus ' repeated emotional paralysis is comparable to that of Hamlet who may have been based on him . It can be seen as driven by loyalty both to Criseyde and to his homeland , but has also been interpreted less kindly .
Another difference in Troilus ' characterisation from the Filostrato is that he is no longer misogynistic in the beginning . Instead of mocking lovers because of their putting trust in women , he mocks them because of how love affects them . Troilus ' vision of love is stark : total commitment offers total fulfilment ; any form of failure means total rejection . He is unable to comprehend the subtleties and complexities that underlie Criseyde 's vacillations and Pandarus ' manoeuvrings .
In his storytelling Chaucer links the fates of Troy and Troilus , the mutual downturn in fortune following the exchange of Criseyde for the treacherous Antenor being the most significant parallel . Little has changed in the general sweep of the plot from Boccaccio . Things are just more detailed , with Pandarus , for example , involving Priam 's middle son Deiphobus during his attempts to unite Troilus and Cressida . Another scene that Chaucer adds was to be reworked by Shakespeare . In it , Pandarus seeks to persuade Cressida of Troilus ' virtues over those of Hector , before uncle and niece witness Troilus returning from battle to public acclaim with much damage to his helmet . Chaucer also includes details from the earlier narratives . So , reference is made not just to Boccaccio 's brooch , but to the glove , the captured horse and the battles of the two lovers in Benoît and Guido .
Because of the great success of the Troilus , the love story was popular as a free standing tale to be retold by English @-@ language writers throughout the 15th and 16th centuries and into the 17th century . The theme was treated either seriously or in burlesque . For many authors , true Troilus , false Cresseid and pandering Pandarus became ideal types eventually to be referred to together as such in Shakespeare .
During the same period , English retellings of the broader theme of the Trojan War tended to avoid Boccaccio 's and Chaucer 's additions to the story , though their authors , including Caxton , commonly acknowledged Chaucer as a respected predecessor . John Lydgate 's Troy Book is an exception . Pandarus is one of the elements from Chaucer 's poem that Lydgate incorporates , but Guido provides his overall narrative framework . As with other authors , Lydgate 's treatment contrasts Troilus ' steadfastness in all things with Cressida 's fickleness . The events of the war and the love story are interwoven . Troilus ' prowess in battle markedly increases once he becomes aware that Diomedes is beginning to win Cressida 's heart , but it is not long after Diomedes final victory in love when Achilles and his Myrmidon 's treacherously attack and kill Troilus and maltreat his corpse , concluding Lydgate 's treatment of the character as an epic hero , who is the purest of all those who appear in the Troy Book .
Of all the treatments of the story of Troilus and , especially , Cressida in the period between Chaucer and Shakespeare , it is Robert Henryson 's that receives the most attention from modern critics . His poem The Testament of Cresseid is described by the Middle English expert C. David Benson as the " only fifteenth century poem written in Great Britain that begins to rival the moral and artistic complexity of Chaucer 's Troilus " . In the Testament the title @-@ character is abandoned by Diomedes and then afflicted with leprosy so that she becomes unrecognizable to Troilus . He pities the lepers she is with and is generous to her because she reminds him of the idol of her in his mind , but he remains the virtuous pagan knight and does not achieve the redemption that she does . Even so , following Henryson Troilus was seen as a representation of generosity .
= = = = Shakespeare and Dryden = = = =
Another approach to Troilus ' love story in the centuries following Chaucer is to treat Troilus as a fool , something Shakespeare does in allusions to him in plays leading up to Troilus and Cressida . In Shakespeare 's " problem play " there are elements of Troilus the fool . However , this can be excused by his age . He is an almost beardless youth , unable to fully understand the workings of his own emotions , in the middle of an adolescent infatuation , more in love with love and his image of Cressida than the real woman herself . He displays a mixture of idealism about eternally faithful lovers and of realism , condemning Hector 's " vice of mercy " . His concept of love involves both a desire for immediate sexual gratification and a belief in eternal faithfulness . He also displays a mixture of constancy , ( in love and supporting the continuation of war ) and inconsistency ( changing his mind twice in the first scene on whether to go to battle or not ) . More a Hamlet than a Romeo , by the end of the play his illusions of love shattered and Hector dead , Troilus might show signs of maturing , recognising the nature of the world , rejecting Pandarus and focusing on revenge for his brother 's death rather than for a broken heart or a stolen horse . The novelist and academic Joyce Carol Oates , on the other hand , sees Troilus as beginning and ending the play in frenzies – of love and then hatred . For her , Troilus is unable to achieve the equilibrium of a tragic hero despite his learning experiences , because he remains a human @-@ being who belongs to a banal world where love is compared to food and cooking and sublimity cannot be achieved .
Troilus and Cressida 's sources include Chaucer , Lydgate , Caxton and Homer , but there are creations of Shakespeare 's own too and his tone is very different . Shakespeare wrote at a time when the traditions of courtly love were dead and when England was undergoing political and social change . Shakespeare 's treatment of the theme of Troilus ' love is much more cynical than Chaucer 's , and the character of Pandarus is now grotesque . Indeed , all the heroes of the Trojan War are degraded and mocked . Troilus ' actions are subject to the gaze and commentary of both the venal Pandarus and of the cynical Thersites who tells us :
The action is compressed and truncated , beginning in medias res with Pandarus already working for Troilus and praising his virtues to Cressida over those of the other knights they see returning from battle , but comically mistaking him for Deiphobus . The Trojan lovers are together only one night before the hostage exchange takes place . They exchange a glove and a sleeve as love tokens , but the next night Ulysses takes Troilus to Calchas ' tent , significantly near Menelaus ' tent . There they witness Diomedes successfully seducing Cressida after taking Troilus ' sleeve from her . The young Trojan struggles with what his eyes and ears tell him , wishing not to believe it . Having previously considered abandoning the senselessness of war in favour of his role of lover and having then sought to reconcile love and knightly conduct , he is now left with war as his only role .
Both the fights between Troilus and Diomedes from the traditional narrative of Benoît and Guido take place the next day in Shakespeare 's retelling . Diomedes captures Troilus ' horse in the first fight and sends it to Cressida . Then the Trojan triumphs in the second , though Diomedes escapes . But in a deviation from this narrative it is Hector , not Troilus , whom the Myrmidons surround in the climatic battle of the play and whose body is dragged behind Achilles ' horse . Troilus himself is left alive vowing revenge for Hector 's death and rejecting Pandarus . Troilus ' story ends , as it began , in medias res with him and the remaining characters in his love @-@ triangle remaining alive .
Some seventy years after Shakespeare 's Troilus was first presented , John Dryden re @-@ worked it as a tragedy , in his view strengthening Troilus ' character and indeed the whole play , by removing many of the unresolved threads in the plot and ambiguities in Shakespeare 's portrayal of the protagonist as a believable youth rather than a clear @-@ cut and thoroughly sympathetic hero . Dryden described this as " remov [ ing ] that heap of Rubbish , under which many excellent thoughts lay bury 'd . " His Troilus is less passive on stage about the hostage exchange , arguing with Hector over the handing over of Cressida , who remains faithful . Her scene with Diomedes that Troilus witnesses is her attempt " to deceive deceivers " . She throws herself at her warring lovers ' feet to protect Troilus and commits suicide to prove her loyalty . Unable to leave a still living Troilus on the stage , as Shakespeare did , Dryden restores his death at the hands of Achilles and the Myrmidons but only after Troilus has killed Diomedes . According to P. Boitani , Dryden goes to " the opposite extreme of Shakespeare 's ... solv [ ing ] all problems and therefore kill [ ing ] the tragedy " .
= = Modern versions = =
After Dryden 's Shakespeare , Troilus is almost invisible in literature until the 20th century . Keats does refer to Troilus and Cressida in the context of the " sovereign power of love " and Wordsworth translated some of Chaucer but , as a rule , love was portrayed in ways far different from how it is in the Troilus and Cressida story . Boitani sees the two World Wars and the 20th century 's engagement " in the recovery of all sorts of past myths " as contributing to a rekindling of interest in Troilus as a human being destroyed by events beyond his control . Similarly Foakes sees the aftermath of one World War and the threat of a second as key elements for the successful revival of Shakespeare 's Troilus in two productions in the first half of the 20th century , and one of the authors discussed below names Barbara Tuchman 's The March of Folly : From Troy to Vietnam as the trigger for his wish to retell the Trojan war .
Boitani discusses the modern use of the character of Troilus in a chapter entitled Eros and Thanatos . Love and death , the latter either as a tragedy in itself or as an epic symbol of Troy 's own destruction , therefore , are the two core elements of the Troilus myth for the editor of the first book @-@ length survey of it from ancient to modern times . He sees the character as incapable of transformation on a heroic scale in the manner of Ulysses and also blocked from the possibility of development as an archetypal figure of troubled youth by Hamlet . Troilus ' appeal for the 20th and 21st century is his very humanity .
Belief in the medieval tradition of the Trojan War that followed Dictys and Dares survived the Revival of Learning in the Renaissance and the advent of the first English translation of the Iliad in the form of Chapman 's Homer . ( Shakespeare used both Homer and Lefevre as sources for his Troilus . ) However the two supposedly eye @-@ witness accounts were finally discredited by Jacob Perizonius in the early years of the 18th century . With the chief source for his portrayal as one of the most active warriors of the Trojan War undermined , Troilus has become an optional character in modern Trojan fiction , except for those that retell the love story itself . Lindsay Clarke and Phillip Parotti , for example , omit Troilus altogether . Hilary Bailey includes a character of that name in Cassandra : Princess of Troy but little remains of the classical or medieval versions except that he fights Diomedes . However , some of the over sixty re @-@ tellings of the Trojan War since 1916 do feature the character .
= = = Once more a man @-@ boy = = =
One consequence of the reassessment of sources is the reappearance of Troilus in his ancient form of andropais . Troilus takes this form in Giraudoux 's The Trojan War Will Not Take Place , his first successful reappearance in the 20th century . Troilus is a fifteen @-@ year @-@ old boy whom Helen has noticed following her around . After turning down the opportunity to kiss her when she offers and when confronted by Paris , he eventually accepts the kiss at the end of the play just as Troy has committed to war . He is thus a symbol of the whole city 's fatal fascination with Helen .
Troilus , in one of his ancient manifestations as a boy @-@ soldier overwhelmed , reappears both in works Boitani discusses and those he does not . Christa Wolf in her Kassandra features a seventeen @-@ year @-@ old Troilus , first to die of all the sons of Priam . The novel 's treatment of the character 's death has features of both medieval and ancient versions . Troilus has just gained his first love , once more called Briseis . It is only after his death that she is to betray him . On the first day of the war , Achilles seeks Troilus out and forces him into battle with the help of the Myrmidons . Troilus tries to fight in the way he has been taught princes should do , but Achilles strikes the boy down and leaps on top of him , before attempting to throttle him . Troilus escapes and runs to the sanctuary of the temple of Apollo where he is helped to take his armour off . Then , in " some of the most powerful and hair @-@ raising " words ever written on Troilus ' death , Wolf describes how Achilles enters the temple , caresses then half @-@ throttles the terrified boy , who lies on the altar , before finally beheading him like a sacrificial victim . After his death , the Trojan council propose that Troilus be officially declared to have been twenty in the hope of avoiding the prophecy about him but Priam , in his grief , refuses as this would insult his dead son further . In " exploring the violent underside of sexuality and the sexual underside of violence " , Wolf revives a theme suggested by the ancient vases where an " erotic aura seems to pervade representations of a fully armed Achilles pursuing or butchering a naked , boyish Troilus " .
Colleen McCullough is another author who incorporates both the medieval Achilles ' seeking Troilus out in battle and the ancient butchery at the altar . Her The Song of Troy includes two characters , Troilos and Ilios , who are Priam 's youngest children – both with prophecies attached and both specifically named for the city 's founders . They are eight and seven respectively when Paris leaves for Greece and somewhere in their late teens when killed . Troilos is made Priam 's heir after Hector 's death , against the boy 's will . Odysseus 's spies learn of the prophecy that Troy will not fall if Troilos comes of age . Achilles therefore seeks him out in the next battle and kills him with a spear @-@ cast to his throat . In a reference to the medieval concept of Troilus as the second Hector , Automedon observes that " with a few more years added , he might have made another Hektor . " Ilios is the last son of Priam to die , killed at the altar in front of his parents by Neoptolemos .
Marion Zimmer Bradley 's The Firebrand features an even younger Troilus , just twelve when he becomes Hector 's charioteer . ( His brother wants to keep a protective eye on him now he is ready for war . ) Troilus helps kill Patroclus . Although he manages to escape the immediate aftermath of Hector 's death , he is wounded . After the Trojans witness Achilles ' treatment of Hector 's body , Troilus insists on rejoining the battle despite his wounds and Hecuba 's attempts to stop him . Achilles kills him with an arrow . The mourning Hecuba comments that he did not want to live because he blamed himself for Hector 's death .
= = = Reinventing the love story = = =
A feature already present in the treatments of the love story by Chaucer , Henryson , Shakespeare and Dryden is the repeated reinvention of its conclusion . Boitani sees this as a continuing struggle by authors to find a satisfying resolution to the love triangle . The major difficulty is the emotional dissatisfaction resulting from how the tale , as originally invented by Benoît , is embedded into the pre @-@ existing narrative of the Trojan War with its demands for the characters to meet their traditional fates . This narrative has Troilus , the sympathetic protagonist of the love story , killed by Achilles , a character totally disconnected from the love triangle , Diomedes survive to return to Greece victorious , and Cressida disappear from consideration as soon as it is known that she has fallen for the Greek . Modern authors continue to invent their own resolutions .
William Walton 's Troilus and Cressida is the best known and most successful of a clutch of 20th @-@ century operas on the subject after the composers of previous eras had ignored the possibility of setting the story . Christopher Hassall 's libretto blends elements of Chaucer and Shakespeare with inventions of its own arising from a wish to tighten and compress the plot , the desire to portray Cressida more sympathetically and the search for a satisfactory ending . Antenor is , as usual , exchanged for Cressida but , in this version of the tale , his capture has taken place while he was on a mission for Troilus . Cressida agrees to marry Diomedes after she has not heard from Troilus . His apparent silence , however , is because his letters to her have been intercepted . Troilus arrives at the Greek camp just before the planned wedding . When faced with her two lovers , Cressida chooses Troilus . He is then killed by Calchas with a knife in the back . Diomedes sends his body back to Priam with Calchas in chains . It is now the Greeks who condemn " false Cressida " and seek to keep her but she commits suicide .
Before Cressida kills herself she sings to Troilus to
This is one of three references in 20th century literature to Troilus on the banks of the River Styx that Boitani has identified . Louis MacNeice 's long poem The Stygian Banks explicitly takes its name from Shakespeare who has Troilus compare himself to " a strange soul upon the Stygian banks " and call upon Pandarus to transport him " to those fields where I may wallow in the lily beds " . In MacNeice 's poem the flowers have become children , a paradoxical use of the traditionally sterile Troilus who
The third reference to the Styx is in Christopher Morley 's The Trojan Horse . A return to the romantic comedy of Chaucer is the solution that Boitani sees to the problem of how the love story can survive Shakespeare 's handling of it . Morley gives us such a treatment in a book that revels in its anachronism . Young Lieutenant ( soon to be Captain ) Troilus lives his life in 1185 BC where he has carefully timetabled everything from praying , to fighting , to examining his own mistakes . He falls for Cressida after seeing her , as ever , in the Temple of Athena where she wears black , as if mourning the defection of her father , the economist Dr Calchas . The flow of the plot follows the traditional story , but the ending is changed once again . Troilus ' discovery of Cressida 's change of heart happens just before Troy falls . ( Morley uses Boccaccio 's version of the story of a brooch , or in this case a pin , attached to a piece of Diomedes ' armour as the evidence that convinces the Trojan . ) Troilus kills Diomedes as he exits the Trojan Horse , stabbing him in the throat where the captured piece of armour should have been . Then Achilles kills Troilus . The book ends with an epilogue . The Trojan and Greek officers exercise together by the River Styx , all enmities forgotten . A new arrival ( Cressida ) sees Troilus and Diomedes and wonders why they seem familiar to her . What Boitani calls " a rather dull , if pleasant , ataraxic eternity " replaces Chaucer 's Christian version of the afterlife .
In Eric Shanower 's graphic novel Age of Bronze , currently still being serialised , Troilus is youthful but not the youngest son of Priam and Hecuba . In the first two collected volumes of this version of the Trojan War , Shanower provides a total of six pages of sources covering the story elements of his work alone . These include most of the fictional works discussed above from Guido and Boccaccio down to Morley and Walton . Shanower begins Troilus ' love story with the youth making fun of Polyxena 's love for Hector and in the process accidentally knocking aside Cressida 's veil . He follows the latter into the temple of Athena to gawp at her . Pandarus is the widow Cressida 's uncle encouraging him . Cressida rejects Troilus ' initial advances not because of wanting to act in a seemly manner , as in Chaucer or Shakespeare , but because she thinks of him as just a boy . However , her uncle persuades her to encourage his affection , in the hope that being close to a son of Priam will protect against the hostility of the Trojans to the family of the traitor Calchas . Troilus ' unrequited love is used as comic relief in an otherwise serious retelling of the Trojan War cycle . The character is portrayed as often indecisive and ineffectual as on the second page of this episode sample at the official site [ 50 ] . It remains to be seen how Shanower will further develop the story .
Troilus is rewarded a rare happy ending in the early Doctor Who story The Myth Makers . The script was written by Donald Cotton who had previously adapted Greek tales for the BBC Third Programme . The general tone is one of high comedy combined with a " genuine atmosphere of doom , danger and chaos " with the BBC website listing A Funny Thing Happened on the Way to the Forum as an inspiration together with Chaucer , Shakespeare , Homer and Virgil . Troilus is again an andropais " seventeen next birthday " described as " looking too young for the military garb " . Both " Cressida " and " Diomede " are the assumed names of the Doctor 's companions . Thus Troilus ' jealousy of Diomede , whom he believes also loves Cressida , is down to confusion about the real situation . In the end " Cressida " decides to leave the Doctor for Troilus and saves the latter from the fall of Troy by finding an excuse to get him away from the city . In a reversal of the usual story , he is able to avenge Hector by killing Achilles when they meet outside Troy . ( The story was originally intended to end more conventionally , with " Cressida " , despite her love for him , apparently abandoning him for " Diomede " , but the producers declined to renew co @-@ star Maureen O 'Brien 's contract , requiring that her character Vicki be written out . )
= = Annotated bibliography = =
Andrew , M. ( 1989 ) " The Fall of Troy in Sir Gawain and the Green Knight and Troilus and Criseyde " , in : Boitani ( 1989 : pp. 75 – 93 ) . Focuses on a comparison between how the Gawain poet and Chaucer handle their themes .
Antonelli , R. ( 1989 ) " The Birth of Criseyde : an exemplary triangle ; ' Classical ' Troilus and the question of love at the Anglo @-@ Norman court " , in : Boitani ( 1989 : pp. 21 – 48 ) . Examination of Benoît 's and Guido 's treatment of the love triangle .
Benson , C. D. ( 1980 ) The History of Troy in Middle English Literature , Woodbridge : D. S. Brewer . A study examining Guido 's influence on writers on Troy up to Lydgate and Henryson . Troilus is discussed throughout .
Benson , C. D. ( 1989 ) " True Troilus and False Cresseid : the descent from tragedy " in Boitani ( 1989 : pp. 153 – 170 ) . Examination of the Troilus and Cressida story in the minor authors between Chaucer and Shakespeare .
Boitani , P. ( ed . ) ( 1989 ) The European Tragedy of Troilus , Oxford , Clarendon Press ISBN 0 @-@ 19 @-@ 812970 @-@ X. This was the first full book to examine the development of Troilus through the ages . The outer chapters are by Boitani reviewing the history of Troilus as a character from ancient to modern times . The middle chapters , looking at the tale through the medieval and renaissance periods , are by other authors with several examining Chaucer and Shakespeare .
Burgess , J. S. ( 2001 ) The Tradition of the Trojan War in Homer and the Epic Cycle , Baltimore , Johns Hopkins University Press ISBN 0 @-@ 8018 @-@ 7890 @-@ X. Examination of the Trojan War in archaic literary and artifact sources . Troilus mentioned in passing .
Carpenter , T. H. ( 1991 ) Art and Myth in Ancient Greece , London , Thames and Hudson . Contains roughly four pages ( 17 – 21 ) of text and , separately , fourteen illustrations ( figs . 20 – 22 , 25 – 35 ) on Troilos in ancient art . ISBN 0 @-@ 500 @-@ 20236 @-@ 2 .
Coghill , N. ( ed . ) ( 1971 : pp. xi – xxvi ) " Introduction " in : Geoffrey Chaucer , Troilus and Criseyde , London : Penguin ISBN 0 @-@ 14 @-@ 044239 @-@ 1 . Discusses Chaucer , his sources and key themes in the Troilus . The main body of the book is a translation into modern English by Coghill .
Foakes , R. A. ( ed . ) ( 1987 ) Troilus and Cressida ( The New Penguin Shakespeare . ) London : Penguin ISBN 0 @-@ 14 @-@ 070741 @-@ 7 . Annotated edition with introduction .
Frazer , R. M. ( trans . ) ( 1966 ) The Trojan War : the Chronicles of Dictys of Crete and Dares the Phrygian . Bloomington : Indiana University Press . English translation of Dictys ' Ephemeridos belli Trojani ( pp. 17 – 130 ) and Dares ' De excidio Trojae historia ( pp. 131 – 68 ) with Introduction ( pp. 3 – 15 ) covering the theme of Troy in medieval literature and endnotes .
Gantz , T. ( 1993 ) Early Greek Myth . Baltimore : Johns Hopklins U. P. A standard sourcebook on Greek myths . Multiple versions available . There are approximately six pages ( 597 – 603 ) plus notes discussing Troilos in Volume 2 of the two volume edition . Page references are to the two volume 1996 Johns Hopkins Paperbacks edition ( ISBN 0 @-@ 8018 @-@ 5362 @-@ 1 ) .
Gordon , R. K. ( 1934 ) The Story of Troilus . London : J. M. Dent . ( Dutton Paperback ed . New York : E. P. Dutton , 1964 . ) This book has been reprinted by various publishers . It contains a translated selection from Le Roman de Troie , a full translation of Il filostrato and the unmodernised texts of Troilus and Criseyde and The Testament of Cresseid . Page references are to the 1995 printing by University of Toronto Press and the Medieval Academy of America ( ISBN 0 @-@ 8020 @-@ 6368 @-@ 3 ) .
Graves , R. ( 1955 ) The Greek Myths . Another standard sourcebook available in many editions . Troilus is discussed in Volume 2 of the two volume version . Page references are to the 1990 Penguin printing of the 1960 revision ( ISBN 0 @-@ 14 @-@ 001027 @-@ 0 ) .
Lewis , C. S. ( 1936 ) The Allegory of Love . Oxford : Clarendon Press . Influential work on the literature of courtly love , including Chaucer 's Troilus .
Lombardo , A. ( 1989 ) " Fragments and Scraps : Shakespeare 's Troilus and Cressida " in Boitani ( 1989 : pp. 199 – 217 ) . Sets the cynical tone of Troilus in the context of changes both in the world and the theatre .
Lyder , T. D. ( 2010 ) " Chaucer 's second Hector : the triumphs of Diomede and the possibility of epic in Troilus and Criseyde . ( Critical essay ) " , Medium Aevum , March 22 , 2010 , Accessed through Highbeam , August 30 , 2012 ( subscription required ) .
March , J. ( 1998 ) Dictionary of Classical Mythology . London : Cassell . ISBN 0 @-@ 304 @-@ 34626 @-@ 8 Illustrated dictionary with Troilus covered in one page . Page references are to 1998 hardback edition .
Natali , G. ( 1989 ) " A Lyrical Version : Boccaccio 's Filostrato " , in : Boitani ( 1989 : pp. 49 – 73 ) . An examination of the Filostrato in context .
Novak , M. E ( ed . ) ( 1984 ) The Works of John Dryden : Volume XIII Plays : All for Love ; Oedipus ; Troilus and Cressida . Berkeley : University of California Press ISBN 0 @-@ 520 @-@ 05124 @-@ 6 . Volume in complete edition with annotated texts and commentaries .
Oates , J. O. ( 1966 / 7 ) " The Tragedy of Existence : Shakespeare 's Troilus and Cressida " by Joyce Carol Oates . Originally published as two separate essays , in Philological Quarterly , Spring 1967 , and Shakespeare Quarterly , Spring 1966 . Available online at [ 51 ] ( Checked 17 August 2007 ) .
Palmer , K. ( ed . ) ( 1982 ) Troilus and Cressida . ( The Arden Shakespeare . ) London : Methuen . Edition of the play as part of respected series , with extensive notes , appendices and 93 page introduction . References are to 1997 printing by Thomas Nelson & Sons , London ( ISBN 0 @-@ 17 @-@ 443479 @-@ 0 ) .
Rufini , S. ( 1989 ) " ' To Make that Maxim Good ' : Dryden 's Shakespeare " , in : Boitani ( 1989 : pp. 243 – 80 ) . Discussion of Dryden 's remodeling of Troilus .
Sommer , H. O. ( ed . ) ( 1894 ) The Recuyell of the Historyes of Troye : written in French by Raoul Lefèvre ; translated and printed by William Caxton ( about A.D. 1474 ) ; the first English printed book , now faithfully reproduced , with a critical introduction , index and glossary and eight pages in photographic facsimile . London : David Nutt . Edition of Caxton translation of Lefevre with introduction of 157 pages . Page references are to AMS Press 1973 reprinting ( ISBN 0 @-@ 404 @-@ 56624 @-@ 3 ) .
Sommerstein , A. H. , Fitzpatrick , D. & Talby , T. ( 2007 ) Sophocles : Selected Fragmentary Plays . Oxford : Aris and Phillips ( ISBN 0 @-@ 85668 @-@ 766 @-@ 9 ) . This is a product of the University of Nottingham 's project on Sophocles ' fragmentary plays . The book contains a 52 @-@ page chapter ( pp. 196 – 247 ) on the Troilos , including the Greek text with translation and commentary of the few words and phrases known to come from the play . The introduction to this chapter includes approximately seven pages on the literary and artistic background on Troilus plus discussion and a putative reconstruction of the plot of the play itself . This , the chapter on the Polyxene , where Troilus is also discussed , and the general introduction to the book are all solely by Sommerstein and therefore he alone is referenced above .
Torti , A. ( 1989 ) " From ' History ' to ' Tragedy ' : The Story of Troilus and Criseyde in Lydgate 's Troy Book and Henryson 's Testament of Cresseid " , in : Boitani ( 1989 : pp. 171 – 97 ) . Examination of the two most important authors considering the love story between Chaucer and Shakespeare .
Windeatt , B. ( 1989 ) " Classical and Medieval Elements in Chaucer 's Troilus " , in : Boitani ( 1989 : p . 111 – 131 )
Woodford , S. ( 1993 ) The Trojan War in Ancient Art . Ithaca : Cornell University Press ISBN 0 @-@ 7156 @-@ 2468 @-@ 7 . Contains approximately four illustrated pages ( 55 – 59 ) on Troilos in ancient art .
|
= M @-@ 199 ( Michigan highway ) =
M @-@ 199 is a state trunkline highway near Albion in the US state of Michigan . The western terminus of the 4 @.@ 030 @-@ mile @-@ long ( 6 @.@ 486 km ) road is in Sheridan Township at exit 119 off Interstate 94 ( I @-@ 94 ) . The eastern terminus is a junction with Business Loop I @-@ 94 ( BL I @-@ 94 ) downtown Albion . The entire road is within Calhoun County and runs through rural farm fields outside of Albion ; in town it is a residential street . The M @-@ 199 designation had previously been applied to a highway in the Upper Peninsula in the 1930s . The current highway was previously part of other highways in the first half of the 20th century before it was transferred to local control around 1960 . It was later transferred back to state control in 1998 and remains unchanged since .
= = Route description = =
As a two @-@ lane roadway , M @-@ 199 starts at exit 119 along I @-@ 94 northwest of Albion in Sheridan Township . The highway runs southward through farm fields along 26 Mile Road before curving to the southwest on Star Commonwealth Road near the campus of the Montcalm School for Boys and Girls , a private boarding school . At the end of this curves , the highway follows 25 ½ Mile Road southward to the intersection with Michigan Avenue . There M @-@ 199 turns easterly along Michigan Avenue and passes south of Montcalm Lake . The trunkline runs parallel to a line of the Norfolk Southern Railway until about the intersection with 26 ½ Mile Road . At the intersection with 27 Mile Road , M @-@ 199 enters the city of Albion , and the street name changes to Austin Avenue . In town , the highway follows a four @-@ lane street through residential neighborhoods . The trunkline passes the northern edge of McAuliffe Park and runs parallel to the Kalamazoo River . At the intersection with Eaton Street , the highway meets BL I @-@ 94 , where M @-@ 199 ends while the business loop continues southeasterly on Austin Avenue at this corner .
M @-@ 199 is maintained by the Michigan Department of Transportation ( MDOT ) like other state highways in Michigan . As a part of these maintenance responsibilities , the department tracks the volume of traffic that uses the roadways under its jurisdiction . These volumes are expressed using a metric called annual average daily traffic , which is a statistical calculation of the average daily number of vehicles on a segment of roadway . MDOT 's surveys in 2010 showed that 1 @,@ 185 vehicles per day used the roadway between I @-@ 94 and Michigan Avenue and between 3 @,@ 174 and 4 @,@ 042 vehicles used section along the combined Michigan and Austin avenues . No sections of M @-@ 199 have been listed on the National Highway System , a network of roads important to the country 's economy , defense , and mobility .
= = History = =
In the middle of 1933 , an earlier designation of M @-@ 199 was used for a short spur route from US Highway 41 ( US 41 ) into Daggett in Menominee County . This highway was decommissioned in 1939 .
The current M @-@ 199 was once part of M @-@ 17 starting around July 1 , 1919 . When the US Highway System was created on November 11 , 1926 , the highway was incorporated into US 12 . The Albion area was bypassed by a freeway ( now I @-@ 94 ) at the end of the 1950s , and Michigan Avenue was turned over to local control . The current highway routing was transferred to state control on October 1 , 1998 , and the M @-@ 199 designation was subsequently assigned to the trunkline . The highway has remained unchanged since designation .
= = Major intersections = =
The entire highway is in Calhoun County .
|
= Rutland Barrington =
Rutland Barrington ( 15 January 1853 – 31 May 1922 ) was an English singer , actor , comedian , and Edwardian musical comedy star . Best remembered for originating the lyric baritone roles in the Gilbert and Sullivan operas from 1877 to 1896 , his performing career spanned more than four decades . He also wrote at least a dozen works for the stage .
After two years with a comic touring company , Barrington joined Richard D 'Oyly Carte 's opera company and , over the next two decades , created a number of memorable comic opera roles , including Captain Corcoran in H.M.S. Pinafore ( 1878 ) , the Sergeant of Police in The Pirates of Penzance ( 1880 ) , and Pooh Bah in The Mikado ( 1885 ) , among many others . Failing in an 1888 attempt to become a theatrical manager , Barrington refocused his energies on acting and occasional playwriting .
Beginning in 1896 and continuing for ten years , Barrington played in a series of very successful musical comedies under the management of George Edwardes at Daly 's Theatre , specialising in comic portrayals of pompous rulers or other persons of authority . One of the most popular features of his performances was his insertion of topical songs , or verses of songs , into these musical comedies . After leaving Daly 's he continued to appear in musical comedy roles and performed in music hall . He also essayed a few Shakespeare and other dramatic roles and appeared in a few silent films . His career ended in 1918 , after which he suffered a stroke and lived the last few years of his life in poverty .
= = Life and career = =
Barrington was born George Rutland Fleet at Penge , England , the fourth son of John George Fleet ( 1818 – 1902 ) , a wholesale sugar dealer in London . His mother was the former Esther Faithfull ( 1823 – 1908 ) of Headley , Surrey , England . He was educated at Headley rectory and then at the Merchant Taylors ' School in London . His six brothers included Indologist John Faithfull Fleet ( 1847 – 1917 ) , Vice @-@ Admiral Henry Louis Fleet ( 1850 – 1923 ) , The Reverend Ferdinand Francis Fleet ( 1857 – 1940 ) and actor Duncan James Fleet ( 1860 – 1909 ) . He also had two sisters , one named Esther ( one boy and one girl died in infancy ) . Barrington was employed in a bank for eighteen months as a young man , but had no enthusiasm for such work , as he had ambitions to be an actor . Barrington 's father did not want his son to go on the stage and forbade him to do so until he came of age . His aunt , activist and dramatic reader Emily Faithfull , helped him to make his first connections in the theatre . Barrington was a keen football player in the mid @-@ 1870s .
In 1880 , Barrington married Ellen Louisa " Louie " Jane Stainer ( 1851 – 1922 ) , from Woolwich in Kent , the daughter of William Stainer and the former Lucy Mary Wheeler . Barrington and his wife had no children .
= = = Early career ; joining D 'Oyly Carte 's company = = =
Barrington adopted his stage name by 1874 and made his professional debut with Henry Neville 's company at the Olympic Theatre that year , playing the role of Sir George Barclay in Tom Taylor 's Lady Clancarty , and then in The Ticket @-@ of @-@ Leave Man ( by Taylor ) and as LaFleur in The Two Orphans , among others . In July 1875 , Barrington was playing Jules Frantz in Lessons in Harmony at St. George 's Hall , London . A review in The Era reviewed the young actor 's performance : " A good figure and expressive face were known to be among his advantages , but it was , perhaps , not suspected that he was a capital vocalist , a skilled musician , and an actor of remarkable ease and animation . " Later that year , he was hired to appear in the touring company of Mr and Mrs Howard Paul . The company played a hectic schedule of entertainments .
In 1877 , producer Richard D 'Oyly Carte approached Mrs Paul to play the part of Lady Sangazure in the new Gilbert and Sullivan opera that Carte was producing , The Sorcerer . She conditioned her acceptance on her 24 @-@ year @-@ old protege , Barrington , being given a part , and so Barrington was cast in the role of Dr Daly , the vicar . When Barrington auditioned before W. S. Gilbert , the young actor questioned his own suitability for comic opera , but Gilbert , who required that his actors play their sometimes @-@ absurd lines in all earnestness , explained the casting choice : " He 's a staid , solid swine , and that 's what I want . "
In his 1908 autobiography , Barrington repeats a line from a first night review of his performance as Dr Daly in The Sorcerer : " Mr Barrington is wonderful . He always manages to sing one @-@ sixteenth of a tone flat ; it 's so like a vicar . " Barrington went on to say that producer Richard D 'Oyly Carte later came to see him , saying , " ... what 's the matter ? ... some one has just come out of the stalls to tell me you are singing in tune . It will never do . " Barrington said that " This pleased me so much that I have never sung flat since , except , of course , when I wished .... " Several contemporaries did find Barrington 's singing occasionally flat , including Francois Cellier . Many years later , in her memoir , Ellaline Terriss wrote : " ... dear old Rutland scarcely ever did sing in tune – but how grand he was .... He had a beautifully clear diction and a marvellous sense of timing – and was one of the finest singers of the then popular topical songs that our stage ever knew . " Percy Hetherington Fitzgerald wrote of Barrington in his 1899 book , The Savoy Opera , " His peculiar tranquil or impassive style has always exactly suited the characters allotted to him , and it would now be difficult to imagine a Savoy opera without him . However , Barrington 's performance as Dr Daly impressed the critics and audiences , and he won a permanent place in D 'Oyly Carte 's company .
= = = Pinafore to Ruddigore = = =
From 1877 to 1894 , except for a foray into the business of theatrical management in 1888 – 89 , Barrington remained with the D 'Oyly Carte Opera Company , creating comic lyric baritone roles in all of Gilbert and Sullivan 's new operas with the exception of The Yeomen of the Guard ( 1888 ) . In 1878 , he created the role of Lord Chamberlain in Albery 's and Cellier 's curtain raiser , The Spectre Knight , played the Counsel for the Plaintiff in the revival of Trial by Jury , and created the role of Captain Corcoran in Gilbert and Sullivan 's first smash hit , H.M.S. Pinafore . Barrington was a big man , which led to one of Gilbert 's famous quips in a rehearsal for Pinafore . Gilbert asked Barrington to sit " pensively " on one of the ship 's skylights . Barrington lowered himself into position , and the hastily sewn set piece collapsed under his weight . Gilbert remarked , " No , that 's ex @-@ pensively . "
Barrington also created the role of Pennyfather in Desprez and Cellier 's curtain raiser , After All ! ( 1878 ) . Barrington played Mr. Cox in Carte 's revival of Cox and Box ( 1879 ) and created the role of the Sergeant of Police in The Pirates of Penzance in London ( 1880 ) . Barrington was proud that the Sergeant 's song generally received two encores . Eventually , he asked Gilbert to write an " encore verse " for the song . Gilbert replied that " encore " means " sing it again . " Also around this time , Barrington 's short play entitled Quid Pro Quo , written with Cunningham Bridgeman and composed by Wilfred Bendall , was first produced .
The next role that Barrington created was Archibald Grosvenor in Patience ( 1881 ) . Casting the large Barrington as the " perfect " and " infallible " incarnation of manly beauty mirrored a joke in Gilbert 's earlier A Sensation Novel , in which he cast the large , ungainly Corney Grain , in a similar role . This was followed by the role of Earl Mountararat in Iolanthe ( 1882 ; he also appeared in Margate , Kent in an 1882 Christmas pantomime of Robin Hood written by George Thorne ) , and King Hildebrand in Princess Ida ( 1884 ) . This role was Barrington 's least favourite of the series , and he attributed Ida 's relatively short run , at least in part , to the lack of prominence of this role in the opera . During the run of Princess Ida , a comedy written by Barrington and called Bartonmere Towers was first presented at a matinee .
After Princess Ida closed , Barrington reprised his role of Dr Daly and also played the Learned Judge in the revival of The Sorcerer and Trial ( 1884 — over the years , Barrington frequently played the Judge in D 'Oyly Carte 's and various " benefit " performances of Trial ) . He also played Dr Dozey in Sydney Grundy 's The Silver Shield ( 1885 ) . In 1885 , he created his most famous role , that of Pooh @-@ Bah in The Mikado . The Theatre 's review was typical of the critics ' unanimous praise : " The Pooh @-@ Bah of Mr. Barrington is a masterpiece of pompous stolidity – nothing could possibly be better of its kind – and this popular comedian provided his many admirers with an agreeable surprise by singing every note of the music allotted to him in perfect tune . " In June 1885 , he played together with Eric Lewis ( Grossmith 's understudy ) in an afternoon " musical dialogue , " Mad to Act , with words by Barrington and music by Wilfred Bendall , at the Japanese Village in Knightsbridge .
Next , Barrington created the role of Sir Despard Murgatroyd in Ruddigore and then reprised his original roles in revivals of Pinafore , Pirates and The Mikado in ( 1887 – 88 ) . During rehearsals for Ruddigore , and after discussions with other cast members on the subject , Barrington complained to Gilbert about the guests that Gilbert frequently invited to rehearsals , saying that he didn 't wish to be taught the stage business " before a row of ... strangers . " Gilbert forgave Barrington for the outburst and even discontinued the invitations . However , if anyone sat in the stalls during later rehearsals awaiting their cue , Gilbert would expostulate , " You mustn 't sit here ; Barrington won 't like it . "
The Times said of Barrington 's performances , " His strength lay in his quietness of voice and movement ... in perfect contrast to the restlessness of George Grossmith . No one could be so ridiculously pompous ... he moved with effect . There was a native drollery in his lightly rolling dance , a comic dignity in his rotund and placid , yet twinklingly intelligent face . He always gave the impression of thoroughly enjoying whatever he did .... " In its review of Ruddigore , The Theatre wrote , " Better comic acting than his , or more highly finished , I have never seen and never wish to see . "
= = = Theatrical management experiment and later Savoy roles = = =
In 1888 , Barrington left the D 'Oyly Carte organisation and the Savoy Theatre , missing the chance to create the role of Wilfred in Yeomen , to try his hand at theatrical management , leasing the St. James 's Theatre . The Illustrated Sporting and Dramatic News lamented Barrington 's departure , suggesting that he was irreplaceable in the Savoy Operas : " He is the typical embodiment ... of that British Philistinism , the pachydermatous hide of which Mr. Gilbert has so long striven to penetrate by the process of holding up its own image before it . " In March 1888 , Barrington played Chrysos in a benefit performance of Gilbert 's Pygmalion and Galatea , a role that he would reprise at a number of " benefit " performances over the years . Later in the year , at the St. James 's , Barrington produced The Dean 's Daughter by Grundy and F. C. Phillips , also playing the Very Reverend Augustus St. Aubyn , Dean of Southwark . Though the piece was unsuccessful , Barrington 's performance was praised , and it launched several theatrical careers , including Olga Nethersole 's . Gilbert 's Brantinghame Hall ( an abject failure ) , starred Barrington as Mr. Thursby , as well as his younger brother , Duncan Fleet , Julia Neilson and Lewis Waller ( the latter two in their professional stage debuts ) . Its companion piece was A Patron Saint . This experiment in management proved to be a financial disaster for Barrington , and he was bankrupt after only five months .
After Brantinghame Hall closed , he again played Chrysos in a revival of Pygmalion and Galatea at the Lyceum Theatre and played Mr Barnes in his own play , To the Death , at the Olympic Theatre . He then appeared at the Comedy Theatre under Charles Hawtrey in Pickwick ( 1889 ) , a successful one @-@ act musical play by F. C. Burnand and Edward Solomon based on an episode in The Pickwick Papers , which Barrington ended up directing and in which he alternated in the roles of Pickwick and Baker . He then created the role of Lt. Col. Cadbury in a Grundy farce called Merry Margate and next played Tosser in a comic opera by Solomon and George P. Hawtrey called Penelope , in which he co @-@ starred with Dan Leno . He also played a number of other roles in other theatres throughout 1889 until he rejoined D 'Oyly Carte to create the role of Giuseppe in The Gondoliers in December 1889 , remaining for the long run of that last Gilbert and Sullivan hit .
After The Gondoliers closed in 1891 , Gilbert and Sullivan were estranged for a time . Barrington appeared in a few more roles at other theatres , including as Robert Plushly in his own piece , A Swarry Dansong , a duologue with music by Solomon . He then returned to the Savoy to star as Punka , the Rajah of Chutneypore , in Dance , Desprez , and Solomon 's The Nautch Girl . In August 1891 , Barrington and Jessie Bond took a leave of absence from that show to tour a series of " musical duologues " ( written by Barrington and composed by Edward Solomon ) throughout Britain , returning to the Savoy in November . In 1892 , Barrington played the title role of the Reverend William Barlow , in Grundy and Solomon 's The Vicar of Bray and then toured with that show . In September 1892 , he created the role of Rupert Vernon in Grundy and Sullivan 's Haddon Hall , making a critical splash . For example , The Figaro wrote : " Barrington ... kept the audience in shouts of laughter the whole time [ he was ] on the stage . " In 1893 , he created the role of the Proctor in J. M. Barrie , Arthur Conan Doyle , and Ernest Ford 's Jane Annie , which was unsuccessful at the Savoy but ran more successfully on tour . Barrington , a lifelong golf enthusiast , speculated that one reason for the failure of Jane Annie in London was that the game of golf was not yet popular there . Despite the failure of the piece , Barrington was singled out for critical praise . Barrington next created the role of King Paramount I in Gilbert and Sullivan 's Utopia , Limited , opening in October of that year . Barrington 's comedy , Bartonmere Towers , was also produced at a matinee at the Savoy in 1893 , with Barrington playing Sir James Hanbury .
Barrington left the company again when Utopia closed , taking over the role of Dr Montague Brierly in the Hall , Greenbank and Jones musical , A Gaiety Girl ( in 1894 ) produced at Daly 's Theatre by George Edwardes and on tour . Next , he appeared in Gilbert and Carr 's His Excellency ( 1894 – 95 ) creating the role of the Regent . The stage was dominated by a heroic @-@ size statue of him in the role . Barrington also wrote and directed a one @-@ act operetta , A Knight Errant , with music by Alfred Caldicott , which played as a companion piece with His Excellency at the Lyric Theatre . At Toole 's Theatre , he played John Rimple in Thoroughbred , by Ralph R. Lumley , in early 1895 . J. L. Toole had originated the role but took ill and was forced to retire . Barrington also played in some German Reed Entertainments , including a revival of Happy Arcadia at St. George 's Hall in 1895 , starring Fanny Holland , and toured with the German Reeds .
In November 1895 , Barrington returned to the Savoy as Pooh @-@ Bah in another revival of The Mikado . In March 1896 he created the role of Ludwig in Gilbert and Sullivan 's last opera , The Grand Duke . In his 1908 memoir , Barrington wrote of some difficulty in getting along with his co @-@ star , Ilka Pálmay , who was cast in the role of Julia . As usual , the critics were pleased with Barrington , " on whom ... falls the chief burden of the piece , is intensely funny as Ludwig , more especially in the absurd costume of the second act .... " After another revival of The Mikado , Barrington again left the Savoy .
= = = Musical comedy and music hall = = =
Beginning in 1896 , Barrington spent ten very successful years under the management of George Edwardes at Daly 's Theatre , first taking over the role of the Marquis Imari in The Geisha ( 1896 ) , and then creating roles in a number of other Edwardian musical comedy hits , including Marcus Pomponius in A Greek Slave ( 1898 ) , Yen How in San Toy ( 1899 ) , The Rajah of Bhong in A Country Girl ( 1902 ) , and Boobhamba in The Cingalee ( 1904 ) , among others .
In these roles , he had more freedom to add " gags " than Gilbert had given him at the Savoy , and he often wrote topical verses to Adrian Ross 's songs . However , Barrington complained that , in these musical comedies , the plot was nearly eliminated during rehearsals . During this time , Barrington often reprised his role as the Judge at benefit matinees . Also during this period , several of Barrington 's stage works were produced by Arthur Bourchier at the Garrick Theatre , including Barrington 's popular children 's " fairy play " called Water Babies , based on Charles Kingsley 's 1863 book , with music by Frederick Rosse , Albert Fox and Alfred Cellier ( 1902 ) . Barrington directed Water Babies . Another Barrington play , Little Black Sambo and Little White Barbara , with music by Wilfred Bendall , enjoyed 31 matinees at the Garrick in 1904 .
Barrington appeared between 1905 and 1907 in several musical comedies , including The White Chrysanthemum ( 1905 ) , as Admiral Sir Horatio Armitage , K.C.B. ( with Isabel Jay , Louie Pounds and Henry Lytton ) . He also played Barnabas Goodeve in a revival of the farce The Candidate by Justin Huntly McCarthy at Wyndham 's Theatre with Charles Wyndham . He then briefly played his old role in a revival of The Geisha in 1906 , after which he created the role of the Pharaoh of Egypt in the successful comic opera Amasis ( 1906 ) , by Philip Michael Faraday and Frederick Fenn , both in London ( where it ran for over 200 performances ) and on extended tours .
During this period , Barrington performed his own solo music hall sketches at the Coliseum and produced various tours , performing standard topical songs of the day , including the only song that he recorded , " The Moody Mariner " ( 1905 ) . This was based on a story in Many Cargoes by Jacobs , with lyrics by Barrington and music by Walter Slaughter . Other such sketches and songs included " Man the Lifeboat " ( 1907 ) , written by Leedham Bantock ( starring also William Terriss ) " Across the Silent Way " and " The Tramp " by Barrington and Slaughter , and Mummydom ( 1907 ) , which he had written in 1903 with Wilfrid Bendall ( Sullivan 's former secretary ) based on his play of the same name that had been produced some years earlier at Penley 's Theatre . He also wrote a Rip van Winkle sketch for Courtice Pounds and a one @-@ act musical drama , No. 442 , His Escape ( 1907 ) , with music by H. M. Higgs . Barrington became known for writing topical verses on short notice . In his 1908 memoir , he tells the following story :
Barrington returned to the D 'Oyly Carte Opera Company in 1908 for the second of the London repertory seasons , playing Pooh @-@ Bah , Captain Corcoran , Mountararat , and the Sergeant of Police once again , and adding the roles of Wilfred Shadbolt in Yeomen ( finally completing his cycle of the extant Gilbert and Sullivan operas ) , and Don Alhambra in The Gondoliers to his Savoy repertoire . He then played in more music hall sketches and toured in musicals , including in A Member of Tattersall 's , an adaptation by Adrian Ross of Leo Fall 's Die Geschtedene Frau ( 1909 , repeated in London in 1911 ) ; as the Marquis of Steyne in The Walls of Jericho ( 1909 ) ; and as Judge Tucker in The Bigamist ( 1910 ) . In 1910 , he created the role of Lucas van Tromp in The Girl in the Train at the Vaudeville Theatre .
= = = Last years = = =
Barrington also established himself on the legitimate stage , playing Falstaff in The Merry Wives of Windsor at His Majesty 's Theatre in 1911 ; in several other roles from 1911 to 1913 ; on tour in Other People 's Babies , by Lechmere Worrall , in 1913 ; as Lord Leonard Alcar in the highly successful The Great Adventure by Arnold Bennett ( 1913 – 14 ; based on Bennett 's 1908 novel , Buried Alive ) ; as Max Somossy in The Joy @-@ Ride Lady , by Arthur Anderson and Hartley Carrick at the New Theatre ( 1914 ) ; and Polonius in Hamlet and Christopher Sly in The Taming of the Shrew at His Majesty 's in 1916 , among other roles . He continued to perform in London and in the provinces until 1918 , from 1916 under the management of John Martin @-@ Harvey . One of his later successes was a reprise of his 1909 role as the kindly bookmaker Peter Perks in A Member of Tattersall 's . His last role was Claus in The Burgomaster of Stilemonde , by Count Maurice Maeterlinck , at the Lyceum Theatre , Edinburgh , beginning in October 1918 .
Barrington wrote horse racing columns for Punch magazine under the pseudonym Lady Gay and also wrote two volumes of reminiscences , in 1908 and 1911 . He also appeared in four silent films : " San Toy " ( 1900 ) ; as Mr. Texel in " The Great Adventure " ( 1915 ) ; as Septimus Beaumont in " The Girl Who Loves a Soldier " ( 1916 ) ; and as Mr. Potter in Still Waters Run Deep ( 1916 ) . In addition to his avid interest in several sports , which he describes at length in his memoirs , Barrington was a skilled artist in watercolous and pen and ink .
After Barrington suffered a paralytic stroke in early 1919 , he was unable to perform . He spent the rest of his life in poverty , although his fellow actors held benefits and made other efforts to help him , and his brothers and his neighbors in East Hagbourne , Berkshire , helped him as he became increasingly disabled and eventually unable even to speak . He died in 1922 while living at the St. James 's Infirmary , Balham , in South London , at the age of 69 and is buried in Lower Morden Lane at the Morden Cemetery , also known as Battersea New Cemetery , in Surrey . On the 75th anniversary of Barrington 's death , a granite monument with a photoplaque of Barrington as Pooh @-@ Bah was dedicated to him at the Morden Cemetery , by members of the Gilbert and Sullivan Society , the Sir Arthur Sullivan Society and others .
|
= Wendover Air Force Base =
Wendover Air Force Base is a former United States Air Force base in Utah now known as Wendover Airport . During World War II , it was a training base for B @-@ 17 and B @-@ 24 bomber crews . It was the training site of the 509th Composite Group , the B @-@ 29 unit that carried out the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki .
After the war , Wendover was used for training exercises , gunnery range and as a research facility . It was closed by the Air Force in 1969 , and the base was given to Wendover City in 1977 . Tooele County , Utah , assumed ownership of the airport and base buildings in 1998 , and the County continues to operate the airfield as a public airport . A portion of the original bombing range is now the Utah Test and Training Range ( UTTR ) which is used extensively by the Air Force with live fire targets on the range .
= = Origins = =
Wendover Air Force Base 's history began in 1940 , when the United States Army began looking for additional bombing ranges . The area near the town of Wendover was well @-@ suited to these needs ; the land was virtually uninhabited , had generally excellent flying weather , and the nearest large city ( Salt Lake City ) was 100 miles ( 160 km ) away ( Wendover had around 100 citizens at the time ) . Though isolated , the area was served by the Western Pacific Railroad , and many of its citizens were employed by the railroad .
Construction of the base began on 20 September 1940 and on the range on 4 November 1940 . Wendover Air Base became a subpost of Fort Douglas in Salt Lake City on 29 July 1941 . By that time a total of 1 @,@ 822 @,@ 000 acres ( 737 @,@ 000 ha ) had been acquired for the base and associated gunnery / bombing range 86 miles ( 138 km ) long and 18 to 36 miles ( 29 to 58 km ) wide . Ranchers protested the loss of their grazing land , which they claimed would wipe them out and cost the state of Utah $ 1 @.@ 5 million annually . They took their complaints to Governor Henry Hooper Blood , but the War Department pressed on with the development of the bombing range . The first military contingent arrived on 12 August 1941 , to construct targets on the bombing range . To provide water , a pipeline was run from a spring on Pilot Peak to the base .
= = World War II = =
With the entrance of the United States into World War II , Wendover Field took on greater importance . It was the Army Air Force 's largest bombing and gunnery range . On March 1942 the Army Air Force activated Wendover Army Air Field and also assigned the research and development of guided missiles , pilotless aircraft , and remotely controlled bombs to the site . The new base was supplied and serviced by the Ogden Air Depot at Hill Field . In April 1942 , the Wendover Sub @-@ Depot was activated and assumed technical and administrative control of the field , under the Ogden Air Depot . The Wendover Sub @-@ Depot was tasked to requisition , store , and issue all Army Air Forces property for organizations stationed at Wendover Field for training .
By late 1943 there were some 2 @,@ 000 civilian employees and 17 @,@ 500 military personnel at Wendover . Construction at the base continued for most of the war , including three 8 @,@ 100 @-@ foot ( 2 @,@ 500 m ) paved runways , taxiways , a 300 @,@ 000 @-@ square @-@ foot ( 28 @,@ 000 m2 ) ramp , and seven hangars . By May 1945 the base consisted of 668 buildings , including a 300 @-@ bed hospital , gymnasium , swimming pool , library , chapel , cafeteria , bowling alley , two movie theatres , and 361 housing units for married officers and civilians .
= = = Heavy Bombardment Group training = = =
Wendover 's mission was to train heavy bomb groups . The training of Boeing B @-@ 17 Flying Fortress and Consolidated B @-@ 24 Liberator groups began in April 1942 , with the arrival of the 306th Bomb Group flying B @-@ 17s . From March 1942 through April 1944 , Wendover AAF hosted twenty newly formed B @-@ 17 and B @-@ 24 groups during one phase of their group training . The Second Air Force organized bombardment training into three phases . In the first , training focused on the individual crew members . In the second , training involved the whole crew , who would conduct training together . The third and final phase saw the group 's crews training together , with formation flying and practice combat missions . Until the end of 1943 , each phase of training was conducted at a different base .
Heavy Bomb Groups Trained at Wendover Army Air Base
= = = Fighter training = = =
In April 1944 , the role of Wendover Army Air Base changed with the arrival from Louisiana of P @-@ 47 fighters of the 72nd Fighter Wing . The program ended in September after three groups , totalling 180 men , had been trained .
= = = 509th Composite Group = = =
In June 1943 , preparations began for the operational use of atomic bombs . Although not as suitable for the atomic mission as the British Avro Lancaster with its cavernous 33 @-@ foot ( 10 m ) bomb bay , Major General Leslie R. Groves , Jr . , the director of the Manhattan Project , and General Henry H. Arnold , the Chief of United States Army Air Forces ( USAAF ) , wanted to use an American plane , if this was at all possible , so the Boeing B @-@ 29 Superfortress was chosen , even though it required substantial modification . The modification project was codenamed Silverplate , but this codename eventually came to identify the training and operational aspects of the program as well .
Arnold selected Lieutenant Colonel Paul Tibbets , an officer with a distinguished combat record in Europe and North Africa , who had expert knowledge of the B @-@ 29 as one of its test pilots , to form and train a group to deliver atomic bombs . Tibbets chose the Wendover over Great Bend , Kansas , and Mountain Home , Idaho , as the location for his training program . It was remote , which was good for secrecy and security , but within reasonable distance by air from the Manhattan Project 's Site Y , at Los Alamos , New Mexico , and the Salton Sea Naval Auxiliary Air Station , where bombing tables for the mission would be prepared . The base was given the code name " Kingman " , and became the Manhattan Project 's Site K. The activity to assemble , modify and flight test prototype bombs was named " Project W @-@ 47 " .
On 14 September 1944 , the 393d Bomb Squadron arrived at Wendover from its former base at Fairmont Army Air Base , Nebraska , where it had been an operational training unit ( OTU ) with the 504th Bombardment Group since 12 March . When its parent group deployed to the Marianas in early November 1944 , the squadron was assigned directly to the Second Air Force until creation of the 509th Composite Group on 17 December 1944 . As part of the formation of the 509th , about 800 people stationed at the field , were transferred to the new group . To make the 509th Composite Group as self @-@ contained as possible , other units were assigned , including the 390th Air Service Group , with the 603d Air Engineering and 1027th Materiel Squadrons ; the 320th Troop Carrier Squadron , known as the " Green Hornet Airlines " ; the 1395th Military Police Company , and later the 1st Ordnance Squadron . A Manhattan Project unit , the 1st Technical Detachment , was attached to the group .
The 216th Army Air Forces Base Unit ( Special ) constructed prototype atomic weapons ( without nuclear material ) and drop tested them . Little was known about the flight characteristics of the prototype atom bomb designs and how the fusing mechanism would work . In February 1945 , a Flight Test Section was created within the 216th Army Air Forces Base Unit to carry out testing with prototype bombs in the shape of the Little Boy and Fat Man bombs . It was originally equipped with five Silverplate B @-@ 29s , three flight crews and five maintenance crews . To help out with an increasingly demanding schedule , four crews from the 393d Bombardment Squadron were made available . The Flight Test Section carried out 24 drop tests in June and 30 in July . About two thirds of the June tests were with Fat Man shapes and the rest with Little Boy ones . In July , all but four of the tests were with Fat Man shapes , some with explosive @-@ filled Pumpkin bombs . Test drops were carried out at Wendover , at the Naval Ordnance Test Station at Inyokern , and at the Salton Sea Naval Auxiliary Air Station . Testing continued up to the last minute , with the Fat Man firing unit , known as the X @-@ unit , only being successfully tested at Wendover on 4 August , and a final test of the X @-@ unit was carried out six days later .
The aircrews trained continuously until May . Each bombardier completed at least 50 practice drops of inert pumpkin bombs before Tibbets declared his group combat @-@ ready . The ground support echelon of the 509th Composite Group received movement orders and moved by rail on 26 April 1945 to its port of embarkation at Seattle , Washington . On 6 May the support elements sailed on the SS Cape Victory for the Marianas , while group materiel was shipped on the SS Emile Berliner . An advance party of the air echelon flew by C @-@ 54 to North Field , Tinian , between 15 and 22 May . It was joined by the ground echelon on 29 May 1945 , marking the group 's official change of station . It was from Tinian that it carried out the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki .
The 216th Army Air Forces Base Unit moved to Oxnard Field in September 1945 , where it was transferred to the Manhattan District 's 9812th Technical Services Unit on 17 December 1945 . Oxnard was later designated Sandia Base . The Special Ordnance Detachment took with it its special tools and equipment , and even some of its buildings . The test program resumed at Sandia in January 1946 .
= = = JB @-@ 2 Testing = = =
In early September 1944 , a detachment of the Special Weapons Branch , Wright Field , Ohio , arrived at Wendover with thirteen Republic @-@ Ford JB @-@ 2 flying bombs . The JB @-@ 2 was a United States copy of the Nazi V @-@ 1 flying bomb , which was reverse @-@ engineered from malfunctioning wrecks of V @-@ 1s recovered in England . The United States JB @-@ 2 was different from the German V @-@ 1 in only the smallest of dimensions . At Wendover , a launch ramp was constructed for the JB @-@ 2 , engineered from plans developed from aerial photographs of ramps used by the Germans in the Low Countries . In addition to the ground launch ramp , a B @-@ 17 Flying Fortress was modified to be able to carry the jet bomb underneath a wing and air launch it . Numerous tests were conducted and an initial production order was 1 @,@ 000 units was made by the Army , with subsequent planned production of 1 @,@ 000 per month . The fortunes of war in Europe in the spring of 1945 led to the decision to use the JB @-@ 2 in the Pacific Theater , to be used as part of Operation Downfall , the planned invasion of Japan . The sudden end of the war in September 1945 led to the curtailment of the JB @-@ 2 program and the weapon was never used in combat .
= = Postwar use = =
The training of B @-@ 29 aircrews and the testing of prototype atom bombs was the last major contribution of Wendover Field during World War II . After war 's end , some crew training continued , but at a reduced level . For a while , B @-@ 29s which had returned from the Marianas were flown to Wendover for storage . In the summer of 1946 , the Ogden Air Technical Service Command at Hill Army Air Field north of Salt Lake City assumed jurisdiction over all operations at Wendover Field except engineering and technical projects .
Wendover played a key role in the postwar weapons development industry with three areas being developed . The first was further testing of the JB @-@ 2 Loon flying bomb . In the case of the second area , the B @-@ 17 Flying Fortress , obsolete as a combat aircraft , was being tested to fly remotely . Gliding bombs , based on captured technology from the wartime Henschel Hs 293 German radio @-@ controlled glide bomb were being developed that could be controlled by radar or radio . The third consisted of bombs that could be controlled by the launching plane . The historic GAPA ( ground to air pilotless aircraft ) Boeing project resulted in the first supersonic flight of an American Air Force vehicle on 6 August 1946 . In March 1947 , the Air Proving Ground Command research programs were moved to Alamogordo Army Airfield , New Mexico . As a result , 1 @,@ 200 personnel from Wendover Field were moved to New Mexico from Utah and were relocated to Alamogordo to conduct guided missile research projects . Three ongoing projects were transferred : Ground @-@ to @-@ Air Pilotless Aircraft ( GAPA ) , JB @-@ 2 Loon flight testing , and ASM @-@ A @-@ 1 Tarzon gliding bomb .
Transferred to the Strategic Air Command ' Fifteenth Air Force in March 1947 . With the establishment of the U.S. Air Force as an independent service later that year , the installation was renamed Wendover Air Force Base in 1947 , but while bombardment groups deploying on maneuvers used the bombing range , the rest of the base remained unused . It was inactivated in 1948 and declared surplus , although retained in a caretaker status . The Air Materiel Command assumed responsibility for the base in July 1950 , placing it under the jurisdiction of Ogden Air Material Area at Hill Air Force Base . Between 1950 and 1954 , the base was manned by a skeleton crew of thirteen . The buildings deteriorated . Some were removed , some demolished , and some burned down .
Tactical Air Command ( TAC ) reactivated the base under the Ninth Air Force on 1 October 1954 , and tactical units deployed there for exercises , utilizing the base for the next four years . TAC invested several million dollars renovating the base facilities , and constructed new targets on the range . But only 331 personnel were assigned to the base in 1956 . The base was deactivated again in December 1957 . It transferred back to Ogden on 1 January 1958 and renamed Wendover Air Force Auxiliary Field , while the range was renamed Hill Air Force Range in 1960 , and inactivated in August 1961 .
The base was reactivated on 15 July 1961 , but the only personnel based there were a fifteen @-@ man firefighting detachment . By 1962 , when the base was again deactivated , only 128 of the original 668 buildings remained . The General Services Administration ( GSA ) wanted to sell the base to the town of Wendover , leaving only the bombing ranges and radar site with the Air Force . The base was renamed Decker Field , and again declared surplus in 1972 . The base continued to be used occasionally for training by Air National Guard units , and the firefighting detachment remained until 1977 .
Wendover was officially listed on the National Register of Historic Places on 1 July 1975 . The entire facility was declared surplus in 1976 , and on 9 July 1976 , the water system and its annexes were transferred to the city of Wendover , Utah . The GSA deeded most of the base , including runways , taxiways , hangars , hospital complex , and several warehouses to Wendover for a civil airport on 15 August 1977 . The Air Force retained about 86 acres ( 35 ha ) of the cantonment area and 164 acres ( 66 ha ) of the radar site .
Beginning in 1980 the 4440th Tactical Fighter Training Group began holding regular exercises known as Red Flag from Nellis AFB , Nevada . These exercises used Wendover , with over 9 @,@ 000 men and women deployed to Decker Field , Utah . About 5 @,@ 200 sorties were flown , representing over 9 @,@ 500 flying hours . Red Flag exercises at Wendover were discontinued after 1986 . The U.S. Air Force relinquished the remainder of Decker Field to the town of Wendover in 1992 .
= = Current uses = =
As of 2015 , this former Air Force Base is used as a civil airport , with an unusually long runway for such a facility ( there are two 8 @,@ 000 ' long runways ) . Wendover is one of the most intact World War II training airfields . It is also one of the most historic . The airfield is very isolated in northwest Utah , sitting in the middle of a vast wasteland miles away from any major population center . It is probably for this reason , and the dry hot climate , that much of the airfield remains today . Still @-@ extant facilities include the vast runway system , numerous ramps , taxiways , dispersal pads , and most of the original hangars ( including the Enola Gay B @-@ 29 hangar ) . Most of the hospital complex and many barracks remain , as does a chow hall , chapel , swimming pool and many other World War II @-@ era buildings . In 2009 , a hangar at the base dubbed The Manhattan Project 's Enola Gay Hangar was listed as one of the most endangered historic sites in the United States . A local group , " Historic Wendover Airfield " , is attempting to preserve the former base .
Numerous films and television shows have been filmed using Wendover Field , including The Philadelphia Experiment ( 1984 ) , Con Air ( 1995 ) , Mulholland Falls ( 1996 ) , Independence Day ( 1996 ) , Hulk ( 2003 ) and The Core ( 2003 ) .
|
= Whaam ! =
Whaam ! is a 1963 diptych painting by the American artist Roy Lichtenstein . It is one of the best @-@ known works of pop art , and among Lichtenstein 's most important paintings . Whaam ! was first exhibited at the Leo Castelli Gallery in New York City in 1963 , and purchased by the Tate Gallery , London , in 1966 . It has been on permanent display at Tate Modern since 2006 .
The left @-@ hand panel shows a fighter plane firing a rocket that , in the right @-@ hand panel , hits a second plane which explodes in flames . Lichtenstein conceived the image from several comic @-@ book panels . He transformed his primary source , a panel from a 1962 war comic book , by presenting it as a diptych while altering the relationship of the graphical and narrative elements . Whaam ! is regarded for the temporal , spatial and psychological integration of its two panels . The painting 's title is integral to the action and impact of the painting , and displayed in large onomatopoeia in the right panel .
Lichtenstein studied as an artist before and after serving in the United States Army during World War II . He practiced anti @-@ aircraft drills during basic training , and he was sent for pilot training but the program was canceled before it started . Among the topics he tackled after the war were romance and war . He depicted aerial combat in several works . Whaam ! is part of a series on war that he worked on between 1962 and 1964 , and along with As I Opened Fire ( 1964 ) is one of his two large war @-@ themed paintings .
= = Background = =
In 1943 Lichtenstein left his study of painting and drawing at The Ohio State University to serve in the U.S. Army , where he remained until January 1946 . After entering training programs for languages , engineering , and piloting , all of which were canceled , he served as an orderly , draftsman and artist in noncombat roles . One of his duties at Camp Shelby was enlarging Bill Mauldin 's Stars and Stripes cartoons . He was sent to Europe with an engineer battalion , but did not see active combat . As a painter , he eventually settled on an abstract @-@ expressionist style with parodist elements . Around 1958 he began to incorporate hidden images of cartoon characters such as Mickey Mouse and Bugs Bunny into his abstract works .
By the late 1950s and early 1960s , the American art world had grown accustomed to and tired of the subjective angst and " hot " look of abstract expressionism . A new generation of artists emerged with a more objective , " cool " approach characterized by the art movements known today as minimalism , hard @-@ edge painting , color field painting , the neo @-@ Dada movement , Fluxus , and pop art , all of which re @-@ defined the avant @-@ garde contemporary art of the time . Pop art and neo @-@ Dada re @-@ introduced and changed the use of imagery by appropriating subject matter from commercial art , consumer goods , art history and mainstream culture . Lichtenstein achieved international recognition during the 1960s as one of the initiators of the pop art movement in America . Regarding his use of imagery MoMA curator Bernice Rose observed that Lichtenstein was interested in " challenging the notion of originality as it prevailed at that time . "
Lichtenstein 's early comics @-@ based works such as Look Mickey focused on popular animated characters . By 1963 he had progressed to more serious , dramatic subject matter , typically focusing on romantic situations or war scenes . Comic books as a genre were held in low esteem at the time . Public antipathy led in 1954 to examination of alleged connections between comic books and youth crime during Senate investigations into juvenile delinquency ; by the end of that decade , comic books were regarded as material of " the lowest commercial and intellectual kind " , according to Mark Thistlethwaite of the Modern Art Museum of Fort Worth . Lichtenstein was not a comic @-@ book enthusiast as a youth , but was enticed as an artist by the challenge of creating art based on a subject remote from the typical " artistic image " . Lichtenstein admitted he was " very excited about , and very interested in , the highly emotional content yet detached impersonal handling of love , hate , war , etc . , in these cartoon images . "
Lichtenstein 's romance and war comic @-@ based works took heroic subjects from small source panels and monumentalized them . Whaam ! is comparable in size to the generally large canvases painted at that time by the abstract expressionists . It is one of Lichtenstein 's many works with an aeronautical theme . He said that " the heroes depicted in comic books are fascist types , but I don 't take them seriously in these paintings — maybe there is a point in not taking them seriously , a political point . I use them for purely formal reasons . "
= = History = =
Whaam ! adapts a panel by Irv Novick from the " Star Jockey " story from issue No. 89 of DC Comics ' All @-@ American Men of War ( Feb. 1962 ) . The original forms part of a dream sequence in which fictional World War II P @-@ 51 Mustang pilot Johnny Flying Cloud , " the Navajo ace " , foresees himself flying a jet fighter while shooting down other jet planes . In Lichtenstein 's painting , both the attacking and target planes are replaced by different types of aircraft . Paul Gravett suggests that Lichtenstein substituted the attacking plane with an aircraft from " Wingmate of Doom " illustrated by Jerry Grandenetti in the subsequent issue ( # 90 , April 1962 ) , and that the target plane was borrowed from a Russ Heath drawing in the third panel of page 3 of the " Aces Wild " story in the same issue No. 89 . The painting also omits the speech bubble from the source in which the pilot exclaims " The enemy has become a flaming star ! "
A smaller , single @-@ panel oil painting by Lichtenstein around the same time , Tex ! , has a similar composition , with a plane at the lower left shooting an air @-@ to @-@ air missile at a second plane that is exploding in the upper right , with a word bubble . The same issue of All @-@ American Men of War was the inspiration for at least three other Lichtenstein paintings , Okay Hot @-@ Shot , Okay ! , Brattata and Blam , in addition to Whaam ! and Tex ! The graphite pencil sketch , Jet Pilot was also from that issue . Several of Lichtenstein 's other comics @-@ based works are inspired by stories about Johnny Flying Cloud written by Robert Kanigher and illustrated by Novick , including Okay Hot @-@ Shot , Okay ! , Jet Pilot and Von Karp .
Lichtenstein repeatedly depicted aerial combat between the United States and the Soviet Union . In the early and mid @-@ 1960s , he produced " explosion " sculptures , taking subjects such as the " catastrophic release of energy " from paintings such as Whaam ! and depicting them in freestanding and relief forms . In 1963 , he was parodying a variety of artworks , from advertising and comics and to " high art " modern masterpieces by Cézanne , Mondrian , Picasso and others . At the time , Lichtenstein noted that " the things that I have apparently parodied I actually admire . "
Lichtenstein 's first solo exhibition was held at the Leo Castelli Gallery in New York City , from 10 February to 3 March 1962 . It sold out before its opening . The exhibition included Look Mickey , Engagement Ring , Blam and The Refrigerator . According to the Lichtenstein Foundation website , Whaam ! was part of Lichtenstein 's second solo exhibition at the Leo Castelli Gallery from 28 September to 24 October 1963 , that also included Drowning Girl , Baseball Manager , In the Car , Conversation , and Torpedo ... Los ! Marketing materials for the show included the lithograph artwork , Crak !
The Lichtenstein Foundation website says that Lichtenstein began using his opaque projector technique in 1962 @.@ in 1967 he described his process for producing comics @-@ based art as follows :
I do them as directly as possible . If I am working from a cartoon , photograph or whatever , I draw a small picture — the size that will fit into my opaque projector ... I don 't draw a picture in order to reproduce it — I do it in order to recompose it ... I go all the way from having my drawing almost like the original to making it up altogether .
Whaam ! was purchased by the Tate Gallery in 1966 . In 1969 , Lichtenstein donated his initial graphite @-@ on @-@ paper drawing Drawing for ' Whaam ! ' , describing it as a " pencil scribble " . According to the Tate , Lichtenstein claimed that this drawing represented his " first visualization of Whaam ! and that it was executed just before he started the painting . " Although he had conceived of a unified work of art on a single canvas , he made the sketch on two sheets of paper of equal size — measuring 14 @.@ 9 cm × 30 @.@ 5 cm ( 5 @.@ 9 in × 12 @.@ 0 in ) . The painting has been displayed at Tate Modern since 2006 . In 2012 – 13 , both works were included in the largest Lichtenstein retrospective that visited the Art Institute of Chicago , the National Gallery of Art in Washington , D.C. , the Tate Modern in London and the Centre Pompidou .
= = Description = =
Whaam ! depicts a fighter aircraft in the left panel firing a rocket into an enemy plane in the right panel , which disintegrates in a vivid red @-@ and @-@ yellow explosion . The cartoon style is emphasized by the use of the onomatopoeic lettering " WHAAM ! " in the right panel , and a yellow @-@ boxed caption with black lettering at the top of the left panel . The textual exclamation " WHAAM ! " can be considered the graphic equivalent of a sound effect . This was to become a characteristic of his work — like others of his onomatopoeic paintings that contain exclamations such as Bratatat ! and Varoom !
Whaam ! is one of Lichtenstein 's series of war images , typically combining vibrant colors with an expressive narrative . Whaam ! is very large , measuring 1 @.@ 7 m × 4 @.@ 0 m ( 5 ft 7 in × 13 ft 4 in ) . It is less abstract than As I Opened Fire , another of his war scenes . Lichtenstein employs his usual comic @-@ book style : stereotyped imagery in bright primary colors with black outlines , coupled with imitations of mechanical printer 's Ben @-@ Day dots . The use of these dots , which were invented by Benjamin Day to simulate color variations and shading , are considered Lichtenstein 's " signature method " . Whaam ! departs from Lichtenstein 's earlier diptychs such as Step @-@ on @-@ Can with Leg and Like New , in that the panels are not two variations of the same image .
Although Lichtenstein strove to remain faithful to the source images , he constructed his paintings in a traditional manner , starting with a sketch which he adjusted to improve the composition and then projected on to a canvas to make the finished painting . In the case of Whaam ! , the sketch is on two pieces of paper , and the finished work is painted with Magna acrylic and oil paint on canvas . Although the transformation from a single @-@ panel conception into a diptych painting occurred during the initial sketch , the final work varies from the sketch in several ways . The sketch suggests that the " WHAAM ! " motif would be colored white , although it is yellow in the finished work . Lichtenstein enlarged the main graphical subject of each panel ( the plane on the left and the flames on the right ) , bringing them closer together as a result .
Lichtenstein built up the image with multiple layers of paint . The paint was applied using a scrub brush and handmade metal screen to produce Ben @-@ Day dots via a process that left physical evidence behind . The Ben @-@ Day dots technique enabled Lichtenstein to give his works a mechanically reproduced feel . Lichtenstein said that the work is " supposed to look like a fake , and it achieves that , I think " .
Lichtenstein split the composition into two panels to separate the action from its consequence . The left panel features the attacking plane — placed at a diagonal to create a sense of depth — below the text balloon , which Lichtenstein has relegated to the margin above the plane . In the right panel , the exploding plane — depicted head @-@ on — is outlined by the flames , accompanied by the bold exclamation " WHAAM ! " . Although separate , with one panel containing the missile launch and the other its explosion , representing two distinct events , the two panels are clearly linked spatially and temporally , not least by the horizontal smoke trail of the missile . Lichtenstein commented on this piece in a 10 July 1967 , letter : " I remember being concerned with the idea of doing two almost separate paintings having little hint of compositional connection , and each having slightly separate stylistic character . Of course there is the humorous connection of one panel shooting the other . "
Lichtenstein altered the composition to make the image more compelling , by making the exploding plane more prominent compared to the attacking plane than in the original . The smoke trail of the missile becomes a horizontal line . The flames of the explosion dominate the right panel , but the pilot and the airplane in the left panel are the narrative focus . They exemplify Lichtenstein 's painstaking detailing of physical features such as the aircraft 's cockpit . The other element of the narrative content is a text balloon that contains the following text : " I pressed the fire control ... and ahead of me rockets blazed through the sky ... " This is among the text believed to have been written by All @-@ American Men of War editor Robert Kanigher . The yellow word " WHAAM ! " , altered from the red in the original comic @-@ book panel and white in the pencil sketch , links the yellow of the explosion below it with the textbox to the left and the flames of the missile below the attacking plane .
Lichtenstein 's borrowings from comics mimicked their style while adapting their subject matter . He explained that " Signs and comic strips are interesting as subject matter . There are certain things that are usable , forceful and vital about commercial art . " Rebecca Bengal at PBS wrote that Whaam ! ' s graphic clarity exemplifies the ligne claire style associated with Hergé , a cartoonist whose influence Lichtenstein acknowledged . Lichtenstein was attracted to using a cool , formal style to depict emotive subjects , leaving the viewer to interpret the artist 's intention . He adopted a simplified color scheme and commercial printing @-@ like techniques . The borrowed technique was " representing tonal variations with patterns of colored circles that imitated the half @-@ tone screens of Ben Day dots used in newspaper printing , and surrounding these with black outlines similar to those used to conceal imperfections in cheap newsprint . " Lichtenstein once said of his technique : " I take a cliche and try to organize its forms to make it monumental . "
= = Reception = =
The painting was , for the most part , well received by art critics when first exhibited . A November 1963 Art Magazine review by Donald Judd described Whaam ! as one of the " broad and powerful paintings " of the 1963 exhibition at Castelli 's Gallery . In his review of the exhibition , The New York Times art critic Brian O 'Doherty described Lichtenstein 's technique as " typewriter pointillism ... that laboriously hammers out such moments as a jet shooting down another jet with a big BLAM " . According to O 'Doherty , the result was " certainly not art , [ but ] time may make it so " , depending on whether it could be " rationalized ... and placed in line for the future to assimilate as history , which it shows every sign of doing . " The Tate Gallery in London acquired the work in 1966 , leading to heated argument amongst their trustees and some vocal members of the public . The purchase was made from art dealer Ileana Sonnabend , whose asking price of £ 4 @,@ 665 ( £ 78 @,@ 369 in 2016 currency ) was reduced by negotiation to £ 3 @,@ 940 ( £ 66 @,@ 189 in 2016 currency ) . Some Tate trustees opposed the acquisition , among them sculptor Barbara Hepworth , painter Andrew Forge and the poet and critic Herbert Read . Defending the acquisition , art historian Richard Morphet , then an assistant keeper at the Tate , suggested that the painting addresses several issues and painterly styles at the same time : " history painting , Baroque extravagance , and the quotidian phenomenon of mass @-@ circulation comic strips . " The Times in 1967 described the acquisition as a " very large and spectacular painting " . The Tate 's director , Norman Reid , later said that the work aroused more public interest than any of its acquisitions since World War II .
In 1968 , Whaam ! was included in the Tate 's first solo exhibition of Lichtenstein 's work . The showing attracted 52 @,@ 000 visitors , and was organized with the Stedelijk Museum in Amsterdam , which later hosted the exhibition from 4 November to 17 December 1967 , before it traveled to three other museums .
= = Analysis and interpretation = =
For José Pierre , Whaam ! represents Lichtenstein 's 1963 expansion " into the ' epic ' vein " . Keith Roberts , in a 1968 Burlington Magazine article , described the explosion as combining " art nouveau elegance with a nervous energy reminiscent of Abstract Expressionism " . Wendy Steiner believes the work is Lichtenstein 's most successful and harmonious comic @-@ based composition . She sees the narrative and graphic elements as complementary : the action and spatial alignment lead the viewer 's eye from left to right so as to emphasize the relationship between the action and its explosive consequence . The ellipses of the text balloon present a progression which culminates with a " WHAAM ! " . The " coincidence of pictorial and verbal order " are clear for the Western viewer with the explanatory text beginning in the upper left and action vector moving from the left foreground to the right background , culminating in a graphical explosion in tandem with a narrative exclamation . Steiner says the striking incongruity of the two panels — the left panel appearing to be " truncated " , while the right depicts a centralized explosion — enhances the work 's narrative power .
Lichtenstein 's technique has been characterized by Ernst A. Busche as " the enlargement and unification of his source material ... on the basis of strict artistic principles " . Extracted from a larger narrative , the resulting stylized image became in some cases a " virtual abstraction " . By recreating their minimalistic graphic techniques , Lichtenstein reinforced the artificial nature of comic strips and advertisements . Lichtenstein 's magnification of his source material made his impersonally drawn motifs seem all the more empty . Busche also says that although a critique of modern industrial America may be read into these images , Lichtenstein " would appear to accept the environment as revealed by his reference material as part of American capitalist industrial culture " .
David McCarthy contrasted Lichtenstein 's " dispassionate , detached and oddly disembodied " presentation of aerial combat with the work of H.C. Westermann , for whom the experience of military service in World War II instilled a need to horrify and shock . In contrast , Lichtenstein registers his " comment on American civilization " by scaling up inches @-@ high comic book images to the oversized dimensions of history painting . Laura Brandon saw an attempt to convey " the trivialization of culture endemic in contemporary American life " by depicting a shocking scene of combat as a banal Cold War act .
Carol Strickland and John Boswell say that by magnifying the comic book panels to an enormous size with dots , " Lichtenstein slapped the viewer in the face with their triviality . " H. H. Arnason noted that Whaam ! presents " limited , flat colors and hard , precise drawing , " which produce " a hard @-@ edge subject painting that documents while it gently parodies the familiar hero images of modern America . " The flat and highly finished style of planned brushstrokes can be seen as pop art 's reaction against the looseness of abstract expressionism . Alastair Sooke says that the work can be interpreted as a symbolic self @-@ portrait in which the pilot in the left panel represents Lichtenstein " vanquishing his competitors in a dramatic art @-@ world dogfight " by firing a missile at the colorful " parody of abstract painting " in the right panel .
According to Ernesto Priego , while the work adapts a comic @-@ book source , the painting is neither a comic nor a comics panel , and " its meaning is solely referential and post hoc . " It directs the attention of its audience to features such as genre and printing methods . Visually and narratively , the original panel was the climactic element of a dynamic page composition . Lichtenstein emphasizes the onomatopoeia while playing down articulated speech by removing the speech balloon . According to Priego , " by stripping the comics panel from its narrative context , Whaam ! is representative in the realm of fine art of the preference of the image @-@ icon over image @-@ narrative " .
Whaam ! is sometimes said to belong to the same anti @-@ war genre as Picasso 's Guernica , a suggestion dismissed by Bradford R. Collins . Instead , Collins views the painting as a revenge fantasy against Lichtenstein 's first wife Isabel , conceived as it was during their bitter divorce battle ( the couple separated in 1961 and divorced in 1965 ) .
= = Legacy = =
Marla F. Prather observed that Whaam ! ' s grand scale and dramatic depiction contributed to its position as a historic work of pop art . With As I Opened Fire , Lichtenstein 's other monumental war painting , Whaam ! is regarded as the culmination of Lichtenstein 's dramatic war @-@ comics works , according to Diane Waldman . It is widely described as either Lichtenstein 's most famous work , or , along with Drowning Girl , as one of his two most famous works . Andrew Edgar and Peter Sedgwick describe it , along with Warhol 's Marilyn Monroe prints , as one of the most famous works of pop art . Gianni Versace once linked the two iconic pop art images via his gown designs . According to Douglas Coupland , the World Book Encyclopedia used pictures of Warhol 's Monroes and Whaam ! to illustrate its Pop art entry .
Comic books were in turn affected by the cultural impact of pop art . By the mid @-@ 1960s , some comic books were displaying a new emphasis on garish colors , emphatic sound effects and stilted dialogue — the elements of comic book style that had come to be regarded as camp — in an attempt to appeal to older , college @-@ age readers who appreciated pop art . Gravett observed that the " simplicity and outdatedness [ of comic books ] were ripe for being mocked " .
Whaam ! was one of the key works exhibited in a major Lichtenstein retrospective in 2012 – 2013 that was designed , according to Li @-@ mei Hoang , to demonstrate " the importance of Lichtenstein 's influence , his engagement with art history and his enduring legacy as an artist " . In his review of the Lichtenstein Retrospective at the Tate Modern , Adrian Searle of The Guardian — who was generally unenthusiastic about Lichtenstein 's work — credited the work 's title with accurately describing its graphic content : " Whaam ! goes the painting , as the rocket hits , and the enemy fighter explodes in a livid , comic @-@ book roar . " Daily Telegraph critic Alastair Smart wrote a disparaging review in which he acknowledged Lichtenstein 's reputation as a leading figure in " Pop Art 's cheeky assault on the swaggering , self @-@ important Abstract Expressionists " , whose works Smart said Whaam ! mimicked by its huge scale . Smart said the work was neither a positive commentary on the fighting American spirit nor a critique , but was notable for marking " Lichtenstein 's incendiary impact on the US art scene " .
Detractors have raised concerns over Lichtenstein 's appropriation , in that he directly references imagery from other sources in Whaam ! and other works of the period . Some have denigrated it as mere copying , to which others have countered that Lichtenstein altered his sources in significant , creative ways . In response to claims of plagiarism , the Roy Lichtenstein Foundation has noted that publishers have never sued for copyright infringement , and that they never raised the issue when Lichtenstein 's comics @-@ derived work first gained attention in the 1960s . Other criticism centers on Lichtenstein 's failure to credit the original artists of his sources ; Ernesto Priego implicates National Periodicals in the case of Whaam ! , as the artists were never credited in the original comic books .
In Alastair Sooke 's 2013 BBC Four documentary that took place in front of Whaam ! at the Tate Modern , British comic book artist Dave Gibbons disputed Sooke 's assertion that Lichtenstein 's painting improved upon Novick 's panel , saying : " This to me looks flat and abstracted , to the point of view that to my eyes it 's confusing . Whereas the original has got a three @-@ dimensional quality to it , it 's got a spontaneity to it , it 's got an excitement to it , and a way of involving the viewer that this one lacks . " Gibbons has parodied Lichtenstein 's derivation of the Novick work .
|
= Roger Waters =
George Roger Waters ( born 6 September 1943 ) is an English singer , songwriter , multi @-@ instrumentalist , and composer . In 1965 , he co @-@ founded the progressive rock band Pink Floyd with drummer Nick Mason , keyboardist Rick Wright and guitarist , singer , and songwriter Syd Barrett . Waters initially served as the group 's bassist , but following the departure of Barrett in 1968 , he also became their lyricist , conceptual leader and co @-@ lead vocalist . Waters had the 9th widest vocal range on a list of over 150 contemporary Rock & Pop singers , with a total range of B1 @-@ C7 , with the magazine commenting " He 's not a tenor , he 's a mutation . "
Pink Floyd subsequently achieved international success with the concept albums The Dark Side of the Moon , Wish You Were Here , Animals , and The Wall . By the early 1980s , they had become one of the most critically acclaimed and best @-@ selling acts in the history of popular music ; as of 2013 , they have sold more than 250 million albums worldwide , including 75 million units sold in the United States . Amid creative differences within the group , Waters left in 1985 and began a legal dispute with the remaining members over their intended use of the band 's name and material . They settled out of court in 1987 , and nearly eighteen years passed before he performed with them again .
Waters ' solo career has included three studio albums : The Pros and Cons of Hitch Hiking , Radio K.A.O.S. and Amused to Death . In 1990 , he staged one of the largest and most extravagant rock concerts in history , The Wall – Live in Berlin , with an official attendance of 200 @,@ 000 . As a member of Pink Floyd , he was inducted into the U.S. Rock and Roll Hall of Fame in 1996 and the UK Music Hall of Fame in 2005 . That same year he released Ça Ira , an opera in three acts translated from Étienne and Nadine Roda @-@ Gils ' libretto about the French Revolution . Later that year , he reunited with Pink Floyd bandmates Mason , Wright and David Gilmour for the Live 8 global awareness event ; it was the group 's first appearance with Waters since 1981 . He has toured extensively as a solo act since 1999 and played The Dark Side of the Moon in its entirety for his world tour of 2006 – 2008 . In 2010 , he began The Wall Live and in 2011 Gilmour and Mason appeared with him during a performance of the double @-@ album in London . As of 2013 , the tour is the highest @-@ grossing of all time by a solo artist .
= = 1943 – 1964 : Early years = =
George Roger Waters was born on 6 September 1943 , the younger of two boys , to Mary ( née Whyte ; 1913 – 2009 ) and Eric Fletcher Waters ( 1914 – 1944 ) , in Great Bookham , Surrey . His father , the son of a coal miner and Labour Party activist , was a schoolteacher , a devout Christian , and a Communist Party member . In the early years of the Second World War , his father was a conscientious objector who drove an ambulance during the Blitz . He later changed his stance on pacifism and joined the British Army , and as a 2Lt. of the 8th Royal Fusiliers died at Aprilia , between Anzio and Rome in Italy , on 18 February 1944 , when Roger was five months old . On 19 February 2014 , Waters unveiled a monument to his father and other war casualties there , and was made an honorary citizen of Anzio . Following her husband 's death , Mary Waters , also a teacher , moved with her two sons to Cambridge and raised them there . Roger Waters ' earliest memory is of the VJ Day celebrations . Mary Waters died in 2009 , aged 96 .
Waters attended Morley Memorial Junior School in Cambridge and then the Cambridgeshire High School for Boys ( now Hills Road Sixth Form College ) with Syd Barrett , while his future musical partner , David Gilmour , lived nearby on the city 's Mill Road , and attended the Perse School . At 15 , Waters was chairman of the Cambridge Youth Campaign for Nuclear Disarmament ( YCND ) , having designed its publicity poster and participated in its organisation . Though he was a keen sportsman and a highly regarded member of the high school 's cricket and rugby teams , he disliked his educational experience ; according to Waters , " I hated every second of it , apart from games . The regime at school was a very oppressive one ... the same kids who are susceptible to bullying by other kids are also susceptible to bullying by the teachers . " Whereas Waters knew Barrett and Gilmour from his childhood in Cambridge , he met future Pink Floyd founder members Nick Mason and Richard Wright in London at the Regent Street Polytechnic ( later the University of Westminster ) school of architecture . Waters enrolled there in 1962 , after a series of aptitude tests indicated he was well @-@ suited to that field . He had initially considered a career in mechanical engineering .
= = 1965 – 1985 : Pink Floyd = =
= = = Formation and Barrett @-@ led period = = =
By September 1963 , Waters and Mason had lost interest in their studies ; they had moved into the lower flat of Stanhope Gardens , owned by Mike Leonard , a part @-@ time tutor at the Regent Street Polytechnic . Waters , Mason and Wright first played music together in late 1963 , in a band formed by vocalist Keith Noble and bassist Clive Metcalfe . They usually called themselves Sigma 6 , but also used the name the Meggadeaths . Waters played rhythm guitar and Mason played drums , Wright played on any keyboard he could arrange to use , and Noble 's sister Sheilagh provided an occasional vocal accompaniment . In the early years the band performed during private functions and rehearsed in a tearoom in the basement of Regent Street Polytechnic .
When Metcalfe and Noble left to form their own group in September 1963 , the remaining members asked Barrett and guitarist Bob Klose to join . Waters switched to the bass and by January 1964 , the group became known as the Abdabs , or the Screaming Abdabs . During late 1964 , the band used the names Leonard 's Lodgers , Spectrum Five , and eventually , the Tea Set . Sometime during late 1965 , the Tea Set began calling itself the Pink Floyd Sound , later the Pink Floyd Blues Band and by early 1966 , Pink Floyd .
By early 1966 Barrett was Pink Floyd 's front @-@ man , guitarist , and songwriter . He wrote or co @-@ wrote all but one track of their debut LP The Piper at the Gates of Dawn , released in August 1967 . Waters contributed the song " Take Up Thy Stethoscope and Walk " ( his first sole writing credit ) to the album . By late 1967 , Barrett 's deteriorating mental health and increasingly erratic behaviour , rendered him " unable or unwilling " to continue in his capacity as Pink Floyd 's singer @-@ songwriter and lead guitarist . In early March 1968 Pink Floyd met with managers Peter Jenner and Andrew King of Blackhill Enterprises to discuss the band 's future . Barrett agreed to leave Pink Floyd , and the band " agreed to Blackhill 's entitlement in perpetuity " regarding " past activities " . The band 's new manager Steve O 'Rourke made a formal announcement about the departure of Barrett and the arrival of David Gilmour in April 1968 .
= = = Waters @-@ led period = = =
Filling the void left by Barrett 's departure in March 1968 , Waters began to chart Pink Floyd 's artistic direction . He became the principal songwriter , lyricist and co @-@ lead vocalist ( along with Gilmour , and at times , Wright ) , and would remain the band 's dominant creative figure until his departure in 1985 . He wrote the lyrics to the five Pink Floyd albums preceding his own departure , starting with The Dark Side of the Moon ( 1973 ) and ending with The Final Cut ( 1983 ) , while exerting progressively more creative control over the band and its music . Every Waters studio album since The Dark Side of the Moon has been a concept album . With lyrics written entirely by Waters , The Dark Side of the Moon was one of the most commercially successful rock albums ever . It spent 736 straight weeks on the Billboard 200 chart — until July 1988 — and sold over 40 million copies worldwide . It was continuing to sell over 8 @,@ 000 units every week as of 2005 . According to Pink Floyd biographer Glen Povey , Dark Side is the world 's second best @-@ selling album , and the United States ' 21st best @-@ selling album of all time .
Waters produced thematic ideas that became the impetus for the Pink Floyd concept albums The Dark Side of the Moon ( 1973 ) , Wish You Were Here ( 1975 ) , Animals ( 1977 ) and The Wall ( 1979 ) — written largely by Waters — and The Final Cut ( 1983 ) — written entirely by Waters . He referred or alluded to the cost of war and the loss of his father throughout his work , from " Corporal Clegg " ( A Saucerful of Secrets , 1968 ) and " Free Four " ( Obscured by Clouds , 1972 ) to " Us and Them " from The Dark Side of the Moon , " When the Tigers Broke Free " , first used in the feature film , The Wall ( 1982 ) , later included with " The Fletcher Memorial Home " on The Final Cut , an album dedicated to his father . The theme and composition of The Wall was influenced by his upbringing in an English society depleted of men after the Second World War .
The double album The Wall was written almost entirely by Waters and is largely based on his life story , and having sold over 23 million RIAA certified units in the US as of 2013 , is one of the top three best @-@ selling albums of all time in America , according to RIAA . Pink Floyd hired Bob Ezrin to co @-@ produce the album , and cartoonist Gerald Scarfe to illustrate the album 's sleeve art . The band embarked on The Wall Tour of Los Angeles , New York , London , and Dortmund . The last band performance of The Wall was on 16 June 1981 , at Earls Court London , and this was Pink Floyd 's last appearance with Waters until the band 's brief reunion at 2 July 2005 Live 8 concert in London 's Hyde Park , 24 years later .
In March 1983 , the last Waters – Gilmour – Mason collaboration , The Final Cut , was released . The album was subtitled : " A requiem for the post @-@ war dream by Roger Waters , performed by Pink Floyd " . Waters wrote all the album 's lyrics as well as the music . His lyrics were critical of the Conservative Party government of the day and mention Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher by name . At the time Gilmour did not have any new material , so he asked Waters to delay the recording until he could write some songs , but Waters refused . According to Mason , after power struggles within the band and creative arguments about the album , Gilmour 's name " disappeared " from the production credits , though he retained his pay . Rolling Stone magazine gave the album five stars , with Kurt Loder describing it as " a superlative achievement " and " art rock 's crowning masterpiece " . Loder viewed the work as " essentially a Roger Waters solo album " .
Amidst creative differences within the group , Waters left Pink Floyd in 1985 , and began a legal battle with the remaining band members regarding their continued use of the name and material . In December 1985 , Waters " issued a statement to EMI and CBS invoking the ' Leaving Member ' clause " on his contract . In October 1986 , he initiated High Court proceedings to formally dissolve the Pink Floyd partnership . In his submission to the High Court he called Pink Floyd a " spent force creatively " . Gilmour and Mason opposed the application and announced their intention to continue as Pink Floyd . Waters claims to have been forced to resign much like Wright some years earlier , and he decided to leave Pink Floyd based on legal considerations , stating " ... because , if I hadn 't , the financial repercussions would have wiped me out completely . " In December 1987 , an agreement between Waters and Pink Floyd was reached . According to Mason :
We eventually formalised a settlement with Roger . On Christmas Eve , 1987 , ... David and Roger convened for a summit meeting on the houseboat [ the Astoria ] with Jerome Walton , David 's accountant . Jerome painstakingly typed out the bones of a settlement . Essentially — although there was far more complex detail — the arrangement allowed Roger to be freed from his arrangement with Steve [ O 'Rourke ] , and David and me to continue working under the name Pink Floyd . In the end the court accepted Jerome 's version as the final and binding document and duly stamped it .
Waters was released from his contractual obligation with O 'Rourke , and he retained the copyrights to The Wall concept and the inflatable Animals pig . Pink Floyd released three studio albums without Waters : A Momentary Lapse of Reason ( 1987 ) , The Division Bell ( 1994 ) and The Endless River ( 2014 ) . By 2013 , Pink Floyd had sold over 250 million albums worldwide , including 74 @.@ 5 million RIAA certified units in the US .
= = 1984 – present : solo career = =
= = = 1984 – 1996 = = =
Following the release of The Final Cut , Waters embarked on a solo career that produced three concept albums and a movie soundtrack . In 1984 , he released his first solo album , The Pros and Cons of Hitch Hiking , a project about a man 's dreams across one night that dealt with Waters ' feelings about monogamy and family life versus " the call of the wild " . In the end the character , Reg , chooses love and matrimony over promiscuity . The album featured guitarist Eric Clapton , jazz saxophonist David Sanborn , and artwork by Gerald Scarfe . Kurt Loder described The Pros And Cons of Hitch Hiking as a " strangely static , faintly hideous record " . Rolling Stone rated the album a " rock bottom " one star . " Years later , Mike DeGagne of AllMusic praised the album for its , " ingenious symbolism " and " brilliant use of stream of consciousness within a subconscious realm " , rating it four out of five stars . Waters began touring in support of the new album , aided by Clapton , a new band , new material , and a selection of Pink Floyd favourites . Waters débuted his tour in Stockholm on 16 June 1984 . Poor ticket sales plagued the tour , and some of the larger venues had to be cancelled . By his own estimate , he lost £ 400 @,@ 000 on the tour . In March 1985 , Waters went to North America to play smaller venues with the Pros and Cons Plus Some Old Pink Floyd Stuff — North America Tour 1985 . The Pros and Cons of Hitch Hiking has been certified Gold by the RIAA .
In 1986 , Waters contributed songs and a score to the soundtrack of the animated movie When the Wind Blows , based on the Raymond Briggs book of the same name . His backing band featuring Paul Carrack was credited as The Bleeding Heart Band . In 1987 , Waters released Radio K.A.O.S. , a concept album based on a mute man named Billy from an impoverished Welsh mining town who has the ability to physically tune into radio waves in his head . Billy first learns to communicate with a radio DJ , and eventually to control the world 's computers . Angry at the state of the world in which he lives , he simulates a nuclear attack . Waters followed the release with a supporting tour also in 1987 .
In November 1989 , the Berlin Wall fell , and in July 1990 Waters staged one of the largest and most elaborate rock concerts in history , The Wall – Live in Berlin , on the vacant terrain between Potsdamer Platz and the Brandenburg Gate . The show reported an official attendance of 200 @,@ 000 , though some estimates are as much as twice that , with approximately one billion television viewers . Leonard Cheshire asked him to do the concert to raise funds for charity . Waters ' group of musicians included Joni Mitchell , Van Morrison , Cyndi Lauper , Bryan Adams , Scorpions , and Sinéad O 'Connor . Waters also used an East German symphony orchestra and choir , a Soviet marching band , and a pair of helicopters from the US 7th Airborne Command and Control Squadron . Designed by Mark Fisher , the Wall was 25 metres tall and 170 metres long and was built across the set . Scarfe 's inflatable puppets were recreated on an enlarged scale , and although many rock icons received invitations to the show , Gilmour , Mason , and Wright , did not . Waters released a concert double album of the performance which has been certified platinum by the RIAA .
In 1990 , Waters hired manager Mark Fenwick and left EMI for a worldwide deal with Columbia . He released his third studio album , Amused to Death , in 1992 . The record is heavily influenced by the events of the Tiananmen Square protests of 1989 and the Gulf War , and a critique of the notion of war becoming the subject of entertainment , particularly on television . The title was derived from the book Amusing Ourselves to Death by Neil Postman . Patrick Leonard , who worked on A Momentary Lapse of Reason , co @-@ produced the album . Jeff Beck played lead guitar on many of the album 's tracks , which were recorded with an impressive cast of musicians at ten different recording studios . It is Waters ' most critically acclaimed solo recording , garnering some comparison to his previous work with Pink Floyd . Waters described the record as , a " stunning piece of work " , ranking the album with Dark Side of the Moon and The Wall as one of the best of his career . The album had one hit , the song " What God Wants , Pt . 1 " , which reached number 35 in the UK in September 1992 and number 5 on Billboard 's Mainstream Rock Tracks chart in the US . Amused to Death was certified Silver by the British Phonographic Industry . Sales of Amused to Death topped out at around one million and there was no tour in support of the album . Waters would first perform material from it seven years later during his In the Flesh tour . In 1996 , Waters was inducted into the US and UK Rock and Roll Halls of Fame as a member of Pink Floyd .
= = = 1999 – 2004 = = =
In 1999 , after a 12 @-@ year hiatus from touring , and a seven @-@ year absence from the music industry , Waters embarked on the In the Flesh tour , performing both solo and Pink Floyd material . The tour was a financial success in the US and though Waters had booked mostly smaller venues , tickets sold so well that many of the concerts were upgraded to larger ones . The tour eventually stretched across the world and would span three years . A concert film was released on CD and DVD , named In the Flesh – Live . During the tour , he played two new songs " Flickering Flame " and " Each Small Candle " as the final encore to many of the shows . In June 2002 , he completed the tour with a performance in front of 70 @,@ 000 people at the Glastonbury Festival of Performing Arts , playing 15 Pink Floyd songs and five songs from his solo catalogue .
Miramax announced in mid @-@ 2004 that a production of The Wall was to appear on Broadway with Waters playing a prominent role in the creative direction . Reports stated that the musical contained not only the original tracks from The Wall , but also songs from Dark Side of the Moon , Wish You Were Here and other Pink Floyd albums , as well as new material . On the night of 1 May 2004 , recorded extracts from the opera , including its overture , were played on the occasion of the Welcome Europe celebrations in the accession country of Malta . Gert Hof mixed recorded excerpts from the opera into a continuous piece of music which was played as an accompaniment to a large light and fireworks display over Grand Harbour in Valletta . In July 2004 , Waters released two new tracks on the Internet : " To Kill the Child " , inspired by the 2003 invasion of Iraq , and " Leaving Beirut " , an anti @-@ war song " inspired by his travels in the Middle East as a teenager " .
= = = 2005 – present = = =
In July 2005 , Waters reunited with Mason , Wright , and Gilmour for what would be their final performance together at the 2005 Live 8 concert in London 's Hyde Park , Pink Floyd 's only appearance with Waters since their final performance of The Wall at Earls Court London 24 years earlier . They played a 23 @-@ minute set consisting of " Speak to Me / Breathe " / " Breathe ( Reprise ) " , " Money " , " Wish You Were Here " , and " Comfortably Numb " . Waters told the Associated Press that while the experience of playing with Pink Floyd again was positive , the chances of a bona fide reunion would be " slight " considering his and Gilmour 's continuing musical and ideological differences . Though Waters had differing ideas about which songs they should play , he " agreed to roll over for one night only " , Gilmour told the Associated Press , " The rehearsals convinced me it wasn 't something I wanted to be doing a lot of . There have been all sorts of farewell moments in people 's lives and careers which they have then rescinded , but I think I can fairly categorically say that there won 't be a tour or an album again that I take part in . It isn 't to do with animosity or anything like that . It 's just that ... I 've been there , I 've done it . " In November 2005 , Pink Floyd were inducted into the UK Music Hall of Fame by Pete Townshend of the Who .
In September 2005 , Waters released Ça Ira ( pronounced [ sa iˈʁa ] , French for " it will be fine " ; Waters added the subtitle , " There is Hope " ) , an opera in three acts translated from the late Étienne Roda @-@ Gil 's French libretto based on the historical subject of the French Revolution . Ça Ira was released as a double CD album , featuring baritone Bryn Terfel , soprano Ying Huang and tenor Paul Groves . Set during the early French Revolution , the original libretto was co @-@ written in French by Roda @-@ Gil and his wife Nadine Delahaye . Waters had begun rewriting the libretto in English in 1989 , and said about the composition : " I 've always been a big fan of Beethoven 's choral music , Berlioz and Borodin ... This is unashamedly romantic and resides in that early 19th @-@ century tradition , because that 's where my tastes lie in classical and choral music . " Waters appeared on television to discuss the opera , but the interviews often focused instead on his relationship with Pink Floyd , something Waters would " take in stride " , a sign Pink Floyd biographer Mark Blake believes to be , " a testament to his mellower old age or twenty years of dedicated psychotherapy " . Ça Ira reached number 5 on the Billboard Classical Music Chart in the United States .
In June 2006 , Waters commenced The Dark Side of the Moon Live tour , a two @-@ year , world @-@ spanning effort that began in Europe in June and North America in September . The first half of the show featured both Pink Floyd songs and Waters ' solo material , while the second half included a complete live performance of the 1973 Pink Floyd album The Dark Side of the Moon , the first time in over three decades that Waters had performed the album . The shows ended with an encore from the third side of The Wall . He utilised elaborate staging by concert lighting designer Marc Brickman complete with laser lights , fog machines , pyrotechnics , psychedelic projections , and inflatable floating puppets ( Spaceman and Pig ) controlled by a " handler " dressed as a butcher , and a full 360 @-@ degree quadraphonic sound system was used . Nick Mason joined Waters for The Dark Side of the Moon set and the encores on select 2006 tour dates . Waters continued touring in January 2007 in Australia and New Zealand , then Asia , Europe , South America , and back to North America in June .
In March 2007 , the Waters song , " Hello ( I Love You ) " was featured in the science fiction film The Last Mimzy . The song plays over the film 's end credits . He released it as a single , on CD and via download , and described it as , " a song that captures the themes of the movie , the clash between humanity 's best and worst instincts , and how a child 's innocence can win the day " . He performed at California 's Coachella Festival in April 2008 and was to be among the headlining artists performing at Live Earth 2008 in Mumbai , India in December 2008 , but that concert was cancelled in light of the 26 November terrorist attacks in Mumbai .
Waters confirmed the possibility of an upcoming solo album which " might be called " Heartland , and has said he has numerous songs written ( some already recorded ) that he intends to release when they are a complete album . In June 2010 , Waters released a cover of " We Shall Overcome " , a protest song rewritten and arranged by Guy Carawan and Pete Seeger . He performed with David Gilmour at the Hoping Foundation Benefit Evening in July 2010 . The four @-@ song set included : " To Know Him Is to Love Him " , which was played in early Pink Floyd sound checks , followed by " Wish You Were Here " , " Comfortably Numb " , and " Another Brick in the Wall ( Part Two ) " .
In September 2010 , Waters commenced The Wall Live tour , an updated version of the original Pink Floyd shows , featuring a complete performance of The Wall . Waters told the Associated Press that The Wall Tour will likely be his last , stating : " I 'm not as young as I used to be . I 'm not like B.B. King , or Muddy Waters . I 'm not a great vocalist or a great instrumentalist or whatever , but I still have the fire in my belly , and I have something to say . I have a swan song in me and I think this will probably be it . " At The O2 Arena in London on 12 May 2011 , Gilmour and Mason once again appeared with Waters and Gilmour performing " Comfortably Numb " , and Gilmour and Mason joining Waters for " Outside the Wall " . For the first half of 2012 , Waters ' tour topped worldwide concert ticket sales having sold more than 1 @.@ 4 million tickets globally . As of 2013 , The Wall Live is the highest @-@ grossing tour of all time by a solo artist . Waters performed at the Concert for Sandy Relief at Madison Square Garden on 12 December 2012 . On 24 July 2015 , Waters headlined the Newport Folk Festival in Newport , Rhode Island . Waters was accompanied by the band My Morning Jacket and two singers from the group Lucius . On 3 May 2016 , Waters was announced as one of the performers at the Desert Trip music festival , due to take place from October 7th through the 9th .
= = Personal life = =
In 1969 , Waters married his childhood sweetheart Judy Trim , a successful potter ; she was featured on the gatefold sleeve of the original release of Ummagumma , but excised from subsequent CD reissues . They had no children together and divorced in 1975 . Trim died in 2001 .
In 1976 , Waters married Lady Carolyne Christie , the niece of the 3rd Marquess of Zetland . His marriage to Christie produced a son , Harry Waters , a musician who has played keyboards with his father 's touring band since 2006 , and a daughter , India Waters , who has worked as a model . Christie and Waters divorced in 1992 .
In 1993 , he married Priscilla Phillips ; they had one son together , Jack Fletcher . Their marriage ended in 2001 .
In 2004 , Waters became engaged to actress and filmmaker Laurie Durning ( born 1963 ) ; the two married on 14 January 2012 and filed for divorce in September 2015 .
Waters is an atheist .
= = Activism = =
After the 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake and subsequent tsunami disaster , Waters performed " Wish You Were Here " with Eric Clapton during a benefit concert on the American network NBC . He was outspoken against the Hunting Act of 2004 , and performed a concert for , and attended marches supporting , the Countryside Alliance . Waters explained that whether he supported hunting or not , it was important to defend it as a right . He left the UK soon afterwards . He clarified in October 2005 that he had not left the country in protest against the hunting legislation but for family reasons , and that he often returned to the UK .
After leaving Britain , he moved to Long Island in New York with his fiancé Laurie Durning . In June 2007 , Waters became a spokesman for Millennium Promise , a non @-@ profit organisation that helps fight extreme poverty and malaria . He wrote an opinion piece for CNN in support of the topic . In July , he participated in the American leg of the Live Earth concert , an international multi @-@ venue concert aimed at raising awareness about global climate change , featuring the Trenton Youth Choir and his trademarked inflatable pig . Waters told David Fricke why he thinks The Wall is still relevant today :
The loss of a father is the central prop on which [ The Wall ] stands . As the years go by , children lose their fathers again and again , for nothing . You see it now with all these fathers , good men and true , who lost their lives and limbs in Iraq for no reason at all . I 've done " Bring The Boys Back Home " in my encore on recent tours . It feels more relevant and poignant to be singing that song now than it did in 1979 .
In 2012 , Waters led a benefit for United States military veterans called Stand Up for Heroes . He invited a music group of combat wounded veterans called MusiCorps to perform with him . In June 2013 , Waters and numerous other celebrities appeared in a video showing support for Chelsea Manning .
In June 2009 he spoke against the Israeli West Bank barrier and later that year , pledged his support to the Gaza Freedom March . In 2011 he announced that he had joined the Boycott , Divestment and Sanctions ( BDS ) movement against Israel . He has said he is disillusioned with UK foreign policy towards Israel . In October 2010 , after an animated B @-@ 52 bomber had been shown dropping symbols including the Star of David and dollar signs as part of The Wall Live tour , the Anti @-@ Defamation League ( ADL ) criticised the imagery and claimed it was anti @-@ Semitic . In response , Waters changed the video and wrote an open letter to The Independent where he denied he was anti @-@ Semitic and distinguished criticism of Israel from anti @-@ Jewishness . In March 2013 , during an interview with Electronic Intifada , Waters criticised American media for their coverage of Israel . For many years , Pink Floyd concerts and Waters concerts have used a pig @-@ shaped balloon painted with political and religious symbols flown overhead during shows while he performs in fascist uniform . In July 2013 , the Israeli media complained about the symbolism .
The ADL 's National Director Abraham H. Foxman has accused him of anti @-@ Semitism as has Rabbi Abraham Cooper , associate dean of the Simon Wiesenthal Center . Waters stated that Cooper 's accusation was bigoted . On 2 October 2015 , Waters published an open letter in Salon criticising the band Bon Jovi for performing in Tel Aviv , which led Howard Stern to criticise Waters on his radio show .
= = Equipment and instruments = =
Waters ' primary instrument in Pink Floyd was the electric bass guitar . He briefly played a Höfner bass but replaced it with a Rickenbacker RM @-@ 1999 / 4001S , until 1970 when it was stolen along with the rest of the band 's equipment in New Orleans . He began using Fender Precision Basses in 1968 , originally alongside the Rickenbacker 4001 , and then exclusively after the Rickenbacker was lost in 1970 . First seen at a concert in Hyde Park , London in July 1970 , the black P @-@ Bass was rarely used until April 1972 when it became his main stage guitar and as of 2 October 2010 , the basis for a Fender Artist Signature model . Waters endorses RotoSound Jazz Bass 77 flat @-@ wound strings . Throughout his career he has used Selmer , WEM , Hiwatt and Ashdown amplifiers but has used Ampeg for the last few tours , also employing delay , tremolo , chorus , stereo panning and phaser effects in his bass playing .
Waters experimented with the EMS Synthi A and VCS 3 synthesisers on Pink Floyd pieces such as " On the Run " , " Welcome to the Machine " , and " In the Flesh ? " He played electric and acoustic guitar on Pink Floyd tracks using Fender , Martin , Ovation and Washburn guitars . He played electric guitar on the Pink Floyd song " Sheep " , from Animals , and acoustic guitar on several Pink Floyd recordings , such as " Pigs on the Wing 1 & 2 " , also from Animals , " Southampton Dock " from The Final Cut , and on " Mother " from The Wall . A Binson Echorec 2 echo effect was used on his bass @-@ guitar lead track " One of These Days " . Waters plays trumpet during concert performances of " Outside the Wall " .
= = Discography = =
The Pros and Cons of Hitch Hiking ( 1984 )
Radio K.A.O.S. ( 1987 )
Amused to Death ( 1992 )
Ça Ira ( 2005 )
|
= Assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria =
The assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria , heir presumptive to the Austro @-@ Hungarian throne , and his wife Sophie , Duchess of Hohenberg , occurred on 28 June 1914 in Sarajevo when they were shot dead by Gavrilo Princip . Princip was one of a group of six assassins ( five Serbs and one Bosniak ) coordinated by Danilo Ilić , a Bosnian Serb and a member of the Black Hand secret society . The political objective of the assassination was to break off Austria @-@ Hungary 's South Slav provinces so they could be combined into a Yugoslavia . The assassins ' motives were consistent with the movement that later became known as Young Bosnia . The assassination led directly to the First World War when Austria @-@ Hungary subsequently issued an ultimatum to the Kingdom of Serbia , which was partially rejected . Austria @-@ Hungary then declared war .
In charge of these Serbian military conspirators was Chief of Serbian Military Intelligence Dragutin Dimitrijević , his right @-@ hand man Major Vojislav Tankosić , and the spy Rade Malobabić . Tankosić armed the assassins with bombs and pistols and trained them . The assassins were given access to the same clandestine network of safe @-@ houses and agents that Malobabić used for the infiltration of weapons and operatives into Austria @-@ Hungary .
The assassins , the key members of the clandestine network , and the key Serbian military conspirators who were still alive were arrested , tried , convicted and punished . Those who were arrested in Bosnia were tried in Sarajevo in October 1914 . The other conspirators were arrested and tried before a Serbian court on the French @-@ controlled Salonika Front in 1916 – 1917 on unrelated false charges ; Serbia executed three of the top military conspirators . Much of what is known about the assassinations comes from these two trials and related records .
= = Background = =
Under the 1878 Treaty of Berlin , Austria @-@ Hungary received the mandate to occupy and administer the Ottoman Vilayet of Bosnia while the Ottoman Empire retained official sovereignty . Under this same treaty , the Great Powers ( Austria @-@ Hungary , Britain , France , Germany , Italy , the Ottoman Empire , and Russian Empire ) gave official recognition to the Principality of Serbia as a fully sovereign state , which four years later transformed into a kingdom under Prince Milan IV Obrenović who thus became King Milan I of Serbia . Serbia 's monarchs , at the time from the royal House of Obrenović that maintained close relations with Austria @-@ Hungary , were content to reign within the borders set by the treaty .
This changed in May 1903 , when Serbian military officers led by Dragutin Dimitrijević stormed the Serbian Royal Palace . After a fierce battle in the dark , the attackers captured General Laza Petrović , head of the Palace Guard , and forced him to reveal the hiding place of King Alexander I Obrenović and his wife Queen Draga . The King and Queen opened the door from their hiding place . The King was shot thirty times ; the Queen eighteen . MacKenzie writes that " the royal corpses were then stripped and brutally sabred . " The attackers threw the corpses of King Alexander and Queen Draga out of a palace window , ending any threat that loyalists would mount a counterattack . " General Petrović was then killed too ( Vojislav Tankosić organized the murders of Queen Draga 's brothers ; Dimitrijević and Tankosić in 1913 – 1914 figure prominently in the plot to assassinate Franz Ferdinand ) . The conspirators installed Peter I of the House of Karađorđević as the new king .
The new dynasty was more nationalist , friendlier to Russia and less friendly to Austria @-@ Hungary . Over the next decade , disputes between Serbia and its neighbors erupted , as Serbia moved to build its power and gradually reclaim its 14th century empire . These conflicts included a customs dispute with Austria @-@ Hungary beginning in 1906 ( commonly referred to as the " Pig War " ) ; the Bosnian crisis of 1908 – 1909 , in which Serbia assumed an attitude of protest over Austria @-@ Hungary 's annexation of Bosnia @-@ Herzegovina ( ending in Serbian acquiescence without compensation in March 1909 ) ; and finally the two Balkan Wars of 1912 – 1913 , in which Serbia conquered Macedonia and Kosovo from the Ottoman Empire and drove out Bulgaria .
Serbia 's military successes and Serbian outrage over the Austro @-@ Hungarian annexation of Bosnia @-@ Herzegovina emboldened Serbian nationalists in Serbia and Serbs in Austria @-@ Hungary who chafed under Austro @-@ Hungarian rule and whose nationalist sentiments were stirred by Serb " cultural " organizations . In the five years leading up to 1914 , lone assassins – mostly Serb citizens of Austria @-@ Hungary – made a series of unsuccessful assassination attempts in Croatia and Bosnia @-@ Herzegovina against Austro @-@ Hungarian officials . The assassins received sporadic support from Serbia .
On 15 June 1910 , Bogdan Žerajić attempted to kill the iron @-@ fisted Governor of Bosnia and Herzegovina , General Marijan Varešanin . Žerajić was a 22 @-@ year @-@ old Orthodox Serb from Nevesinje , Herzegovina , who was a student at the Faculty of Law at the University of Zagreb and made frequent trips to Belgrade . ( General Verešanin went on to crush the last Bosnian peasant uprising in the second half of 1910 . ) The five bullets Žerajić fired at Varešanin and the fatal bullet he put in his own brain made Žerajić an inspiration to future assassins , including Princip and Princip 's accomplice Čabrinović . Princip said that Žerajić " was my first model . When I was seventeen I passed whole nights at his grave , reflecting on our wretched condition and thinking of him . It is there that I made up my mind sooner or later to perpetrate an outrage . "
In 1913 , Emperor Franz Joseph commanded Archduke Franz Ferdinand to observe the military maneuvers in Bosnia scheduled for June 1914 . Following the maneuvers , Ferdinand and his wife planned to visit Sarajevo to open the state museum in its new premises there . Duchess Sophie , according to their oldest son , Duke Maximilian , accompanied her husband out of fear for his safety .
As a " Czech countess [ she ] was treated as a commoner at the Austrian court " . Emperor Franz Joseph had only consented to their marriage on the condition that their descendants would never ascend the throne . The 14th anniversary of their morganatic marriage fell on 28 June . As historian A. J. P. Taylor observes :
[ Sophie ] could never share [ Franz Ferdinand 's ] rank ... could never share his splendours , could never even sit by his side on any public occasion . There was one loophole ... his wife could enjoy the recognition of his rank when he was acting in a military capacity . Hence , he decided , in 1914 , to inspect the army in Bosnia . There , at its capital Sarajevo , the Archduke and his wife could ride in an open carriage side by side ... Thus , for love , did the Archduke go to his death .
Franz Ferdinand was an advocate of increased federalism and widely believed to favor trialism , under which Austria @-@ Hungary would be reorganized by combining the Slavic lands within the Austro @-@ Hungarian empire into a third crown . A Slavic kingdom could have been a bulwark against Serb irredentism , and Franz Ferdinand was therefore perceived as a threat by those same irredentists . Princip later stated to the court that preventing Franz Ferdinand 's planned reforms was one of his motivations .
The day of the assassination , June 28 ( June 15 in the Julian calendar ) , is the feast of St. Vitus . In Serbia , it is called Vidovdan and commemorates the 1389 Battle of Kosovo against the Ottomans , at which the Sultan was assassinated in his tent by a Serb .
= = Preliminaries = =
= = = Planning direct action = = =
Danilo Ilić was a Bosnian Orthodox Serb . He had worked as a school teacher and as a bank worker but in 1913 and 1914 he lived with , and outwardly off , his mother , who operated a small boarding house in Sarajevo . Secretly , Ilić was leader of the Serbian @-@ irredentist Black Hand cell in Sarajevo . In late 1913 , Danilo Ilić came to the Serbian listening post at Užice to speak to the officer in charge , Serbian Colonel C. A. Popović , who was a captain at the time and a member of the Black Hand . Ilić recommended an end to the period of revolutionary organization building and a move to direct action against Austria @-@ Hungary . Popović passed Danilo Ilić on to Belgrade to discuss this matter with Chief of Serbian Military Intelligence Colonel Dragutin Dimitrijević , known more commonly as Apis . By 1913 , Apis and his fellow military conspirators ( drawn heavily from the ranks of the May 1903 coup ) had come to dominate what was left of the Black Hand .
There are no reports as to what took place between Ilić and Apis , but soon after their meeting , Apis 's righthand man and fellow Black Hander , Serbian Major Vojislav Tankosić , who by this time was in charge of guerrilla training , called a Serbian irredentist planning meeting in Toulouse , France . Amongst those summoned to the Toulouse meeting was Muhamed Mehmedbašić , a carpenter by trade and son of an impoverished Muslim noble from Herzegovina . He too was a member of the Black Hand , having been sworn into the organization by Black Hand Provincial Director for Bosnia @-@ Herzegovina Vladimir Gacinović and Danilo Ilić . Mehmedbašić was ( here quoting Albertini paraphrasing Mehmedbašić ) " eager to carry out an act of terrorism to revive the revolutionary spirit of Bosnia . " During this January 1914 meeting , various possible Austro @-@ Hungarian targets for assassination were discussed , including Franz Ferdinand . However , the participants decided only to dispatch Mehmed Mehmedbašić to Sarajevo , to kill the Governor of Bosnia , Oskar Potiorek .
While Mehmedbašić was travelling to Bosnia @-@ Herzegovina from France , police searched his train for a thief . Thinking the police might be after him , he threw his weapons ( a dagger and a bottle of poison ) out the train window . Once he arrived in Bosnia @-@ Herzegovina he had to set about looking for replacement weapons .
= = = Franz Ferdinand chosen = = =
The search for new weapons delayed Mehmedbašić 's attempt on Potiorek . Before Mehmedbašić was ready to act , Ilić summoned him to Mostar . On 26 March 1914 , Ilić informed Mehmedbašić that Belgrade had scrapped the mission to kill the governor . The plan now was to murder Franz Ferdinand , and Mehmedbašić should stand by for the new operation . ( Apis confessed to the Serbian Court that he ordered the assassination of Franz Ferdinand in his position as head of the Intelligence Department . ) The assassination was planned with the knowledge and approval of the Russian ambassador in Belgrade Nikolai Hartwig and the Russian military attache in Belgrade Viktor Artamonov .
Ilić recruited the Serbian youths Vaso Čubrilović and Cvjetko Popović shortly after Easter ( Orthodox Easter as given by Dedijer : 19 April 1914 ) , for the assassination , as evidenced by the testimony of Ilić , Čubrilović , and Popović at the Sarajevo trial . Three youths – Gavrilo Princip , Trifko Grabež , and Nedeljko Čabrinović – Bosnian Serb subjects of Austria @-@ Hungary , living in Belgrade , testified at the Sarajevo trial that at about the same time ( a little after Easter ) , they were eager to carry out an assassination and approached a fellow Bosnian Serb and former guerrilla fighter known to be well connected and with access to arms , Milan Ciganović , and through him Major Tankosić and reached an agreement to transport arms to Sarajevo and participate in the assassination .
Agreement in principle was quickly reached , but delivery of the weapons was delayed for more than a month . The assassins would meet with Ciganović and he would put them off . At one point , Ciganović told Grabež : " Nothing doing , the old Emperor is ill and the Heir Apparent will not go to Bosnia . " When Emperor Franz Joseph 's health recovered the operation was a " go " again . Tankosić gave the assassins one FN Model 1910 pistol . They practiced shooting a few rounds of scarce and expensive .380 ACP pistol ammunition in a park near Belgrade .
The rest of the weapons were finally delivered on 26 May . The three assassins from Belgrade testified that Major Tankosić , directly and through Ciganović , not only provided six hand grenades and four new Browning FN Model 1910 automatic pistols with .380 ACP ammunition , but also money , suicide pills , training , a special map with the location of gendarmes marked , knowledge of contacts on a clandestine tunnel used to infiltrate agents and arms into Austria @-@ Hungary , and a small card authorizing the use of that tunnel . Major Tankosić confirmed to the journalist and historian Luciano Magrini that he provided the bombs and pistols and was responsible for training Princip , Grabež , and Čabrinović and that he ( Tankosić ) initiated the idea of the suicide pills .
= = = Tunnel = = =
Princip , Grabež , and Čabrinović left Belgrade by boat on 28 May and traveled along the Sava River to Šabac where they handed the small card to Captain Popović of the Serbian Border Guard . Popović , in turn , provided them with a letter to Serbian Captain Prvanović , and filled out a form with the names of three customs officials whose identities they could assume and thereby receive discounted train tickets for the ride to Loznica , a small border town .
When Princip , Grabež , and Čabrinović reached Loznica on 29 May , Captain Prvanović summoned three of his revenue sergeants to discuss the best way to cross the border undetected . While waiting for the sergeants to arrive , Princip and Grabež had a falling out with Čabrinović over Čabrinović 's repeated violations of operational security . Čabrinović handed over the weapons he was carrying to Princip and Grabež . Princip told Čabrinović to go alone to Zvornik , make an official crossing there using Grabež 's ID card and then go on to Tuzla and link back up .
On the morning of 30 May Prvanović 's revenue sergeants assembled and Sergeant Budivoj Grbić accepted the task and led Princip and Grabež by foot to Isaković 's Island , a small island in the middle of the Drina River that separated Serbia from Bosnia . They and their weapons reached the island on 31 May . Grbić passed the terrorists and their weapons to the agents of the Serbian Narodna Odbrana for transport into Austro @-@ Hungarian territory and from safe @-@ house to safe @-@ house . Princip and Grabež crossed into Austria @-@ Hungary on the evening of 1 June . Princip and Grabež and the weapons were passed from agent to agent until on 3 June they arrived in Tuzla . They left the weapons in the hands of the Narodna Odbrana agent Miško Jovanović and rejoined Čabrinović .
The Narodna Odbrana agents reported their activities to the Narodna Odbrana President , Boža Janković , who in turn reported to the then Serbian Caretaker Prime Minister Nikola Pašić . The report to Pašić added the name of a new military conspirator , Serbian Major Kosta Todorović , Boundary Commissioner and Director of Serbian Military Intelligence Services for the frontier line from Rada to Ljubovija . Pašić 's handwritten notes from the briefing ( estimated by Dedijer to have taken place on 5 June ) included the nickname of one of the assassins ( " Trifko " Grabež ) and also the name of Major Tankosić . The Austrians later captured the report , Pašić 's handwritten notes , and additional corroborating documents .
Čabrinović 's father was a Sarajevo police official . In Tuzla , Čabrinović bumped into one of his father 's friends , Sarajevo Police Detective Ivan Vila , and struck up a conversation . By coincidence , Princip , Grabež and Čabrinović boarded the same train for Sarajevo as Detective Vila . Čabrinović inquired of the detective the date of Franz Ferdinand 's visit to Sarajevo . The next morning , Čabrinović passed on the news to his fellow assassins that the assassination would be on 28 June .
On arriving in Sarajevo on 4 June , Princip , Grabež , and Čabrinović went their separate ways . Princip checked in with Ilić , visited his family in Hadžici and returned to Sarajevo on 6 June taking up residence at Ilić 's mother 's house with Ilić . Grabež joined his family in Pale . Čabrinović moved back into his father 's house in Sarajevo .
On 14 June , Ilić went to Tuzla to bring the weapons to Sarajevo . Miško Jovanović hid the weapons in a large box of sugar . On 15 June , the two went separately by train to Doboj where Jovanović handed off the box to Ilić . Later that day , Ilić returned to Sarajevo by train , being careful to transfer to a local train outside Sarajevo and then quickly transfer to a tram to avoid police detection . Once at his mother 's house , Ilić hid the weapons in a suitcase under a sofa . Then , on approximately 17 June , Ilić traveled to Brod ( Dedijer puts it on 16 June , but trial records put it on 18 June ) . Questioned at trial , Ilić gave a confused explanation of the reason for his trip , first saying he had gone to Brod to prevent the assassination and then saying he had returned to Sarajevo from Brod to prevent the assassination . Dedijer puts forward the thesis ( citing Bogijević ) that Ilić went to Brod to meet an emissary of Apis , Djuro Ŝarac , who had instructions to cancel the assassination and then later Rade Malobabić was dispatched from Serbia to Sarajevo to reauthorize the assassination .
= = = Eve of the attacks = = =
Ilić began handing out the weapons on 27 June . Until 27 June Ilić had kept the identities of the assassins from Belgrade secret from those he had recruited locally and vice versa . Then , that night , as Mehmedbašić told Albertini : " On the eve of the outrage Ilić introduced me to Princip in a Sarajevo café with the words ' Mehmedbašić who to @-@ morrow is to be with us . ' " The three sent a postcard to Black Hand Provincial Director for Bosnia @-@ Herzegovina Vladimir Gaćinović in France .
The following morning , on 28 June 1914 , Ilić positioned the six assassins along the motorcade route . Ilić walked the street , exhorting the assassins to bravery .
= = Assassination = =
= = = Motorcade = = =
On the morning of 28 June 1914 , Franz Ferdinand and his party proceeded by train from Ilidža Spa to Sarajevo . Governor Oskar Potiorek met the party at Sarajevo station . Six automobiles were waiting . By mistake , three local police officers got into the first car with the chief officer of special security ; the special security officers who were supposed to accompany their chief got left behind . The second car carried the Mayor and the Chief of Police of Sarajevo . The third car in the motorcade was a Gräf & Stift 28 / 32 PS open sports car with its top folded down . Franz Ferdinand , Sophie , Governor Potiorek , and Lieutenant Colonel Count Franz von Harrach rode in this third car . The motorcade 's first stop on the preannounced program was for a brief inspection of a military barracks . According to the program , at 10 : 00 a.m. , the motorcade was to leave the barracks for the town hall by way of the Appel Quay .
Security arrangements within Sarajevo were limited . The local military commander , General Michael von Appel , proposed that troops line the intended route but was told that this would offend the loyal citizenry . Protection for the visiting party was accordingly left to the Sarajevo police , of whom only 60 were on duty on the day of the visit .
= = = Bombing = = =
The motorcade passed the first assassin , Mehmedbašić . Danilo Ilić had placed him in front of the garden of the Mostar Cafe and armed him with a bomb . Mehmedbašić failed to act . Ilić placed Vaso Čubrilović next to Mehmedbašić , arming him with a pistol and a bomb . He too failed to act . Further along the route , Ilić placed Nedeljko Čabrinović on the opposite side of the street near the Miljacka River arming him with a bomb .
At 10 : 10 am , Franz Ferdinand 's car approached and Čabrinović threw his bomb . The bomb bounced off the folded back convertible cover into the street . The bomb 's timed detonator caused it to explode under the next car , putting that car out of action , leaving a 1 @-@ foot @-@ diameter ( 0 @.@ 30 m ) , 6 @.@ 5 @-@ inch @-@ deep ( 170 mm ) crater , and wounding 16 – 20 people .
Čabrinović swallowed his cyanide pill and jumped into the Miljacka river . Čabrinović 's suicide attempt failed , as the cyanide only induced vomiting , and the Miljacka was only 13 cm deep due to the hot , dry summer . Police dragged Čabrinović out of the river , and he was severely beaten by the crowd before being taken into custody .
The procession sped away towards the Town Hall leaving the disabled car behind . Cvjetko Popović , Gavrilo Princip , and Trifun Grabež failed to act as the motorcade passed them at high speed .
= = = Town Hall reception = = =
Arriving at the Town Hall for a scheduled reception , Franz Ferdinand showed understandable signs of stress , interrupting a prepared speech of welcome by Mayor Fehim Curčić to protest : " Mr. Mayor , I came here on a visit and I am greeted with bombs . It is outrageous . " Duchess Sophie then whispered into Franz Ferdinand 's ear , and after a pause , Franz Ferdinand said to the mayor : " Now you may speak . " He then became calm and the mayor gave his speech . Franz Ferdinand had to wait as his own speech , still wet with blood from being in the damaged car , was brought to him . To the prepared text he added a few remarks about the day 's events thanking the people of Sarajevo for their ovations " as I see in them an expression of their joy at the failure of the attempt at assassination . "
Officials and members of the Archduke 's party discussed what to do next . The archduke 's chamberlain , Baron Rumerskirch , proposed that the couple remain at the Town Hall until troops could be brought into the city to line the streets . Governor @-@ General Oskar Potiorek vetoed this suggestion on the grounds that soldiers coming straight from maneuvers would not have the dress uniforms appropriate for such duties . " Do you think that Sarajevo is full of assassins ? " he concluded .
Franz Ferdinand and Sophie gave up their planned program in favor of visiting the wounded from the bombing , at the hospital . Count Harrach took up a protective position on the left @-@ hand running board of Franz Ferdinand ’ s car . This is confirmed by photographs of the scene outside the Town Hall . At 10 : 45 a.m. , Franz Ferdinand and Sophie got back into the motorcade , once again in the third car . In order to avoid the city center , General Oskar Potiorek decided that the royal car should travel straight along the Appel Quay to the Sarajevo Hospital . However , the driver , Leopold Lojka , took a right turn into Franz Josef Street . The reason for this is that Potiorek 's aide Eric ( h ) von Merrizzi was in the hospital , and was therefore unable to give Lojka the information about the change in plans and the driving route . The Sarajevo Chief of Police Edmund Gerde ( who had earlier repeatedly protested about the lack of security precautions for the visit ) was asked to tell the drivers of the new route but in the confusion and tensions of the moment neglected to do so .
= = = Fatal shooting = = =
After learning that the first assassination attempt had been unsuccessful , Princip thought about a position to assassinate the Archduke on his return journey , and decided to move to a position in front of a nearby food shop ( Schiller 's delicatessen ) , near the Latin Bridge . At this point the Archdukes ' motorcade turned off the Appel Quay , mistakenly following the original route which would have taken them to the National Museum . Governor Potiorek , who was sharing the second vehicle with the Imperial couple , called out to the driver to reverse and take the Quay to the hospital . Driver Lojka stopped the car close to where Princip was standing , prior to backing up . The latter stepped forward and fired two shots from a distance of about one and a half metres ( 5 feet ) using a Belgian @-@ made 9 × 17mm ( .380 ACP ) Fabrique Nationale model 1910 semi @-@ automatic pistol . Pistol serial numbers 19074 , 19075 , 19120 and 19126 were supplied to the assassins ; Princip used # 19074 . According to Albertini , " the first bullet wounded the Archduke in the jugular vein , the second inflicted an abdominal wound on the Duchess . " Princip was immediately arrested . At his sentencing , Princip stated that his intention had been to kill Governor Potiorek , rather than Sophie .
Both victims remained seated upright , but died while being driven to the Governor 's residence for medical treatment . As reported by Count Harrach , Franz Ferdinand 's last words were " Sophie , Sophie ! Don 't die ! Live for our children ! " followed by six or seven utterances of " It is nothing . " in response to Harrach 's inquiry as to Franz Ferdinand 's injury . These utterances were followed by a long death rattle . Sophie was dead on arrival at the Governor 's residence . Franz Ferdinand died 10 minutes later .
= = = Funeral = = =
The bodies were transported to Trieste by the battleship SMS Viribus Unitis and then to Vienna by special train . Even though most foreign royalty had planned to attend , they were pointedly disinvited and the funeral was just the immediate imperial family , with the dead couple 's three children excluded from the few public ceremonies . The officer corps was forbidden to salute the funeral train , and this led to a minor revolt led by Archduke Karl , the new heir to the throne . The public viewing of the coffins was curtailed severely and even more scandalously , Montenuovo tried unsuccessfully to make the children foot the bill . The Archduke and Duchess were interred at Artstetten Castle because his wife could not be buried at the Imperial Crypt .
= = = Aftermath = = =
All of the assassins were eventually caught . Those in Austro @-@ Hungarian custody were tried together with members of the infiltration route who had helped deliver them and their weapons to Sarajevo . Mehmedbašić was arrested in Montenegro , but was allowed to " escape " to Serbia where he joined Major Tankosić 's auxiliaries , but in 1916 Serbia imprisoned him on other false charges ( see criminal penalty section below ) .
Anti @-@ Serb rioting broke out in Sarajevo and various other places within Austria @-@ Hungary in the hours following the assassination until order was restored by the military . On the night of the assassination , country @-@ wide anti @-@ Serb pogroms and demonstrations were also organized in other parts of the Austro @-@ Hungarian Empire , particularly on the territory of modern @-@ day Bosnia and Herzegovina and Croatia . They were organized and stimulated by Oskar Potiorek , the Austro @-@ Hungarian governor of Bosnia and Herzegovina . The first anti @-@ Serb demonstrations , led by the followers of Josip Frank , were organized in early evening of 28 June in Zagreb . The following day , anti @-@ Serb demonstrations in Sarajevo became more violent and could be characterized as a pogrom . The police and local authorities in the city did nothing to prevent anti @-@ Serb violence . Writer Ivo Andrić referred to the violence in Sarajevo as the " Sarajevo frenzy of hate . " Two Serbs were killed on the first day of pogrom in Sarajevo , many were attacked , while around 1 @,@ 000 houses , shops , schools and institutions ( such as banks , hotels , printing houses ) owned by Serbs were razed or pillaged .
= = Trials and punishment = =
= = = Sarajevo trial ( October 1914 ) = = =
Austro @-@ Hungarian authorities arrested and prosecuted the Sarajevo assassins ( except for Mehmedbašić who had escaped to Montenegro and was released from police custody there to Serbia ) together with the agents and peasants who had assisted them on their way . The top count in the indictments was conspiracy to commit high treason involving official circles in the Kingdom of Serbia . Conspiracy to commit high treason carried a maximum sentence of death which conspiracy to commit simple murder did not . The trial was held from 12 October to 23 October with the verdict and sentences announced on 28 October 1914 .
The adult defendants , facing the death penalty , portrayed themselves at trial as unwilling participants in the conspiracy . The examination of defendant Veljko Cubrilović ( who helped coordinate the transport of the weapons and was a Narodna Odbrana agent ) is illustrative of this effort . Cubrilović stated to the court : " Princip glared at me and very forcefully said ' If you want to know , it is for that reason and we are going to carry out an assassination of the Heir and if you know about it , you have to be quiet . If you betray it , you and your family will be destroyed . ' " Under questioning by defense counsel Cubrilović described in more detail the basis of the fears that he said had compelled him to cooperate with Princip and Grabež . " Cubrilović explained that he was afraid a revolutionary organization capable of committing great atrocities stood behind Princip and that he therefore feared his house would be destroyed and his family killed if he did not comply and explained that he knew such an organization existed in Serbia , at least at one time . When pressed for why he risked the punishment of the law , and did not take the protection of the law against these threats he responded : " I was more afraid of terror than the law . "
In order to refute the charge , the conspirators from Belgrade , who because of their youth did not face the death penalty , focused during the trial on putting blame on themselves and deflecting it from official Serbia and modified their court testimony from their prior depositions accordingly . Princip stated under cross examination : " I am a Yugoslav nationalist and I believe in unification of all South Slavs in whatever form of state and that it be free of Austria . " Princip was then asked how he intended to realize his goal and responded : " By means of terror . " Cabrinović , though , testified that the political views that motivated him to kill Franz Ferdinand were views held in the circles he traveled in within Serbia . The court did not believe the defendants ' stories claiming to hold official Serbia blameless . The verdict ran : " The court regards it as proved by the evidence that both the Narodna Odbrana and military circles in the Kingdom of Serbia in charge of the espionage service , collaborated in the outrage . "
Prison terms , death sentences and acquittals were as follows :
At trial Čabrinović had expressed his regrets for the murders . Following sentencing , Čabrinović received a letter of complete forgiveness from the three young children the assassins had orphaned . Čabrinović and Princip died of tuberculosis in prison . Those under the age of 20 years at the time of the crime could receive a maximum sentence of 20 years under Austrian @-@ Hungarian law . The court heard arguments regarding Princip 's age , as there was some doubt as to his true date of birth but concluded that Princip was under 20 at the time of the assassination . Because Bosnia and Herzegovina had not yet been assigned to Austria or to Hungary , the Austro @-@ Hungarian Finance Minister administered Bosnia and Herzegovina and had responsibility for recommending clemency to the Kaiser .
= = = Salonika trial ( spring 1917 ) = = =
In late 1916 and early 1917 , secret peace talks took place between Austria @-@ Hungary and France . There is circumstantial evidence that parallel discussions were held between Austria @-@ Hungary and Serbia with Prime Minister Pašić dispatching his righthand man Stojan Protić and Regent Alexander dispatching his confidant Colonel Petar Živković to Geneva on secret business . Charles I of Austria laid out Austria @-@ Hungary 's key demand for returning Serbia to the control of the Serbian Government in exile : that Serbia should provide guarantees that there be no further political agitation emanating from Serbia against Austria @-@ Hungary .
For some time , Regent Alexander and officers loyal to him had planned to get rid of the military clique headed by Apis as Apis represented a political threat to Alexander 's power . The Austro @-@ Hungarian peace demand gave added impetus to this plan . On 15 March 1917 Apis and the officers loyal to him were indicted , on various false charges unrelated to Sarajevo ( the case was retried before the Supreme Court of Serbia in 1953 and all defendants were exonerated ) , by Serbian Court Martial on the French @-@ controlled Salonika front . On 23 May Apis and eight of his associates were sentenced to death ; two others were sentenced to 15 years in prison . One defendant died during the trial and the charges against him were dropped . The Serbian High Court reduced the number of death sentences to seven . Regent Alexander commuted four of the remaining death sentences , leaving just three death sentences in place . Amongst those tried , four of the defendants had confessed their roles in Sarajevo and their final sentences were as follows :
In justifying the executions , Prime Minister Pašić wrote to his envoy in London : " ... Dimitrijević ( Apis ) besides everything else admitted he had ordered Franz Ferdinand to be killed . And now who could reprieve them ? "
As the three condemned men were driven to their execution , Apis remarked to the driver " Now it is clear to me and clear to you too , that I am to be killed today by Serbian rifles solely because I organized the Sarajevo outrage .
Vojislav Tankosić died in battle in late 1915 and so was not put on trial .
= = Controversy about responsibility = =
= = = Serbia 's " warning " to Austria @-@ Hungary = = =
Following the assassinations , Serbian Ambassador to France Milenko Vesnić and Serbian Ambassador to Russia Spalaiković put out statements claiming that Serbia had warned Austria @-@ Hungary of the impending assassination . Serbia soon thereafter denied making warnings and denied knowledge of the plot . Prime Minister Pašić himself made these denials to Az Est on 7 July and to the Paris Edition of the New York Herald on 20 July . Other voices eventually spoke out on the “ warning ” . As Serbian Education Minister Ljuba Jovanović wrote in Krv Sloventsva , in late May or early June , Prime Minister Pašić reviewed the plot of the impending assassination with members of his cabinet . On 18 June , a telegram , lacking in specifics , ordered Serbia 's Ambassador to Vienna , Jovan Jovanović , to warn Austria @-@ Hungary that Serbia had reason to believe there was a conspiracy to assassinate Franz Ferdinand in Bosnia . On 21 June , Ambassador Jovanović met with Austro @-@ Hungarian Finance Minister Bilinski . According to Serbian Military Attaché to Vienna , Colonel Lesanin , Ambassador Jovanović , spoke to Bilinski and " ... stressed in general terms the risks the Archduke heir apparent might run from the inflamed public opinion in Bosnia and Serbia . Some serious personal misadventure might befall him . His journey might give rise to incidents and demonstrations that Serbia would deprecate but that would have fatal repercussions on Austro @-@ Serbian relations . " Jovanović came back from the meeting with Bilinski and told Lesanin that " ... Bilinski showed no sign of attaching great importance to the total message and dismissed it limiting himself to remarking when saying goodbye and thanking him : ' Let us hope nothing does happen . ' " The Austro @-@ Hungarian Finance Minister took no action based on Jovanović 's remarks .
In 1924 J. Jovanović went public stating that his warning had been made on his own initiative , and what he said was that " Among the Serb youths ( in the army ) there may be one who will put a ball @-@ cartridge in his rifle or revolver in place of a blank cartridge and he may fire it , the bullet might strike the man giving provocation ( Franz Ferdinand ) . " J. Jovanović 's account changed back and forth over the years and never adequately addressed Colonel Lesanin 's statement . Bilinski did not speak openly on the subject , but his press department chief confirmed that a meeting had taken place including a vague warning , but there was no mention of an ethnic Serb Austro @-@ Hungarian soldier shooting Franz Ferdinand .
In the days leading up to the assassination , Pašić was caretaker prime minister because during this period the Serbian Government briefly fell to a political alliance led by the Serbian Military . The military favored promoting Jovan Jovanović to Foreign Minister , and Jovanović 's loyalties one might expect to have been divided and his orders therefore carried out poorly . By choosing a military loyalist to convey the message , and by not including any of the specifics such as the conspirators ' names and weapons , Pašić , a survivor , hedged his bets against the various possible outcomes and consequences of the impending assassination .
= = = Rade Malobabić = = =
In 1914 , Rade Malobabić was Serbian Military Intelligence 's chief undercover operative against Austria @-@ Hungary . His name appeared in Serbian documents captured by Austria @-@ Hungary during the war . These documents describe the running of arms , munitions , and agents from Serbia into Austria @-@ Hungary under Malobabić 's direction .
Owing to the suppression by Serbia of Apis 's confession and of the Salonika trial transcripts historians did not initially link Malobabić closely to the Sarajevo attack . Apis 's confession , however , states that " I engaged Malobabić to organize the assassination on the occasion of the announced arrival of Franz Ferdinand to Sarajevo . " At the Salonika trial , Colonel Ljubomir Vulović ( head of the Serbian Frontiers Service ) testified : ' In 1914 on occasion of my official trip from Loznica to Belgrade , I received a letter at the General Staff [ signed by Marshal Putnik , Serbia 's top military officer ] noting that agents of Malobabić would come and a teacher whose name I don 't recall ( Danilo Ilić was a teacher but it is unclear if the teacher in question was Ilić as Ilić can be placed in Brod but not Loznica ) so I could sent [ sic ] them into Bosnia . ' Because of that ' I went to Loznica and either that day or very soon afterwards sent Rade and that teacher into Bosnia . ' Soon thereafter occurred the Sarajevo assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand . " On the eve of his execution , Malobabić told a priest : " They ordered me to go to Sarajevo when that assassination was to take place , and when everything was over , they ordered me to come back and fulfill other missions , and then there was the outbreak of the war . " Vladimir Dedijer in The Road to Sarajevo presented additional testimonial evidence that Malobabić arrived in Sarajevo on the eve of the Sarajevo attack and gave the final go ahead for the operation to Danilo Ilić . This meshes with Dedijer 's theory that Djuro Ŝarac had given instructions to Ilić on 16 June cancelling the assassination . Soon after their confessions , Serbia executed Malobabić , Vulović , and Apis on false charges . Serbia published no clarifications of their confessions with regards to the Sarajevo attack .
= = = " Black Hand " or Serbian military intelligence ? = = =
An alternative theory to the Sarajevo attack being a Serbian Military Intelligence Operation was that it was a " Black Hand " operation . The " Black Hand " was a shadowy organization formed in Serbia as a counterweight to the Bulgaria @-@ sponsored Internal Macedonian Revolutionary Organization ( IMRO ) .
After Serbia 's victory over Bulgaria in Macedonia in the Balkan Wars , the " Black Hand " became moribund because of the death of its president and the failure to replace him , an inactive secretary , casualties , broken links between its three @-@ man cells , and a drying up of funding . By 1914 the " Black Hand " was no longer operating under its constitution but rather as a creature of the Chief of Serbian Military Intelligence , Apis , and its active ranks were composed mostly of Serbian officers loyal to Apis . Apis 's confession to ordering the operation that begins with the phrase " As the Chief of the Intelligence Department of the General Staff " , the fact that the military chain of command was invoked , the moribund nature of the " Black Hand " and the fact that under the " Black Hand " constitution Article 16 , such an assassination could only be ordered by a vote of the Supreme Council Directorate , the President or the Secretary and no such order was made , are factors in favor of assigning responsibility to Serbian Military Intelligence . The fact that Milan Ciganović was involved , that the key officers involved were " Black Hand " members , that " Black Hand " Provincial Director for Bosnia and Herzegovina Vladimir Gaćinović was consulted and that there was no official budget for the operation favors assigning responsibility to the " Black Hand " .
= = = The newspaper clipping = = =
At trial , it was noted that the three assassins from Belgrade tried to take all blame on themselves . Čabrinović claimed the idea of killing Franz Ferdinand came from a newspaper clipping he received in the mail at the end of March announcing Franz Ferdinand 's planned visit to Sarajevo . He then showed the newspaper clipping to Princip and the next day they agreed they would kill Franz Ferdinand . Princip explained to the court he had already read about Franz Ferdinand 's upcoming visit in German papers . Princip went on to testify that , at about the time of Easter ( 19 April ) , he wrote an allegorical letter to Ilić informing him of the plan to kill Franz Ferdinand . Grabež testified that he and Princip , also at about the time of Easter , agreed between them to make an assassination of either Governor Potiorek or Franz Ferdinand and a little later settled on Franz Ferdinand . The defendants refused or were unable to provide details under examination .
On 26 March Ilić and Mehmedbašić had already agreed to kill Franz Ferdinand based on instructions from Belgrade predating the newspaper clipping and the discussions amongst the three assassins in Belgrade .
= = = Narodna Odbrana = = =
Serbian Military Intelligence – through remnants of the " Black Hand " – penetrated the Narodna Odbrana , using its clandestine tunnel to smuggle the assassins and their weapons from Belgrade to Sarajevo . In the 5 June 1914 report by the President of the Narodna Odbrana Boža Milanović to Prime Minister Pašić one can sense the frustration of the President over the hijacking of his organization in the final sentence dealing with Sarajevo : " Boža has informed all the agents that they should not receive anyone unless he produces the password given by Boža . "
= = = Milan Ciganović = = =
Prime Minister Pašić received early information of the assassination plan . The information was received by Pašić early enough , according to Education Minister Ljuba Jovanović , for the government to order the border guards to prevent the assassins from crossing . This places the cabinet minister discussions in late May and the information release to some time before that . Albertini concluded that the source of the information was most likely Milan Ciganović . Bogiĉević made a more forceful case .
The circumstantial evidence against Ciganović includes his sinecure government job , his protection by the Chief of Police and Serbia 's failure to arrest him ( Austria @-@ Hungary demanded Serbia arrest Major Vojislav Tankosić and Ciganović , but Serbia arrested only Tankosić and lied saying that Ciganović could not be found ) , Serbia 's protection of Ciganović during the war , and the government 's provision for Ciganović after it . In 1917 , all of the Sarajevo conspirators within Serbia 's control were tried at Salonika on false charges , except Ciganović , who even gave evidence against his comrades at the trial .
= = = Russian military attaché 's office = = =
Apis 's confession to ordering the assassination of Franz Ferdinand states that Russian Military Attaché Artamonov promised Russia 's protection from Austria @-@ Hungary if Serbia 's intelligence operations became exposed and that Russia had funded the assassination . Artamonov denied the involvement of his office in an interview with Albertini . Artamonov stated that he went on vacation to Italy leaving Assistant Military Attaché Alexander Werchovsky in charge and though he was in daily contact with Apis he did not learn of Apis 's role until after the war had ended . Albertini writes that he " remained unconvinced by the behavior of this officer . " Werchovsky admitted the involvement of his office and then fell silent on the subject .
There is evidence that Russia was at least aware of the plot before 14 June . De Schelking writes :
On 1 June 1914 ( 14 June new calendar ) , Emperor Nicholas had an interview with King Charles I of Roumania , at Constanza . I was there at the time ... yet as far as I could judge from my conversation with members of his ( Russian Foreign Minister Sazonov 's ) entourage , he ( Sazonov ) was convinced that if the Archduke ( Franz Ferdinand ) were out of the way , the peace of Europe would not be endangered .
= = Consequences = =
The murder of the heir to the Austro @-@ Hungarian Empire and his wife produced widespread shock across Europe , and there was initially much sympathy for the Austrian position . Within two days of the assassination , Austria @-@ Hungary and Germany advised Serbia that it should open an investigation , but Secretary General to the Serbian Ministry of Foreign Affairs Slavko Gruic , replied " Nothing had been done so far and the matter did not concern the Serbian Government . " An angry exchange followed between the Austrian Chargé d 'Affaires at Belgrade and Gruic .
After conducting a criminal investigation , verifying that Germany would honor its military alliance , and persuading the skeptical Hungarian Count Tisza , Austria @-@ Hungary issued a formal letter to the government of Serbia . The letter reminded Serbia of its commitment to respect the Great Powers ' decision regarding Bosnia @-@ Herzegovina , and to maintain good neighborly relations with Austria @-@ Hungary . The letter contained specific demands aimed at preventing the publication of propaganda advocating the violent destruction of Austria @-@ Hungary , removing the people behind this propaganda from the Serbian Military , arresting the people on Serbian soil who were involved in the assassination plot and preventing the clandestine shipment of arms and explosives from Serbia to Austria @-@ Hungary .
This letter became known as the July Ultimatum , and Austria @-@ Hungary stated that if Serbia did not accept all of the demands in total within 48 hours , it would recall its ambassador from Serbia . After receiving a telegram of support from Russia , Serbia mobilized its army and responded to the letter by completely accepting point # 8 demanding an end to the smuggling of weapons and punishment of the frontier officers who had assisted the assassins and completely accepting point # 10 which demanded Serbia report the execution of the required measures as they were completed . Serbia partially accepted , finessed , disingenuously answered or politely rejected elements of the preamble and enumerated demands # 1 – 7 and # 9 . The shortcomings of Serbia 's response were published by Austria @-@ Hungary . Austria @-@ Hungary responded by breaking diplomatic relations .
The next day , Serbian reservists being transported on tramp steamers on the Danube crossed onto the Austro @-@ Hungarian side of the river at Temes @-@ Kubin and Austro @-@ Hungarian soldiers fired into the air to warn them off . The report of this incident was initially sketchy and reported to Emperor Franz @-@ Joseph as " a considerable skirmish " . Austria @-@ Hungary then declared war and mobilized the portion of its army that would face the ( already mobilized ) Serbian Army on 28 July 1914 . Under the Secret Treaty of 1892 Russia and France were obliged to mobilize their armies if any of the Triple Alliance mobilized . Russia 's mobilization set off full Austro @-@ Hungarian and German mobilizations . Soon all the Great Powers except Italy had chosen sides and gone to war .
Princip 's weapon , along with the car in which the Archduke was riding , his bloodstained uniform and the chaise longue on which he died , are on permanent display in the Heeresgeschichtliches Museum in Vienna , Austria . The bullet fired by Gavrilo Princip , sometimes referred to as " the bullet that started World War I " , is a museum exhibit in the Konopiště Castle near the town of Benešov in the Czech Republic .
|
= Public Interest Disclosure Act 1998 =
The Public Interest Disclosure Act 1998 ( c.23 ) is an Act of the Parliament of the United Kingdom that protects whistleblowers from detrimental treatment by their employer . Influenced by various financial scandals and accidents , along with the report of the Committee on Standards in Public Life , the bill was introduced to Parliament by Richard Shepherd and given government support , on the condition that it become an amendment to the Employment Rights Act 1996 . After receiving the Royal Assent on 2 July 1998 , the Act came into force on 2 July 1999 . It protects employees who make disclosures of certain types of information , including evidence of illegal activity or damage to the environment , from retribution from their employers , such as dismissal or being passed over for promotion . In cases where such retribution takes place the employee may bring a case before an employment tribunal , which can award compensation .
As a result of the Act , many more employers have instituted internal whistleblowing procedures , although only 38 percent of individuals surveyed worked for a company with such procedures in place . The Act has been criticised for failing to force employers to institute such a policy , containing no provisions preventing the " blacklisting " of employees who make such disclosures , and failing to protect the employee from libel proceedings should his allegation turn out to be false .
= = Background = =
Prior to the 1998 Act , whistleblowers in the United Kingdom had no protection against being dismissed by their employer . Although they could avoid being sued for breach of confidence thanks to a public interest defence , this did not prevent subtle or open victimisation in the workplace , including disciplinary action , dismissal , failure to gain promotion or a pay rise . During the early to mid @-@ 1990s , interest in whistleblower protection grew , partially because of a series of financial scandals and health and safety accidents , which investigations into showed could have been prevented if employees had been permitted to voice their concerns , and partially because of the work of the Committee on Standards in Public Life . In 1995 and 1996 , two private member 's bills dealing with whistleblowers were introduced to Parliament , by Tony Wright and Don Touhig respectively , but both efforts fell through . When Richard Shepherd proposed a similar bill , however , he got government support for it on the condition that it be an amendment to the Employment Rights Act 1996 rather than a new area of law in its own right . Public Concern at Work , a UK @-@ based whistleblowers charity , was involved in the drafting and consultation stages of the bill . The case of Graham Pink added to the pressure to introduce whistleblower protection legislation .
The Public Interest Disclosure Bill was introduced to the House of Commons by Shepherd in 1997 , and given its second reading on 12 December before being sent to a committee . After being passed by the Commons it moved to the House of Lords on 27 April 1998 , and was passed on 29 June , receiving the Royal Assent on 2 July and becoming the Public Interest Disclosure Act 1998 . Originally scheduled to come into force on 1 January 1999 , the Act instead became applicable law on 2 July .
= = Contents of the Act = =
Section 1 of the Act inserts sections 43A to L into the Employment Rights Act 1996 , titled " Protected Disclosures " . It provides that a disclosure which the whistleblower makes to their employer , a " prescribed person " , in the course of seeking legal advice , Ministers of the Crown , individuals appointed by the Secretary of State for this purpose , or , in limited circumstances , " any other person " , is protected . In addition , the disclosure must be one which the whistleblower " reasonably believes " shows a criminal offence , a failure to comply with legal obligations , a miscarriage of justice , danger to the health and safety of employees , damage to the environment , or the hiding of information which would show any of the above actions . These disclosures do not have to be of confidential information , and this section does not abolish the public interest defence ; in addition , it can be the disclosure of information about actions which have already occurred , are occurring , or could occur in the future . In Miklaszewicz v Stolt Offshore Ltd , the Employment Appeal Tribunal confirmed that the disclosure does not have to have been made after the Act came into force ; it is sufficient for the dismissal or other persecution by the employer to have happened after that time .
The list of " prescribed persons " is found in the Public Interest Disclosure ( Prescribed Persons ) Order 1999 , and includes only official bodies ; the Health and Safety Executive , the Data Protection Registrar , the Certification Officer , the Environment Agency and the Secretary of State for Trade and Industry . An employee will be protected if he " makes a disclosure in good faith " to one of these people , and " reasonably believes that the relevant failure ... is a matter in respect of which the person is prescribed and the information is substantially true " . Other prescribed persons include the Scottish Environment Protection Agency , in relation to " acts or omissions which have an actual or potential effect on the environment ... including those relating to pollution " .
If an employee does make such a disclosure , Section 2 inserts a new Section 47B , providing that the employee shall suffer no detriment in their employment as a result . This includes both negative actions and the absence of action , and as such covers discipline , dismissal , or failing to gain a pay rise or access to facilities which would otherwise have been provided . If an employee does suffer a detriment , he is permitted to make a complaint before an employment tribunal under Section 3 . In front of an employment tribunal , the law is amended in Sections 4 and 5 to provide compensation , and to reverse the burden of proof ; if an employee has been dismissed for making a protected disclosure , this dismissal is automatically considered unfair . Similarly , under Section 6 , an employee cannot be given priority when discussing redundancies simply because he made such a disclosure . These sections take into account Section 7 , which notes that there is no requirement of age or length of employment before they come into effect .
Under Section 8 , the Secretary of State could pass a statutory instrument setting out the rules and limits surrounding compensation for the employee 's dismissal after making a protected disclosure ; until this is done , Section 9 provided interim remedies , which were the same as in other cases of unfair dismissal . The Secretary of State did pass such an instrument , the Public Interest Disclosure ( Compensation ) Regulations 1999 , but Section 8 has now been repealed under Section 44 of the Employment Relations Act 1999 . Under Section 10 , the Act applies to crown servants , excepting under Section 11 , those who are employees of MI5 , MI6 or GCHQ . The Act does exclude , in Sections 12 and 13 , serving police officers and those employed outside the United Kingdom .
= = Assessment and Impact = =
Terry Corbin , writing in the Criminal Law and Justice Weekly , notes that the result of the Act has been that many more employers have developed internal processes for reporting issues ; partially due to their desire to fix problems before they become publicly reported , and partially because if an employee chooses to not use these processes and instead act under the 1998 Act , there is a greater chance the employer can depict his behaviour as " unreasonable " . However , a survey done by Public Concern At Work showed that in 2010 , only 38 percent of those surveyed worked for companies with whistleblowing policies in place , and only 23 percent knew that legal protection for whistleblowers existed . The number of cases brought by whistleblowers to employment tribunals has increased more than tenfold , from 157 in 1999 / 2000 to 1 @,@ 761 in 2008 / 9 .
David Lewis , writing in the Industrial Law Journal , highlights what he perceives as weaknesses in the legislation . Firstly , it does not force employers to make a policy relating to disclosures . Secondly , it does not prevent employers from " blacklisting " and refusing to hire those who are known within the industry to have made disclosures in previous jobs . The complexity of the law was also criticised , as was the fact that , if such a disclosure turns out to be incorrect , the employee may be sued for libel by his employer . Volunteers and self @-@ employed people are not covered , nor are those who , in disclosing the information , commit a criminal offence . At the same time , the law does not make any provision for psychological harm caused by whistleblowing , which research shows is an increasing likelihood .
|
= Stephen , King of England =
Stephen ( c . 1092 / 6 – 25 October 1154 ) , often referred to as Stephen of Blois , was a grandson of William the Conqueror . He was King of England from 1135 to his death , and also the Count of Boulogne in right of his wife . Stephen 's reign was marked by the Anarchy , a civil war with his cousin and rival , the Empress Matilda . He was succeeded by Matilda 's son , Henry II , the first of the Angevin kings .
Stephen was born in the County of Blois in middle France ; his father , Count Stephen @-@ Henry , died while Stephen was still young , and he was brought up by his mother , Adela . Placed into the court of his uncle , Henry I , Stephen rose in prominence and was granted extensive lands . Stephen married Matilda of Boulogne , inheriting additional estates in Kent and Boulogne that made the couple one of the wealthiest in England . Stephen narrowly escaped drowning with Henry I 's son , William Adelin , in the sinking of the White Ship in 1120 ; William 's death left the succession of the English throne open to challenge . When Henry I died in 1135 , Stephen quickly crossed the English Channel and with the help of his brother Henry of Blois , a powerful ecclesiastic , took the throne , arguing that the preservation of order across the kingdom took priority over his earlier oaths to support the claim of Henry I 's daughter , the Empress Matilda .
The early years of Stephen 's reign were largely successful , despite a series of attacks on his possessions in England and Normandy by David I of Scotland , Welsh rebels , and the Empress Matilda 's husband , Geoffrey of Anjou . In 1138 the Empress 's half @-@ brother Robert of Gloucester rebelled against Stephen , threatening civil war . Together with his close advisor , Waleran de Beaumont , Stephen took firm steps to defend his rule , including arresting a powerful family of bishops . When the Empress and Robert invaded in 1139 , however , Stephen was unable to crush the revolt rapidly , and it took hold in the south @-@ west of England . Captured at the battle of Lincoln in 1141 , Stephen was abandoned by many of his followers and lost control of Normandy . Stephen was freed only after his wife and William of Ypres , one of his military commanders , captured Robert at the Rout of Winchester , but the war dragged on for many years with neither side able to win an advantage .
Stephen became increasingly concerned with ensuring that his son Eustace would inherit his throne . The King tried to convince the Church to agree to crown Eustace to reinforce his claim ; Pope Eugene III refused , and Stephen found himself in a sequence of increasingly bitter arguments with his senior clergy . In 1153 the Empress 's son , Henry FitzEmpress , invaded England and built an alliance of powerful regional barons to support his claim for the throne . The two armies met at Wallingford , but neither side 's barons were keen to fight another pitched battle . Stephen began to examine a negotiated peace , a process hastened by the sudden death of Eustace . Later in the year Stephen and Henry agreed to the Treaty of Winchester , in which Stephen recognised Henry as his heir in exchange for peace , passing over William , Stephen 's second son . Stephen died the following year . Modern historians have extensively debated the extent to which Stephen 's personality , external events , or the weaknesses in the Norman state contributed to this prolonged period of civil war .
= = Early life ( 1096 – 1135 ) = =
= = = Childhood = = =
Stephen was born in Blois in France , in either 1092 or 1096 . His father was Stephen @-@ Henry , Count of Blois and Chartres , an important French nobleman , and an active crusader , who played only a brief part in Stephen 's early life . During the First Crusade Stephen @-@ Henry had acquired a reputation for cowardice , and he returned to the Levant again in 1101 to rebuild his reputation ; there he was killed at the battle of Ramlah . Stephen 's mother , Adela , was the daughter of William the Conqueror and Matilda of Flanders , famous amongst her contemporaries for her piety , wealth and political talent . She had a strong matriarchal influence on Stephen during his early years .
France in the 12th century was a loose collection of counties and smaller polities , under the minimal control of the king of France . The king 's power was linked to his control of the rich province of Île @-@ de @-@ France , just to the east of Stephen 's home county of Blois . In the west lay the three counties of Maine , Anjou and Touraine , and to the north of Blois was the Duchy of Normandy , from which William the Conqueror had conquered England in 1066 . William 's children were still fighting over the collective Anglo @-@ Norman inheritance . The rulers across this region spoke a similar language , albeit with regional dialects , followed the same religion , and were closely interrelated ; they were also highly competitive and frequently in conflict with one another for valuable territory and the castles that controlled them .
Stephen had at least four brothers and one sister , along with two probable half @-@ sisters . Stephen 's eldest brother was William , who under normal circumstances would have ruled the county . William was probably intellectually disabled , and Adela instead had the title passed over him to her second son , Theobald , who went on later to acquire the county of Champagne as well as Blois and Chartres . Stephen 's remaining older brother , Odo , died young , probably in his early teens . His younger brother , Henry of Blois , was probably born four years after him . The brothers formed a close @-@ knit family group , and Adela encouraged Stephen to take up the role of a feudal knight , whilst steering Henry towards a career in the church , possibly so that their personal career interests would not overlap . Unusually , Stephen was raised in his mother 's household rather than being sent to a close relative ; he was taught Latin and riding , and was educated in recent history and Biblical stories by his tutor , William the Norman .
= = = Relationship with Henry I = = =
Stephen 's early life was heavily influenced by his relationship with his uncle Henry I. Henry seized power in England following the death of his elder brother William Rufus . In 1106 he invaded and captured the Duchy of Normandy , controlled by his eldest brother , Robert Curthose , defeating Robert 's army at the battle of Tinchebray . Henry then found himself in conflict with Louis VI of France , who took the opportunity to declare Robert 's son William Clito the Duke of Normandy . Henry responded by forming a network of alliances with the western counties of France against Louis , resulting in a regional conflict that would last throughout Stephen 's early life . Adela and Theobald allied themselves with Henry , and Stephen 's mother decided to place him in Henry 's court . Henry fought his next military campaign in Normandy , from 1111 onwards , where rebels led by Robert of Bellême were opposing his rule . Stephen was probably with Henry during the military campaign of 1112 , when he was knighted by the King , and was definitely present at court during the King 's visit to the Abbey of Saint @-@ Evroul in 1113 . Stephen probably first visited England in either 1113 or 1115 , almost certainly as part of Henry 's court .
Henry became a powerful patron of Stephen 's ; Henry probably chose to support him because Stephen was part of his extended family and a regional ally , yet not sufficiently wealthy or powerful in his own right to represent a threat to either the King or his heir , William Adelin . As a third surviving son , even of an influential regional family , Stephen still needed the support of a powerful patron such as the King to progress in life . With Henry 's support , Stephen rapidly began to accumulate lands and possessions . Following the battle of Tinchebray in 1106 , Henry confiscated the County of Mortain from William , the Count of Mortain , and the Honour of Eye , a large lordship previously owned by Robert Malet . In 1113 , Stephen was granted both the title and the honour , although without the lands previously held by William in England . The gift of the Honour of Lancaster also followed after it was confiscated by Henry from Roger the Poitevin . Stephen was also given lands in Alençon in southern Normandy by Henry , but the local Normans rebelled , seeking assistance from Fulk , the Count of Anjou . Stephen and his older brother Theobald were comprehensively beaten in the subsequent campaign , which culminated in the battle of Alençon , and the territories were not recovered .
Finally , the King arranged for Stephen to marry Matilda in 1125 , the daughter and only heiress of the Count of Boulogne , who owned both the important continental port of Boulogne and vast estates in the north @-@ west and south @-@ east of England . In 1127 , William Clito , a potential claimant to the English throne , seemed likely to become the Count of Flanders ; Stephen was sent by the King on a mission to prevent this , and in the aftermath of his successful election , William Clito attacked Stephen 's lands in neighbouring Boulogne in retaliation . Eventually a truce was declared , and William Clito died the following year .
= = = The White Ship and succession = = =
In 1120 , the English political landscape changed dramatically . Three hundred passengers embarked on the White Ship to travel from Barfleur in Normandy to England , including the heir to the throne , William Adelin , and many other senior nobles . Stephen had intended to sail on the same ship but changed his mind at the last moment and got off to await another vessel , either out of concern for overcrowding on board the ship , or because he was suffering from diarrhoea . The ship foundered en route , and all but two of the passengers died , including William Adelin .
With Adelin dead , the inheritance to the English throne was thrown into doubt . Rules of succession in western Europe at the time were uncertain ; in some parts of France , male primogeniture , in which the eldest son would inherit a title , was becoming more popular . It was also traditional for the King of France to crown his successor whilst he himself was still alive , making the intended line of succession relatively clear , but this was not the case in England . In other parts of Europe , including Normandy and England , the tradition was for lands to be divided up , with the eldest son taking patrimonial lands — usually considered to be the most valuable — and younger sons being given smaller , or more recently acquired , partitions or estates . The problem was further complicated by the sequence of unstable Anglo @-@ Norman successions over the previous sixty years — William the Conqueror had gained England by force , William Rufus and Robert Curthose had fought a war between them to establish their inheritance , and Henry had only acquired control of Normandy by force . There had been no peaceful , uncontested successions .
With William Adelin dead , Henry had only one other legitimate child , Matilda , but as a woman she was at a substantial political disadvantage . Despite Henry taking a second wife , Adeliza of Louvain , it became increasingly unlikely that he would have another legitimate son , and he instead looked to Matilda as his intended heir . Matilda claimed the title of Holy Roman Empress through her marriage to Emperor Henry V , but her husband died in 1125 , and she was remarried in 1128 to Geoffrey , the Count of Anjou , whose lands bordered the Duchy of Normandy . Geoffrey was unpopular with the Anglo @-@ Norman elite : as an Angevin ruler , he was a traditional enemy of the Normans . At the same time , tensions continued to grow as a result of Henry 's domestic policies , in particular the high level of revenue he was raising to pay for his various wars . Conflict was curtailed , however , by the power of the King 's personality and reputation .
Henry attempted to build up a base of political support for Matilda in both England and Normandy , demanding that his court take oaths first in 1127 , and then again in 1128 and 1131 , to recognise Matilda as his immediate successor and recognise her descendants as the rightful rulers after her . Stephen was amongst those who took this oath in 1127 . Nonetheless , relations between Henry , Matilda , and Geoffrey became increasingly strained towards the end of the King 's life . Matilda and Geoffrey suspected that they lacked genuine support in England , and proposed to Henry in 1135 that the King should hand over the royal castles in Normandy to Matilda whilst he was still alive and insist on the Norman nobility swearing immediate allegiance to her , thereby giving the couple a much more powerful position after Henry 's death . Henry angrily declined to do so , probably out of a concern that Geoffrey would try to seize power in Normandy somewhat earlier than intended . A fresh rebellion broke out in southern Normandy , and Geoffrey and Matilda intervened militarily on behalf of the rebels . In the middle of this confrontation , Henry unexpectedly fell ill and died near Lyons @-@ la @-@ Forêt .
= = Succession ( 1135 ) = =
Stephen was a well established figure in Anglo @-@ Norman society by 1135 . He was extremely wealthy , well @-@ mannered and liked by his peers ; he was also considered a man capable of firm action . Chroniclers recorded that despite his wealth and power he was a modest and easy @-@ going leader , happy to sit with his men and servants , casually laughing and eating with them . He was very pious , both in terms of his observance of religious rituals and his personal generosity to the church . Stephen also had a personal Augustinian confessor appointed to him by the Archbishop of Canterbury , who implemented a penitential regime for him , and Stephen encouraged the new order of Cistercians to form abbeys on his estates , winning him additional allies within the church . Rumours of his father 's cowardice during the First Crusade , however , continued to circulate , and a desire to avoid the same reputation may have influenced some of Stephen 's rasher military actions . His wife , Matilda , played a major role in running their vast English estates , which contributed to the couple being the second @-@ richest lay household in the country after the King . The landless Flemish nobleman William of Ypres had joined Stephen 's household in 1133 , alongside Faramus of Boulogne , a Flemish relative and friend of Matilda 's .
Meanwhile , Stephen 's younger brother Henry of Blois had also risen to power under Henry I. Henry of Blois had become a Cluniac monk and followed Stephen to England , where the King made him Abbot of Glastonbury , the richest abbey in England . The King then appointed him Bishop of Winchester , one of the richest bishoprics , allowing him to retain Glastonbury as well . The combined revenues of the two positions made Henry of Winchester the second @-@ richest man in England after the King . Henry of Winchester was keen to reverse what he perceived as encroachment by the Norman kings on the rights of the church . The Norman kings had traditionally exercised a great deal of power and autonomy over the church within their territories . From the 1040s onwards , however , successive popes had put forward a reforming message that emphasised the importance of the church being " governed more coherently and more hierarchically from the centre " and established " its own sphere of authority and jurisdiction , separate from and independent of that of the lay ruler " , in the words of historian Richard Huscroft .
When news began to spread of Henry I 's death , many of the potential claimants to the throne were not well placed to respond . Geoffrey and Matilda were in Anjou , rather awkwardly supporting the rebels in their campaign against the royal army , which included a number of Matilda 's supporters such as Robert of Gloucester . Many of these barons had taken an oath to stay in Normandy until the late king was properly buried , which prevented them from returning to England . Stephen 's elder brother Theobald was further south still , in Blois . Stephen , however , was in Bolougne , and when news reached him of Henry 's death he left for England , accompanied by his military household . Robert of Gloucester had garrisoned the ports of Dover and Canterbury and some accounts suggest that they refused Stephen access when he first arrived . Nonetheless Stephen probably reached his own estate on the edge of London by 8 December and over the next week he began to seize power in England .
The crowds in London traditionally claimed a right to elect the king of England , and they proclaimed Stephen the new monarch , believing that he would grant the city new rights and privileges in return . Henry of Blois delivered the support of the church to Stephen : Stephen was able to advance to Winchester , where Roger , who was both the Bishop of Salisbury and the Lord Chancellor , instructed the royal treasury to be handed over to Stephen . On 15 December , Henry delivered an agreement under which Stephen would grant extensive freedoms and liberties to the church , in exchange for the Archbishop of Canterbury and the Papal Legate supporting his succession to the throne . There was the slight problem of the religious oath that Stephen had taken to support the Empress Matilda , but Henry convincingly argued that the late King had been wrong to insist that his court take the oath . Furthermore , the late King had only insisted on that oath to protect the stability of the kingdom , and in light of the chaos that might now ensue , Stephen would be justified in ignoring it . Henry was also able to persuade Hugh Bigod , the late King 's royal steward , to swear that the King had changed his mind about the succession on his deathbed , nominating Stephen instead . Stephen 's coronation was held a week later at Westminster Abbey on 22 December .
Meanwhile , the Norman nobility gathered at Le Neubourg to discuss declaring Theobald king , probably following the news that Stephen was gathering support in England . The Normans argued that the count , as the eldest grandson of William the Conqueror , had the most valid claim over the kingdom and the duchy , and was certainly preferable to Matilda . Theobald met with the Norman barons and Robert of Gloucester at Lisieux on 21 December , but their discussions were interrupted by the sudden news from England that Stephen 's coronation was to occur the next day . Theobald then agreed to the Normans ' proposal that he be made king , only to find that his former support immediately ebbed away : the barons were not prepared to support the division of England and Normandy by opposing Stephen . Stephen subsequently financially compensated Theobald , who in return remained in Blois and supported his brother 's succession .
= = Early reign ( 1136 – 39 ) = =
= = = Initial years ( 1136 – 37 ) = = =
Stephen 's new Anglo @-@ Norman kingdom had been shaped by the Norman conquest of England in 1066 , followed by the Norman expansion into south Wales over the coming years . Both the kingdom and duchy were dominated by a small number of major barons who owned lands on both sides of the English Channel , with the lesser barons beneath them usually having more localised holdings . The extent to which lands and positions should be passed down through hereditary right or by the gift of the king was still uncertain , and tensions concerning this issue had grown during the reign of Henry I. Certainly lands in Normandy , passed by hereditary right , were usually considered more important to major barons than those in England , where their possession was less certain . Henry had increased the authority and capabilities of the central royal administration , often bringing in " new men " to fulfil key positions rather than using the established nobility . In the process he had been able to maximise revenues and contain expenditures , resulting in a healthy surplus and a famously large treasury , but also increasing political tensions .
Stephen had to intervene in the north of England immediately after his coronation . David I of Scotland invaded the north on the news of Henry 's death , taking Carlisle , Newcastle and other key strongholds . Northern England was a disputed territory at this time , with the Scottish kings laying a traditional claim to Cumberland , and David also claiming Northumbria by virtue of his marriage to the daughter of the former Anglo @-@ Saxon earl Waltheof . Stephen rapidly marched north with an army and met David at Durham . An agreement was made under which David would return most of the territory he had taken , with the exception of Carlisle . In return , Stephen confirmed David 's son Prince Henry 's possessions in England , including the Earldom of Huntingdon .
Returning south , Stephen held his first royal court at Easter 1136 . A wide range of nobles gathered at Westminster for the event , including many of the Anglo @-@ Norman barons and most of the higher officials of the church . Stephen issued a new royal charter , confirming the promises he had made to the church , promising to reverse Henry 's policies on the royal forests and to reform any abuses of the royal legal system . Stephen portrayed himself as the natural successor to Henry I 's policies , and reconfirmed the existing seven earldoms in the kingdom on their existing holders . The Easter court was a lavish event , and a large amount of money was spent on the event itself , clothes and gifts . Stephen gave out grants of land and favours to those present and endowed numerous church foundations with land and privileges . Stephen 's accession to the throne still needed to be ratified by the Pope , however , and Henry of Blois appears to have been responsible for ensuring that testimonials of support were sent both from Stephen 's elder brother Theobald and from the French king Louis VI , to whom Stephen represented a useful balance to Angevin power in the north of France . Pope Innocent II confirmed Stephen as king by letter later that year , and Stephen 's advisers circulated copies widely around England to demonstrate Stephen 's legitimacy .
Troubles continued across Stephen 's kingdom . After the Welsh victory at the battle of Llwchwr in January 1136 and the successful ambush of Richard Fitz Gilbert de Clare in April , south Wales rose in rebellion , starting in east Glamorgan and rapidly spreading across the rest of south Wales during 1137 . Owain Gwynedd and Gruffydd ap Rhys successfully captured considerable territories , including Carmarthen Castle . Stephen responded by sending Richard 's brother Baldwin and the Marcher Lord Robert Fitz Harold of Ewyas into Wales to pacify the region . Neither mission was particularly successful , and by the end of 1137 the King appears to have abandoned attempts to put down the rebellion . Historian David Crouch suggests that Stephen effectively " bowed out of Wales " around this time to concentrate on his other problems . Meanwhile , Stephen had put down two revolts in the south @-@ west led by Baldwin de Redvers and Robert of Bampton ; Baldwin was released after his capture and travelled to Normandy , where he became an increasingly vocal critic of the King .
The security of Normandy was also a concern . Geoffrey of Anjou invaded in early 1136 and , after a temporary truce , invaded later the same year , raiding and burning estates rather than trying to hold the territory . Events in England meant that Stephen was unable to travel to Normandy himself , so Waleran de Beaumont , appointed by Stephen as the lieutenant of Normandy , and Theobald led the efforts to defend the duchy . Stephen himself only returned to the duchy in 1137 , where he met with Louis VI and Theobald to agree to an informal regional alliance , probably brokered by Henry , to counter the growing Angevin power in the region . As part of this deal , Louis recognised Stephen 's son Eustace as Duke of Normandy in exchange for Eustace giving fealty to the French king . Stephen was less successful , however , in regaining the Argentan province along the Normandy and Anjou border , which Geoffrey had taken at the end of 1135 . Stephen formed an army to retake it , but the frictions between his Flemish mercenary forces led by William of Ypres and the local Norman barons resulted in a battle between the two halves of his army . The Norman forces then deserted the King , forcing Stephen to give up his campaign . Stephen agreed to another truce with Geoffrey , promising to pay him 2 @,@ 000 marks a year in exchange for peace along the Norman borders .
In the years following his succession , Stephen 's relationship with the church became gradually more complex . The royal charter of 1136 had promised to review the ownership of all the lands that had been taken by the crown from the church since 1087 , but these estates were now typically owned by nobles . Henry of Blois 's claims , in his role as Abbot of Glastonbury , to extensive lands in Devon resulted in considerable local unrest . In 1136 , Archbishop of Canterbury William de Corbeil died . Stephen responded by seizing his personal wealth , which caused some discontent amongst the senior clergy . Stephen 's brother Henry wanted to succeed to the post , but Stephen instead supported Theobald of Bec , who was eventually appointed , while the papacy named Henry papal legate , possibly as consolation for not receiving Canterbury .
Stephen 's first few years as king can be interpreted in different ways . From a positive perspective , he stabilised the northern border with Scotland , contained Geoffrey 's attacks on Normandy , was at peace with Louis VI , enjoyed good relations with the church and had the broad support of his barons . There were significant underlying problems , nonetheless . The north of England was now controlled by David and Prince Henry , Stephen had abandoned Wales , the fighting in Normandy had considerably destabilised the duchy , and an increasing number of barons felt that Stephen had given them neither the lands nor the titles they felt they deserved or were owed . Stephen was also rapidly running out of money : Henry 's considerable treasury had been emptied by 1138 due to the costs of running Stephen 's more lavish court and the need to raise and maintain his mercenary armies fighting in England and Normandy .
= = = Defending the kingdom ( 1138 – 39 ) = = =
Stephen was attacked on several fronts during 1138 . First , Robert of Gloucester rebelled against the King , starting the descent into civil war in England . An illegitimate son of Henry I and the half @-@ brother of the Empress Matilda , Robert was one of the most powerful Anglo @-@ Norman barons , controlling estates in Normandy as well as the Earldom of Gloucester . He was known for his qualities as a statesman , his military experience , and leadership ability . Robert had tried to convince Theobald to take the throne in 1135 ; he did not attend Stephen 's first court in 1136 and it took several summonses to convince him to attend court at Oxford later that year . In 1138 , Robert renounced his fealty to Stephen and declared his support for Matilda , triggering a major regional rebellion in Kent and across the south @-@ west of England , although Robert himself remained in Normandy . In France , Geoffrey of Anjou took advantage of the situation by re @-@ invading Normandy . David of Scotland also invaded the north of England once again , announcing that he was supporting the claim of his niece the Empress Matilda to the throne , pushing south into Yorkshire .
Anglo @-@ Norman warfare during the reign of Stephen was characterised by attritional military campaigns , in which commanders tried to seize key enemy castles in order to allow them to take control of their adversaries ' territory and ultimately win a slow , strategic victory . The armies of the period centred on bodies of mounted , armoured knights , supported by infantry and crossbowmen . These forces were either feudal levies , drawn up by local nobles for a limited period of service during a campaign , or , increasingly , mercenaries , who were expensive but more flexible and often more skilled . These armies , however , were ill @-@ suited to besieging castles , whether the older motte @-@ and @-@ bailey designs or the newer , stone @-@ built keeps . Existing siege engines were significantly less powerful than the later trebuchet designs , giving defenders a substantial advantage over attackers . As a result , slow sieges to starve defenders out , or mining operations to undermine walls , tended to be preferred by commanders over direct assaults . Occasionally pitched battles were fought between armies but these were considered highly risky endeavours and were usually avoided by prudent commanders . The cost of warfare had risen considerably in the first part of the 12th century , and adequate supplies of ready cash were increasingly proving important in the success of campaigns .
Stephen 's personal qualities as a military leader focused on his skill in personal combat , his capabilities in siege warfare and a remarkable ability to move military forces quickly over relatively long distances . In response to the revolts and invasions , Stephen rapidly undertook several military campaigns , focusing primarily on England rather than Normandy . His wife Matilda was sent to Kent with ships and resources from Boulogne , with the task of retaking the key port of Dover , under Robert 's control . A small number of Stephen 's household knights were sent north to help the fight against the Scots , where David 's forces were defeated later that year at the battle of the Standard in August by the forces of Thurstan , the Archbishop of York . Despite this victory , however , David still occupied most of the north . Stephen himself went west in an attempt to regain control of Gloucestershire , first striking north into the Welsh Marches , taking Hereford and Shrewsbury , before heading south to Bath . The town of Bristol itself proved too strong for him , and Stephen contented himself with raiding and pillaging the surrounding area . The rebels appear to have expected Robert to intervene with support that year , but he remained in Normandy throughout , trying to persuade the Empress Matilda to invade England herself . Dover finally surrendered to the queen 's forces later in the year .
Stephen 's military campaign in England had progressed well , and historian David Crouch describes it as " a military achievement of the first rank " . The King took the opportunity of his military advantage to forge a peace agreement with Scotland . Stephen 's wife Matilda was sent to negotiate another agreement between Stephen and David , called the treaty of Durham ; Northumbria and Cumbria would effectively be granted to David and his son Prince Henry , in exchange for their fealty and future peace along the border . Unfortunately , the powerful Ranulf , Earl of Chester , considered himself to hold the traditional rights to Carlisle and Cumberland and was extremely displeased to see them being given to the Scots . Nonetheless , Stephen could now focus his attention on the anticipated invasion of England by Robert and Matilda 's forces .
= = = Road to civil war ( 1139 ) = = =
Stephen prepared for the Angevin invasion by creating a number of additional earldoms . Only a handful of earldoms had existed under Henry I and these had been largely symbolic in nature . Stephen created many more , filling them with men he considered to be loyal , capable military commanders , and in the more vulnerable parts of the country assigning them new lands and additional executive powers . Stephen appears to have had several objectives in mind , including both ensuring the loyalty of his key supporters by granting them these honours , and improving his defences in key parts of the kingdom . Stephen was heavily influenced by his principal advisor , Waleran de Beaumont , the twin brother of Robert of Leicester . The Beaumont twins and their younger brother and cousins received the majority of these new earldoms . From 1138 onwards , Stephen gave them the earldoms of Worcester , Leicester , Hereford , Warwick and Pembroke , which — especially when combined with the possessions of Stephen 's new ally , Prince Henry , in Cumberland and Northumbria — created a wide block of territory to act as a buffer zone between the troubled south @-@ west , Chester , and the rest of the kingdom . With their new lands , the power of the Beamounts grew to the point where David Crouch suggests that it became " dangerous to be anything other than a friend of Waleran " at Stephen 's court .
Stephen took steps to remove a group of bishops he regarded as a threat to his rule . The royal administration under Henry I had been headed by Roger , the Bishop of Salisbury , supported by Roger 's nephews , Alexander and Nigel , the Bishops of Lincoln and Ely respectively , and Roger 's son , Roger le Poer , who was the Lord Chancellor . These bishops were powerful landowners as well as ecclesiastical rulers , and they had begun to build new castles and increase the size of their military forces , leading Stephen to suspect that they were about to defect to the Empress Matilda . Roger and his family were also enemies of Waleran , who disliked their control of the royal administration . In June 1139 , Stephen held his court in Oxford , where a fight between Alan of Brittany and Roger 's men broke out , an incident probably deliberately created by Stephen . Stephen responded by demanding that Roger and the other bishops surrender all of their castles in England . This threat was backed up by the arrest of the bishops , with the exception of Nigel who had taken refuge in Devizes Castle ; the bishop only surrendered after Stephen besieged the castle and threatened to execute Roger le Poer . The remaining castles were then surrendered to the King .
Stephen 's brother , Henry of Blois , was alarmed by this , both as a matter of principle , since Stephen had previously agreed in 1135 to respect the freedoms of the church , and more pragmatically because he himself had recently built six castles and had no desire to be treated in the same way . As the papal legate , he summoned the King to appear before an ecclesiastical council to answer for the arrests and seizure of property . Henry asserted the Church ’ s right to investigate and judge all charges against members of the clergy . Stephen sent Aubrey de Vere as his spokesman to the council , who argued that Roger of Salisbury had been arrested not as a bishop , but rather in his role as a baron who had been preparing to change his support to the Empress Matilda . The King was supported by Hugh , Archbishop of Rouen , who challenged the bishops to show how canon law entitled them to build or hold castles . Aubrey threatened that Stephen would complain to the pope that he was being harassed by the English church , and the council let the matter rest following an unsuccessful appeal to Rome . The incident successfully removed any military threat from the bishops , but it may have damaged Stephen 's relationship with the senior clergy , and in particular with his brother Henry .
= = Civil war ( 1139 – 54 ) = =
= = = Initial phase of the war ( 1139 – 40 ) = = =
The Angevin invasion finally arrived in 1139 . Baldwin de Redvers crossed over from Normandy to Wareham in August in an initial attempt to capture a port to receive the Empress Matilda 's invading army , but Stephen 's forces forced him to retreat into the south @-@ west . The following month , however , the Empress was invited by the Dowager Queen Adeliza to land at Arundel instead , and on 30 September Robert of Gloucester and the Empress arrived in England with 140 knights . The Empress stayed at Arundel Castle , whilst Robert marched north @-@ west to Wallingford and Bristol , hoping to raise support for the rebellion and to link up with Miles of Gloucester , a capable military leader who took the opportunity to renounce his fealty to the King . Stephen promptly moved south , besieging Arundel and trapping Matilda inside the castle .
Stephen then agreed to a truce proposed by his brother , Henry of Blois ; the full details of the truce are not known , but the results were that Stephen first released Matilda from the siege and then allowed her and her household of knights to be escorted to the south @-@ west , where they were reunited with Robert of Gloucester . The reasoning behind Stephen 's decision to release his rival remains unclear . Contemporary chroniclers suggested that Henry argued that it would be in Stephen 's own best interests to release the Empress and concentrate instead on attacking Robert , and Stephen may have seen Robert , not the Empress , as his main opponent at this point in the conflict . Stephen also faced a military dilemma at Arundel — the castle was considered almost impregnable , and he may have been worried that he was tying down his army in the south whilst Robert roamed freely in the west . Another theory is that Stephen released Matilda out of a sense of chivalry ; Stephen was certainly known for having a generous , courteous personality and women were not normally expected to be targeted in Anglo @-@ Norman warfare .
Having released the Empress , Stephen focused on pacifying the south @-@ west of England . Although there had been few new defections to the Empress , his enemies now controlled a compact block of territory stretching out from Gloucester and Bristol south @-@ west into Devon and Cornwall , west into the Welsh Marches and east as far as Oxford and Wallingford , threatening London . Stephen started by attacking Wallingford Castle , held by the Empress 's childhood friend Brien FitzCount , only to find it too well defended . Stephen left behind some forces to blockade the castle and continued west into Wiltshire to attack Trowbridge , taking the castles of South Cerney and Malmesbury en route . Meanwhile , Miles of Gloucester marched east , attacking Stephen 's rearguard forces at Wallingford and threatening an advance on London . Stephen was forced to give up his western campaign , returning east to stabilise the situation and protect his capital .
At the start of 1140 , Nigel , the Bishop of Ely , whose castles Stephen had confiscated the previous year , rebelled against Stephen as well . Nigel hoped to seize East Anglia and established his base of operations in the Isle of Ely , then surrounded by protective fenland . Stephen responded quickly , taking an army into the fens and using boats lashed together to form a causeway that allowed him to make a surprise attack on the isle . Nigel escaped to Gloucester , but his men and castle were captured , and order was temporarily restored in the east . Robert of Gloucester 's men retook some of the territory that Stephen had taken in his 1139 campaign . In an effort to negotiate a truce , Henry of Blois held a peace conference at Bath , to which Stephen sent his wife . The conference collapsed over the insistence by Henry and the clergy that they should set the terms of any peace deal , which Stephen found unacceptable .
Ranulf of Chester remained upset over Stephen 's gift of the north of England to Prince Henry . Ranulf devised a plan for dealing with the problem by ambushing Henry whilst the prince was travelling back from Stephen 's court to Scotland after Christmas . Stephen responded to rumours of this plan by escorting Henry himself north , but this gesture proved the final straw for Ranulf . Ranulf had previously claimed that he had the rights to Lincoln Castle , held by Stephen , and under the guise of a social visit , Ranulf seized the fortification in a surprise attack . Stephen marched north to Lincoln and agreed to a truce with Ranulf , probably to keep him from joining the Empress 's faction , under which Ranulf would be allowed to keep the castle . Stephen returned to London but received news that Ranulf , his brother and their family were relaxing in Lincoln Castle with a minimal guard force , a ripe target for a surprise attack of his own . Abandoning the deal he had just made , Stephen gathered his army again and sped north , but not quite fast enough — Ranulf escaped Lincoln and declared his support for the Empress , and Stephen was forced to place the castle under siege .
= = = Second phase of the war ( 1141 – 42 ) = = =
While Stephen and his army besieged Lincoln Castle at the start of 1141 , Robert of Gloucester and Ranulf of Chester advanced on the King 's position with a somewhat larger force . When the news reached Stephen , he held a council to decide whether to give battle or to withdraw and gather additional soldiers : Stephen decided to fight , resulting in the battle of Lincoln on 2 February 1141 . The King commanded the centre of his army , with Alan of Brittany on his right and William of Aumale on his left . Robert and Ranulf 's forces had superiority in cavalry and Stephen dismounted many of his own knights to form a solid infantry block ; he joined them himself , fighting on foot in the battle . Stephen was not a gifted public speaker , and delegated the pre @-@ battle speech to Baldwin of Clare , who delivered a rousing declaration . After an initial success in which William 's forces destroyed the Angevins ' Welsh infantry , the battle went badly for Stephen . Robert and Ranulf 's cavalry encircled Stephen 's centre , and the king found himself surrounded by the enemy army . Many of Stephen 's supporters , including Waleran de Beaumont and William of Ypres , fled from the field at this point but Stephen fought on , defending himself first with his sword and then , when that broke , with a borrowed battle axe . Finally , he was overwhelmed by Robert 's men and taken away from the field in custody .
Robert took Stephen back to Gloucester , where the King met with the Empress Matilda , and was then moved to Bristol Castle , traditionally used for holding high @-@ status prisoners . He was initially left confined in relatively good conditions , but his security was later tightened and he was kept in chains . The Empress now began to take the necessary steps to have herself crowned queen in his place , which would require the agreement of the church and her coronation at Westminster . Stephen 's brother Henry summoned a council at Winchester before Easter in his capacity as papal legate to consider the clergy 's view . He had made a private deal with the Empress Matilda that he would deliver the support of the church , if she agreed to give him control over church business in England . Henry handed over the royal treasury , rather depleted except for Stephen 's crown , to the Empress , and excommunicated many of Stephen 's supporters who refused to switch sides . Archbishop Theobald of Canterbury was unwilling to declare Matilda queen so rapidly , however , and a delegation of clergy and nobles , headed by Theobald , travelled to see Stephen in Bristol and consult about their moral dilemma : should they abandon their oaths of fealty to the King ? Stephen agreed that , given the situation , he was prepared to release his subjects from their oath of fealty to him , and the clergy gathered again in Winchester after Easter to declare the Empress " Lady of England and Normandy " as a precursor to her coronation . When Matilda advanced to London in an effort to stage her coronation in June , though , she faced an uprising by the local citizens in support of Stephen that forced her to flee to Oxford , uncrowned .
Once news of Stephen 's capture reached him , Geoffrey of Anjou invaded Normandy again and , in the absence of Waleran of Beaumont , who was still fighting in England , Geoffrey took all the duchy south of the river Seine and east of the river Risle . No help was forthcoming from Stephen 's brother Theobald this time either , who appears to have been preoccupied with his own problems with France — the new French king , Louis VII , had rejected his father 's regional alliance , improving relations with Anjou and taking a more bellicose line with Theobald , which would result in war the following year . Geoffrey 's success in Normandy and Stephen 's weakness in England began to influence the loyalty of many Anglo @-@ Norman barons , who feared losing their lands in England to Robert and the Empress , and their possessions in Normandy to Geoffrey . Many started to leave Stephen 's faction . His friend and advisor Waleran was one of those who decided to defect in mid @-@ 1141 , crossing into Normandy to secure his ancestral possessions by allying himself with the Angevins , and bringing Worcestershire into the Empress 's camp . Waleran 's twin brother , Robert of Leicester , effectively withdrew from fighting in the conflict at the same time . Other supporters of the Empress were restored in their former strongholds , such as Bishop Nigel of Ely , and others still received new earldoms in the west of England . The royal control over the minting of coins broke down , leading to coins being struck by local barons and bishops across the country .
Stephen 's wife Matilda played a critical part in keeping the King 's cause alive during his captivity . Queen Matilda gathered Stephen 's remaining lieutenants around her and the royal family in the south @-@ east , advancing into London when the population rejected the Empress . Stephen 's long @-@ standing commander William of Ypres remained with the queen in London ; William Martel , the royal steward , commanded operations from Sherborne in Dorset , and Faramus of Boulogne ran the royal household . The queen appears to have generated genuine sympathy and support from Stephen 's more loyal followers . Henry 's alliance with the Empress proved short @-@ lived , as they soon fell out over political patronage and ecclesiastical policy ; the bishop met Stephen 's wife Queen Matilda at Guildford and transferred his support to her .
The King 's eventual release resulted from the Angevin defeat at the rout of Winchester . Robert of Gloucester and the Empress besieged Henry in the city of Winchester in July . Queen Matilda and William of Ypres then encircled the Angevin forces with their own army , reinforced with fresh troops from London . In the subsequent battle the Empress 's forces were defeated and Robert of Gloucester himself was taken prisoner . Further negotiations attempted to deliver a general peace agreement but Queen Matilda was unwilling to offer any compromise to the Empress , and Robert refused to accept any offer to encourage him to change sides to Stephen . Instead , in November the two sides simply exchanged Robert and the King , and Stephen began re @-@ establishing his authority . Henry held another church council , which this time reaffirmed Stephen 's legitimacy to rule , and a fresh coronation of Stephen and Matilda occurred at Christmas 1141 .
At the beginning of 1142 Stephen fell ill , and by Easter rumours had begun to circulate that he had died . Possibly this illness was the result of his imprisonment the previous year , but he finally recovered and travelled north to raise new forces and to successfully convince Ranulf of Chester to change sides once again . Stephen then spent the summer attacking some of the new Angevin castles built the previous year , including Cirencester , Bampton and Wareham . In September , he spotted an opportunity to seize the Empress Matilda herself in Oxford . Oxford was a secure town , protected by walls and the river Isis , but Stephen led a sudden attack across the river , leading the charge and swimming part of the way . Once on the other side , the King and his men stormed into the town , trapping the Empress in the castle . Oxford Castle , however , was a powerful fortress and , rather than storming it , Stephen had to settle down for a long siege , albeit secure in the knowledge that Matilda was now surrounded . Just before Christmas , the Empress left the castle unobserved , crossed the icy river on foot and made her escape to Wallingford . The garrison surrendered shortly afterwards , but Stephen had lost an opportunity to capture his principal opponent .
= = = Stalemate ( 1143 – 46 ) = = =
The war between the two sides in England reached a stalemate in the mid @-@ 1140s , while Geoffrey of Anjou consolidated his hold on power in Normandy . 1143 started precariously for Stephen when he was besieged by Robert of Gloucester at Wilton Castle , an assembly point for royal forces in Herefordshire . Stephen attempted to break out and escape , resulting in the battle of Wilton . Once again , the Angevin cavalry proved too strong , and for a moment it appeared that Stephen might be captured for a second time . On this occasion , however , William Martel , Stephen 's steward , made a fierce rear guard effort , allowing Stephen to escape from the battlefield . Stephen valued William 's loyalty sufficiently to agree to exchange Sherborne Castle for his safe release — this was one of the few instances where Stephen was prepared to give up a castle to ransom one of his men .
In late 1143 , Stephen faced a new threat in the east , when Geoffrey de Mandeville , the Earl of Essex , rose up in rebellion against the King in East Anglia . Stephen had disliked the baron for several years , and provoked the conflict by summoning Geoffrey to court , where the King arrested him . Stephen threatened to execute Geoffrey unless the baron handed over his various castles , including the Tower of London , Saffron Walden and Pleshey , all important fortifications because they were in , or close to , London . Geoffrey gave in , but once free he headed north @-@ east into the Fens to the Isle of Ely , from where he began a military campaign against Cambridge , with the intention of progressing south towards London . With all of his other problems and with Hugh Bigod still in open revolt in Norfolk , Stephen lacked the resources to track Geoffrey down in the Fens and made do with building a screen of castles between Ely and London , including Burwell Castle .
For a period , the situation continued to worsen . Ranulf of Chester revolted once again in the summer of 1144 , splitting up Stephen 's Honour of Lancaster between himself and Prince Henry . In the west , Robert of Gloucester and his followers continued to raid the surrounding royalist territories , and Wallingford Castle remained a secure Angevin stronghold , too close to London for comfort . Meanwhile , Geoffrey of Anjou finished securing his hold on southern Normandy and in January 1144 he advanced into Rouen , the capital of the duchy , concluding his campaign . Louis VII recognised him as Duke of Normandy shortly after . By this point in the war , Stephen was depending increasingly on his immediate royal household , such as William of Ypres and others , and lacked the support of the major barons who might have been able to provide him with significant additional forces ; after the events of 1141 , Stephen made little use of his network of earls .
After 1143 the war ground on , but progressing slightly better for Stephen . Miles of Gloucester , one of the most talented Angevin commanders , had died whilst hunting over the previous Christmas , relieving some of the pressure in the west . Geoffrey de Mandeville 's rebellion continued until September 1144 , when he died during an attack on Burwell . The war in the west progressed better in 1145 , with the King recapturing Faringdon Castle in Oxfordshire . In the north , Stephen came to a fresh agreement with Ranulf of Chester , but then in 1146 repeated the ruse he had played on Geoffrey de Mandeville in 1143 , first inviting Ranulf to court , before arresting him and threatening to execute him unless he handed over a number of castles , including Lincoln and Coventry . As with Geoffrey , the moment Ranulf was released he immediately rebelled , but the situation was a stalemate : Stephen had few forces in the north with which to prosecute a fresh campaign , whilst Ranulf lacked the castles to support an attack on Stephen . By this point , however , Stephen 's practice of inviting barons to court and arresting them had brought him into some disrepute and increasing distrust .
= = = Final phases of the war ( 1147 – 52 ) = = =
England had suffered extensively from the war by 1147 , leading later Victorian historians to call the period of conflict " the Anarchy " . The contemporary Anglo @-@ Saxon Chronicle recorded how " there was nothing but disturbance and wickedness and robbery " . Certainly in many parts of the country , such as Wiltshire , Berkshire , the Thames Valley and East Anglia , the fighting and raiding had caused serious devastation . Numerous " adulterine " , or unauthorised , castles had been built as bases for local lords — the chronicler Robert of Torigny complained that as many as 1 @,@ 115 such castles had been built during the conflict , although this was probably an exaggeration as elsewhere he suggested an alternative figure of 126 . The previously centralised royal coinage system was fragmented , with Stephen , the Empress and local lords all minting their own coins . The royal forest law had collapsed in large parts of the country . Some parts of the country , though , were barely touched by the conflict — for example , Stephen 's lands in the south @-@ east and the Angevin heartlands around Gloucester and Bristol were largely unaffected , and David I ruled his territories in the north of England effectively . The King 's overall income from his estates , however , declined seriously during the conflict , particularly after 1141 , and royal control over the minting of new coins remained limited outside of the south @-@ east and East Anglia . With Stephen often based in the south @-@ east , increasingly Westminster , rather than the older site of Winchester , was used as the centre of royal government .
The character of the conflict in England gradually began to shift ; as historian Frank Barlow suggests , by the late 1140s " the civil war was over " , barring the occasional outbreak of fighting . In 1147 Robert of Gloucester died peacefully , and the next year the Empress Matilda left south @-@ west England for Normandy , both of which contributed to reducing the tempo of the war . The Second Crusade was announced , and many Angevin supporters , including Waleran of Beaumont , joined it , leaving the region for several years . Many of the barons were making individual peace agreements with each other to secure their lands and war gains . Geoffrey and Matilda 's son , the future King Henry II , mounted a small mercenary invasion of England in 1147 but the expedition failed , not least because Henry lacked the funds to pay his men . Surprisingly , Stephen himself ended up paying their costs , allowing Henry to return home safely ; his reasons for doing so are unclear . One potential explanation is his general courtesy to a member of his extended family ; another is that he was starting to consider how to end the war peacefully , and saw this as a way of building a relationship with Henry .
The young Henry FitzEmpress returned to England again in 1149 , this time planning to form a northern alliance with Ranulf of Chester . The Angevin plan involved Ranulf agreeing to give up his claim to Carlisle , held by the Scots , in return for being given the rights to the whole of the Honour of Lancaster ; Ranulf would give homage to both David and Henry Fitzempress , with Henry having seniority . Following this peace agreement , Henry and Ranulf agreed to attack York , probably with help from the Scots . Stephen marched rapidly north to York and the planned attack disintegrated , leaving Henry to return to Normandy , where he was declared duke by his father .
Although still young , Henry was increasingly gaining a reputation as an energetic and capable leader . His prestige and power increased further when he unexpectedly married Eleanor of Aquitaine in 1152 ; Eleanor was the attractive Duchess of Aquitaine and the recently divorced wife of Louis VII of France , and the marriage made Henry the future ruler of a huge swathe of territory across France .
In the final years of the war , Stephen began to focus on the issue of his family and the succession . Stephen 's eldest son was Eustace and the King wanted to confirm him as his successor , although chroniclers recorded that Eustace was infamous for levying heavy taxes and extorting money from those on his lands . Stephen 's second son , William , was married to the extremely wealthy heiress Isabel de Warenne . In 1148 , Stephen built the Cluniac Faversham Abbey as a resting place for his family . Both Stephen 's wife , Queen Matilda , and his older brother Theobald died in 1152 .
= = = Argument with the church ( 1145 – 52 ) = = =
Stephen 's relationship with the church deteriorated badly towards the end of his reign . The reforming movement within the church , which advocated greater autonomy from royal authority for the clergy , had continued to grow , while new voices such as the Cistercians had gained additional prestige within the monastic orders , eclipsing older orders such as the Cluniacs . Stephen 's dispute with the church had its origins in 1140 , when Archbishop Thurstan of York died . An argument then broke out between a group of reformers based in York and backed by Bernard of Clairvaux , the head of the Cistercian order , who preferred William of Rievaulx as the new archbishop , and Stephen and his brother Henry of Blois , who preferred various Blois family relatives . The row between Henry and Bernard grew increasingly personal , and Henry used his authority as legate to appoint his nephew William of York to the post in 1144 only to find that , when Pope Innocent II died in 1145 , Bernard was able to get the appointment rejected by Rome . Bernard then convinced Pope Eugene III to overturn Henry 's decision altogether in 1147 , deposing William , and appointing Henry Murdac as archbishop instead .
Stephen was furious over what he saw as potentially precedent @-@ setting papal interference in his royal authority , and initially refused to allow Murdac into England . When Theobald , the Archbishop of Canterbury , went to consult with the Pope on the matter against Stephen 's wishes , the King refused to allow him back into England either , and seized his estates . Stephen also cut his links to the Cistercian order , and turned instead to the Cluniacs , of which Henry was a member .
Nonetheless , the pressure on Stephen to get Eustace confirmed as his legitimate heir continued to grow . The King gave Eustace the County of Boulogne in 1147 , but it remained unclear whether Eustace would inherit England . Stephen 's preferred option was to have Eustace crowned while he himself was still alive , as was the custom in France , but this was not the normal practice in England , and Celestine II , during his brief tenure as pope between 1143 and 1144 , had banned any change to this practice . Since the only person who could crown Eustace was Archbishop Theobald , who refused to do so without agreement from the current pope , Eugene III , the matter reached an impasse . At the end of 1148 , Stephen and Theobald came to a temporary compromise that allowed Theobald to return to England . Theobald was appointed a papal legate in 1151 , adding to his authority . Stephen then made a fresh attempt to have Eustace crowned at Easter 1152 , gathering his nobles to swear fealty to Eustace , and then insisting that Theobald and his bishops anoint him king . When Theobald refused yet again , Stephen and Eustace imprisoned both him and the bishops and refused to release them unless they agreed to crown Eustace . Theobald escaped again into temporary exile in Flanders , pursued to the coast by Stephen 's knights , marking a low point in Stephen 's relationship with the church .
= = = Treaties and peace ( 1153 – 54 ) = = =
Henry FitzEmpress returned to England again at the start of 1153 with a small army , supported in the north and east of England by Ranulf of Chester and Hugh Bigod . Stephen 's castle at Malmesbury was besieged by Henry 's forces , and the King responded by marching west with an army to relieve it . Stephen unsuccessfully attempted to force Henry 's smaller army to fight a decisive battle along the river Avon . In the face of the increasingly wintry weather , Stephen agreed to a temporary truce and returned to London , leaving Henry to travel north through the Midlands where the powerful Robert de Beaumont , Earl of Leicester , announced his support for the Angevin cause . Despite only modest military successes , Henry and his allies now controlled the south @-@ west , the Midlands and much of the north of England .
Over the summer , Stephen intensified the long @-@ running siege of Wallingford Castle in a final attempt to take this major Angevin stronghold . The fall of Wallingford appeared imminent and Henry marched south in an attempt to relieve the siege , arriving with a small army and placing Stephen 's besieging forces under siege themselves . Upon news of this , Stephen gathered up a large force and marched from Oxford , and the two sides confronted each other across the River Thames at Wallingford in July . By this point in the war , the barons on both sides seem to have been eager to avoid an open battle . As a result , instead of a battle ensuing , members of the church brokered a truce , to the annoyance of both Stephen and Henry .
In the aftermath of Wallingford , Stephen and Henry spoke together privately about a potential end to the war ; Stephen 's son Eustace , however , was furious about the peaceful outcome at Wallingford . He left his father and returned home to Cambridge to gather more funds for a fresh campaign , where he fell ill and died the next month . Eustace 's death removed an obvious claimant to the throne and was politically convenient for those seeking a permanent peace in England . It is possible , however , that Stephen had already begun to consider passing over Eustace 's claim ; historian Edmund King observes that Eustace 's claim to the throne was not mentioned in the discussions at Wallingford , for example , and this may have added to Stephen 's son 's anger .
Fighting continued after Wallingford , but in a rather half @-@ hearted fashion . Stephen lost the towns of Oxford and Stamford to Henry while the King was diverted fighting Hugh Bigod in the east of England , but Nottingham Castle survived an Angevin attempt to capture it . Meanwhile , Stephen 's brother Henry of Blois and Archbishop Theobald of Canterbury were for once unified in an effort to broker a permanent peace between the two sides , putting pressure on Stephen to accept a deal . The armies of Stephen and Henry FitzEmpress met again at Winchester , where the two leaders would ratify the terms of a permanent peace in November . Stephen announced the Treaty of Winchester in Winchester Cathedral : he recognised Henry FitzEmpress as his adopted son and successor , in return for Henry doing homage to him ; Stephen promised to listen to Henry 's advice , but retained all his royal powers ; Stephen 's remaining son , William , would do homage to Henry and renounce his claim to the throne , in exchange for promises of the security of his lands ; key royal castles would be held on Henry 's behalf by guarantors , whilst Stephen would have access to Henry 's castles ; and the numerous foreign mercenaries would be demobilised and sent home . Stephen and Henry sealed the treaty with a kiss of peace in the cathedral .
= = Death = =
Stephen 's decision to recognise Henry as his heir was , at the time , not necessarily a final solution to the civil war . Despite the issuing of new currency and administrative reforms , Stephen might potentially have lived for many more years , whilst Henry 's position on the continent was far from secure . Although Stephen 's son William was young and unprepared to challenge Henry for the throne in 1153 , the situation could well have shifted in subsequent years — there were widespread rumours during 1154 that William planned to assassinate Henry , for example . Historian Graham White describes the treaty of Winchester as a " precarious peace " , capturing the judgement of most modern historians that the situation in late 1153 was still uncertain and unpredictable .
Certainly many problems remained to be resolved , including re @-@ establishing royal authority over the provinces and resolving the complex issue of which barons should control the contested lands and estates after the long civil war . Stephen burst into activity in early 1154 , travelling around the kingdom extensively . He began issuing royal writs for the south @-@ west of England once again and travelled to York where he held a major court in an attempt to impress upon the northern barons that royal authority was being reasserted . After a busy summer in 1154 , however , Stephen travelled to Dover to meet the Count of Flanders ; some historians believe that the King was already ill and preparing to settle his family affairs . Stephen fell ill with a stomach disorder and died on 25 October at the local priory , being buried at Faversham Abbey with his wife Matilda and son Eustace .
= = Legacy = =
= = = Aftermath = = =
After Stephen 's death , Henry II succeeded to the throne of England . Henry vigorously re @-@ established royal authority in the aftermath of the civil war , dismantling castles and increasing revenues , although several of these trends had begun under Stephen . The destruction of castles under Henry was not as dramatic as once thought , and although he restored royal revenues , the economy of England remained broadly unchanged under both rulers . Stephen 's remaining son William I of Blois was confirmed as the Earl of Surrey by Henry , and prospered under the new regime , with the occasional point of tension with Henry . Stephen 's daughter Marie I of Boulogne also survived her father ; she had been placed in a convent by Stephen , but after his death left and married . Stephen 's middle son , Baldwin , and second daughter , Matilda , had died before 1147 and were buried at Holy Trinity Priory , Aldgate . Stephen probably had three illegitimate sons , Gervase , Ralph and Americ , by his mistress Damette ; Gervase became Abbot of Westminster in 1138 , but after his father 's death Gervase was removed by Henry in 1157 and died shortly afterwards .
= = = Historiography = = =
Much of the modern history of Stephen 's reign is based on accounts of chroniclers who lived in , or close to , the middle of the 12th century , forming a relatively rich account of the period . All of the main chronicler accounts carry significant regional biases in how they portray the disparate events . Several of the key chronicles were written in the south @-@ west of England , including the Gesta Stephani , or " Acts of Stephen " , and William of Malmesbury 's Historia Novella , or " New History " . In Normandy , Orderic Vitalis wrote his Ecclesiastical History , covering Stephen 's reign until 1141 , and Robert of Torigni wrote a later history of the rest of the period . Henry of Huntingdon , who lived in the east of England , produced the Historia Anglorum that provides a regional account of the reign . The Anglo @-@ Saxon Chronicle was past its prime by the time of Stephen , but is remembered for its striking account of conditions during " the Anarchy " . Most of the chronicles carry some bias for or against Stephen , Robert of Gloucester or other key figures in the conflict . Those writing for the church after the events of Stephen 's later reign , such as John of Salisbury for example , paint the King as a tyrant due to his argument with the Archbishop of Canterbury ; by contrast , clerics in Durham regarded Stephen as a saviour , due to his contribution to the defeat of the Scots at the battle of the Standard . Later chronicles written during the reign of Henry II were generally more negative : Walter Map , for example , described Stephen as " a fine knight , but in other respects almost a fool . " A number of charters were issued during Stephen 's reign , often giving details of current events or daily routine , and these have become widely used as sources by modern historians .
Historians in the " Whiggish " tradition that emerged during the Victorian period traced a progressive and universalist course of political and economic development in England over the medieval period . William Stubbs focused on these constitutional aspects of Stephen 's reign in his 1874 volume the Constitutional History of England , beginning an enduring interest in Stephen and his reign . Stubbs ' analysis , focusing on the disorder of the period , influenced his student John Round to coin the term " the Anarchy " to describe the period , a label that , whilst sometimes critiqued , continues to be used today . The late @-@ Victorian scholar Frederic William Maitland also introduced the possibility that Stephen 's reign marked a turning point in English legal history — the so @-@ called " tenurial crisis " .
Stephen remains a popular subject for historical study : David Crouch suggests that after King John he is " arguably the most written @-@ about medieval king of England " . Modern historians vary in their assessments of Stephen as a king . Historian R. H. Davis 's influential biography paints a picture of a weak king : a capable military leader in the field , full of activity and pleasant , but " beneath the surface ... mistrustful and sly " , with poor strategic judgement that ultimately undermined his reign . Stephen 's lack of sound policy judgement and his mishandling of international affairs , leading to the loss of Normandy and his consequent inability to win the civil war in England , is also highlighted by another of his biographers , David Crouch . Historian and biographer Edmund King , whilst painting a slightly more positive picture than Davis , also concludes that Stephen , while a stoic , pious and genial leader , was also rarely , if ever , his own man , usually relying upon stronger characters such as his brother or wife . Historian Keith Stringer provides a more positive portrayal of Stephen , arguing that his ultimate failure as king was the result of external pressures on the Norman state , rather than the result of personal failings .
= = = Popular representations = = =
Stephen and his reign have been occasionally used in historical fiction . Stephen and his supporters appear in Ellis Peters ' historical detective series Brother Cadfael , set between 1137 and 1145 . Peters ' depiction of Stephen 's reign is an essentially local narrative , focused on the town of Shrewsbury and its environs . Peters paints Stephen as a tolerant man and a reasonable ruler , despite his execution of the Shrewsbury defenders after the taking of the city in 1138 . In contrast , Stephen is depicted unsympathetically in both Ken Follett 's historical novel The Pillars of the Earth and the TV mini @-@ series adapted from it .
= = Issue = =
Stephen of Blois married Matilda of Boulogne in 1125 . They had the following issue :
Eustace ( c . 1130 – 1153 ) , who succeeded his parents as Count Eustace IV of Boulogne
Matilda ( died before 1141 ) , married Waleran de Beaumont , 1st Earl of Worcester
Marie ( 1133 – 1182 ) , who succeeded as Countess Marie I of Boulogne
Baldwin ( died before 1135 )
Adela ( died before 1146 )
William ( c . 1137 – 1159 ) , who succeeded as Count William I of Boulogne
King Stephen 's illegitimate children by a certain Damette were :
Gervase , Abbot of Westminster
Ralph
Americ
= = Ancestors = =
|
= I Will Possess Your Heart =
" I Will Possess Your Heart " is an alternative rock song recorded by the American band Death Cab for Cutie . The song depicts a one @-@ sided obsessive relationship , which led Paste to name it one of the 25 creepiest songs about love . It is notable for its five @-@ minute instrumental introduction as well as its music video which required location shooting across four continents . The song was the lead single from their sixth studio album , Narrow Stairs ( 2008 ) .
The music is dominated by a repetitive bass guitar riff interspersed with piano chords and Ben Gibbard 's vocals . It was released on March 18 , 2008 in two versions : a full eight @-@ minute album version , and a four @-@ minute radio edit that omitted most of the instrumental introduction . The song was critically acclaimed and nominated for the 2009 Grammy Award for Best Rock Song .
The music video , released on April 11 , 2008 , features scenes of a young woman traveling alone to various places around the world , interspersed with the band performing in an industrial freezer room . The shoot involved the actress , director , and a crew of two traveling 27 @,@ 977 miles in 13 days , and was shot on consumer @-@ grade camcorders to achieve a sense of total realism and so that the film crew would blend in as tourists . The video won the 2008 MTV Video Music Award for Best Editing and was nominated for the Best Cinematography award .
= = Writing and composition = =
The song 's lyrics depict a one @-@ sided obsessive relationship from the point of view of the pursuer , who implores the object of his affection that she needs to " spend some time " with him so that he might " possess [ her ] heart . " Songwriter and lead vocalist Ben Gibbard noted that , although fictional , the song was inspired by the experiences of some of his friends . He added :
The song is basically about a stalker . It ’ s about this nice guy who wants this girl he can ’ t have , and he believes they ’ ll be together once she realizes how great he is — he just has to wait it out . That ’ s the part that makes the song really creepy , the delusion of thinking that they were meant to be together . It ’ s a really dark song . A lot of the material is about the inevitable disappointment people feel as they move through life , and things don ’ t feel the way they expect . No experience will ever match up to the idealized version in your mind .
The song is written in the key of F major with a moderate tempo of 134 beats per minute . The music is dominated by a distinctive 4 @-@ bar bass guitar riff that is repeated through nearly all of the song . This is interspersed with piano chords that generally follow a D @-@ D / C @-@ F @-@ G progression . The lead vocals have a range of D3 – G4 . The instrumentation also includes multiple guitar parts , drums , and backup vocals . Gibbard characterized the song as " five minutes of build and then a three @-@ minute song " , referring to the lengthy instrumental introduction that takes up more than half the song . Like the other songs on Narrow Stairs , it was recorded with all band members playing together in the studio , directly to tape without any overdubs .
Gibbard credited Nick Harmer 's bass line with being integral to the song , noting inspiration from bassists Eric Avery and Simon Gallup . Harmer said of the bass line , " I immediately gravitated to the creepy , stalker @-@ ish theme that Ben created with the lyrics and the piano chords .... I liked the idea that once a stalker gets obsessed with an idea , it just keeps repeating in his head , so I wanted the bass line to have a repetitive , incessant theme . "
The song was released on March 18 , 2008 , initially as a " surprise stream " on the band 's website , and soon after was picked up by radio stations . It was released in two versions : the album version of the song is over eight minutes long , while the radio edit largely removes the instrumental introduction , shortening the song to four minutes .
= = Reception = =
The song received acclaim from critics . James Montgomery of MTV News said of the song , " there are moments on Stairs that stop you dead in your tracks , send shivers up your spine and make you go ' Whoa ' ... like the first four @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half minutes of ' I Will Possess Your Heart , ' a propulsive whirl of stalking bass line , spindly guitars and stabbing piano . " Will Hermes noted in Rolling Stone that the sense of menace in the song was " playing against type for a guy with one of rock 's purest voices — a vibrato @-@ less , bell @-@ clear high tenor whose choirboy quality only throws the darkness here into relief . " Blender 's Jonah Weiner concurred , stating " it 's a pleasant surprise to hear Gibbard inhabit such a self @-@ consciously creepy role , rather than play the occasionally errant , essentially good @-@ hearted boyfriend who soft @-@ shoes through so many of his tales . " In 2011 , Tyler Kane of Paste included the song in a list of " the 25 creepiest songs about love " .
" I Will Possess Your Heart " was named the iTunes UK song of the year 2008 and was ranked # 36 on the Triple J Hottest 100 of 2008 in Australia . The song was nominated for the 2009 Grammy Award for Best Rock Song , but lost to " Girls in Their Summer Clothes " by Bruce Springsteen .
= = Music video = =
= = = Synopsis = = =
The music video features scenes of a young woman traveling alone to various places around the world , interspersed with the band performing in an industrial freezer room . Throughout her journey , the woman keeps a neutral expression and barely reacts to the sights around her . The video was shot in New York City , London , Paris , Frankfurt , Tokyo , Hokkaido , Tunis , Carthage , Bangkok , Siem Reap , and Phnom Penh .
= = = Filming = = =
Aaron Stewart @-@ Ahn was selected to direct the video based on his previous work directing the video for Death Cab For Cutie 's " Stable Song " , as well as work documenting the band 's live performances . Stewart @-@ Ahn said that the theme of travel had been inspired by Death Cab for Cutie 's earlier song " Transatlanticism " , as well as his own extensive experience traveling solo , adding that " I ’ ve always felt that travel is a defining human experience that changes you forever , and hope that this depiction of wanderlust , obsessiveness , repetition , and loneliness conveys some of that . ” He also said " The idea is that the band is performing in an incredibly cold environment while this woman is traveling around the world , moving toward progressively warmer climes . The farther she gets from the song 's obsessive protagonist , the more her world opens up , and the less reliable his memories of her become . "
The shoot involved the actress , director , and a crew of two traveling 27 @,@ 977 miles in 13 days . The young woman was portrayed by Lindsay Burdge , who would years later become known for lead roles in several independent films such as A Teacher and The Sideways Light . On his directing , Stewart @-@ Ahn said " The goal was absolute realism ; nothing was staged . " Much of the film was shot on camcorder , including a Panasonic AG @-@ HVX200 and a consumer @-@ grade Canon HV30 , so as to blend in by looking like tourists . He noted that the trip to Hokkaido was taken on a whim , and during the trip the team realized that daylight would be gone by the time they would reach their intended destination , so they exited the train at Asari and took what would become the final shot of the video there .
Stewart @-@ Ahn selected Shawn Kim to direct the shots of the band , and although they never met in person they established visual motifs to unite their respective parts of the video . The scenes of the band were shot in a food storage facility in Los Angeles at temperatures below 12 ° F. Unlike Stewart @-@ Ahn 's section of the video , Kim used a professional Arriflex 435 camera and Panavision E @-@ Series lenses , which he felt added to the coldness of the image . The two sets used were at different temperatures , and since bringing the large anamorphic lenses from a colder to a warmer temperature would result in condensation , a separate set of lenses needed to be used for each set .
= = = Release and reception = = =
The music video for " I Will Possess Your Heart " was released on MTV.com and VH1.com on April 11 , 2008 , and immediately added to those channels ' rotations . Two versions of the video were released , a full length version running 8 : 31 which features the album version of the song , and a shorter 4 : 22 version which features the radio edit , omitting most of the instrumental introduction . The video won the 2008 MTV Video Music Award for Best Editing for editors Aaron Stewart @-@ Ahn and Jeff Buchanan . It was also nominated for the Best Cinematography award , but lost to Wyatt Troll for The White Stripes ’ " Conquest " .
= = Track listing = =
US CD :
" I Will Possess Your Heart " ( 7 " edit )
" I Will Possess Your Heart " ( 10 " edit )
" I Will Possess Your Heart " ( album version )
US 7 " vinyl :
" I Will Possess Your Heart " ( radio edit )
" The Ice Is Getting Thinner " ( demo )
= = Credits and personnel = =
Words by Benjamin Gibbard
Song by Benjamin Gibbard , Nicholas Harmer , Jason McGerr , and Christopher Walla
Produced by Christopher Walla
Recorded by Christopher Walla and Will Markwell at Two Sticks Audio , Seattle , Washington
Mixed by Christopher Walla at The Alberta Court , Portland , Oregon
Mastered by Roger Seibel at SAE Mastering , Phoenix , Arizona
Artwork and layout by EE Storey
= = Charts = =
|
= You Are the Apple of My Eye =
You Are the Apple of My Eye ( Chinese : 那些年 ， 我們一起追的女孩 , literally " Those Years , The Girl We Went After Together " ) is a 2011 Taiwanese Romance film . It is based on the semi @-@ autobiographical novel of the same name by Taiwanese author Giddens Ko , who also made his directorial debut with the film . The film stars Ko Chen @-@ tung as Ko Ching @-@ teng , a prankster and a mischievous student who eventually becomes a writer . Michelle Chen stars as Shen Chia @-@ yi , an honor student who is very popular amongst the boys in her class .
You Are the Apple of My Eye was filmed almost entirely on location in Changhua County , including at the high school which Giddens attended . The lyrics of " Those Years " , the film 's main theme , were written by Giddens . The song , which was well received by the public , was nominated for Best Original Film Song at the 48th Golden Horse Awards .
The film 's world premiere was at the 13th Taipei Film Festival on 25 June 2011 , and it was subsequently released in Taiwanese cinemas on 19 August . Well received by film critics , the movie set box @-@ office records in Taiwan , Hong Kong , and Singapore . Ko Chen @-@ tung won the Best Newcomer award at the Golden Horse Awards for his role in the film .
= = Plot = =
The story begins in 1994 . An outstanding student , Shen Chia @-@ yi is popular among her teachers and classmates . Ko Ching @-@ teng , mischievous and a poor student , claims that he has no interest in her , despite being her classmate since junior high school . One day , Ching @-@ teng is caught masturbating during class , and the principal reseats him , placing him in front of Chia @-@ yi .
One day , Chia @-@ yi forgets her English textbook . Ching @-@ teng slips her his own book and tells their teacher he forgot his own textbook ; he then endures a long lecture and is punished . Chia @-@ yi , touched by Ching @-@ teng 's generosity , prepares a practice exam for him in return , to encourage him to study . She also convinces him to stay after school to study with her . Their relationship grows , and Ching @-@ teng 's grades gradually improve .
On graduation , Ching @-@ teng enrolls at the National Chiao Tung University . Chia @-@ Yi , who did not do well on the admission exam because she was ill on that day , only manages to enter the National Taipei University of Education with her mediocre test results . Depressed and upset , she is consoled by Ching @-@ teng , who calls her long @-@ distance almost every night from university . During the winter holiday season that year , the two go on their first " date " , during which Ching @-@ teng asks Chia @-@ yi if she loves him . However , fearing she would say no , he decides that he would rather not hear her answer ( it is revealed later that her reply would have been " yes " ) . Ching @-@ teng later organizes a fight night and invites Chia @-@ yi to watch , hoping to impress her with his " strength " . On the contrary , Chia @-@ yi finds it childish for Ching @-@ teng to injure himself for no reason . This upsets Ching @-@ teng , sparking a quarrel that causes the two to break up .
During the two years after their breakup , Ching @-@ teng has no contact with Chia @-@ yi . He qualifies for a graduate research course at Tunghai University , where he begins writing stories online . Ching @-@ teng only regains contact with Chia @-@ yi after the 921 earthquake , when he calls to see if she is okay . During their long conversation with each other , they both lament the fact that they were not fated to become a couple .
Years later , in 2005 , Chia @-@ yi suddenly calls Ching @-@ teng to tell him that she is getting married . All of her old friends gather at the wedding , making jokes and trying to embarrass her somewhat @-@ older husband . They are surprised that their past emotions have transformed into deep friendship and serenity . Ching @-@ teng begins to work on a web novel about his experiences with Chia @-@ yi .
Later , when they gather to congratulate the bride and groom , the friends joke that they should be able to kiss the bride . The husband says that anybody who wants to kiss the bride has to kiss him like that first . Ching @-@ teng grabs the groom and pushes him onto the table , kissing him like he would kiss Chia @-@ yi . During their kiss , he remembers how he regrets their fight from years ago , and what could have happened had he apologized for being childish .
= = Cast = =
Ko Chen @-@ tung as Ko Ching @-@ teng ( nicknamed " Ko @-@ teng " ) , a mischievous schoolboy who later becomes a writer ( Ko Ching @-@ teng is the real name of the director , Giddens ) .
Michelle Chen as Shen Chia @-@ yi , an outgoing student who consistently scores well in tests . Although she disdains boys less intelligent than herself , she decides to help Ching @-@ teng improve his grades . In the process , she falls in love with him .
Owodog as Tsao Kuo @-@ sheng ( nicknamed " Lao Tsao " ) , one of Ching @-@ teng 's friends . He had a crush on Chia @-@ yi , and once asked Ching @-@ teng to deliver a love letter he had written for her .
Steven Hao as Hsieh Ming @-@ ho ( nicknamed " A @-@ he " ) , one of Ching @-@ teng 's friends . He loves to eat , and is the butt of his friends ' jokes due to this . He is the only person in the group who has dated Chia @-@ yi .
Tsai Chang @-@ hsien as Liao Ying @-@ hung , one of Ching @-@ teng 's best friends . He likes to crack jokes and perform magic tricks , and later becomes a librarian .
Yen Sheng @-@ yu as Hsu Bo @-@ chun ( nicknamed " Boner " ) , one of Ching @-@ teng 's friends
Wan Wan as Hu Chia @-@ wei , Chia @-@ yi 's best friend . She likes to draw pictures , and after graduating from school becomes a manga artist known as " The Queen of Blogs " ( 部落格天后 ) .
= = Production = =
= = = Development = = =
You Are the Apple of My Eye is based on Giddens ' semi @-@ autobiographical novel of the same name . He changed some details of the story to make the film more dramatic ; for example , Ching @-@ teng and Chia @-@ yi 's fight actually took place over the phone , not in the rain as depicted . Giddens said , " although some of the reasons for the events in the film were changed , the main storyline remained unchanged " . Asked if he was pressured by the recent success of Taiwanese films at the box office , he replied " No , I am more pressured by whether the film is nice to watch , whether it will succeed in the box office , and whether it will become an embarrassment for me . Also , if the film is not nice , it will be a letdown to Chen @-@ tung and Michelle , who have been working so hard " .
At first , the film was on a tight budget ; Giddens used his entire savings and mortgaged his house to raise money , saying that he did it to impress ex @-@ girlfriend , who provided the inspiration for this film 's female protagonist , Shen Chia @-@ yi . Executive producer Angie Chai also played a key role in raising money for the film .
= = = Casting = = =
Michelle Chen was the first cast member confirmed by the director . Mypaper reported that Giddens was attracted to her during their first meeting , saying that she resembled the real Shen Chia @-@ yi . Chen had previously starred in Taiwanese television drama series such as Why Why Love and Miss No Good , although she was better known for her 2009 film Hear Me . Chen went on a diet to lose weight for the role , saying she wished to " not disappoint the director " . Giddens later used her as a basis to select the other cast members . The selection process for the male lead was the longest , and a series of auditions attracted several celebrities . Giddens chose first @-@ time actor Ko Chen @-@ tung because he felt he showed great improvement in his acting skills in each successive audition . Giddens liked his attitude , having seen Ko Chen @-@ tung hiding in a corner , frantically studying the script just before his audition .
The director chose Ao @-@ chuan , Yen Sheng @-@ yu , Hao Shao @-@ wen , and Tsai Chang @-@ hsien to play the roles of his high school friends . He described Hao Shao @-@ wen as being a persuasive speaker , Tsai Chang @-@ hsien as being a very good prankster , and Ao @-@ chuan as self @-@ confident . Hu Chia @-@ wei played herself as a teenager . Giddens describes the two of them as " the Jay Chou and Jolin Tsai of the [ Chinese ] publishing world " .
Giddens ' mother told him that she would like either Lotus Wang or Phoebe Huang to play her in the film . In the end , Giddens settled on Lotus Wang , because she did not have any other work commitments at that time . Ko Chen @-@ tung 's real father plays the father in the film .
= = = Filming = = =
You Are the Apple of My Eye was primarily filmed at Ching Cheng High School ( 精誠中學 ) , the school Giddens and Shen Chia @-@ yi attended . The director said he chose the school because " he wanted so badly to see Ko Chen @-@ tung and Michelle Chen in the school uniform that he remembered vividly " . The filming of the school scenes could only be done during the Taiwanese school holidays . Because the main location was at the school , it was decided to film the remainder of the film on location throughout Changhua County . The filming had a reported budget of NT $ 50 million ( approx . US $ 1.67M in January 2012 ) .
= = = Theme song = = =
" Childish " ( 孩子氣 ) , a song from the film , was written and sung by Michelle Chen . Giddens was so touched by the song that he shed tears " on the spot " after first hearing it ; in particular , he liked the song 's lyrics . He also praised Michelle 's dedication to her role , saying " I believe that the reason that she managed to get inspiration to write this song is because she likes her role [ in this film ] " .
Giddens was also involved in some of this film 's theme songs , including " Those Years " ( 那些年 ) . At first Giddens could not decide on the closing theme for this film ; however , after hearing one of Japanese composer Mitsutoshi Kimura 's new compositions he chose it and added lyrics . " The Lonely Caffeine " ( 寂寞的咖啡因 ) had been composed by Giddens for Shen Chia @-@ Yi when the two were in a relationship . He asked the male lead actor to sing the song in the film , because he felt this would convey the song 's original meaning .
" Those Years " was an instant hit . The music video on YouTube logged its ten millionth viewer on 11 November 2011 , leading Giddens to note that the song " broke every notable viewership record set by a Chinese @-@ language video on Youtube " . In the Taiwanese KKBOX singles daily charts , " Those Years " remained at the top for 64 consecutive days , from 22 August to 22 October 2011 , breaking the previous record of 45 consecutive days . The song was nominated for the Best Original Film Soundtrack award at the 48th Golden Horse Awards .
= = = Editing = = =
You Are the Apple of My Eye was edited over for its various releases due to its controversial content . In Taiwan , the film was initially given a " Restricted " film classification . Giddens was extremely upset by this , and even personally went to Government Information Office to appeal . The film had to be edited 4 times in order to lower its classification . In the end , the film received a " Guidance " classification , meaning that children above 12 are able to watch it . In Malaysia , the scene where the students masturbated in the classroom was deleted . In Singapore , the film remained unedited , but it received a NC @-@ 16 rating , thus restricting the film to viewers above 16 .
The film was heavily edited for its Mainland China release . The scene where a flag @-@ raising ceremony was taking place was edited away , as were the scenes involving masturbation . In total , six scenes involving " negative sexual and pro @-@ Taiwan content " were either edited away or changed . The director also had to add new scenes in order to make the story flow more smoothly after editing .
= = Soundtrack = =
The original soundtrack album for You Are the Apple of My Eye was released by Sony Music Entertainment Taiwan on 5 August 2011 . It contains six songs with vocals and nine instrumental pieces that were used in this film .
= = Release = =
You Are the Apple of My Eye made its debut in competition at the 13th Taipei Film Festival on 25 June 2011 . The film made its international debut as the opening film for the sixth Summer International Film Festival in Hong Kong . It then had its general release in Taiwan on 19 August 2011 .
The film was screened at the 24th Tokyo International Film Festival on 24 October 2011 , where the director and cast were present . It was well @-@ received , with audiences reportedly squeezing into the cinema to the extent that people had to sit in the aisles . Internationally , the film was released in Hong Kong and Macau on 20 October and in Singapore and Malaysia on 10 November 2011 .
On 21 December , Giddens announced on his blog that the film passed the censorship board in China and would debut in that country on 6 January 2012 . Giddens had previously expressed a wish for the film to be screened in China so Shen Chia @-@ Yi , for whom he had made the film , could see it and comment . Giddens was unhappy when Chinese censors cut much of the film 's " negative sexual and pro @-@ Taiwan content " . He apologized to viewers in China for being unable to deliver on his promise to show the full story , saying that he " blamed only himself " . He added that he " did not think that the China 's version was better [ than the other overseas versions ] . "
Giddens revealed that negotiations were ongoing for the film 's release in Europe and the United States . The film subsequently made its North American debut at the New York Asian Film Festival on 2 July 2012 . It was later screened at the 2012 Fantasia Film Festival in Montreal . Giddens also announced that a sequel will be produced ; it will begin production in 2013 , and is expected to be released in cinemas in 2014 .
You Are the Apple of My Eye was first aired on television on 24 March 2012 on the STAR Chinese Movies network . It became the most @-@ watched film on television in Taiwan , having attracted an audience of almost 3 million people . In the 15 to 44 years old audience , it had an average rating of 7 @.@ 14 , with the rating peaking at 9 @.@ 27 during the screening . It was also the most @-@ watched television program on both cable and free @-@ to @-@ air networks in Taiwan . STAR Chinese Movies reportedly purchased the rights to this film at a hefty price of NT $ 2 million ( approx . US $ 69 @,@ 000 ) .
= = Reception = =
= = = Critics = = =
Maggie Lee of The Hollywood Reporter described the film as a " larky retro coming @-@ of @-@ age confection " . She praised the film , saying that it " injects a fresh , tart edge to the genre with a constantly self @-@ mocking boys ' angle " , which she described as an " alternative to Asian teen movies that tend to be syrupy " . She said that " the youthful cast has a limited register but offer enough self @-@ conscious blasé posing . " She described the film 's texture as " slightly over @-@ bright " . Russell Edwards , reviewing for Variety , criticized the second part of this film , which he says is " unable to maintain the outlandish phallocentric humor of its first hour " . He further criticized the last quarter of the film , which Edwards says " sees Giddens overestimating the charm of his own story " . Edwards praised the film 's cast which , he said , were the film 's " greatest asset " . He also praised the film as " a much more robust production than many similar youth @-@ skewing Taiwanese romancers over the past decade " .
Serene Lim , a reviewer for Today , labelled the film a " gentle tale of a teenage romance " . She said that " Ko 's talents as a novelist are evident " , although his " attention to detail can get indulgently long @-@ winded at times " . Lim singled out Ko Chen @-@ tung for praise , saying that " [ he ] thoroughly deserves his Golden Horse nomination for Best Newcomer , given his turn as the impetuous rebel made good " ; overall , she gave the film a rating of 3 @.@ 5 out of 5 . Yong Shu Hoong , writing for Singapore @-@ based Mypaper , said that the " flashback sequences can reek of oversentimentality " , although the reviewer added that " the thrills , rivalries and heartbreak associated with high school romance are well depicted with nostalgia and humour " and gave it a rating of 3 out of 5 . The film was rated by Mtimes Movies as the " 2nd Best Chinese Film of 2011 " .
Film Business Asia gave the film a rating of 7 / 10 , with Derek Elley describing it as " a confident feature " and " slickly packaged in every department " , the latter making it " easy to miss the fact there 's nothing at all original here " . He praised the cast as " well @-@ chosen individually and relaxed as an ensemble " . He added , " apart from a slightly draggy second half , the material sustains itself at almost two hours , with generally trim editing by co @-@ executive director Liao . " He concluded by summarizing the film 's plot as a " simple teenage rom @-@ com , a will @-@ they / won 't @-@ they between two opposites , but capped by a neat finale that does deliver some real emotion " .
= = = Box office = = =
You Are the Apple of My Eye grossed more than NT $ $ 20 million at the Taiwanese box office during its soft launch . This makes it the first Taiwanese film to gross over NT $ $ 20 million before its official release date . The film crossed the NT $ 200 million mark ten days after its official opening . In total , the film earned over NT $ 420 million at the Taiwanese box office , making it the third @-@ highest @-@ grossing film of 2011 in Taiwan .
In Hong Kong , You Are the Apple of My Eye grossed a total of HK $ 1 @,@ 397 @,@ 571 during its premiere ( representing 50 @.@ 6 percent of Hong Kong box @-@ office earnings ) on 20 October 2011 . Four days after its release the film had earned a total of HK $ 11 @,@ 525 @,@ 621 , breaking the record for the highest @-@ grossing film debuting in the month of October . It also set a record for the highest @-@ grossing opening weekend for a Taiwanese film at the Hong Kong box office , previously held by Lust , Caution in 2007 with a gross of $ 11 @,@ 441 @,@ 946 . The film recorded the highest Hong Kong opening @-@ four @-@ day attendance in 2011 with 211 @,@ 163 attending , breaking 3D Sex and Zen : Extreme Ecstasy 's previous record of 143 @,@ 222 . The film also has the highest four @-@ day gross of a 2D film in 2011 , and remained the highest @-@ grossing film in Hong Kong cinemas for four consecutive weekends . During the final hours of 2011 , it was announced that You Are the Apple of My Eye had grossed over HK $ 61 @.@ 28 million , making it the all @-@ time highest @-@ grossing Taiwanese film at the Hong Kong box office . At the Macau box office , You Are the Apple of My Eye earned more than HK $ 100 @,@ 000 in its opening weekend , with nearly 100 @-@ percent attendance .
In Singapore You Are the Apple of My Eye earned a total of SGD $ 675 @,@ 000 , making it the second @-@ highest @-@ grossing film in Singapore that weekend despite the film 's NC @-@ 16 rating ( which meant that only viewers over age 16 were admitted ) ; this surprised the film 's distributor , 20th Century Fox . The film broke the record for highest opening weekend for a Taiwanese film in Singapore , previously held by the 2007 film Secret . It surpassed the performance of other Taiwanese films such as Monga , Cape No. 7 and Lust , Caution . You Are the Apple of My Eye was the highest @-@ grossing Asian film of 2011 at the Singapore box office , with earnings of SGD $ 2 @.@ 93 million .
At China box office , You Are the Apple of My Eye became the most popular Taiwanese film , surpassing the previous record set by Cape No. 7 in 2008 . It was the third @-@ highest @-@ earning film on its debut weekend , grossing about 27 million yuan . The film subsequently crossed the 50 @-@ million @-@ yuan @-@ gross mark on 13 January 2012 .
= = = Accolades = = =
|
= Battle of Narva ( 1944 ) =
The Battle of Narva was a military campaign between the German Army Detachment " Narwa " and the Soviet Leningrad Front fought for possession of the strategically important Narva Isthmus on 2 February – 10 August 1944 during World War II .
The campaign took place in the northern section of the Eastern Front and consisted of two major phases : the Battle for Narva Bridgehead ( February to July 1944 ) and the Battle of Tannenberg Line ( July – August 1944 ) . The Soviet Kingisepp – Gdov Offensive and Narva Offensives ( 15 – 28 February , 1 – 4 March and 18 – 24 March ) were part of the Red Army Winter Spring Campaign of 1944 . Following Joseph Stalin 's " Broad Front " strategy , these battles coincided with the Dnieper – Carpathian Offensive ( December 1943 – April 1944 ) and the Lvov – Sandomierz Offensive ( July – August 1944 ) . A number of foreign volunteers and local Estonian conscripts participated in the battle as part of the German forces . By giving its support to the illegal German conscription call , the underground National Committee of the Republic of Estonia had hoped to recreate a national army and restore the independence of the country .
As a continuation of the Leningrad – Novgorod Offensive of January 1944 , the Soviet Estonian operation pushed the front westward to the Narva River , aiming to destroy " Narwa " and to thrust deep into Estonia . The Soviet units established a number of bridgeheads on the western bank of the river in February while the Germans maintained a bridgehead on the eastern bank . Subsequent attempts failed to expand their toehold . German counterattacks annihilated the bridgeheads to the north of Narva and reduced the bridgehead south of the town , stabilizing the front until July 1944 . The Soviet Narva Offensive ( July 1944 ) led to the capture of the city forcing the German troops to retreat to their prepared Tannenberg Defence Line in the Sinimäed Hills 16 kilometres from Narva . In the ensuing Battle of Tannenberg Line , the German army group held its ground . Stalin 's main strategic goal — a quick recovery of Estonia as a base for air and seaborne attacks against Finland and an invasion of East Prussia — was not achieved . As a result of the tough defence of the German forces the Soviet war effort in the Baltic Sea region was hampered for seven and a half months .
= = Background = =
= = = Terrain = = =
Terrain played a significant role in operations around Narva . The elevation above sea level rarely rises above 100 meters in the area and the land is cut by numerous waterways , including the Narva and Plyussa Rivers . The bulk of the land in the region is forested and large swamps inundate areas of low elevation . The effect of the terrain on operations was one of channelization ; because of the swamps , only certain areas were suitable for large @-@ scale troop movement .
On a strategic scale , a natural choke point was present between the northern shore of Lake Peipus and the Gulf of Finland . The 45 kilometre wide strip of land was entirely bisected by the Narva River and had large areas of wilderness . The primary transportation routes , the Narva – Tallinn highway and railway , ran on an east @-@ west axis near and parallel to the coastline . There were no other east @-@ west transportation routes capable of sustaining troop movement on a large scale in the region .
= = = Preceding actions = = =
On 14 January 1944 , the Leningrad Front launched the Krasnoye Selo – Ropsha Offensive , aimed at forcing the German 18th Army back from its positions near Oranienbaum . On the third day of the offensive , the Soviets broke through German lines and pushed westward . The Army Group North evacuated the civilian population of Narva .
= = = Soviet aims = = =
By 1944 it was fairly routine practice for Stavka to assign its operating fronts new and more ambitious missions while the Soviet Armed Forces were conducting major offensive operations . The rationale was that relentless pressure might trigger a German collapse . For the 1943 / 1944 winter campaign , Stalin ordered the Red Army to conduct major offensives along the entire Soviet @-@ German front in a continuation of the ' Broad Front ' strategy he had pursued since the beginning of the war . This was applied in consonance with his long @-@ standing rationale that , if the Red Army applied pressure along the entire front , German defences were likely to break in at least one section . The Soviet winter campaign included major assaults across the entire expanse the front in the Ukraine , Belorussia and against the German Panther Line in the region of the Baltic Sea .
Breaking through the Narva Isthmus situated between the Gulf of Finland and Lake Peipus was of major strategic importance to the Soviet Armed Forces . The success of the Estonian operation would have provided an unobstructed lane to advance along the coast to Tallinn , forcing the German Army Group North to escape from Estonia for fear of getting cornered . For the Baltic Fleet trapped in an eastern bay of the Gulf of Finland , Tallinn was the closest exit to the Baltic Sea . The ejection of the Army Group North from Estonia would have made Finland subject to air and amphibious attacks originating from Estonian bases . The prospect of an invasion of East Prussia through Estonia appealed even more to Stavka , as it could bring German resistance to a standstill . With the participation of Leonid Govorov , commander of the Leningrad Front , and Vladimir Tributz , commander of the Baltic Fleet , a scheme was prepared to destroy the Army Group North . Stalin ordered the capture of Narva at all costs no later than 17 February :
" It is mandatory that our forces seize Narva no later than 17 February 1944 . This is required both for military as well as political reasons . It is the most important thing right now . I demand that you undertake all necessary measures to liberate Narva no later than the period indicated . ( signed ) I. Stalin "
After the failure of the Leningrad Front , Stalin gave a new order on 22 February : to break through the " Narwa " defence , give a shock at Pärnu , eliminate the German forces in Estonia , direct two armies at Southeast Estonia , keep going through Latvia and open the road to East Prussia and Central Europe . On the same day , the Soviet Union presented Finland with peace conditions . While Finland regarded the terms as unacceptable , the war waging around them appeared dangerous enough to keep negotiating . To influence Finland , Stalin needed to take Estonia . His wish was an order to the commanders of the Leningrad Front , with their heads at stake . After reinforcements , the Narva front acquired the highest concentration of forces at any point on the Eastern Front in March 1944 . By July 1944 , a detailed plan was prepared for the Soviet advance to Tallinn .
= = = Soviet deployments = = =
Three Soviet armies were deployed at the maximum concentration of forces in March 1944 . The 2nd Shock Army was placed north of Narva , the 59th Army was positioned south of Narva and the 8th Army south of the 59th Army along the 50 km long Narva River stretching down to Lake Peipus . Detailed information on the size of the Soviet forces at the Narva front during the Winter @-@ Spring campaign has not been published by any sources . It is impossible to give an overview on the Soviet strength until the Red Army archival information is made available to non @-@ Russian investigators or published . Estonian historian Hannes Walter has estimated the number of Soviet troops in the Battle of Narva at 205 @,@ 000 , which is in accordance with the number of divisions multiplied by the assumed sizes of the divisions presented by the Estonian historian Mart Laar . The order of battle of the Leningrad Front as of 1 March 1944 :
2nd Shock Army – Lieutenant General Ivan Fedyuninsky
43rd Rifle Corps – Major General Anatoli Andreyev
109th Rifle Corps – Major General Ivan Alferov
124th Rifle Corps – Major General Voldemar Damberg
8th Army – Lieutenant General Filip Starikov
6th Rifle Corps – Major General Semyon Mikulski
112th Rifle Corps – Major General Filip Solovev
59th Army – Lieutenant General Ivan Korovnikov
117th Rifle Corps – Major General Vasili Trubachev
122nd Rifle Corps – Major General Panteleimon Zaitsev
Separate detachments :
8th Estonian Rifle Corps – Lieutenant General Lembit Pärn
14th Rifle Corps – Major General Pavel Artyushenko
124th Rifle Division – Colonel Mikhail Papchenko
30th Guards Rifle Corps – Lieutenant General Nikolai Simonyak
46th , 260th and 261st Separate Guards Heavy Tank and 1902nd Separate Self @-@ propelled Artillery regiments
3rd Breakthrough Artillery Corps – Major General N. N. Zhdanov
3rd Guards Tank Corps – Major General I. A. Vovchenko
At the start of the Narva Offensive ( July 1944 ) , the Leningrad Front deployed 136 @,@ 830 troops , 150 tanks , 2 @,@ 500 assault guns and 800 + aircraft .
= = = German and Finnish aims = = =
The Oberkommando des Heeres believed it was crucial to stabilize the front on the Narva River . A Soviet breakthrough here would have meant the loss of the northern coast of Estonia and with it loss of control of the Gulf of Finland , giving the Soviet Baltic Fleet access to the Baltic Sea . A breakthrough by the fleet would have threatened German control of the entire Baltic Sea and the shipment of iron ore imports from Sweden . The loss of Narva would have meant fuel derived from the adjacent Kohtla @-@ Järve oil shale deposits ( 32 kilometers west of Narva on the coast ) would be denied to the German war machine . As Colonel General Georg Lindemann said in his daily order to the 11th Infantry Division :
We are standing on the border of our native land . Every step backwards will carry the war through the air and water to Germany .
As Finland was negotiating with the Soviet Union for peace , the Oberkommando des Heeres paid attention to the Narva front , using every means to convince the Finnish Defence Command that their defence was going to hold . The German command informed their Finnish colleagues in detail about the events on the Narva front while a delegation of the Finnish Defence Command visited Narva in spring 1944 . Besides being a narrow corridor well suited for defence , the terrain in the area of Narva was dominated by forests and swamps . Directly behind the Narva River lay the city itself , ideally positioned as a bastion from which defending forces could influence combat to both the north and south of the city along the river valley .
This position was the northern segment of the German Panther Line and it was where Generalfeldmarschall Georg von Küchler in charge of the Army Group wanted to set up his defence . Hitler initially refused and replaced von Küchler with Generalfeldmarschall Walter Model as the commander of the Army Group North . Model agreed with von Küchler , and as one of Hitler 's favourites he also was allowed more freedom . Using this freedom to his advantage , Model managed to fall back and begin establishing a line along the Narva River with a strong bridgehead on the eastern bank in Ivangorod . This appeased Hitler and followed the German standard operating procedure for defending a river line . On 1 February 1944 , the High Command of Army Group North tasked the Sponheimer Group ( renamed Army Detachment " Narwa " on 23 February ) to defend the segment of the Panther Line at the isthmus between the Gulf of Finland and Lake Peipus at all costs . Stalin presented Finland with his peace terms on 8 February 1944 , after the initial Soviet success . With the tactical victories of " Narwa " from mid @-@ February to April , Finland terminated the negotiations on 18 April 1944 .
= = = Aims of the Estonian resistance movement = = =
During the course of the occupation of Estonia by Nazi Germany , Estonian expectations of regaining their independence began to diminish . Pursuant to the Constitution of Estonia , formally still in force , Estonian politicians formed an underground National Committee of the Republic of Estonia which convened on 14 February 1944 . As President Konstantin Päts was currently imprisoned by the Soviet authorities , the acting head of state according to the Constitution was the former Prime Minister Jüri Uluots . The German @-@ appointed Estonian Self @-@ Administration had previously attempted several unsuccessful general mobilisation calls , which were illegal under the Hague Conventions ( 1899 and 1907 ) and opposed by Uluots . In February 1944 when the Leningrad Front reached the vicinity of Narva and the Soviet return became a real threat , Uluots switched his stand on the German draft . In a radio speech on 7 February , Uluots reasoned that armed Estonians could become useful against both Germans and Soviets . He also hinted that Estonian troops on Estonian soil would have : " ... a significance much wider than what I could and would be able to disclose here . " Along with other Estonian politicians , Uluots saw resistance against the Soviet Armed Forces as a means of preventing the restoration of Soviet power and restoring Estonia ’ s independence once the war was over . The conscription call was received with popular support and the mobilisation brought together 38 @,@ 000 men who were formed into seven border guard regiments and the fictitiously named 20th Estonian SS @-@ Volunteer Division , commonly referred to among the German Armed Forces as the Estonian Division . Combined with the Finnish Infantry Regiment 200 ( voluntary Estonians in the Finnish army ) and the conscripts within the Waffen SS , a total of 70 @,@ 000 Estonian troops were under Nazi German arms in 1944 .
= = = Formation of Army Detachment " Narwa " = = =
In February 1944 , the L and LIV Army Corps along with the III ( Germanic ) SS Panzer Corps were on the left flank of the 18th Army as they retreated to Narva . On 4 February , the Sponheimer Group was released from the 18th Army and subordinated directly to the Army Group North . In support of the forces already in place , Hitler ordered reinforcements . The Panzer Corps Feldherrnhalle , with over 10 @,@ 000 troops and their equipment , was airlifted from Belorussia into Estonia via the airfield at Tartu on 1 February . A week later , the 5th Battalion of the Panzergrenadier Großdeutschland Division arrived at the front . The Grenadier Regiment Gnesen ( an ad hoc regiment formed from replacement army units in Poland ) was sent from Germany and arrived on 11 February . Three days later , the 214th Infantry Division was transferred from Norway . Over the next two weeks various units were added to the group , including the 11th SS Volunteer Panzergrenadier Division " Nordland " , several divisions of the Wehrmacht , the Estonian Division and local Estonian border guard and Estonian Auxiliary Police battalions . Infantry General Otto Sponheimer was replaced by General Johannes Frießner and the Sponheimer Group was renamed Army Detachment " Narwa " on 23 February . The Army Group North ordered the deployment of " Narwa " on 22 February in the following positions : III SS Panzer Corps deployed to Narva , Ivangorod Bridgehead on the east bank of the river and north of Narva ; the XXXXIII Army Corps against the Krivasoo Bridgehead south of the city ; and the XXVI Army Corps to the sector between the Krivasoo Bridgehead and Lake Peipus . As of 1 March 1944 , there were a total of 123 @,@ 541 personnel subordinated to the Army Group in the following order of battle :
III SS ( Germanic ) Panzer Corps – SS @-@ Obergruppenführer Felix Steiner
11th SS Panzergrenadier Division " Nordland "
4th SS Panzergrenadier Brigade " Nederland "
20th Waffen Grenadier Division of the SS ( 1st Estonian )
XXVI Army Corps – General Anton Grasser
11th Infantry Division
58th Infantry Division
214th Infantry Division
225th Infantry Division ( Wehrmacht )
3rd Estonian Border Guard Regiment ( as of 15 April )
XXXXIII Army Corps – General der Infanterie Karl von Oven
61st Infantry Division
170th Infantry Division
227th Infantry Division
Feldherrnhalle Panzergrenadier Division
Gnesen Grenadier Regiment
Separate units :
Eastern sector , coastal defence ( the staff of the 2nd Anti @-@ Aircraft Division as the HQ ) – Lieutenant General Alfons Luczny
Estonian Regiment " Reval "
3 Estonian police battalions
2 Estonian eastern battalions
Other military units :
Artillery Command No. 113
High Pioneer Command No. 32
502nd Heavy Tank Battalion
752nd Anti @-@ Tank Battalion
540th Special Infantry ( Training ) Battalion
In the summer of 1944 , the Panzergrenadier Division Feldherrnhalle and seven infantry divisions were removed from the Narva Front , leaving 22 @,@ 250 troops at the location .
= = Combat activity = =
= = = Formation of bridgeheads = = =
Launching the Kingisepp – Gdov Offensive on 1 February , the Soviet 2nd Shock Army 's 109th Rifle Corps captured the town of Kingisepp on the first day . The German 18th Army was forced into new positions on the eastern bank of the Narva River . Forward units of the 2nd Shock Army crossed the river and established several bridgeheads on the west bank to the north and south of the city of Narva on 2 February . The 2nd Shock Army expanded the bridgehead in the Krivasoo Swamp south of Narva five days later , temporarily cutting the Narva – Tallinn Railway behind the III SS Panzer Corps . Govorov was unable to encircle the smaller German Army Group , which called in reinforcements . These came mostly from the newly mobilised Estonians , motivated to resist the looming Soviet return . At the same time , the Soviet 108th Rifle Corps landed units across Lake Peipus 120 kilometres south of Narva and established a bridgehead around the village of Meerapalu . By a coincidence , the I.Battalion , SS Volunteer Grenadier Regiment 45 ( 1st Estonian ) , which was headed for Narva , reached the same area . A battalion of the 44th Infantry Regiment ( consisting of personnel from East Prussia ) , the I.Battalion , 1st Estonian and an air squadron destroyed the Soviet bridgehead on 15 – 16 February . The Mereküla Landing Operation was conducted as the 517 @-@ strong 260th Independent Naval Infantry Brigade landed at the coastal borough of Mereküla behind the Sponheimer Group lines . However , the unit was almost completely destroyed .
= = = Narva Offensives , 15 – 28 February and 1 – 4 March = = =
The Soviet 30th Guards Rifle Corps and the 124th Rifle Corps launched a new Narva Offensive on 15 February . The resistance by units of the Sponheimer Group exhausted the Soviet army , which halted its offensive . Both sides used the pause for bringing in additional forces . The fresh SS Volunteer Grenadier Regiments 45 and 46 ( 1st and 2nd Estonian ) accompanied by units of the " Nordland " Division destroyed the Soviet bridgeheads north of Narva by 6 March . The newly arrived 59th Army attacked westwards from the Krivasoo Swamp and encircled the strong points of the 214th Infantry Division and Estonian 658th and 659th Eastern Battalions . The resistance of the encircled units gave the German command time to move in all available forces and to stop the 59th Army units ' advance .
= = = 6 – 24 March = = =
The Soviet air force conducted an air raid , leveling the historic town of Narva on 6 March . An air and artillery shock of 100 @,@ 000 shells and grenades at the " Nordland " and " Nederland " detachments in Ivangorod prepared the way for the 30th Guards Rifle Division 's attack on 8 March . Simultaneous pitched battles took place north of the town , where the 14th Rifle Corps supported by the artillery of the 8th Estonian Rifle Corps attempted to re @-@ establish a bridgehead . Regiments of the Estonian SS Division repulsed the attacks , causing great Soviet losses .
Soviet air assaults against civilians in Estonian towns were a part of the offensive , aimed at forcing the Estonians away from supporting the German side . The Soviet Long Range Aviation branch assaulted the Estonian capital of Tallinn on the night of 8 – 9 March . Approximately 40 % of the housing was destroyed in the city ; 25 @,@ 000 people were left homeless and 500 civilians were killed . The result of the air raid was the opposite of what the Soviets intended , as people felt disgusted by the Soviet atrocities ; more men answered the German conscription call .
The Soviet tank attack at Auvere Station was stopped by a squadron of the 502nd Heavy Tank Battalion on 17 March . The ensuing offensive continued for another week until the Soviet forces had suffered enough casualties to switch over to a defensive stance . This enabled " Narwa " to take the initiative .
= = = Strachwitz offensive = = =
The Strachwitz Battle Group annihilated the Soviet 8th Army shock troop wedge at the western end of the Krivasoo Bridgehead on 26 March . The German battle group destroyed the eastern tip of the bridgehead on 6 April . Generalmajor Hyacinth Graf Strachwitz von Groß @-@ Zauche und Camminetz , inspired by the success , tried to eliminate the whole bridgehead but was unable to proceed due to the spring thaw that had rendered the swamp impassable for the Tiger I tanks . By the end of April , the parties had mutually exhausted their strengths . Relative calm settled on the front until late July 1944 .
= = = The Soviets capture Narva = = =
The Soviet breakthrough in Belorussia forced the Army Group North to withdraw a large portion of their troops from Narva to the central part of the Eastern Front and to Finland . As there were insufficient forces for the defence of the former front line at Narva in July , the German army detachment began preparations for withdrawal to the Tannenberg defence line in the Sinimäed Hills 16 kilometres from Narva . The commanders of the Leningrad Front were unaware of the preparations ; they designed a new Narva Offensive . Shock troops from the Finnish front were concentrated near the town , giving the Leningrad Front a 4 : 1 superiority both in manpower and equipment . Before the German forces had implemented their plan , the Soviet 8th Army launched their offensive ; the Battle of Auvere was the result . The I.Battalion , 1st Estonian and the 44th Infantry Regiment repulsed the attack , inflicting heavy losses on the 8th Army . The " Nordland " and " Nederland " detachments in Ivangorod left their positions quietly during the night before 25 July . The evacuation was carried out according to the German plans until the 2nd Shock Army resumed the offensive in the morning . Supported by 280 @,@ 000 shells and grenades from 1360 assault guns , the army crossed the river north of the town . The II.Battalion , 1st Estonian Regiment kept the Soviet shock Army from capturing the highway behind the retreating troops . The defensive operation led to the destruction of the SS Volunteer Panzergrenadier Regiment 48 " General Seyffardt " due to tactical errors . The Soviet forces captured Narva on 26 July .
= = = Tannenberg Line = = =
The Soviet vanguard 201st and 256th Rifle Divisions attacked the Tannenberg Line and captured part of the Orphanage Hill , the easternmost of the area . The Anti @-@ Tank Company , SS Panzergrenadier Regiment 24 " Danmark " returned the hill to the hands of the " Narwa " the following night . The III ( Germanic ) SS Panzer Corps repulsed subsequent Soviet attempts to capture the hills by tanks on the following day . The SS Reconnaissance Battalion 11 and the I.Battalion , Waffen Grenadier Regiment 47 ( 3rd Estonian ) launched a counterattack during the night before 28 July . The assault collapsed under the Soviet tank fire which destroyed the Estonian battalion . In a pitched battle carried over to the next day without a break in the fighting , the two Soviet armies forced " Narwa " into new positions at the Grenadier Hill , the central one .
The climax of the Battle of Tannenberg Line was the Soviet attack of 29 July . The shock units suppressed the German resistance on the Orphanage Hill , while the Soviet main forces suffered heavy casualties in the subsequent assault at the Grenadier Hill . The Soviet tanks encircled it and the Tower Hill , the westernmost one . Steiner , the commander of the III SS Panzer Corps , sent out the remaining seven tanks , which hit the surprised Soviet armour and forced them back . This enabled an improvised battle group consisting of different nationalities led by Hauptsturmführer Paul Maitla to launch a counterattack which recaptured the Grenadier Hill . Of the 136 @,@ 830 Soviets initiating the offensive , a few thousand had survived . The Soviet tank regiments had been demolished .
With swift reinforcements , the two Soviet armies continued their attacks . The Stavka demanded the destruction of the " Narwa " and the capture of Rakvere by 7 August . The 2nd Shock Army was back to 20 @,@ 000 troops by 2 August while numerous attempts using unchanged tactics failed to break the multinational defence of the " Narwa " . Leonid Govorov , the commander of the Leningrad Front terminated the offensive on 10 August .
= = Casualties = =
During the Soviet era , the losses in the battle of Narva were not released by the Soviets . In recent years , Russian authors have published some figures but not for the whole course of the battles . The number of Soviet casualties can only be estimated indirectly .
The Army Detachment " Narwa " lost 23 @,@ 963 personnel as dead , wounded and missing in action in February 1944 . During the following months through to 30 July 1944 , an additional 34 @,@ 159 German personnel were lost , 5 @,@ 748 of them dead and 1 @,@ 179 missing in action . The total German casualties during the initial phase of the campaign was approximately 58 @,@ 000 men , 12 @,@ 000 of them dead or missing in action . From 24 July to 10 August 1944 , the German forces buried 1709 men in Estonia . Adding the troops missing in action , the number of dead in the period is estimated at approximately 2 @,@ 500 . Accounting the standard ratio of 1 / 4 of the wounded as irrecoverable losses , the number of German casualties in the later period of the battle was approximately 10 @,@ 000 . The total German casualties during the Battle of Narva is estimated at 14 @,@ 000 dead or missing and 54 @,@ 000 wounded or sick .
= = Aftermath = =
= = = Baltic Offensive = = =
On 1 September , Finland announced the cessation of military cooperation with Germany to sign an armistice with the Soviet Union . On 4 September , Finland opened access for the Soviets to Finnish waters . With the Soviet offensive at Riga threatening to complete their encirclement , the Army Group North started preparations for the withdrawal of troops from Estonia in an operation codenamed Aster . The possible transportation corridors were thoroughly prepared using maps at headquarters . On 14 September , a provisional order to start preparations for withdrawal was given to the " Nordland " Division . On 17 September 1944 , a naval force under Vice @-@ Admiral Theodor Burchardi began evacuating elements of the German formations and Estonian civilians . Within six days , around 50 @,@ 000 troops and 1 @,@ 000 prisoners had been removed . The elements of the 18th Army in Estonia were ordered to withdraw into Latvia .
The Soviet 1st , 2nd and 3rd Baltic Fronts launched their Baltic Offensive on 14 September . The operation was aimed at cutting off the Army Group North in Estonia . After much argument , Adolf Hitler agreed to allow the total evacuation of the troops in mainland Estonia . The 2nd Shock Army launched its Tallinn Offensive on 17 September from the Emajõgi River Front in South Estonia . At midnight on 18 September , the Army Detachment " Narwa " left its positions in the Tannenberg Line . The 8th Army reconnaissance reported the evacuation five hours after it had been completed and the Soviets started to chase the troops towards Estonian harbours and the Latvian border . The III SS Panzer Corps reached Pärnu by 20 September , while the II SS Corps retreated southwards to form the 18th Army 's rearguard . The Soviet armies advanced to take Tallinn on 22 September . The Soviets had demolished the harbour at Haapsalu by 24 September . The German Panzer Corps evacuated Vormsi Island just off the coast on the following day , successfully completing the evacuation of mainland Estonia with only minor casualties . The 8th Army went on to take the remaining West Estonian archipelago in the Moonsund Landing Operation . The Baltic Offensive resulted in the expulsion of the German forces from Estonia , a large part of Latvia , and Lithuania .
During the withdrawal from Estonia , the German command released thousands of native Estonian conscripts from military service . The Soviet command began conscripting Baltic natives as areas were brought under Soviet control . While some ended up serving on both sides , thousands joined the Forest Brothers partisan detachments to avoid conscription .
Army Group North land lines of communication were permanently severed from Army Group Centre and it was relegated to the Courland Pocket , an occupied Baltic seashore area in Latvia . On 25 January , Adolf Hitler renamed Army Group North the " Courland " , implicitly realising that there was no possibility of restoring a new land corridor between Courland and East Prussia . The Red Army commenced the encirclement and reduction of the pocket , enabling the Soviets to focus on operations towards East Prussia . The Army Group Courland retained a possibility of being a major threat . Operations by the Red Army against the Courland Pocket continued until the surrender of Army Group Courland on 9 May 1945 , when close to 200 @,@ 000 Germans were taken prisoner there .
= = = Outcome for Finland = = =
The lengthy German defence during the Battle of Narva denied the Soviets the use of Estonia as a favorable base for amphibious invasions and air attacks against Helsinki and other Finnish cities . Stavka 's hopes of assaulting Finland from Estonia and forcing it into capitulation were diminished . Finnish Chief of Defence Carl Gustav Emil Mannerheim repeatedly reminded the German side that in the event their troops in Estonia retreated , Finland would be forced to make peace even on extremely unfavourable terms . Thus , the prolonged Battle of Narva helped Finland avoid a Soviet occupation , sustained its capacity for resistance and enabled them to enter negotiations for the Moscow Armistice on their own terms .
= = = Attempt to restore Estonian Government = = =
The lengthy German defence prevented a swift Soviet breakthrough into Estonia and gave the underground National Committee of the Republic of Estonia enough time to attempt to re @-@ establish Estonian independence . On 1 August 1944 , the national committee pronounced itself Estonia 's highest authority and on 18 September 1944 , acting head of state Uluots appointed a new government led by Otto Tief . Over the radio in English , the government declared its neutrality in the war . The government issued two editions of the Riigi Teataja ( State Gazette ) but did not have time to distribute them . On 21 September , the national forces seized the government buildings in Toompea , Tallinn and ordered the German forces to leave . The flag of Estonia was hoisted at the tower of Pikk Hermann , to be removed by the Soviets four days later . The Estonian Government in Exile served to carry the continuity of the Estonian state forward until 1992 , when it handed its credentials over to the incoming President , Lennart Meri .
= = = Civilian refugees = = =
The delay of the Soviet advance allowed over 25 @,@ 000 Estonians and 3 @,@ 700 Swedes to flee to neutral Sweden and 6 @,@ 000 Estonians to Finland . Thousands of refugees died on boats and ships sunk in the Baltic Sea . In September , 90 @,@ 000 soldiers and 85 @,@ 000 Estonian , Finnish and German refugees and Soviet prisoners of war were evacuated to Germany . The sole German cost of this evacuation was the loss of a steamboat . More German naval evacuations followed from Estonian ports , where up to 1 @,@ 200 people were drowned in Soviet attacks .
= = = Soviet reoccupation = = =
Soviet rule of Estonia was re @-@ established by force , and sovietisation followed , which was mostly carried out in 1944 – 1950 . The forced collectivisation of agriculture began in 1947 , and was completed after the mass deportation of Estonians in March 1949 . All private farms were confiscated , and farmers were made to join the collective farms . Besides the armed resistance of the Forest Brothers , a number of underground nationalist schoolchildren groups were active . Most of their members were sentenced to long terms of imprisonment . The punitive actions decreased rapidly after Stalin 's death in 1953 ; from 1956 – 58 , a large part of the deportees and political prisoners were allowed to return to Estonia . Political arrests and numerous other kind of crimes against humanity were committed all through the occupation period until the late 1980s . After all , the attempt to integrate Estonian society into the Soviet system failed . Although the armed resistance was defeated , the population remained anti @-@ Soviet . This helped the Estonians to organise a new resistance movement in the late 1980s , regain their independence in 1991 , and then rapidly develop a modern society .
|
= 166th Aviation Brigade ( United States ) =
The 166th Aviation Brigade was an aviation training brigade of the United States Army headquartered at Fort Hood , Texas . It was a subordinate unit of First Army - Division West . An " AC / RC " ( Active Component / Reserve Component ) formation , the 166th Aviation Brigade was the sole organization responsible for the post @-@ mobilization training of United States Army Reserve & National Guard aviation units . The unit was formerly designated as 3rd Brigade , 75th Division .
From 1997 , the 166th Aviation Brigade has trained other aviation units for front @-@ line service . As such , it has never seen combat , and has thus never earned any campaign streamers or unit awards . As the only brigade in the First Army responsible for training aviation units , the 166th Aviation Brigade is the principal unit for training Army Reserve and Army National Guard assets preparing to deploy to contingencies around the world , which means it is responsible for 47 percent of all Army Aviation assets .
The 166th Aviation Brigade partners with its First Army - Division West sister brigade , the 479th Field Artillery Brigade for its combat aviation brigade ( CAB ) mobilizations , but maintains validation authority , or final approval over a CAB 's successful completion of mobilization training . The 166th Aviation Brigade inactivated at Fort hood on 24 June 2015 .
= = Organization = =
The 166th Aviation Brigade consists of eight battalions from five regiments . Its Headquarters and Headquarters Company is located at Fort Hood , its Reserve Component battalions are located at Fort Des Moines , Iowa , Fort Leavenworth , Kansas , Fort Riley , Kansas and Jefferson Barracks , Missouri , and its Active Component battalions are located at Fort Riley , Kansas , Fort Stewart , Georgia , Fort Knox , Kentucky and Fort Hood , Texas .
The 1st Battalion , 291st Aviation Regiment is the brigade 's primary assault helicopter training unit , specializing in fast @-@ attack helicopters such as the AH @-@ 64 Apache . The 2nd Battalion , 291st Aviation Regiment is the brigade 's primary utility , lift , and air ambulance helicopter training unit , specializing in utility helicopters such as the UH @-@ 60 Black Hawk and the CH @-@ 47 Chinook . The 1st Battalion , 337th Regiment ( Training Support ) specializes in mobilization and de @-@ mobilization for aviation units . The remaining battalions , including the 1st Battalion , 351st Regiment ( Training Support ) , 3rd Battalion , 382nd Regiment ( Logistics Support ) , and the 1st , 2nd , and 3rd Battalions of the 383rd Regiment ( Combat Support / Combat Sustainment Support ) specialize in areas of general instruction about other aspects of mobilization , conducting exercises , and logistics management .
While its Reserve Component battalions have somewhat maintained their former mission of training National Guard and Army Reserve units in Iowa , Kansas , Nebraska , and Missouri as they did before the brigade reflagged , they have shifted toward supporting the brigade 's primary mission - the mobilization of Combat Aviation Brigades ( CABs ) by either assisting with ground training , or training and evaluating the CABs ' aviation support battalions .
= = History = =
The 166th Aviation Brigade was first constituted 16 September 1988 in the Army Reserve as Headquarters , 166th Aviation Group . It took two years for the formation to be organized and the unit was finally activated on 16 September 1990 in Germany . It received a distinctive unit insignia on 3 April 1991 . Its headquarters was at Illesheim .
The formation was inactivated on 15 June 1997 in Germany . Over the next four months , the unit 's inactive components were reorganized and redesignated as a brigade sized unit , allowing it to take on a larger support staff that could command more soldiers . This transformation occurred as the brigade was reassigned to the continental United States . It was activated on 24 October 1997 as the 166th Aviation Brigade at Fort Riley , Kansas . It was also activated into the Active duty force .
The brigade began to undertake training support duties for units in the process of mobilization and de @-@ mobilization . It was also tasked to provide support for local authorities in the event of peacetime crises and natural disasters . Soldiers of the brigade also participated in assistance with community projects around the Fort Riley community , including repairing and refurbishing run down properties for shelter house projects as well as disabled veterans . After two years of duty , the brigade was inactivated on 16 October 1999 at Fort Riley , Kansas .
As part of the Army 's Transformation Plan , the 3rd Brigade , 75th Division was redesignated as the 166th Aviation Brigade , under the command of Division West of the First Army . Its mission would be to train and mobilize aviation units of the Army 's reserve and national guard components . It was to be the only brigade under the First Army that specialized in training for Army aviation units . It was activated 1 December 2006 as a reserve unit at Fort Riley . The brigade became a partner organization of the 1st Infantry Division , which was stationed at Fort Riley and could provide better support than the headquarters of First Army Division West , which was headquartered at Fort Carson , Colorado and maintained units all over the western United States . The brigade received a shoulder sleeve insignia on 13 June 2007 , but it has not been authorized for wear due to First Army policy requiring its units to wear its SSI .
In the summer of 2008 , the brigade 's combat service / combat sustainment support battalions took part in equipment testing and training in Rapid City , South Dakota . It tested the Multifunction Agile Remote Control Robot IV , a route clearance robot , with the assistance of the South Dakota National Guard . The bulk of the brigade spent the summer at Fort Sill , Oklahoma to train aviation assets for deploying units . In June 2008 , the brigade trained the aviation assets of the 34th Infantry Division in air combat , air assault , and other tactics related to aviation . For this mission , the brigade was assisted by the 479th Field Artillery Brigade , which handled ground exercises . As part of a new training routine , the brigade trained the 34th Infantry Division 's aviation units at Fort Rucker , spending a longer time training the unit because it continued to train the brigade as it mobilized and prepared to deploy . Other units trained with the Division , but none through the entire mobilization process . This process used new and never @-@ before @-@ used facilities to streamline training exercises . Purportedly , it gave the 166th Aviation Brigade much additional time for training , as the streamlining process made some programs more efficient , cutting time needed to prepare for them in half .
After extensive evaluation , the 166th Aviation Brigade completed training for the Combat Aviation Brigade ( CAB ) , 34th Infantry Division on 4 August 2008 . The brigade returned to Fort Riley for a month before beginning the process over again with pre @-@ mobilization training of the CAB , 28th Infantry Division , and returned to Fort Sill for post @-@ mobilization training in late January 2008 .
As part of a First Army realignment of training support brigades , the Department of the Army approved a change of station for First Army - Division West and two of its training support brigades . The 166th Aviation Brigade moved to Fort Hood , Texas on 15 July 2009 . The brigade 's Active Component battalions , all of which are aviation units , moved at a later date , most likely the summer 2010 ( with the exception of 1st Battalion , 291st Regiment , which was already located at the installation ) .The 166th Aviation Brigade inactivated at Fort hood on 24 June 2015 .
= = Honors = =
As the brigade has been in a training and supporting role for the Army since its creation , the 166th Aviation Brigade has never been awarded a campaign streamer for campaign participation . It has also never been awarded a unit decoration .
|
= Baby ( Justin Bieber song ) =
" Baby " is a song by Canadian recording artist Justin Bieber . It was released as the lead single from the latter half of Bieber 's debut album , My World 2 @.@ 0 . The track was written by Bieber with Christopher " Tricky " Stewart and Terius " The @-@ Dream " Nash , both of whom worked with Bieber on " One Time " , and also by R & B singer Christina Milian and labelmate , rapper Ludacris .
It was available for digital download on January 18 , 2010 . The song received airplay directly after release , officially impacting mainstream and rhythmic radio on January 26 , 2010 . The song is uptempo R & B , blending together dance @-@ pop and hip @-@ hop elements , while using influences of doo @-@ wop music . The song has received positive reviews from critics who complimented the song 's effective lyrics and chorus , and commended Ludacris ' part and the song 's ability to have an urban twist .
The song was a commercial success , peaking at number one in France , and charting in the top ten of the United Kingdom , Canada , the United States , Australia , Norway , Japan , Ireland , Hungary , Belgium ( Flanders ) , Slovakia and New Zealand . The accompanying music video takes place in a mall / bowling @-@ alley setting . The video features several cameos such as Drake , Lil Twist and Tinashe , in which Bieber chases after a girl . As of May 2013 , the song has sold 3 @.@ 9 million digital downloads in the United States .
The official music video is the fifteenth most @-@ viewed video all @-@ time on YouTube , and is also , as of 2016 , the YouTube video with the most dislikes . It had been the most @-@ viewed from July 12 , 2010 until November 24 , 2012 , when it was surpassed by the music video for " Gangnam Style " by Psy . Bieber performed the song several times , including Saturday Night Live , and the ninth season of American Idol . Bieber also performed an acoustic rendition of the remix version with Drake at the 2010 Juno Awards . The official remix in the United Kingdom features British hip @-@ hop artist Chipmunk .
= = Background and writing = =
" Baby " was written by Bieber with Christopher " Tricky " Stewart and Terius " The @-@ Dream " Nash , both of whom worked with Bieber on " One Time " , R & B singer and The @-@ Dream 's then wife Christina Milian and labelmate , Ludacris . When asked how the collaboration initially came about , Bieber said , " [ Ludacris and I ] both live in Atlanta . I met him a year prior to this and we figured it was a perfect collaboration for him , so we invited him out to do it . " Bieber first premiered the song performing on MuchMusic on December 28 , 2009 . A few days before the release of the single , Bieber posted an acoustic version of the song to his YouTube with his guitarist Dan Kanterr , similar to the way he did with " Favorite Girl " . Billboard said that : " Bieber delivers his characteristically clean vocals with conviction : " My first love broke my heart for the first time / and I 'm like , ' baby , baby , baby , no ! ' I thought you 'd always be mine . " Also in a review of the acoustic version Bill Lamb of About.com said that " I think the vocals here will convince some that Justin Bieber really does have the vocal chops . "
= = Style and composition = =
The song is predominantly upbeat , featuring Bieber 's R & B vocals over a backdrop containing a dance infused beat , full of keyboard and " disco string " synths . The song is composed in the key of E ♭ major with Bieber 's vocal range spanning from the low @-@ note of G3 to the high @-@ note of C5 . According to Jody Rosen of Rolling Stone , the song " blends winks at Fifties doo @-@ wop with hip @-@ hop chants " , comparing the style and the lyrics " My first love broke my heart for the first time / And I was like / Baby , baby , baby , ooooh / I thought you 'd always be mine " to fifties ballads like " Tears on My Pillow " , " Why Do Fools Fall in Love " and " Earth Angel " . Lyrically , Bieber 's lines explain his distress over his lost love , and promise to get it back , featured in lines like , " And I wanna play it cool / But I 'm losin ' you … / I 'm in pieces / So come and fix me … " . The chorus features the distinct and repetitive " baby , baby , baby , ohhhh ( nooooo ) " hook . After the second verse , Ludacris comes in with the verse @-@ rap , an anecdote of young love when he was thirteen , as it runs " When I was 13 / I had my first love / She had me going crazy / Oh , I was star @-@ struck / She woke me up daily / Don 't need no Starbucks … " .
A famous section of the song plays " Baby , Baby baby oh . Like baby , baby baby oh " . It is the catchphrase of the song that identifies the song .
= = Critical reception = =
Nick Levine of Digital Spy felt the song was " no great departure from what he 's given us before " , but felt the production of Tricky and The @-@ Dream helped give the song a " simple " , " big " chorus about " puppy love " that works . Melanie Bertoldi of Billboard said , " The midtempo number 's undeniably contagious chorus should keep Bieber 's tween fan base satisfied , and Ludacris ' brief cameo adds a welcome urban twist . " Bertoli went on to say , " The matchup adds a layer of maturity to Bieber 's repertoire and should further solidify his growing presence on the charts . " Rap @-@ Up magazine said that " the sweet pop fare gets a little street cred courtesy of the teen sensation 's labelmate Ludacris . " Jody Rosen of Rolling Stone appreciated the song 's vintage doo @-@ wop and fifties aesthetic and hip @-@ hop chants , and said the song included " one of the catchiest choruses concocted by the @-@ Dream and Tricky Stewart , the duo behind " Umbrella " and " Single Ladies . " Luke O 'Neill of Boston Globe had mixed thoughts about the song calling Ludacris ' cameo " goofy " , and said , the song " effects a musical anachronism , albeit a catchy one , but in this sped @-@ up recycling moment all styles all at once are grist for the mill . "
= = Chart performance = =
In the United States , " Baby " debuted at number five on the Billboard Hot 100 , becoming Bieber 's highest charting single in the US . Bieber then went on to surpass this chart position when " Boyfriend " debuted at number two in April 2012 . The song was also Ludacris 's biggest song to date , solo or featuring , since 2007 's " Glamorous " . " Baby " was beaten out as the week 's highest debut by Taylor Swift 's " Today Was a Fairytale " , which debuted at number two . The debuting of the pair of songs was just the third time in history that the Hot 100 had two new top @-@ five debuts . The instance had last happened in 2003 when American Idol 's Ruben Studdard and Clay Aiken 's debut singles charted at number one and two . During its first week of radio impact , the song had over 1400 spins , and was the top gainer for mainstream and rhythmic radio formats . The song debuted at thirty @-@ three on the Pop Songs chart on the week labeled February 13 , 2010 . The song missed out becoming the greatest gainer by one spot , which was Kesha 's " Blah Blah Blah " . However the following week , the song did collect greatest gainer recognition , jumping to twenty @-@ five on the chart , and has since peaked at sixteen . On August 2 , 2010 , the song was certified double @-@ platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America for shipments of 2 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 units . As of May 2013 , the song has sold 3 @.@ 9 million digital downloads in the United States . With the inclusion of streaming in the RIAA certifications in 2013 , the song became the highest certificated single of all time with 12XPlatinum ( passing " Candle in the Wind 1997 " by Elton John with 11XPlatinum ) .
" Baby " debuted and peaked on the Canadian Hot 100 at number three , becoming his highest charting single at the time . On the issue dated February 8 , 2010 , the song debuted in Australia on the official ARIA Singles Chart at number thirty @-@ seven . After twelve weeks of ascending and descending the charts the single reached a peak of three . " Baby " has since been certified platinum by the Australian Recording Industry Association ( ARIA ) for shipments of 70 @,@ 000 units . In New Zealand , the song entered the chart at nineteen . After weeks of ascending and descending the charts , " Baby " reached a peak of four . The song dropped to the number five position the following week and after weeks of fluctuating around the chart it attained the number four position once again . It has since been certified platinum by the Recording Industry Association of New Zealand ( RIANZ ) . The song peaked at number three on the UK Singles Chart on the issue date March 14 , 2010 . The following week , " Baby " fell to number four , but climbed back to its previous peak position of three on the issue date March 28 , 2010 . In the process of climbing the charts , " Baby " gained a new peak of two on the R & B Singles Chart . As of June 2012 , Baby has sold 442 @,@ 432 copies in the United Kingdom .
= = Music video = =
Filming for the music video began during the week of January 25 , 2010 , in Los Angeles . It was filmed at Universal CityWalk by director Ray Kay , who had previously directed videos for Beyoncé Knowles , Lady Gaga , Alexandra Burke , and Cheryl Cole , among others . Ludacris said that the video " is like a 2010 version of Michael Jackson 's " The Way You Make Me Feel " . " Bieber said that the video " will capture the song 's message of trying to woo back a girl . " In explaining the concept of the video , Bieber said , " It starts off , I really like this girl , but we didn 't [ get ] along ; we couldn 't be together . Basically I want her back and [ I 'm ] kind of going through the whole thing . I 'm chasing her around , trying to get her , and she 's kind of playing hard to get , but I 'm persistent . I keep going . " The video premiered exclusively on Vevo on Friday , February 19 , 2010 . Singer and actress Jasmine Villegas portrays Bieber 's love interest in the video . Bieber 's friends , Young Money artists Drake and Lil Twist also appeared in the video , along with Tinashe and jerkin ' crew The Rangers .
The video takes place in a mall @-@ like setting with a bowling alley and more . After the video was released , MTV commented on the video being the new version of " The Way You Make Me Feel " saying , " .. and the choreography does use a few of Jackson 's less @-@ suggestive moves . " The MTV review goes on saying , " most of the video takes place in the bowling alley , there are also scenes of Bieber in other settings , hanging out with Luda , doing the moonwalk , messing with his hair and mugging for the camera . Regardless of his lady 's apparent frustration with him , Bieber eventually wins her over . The video concludes with the pair walking off into the night holding hands . " Rapper Drake appears in the video .
Billboard reviewed the video , saying , " Those new dance moves he 's showing off can only mean one thing : all over the world , tweens ' hearts are melting right now . " In July 2010 , the video became the most viewed video in YouTube history until it was surpassed by Psy 's hit single , " Gangnam Style " , in November 2012 . On March 5 , 2014 , " Baby " became the second video , after " Gangnam Style " , to receive 1 billion views on YouTube , and is the fifteenth most viewed video on the site , with over 1 @.@ 41 billion views as of July 2016 . Despite this , the video has many more dislikes than it has likes . Although the song has received over 4 @.@ 7 million likes , the song has received over 6 @.@ 4 million dislikes .
= = Live performances = =
Bieber premiered an acoustic version of the song on December 28 , 2009 , on MuchMusic . He sang the song on VH1 's Pepsi Super Bowl Fan Jam , along with other performers Rihanna , JoJo and Timbaland , and on CBS ' The Early Show as a part of their Super Bowl programming . He performed the song the first time with Ludacris on BET 's SOS : Saving Ourselves – Help for Haiti Telethon , on February 6 , 2009 , which also aired on VH1 , and MTV . During the chorus , he changed the lyrics to " Baby , baby , Haiti " , to show support for the cause , and the reason everyone came together for the show . In the week of his album release , he performed the song on The View and 106 & Park . Bieber also performed the song at the 2010 Kids Choice Awards on March 27 . Bieber performed the song along with " U Smile " on the eighteenth episode of season thirty five of Saturday Night Live . Bieber performed an acoustic rendition of the song along with a freestyle by good friend Drake at the 2010 Juno Awards . In April 2010 , Bieber noted that due to his voice changing , he could no longer hit all the notes in " Baby " , and for live performances , the key is lowered . Bieber performed the song live in Sydney , Australia on April 26 , 2010 , in the Sunrise studios after his public performance was cancelled . Bieber also performed the song on May 11 , 2010 , on The Oprah Winfrey Show . Bieber performed the song on June 4 , 2010 , on the Today Show along with " Never Say Never " , " Somebody to Love " , and " One Time " . He performed the song with " Somebody to Love " at the 2010 MuchMusic Video Awards .
= = Track listing = =
= = Charts and certifications = =
= = = Chart precession and succession = = =
= = Release history = =
|
= So Yesterday =
" So Yesterday " is a song recorded by American singer Hilary Duff for her second studio album , Metamorphosis ( 2003 ) . It was written and produced by The Matrix ( a production team consisting of Lauren Christy , Scott Spock and Graham Edwards ) , with additional writing from Charlie Midnight . The song is influenced by pop rock music , and the lyrics chronicle the protagonist getting over a breakup with her boyfriend , declaring him as " so yesterday " . The song received mixed reviews from music critics , with some of them noting its close similarity to Avril Lavigne 's works , while others named it one of Duff 's best songs ever .
" So Yesterday " premiered on AOL Music 's " First Listen " on June 27 , 2003 . It was serviced to mainstream radio in the United States on July 15 , 2003 . The song became Duff 's first single to chart in the US Billboard Hot 100 , reaching number forty @-@ two . It was moderately successful outside the US , reaching top forty in most countries it charted . The song reached number eight in Australia and was certified platinum by Australian Recording Industry Association ( ARIA ) .
The song was accompanied by a music video , directed by Chris Applebaum , which showed Duff playing a prank on her ex @-@ boyfriend . It was successful on various music video channels like MTV and MuchMusic . Duff performed the song on her Metamorphosis Tour and has since performed it on all her concert tours . The song is also featured on the compilations Most Wanted ( 2005 ) , 4Ever Hilary ( 2006 ) and Best of Hilary Duff ( 2008 ) , and the music video game Band Hero .
= = Background and release = =
Although Duff recorded songs like " I Can 't Wait " , " Why Not " and " What Dreams Are Made Of " , which received substantial airplay on Radio Disney , executives at Buena Vista Music Group , Duff 's record label , planned to help her reach a more mature audience . So , Andre Recke , an executive at Buena Vista , along with Duff and her mother , enlisted the songwriting and production team " The Matrix " ( consisting of Lauren Christy , Scott Spock and Graham Edwards ) to produce songs for Duff 's debut album Metamorphosis ( 2003 ) . " So Yesterday " became one of three songs produced by the team for the album , and was the last song recorded for the album . Duff herself has said that when she first heard the song , she did not really like it ; however , her opinion changed after she listened to it more often . She then decided she would give the song a " 100 percent " and not comment negatively of it . According to her , she " ended up loving it " , stating , " It was such a fun song , and it means a lot . " Bob Cavallo , chairman of Buena Vista Records , said that the song was " more mature than the past work that she 's done . "
" So Yesterday " premiered on AOL Music 's " First Listen " on June 27 , 2003 , and it drew over 500 @,@ 000 streams in two days . It was released to mainstream radio in the United States on July 15 , and was the " most added " song on the format in its first two weeks of release . The song is featured on all of Duff 's compilations album , including Most Wanted ( 2005 ) , 4ever ( 2006 ) and her greatest hits album , Best of Hilary Duff ( 2008 ) . It is also featured on the music video game Band Hero as a bonus download .
= = Composition = =
Lyrically , the song talks about someone who has got over a broken relationship , declaring the partner as " so yesterday " . According to Duff , the song 's lyrics are very empowering towards breaking up with someone and getting over it . In a 2006 interview with Instinct , Duff said that people often told her that " So Yesterday " was " the ultimate post @-@ breakup anthem " . She said her mother instilled the notion of inner strength in her , and that she wanted the music she makes to be positive . " I don 't think there 's very much of that out there anymore . " , she said . She stressed the importance of strong songs that are not all about how " a boy broke your heart and you 're never going to get on your feet again " , saying it was good for girls to hear .
Musically , " So Yesterday " is moderately paced , with influences of pop and rock music and moves at a tempo of 76 bpm . The song is set in the signature of common time , and is written in the key of C ♭ major . The song has the sequence of Am – G – Fmaj7 as its chord progression . Duff 's vocal range in the song spans from the note of G ♯ 3 to the note of B ♯ 4 .
= = Reception = =
Upon its release , the song received mixed reviews from critics . Stephen Thomas Erlewine of Allmusic gave a positive review and commented that the song sounded natural coming from a teenager like Duff . He also noted the influence of Avril Lavigne on the song . Billboard gave a mixed review , also commenting on Lavigne 's influence on the song . Similarly , Spence D. of IGN Music was mixed in his review stating , " [ it 's ] like bubblegum ice cream : smooth and sweet at first listen , but the flavor eventually wears off , leaving somewhat generic pop anthems that will most likely be forgotten by the aforementioned throngs of young girl worshippers as they age along with Duff . " While reviewing Duff 's compilation Most Wanted , Talia Kraines of BBC Music commented that the song was Duff 's best . Similarly , Sal Cinquemani of Slant Magazine , noted the track as " kind of cute . " Elysa Gardner of USA Today gave a negative review on the song 's title writing , " [ That ] song title may , unfortunately , prove prophetic for an artist who seems so content to merely ride the wave of the moment "
= = Chart performance = =
" So Yesterday " debuted on the Billboard Hot 100 of August 16 , 2003 , at number 53 , and eventually peaked at number 42 . It spent 20 weeks on the Hot 100 . The song topped the US Billboard Hot 100 Singles Sales chart , making Duff the first artist in four months not affiliated with American Idol , to top the chart . The song peaked at number two in Canadian Singles Chart . In Australia the song debuted at number thirty @-@ nine , peaked at number eight in its eighth week , and remained on the chart for twenty weeks . It was the forty @-@ ninth best selling single of 2003 in Australia , and was certified platinum in 2004 . In Japan , the song reached number 199 on the Oricon weekly charts . In United Kingdom , the song debuted at number nine on the UK Singles Chart . The song peaked in the top ten on the charts in other European countries such as the Netherlands and France . As of July 27 , 2014 , the song had sold 252 @,@ 000 copies in the United States .
= = Music video = =
The music video premiered on MTV on July 24 , 2003 . It was directed by Chris Applebaum . It was also featured on MTV 's Making the Video two days after the video 's premiere on July 26 , 2003 . According to Disney Music Group chairman Bob Cavallo , care was taken to see that the video would not be offensive to Duff 's young fans and parents , but would work for MTV .
In the video , Duff 's plays a break @-@ up prank on her aloof boyfriend . While he is at the beach , she steals his clothes , including an orange T @-@ shirt that reads " Everything is bigger in Texas ! " . She spends several days taking snapshots of strangers wearing the T @-@ shirt and anonymously sneaking them into his mailbox . His bewilderment turns to dismay when he receives the final package returning the garment along with a picture of Duff smiling , looking back , and wearing a shirt that declares , " you 're so yesterday " . Throughout the whole video , Duff is shown performing the song with her band . The music video ranked at number one on Total Request Live . It was a staple on the UK incarnation of Total Request Live , reaching a peak of # 4 . In late August 2003 it was the most streamed music video on AOL .
= = Live performances = =
" So Yesterday " was performed at the 31st American Music Award in November 2003 . The song was also performed at the British chart program Top of the Pops in 2003 . Duff performed an acoustic version of the song at Sessions @ AOL and Studio Disney . Apart from the live television performances , the song was performed on many of Duff 's tours . " So Yesterday " was performed on every show on her Metamorphosis Tour ( 2003 ) . The live acoustic performance at Sessions @ AOL was taped and is featured on Duff 's video compilation All Access Pass , and the performance at the Metamorphosis tour is featured on Duff 's live video compilation The Girl Can Rock .
= = Track listings = =
= = Credits and personnel = =
Songwriters : Lauren Christy , Scott Spock , Graham Edwards , Charlie Midnight
Production : The Matrix
Instruments and programming : The Matrix
Recording and mixing : The Matrix
Source
= = Charts = =
= = Certifications = =
= = Release history = =
|
= Amy Winehouse =
Amy Jade Winehouse ( 14 September 1983 – 23 July 2011 ) was an English singer and songwriter known for her deep expressive contralto vocals and her eclectic mix of musical genres , including soul ( sometimes labelled as blue @-@ eyed soul and neo soul ) , rhythm and blues , and jazz . Winehouse 's debut album , Frank ( 2003 ) , was a critical success in the UK and was nominated for the Mercury Prize . Her follow @-@ up album , Back to Black ( 2006 ) , led to five 2008 Grammy Awards , tying the then record for the most wins by a female artist in a single night , and made her the first British female to win five Grammys , including three of the general field " Big Four " awards : Best New Artist , Record of the Year and Song of the Year .
Winehouse won three Ivor Novello Awards : in 2004 , Best Contemporary Song for " Stronger Than Me " ; in 2007 , Best Contemporary Song again , this time for " Rehab " ; and in 2008 , Best Song Musically and Lyrically for " Love Is a Losing Game . " She also won the 2007 Brit Award for Best British Female Artist , having been nominated for Best British Album , with Back to Black .
Winehouse died of alcohol poisoning on 23 July 2011 , aged 27 . Her album Back to Black posthumously became , for a time , the UK 's best @-@ selling album of the 21st century . In 2012 , Winehouse was ranked 26th on VH1 's 100 Greatest Women In Music . The BBC has called her " the pre @-@ eminent vocal talent of her generation . "
= = Early life = =
Amy Winehouse was born in Chase Farm Hospital in north London , to Jewish parents . Her father , Mitchell " Mitch " Winehouse , was a window panel installer then a taxi driver ; her mother , Janis Winehouse ( née Seaton ) , a pharmacist . The Winehouse ancestors were Russian and Polish immigrants to London . Amy had an older brother , Alex ( born 1979 ) , and the family lived in London 's Southgate area , where she attended Osidge Primary School .
Many of Winehouse 's maternal uncles were professional jazz musicians . Amy 's paternal grandmother , Cynthia , was a singer and dated the English jazz saxophonist Ronnie Scott . She and Amy 's parents influenced Amy 's interest in jazz . Her father Mitch often sang Frank Sinatra songs to her , and whenever she got chastised at school she would sing " Fly Me to the Moon " before going up to the headmistress to be told off . Winehouse 's parents separated when she was nine , and she lived with her mother and stayed with her father and his girlfriend in Hatfield Heath , Essex on weekends .
In 1992 her grandmother Cynthia suggested she attend the Susi Earnshaw Theatre School , where she went on Saturdays to further her vocal education and to learn to tap dance . She attended the school for four years and founded a short @-@ lived rap group called Sweet ' n ' Sour with Juliette Ashby , her childhood friend before seeking full @-@ time training at Sylvia Young Theatre School . Winehouse was allegedly expelled at 14 for " not applying herself " and also for piercing her nose . Sylvia Young has denied this — " She changed schools at 15 — I 've heard it said she was expelled ; she wasn 't . I 'd never have expelled Amy " — as has Mitch Winehouse . She also appeared in an episode of The Fast Show , 1997 , with other children from the Sylvia Young School and later attended the Mount School , Mill Hill ; the BRIT School in Selhurst , Croydon ; Osidge JMI School and then Ashmole School .
= = Musical career = =
= = = Early career = = =
After toying around with her brother Alex 's guitar , Winehouse bought her own when she was 14 and began writing music a year later . Soon after , she began working for a living , including , at one time , as an entertainment journalist for the World Entertainment News Network , in addition to singing with local group the Bolsha Band . In July 2000 , she became the featured female vocalist with the National Youth Jazz Orchestra ; her influences were to include Sarah Vaughan and Dinah Washington , the latter whom she was already listening to at home . Amy 's best friend , soul singer Tyler James , sent her demo tape to an A & R person . Winehouse signed to Simon Fuller 's 19 Management in 2002 and was paid £ 250 a week against future earnings . While being developed by the management company , she was kept as a recording industry secret although she was a regular jazz standards singer at the Cobden Club . Her future A & R representative at Island ( Universal ) , Darcus Beese , heard of her by accident when the manager of The Lewinson Brothers showed him some productions of his clients , which featured Winehouse as key vocalist . When he asked who the singer was , the manager told him he was not allowed to say . Having decided that he wanted to sign her , it took several months of asking around for Beese to eventually discover who the singer was . However , Winehouse had already recorded a number of songs and signed a publishing deal with EMI by this time . Incidentally , she formed a working relationship with producer Salaam Remi through these record publishers .
Beese introduced Winehouse to his boss , Nick Gatfield , and the Island head shared his enthusiasm in signing the young artist . Winehouse was signed to Island , as rival interest in Winehouse had started to build to include representatives of EMI and Virgin starting to make moves . Beese told HitQuarters that he felt the reason behind the excitement , over an artist who was an atypical pop star for the time , was due to a backlash against reality TV music shows , which included audiences starved for fresh , genuine young talent .
= = = 2003 – 05 : Debut album Frank = = =
Winehouse 's debut album , Frank , was released on 20 October 2003 . Produced mainly by Salaam Remi , many songs were influenced by jazz and , apart from two covers , Winehouse co @-@ wrote every song . The album received positive reviews with compliments over the " cool , critical gaze " in its lyrics and brought comparisons of her voice to Sarah Vaughan , Macy Gray and others .
The album entered the upper levels of the UK album chart in 2004 when it was nominated for BRIT Awards in the categories of " British Female Solo Artist " and " British Urban Act . " It went on to achieve platinum sales . Later in 2004 , she and Remi won the Ivor Novello Award for Best Contemporary Song , for their first single together , " Stronger Than Me . " The album was also shortlisted for the 2004 Mercury Music Prize . In the same year , she performed at the Glastonbury Festival – Jazzworld , the V Festival and the Montreal International Jazz Festival ( 7 July 2004 , at the Club Soda ) . After the release of the album , Winehouse commented that she was " only 80 percent behind [ the ] album " because Island Records had overruled her preferences for the songs and mixes to be included . Further singles from the album were " Take the Box , " " In My Bed " / " You Sent Me Flying " and " Pumps " / " Help Yourself . "
= = = 2006 – 07 : international success , Back to Black and touring = = =
In contrast to her jazz @-@ influenced former album , Winehouse 's focus shifted to the girl groups of the 1950s and 1960s . Winehouse hired New York singer Sharon Jones 's longtime band , the Dap @-@ Kings , to back her up in the studio and on tour . Mitch Winehouse relates in Amy , My Daughter how fascinating watching her process was : her perfectionism in the studio and how she would put what she had sung on a CD and play it in his taxi outside to know how most people would hear her music . In May 2006 , Winehouse 's demo tracks such as " You Know I 'm No Good " and " Rehab " appeared on Mark Ronson 's New York radio show on East Village Radio . These were some of the first new songs played on the radio after the release of " Pumps " and both were slated to appear on her second album . The 11 @-@ track album , completed in five months , was produced entirely by Salaam Remi and Ronson , with the production credits being split between them . Ronson said in a 2010 interview that he liked working with Winehouse because she was blunt when she did not like his work . She in turn thought that when they first met , he was a sound engineer and that she was expecting an older man with a beard . Promotion of Back to Black soon began and , in early October 2006 Winehouse 's official website was relaunched with a new layout and clips of previously unreleased songs . Back to Black was released in the UK on 30 October 2006 . It went to number one on the UK Albums Chart for two weeks in January 2007 , dropping then climbing back for several weeks in February . In the US , it entered at number seven on the Billboard 200 . It was the best @-@ selling album in the UK of 2007 , selling 1 @.@ 85 million copies over the course of the year .
The album spawned a number of hit singles . The first single released from the album was the Ronson @-@ produced " Rehab . " The song reached the top ten in the UK and the US . Time magazine named " Rehab " the Best Song of 2007 . Writer Josh Tyrangiel praised Winehouse for her confidence , saying , " What she is mouthy , funny , sultry , and quite possibly crazy " and " It 's impossible not to be seduced by her originality . Combine it with production by Mark Ronson that references four decades worth of soul music without once ripping it off , and you 've got the best song of 2007 . " The album 's second single and lead single in the US , " You Know I 'm No Good , " was released in January 2007 with a remix featuring rap vocals by Ghostface Killah . It ultimately reached number 18 on the UK singles chart . The title track , " Back to Black , " was released in the UK in April 2007 and peaked at number 25 , but was more successful across mainland Europe . " Tears Dry on Their Own , " " Love Is a Losing Game " were also released as singles , but failed to achieve the same level of success .
A deluxe edition of Back to Black was also released on 5 November 2007 in the UK . The bonus disc features B @-@ sides , rare , and live tracks , as well as " Valerie . " Winehouse 's debut DVD I Told You I Was Trouble : Live in London was released the same day in the UK and 13 November in the US . It includes a live set recorded at London 's Shepherd 's Bush Empire and a 50 @-@ minute documentary charting the singer 's career over the previous four years . Frank was released in the United States on 20 November 2007 to positive reviews . The album debuted at number 61 on the Billboard 200 chart . In addition to her own album , she collaborated with other artists on singles . Winehouse was a vocalist on the song " Valerie " on Ronson 's solo album Version . The song peaked at number two in the UK , upon its October single release . " Valerie " was nominated for a 2008 Brit Award for " Best British Single . " Her work with ex @-@ Sugababe Mutya Buena , " B Boy Baby , " was released on 17 December 2007 . It served as the fourth single from Buena 's debut album , Real Girl . Winehouse was also in talks of working with Missy Elliott for her album , Block Party .
Winehouse toured in conjunction with the Back to Black album 's release , performing headliners in September and November 2006 , including a Little Noise Sessions charity concert at the Union Chapel in Islington , North London . On 31 December 2006 , Winehouse appeared on Jools Holland 's Annual Hootenanny live on the BBC and performed a cover of Marvin Gaye 's " I Heard It Through the Grapevine " along with Paul Weller and Holland 's Rhythm and Blues Orchestra . She also performed Toots and the Maytals ' " Monkey Man . " She began a run of another fourteen gigs beginning in February 2007 . At his request , Hollywood star Bruce Willis introduced Winehouse before her performance of " Rehab " at the 2007 MTV Movie Awards in Universal City , California . She had made awards organizers nervous when she went on a Las Vegas jaunt in the hours before the show . During the summer of 2007 , she performed at various festivals , including the Isle of Wight Festival and Glastonbury Festival in England , Lollapalooza festival in Chicago , Belgium 's Rock Werchter and Virgin Music Festival in Baltimore .
The rest of her tour , however , did not go as well . In November 2007 the opening night of a 17 @-@ date tour was marred by booing and walkouts at the National Indoor Arena in Birmingham . A critic for the Birmingham Mail said it was " one of the saddest nights of my life ... I saw a supremely talented artist reduced to tears , stumbling around the stage and , unforgivably , swearing at the audience . " Other concerts ended similarly , with , for example , fans at her Hammersmith Apollo performance in London saying that she " looked highly intoxicated throughout , " until she announced on 27 November 2007 , that her performances and public appearances were cancelled for the remainder of the year , citing her doctor 's advice to take a complete rest . A statement issued by concert promoter Live Nation blamed " the rigours involved in touring and the intense emotional strain that Amy has been under in recent weeks " for the decision . Mitch Winehouse wrote about her nervousness before public performances in his 2012 book , Amy , My Daughter .
= = = 2008 : Continued success and acclaim = = =
On 13 January 2008 , Back to Black held the number @-@ one position on the Billboard Pan European charts for the third consecutive week . On 20 February 2008 , Winehouse performed at the 2008 Brit Awards , performing " Valerie " with Mark Ronson , followed by " Love Is a Losing Game . " She urged the crowd to " make some noise for my Blake . "
In February 2008 , Winehouse also won Grammy Awards in the following categories : Record of the Year , Song of the Year , Best Female Pop Vocal Performance for the single " Rehab , " and Best Pop Vocal Album . Additionally , Back to Black was nominated for Album of the Year . Ronson 's work with her won the Grammy Award for Producer of the Year , in the non @-@ classical category . The singer also earned a Grammy as Best New Artist , earning her an entry in the 2009 edition of the Guinness Book of World Records for Most Grammy Awards won by a British Female Act . She ended her acceptance speech for Record of the Year with , " This is for London because Camden town ain 't burning down , " in reference to the Camden Market fire . Winehouse was forced to perform " You Know I 'm No Good " and " Rehab " for the awards ceremony via satellite , as her visa approval had not been processed in time .
After the Grammys , the album 's sales increased , catapulting Back to Black to number two on the US Billboard 200 , after it initially peaked in the seventh position . A special deluxe edition of Back to Black topped the UK album charts on 2 March 2008 . Meanwhile , the original edition of the album was ranked at number 30 in its 68th week on the charts , while Frank charted at number 35 .
In Paris , she performed what was described as a " well @-@ executed 40 @-@ minute " set at the opening of a Fendi boutique in early March . By 12 March , the album had sold a total of 2 @,@ 467 @,@ 575 copies — 318 @,@ 350 copies had been sold in the previous 10 weeks — putting the album on the UK 's top @-@ 10 best @-@ selling albums of the 21st century for the first time . On 7 April , Back to Black was in the top position of the pan @-@ European charts for the sixth consecutive and thirteenth aggregate week . Amy Winehouse – The Girl Done Good : A Documentary Review , a 78 @-@ minute DVD , was released on 14 April 2008 . The documentary features interviews with those who knew her at a young age , people who helped her achieve success , jazz music experts , and music and pop @-@ culture specialists .
At the 2008 Ivor Novello Awards in May , Winehouse became the first @-@ ever artist to receive two nominations for the top award : best song , musically and lyrically . She won the award for " Love Is a Losing Game " and was nominated for " You Know I 'm No Good . " " Rehab , " a Novello winner for best contemporary song in 2006 , also received a 2008 nomination for best @-@ selling British song . Winehouse was also nominated for a 2008 MTV Europe Award in the " Act of the Year " category .
Although her father , manager and various members of her touring team reportedly tried to dissuade her , Winehouse performed at the Rock in Rio Lisboa festival in Portugal in May 2008 . Although the set was plagued by a late arrival and problems with her voice , the crowd warmed to her . In addition to her own material she performed two Specials covers . Winehouse performed at Nelson Mandela 's 90th Birthday Party concert at London 's Hyde Park on 27 June , and the next day at the Glastonbury Festival . On 12 July , at the Oxegen Festival she performed a well @-@ received 50 @-@ minute set which was followed the next day by a 14 song set at T in the Park .
On 16 August she played at the Staffordshire leg of the V Festival , and the following day played the Chelmsford leg of the festival . Organizers said that Winehouse attracted the biggest crowds of the festival . Audience reaction was reported as mixed . On 6 September , she was Bestival 's Saturday headliner , where her performance was described as polished — terminated by a curfew as the show running overdue , after Winehouse started an hour late — and her storming off stage .
A clip of Winehouse 's music was included in the " Roots and Influences " area that looked at connections between different artists at the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame Annex NYC , which opened in December 2008 . One thread started with Billie Holiday , continued with Aretha Franklin and Mary J. Blige , and then finished with Winehouse .
Back to Black was the world 's seventh @-@ biggest @-@ selling album of 2008 . The album 's sales meant that the market performance of Universal Music 's recorded music division did not drop to levels experienced by the overall music market .
= = = 2009 – 11 : Final projects before death = = =
In a poll of U.S. residents conducted for VisitBritain by Harris Interactive , the results of which were released in March 2009 , one @-@ fifth of those polled indicated they had listened to Winehouse 's music during the previous year . Winehouse performed with Rhythms del Mundo on their cover of the Sam Cooke song , " Cupid , " for an Artists Project Earth benefit album that was released on 13 July 2009 .
Winehouse and Ronson contributed a cover of Lesley Gore 's " It 's My Party " to the Quincy Jones tribute album Q Soul Bossa Nostra released 9 November 2010 . Winehouse and drummer Questlove of The Roots had agreed to form a group but her problems obtaining a visa delayed their working together : Salaam Remi had already created some material with Winehouse as part of the project . According to The Times , Universal Music pressed her for new material in 2008 , and Winehouse as of 2 September had not been near a recording studio . In late October Winehouse 's spokesman was quoted as saying that Winehouse had not been given a deadline to complete her third album , for which she was learning to play drums .
In May 2009 Winehouse returned to performing at a jazz festival in Saint Lucia amid torrential downpours and technical difficulties . During her set it was reported she was unsteady on her feet and had trouble remembering lyrics . She apologised to the crowd for being " bored " and ended the set in the middle of a song . To a cheering crowd on 23 August at the V festival , Winehouse sang with The Specials on their songs " You 're Wondering Now " and " Ghost Town . " During her stay in Saint Lucia , she also worked on new music with Salaam Remi . Island claimed that a new album would be due in 2010 with Island co @-@ president Darcus Beese saying , " I 've heard a couple of song demos that have absolutely floored me . " In July 2010 , Winehouse was quoted as saying her next album would be released no later than January 2011 , saying " It 's going to be very much the same as my second album , where there 's a lot of jukebox stuff and songs that are ... just jukebox , really . " Ronson said the same month however that he had not started to record the album . She performed " Valerie " with Ronson at a movie premiere but forgot some of the song 's lyrics . In October Winehouse performed a four @-@ song set to promote her fashion line . In December 2010 , she played a 40 @-@ minute concert at a Russian oligarch 's party in Moscow , the tycoon hand picking the songs .
During January 2011 , she played five dates in Brazil , with opening acts of Janelle Monáe and Mayer Hawthorne . On 11 February 2011 , Winehouse cut short a performance in Dubai following booing from the audience . Winehouse was reported to be tired , distracted and " tipsy " during the performance .
On 18 June 2011 , Winehouse started her twelve @-@ leg 2011 European tour in Belgrade . Local media described her performance as a scandal and disaster , and she was booed off the stage due to her apparently being too drunk to perform . It was reported that she was unable to remember the city she was in , the lyrics of her songs or — when trying to introduce them — the names of the members of her band . The local press also claimed that Winehouse was forced to perform by her bodyguards , who did not allow her to leave the stage when she tried to do so . She then pulled out of performances in Istanbul and Athens which had been scheduled for the following week . On 21 June , it was announced that she had cancelled all shows of her tour and would be given " as long as it takes " to sort herself out .
Winehouse 's last public appearance took place at Camden 's Roundhouse , London on 20 July 2011 , when she made a surprise appearance on stage to support her goddaughter , Dionne Bromfield , who was singing " Mama Said " with The Wanted .
Winehouse died on 23 July 2011 . On the week of 26 July 2011 , Frank , Back to Black and the Back to Black EP re @-@ entered the Billboard 200 at number 57 , number 9 and number 152 respectively , with the album climbing to number 4 the following week . Back to Black also topped the Billboard Digital Albums chart on the same week and was the second best @-@ seller at iTunes . " Rehab " re @-@ entered and topped the Billboard Hot Digital Songs chart as well , selling up to 38 @,@ 000 more digital downloads . As of August 2011 , " Back to Black " was the best @-@ selling album in the UK in the twenty @-@ first century .
Winehouse 's last recording was a duet with American singer Tony Bennett for his latest album , Duets II , released on 20 September 2011 . Their single from the album , " Body and Soul , " was released on 14 September 2011 on MTV and VH1 to commemorate what would have been her 28th birthday . Her father , Mitch Winehouse , launched the Amy Winehouse Foundation with the goal of raising awareness and support for organisations that help vulnerable , young adults with problems such as addiction . Proceeds from " Body and Soul " benefit the Amy Winehouse Foundation . The song received the Grammy for Best Pop Duo / Group Performance at the 54th Grammy Awards on 12 February 2012 . Winehouse 's father , Mitch Winehouse , picked up the award at the awards ceremony with his wife Janis , saying , " We shouldn 't be here . Our darling daughter should be here . These are the cards that we 're dealt . "
When interviewed by Jon Stewart on The Daily Show on 29 September 2011 , Bennett stated that in hindsight , he believed Amy :
was in trouble at that time because she had a couple of engagements that she didn 't keep up . But what people didn 't realize at that time , that she really knew , and in fact I didn 't even know it when we were making the record , and now looking at the whole thing ; she knew that she was in a lot of trouble ; that she wasn 't going to live . And it wasn 't drugs . It was alcohol toward the end . . . . It was such a sad thing because . . . she was the only singer that really sang what I call the ' right way ' because she was a great jazz @-@ pop singer . . . . She was really a great jazz singer . A true jazz singer . And I regret that because that 's the ' right way ' to sing .
An album of previously unreleased material , titled Lioness : Hidden Treasures , was released on 6 December 2011 . It debuted at the top of the UK Albums Chart with the biggest first @-@ week sales of Winehouse 's career . It debuted at number five on the Billboard 200 , selling 114 @,@ 000 units , making it her highest @-@ debuting album in the US .
= = Image = =
Winehouse 's greatest love was 1960s girl groups . Her stylist , Alex Foden , borrowed her " instantly recognisable " beehive hairdo ( a weave ) and she borrowed her Cleopatra makeup from The Ronettes . Her imitation was so successful , as The Village Voice reports : " Ronnie Spector — who , it could be argued , all but invented Winehouse 's style in the first place when she took the stage at the Brooklyn Fox Theater with her fellow Ronettes more than 40 years ago — was so taken aback at a picture of Winehouse in the New York Post that she exclaimed , " I don 't know her , I never met her , and when I saw that pic , I thought , ' That 's me ! ' But then I found out , no , it 's Amy ! I didn 't have on my glasses . "
The New York Times style reporter , Guy Trebay , discussed the multiplicity of influences on Winehouse 's style after her death . Trebay noted , " her stylish husband , Blake Fielder @-@ Civil , may have influenced her look . " Additionally , Trebay observed :
She was a 5 @-@ foot @-@ 3 almanac of visual reference , most famously to Ronnie Spector of the Ronettes , but also to the white British soul singer Mari Wilson , less famous for her sound than her beehive ; to the punk god Johnny Thunders ... ; to the fierce council @-@ house chicks ... ( see : Dior and Chanel runways , 2007 and 2008 ) ... to a lineage of bad girls , extending from Cleopatra to Louise Brooks 's Lulu and including Salt @-@ n @-@ Pepa , to irresistible man traps that always seemed to come to the same unfortunate end .
Former Rolling Stone editor Joe Levy , who had put her on the magazine 's cover , broke her look down this way :
Just as her best music drew on sampling — assembling sonic licks and stylistic fragments borrowed from Motown , Stax , punk and early hip @-@ hop — her personal style was also a knowing collage . There was a certain moment in the ' 90s when , if you were headed downtown and turned left , every girl looked like Bettie Page . But they did not do what Winehouse did , mixing Bettie Page with Brigitte Bardot and adding that little bit of Ronnie Spector .
Mitch Winehouse later revealed that the influence for the bold red lipstick , thick eyebrows and heavy eyeliner came from Latinas she saw in Miami , on her trip there to work with Salaam Remi on Back to Black . This same look , however , was repeatedly denigrated by the British press . At the same time that the NME Awards nominated Winehouse in the categories of " Best Solo Artist " and " Best Music DVD " in 2008 , they awarded her " Worst Dressed Performer . " Winehouse was also ranked number two on Richard Blackwell 's 48th annual " Ten Worst Dressed Women " list , behind Victoria Beckham .
= = Other ventures = =
Winehouse joined a campaign to stop a block of flats being built beside the George Tavern , a famous London East End music venue . Campaign supporters feared the residential development would end the spot 's lucrative sideline as a film and photo location , on which it relies to survive . As part of a breast cancer awareness campaign , Winehouse appeared in a revealing photograph for the April 2008 issue of Easy Living magazine . Winehouse had an estimated £ 10m fortune , tying her for tenth place in the 2008 The Sunday Times listing of the wealth of musicians under age 30 . The following year her fortune had dropped to an estimated £ 5m . Her finances are run by Mitch and Janis Winehouse . It was reported she earned about £ 1m singing at two private parties during Paris Fashion Week. as well as another £ 1m to perform at a Moscow Art Gallery for Russian oligarch Roman Abramovich . Winehouse loaned a vintage dress used in her video for " Tears Dry on Their Own " as well as a DVD to the British Music Experience , a new museum dedicated to the history of British pop music . The museum , located in The O2 , opened on 9 March 2009 .
In January 2009 , Winehouse announced that she was launching her own record label . The first act on her Lioness Records is Winehouse 's 13 @-@ year @-@ old goddaughter , Dionne Bromfield . Her first album , featuring covers of classic soul records , was released on 12 October 2009 . Winehouse is the backing singer on several tracks on the album and she performed backing vocals for Bromfield on the television programme Strictly Come Dancing on 10 October .
Winehouse and her family are the subject of a 2009 documentary shot by Daphne Barak titled Saving Amy . Winehouse entered into a joint venture in 2009 with EMI to launch a range of wrapping paper and gift cards containing song lyrics from her album Back to Black . On 8 January 2010 , a television documentary , My Daughter Amy , aired on Channel 4 . Saving Amy was released as a paperback book in January 2010 .
Winehouse collaborated on a 17 piece fashion collection with the Fred Perry label . It was released for sale in October 2010 . According to Fred Perry 's marketing director " We had three major design meetings where she was closely involved in product style selection and the application of fabric , colour and styling details , " and gave " crucial input on proportion , colour and fit . " The collection consists of " vintage @-@ inspired looks including Capri pants , a bowling dress , a trench coat , pencil skirts , a longline argyle sweater and a pink @-@ and @-@ black checkerboard @-@ printed collared shirt . " At the behest of her family , three forthcoming collections up to and including autumn / winter 2012 that she had designed prior to her death will be released .
= = Controversy = =
Winehouse 's dichotomous public image of critical and commercial success versus personal turmoil proved to be controversial . The New Statesman called Winehouse " a filthy @-@ mouthed , down @-@ to @-@ earth diva , " while Newsweek called her " a perfect storm of sex kitten , raw talent and poor impulse control . " Karen Heller with The Philadelphia Inquirer summarised the maelstrom this way :
She 's only 24 with six Grammy nominations , crashing headfirst into success and despair , with a codependent husband in jail , exhibitionist parents with questionable judgement , and the paparazzi documenting her emotional and physical distress . Meanwhile , a haute designer Karl Lagerfeld appropriates her dishevelled style and eating issues to market to the elite while proclaiming her the new Bardot .
By 2008 , her continued drug problems threatened her career . Even as Nick Gatfield , the president of Island Records , toyed with the idea of releasing Winehouse " to deal with her problems , " he remarked on her talent , saying , " It 's a reflection of her status [ in the U.S. ] that when you flick through the TV coverage [ of the Grammys ] it 's her image they use . " Post @-@ Grammys , some questioned whether Winehouse should have been honoured with the awards given her recent personal and drug problems , including Natalie Cole , who introduced Winehouse at the ceremony and who herself battled substance @-@ abuse problems while winning a Grammy for Best New Artist in 1975 . ( Winehouse was prevented from traveling to and performing at the Grammy Awards ceremony in the US due to failing a drug test . ) In a newspaper commentary , the executive director of the UN Office on Drugs and Crime , Antonio Maria Costa , said that the alleged drug habits of Winehouse and other celebrities sent a bad message " to others who are vulnerable to addiction " and undermine the efforts of other celebrities trying to raise awareness of problems in Africa , now that more cocaine used in Europe passes through that continent . Winehouse 's spokesperson noted that " Amy has never given a quote about drugs or flaunted it in any way . She 's had some problems and is trying to get better . The U.N. should get its own house in order . "
It has been argued that Winehouse became a staple in popularity polls not because of her musical contributions but because of her lifestyle . In January 2008 , her record label stated they believed the extensive media coverage she had received increased record sales . In an April 2008 poll conducted by Sky News , Winehouse was named the second greatest " ultimate heroine " by the UK population at large , topping the voting for that category of those polled under 25 years old . Psychologist Donna Dawson commented that the results demonstrated that women like Winehouse who had " a certain sense of vulnerability or have had to fight against some adversity in their lives " received recognition .
In July 2008 , BBC Radio Scotland 's head , Jeff Zycinski , stated that the BBC , and media in general , were complicit in undermining celebrities , including Winehouse . He said that public interest in the singer 's lifestyle did not make her lifestyle newsworthy . Rod McKenzie , editor of the BBC Radio One programme Newsbeat , replied : " If you play [ Amy Winehouse 's ] music to a certain demographic , those same people want to know what 's happening in her private life . If you don 't cover it , you 're insulting young license fee payers . " In The Scotsman , British singer and songwriter Lily Allen was quoted to have said – " I know Amy Winehouse very well . And she is very different to what people portray her as being . Yes , she does get out of her mind on drugs sometimes , but she is also a very clever , intelligent , witty , funny person who can hold it together . You just don 't see that side . "
= = Awards and nominations = =
Among the awards and recognition for her debut album Frank , Winehouse earned an Ivor Novello Award from the British Academy of Songwriters for Best Contemporary Song ( " Stronger Than Me " ) , a Brit Award nomination for Best British Female Solo Artist , and an inclusion in Robert Dimery 's 2006 book , 1001 Albums You Must Hear Before You Die .
Her second studio album , Back to Black , produced numerous nominations , including two Brit Awards ( Best British Album , and won her Best British Female Solo Artist ) , six Grammy Awards ( including five wins ) , four Ivor Novello Awards , four MTV Europe Music Awards , three MTV Video Music Awards , three World Music Awards , and it was nominated for the Mercury Prize ( Album of the Year ) and a MOBO Awards ( Best UK Female ) . During her career , Winehouse received 23 awards from 60 nominations . On 13 February 2012 , Winehouse was ranked 26th on VH1 's 100 Greatest Women In Music list .
= = Charity work = =
Throughout her life Winehouse donated her money , music and time to many charities , particularly those concerned with children . She was once named " the most charitable act " by Pop World . While this side of her personality was never well known to the general public , throughout both the arts community and the charity community she was known for her generosity . Among the charities she supported are Adopt @-@ A @-@ Minefield , Anti @-@ Slavery International , Breast Cancer Campaign , CARE , Children of the Andes , Children 's Medical Research Institute , Christian Children 's Fund , City at Peace , UK charity telethon Comic Relief , London 's Great Ormond Street Hospital for sick children , Greenpeace , Healthlink Worldwide , Hear the World , Heifer International , Holy Apostles Soup Kitchen , the Red Cross , LIFEbeat , Lifeline and Rape Crisis PMB , Opportunity International , Oxfam , Rights and Humanity , Save the Children , Save the Music Foundation , St. Jude Children 's Research Hospital , Teenage Cancer Trust , Christina Noble Children 's Foundation , Little Dreams Foundation , Lotus Outreach , Nelson Mandela Children 's Fund , UNHCR , UNICEF , V @-@ Day , WaterAid , and World Neighbors .
In 2008 , Winehouse appeared naked in an issue of Easy Living Magazine to raise awareness of breast cancer . In 2009 , she appeared on a CD called Classics alongside musicians such as The Rolling Stones , The Killers and many Cuban musicians to raise awareness of climate change . In March 2011 , Winehouse donated over £ 20 @,@ 000 worth of clothes to a local charity shop in London .
In 2012 , it was revealed that she had paid for the medical tests for a man called Julian Jean DeBaptiste in Saint Lucia in 2009 . " I had surgery on 1 July 2009 ... it cost a fortune and Amy paid for the whole thing . I tried to thank her but she just hugged me and told me not to say anything . Her generosity gave me my life back . "
= = Legacy = =
= = = Artwork and Tussauds wax figure = = =
London 's Mall Galleries opened an exhibition in May 2008 that included a sculpture of Winehouse , titled Excess . The piece , created by Guy Portelli , had a miniature of the singer lying on top of a cracked champagne bottle , with a pool of spilled liquid underneath . The body was covered with what appeared to be tiny pills , while one outstretched hand held a glass . Another piece , a print titled Celebrity 1 by artist Charlotte Suckling , was shown in the same exhibition .
A wax sculpture of Winehouse went on display at the London Madame Tussauds on 23 July 2008 . The singer did not attend the unveiling , although her parents did . A sculpture by Marco Perego , titled The Only Good Rock Star Is a Dead Rock Star , that depicts Winehouse lying in a pool of blood with an apple and a bullet hole in her head after being shot by American novelist and Beat poet William S. Burroughs ( in a recreation of the accidental killing of his wife Joan Vollmer ) , was scheduled to go on display in New York 's Half Gallery on 14 November 2008 with a sale price of US $ 100 @,@ 000 . Perego said of the sculpture : " Rock stars are the sacrificial animals of society . " Winehouse 's spokesperson stated : " It 's a funny kind of tribute . The artist seems in thrall to a tabloid persona that is not the real Amy . People often use her image to sell their work . "
On 14 September 2014 ( which would have been Winehouse 's 31st birthday ) , a statue was unveiled of her , which was created by sculptor Scott Eaton , at Stables Market in Camden Town , north London . Fans and relatives gathered for the unveiling in Camden 's Stable Market , where it will be a permanent memorial to her . London @-@ based Eaton , who sculpted the piece after being introduced to Winehouse 's father Mitch , said the statue was meant to capture her " attitude and strength , but also give subtle hints of insecurity . " Her father Mitch said of the statue : " Now Amy will oversee the comings and goings of her home town forever ... Amy was in love with Camden and it is the place her fans from all over the world associate her with . "
= = = The next generation = = =
British singer Adele has credited Winehouse 's success in making her and fellow British singer Duffy 's journey to the United States " a bit smoother . " Lady Gaga credited Winehouse with paving the way for her rise to the top of the charts , explaining that Winehouse made it easier for unconventional women to have mainstream pop success . Raphael Saadiq , Anthony Hamilton and John Legend said " Amy Winehouse was produced by people who wanted to create a marketing coup . The positive side is that it reacquainted an audience with this music and played an introductory role for others . This reinvigorated the genre by overcoming the vintage aspect . "
Other artists that have credited Winehouse as a major influence and / or for paving the way for them include Ellie Goulding , Jessie J , Emeli Sandé , Victoria Justice , Misha B , Paloma Faith , Lana Del Rey , Sam Smith , Florence Welch and Estelle .
After the release of Back to Black , record companies sought out female artists with a similar sound and fearless and experimental female musicians in general . Adele and Duffy were the second wave of artists with a sound similar to Winehouse 's . A third wave of female musicians that has emerged since the album was released are led by V V Brown , Florence and the Machine , La Roux and Little Boots . In March 2011 , the New York Daily News ran an article attributing the continuing wave of British female artists that have been successful in the United States to Winehouse and her absence . Spin magazine music editor Charles Aaron was quoted as saying " Amy Winehouse was the Nirvana moment for all these women , " " They can all be traced back to her in terms of attitude , musical styles or fashion . " According to Keith Caulfield , chart manager for Billboard , " Because of Amy , or the lack thereof , the marketplace was able to get singers like Adele , Estelle and Duffy , " " Now those ladies have brought on the new ones , like Eliza Doolittle , Rumer and Ellie . "
= = = Amy Winehouse Foundation = = =
After the singer 's death by alcohol intoxication in July 2011 , the Amy Winehouse Foundation was set up by Winehouse 's family and launched on 14 September 2011 ( which would have been Winehouse 's 28th birthday ) . Its aim is to help young people and it works with other charitable organisations to provide frontline support . Its central office is in North London , but it also has an office in New York ( operating under the name ' The Amy Winehouse Foundation US ' ) . Both Jon Snow and Barbara Windsor are patrons for the charity , and ambassadors include Keira Chaplin and Mica Paris . In October 2015 Mark Ronson became a patron . Amy 's brother Alex works full @-@ time for the foundation , having given up his career as an online music journalist .
The charity itself works to prevent the effects of drug and alcohol misuse on young people and it also aims to support , inform and inspire vulnerable and disadvantaged young people to help them reach their full potential . On 12 March 2013 , with the help of ex @-@ addict Russell Brand , the Foundation launched the Amy Winehouse Foundation Resilience Programme For Schools across the UK which aims to provide effective education around drugs , alcohol and dealing with emotional issues .
= = = Films = = =
A documentary film , Amy , was released in the United Kingdom on 3 July and worldwide on 10 July . The film received its première at the 2015 Cannes Film Festival on 16 May and has been reviewed as " a tragic masterpiece " , " brilliant " , " heartbreaking " and " unmissable " . The soundtrack of the same name was released on 30 October 2015 , along with the DVD that includes music featured in the documentary by film composer Antônio Pinto and classic tracks by Winehouse .
The film has received various accolades , including the Academy Award for Best Documentary Feature at the 2016 Oscars , Best Music Film at the 2016 Grammy Awards , the BAFTA for Best Documentary , the MTV Movie Award for Best Documentary , in addition to a nomination for the BAFTA Award for Best British Film . The success of the film has also led Winehouse her second posthumous nomination for Best British Female Solo Artist at the 2016 Brit Awards .
On 5 November 2015 , it was announced that a new drama biopic about Winehouse 's life simply entitled as Amy Winehouse is in production , directed and written by Kirsten Sheridan . It was also revealed that actress Noomi Rapace is in talks to star as Winehouse .
= = Personal life = =
= = = Relationships = = =
Winehouse dated chef @-@ musician Alex Clare ( sometimes referred to as Alex Claire ) in 2006 , while on a break from her on @-@ off boyfriend and future husband , Blake Fielder @-@ Civil . She and Clare lived together briefly , and in a pattern that Fielder @-@ Civil would later repeat , Clare famously sold his story to the News of the World , which published it under the headline " Bondage Crazed Amy Just Can 't Beehive in Bed . "
Fielder @-@ Civil ( born August 1978 ) , a former video production assistant , had dropped out of Bourne Grammar School and , aged 16 , moved to London from his native Lincolnshire . In a June 2007 interview , Winehouse admitted she could sometimes be violent toward him after she had been drinking , saying : " If he says one thing I don 't like , then I 'll chin him . " In August 2007 , they were photographed , bloodied and bruised , in the streets of London after an alleged fight , although she contended her injuries were self @-@ inflicted . Winehouse married Fielder @-@ Civil on 18 May 2007 , in Miami Beach , Florida .
Winehouse 's parents and in @-@ laws publicly reported their numerous concerns , the latter citing fears that the two might commit suicide . Fielder @-@ Civil 's father encouraged fans to boycott Winehouse 's music , and Mitch Winehouse said this would not help . Fielder @-@ Civil was quoted in a British tabloid as saying he introduced Winehouse to crack cocaine and heroin . During a visit with Mitch Winehouse at the prison in July 2008 , Fielder @-@ Civil reportedly said that he and Winehouse would cut themselves to ease the pain of withdrawal .
From 21 July 2008 to 25 February 2009 , Fielder @-@ Civil was imprisoned following his guilty plea on charges of trying to pervert the course of justice and of grievous bodily harm with intent . The incident , in July 2007 , involved his assault of a pub landlord that broke the victim 's cheek . According to the prosecution , the landlord accepted £ 200 @,@ 000 as part of a deal to " effectively throw the [ court ] case and not turn up , " and he testified that the money belonged to Winehouse , but she pulled out of a meeting with the men involved in the plot , to attend an awards ceremony . Mitch Winehouse , as manager of his daughter 's money , has denied the payoff came from her .
When Winehouse was spotted with aspiring actor Josh Bowman on holiday in Saint Lucia , in early January 2009 , she said she was " in love again , and I don 't need drugs . " She commented that her " whole marriage was based on doing drugs " and that " for the time being I 've just forgotten I 'm even married . " On 12 January , Winehouse 's spokesman confirmed that " papers have been received " for what Fielder @-@ Civil 's solicitor has said are divorce proceedings based on a claim of adultery . In March , Winehouse was quoted in a magazine as saying , " I still love Blake and I want him to move into my new house with me — that was my plan all along ... I won 't let him divorce me . He 's the male version of me and we 're perfect for each other . " Nonetheless , an uncontested divorce was granted on 16 July 2009 and became final on 28 August 2009 . Fielder @-@ Civil received no money in the settlement .
= = = Substance abuse and mental illness = = =
Winehouse 's battles with substance abuse were the subject of much media attention . In 2005 , she went through a period of drinking , heavy drug use , and weight loss . People who saw her during the end of that year and early 2006 reported a rebound that coincided with the writing of Back to Black . Her family believes that the mid @-@ 2006 death of her grandmother , who was a stabilising influence , set her off into addiction . In August 2007 , Winehouse cancelled a number of shows in the UK and Europe , citing exhaustion and ill health . She was hospitalised during this period for what was reported as an overdose of heroin , ecstasy , cocaine , ketamine and alcohol . In various interviews , she admitted to having such problems with self @-@ harm , depression , and eating disorders .
Winehouse told a magazine that the drugs were to blame for her hospitalisation and that " I really thought that it was over for me then . " Soon afterward , Winehouse 's father commented that when he had made public statements regarding her problems he was using the media because it seemed the only way to get through to her . In an interview with The Album Chart Show on British television , Winehouse said she was manic depressive and not alcoholic , adding that that sounded like " an alcoholic in denial . " A US reporter writes that Winehouse was a " victim of mental illness in a society that doesn 't understand or respond to mental illness with great effectiveness . "
In December 2007 , Winehouse 's spokesman reported that the singer was in a physician @-@ supervised programme and was channelling her difficulties by writing a lot of music . The British tabloid The Sun posted a video of a woman , alleged to be Winehouse , apparently smoking crack cocaine and speaking of having taken ecstasy and valium . Winehouse 's father moved in with her , and Island Records , her record label , announced the abandonment of plans for an American promotion campaign on her behalf . In late January 2008 , Winehouse reportedly entered a rehabilitation facility for a two @-@ week treatment program .
On 23 January 2008 , the video was passed on to the Metropolitan Police , who questioned her on 5 February . No charges were brought . On 26 March 2008 , Winehouse 's spokesman said she was " doing well . " Her record company reportedly believed that her recovery remained fragile . By late April 2008 , her erratic behaviour , including an allegation of assault , caused fear that her drug rehabilitation efforts had been unsuccessful , leading to efforts by Winehouse 's father and manager to seek assistance in having her involuntarily committed . Her dishevelled appearance during and after a scheduled club night in September sparked new rumours of a relapse . Photographers were quoted as saying she appeared to have cuts on her legs and arms .
According to her physician , Winehouse quit illegal substances in 2008 . In an October 2010 interview , speaking of her decision to quit drugs , Winehouse said , " I literally woke up one day and was like , ' I don 't want to do this any more ' . " Drinking alcohol emerged as a problem with Winehouse abstaining for a few weeks then lapsing . The physician said that Winehouse was treated with Librium for alcohol withdrawal and anxiety , and underwent psychological and psychiatric evaluations in 2010 , but refused psychological therapy .
= = = Violence and legal difficulties = = =
In 2006 , Winehouse admitted punching a female fan in the face for criticising her having taken Blake Fielder @-@ Civil as a husband . She then attacked her own spouse as he attempted to calm her down . In October 2007 , Winehouse and Fielder @-@ Civil were arrested in Bergen , Norway , for possession of seven grams of cannabis . The couple were later released and fined 3850 kroner ( around £ 350 ) . Winehouse first appealed the fines , but later dropped the appeal .
On 26 April 2008 , Winehouse was cautioned after she admitted to police she slapped a 38 @-@ year @-@ old man in the face , a " common assault " offence , her first of two . She voluntarily turned herself in and was held overnight . Police said , at her arrival she was " in no fit state " to be interviewed . Ten days later , Winehouse was arrested on suspicion of possessing drugs after a video of her apparently smoking crack cocaine was passed to the police in January , but was released on bail a few hours later because they could not confirm , from the video , what she was smoking . The Crown Prosecution Service considered charging her , but cleared her when it could not establish that the substance in the video was a controlled drug . Some members of Parliament reacted negatively . Two London residents were subsequently charged with conspiracy to supply cocaine and ecstasy to Winehouse . One of the pair was sentenced to two years in prison on 13 December 2008 , while the other received a two @-@ year community order .
On 5 March 2009 , Winehouse was arrested and charged with common assault following a claim by Sharene Flash that Winehouse hit her in the eye at the September 2008 Prince 's Trust charity ball . Winehouse 's spokesperson announced the cancellation of the singer 's US Coachella Festival appearance in light of the new legal issue , and Winehouse appeared in court on 17 March to enter her plea of not guilty . On 23 July , her trial began with prosecutor Lyall Thompson charging that Winehouse acted with " deliberate and unjustifiable violence " while appearing to be under the influence of alcohol or another substance . She testified that she did not punch Flash , but tried to push her away because she was scared of her ; she cited her worry that Flash would sell her story to a tabloid , Flash 's height advantage , and Flash 's " rude " behaviour . On 24 July , District Judge Timothy Workman ruled that Winehouse was not guilty , citing the facts that all but two of the witnesses were intoxicated at the time of the incident and that medical evidence did not show " the sort of injury that often occurs when there is a forceful punch to the eye . "
On 19 December 2009 , Winehouse was arrested for a third time on charges of common assault , plus another charge of public order offence after assaulting the front @-@ of @-@ house manager of the Milton Keynes Theatre after he asked her to move from her seat .
= = = Paparazzi = = =
With the paparazzi taking photographs of her wherever they could , Winehouse obtained an injunction against a leading paparazzi agency , Big Pictures , under the Protection from Harassment Act 1997 ; the resultant court order issued by the High Court in 2009 banned them from following her . Photographers were also banned from following her within 100 metres of her London home and photographing Winehouse in her home or the homes of her friends and relatives . According to a newspaper report , sources close to the singer said legal action was taken out of concern for the safety of Winehouse and those close to her .
= = = Respiratory and other health problems = = =
On 23 June 2008 , Winehouse 's publicist corrected earlier misstatements by Mitch Winehouse that his daughter had early stage emphysema , instead claiming she had signs of what could lead to early @-@ stage emphysema . Mitch Winehouse had also stated that his daughter 's lungs were operating at 70 percent capacity and that she had an irregular heartbeat . He said that these problems had been caused by her chain smoking crack cocaine . The singer 's father also reported that doctors had warned Winehouse that , if she continued smoking crack cocaine , she would have to wear an oxygen mask and would eventually die . In a radio interview , Mitch Winehouse said the singer was responding " fabulously " to treatment , which included being covered with nicotine patches . British Lung Foundation spokesman Keith Prowse noted this type of condition could be managed with treatment . Prowse also said the condition was not normal for a person her age but " heavy smoking and inhaling other substances like drugs can age the lungs prematurely . " Norman H. Edelman of the American Lung Association explained that if she stopped smoking , her lung functions would decline at the rate of a normal person , but continued smoking would lead to a more rapid decline in lung function .
Winehouse was released from the London Clinic 24 hours after returning from a temporary leave to perform at Nelson Mandela 's 90th birthday and at a concert in Glastonbury , and continued receiving treatment as an outpatient . In July 2008 , Winehouse stated that she had been diagnosed with " some areas of emphysema " and said she was getting herself together by " eating loads of healthy food , sleeping loads , playing my guitar , making music and writing letters to my husband every day . " She also kept a vertical tanning bed in her flat . Winehouse began precautionary testing on her lungs and chest on 25 October 2008 at the London Clinic for what was reported as a chest infection . Winehouse was in and out of the facility and was granted permission to set her own schedule regarding home leave . She returned to the hospital on 23 November 2008 for a reported reaction to her medication .
= = Death = =
Winehouse 's bodyguard said that he arrived at her residence three days before her death and felt she was somewhat intoxicated . He observed moderate drinking over the next few days . He observed her " laughing , listening to music and watching TV at 2 a.m. the day of her death " . According to the bodyguard , at 10 a.m. he observed her lying on her bed and tried unsuccessfully to rouse her . This did not raise much suspicion because she usually slept late after a night out . According to the bodyguard , shortly after 3 p.m. , he checked on her again and observed her lying in the same position as before , leading to a further check , in which he concluded that she was not breathing and had no pulse . He said he subsequently called emergency services .
At 3 : 54 p.m. BST on 23 July 2011 , two ambulances were called to Winehouse 's home in Camden , London . Winehouse was pronounced dead at the scene . Shortly afterwards , the Metropolitan Police confirmed that she had died . After her death was announced , media and camera crews appeared , as crowds gathered near Winehouse 's residence to pay their respects . Forensic investigators entered the flat as police cordoned off the street outside ; they recovered one small and two large bottles of vodka from her room . After her death , the singer broke her second Guinness World Record : for the most songs by a woman to simultaneously appear on the UK singles chart , with eight .
A coroner 's inquest reached a verdict of misadventure . The report released on 26 October 2011 explained that Winehouse 's blood alcohol content was 416 mg per 100 ml ( 0 @.@ 416 % ) at the time of her death , more than five times the legal drink @-@ drive limit . According to the coroner , " The unintended consequences of such potentially fatal levels was her sudden death . "
Winehouse 's record label , Universal Republic , released a statement that read in part : " We are deeply saddened at the sudden loss of such a gifted musician , artist and performer . " Many musical artists have since paid tribute to Winehouse including U2 , M.I.A. , Lady Gaga , Marianne Faithfull , Bruno Mars , Nicki Minaj , Keisha Buchanan , Rihanna , George Michael , Adele , Kelly Clarkson , Courtney Love , and the punk rock band Green Day , who wrote a song in her tribute titled " Amy " . In her 2012 album Banga , singer Patti Smith released " This Is the Girl , " written as a homage to Winehouse . Because she died seventeen years after Kurt Cobain 's death , there was a large amount of media attention devoted to the 27 Club once again . Three years earlier , she had expressed a fear of dying at that age .
Family and friends attended Winehouse 's funeral on 26 July 2011 at Edgwarebury Lane cemetery in north London . Her mother and father , Janis and Mitch Winehouse , close friend Kelly Osbourne , producer Mark Ronson , and her boyfriend Reg Traviss were among those in attendance at the private service led by Rabbi Frank Hellner . Her father delivered the eulogy , saying " Goodnight , my angel , sleep tight . Mummy and Daddy love you ever so much . " Carole King 's " So Far Away " closed the service with mourners singing along . She was later cremated at Golders Green Crematorium . The family planned to sit a two @-@ day shiva . Winehouse 's parents set up The Amy Winehouse Foundation to prevent harm from drug misuse among young people , and Amy Winehouse 's brother Alex is an employee . Winehouse did not leave a will ; her estate is inherited by her parents .
On 17 December 2012 , British authorities reopened the probe of Winehouse 's death . On 8 January 2013 , a second inquest confirmed that Winehouse died of accidental alcohol poisoning . In a late June 2013 interview , Alex Winehouse revealed his belief that his sister 's eating disorder , and the consequent physical weakness , was the primary cause of her death :
She suffered from bulimia very badly . That 's not , like , a revelation – you knew just by looking at her … She would have died eventually , the way she was going , but what really killed her was the bulimia … I think that it left her weaker and more susceptible . Had she not had an eating disorder , she would have been physically stronger .
= = Postmortem retrospectives = =
Winehouse 's parents have each written memoirs about their daughter and donated the proceeds from both books to the Amy Winehouse Foundation . In the introduction to Mitch Winehouse 's biography , entitled Amy : My Daughter ( 2012 ) , he explained : " Apart from being her father , I was also her friend , confidant and adviser — not that she always took my advice , but she always heard me out . " Her mother Janis published Loving Amy : A Mother 's Story , in 2014 .
Winehouse is the subject of Amy ( 2015 ) , a documentary directed by Asif Kapadia and produced by James Gay @-@ Rees , Kapadia , and Universal Music . Kapadia and Gay @-@ Rees introduced the project at the 2013 Cannes Film Festival . The film debuted at the 2015 Cannes Film Festival and won the 2016 Academy Award for Best Documentary Feature .
An exhibit of Winehouse 's personal items , co @-@ curated by her brother and sister @-@ in @-@ law , entitled Amy Winehouse : A Family Portrait , was on display at the Jewish Museum London from 3 July 2013 until 15 September 2013 . Display items , such as books and music , were featured together with captions written by Winehouse 's brother .
In late 2011 , there were reports that Winehouse 's former boyfriend , Reg Traviss , was developing a film about her . Winehouse 's father Mitch Winehouse , who owns the copyright to his daughter 's music , said he would not authorize the use of her music for the film .
= = Discography = =
Frank ( 2003 )
Back to Black ( 2006 )
= = Filmography = =
Amy ( 2015 )
|
= Pennsylvania Route 405 =
Pennsylvania Route 405 ( PA 405 ) is a 27 @.@ 963 @-@ mile @-@ long ( 45 @.@ 002 km ) state highway that runs in the north @-@ central part of the U.S. state of Pennsylvania . The southern terminus of PA 147 in West Chillisquaque Township near the borough of Milton . The route heads northward along the West Branch Susquehanna River through Milton , Watsontown and Muncy until entering Hughesville , where it terminates at an intersection with U.S. Route 220 ( US 220 ) .
PA 405 originated as the Muncy and Hughesville Plank Road , a 5 @-@ mile ( 8 @.@ 0 km ) plank road from Muncy to Hughesville , created in 1853 . The plank road also consisted of a bridge over the Muncy Canal on the outskirts of the community . PA 405 was assigned in 1941 , after switching between numerous designations , including alignments of US 15 , US 111 , US 220 , and US 711 . The alignment of PA 405 was extended to its current southern terminus when PA 147 was realigned onto a new highway . As part of the Central Susquehanna Valley Transportation Project , PA 405 will continue south from its current southern terminus , replacing the stretch of PA 147 until its junction with PA 61 in Sunbury , its new southern terminus . PA 147 will have an new alignment between those two junctions and will not be duplexed with PA 405 at any point .
= = Route description = =
= = = PA 147 to Watsontown = = =
PA 405 begins at an intersection with PA 147 in Chillisquaque . The route heads to the northwest , heading along a parallel to PA 147 near rural farms and houses . The route reaches the center of Chillisquaque , where it turns westward for a distance through an isolated area along the West Branch of the Susquehanna River . The route meets the shoreline , where PA 405 turns to the northwest along a rural , unpopulated stretch of West Chillisquaque Township . The route heads northward , crossing through a deep patch of forests . A short distance later , the forests dissipate , and PA 405 intersects with PA 45 ( the Purple Heart Highway ) just across the river from Lewisburg . PA 405 continues northward along the Susquehanna River , intersecting with a former alignment of PA 45 a short distance later . The route continues through the rural farmland along the river , entering the small community of East Lewisburg . North of East Lewisburg , PA 405 passes a large farmland plot before leaving the shoreline of the Susquehanna West Branch . The route continues northward a short distance from the Susquehanna River before entering the community of Milton .
In Milton , PA 405 crosses over a set of railroad tracks and turns onto Ferry Lane . The route heads eastward until turning northward onto Garfield Street , heading past homes and businesses and intersecting with PA 642 ( Mahoning Street ) . The route continues northward onto South Arch Street , intersecting with Center Street , where it turns northward . At the end of the block , PA 405 intersects with PA 254 ( Broadway ) . The highway continues northward , intersecting with local streets and paralleling railroad tracks . At the intersection with 10th Street , PA 405 turns to the northwest and leaves the community of Milton . The route returns to the shoreline of the West Branch of the Susquehanna River , continuing northward along the Turbot Hills Golf Course . The route continues northward , intersecting with Golf Course Road , where the route becomes surrounded by forests . A short distance later , PA 405 crosses under the four lane alignment of Interstate 80 ( I @-@ 80 ) and intersects an old alignment of the Susquehanna Trail . The route continues northward along the West Branch of the Susquehanna River , passing a large industrial complex before reaching a merge in the railroad tracks . At the merge , PA 405 enters the community of Watsontown .
= = = Watsontown to Hughesville = = =
After entering Watsontown , PA 405 passes the local memorial park and intersects with PA 44 ( South Main Street ) . PA 405 and PA 44 become concurrent along Main Street into downtown Watsontown . The two highways continue several blocks from the Susquehanna River , intersecting with Brimmer Avenue . The surroundings of the highways are highly populated , and the two routes continue in Watsontown until an intersection with East 11th Street , when the two roads leave the community . PA 405 and PA 44 continue northward , intersecting with local roads in a rural region north of Watsontown . The highways continue , entering the community of Dewart , where PA 44 turns to the west towards the Susquehanna West Branch . PA 405 continues northward , bypassing around Dewart and crossing the railroad tracks it had been paralleling for the distance . The route continues northward , leaving Dewart at an intersection with Delaware Drive . The route heads northward , crossing through the rural areas before intersecting with PA 54 , where they merge . PA 405 and PA 54 continue through a deep patch of forests before crossing the river , entering the community of Montgomery .
In Montgomery , PA 405 and PA 54 continue for a short distance along Second Street , until Montgomery Street , where PA 405 turns to the northeast , while PA 54 turns to the northwest . PA 405 continues along Montgomery Street , passing through downtown . At an intersection with School House Road , the highway leaves Montgomery . PA 405 continues to the northeast along a set of railroad tracks and at an intersection with Saegers Station Road , enters the community of Saegers . At a merge with Private 158 Road , PA 405 turns to the north , passing the small community to the north . At an intersection with Armstrong Road , the highway turns to the northeast , leaving Saegers . The route continues to the east , crossing over the West Branch once again , entering the community of Muncy . In Muncy , the highway heads to the southeast along Water Street into the community center , where it turns to the northeast . The route leaves Muncy a short distance later , interchanging with I @-@ 180 Exit 13 . PA 405 heads to the northeast until reaching Muncy Creek , where it turns to the southeast , intersecting with the western terminus of PA 442 . PA 405 continues farther , intersecting with local roads , running along South Main Street for a distance , entering the community of Hughesville , where the highway becomes densely populated . The route heads northward , intersecting with the western terminus of PA 118 . The route continues northward for a short distance , with the Route 405 designation terminating at an intersection with US 220 .
= = History = =
= = = Old roads = = =
The short alignment of PA 405 from Muncy to Hughesville contains the most of the highway 's history . The bridge over the West Branch of the Susquehanna River was originally privately maintained , with the charter for its construction coming down from the Pennsylvania State Legislature on March 13 , 1835 . The charter designated the company that owned the bridge as the Susquehanna Bridge Company at Walton 's Landing ( now Muncy ) and the state appointed eleven commissioners to help erect the toll bridge . In 1853 , a portion of land from the Susquehanna River West Branch ( which was a canal at the time ) was chartered to become a canal . The canal was constructed in 1848 by a privately maintained company for $ 3 @,@ 000 ( 1848 USD ) . The bridge over the canal that currently uses PA 405 was constructed in 1854 at a cost of $ 27 @,@ 000 ( 1854 USD ) , nine times the amount to construct the canal . The portion of PA 405 from Muncy to Hughesville was also chartered in 1853 , consisting of a plank road between the two towns .
= = = Designation = = =
On May 31 , 1911 , the state of Pennsylvania signed the Sproul Road Bill , which started a drastic state takeover of highways . Originally , only several routes were assigned around the state . The stretch of PA 405 from the southern terminus to the current day intersection with PA 44 was designated as Legislative Route 18 . The portion of PA 405 along the PA 44 concurrency to Delwart was designated as Legislative Route 240 ( most of this alignment is PA 44 ) . The stretch from Delwart to Montgomery was not designated in 1911 . From Montgomery to Muncy , PA 405 follows more of Legislative Route 240 . After Muncy , PA 405 follows Legislative Route 19 until the current terminus in Hughesville .
When the switch was made in 1924 from the old highway system in Pennsylvania , the alignment of PA 405 was designated as PA 4 from the community of Chillisquaque to the intersection with the Susquehanna Trail . PA 4 was designated in 1925 along the main alignment of the Susquehanna Trail . The route designation remained in place for a short time . The stretch from Muncy to Hughesville ( which followed the alignment of the Penn 's Plank Road ) , was designated in 1926 as an alignment of US 220 . The portion of PA 4 from Chillisquaque to the Susquehanna trail was also designated as US 111 and US 711 , both decommissioned spurs of US 11 in 1926 . US 111 remained in place until 1936 , while US 711 and PA 4 were decommissioned in 1928 and 1930 respectively . In 1928 , the segment of PA 4 from Watsontown to Muncy was re @-@ designated as PA 14 . In 1936 , US 111 was decommissioned , and the route from Chillisquaque to Watsontown was redesignated as part of US 15 . PA 14 , US 220 and US 15 remained on most of PA 405 's alignment until 1941 , when the alignment of all three routes were changed . Upon the decommissioning , PA 405 was designated onto the alignment from the Susquehanna Trail ( where it intersected with PA 147 ) to Hughesville . The alignment of PA 405 south of the Susquehanna Trail was part of PA 147 until 1972 , when it was realigned , and PA 405 was extended to Chillisquaque .
= = = Proposed extension = = =
PA 405 currently has its southern terminus at PA 147 in the community of Chillisquaque . Near that intersection , PA 147 turns into a super @-@ 2 freeway towards Williamsport . The Central Susquehanna Valley Transportation Project is proposing to extend the super @-@ two freeway alignment of PA 147 on a new freeway along the opposite side of the Susquehanna . The designation of PA 405 is proposed to be extended over the non @-@ freeway alignment of PA 147 down to an intersection with PA 61 in Sunbury . An interchange with PA 405 would also be constructed . The 12 miles ( 19 km ) long project will also involve a realignment of US 11 / US 15 onto the new alignment as well , a proposal that lost funding in the 1970s . As of July 2009 , the design is 40 % completed , while the project was put on a freeze by Governor Edward Rendell . The project , which will take $ 9 million ( 2009 USD ) to study and design , and another $ 525 million ( 2009 USD ) to construct .
= = Major intersections = =
|
= Hiroki Kikuta =
Hiroki Kikuta ( 菊田 裕樹 , Kikuta Hiroki , born August 29 , 1962 ) is a Japanese video game composer and game designer . His major works are Secret of Mana , Seiken Densetsu 3 , Sōkaigi , and Koudelka , for which he also acted as producer and concept designer . He has composed music for seven other games , and worked as a concept designer in addition to composer for the unreleased MMORPG Chou Bukyo Taisen . He became interested in music at an early age , but earned a degree in Religious Studies , Philosophy , and Cultural Anthropology from Kansai University . He spent the next few years working first as a manga illustrator , then as a composer for anime series , before coming to work for Square in 1991 .
After composing the soundtracks for his first three best @-@ known works , he formed his own video game production company , Sacnoth , for which he was the president and CEO . After producing and composing Koudelka in 1999 , he left to become a freelance composer . Since his departure he has formed his own record label , Norstrilia , through which he produces albums of his own compositions and collaborations with other artists , as well as his previous scores . His music has been performed in concerts such as the Symphonic Fantasies concerts in Cologne , Germany in September 2009 , and selections of his works have been published as piano arrangements in sheet music books .
= = Biography = =
= = = Early life = = =
Kikuta was born in Aichi Prefecture , Japan . He first became interested in music at the age of ten after hearing songs by Emerson , Lake & Palmer . He began writing his own songs two years later , after listening to country blues music ; it inspired him to study acoustic guitar and write his own songs in hope of one day becoming a singer / songwriter . He was also inspired as a child by music from movies . It was not until he got a synthesizer , however , that he began to feel his potential as a composer . Kikuta went on to earn an interdisciplinary degree in Religious Studies , Philosophy , and Cultural Anthropology from Kansai University , which he attended from 1981 to 1984 . He never received any form of formal musical training , and instead taught himself by reading music theory books and listening to a wide variety of musical genres .
After graduating from Kansai , Kikuta worked first as a manga illustrator and later as an anime composer . The manga he illustrated , including one titled Raven , were done under the pen name " Yuuki Ni Juu Roku " . As an anime composer , he worked on The Adventure of Robin Hood and The Legend of Snow White . In 1991 , Kikuta was hired by Square ( now Square Enix ) , as a composer . After being rejected by his first choice , Nihon Falcom , he applied to Square without expecting to be hired , as they had many applicants for the job and he had never played any of the company 's games . At the interview , however , Nobuo Uematsu was attracted to their shared love of progressive rock , and he was chosen over 100 other applicants . He started off debugging Final Fantasy IV and creating sound effects for Romancing SaGa , as there were not enough game projects in development to open up new jobs for Square 's new hires , but Kikuta was soon given game soundtracks to compose .
= = = Career = = =
During his seven years at Square , Kikuta composed the soundtracks to only three games : Secret of Mana and Seiken Densetsu 3 for the Super Nintendo Entertainment System and Soukaigi for the PlayStation . Kikuta says that he was given complete freedom to compose the soundtracks , in that he was given no direction at all as to how to compose the music ; he began working on the music before the design of the game was finalized . This freedom was helped by the fact that Uematsu ran the music group as a separate division in the company from the game developers . Kikuta was originally chosen for Secret of Mana after Kenji Ito , who had composed the first game in the Mana series , Final Fantasy Adventure , was forced to drop the project due to other demands , such as the soundtrack to Romancing SaGa . Rather than create MIDI versions of his compositions , like most game composers of that time did , and hand these over to the sound engineering department , Kikuta made his own samples that matched the hardware capabilities of the Super Nintendo . This way he would know exactly how the pieces would sound on the system 's hardware instead of having to deal with audio hardware differences between the original composition and the Super Nintendo . Kikuta spent nearly 24 hours a day in his office working on the soundtrack , alternating between composing and editing . Secret of Mana led to an arranged album , Secret of Mana + , which is composed of a single 50 @-@ minute track made up of " experimental " sounds like waterfalls , bird calls , and cell phone sounds .
For Seiken Densetsu 3 , Kikuta was assisted by a sound programmer , Hidenori Suzuki , which allowed him to compose over three times the amount of music he had created for Secret of Mana . The move to the PlayStation for Soukaigi allowed Kikuta to focus on creating live music for the soundtrack , rather than tweaking the synthesizer instruments to make the music files fit in the game cartridge as he had to for the Super Nintendo . He used the added audio processing power to expand his musical creativity , including pieces such as songs in unintelligible Thai and Malaysian by Japanese singers . The game itself , however , was not a success , and Kikuta decided that he wanted more direct control over the next project he worked on .
After Kikuta finished Soukaigi , he left Square and founded the video game development company Sacnoth , assuming the position of the president and CEO from 1998 to 1999 . During this time , the company created Koudelka for the PlayStation ; Kikuta was credited as the concept designer , game planner , scenario writer , producer and composer . His philosophy in designing video games is that the best projects have a limited number of people designing the overall experience and making key decisions . He tried to follow this philosophy in creating Koudelka , and tried to bring a sense of " obsessive passion " to the project , reading what he claims were over 100 books on British history and taking the design team on a trip to Wales to study the country . The game was released in December 1999 to poor reviews which criticized the game 's combat system , though they praised the concept , art direction , and music . Kikuta left Sacnoth soon after ; the company changed its name to Nautilus and went on to produce four more games including the Shadow Hearts series before folding in 2007 .
In March 2001 , Kikuta founded Norstrilia , named after the novel of the same name . The company serves as his private record label , and publishes his albums . For the next few years he worked as concept designer , game planner , and composer for Chou Bukyo Taisen , a Chinese MMORPG , the original design for which he proposed to Enix . Development of the game ceased in 2004 due to disagreements between Enix and the Chinese company that was to maintain the game while it was in progress and it was never released . Since then he has gone on to score six other games , including the eroge visual novel Sora no Iro , Mizu no Iro and the MMORPG Concerto Gate . None of these games have been released outside Japan ; to date the only video games that Kikuta has worked on to appear in North America or Europe are Secret of Mana and Koudelka .
Kikuta released Lost Files , his first album of original music , in 2006 . The album includes the demo tapes Kikuta submitted when first applying for the job of game composer at Square , using the sound source of the Nintendo Entertainment System . It was followed in August 2007 by his second original album , Alphabet Planet . He has also composed three other albums and two singles in conjunction with other singers or performers ; these albums have been released though his Norstrilia label and are the only works he has been credited as composing for since Concerto Gate was released in 2007 . His next album , due to be released in spring 2010 , is another album of original works , entitled Tiara .
= = Legacy = =
A piece from Secret of Mana was performed by the Tokyo Symphony Orchestra for the third Orchestral Game Music Concert in 1993 , while one from Seiken Densetsu 3 was performed for the fifth event in 1996 . The same Secret of Mana track was also performed at the fifth Symphonic Game Music Concert in 2007 in Leipzig , Germany . Music from Secret of Mana made up one fourth of the music in the Symphonic Fantasies concerts in Cologne in September 2009 which were produced by the creators of the Symphonic Game Music Concert series and conducted by Arnie Roth .
Two compilation books of piano sheet music from the Mana series have been published as Seiken Densetsu Best Collection Piano Solo Sheet Music first and second editions ; songs from Secret of Mana and Seiken Densetsu 3 are featured in both . All songs in each book have been rewritten by Asako Niwa as beginning to intermediate level piano solos , though they are meant to sound as much like the originals as possible . Selections of remixes of Kikuta 's work appear on Japanese remix albums , called dōjin , and on English remixing websites such as OverClocked ReMix . Kikuta has said that he enjoys listening to these works , mentioning OverClocked ReMix by name .
= = Musical style and influences = =
Kikuta finds composing music to be natural , " like breathing " . He considers it to be his " vocation " , and contrasts it with designing and creating video games , which he calls his " wish " and finds to be very difficult to do in comparison to composition . Kikuta does not worry about the style of music that he composes , considering it to only be a tool or method . As a result , his music is frequently composed of combinations of styles mixed together . He is inspired to create his music by things that he has seen , especially while traveling ; he credits much of the musical imagery in Secret of Mana and Seiken Densetsu 3 as being inspired by several islands in Fiji he has visited . Rather than trying to be a " pure artist " that creates art for art 's sake , Kikuta says that his primary goal in composing is to entertain the listeners . He has not been influenced by other video game composers , though he claims to admire Hitoshi Sakimoto , whom he worked with at Square . He has named Pink Floyd as his single biggest musical influence , and guitarist Allan Holdsworth as the artist he would most like to collaborate with . Kikuta 's favorite song that he has composed is " Overture " from Concerto Gate .
= = Works = =
|
= James Wilson ( House ) =
Dr. James Evan Wilson , M.D. , is a fictional character on the Fox medical drama House . He is played by Robert Sean Leonard . The character first appears in the show 's pilot episode when he introduces a medical case to Dr. Gregory House . Wilson is Dr. House 's only true friend , and frequently provides him with consultations and aid . Wilson is the head of the Department of Oncology at Princeton @-@ Plainsboro Teaching Hospital .
During the show 's run , the characters of House and Wilson have been compared to Sherlock Holmes and Dr Watson . Wilson 's portrayer , Robert Sean Leonard , has stated that his character and Dr. House were originally supposed to play these roles ; but Dr. House 's diagnostic team has taken over Dr. Watson 's part . Leonard also read the script of the pilot episode of CBS ' Numb3rs and was planning to audition . He auditioned for House instead because he felt he would more enjoy playing the character that House went to for help and because he liked The Odd Couple dynamic of the relationship .
The character was positively received . Alan Sepinwall of The Star @-@ Ledger described Wilson as " the only irreplaceable supporting character " of the show , as well as Maureen Ryan of the Chicago Tribune , who stated that Wilson can " never , never , never , never " leave the show .
The character 's name is derived from two neighboring buildings ( James Administration Building and Wilson Hall ) at McGill University 's downtown campus , in Montreal , Quebec .
= = Character biography = =
Wilson is one of three brothers . He has an undergraduate degree from McGill University , and graduate degrees from Columbia University and the University of Pennsylvania . He is Jewish .
Shortly after a medical convention in New Orleans , after graduating medical school , Wilson accidentally broke an antique mirror and started a bar fight when another customer repeatedly played " Leave A Tender Moment Alone " by Billy Joel to the frustration of Wilson , who was going through a divorce with his first wife at the time . Out of interest , House bailed him out and hired an attorney to clear his name , thus starting their professional and personal relationship . In the Season 1 episode " Histories " , it is revealed that one of his brothers is homeless and that Wilson is unaware if he is still alive as he has not seen him in nine years . Wilson has a history of failed marriages : he is married to his third wife during Season 1 and , with the discovery of his wife 's infidelity , separates from her during Season 2 . After the failure of his third marriage , Wilson lives in various temporary accommodations ( including a stint at House 's own apartment ) until he meets Amber Volakis , who is a female substitute for House . He is described as " nearly 40 " in " Don 't Ever Change " , in Season 4 . Wilson and House 's relationship has been sorely tested on many occasions .
He was diagnosed with stage II thymoma in the Season 8 episode " Body and Soul " . In the end of the subsequent episode ( in which Wilson and House take an abrupt vacation , and Wilson assumes a much more carefree personality ) , House performed a CT scan to check the status of the cancer . House 's stunned facial expression and silence when the results are displayed seemingly does not bode well for Wilson 's future prognosis , which would be revealed in the final two episodes of the series . It is later revealed that Wilson , should he pursue the most extensive treatment , could live for one to three years , perhaps . He opts to cease the intensive chemotherapy treatment after the ultimately unsuccessful first round , choosing to make the most of the remaining five months or so he would likely have for as long as possible ; ultimately , after many tense conversations , House accepts his decision . However , due to the serious vandalism House caused in the toilet system and plumbing , which ultimately destroyed a room containing an MRI scanner ( where some of his team members were with a patient ) , Foreman and the hospital lawyer notify House that the matter became externally known to the police ; subsequently , his parole officer had his parole revoked by the court . House must report to prison again to serve the remaining six months of his approximately year @-@ long sentence he got earlier , in the last season , when he ran his car into Cuddy 's house . In the series finale , at House 's funeral , Wilson gives an honest description of House as opposed to everyone 's kind words and gets a text message telling him to " Shut up , you idiot . "
To his shock , Wilson discovers House alive and well having faked his death and House asks Wilson how he wants to spend his last five months . Sometime later , an unkempt Wilson and House are seen in the countryside on motorcycles , Wilson having presumably quit his job to spend his last five months as he wants . He asks House about what they will do when the cancer gets bad , but House simply tells him that " cancer is boring " and they ride off together .
= = Characterization = =
House describes Wilson as " a buddy of mine people say ' Thank you ' to , when he tells them they are dying . " House also describes Wilson as an " emotional vampire " . On a date with Dr. Lisa Cuddy ( Lisa Edelstein ) , Wilson evades a question as to whether or not he wants children .
However , Wilson defends House when House 's career is in jeopardy , after billionaire entrepreneur and then chairman of Princeton @-@ Plainsboro 's Board Edward Vogler ( Chi McBride ) proposes a motion for House 's dismissal . Wilson is the only one to vote against the motion . In response , Vogler proposes and succeeds in obtaining Wilson 's dismissal , but Wilson is soon reinstated thanks to Cuddy after she convinces the board that Vogler is the real threat to the hospital and his money is not worth his business @-@ obsessed mindset . In a late Season episode it is revealed that Wilson suffers from clinical depression and takes medication . Wilson is also seen to write with his left hand , a trait he shares with Cuddy and Foreman , but when he performs detailed medical work , such as injections or incisions , or gesticulates while speaking , appears to be right @-@ handed in general , suggesting he may be ambidextrous .
Wilson attempts to change House 's drug habits , with little success . After Cuddy makes a bet to prove House 's addiction to Vicodin , House concedes to Wilson that he has an addiction but says that the addiction is not a problem . It is , in fact , Wilson who usually writes House 's Vicodin prescriptions ( with Cuddy writing a few merely for leverage in her dealings with House ) . In Season 3 , when Detective Michael Tritter ( David Morse ) threatens to jail House for his Vicodin addiction after finding a huge stash in his apartment , Wilson attempts to convince House to go to rehab as the situation worsens . After Tritter pressures Wilson to testify several times , Wilson reluctantly agrees , unknown to House . Before this , Wilson watches House punch Dr. Robert Chase , insult Cuddy , and incorrectly diagnose a child with a condition that would have required the amputation of her left arm and leg .
Near the end of Season 4 , Wilson starts a romantic relationship with Amber Volakis , who is essentially a female version of House , and who competed for one of the open jobs on House 's team in the wake of Foreman , Chase , and Cameron 's departure . In the Season 4 finale , she dies in a bus crash sustained while picking up a drunken House from a bar . Her death eventually leads Wilson to conclude that his relationship with House serves to enable House 's dysfunctions . To remove himself from House 's influence , he resigns from Princeton @-@ Plainsboro at the beginning of Season 5 . The two reconcile when Wilson forces House to attend the funeral of House 's father . Wilson realizes that he had been afraid of losing House , who is his true friend , and that Wilson 's life didn 't get any better when he resigned . He then returns to Princeton @-@ Plainsboro .
During Season 5 , it is revealed that Wilson 's homeless brother Danny suffered from schizophrenia since adolescence , which is what caused him to run away . Wilson blames himself for his brother 's homelessness , having hung up on Danny right before he disappeared . Wilson also reveals to House that he took the position at Princeton @-@ Plainsboro because it was near the place he had last seen Danny . When Wilson finds out that Danny is in the Psychiatric Ward of New York Mercy Hospital [ fictional ] , House offers to come with him to keep him company , noting that it could end badly . However , when Wilson is let in to see his brother , House is busy with a differential with his team .
In Season 6 , Episode 15 , " Private Lives " , House discovers that Wilson , in his youth , had been an actor in a porno flick titled " Feral Pleasures " . Throughout the episode , after House hangs movie posters all over the hospital , people start paraphrasing a quote by Wilson 's character : " Be not afraid . The forest nymphs have taught me how to please a woman " . In addition , Wilson proposes a joke marriage to House in " The Down Low " .
Gay references have been made to the relationship between the two characters of the show . House has made a comment about the relationship ( " I 'm gay ! ... Oh that 's not what you meant . It would explain a lot , though : no girlfriend , always with Wilson , the obsession with sneakers ... " ) . Barbara Barnett said that " House is the needy one in the relationship , and Wilson the doormat " Verne Gay of Newsday described House 's love for Wilson as " touching and genuine " . However , Robert Sean Leonard compared the relationship between the two to that of Cesar Millan and his Pit Bull , while Hugh Laurie said that it 's " not just buddydom " . The two characters appeared on the October 13 , 2008 , cover of TV Guide .
= = Concept and creation = =
Robert Sean Leonard was not initially interested in auditioning for the role of James Wilson . He believes that he got the role because of his friendship with Bryan Singer , whom he had met in the past , shortly after he was paid for his role in Dead Poets ' Society . Singer borrowed money from him to shoot Lion 's Den starring his friend Ethan Hawke , who also attended high school with Singer . In 2004 , Leonard received the scripts for the pilot of both House and CBS ' Numb3rs ( in which he was asked to audition for the part of Charlie Eppes ) . He thought the script for Numb3rs was " kinda cool " . However , he decided to audition for the part of Wilson on House , because his character on Numb3rs was in almost every scene of the show .
Within the scope of a popular comparison that draws parallels between House and Sir Arthur Conan Doyle 's Sherlock Holmes , Wilson is equivalent to Doctor Watson . In two @-@ parts episodes such as Euphoria , Part 1 and Euphoria , Part 2 , and House 's Head and Wilson 's Heart , Wilson 's voice is heard narrating the story , while Dr. Watson is the character who narrates the stories in most of Sherlock Holmes novels . Leonard has said that his character and House were originally intended to play roles similar to Dr. Watson and Sherlock Holmes , respectively , in the series although he believes that House 's team has assumed the role of Watson since the show has begun . Producer Katie Jacobs believes that Wilson and House both hide from mature relationships , which brings the two closer together . She has said that the difference between the two characters is that Wilson finds it hard to say no because he wants to please the other person . The similarities between Dr. Wilson and Dr. Watson was also one of the reasons that made Leonard choose House over Numb3rs .
Leonard has said that Wilson is one of the few characters to voluntarily maintain a relationship with House , because neither of them work for one another and thus his character has " nothing to lose " by telling him the truth . His character is one of the few who can make House laugh . Katie Jacobs has said that Wilson 's moving into House 's apartment after a failed relationship in " Sex Kills " symbolizes his taking " emotional refuge " in his friend . Leonard said that he is content with the size of his role , and wants to continue playing the character . He has also stated that he would " kill himself " if he had a role as big as the other cast members .
= = Reception = =
Responses to Leonard 's performance were mostly positive . In a recap of the pilot episode , Tom Shales of The Washington Post quoted " Leonard has been playing upstanding young men for what seems like forever , but he 's still one of the most outstanding upstanding young men in the acting racket " . However , Sherwin Nurland of Slate stated that Leonard often seems so detached that " he 'd be better off in another show " . In a recap of the season four episode " Ugly " Nina Smith of TV Guide said that she thinks that the most convincing writing of the show has always been the scenes in which Cuddy and Wilson " spar " with House . In a 2008 press conference , Katie Jacobs , who works as an executive producer for the show , praised Leonard for being equally adept at comedy and drama . TV Gal , of Zap2it , stated that she " truly appreciates " what Leonard brings to the show , being the only character who " truly stands up to House " and " quietly and subtly " giving the show " some of its best moments " . In an article about whom to keep if the writers of House decided to minor down the cast , Maureen Ryan , of the Chicago Tribune said that Wilson can " never , never , never , never " leave the show . Ryan also listed Wilson on her list of " 5 Great Characters " , saying that Leonard is the " underrated linchpin of the excellent “ House ” cast " .
After Wilson 's temporary departure during House 's fifth season , Mary McNamara of the Los Angeles Times immediately stated that she wanted the character to return to the show . Linda Stasi of The New York Post said that Dr. House 's relationship with Lucas Douglas ( Michael Weston ) , who temporarily replaced Wilson , was far more natural than House 's relationship with Wilson . Critics from TV Guide , Entertainment Weekly , Blog Critics and USA Today , all found Leonard 's performance in the season 4 finale worthy of an Emmy Award .
|
= Thriller ( song ) =
" Thriller " is a song recorded by American singer Michael Jackson , composed by Rod Temperton , and produced by Quincy Jones . It is the seventh and final single released by Epic Records from his 1982 studio album Thriller . A 14 @-@ minute video showing Jackson in a Halloween @-@ themed performance premiered on November 14 , 1983 , in Los Angeles , California . It was first shown on MTV on December 2 , 1983 . The song was not released as a single until January 23 , 1984 .
" Thriller " has appeared on multiple greatest hits compilation albums from Jackson , including HIStory ( 1995 ) , Number Ones ( 2003 ) , The Essential Michael Jackson ( 2005 ) and Michael Jackson 's This Is It ( 2009 ) and was remixed for the Immortal album in 2011 . The song has a voice @-@ over from actor Vincent Price .
In the song , sound effects such as a creaking door , thunder , feet walking on wooden planks , winds and howling dogs can be heard , and the lyrics contain frightening themes and elements . " Thriller " received positive reviews from critics and became Jackson 's seventh top @-@ ten single on the Billboard Hot 100 Chart from the album , while reaching the top of the charts in France and Belgium and the top ten in many other countries .
" Thriller " was adapted by " American Werewolf In London " director John Landis into a highly successful music video , known independently as " Michael Jackson 's Thriller " . At fourteen minutes the video is substantially longer than the song , which ties together a narrative featuring Jackson and actress Ola Ray in a setting heavily inspired by horror films of the 1950s . In the video 's most iconic scene , Jackson leads other actors costumed as zombies in a choreographed dance routine . Though it garnered some criticism for its occult theme and violent imagery , the video was immediately popular and received high critical acclaim , being nominated for six MTV Video Music Awards in 1984 and winning three . In 2009 it was added to the National Film Registry by the Library of Congress , the first music video ever selected .
= = Background and composition = =
" Thriller " was written by Rod Temperton , and produced by Quincy Jones . Written by Rod Temperton ; an inspiration was the Jacksons hit , " This Place Hotel " . Early titles include " Starlight " , " Starlight Sun " and " Give Me Some Starlight " . The title was changed to ' Thriller ' after Michael told Temperton he wanted something that would appeal to kids . While still titled " Starlight " , the song 's hook lyrics were " Give me some starlight ! Starlight sun ... " , but after the song was changed to " Thriller " the hook was rewritten to " ' Cause this is thriller ! Thriller night ... " . Temperton commented ,
Originally , when I did my Thriller demo , I called it Starlight . Quincy said to me , ' You managed to come up with a title for the last album , see what you can do for this album . ' I said , ' Oh great , ' so I went back to the hotel , wrote two or three hundred titles , and came up with the title ' Midnight Man ' . The next morning , I woke up , and I just said this word ... Something in my head just said , this is the title . You could visualize it on the top of the Billboard charts . You could see the merchandising for this one word , how it jumped off the page as ' Thriller ' .
While Temperton was writing " Thriller " he stated that he 'd " always envisioned " a " talking section at the end " on the song , but did not really know what " to do with it " , until deciding " to have somebody , a famous voice , in the horror genre , to do this vocal . " Jones ' then @-@ wife , Peggy Lipton , who knew Vincent Price , suggested Price for the vocal part , which Price agreed to do .
" Thriller " is considered a disco @-@ funk song . Set in the key of C ♯ Modern Dorian , its instrumentation consists of synthesizer , guitar , trumpet , flugelhorn , saxophone , flute and trombone . The song has a moderate tempo of 118 @.@ 31 beats per minute . The lyrics and sound effects on " Thriller " pertain to frightful elements and themes .
= = Recording and production = =
" Thriller " , along with other songs from Thriller , was recorded by Jackson over the course of eight weeks , in 1982 . Jackson recorded the song at Westlake Recording Studios on Santa Monica Boulevard in Los Angeles , California . Bruce Swedien , the song 's engineer , said of the song being recorded ,
When we started ' Thriller ' , the first day at Westlake , we were all there and Quincy [ Jones , the producer ] walked in followed by me and Michael and Rod Temperton and some of the other people . Quincy turned to us and he said , ' OK guys , we 're here to save the recording industry . ' Now that 's a pretty big responsibility – but he meant it . And that 's why those albums , and especially ' Thriller ' , sound so incredible . The basic thing is , everybody who was involved gave 150 percent … Quincy 's like a director of a movie and I 'm like a director of photography , and it 's Quincy 's job to cast [ it ] . Quincy can find the people and he gives us the inspiration to do what we do .
Swedien and Jones stated that Vincent Price recorded his introduction and voice @-@ over rap for the song in two takes ; Jones , acknowledging that doing a voice @-@ over for a song is " difficult " , praised Price and described his recording takes as being " fabulous " . Swedien said of Jackson recording the song , that , " I tried all sorts of things with Michael – for instance , he would sing the main vocal part and we 'd double it one time and then I 'd ask him to step away from the mic and do it a third time and that really changed the acoustics in the room so it gave Michael 's vocals a unique character … We recorded some of those background vocals in the shower stall at Westlake . "
Throughout the song , sound effects such as a creaking door , thunder , feet walking on wooden planks , winds and howling dogs can be heard . Bruce Cannon , a sound effects editor for " Thriller " , said that , " Things like the lightning may have come from old Hollywood movies – we 'll never know which movies – but the best sound @-@ effects editors do go out in the desert and find a coyote , so I have a feeling that was a real howl . "
The backing track , especially the bassline , has certain similarities to the 1981 number @-@ one R & B hit " Give It to Me Baby " by Rick James . The bass part was made from two modified Minimoogs playing in unison .
= = Critical reception = =
" Thriller " is a contemporary critical favourite . Ashley Lasimone , of AOL 's Spinner.com , noted that it " became a signature for Jackson " and described " the groove of its bassline , paired with Michael 's killer vocals and sleek moves " as having " produced a frighteningly great single . " Jon Pareles of The New York Times noted that ' Billie Jean ' , ' Beat It ' , ' Wanna Be Startin ' Somethin ' ' and " the movie in the song ' Thriller ' " , were the songs , unlike the " fluff " " P.Y.T. " , that were " the hits that made Thriller a world @-@ beater ; along with Mr. Jackson 's stage and video presence , listeners must have identified with his willingness to admit terror . " Ann Powers of the Los Angeles Times described " Thriller " as " adequately groovy " with a " funked @-@ out beat " and lyrics " seemingly lifted from some little kid 's ' scary storybook ' " .
50 Cent told NME that the song is the one he wished he 'd written : " I had his poster on my wall . He had me moonwalkin ' around my bedroom . I 'd love to have written any Michael Jackson song , so maybe start with one of the greatest . "
= = Chart performance = =
Prior to " Thriller " ' s official release as a single , six other songs from the album had charted . " Thriller " became Jackson 's seventh and final Billboard Hot 100 top @-@ ten single from his Thriller album . In Billboard issue date February 11 , 1984 , the song entered the charts at number 20 on the Hot 100 . The song entered the top ten the following week at number eight . One week later , it reached number five , then the next week it rose to number four ; its peak position which it held for a second week . The song was certified platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) on December 4 , 1989 , for sales of over one million physical units in the U.S. ( the requirement for gold and platinum singles was lowered after 1989 ) . It has sold a further 3 @.@ 6 million copies in digital downloads as of October 2014 in the US .
For the issue date February 25 , 1984 , " Thriller " charted at number 19 on the Hot R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Songs Chart . The following week , the song placed at number five . On March 10 , 1984 , it charted at number 3 , where it peaked . " Thriller " peaked at number 24 on Billboard 's Adult Contemporary Chart . " Thriller " debuted on the UK Singles Chart on November 19 , 1983 , at number 24 , and the following week charted at number ten , where it peaked ; the song appeared on the chart for 25 weeks . Beginning on February 5 , 1984 , " Thriller " peaked on the French Singles Chart at number one and topped the chart for four consecutive weeks . " Thriller " also topped the Belgian VRT Top 30 Chart for two weeks in January 1984 .
Following Jackson 's death , his music experienced a surge in popularity . In the week of Jackson 's death , " Thriller " was Jackson 's best @-@ selling track in the US , with sales of 167 @,@ 000 copies on the Billboard Hot Digital Singles Chart . On July 11 , 2009 , " Thriller " charted on the Billboard Hot Digital Singles Chart at number two ( its peak ) , and the song remained in the charts ' top ten for three consecutive weeks . In the United Kingdom , the song charted at number 23 the week of Jackson 's death . The following week , the song reached its peak at number 12 on the UK Single Chart . On July 12 , 2009 , " Thriller " peaked at number two on the Italian Singles Chart and was later certified gold by the Federation of the Italian Music Industry . " Thriller " reached at number three on the Australian ARIA Chart and Swiss Singles Chart and topped the Spanish Singles Charts for one week . The song also placed within the top ten on the German Singles Chart , Norwegian Singles Chart and Irish Singles Chart , at number nine , number seven and number eight respectively . " Thriller " also landed at number 25 on the Danish Singles Chart . In the third week of July " Thriller " peaked at number 11 in Finland . The song finished at # 78 for the year on Billboard Hot 100 of 1982 .
In 2013 , the song re @-@ entered the Billboard Hot 100 at number 42 .
= = Music video = =
In his 1988 book Moonwalk , Jackson expressed interest in having director John Landis direct the music video for " Thriller " . Having seen Landis ' previous work on the horror film An American Werewolf in London , Jackson envisioned the main character of his short film to undergo similar transitions parallel to those of the characters in Landis ' horror film . Hence , Landis was asked to direct the video seeing as Michael felt he would make the best fit towards properly conveying his personal concepts for the short feature film . Landis accepted Jackson ’ s invitation and production began soon thereafter , filming in various locations in New York and Los Angeles .
Contrary to reports of $ 800 @,@ 000 to $ 1 million production budgets , Landis stated that the music video was made for $ 500 @,@ 000 . Within the same excerpt of Moonwalk , Jackson noted how he personally financed much of the short film for " Thriller " out of his own pocket . Due to all the technical details of production and the nature of the video , the budget nearly doubled in costs . John Branca — Jackson 's attorney and advisor — suggested creating a documentary outlining the process of creating the short film . The behind @-@ the @-@ scenes documentary was aimed towards seeking a third @-@ party sponsor to finance the project and thus alleviate some of the costs of the doubled budget . The documentary was entitled , " The Making of Thriller " , and achieved significant sales among audiences .
Jackson also said of making the music video , in an interview that aired on December 11 , 1999 , for MTV 's 100 Greatest Videos Ever Made :
My idea was to make this short film with conversation ... I like having a beginning and a middle and an ending , which would follow a story . I 'm very much involved in complete making and creating of the piece . It has to be , you know , my soul . Usually , you know , it 's an interpretation of the music . [ ... ] It was a delicate thing to work on because I remember my original approach was , ' How do you make zombies and monsters dance without it being comical ? ' So I said , ' We have to do just the right kind of movement so it doesn 't become something that you laugh at . ' But it just has to take it to another level . So I got in a room with [ choreographer ] Michael Peters , and he and I together kind of imagined how these zombies move by making faces in the mirror . I used to come to rehearsal sometimes with monster makeup on , and I loved doing that . So he and I collaborated and we both choreographed the piece and I thought it should start like that kind of thing and go into this jazzy kind of step , you know . Kind of gruesome things like that , not too much ballet or whatever .
The music video of the song also included on the video albums : Video Greatest Hits - HIStory , HIStory on Film , Volume II , Number Ones , on the bonus DVD of Thriller 25 and Michael Jackson 's Vision .
Following the release of the music video , a 45 @-@ minute documentary was released that provided candid glimpses behind the scenes of the music video 's production . Entitled Making Michael Jackson 's Thriller , it , like the music video , was shown heavily on MTV for a time and was the top @-@ selling home @-@ video release of all time at one point , with over nine million copies sold . MTV paid $ 250 @,@ 000 for the exclusive rights to show the documentary ; Showtime paid $ 300 @,@ 000 for pay @-@ cable rights ; and Vestron Video reportedly paid $ 500 @,@ 000 to market the cassette , in a profit participation agreement .
= = = Concept = = =
Set in the 1950s , Michael and his unnamed date ( Ola Ray ) run out of gas near a dark wooded area . They walk off into the forest , and Michael asks her if she would be his " girl " ; she accepts and he gives her a ring . He warns her , however , that he is " different " . A full moon appears , and Michael begins convulsing in agony , transforming into a werecat . His date runs away in terror , but the werecat catches up to her , knocking her down and begins lunging at her with his claws . The scene then cuts to a modern @-@ day movie theater where Michael and his date , along with a repulsed audience , are actually watching the scene unfold in a movie called Thriller .
Michael 's date leaves the theater as Michael hands his popcorn to a stranger , catches up to her , and assures her that " It 's only a movie " . Some debate follows as to whether or not she was scared by the movie . They then walk down a foggy road as Michael teases her by singing the verses of " Thriller " . They pass a nearby graveyard , in which zombies begin to rise out of their caskets as Vincent Price performs his soliloquy . The zombies corner Michael and his date threateningly , and suddenly , Michael becomes a zombie himself . The zombies then break into an elaborate song and dance number , followed by the main chorus of " Thriller " ( during which Michael was reverted to human form ) , frightening his date to the point where she runs for cover .
Michael ( turned back into a zombie ) and his fellow corpses then back the frightened girl into the corner of a nearby abandoned house . Michael then reaches for his date 's throat as she lets out a bloodcurdling scream , only to awake and realize it was all a dream . Michael then offers to take her home , and she happily obliges . As they walk out of the house , Michael turns around and looks at the camera , thus revealing his yellow werewolf eyes and fangs from the beginning of the video , as we hear Vincent Price 's haunting laugh .
= = = Reception = = =
Leah Greenblatt of Entertainment Weekly commented on the music video , " Every aspect of the 14 @-@ minute horror musical , directed with creepy @-@ comical zest by John Landis , is beyond iconic , from Michael 's red leather ensemble to the immortal ( no pun ) herky @-@ jerky zombie dance and bwah @-@ ha @-@ ha Vincent Price narration . " Though the video was met with widespread praise , it was also criticized for its content . In 1982 , the National Coalition on Television Violence ( NCTV ) classified more than half of 200 MTV music videos surveyed as " too violent " . Both " Thriller " and Jackson 's duet with Paul McCartney , " Say , Say , Say " made the list . The Los Angeles Times quoted Dr. Thomas Radecki , chairman of the NCTV , as saying , " It 's not hard to imagine young viewers after seeing ' Thriller ' saying , ' Gee , if Michael Jackson can terrorize his girlfriend , why can 't I do it too ? '
The music video was nominated for six awards at the 1984 MTV Video Music Awards , winning three out of six of the nominations . " Thriller " won Viewers Choice , Best Overall Performance and Best Choreography — but lost Best Concept Video , Best Male Video and Video of the Year .
The music video was listed as the " Greatest Video " on VH1 's " VH1 : 100 Greatest Videos " in 2001 . MTV listed the music video as being the " Greatest Music Video Ever Made " on their list , " MTV : 100 Greatest Music Videos Ever Made " in 1999 . In July 2011 , the music video was named one of " The 30 All @-@ TIME Best Music Videos " by TIME magazine .
= = Live performances = =
Jackson performed " Thriller " on all three of his solo world concert tours . From the Dangerous Tour onwards , half the song was always performed by a masked backup dancer as Jackson prepared for his next song as part of a stage illusion . Despite Jackson performing multiple songs from his Thriller album , " Thriller " was not included on The Jacksons set list during their Victory Tour in 1984 , as Michael Jackson was not satisfied with the way the song sounded live .
Jackson performed " Thriller " during his first world tour as a solo artist , the Bad world tour , lasting sixteen months , from 1987 to 1989 , for a total of 123 shows . During the Bad tour , in both legs , the jacket had flashing lights in the middle of the song and at the end . An impersonator was only used for the introduction of the song ; a masked dancer emerges from the costume tent at the side of the stage , and goes back in hiding while Jackson himself , also masked at first , swings down from a rope on the other side of the stage before taking off his mask .
" Thriller " was also performed during Jackson 's second world tour , the Dangerous Tour , where stage illusions were used to transition between " Thriller " and " Billie Jean " . In the middle of " Thriller " , Jackson secretly switched places with a masked backup dancer who finishes the song appearing as Jackson prepares for Billie Jean . When the song ends , Jackson appears fully dressed on the upper floor as " Billie Jean " begins . In the third leg of the Dangerous Tour , there was no upper floor but the masked dancer still performed the latter half of the song .
Jackson performed " Thriller " for all of his 82 shows during his third , and final , world tour , the HIStory World Tour . Once again , a masked dancer posing as Jackson was used as a stage illusion , this time to the transition between " Thriller " and " Beat It " . As with the Dangerous tour , Jackson switches with the background dancer in the middle of the song . At the end of Thriller , the masked dancer is taken by the zombie dancers into a coffin where it appears he is impaled with spikes and burned . Jackson would appear at the side of the stage in a cherry @-@ picker , starting off " Beat It " .
Jackson had planned to perform " Thriller " during his 50 @-@ show concert series , which would have been his fourth concert tour , entitled This Is It from 2009 to 2010 . For Jackson 's performance of the song , he had planned for the stage that he was to perform on to be set up with a background that looked like a " graveyard " ( which was a brief setting in the music video ) with 3 @-@ D effects . Jackson would emerge from a giant black widow spider . According to a setlist that was released in March 2009 , " Thriller " was to close out the 16 @-@ song show , although the film Michael Jackson 's This Is It , which documents the concert series , lists 18 songs and " Man in the Mirror " as the closing song for the planned shows .
Live versions of the song are available on the DVDs Live at Wembley July 16 , 1988 and Live in Bucharest : The Dangerous Tour .
= = Cover versions = =
1980s
In 1984 , English comedian Lenny Henry recorded a spoof video of Thriller , entitled " Thinner " .
In 1989 , American composer Henry Mancini and The Royal Philharmonic Orchestra recorded an orchestral version of the song .
2000s
In 2000 , British death metal band Ten Masked Men covered the song on their album Return of the Ten Masked Men .
In 2001 , American @-@ born Australian singer Joe Dolce covered the song on a compilation album , Andrew Denton 's Musical Challenge .
In 2003 , Scottish rock band Aereogramme recorded " Thriller " for their Livers & Lungs EP .
In 2003 , German a cappella group Maybebop covered the song for their album Heiße Luft .
In 2004 , English electronic music group The Prodigy sampled " Thriller " on their The Way It Is .
In 2007 , Ian Brown covered " Thriller " . Amos Barshad and Nick Catucci , of NYMag.com , commented that " before you dismiss " the song , if you " give it a listen " , Brown ’ s " louche , drugged @-@ out reinvention is actually pretty great . "
In 2008 , German group Wise Guys recorded an a cappella version of the song as " Schiller " for their tenth album Frei ! . The stage choreography based on Michael Jackson 's music video and member Ferenc also recites a part of Friedrich Schiller 's Die Bürgschaft .
In 2008 , " Thriller " was also covered by Ben Gibbard , lead singer of Death Cab for Cutie and The Postal Service .
In 2008 , industrial metal band Gothminister covered Jackson 's song for their album Happiness in Darkness .
In October 2009 , Imogen Heap covered " Thriller " for BBC Radio 1 Live Lounge .
2010s
In 2010 , Italian gothic metal band The LoveCrave released a cover of " Thriller " on their album Soul Saliva .
In 2011 , Patrick Stump covered the song in an a cappella mash @-@ up tribute along with several other Michael Jackson songs over pre @-@ recorded backing vocals .
In 2012 , Italian jazz trumpeter Enrico Rava released a version on his tribute album Rava on the Dance Floor .
In 2013 , Jiordan Tolli covered an stripped @-@ down slower version of song for fifth season of The X Factor Australia during week two . The cover was released as an single on September 3 , 2013 . Tolli 's performance of " Thriller " debuted at number 63 on the ARIA Singles Chart .
In 2014 and 2015 , Demi Lovato covered the song on her Demi World Tour . This version included a remixed dancing at the end , which Lovato would dance to with fellow background dancers .
= = Appearances in other media = =
Michael Jackson 's Thriller music video , particularly the songs dance routine in the video , have been referenced in television series and films including Donga ( 1985 ) , Coming to America ( 1988 ) , The Malibu Beach Vampires ( 1991 ) , South Park ( 1997 ) , Dead & Breakfast ( 2004 ) , 13 Going on 30 ( 2004 ) , Bo ! in the USA ( 2006 ) .
The Chemical Brothers said in a January 2002 interview that if their song " My Elastic Eye " is played on large speakers , the bass would resemble " Thriller " .
In 2011 , the cast of American musical TV series Glee ( Naya Rivera , Kevin McHale and Cory Monteith with New Directions ) performed " Thriller " as a mash up with " Heads Will Roll " by Yeah Yeah Yeahs in episode " The Sue Sylvester Shuffle " .
Pop singer Britney Spears made a reference to " Thriller " in her music video for " I Wanna Go " ( 2011 ) . In the ending of her video actor Guillermo Díaz leads Spears out of the room . He then turns to the camera with glowing red eyes and his laugh is heard , similar to Vincent Price .
= = Personnel = =
= = Charts and certifications = =
= = = Sales and certifications = = =
= = Track listing = =
|
= Royal Artillery Memorial =
The Royal Artillery Memorial is a stone memorial at Hyde Park Corner in London , dedicated to casualties in the Royal Regiment of Artillery in the First World War . The memorial was designed by Charles Jagger and Lionel Pearson , and features a giant sculpture of a BL 9 @.@ 2 @-@ inch Mk I howitzer upon a large plinth of Portland stone , with stone reliefs depicting scenes from the conflict . Four bronze figures of artillery men are positioned around the outside of the memorial . The memorial is famous for its realist contrast with other First World War memorials , such as the Cenotaph designed by Edwin Lutyens , and attracted much public debate during the 20th century .
= = History = =
The First World War , which took place between 1914 and 1918 , saw the extensive use of artillery , particularly on the Western Front . Technical advances , combined with the relatively static nature of trench warfare , made these guns a key element of the conflict : over half the casualties in the war were caused by artillery . Artillery guns and their crews were themselves targets , however , and 49 @,@ 076 members of the Royal Artillery died during the conflict . In the years after the war , many former servicemen , including gunners , found the scale of the losses difficult to deal with , or felt that the events challenged their trust in the political leadership that had led them into the war . Visual reminders of the conflict were often avoided : mutilated servicemen , for example , were banned in the 1920s from joining in veterans ' marches , and those with facial injuries often hid them in public .
The Royal Artillery War Commemoration Fund ( RAWCF ) was formed in 1918 , made up a mixture of senior officers and other ranks . The RAWCF 's intention was to remember the artillery men who had died during the war , and after some discussions of various options , including purchasing a house for wounded soldiers , or building a number of small shrines across the country , the RAWCF decided to construct a single memorial to the fallen Royal Artillery servicemen . Memorials to lost servicemen from the previous major conflict , the South African War fought between 1899 and 1902 , had , however , been widely criticised as being unimaginative and unimpressive . As a result of these problems , the prominent artist Sir Edward Poynter had put forward recommendations that far more care , time and funding be given to the construction of future war memorials , which were taken on board by the RAWCF . The RAWCF sought a design that would be " unmistakably recognisable " as an artillery monument , and were insistent that the eventual designer take detailed advice from a junior officer who had served in the war .
The RAWCF first examined a design by Captain Adrian Jones , who had produced the Boer War Cavalry Memorial a few years before , but his design was rejected . Next , the committee contacted the artists Edwin Lutyens , Herbert Baker and Aston Webb . Lutyens ' sent in three designs , each costed at less than £ 15 @,@ 000 ( less than £ 607 @,@ 000 in 2009 terms ) , but they were felt to be too similar to the Cenotaph and to give insufficient prominence to the artillery . After the RAWCF insisted that a howitzer be prominently incorporated into the designs , Lutyens withdrew . Baker disagreed with the concept of single service monuments , but submitted a proposal costed at over £ 25 @,@ 000 ( over £ 1 @,@ 010 @,@ 000 in 2009 terms ) , which was declined and Baker subsequently withdrew from the project ; Webb declined to submit a proposal and also withdrew .
The committee then approached Charles Jagger in early 1921 . Jagger had been trained as a metal engraver before attending the Royal College of Art . He served in the infantry during the First World War and was injured at the battles of Gallipoli and Neuve @-@ Église , being awarded the Military Cross . At the end of the war , Jagger became involved in the design of war memorials , in particular the stark , brutal sculpture at the Hoylake and West Kirby War Memorial . Jagger was approached by the RAWCF both because of his reputation as a designer and because of his service as an infantry officer , although the American artist John Sargent , a patron of Jagger 's , may have encouraged the committee to consider the young artist . The RAWCF requested that he submit a model for a realist sculpture , to include a group of soldiers in bronze on a pedestal .
Jagger decided to work with the architect Lionel Pearson , who designed the stone structure of the memorial , and through June and July 1921 the RAWCF and the authorities considered the proposal . Jagger 's model was similar to the eventual memorial , but had only two gunners at either end of an oblong memorial ; the howitzer on the top was smaller than the eventual version , and pointed sideways , rather than lengthways along the pedestal . In reporting to the committee , Jagger said that he felt strongly that the design should unashamedly focus on the events of the war , noting that it " should in every sense be a war memorial " . Jagger explained that the artillery had " terrific power " and was the " last word in force " , and that the howitzer he had chosen was the only suitable weapon to symbolise those capabilities . There were concerns on the committee that the design would offend some members of the public , especially women , but the RAWCF eventually voted 50 to 15 in favour of accepting the design and the proposed cost of £ 25 @,@ 000 . Jagger was formally awarded the contract for the memorial in March 1922 .
Due to the pressures of other projects , Jagger did not begin work on the memorial until the following year , by which point he had decided to alter the design . The revised memorial would be a third @-@ larger than before , forming a crucifix , guarded by three bronze soldiers ; after much discussion , it was agreed that the howitzer would point south to produce a pleasing silhouette from the park . A lengthy , year @-@ long debate occurred within the RAWCF as to what inscription should be placed on the memorial , adding to the delay . Jagger then decided that the fourth side of the memorial should feature a dead soldier ; after considerable debate , the RAWCF also agreed to this modification . Jagger 's work continued to take longer than planned , partially due to shortages of staff , the need to approve each amendment to the plan and practical problems on the site itself . The names of his models for two of the statues are known : William Fosten for the Driver and another ex @-@ gunner called Metcalfe for the Ammunition Carrier .
The work was opened four months late on 18 October 1925 by Prince Arthur and the Reverend Alfred Jarvis . Despite the delay , the RAWCF and Jagger left on very good terms , the committee exceptionally pleased with the final memorial to the Royal Artillery .
Over the years , pollution and water penetration caused damage to the bronzes and stonework . English Heritage conducted a major restoration of the memorial during 2011 , completed in time for Remembrance Day . On 14 January 1970 the memorial was protected under UK law as a Grade II * listed building , but in July 2014 its status was raised to Grade I ; it was one of five memorials in London receiving a higher grade to mark the centenary of the outbreak of World War I.
= = Design and symbolism = =
The Royal Artillery Memorial today is located in what Malcolm Miles has termed the " leafy traffic island " of Hyde Park Corner in central London . The memorial is 43 feet long , 21 feet wide and 30 feet high ( 13 m by 6 m by 9 m ) ; the pedestal and the one @-@ third oversized replica of a BL 9 @.@ 2 @-@ inch howitzer , modelled on a gun in the Imperial War Museum , that sits on top of it are made of Portland stone . Cast by the A. B. Burton foundry , four bronze figures are placed on each side of the memorial : a driver to the west side , an artillery captain on the east , a shell carrier to the south , and a dead soldier on the north . Carved stone reliefs show various detailed military scenes from the First World War . The memorial 's main inscription on the west and east faces reads " In proud remembrance of the forty @-@ nine thousand and seventy @-@ six of all ranks of the Royal Regiment of Artillery who gave their lives for King and country in the Great War 1914 — 1919 " .
The memorial forms a sharp contrast with both the earlier monuments of the South African War and most contemporary monuments to the First World War . Memorials of the South African War typically included figures of soldiers , sometimes dying in conflict , but always heroically in a " beautiful death " . Classical symbolism was often used to distance the event of death from the observer , as typified in William Colton 's work at Worcester . Most First World War memorials reacted to the criticism of this approach by adopting cleaner architectural forms , but still retaining the ideal of a " beautiful death " , an approach which can be seen at Lutyens ' Southampton War Memorial , the precursor to his more famous Cenotaph in London . These memorials frequently used abstract , beautiful designs intended to remove the viewer from the real world , and focus them on an idealised sense of self @-@ sacrifice . Soldiers in these memorials were still frequently depicted as Homeric warriors , and classical ideals and symbols remained popular , as can be seen at the Machine Gun Corps Memorial by Francis Derwent Wood , displayed close to the Royal Artillery Memorial itself . Where dead soldiers were shown , they were depicted in an image of serenity and peace , often physically distanced from the viewer on a high platform , the entire effect reflected by the silence that traditionally surrounds ceremonies at the Cenotaph .
The Royal Artillery Monument attempted a very different effect . Jagger takes a realist approach to his figures , embracing detailed images of military power with none of the classical symbolism of other monuments , or even Jagger 's own pre @-@ war pieces . The art historian Reginald Wilenski likens the memorial to the work of Frank Brangwyn , who focused on depicting the physical labour of soldiers and workers during the war . The memorial shows the three upright bronze figures stood at ease , rather than to attention ; the driver even leans back against the parapet , his cape hanging over his outstretched arms , suggesting an attitude of exhaustion or contemplation . The faceless , heavily laden statue of the fallen soldier appears less at rest than tired , pulled down as if by a great weight . At the same time , the sheer size of the memorial , including the oversized gun and the larger @-@ than @-@ life bronze figures , exudes a sense of strength and power ; the figures are stocky , confident and imposing . This strength and power contributes to the sense of masculinity that pervades the work , from the phallic image of the howitzer , to the solid , muscular figures of the gunners .
Despite the realist nature of the bronze statues in the design , commentators have often also noted the dehumanising aspects of the memorial . Its sheer size and bulk of the howitzer serves to distance the observer , dehumanising the soldiers in a similar way to the Cubist war paintings of Wyndham Lewis and Richard Nevinson . Even the carved stone reliefs have an aggressive , hostile quality to them , a consequence of their focus on surface detail at the expense of the humans in the design . When questioned about his lifelike depictions , Jagger remarked to The Daily Express newspaper that the " experience in the trenches persuaded me of the necessity for frankness and truth " . Using what historian John Glaves @-@ Smith describes as themes of " endurance and sacrifice , not dynamism and conflict " , the memorial can be felt to speak to its audience about the experience of war in a way that the Cenotaph , for example , does not .
= = Critical reception = =
The Royal Artillery Memorial has continued to be the subject of much critical discussion . After the unveiling , a vigorous debate occurred in the British newspapers about the memorial . The Times was critical , comparing it unfavourably to the Cenotaph , while The Daily Mail highlighted the cost of the monument , and argued that the money could have been better spent on directly caring for injured veterans . Both the dead soldier and the howitzer drew particular comment ; art critic Selwyn Image complained about having any sort of artillery gun on the monument , whilst Lord Curzon was quoted as describing the howitzer as " a toad squatting , which is about to spit fire out of its mouth ... nothing more hideous could ever be conceived " . Modernists , such as Roger Fry , criticised the conventional , secure structure that underpins the memorial .
Other opinions were more positive . The Manchester Guardian noted that the frankness of the portrayal was a " terrible revelation long overdue " , and hoped that veterans would be able to show the monument to their wives and children as a way of explaining the events of the war . Ex @-@ servicemen were quoted by the newspaper as reminiscing about the war as they examined the statue , and remarking on how the bronze figures had captured the reality of their time in the artillery . The Illustrated London News reported how , two days after the official ceremony , a crowd had gathered in the rain just before dawn to conduct a small ceremony at the memorial ; the newspaper felt that this said more about the quality of the memorial than the more negative writings of art critics . These voices eventually held sway , and the memorial came to be popularly termed " the special Cenotaph of the Gunners " , with Lord Edward Gleichen praising it in 1928 as " a strikingly imaginative and most worthy representation " . By the 1930s , it was one of the best known monuments in Europe .
In later years , the reputation of the work diminished . The art critic Geoffrey Grigson echoed the comments of Lord Curzon , when he complained in 1980 that the memorial was a " squat toad of foolish stone " . A renewed focus on Jagger 's works , including the Royal Artillery memorial , in the 1980s has led to a fresh reappraisal of the piece ; the most recent critical work on the memorial has described it as a " work of the highest quality and distinction " .
|
= Maria : or , The Wrongs of Woman =
Maria : or , The Wrongs of Woman is the 18th @-@ century British feminist Mary Wollstonecraft 's unfinished novelistic sequel to her revolutionary political treatise A Vindication of the Rights of Woman ( 1792 ) . The Wrongs of Woman was published posthumously in 1798 by her husband , William Godwin , and is often considered her most radical feminist work .
Wollstonecraft 's philosophical and gothic novel revolves around the story of a woman imprisoned in an insane asylum by her husband . It focuses on the societal rather than the individual " wrongs of woman " and criticizes what Wollstonecraft viewed as the patriarchal institution of marriage in eighteenth @-@ century Britain and the legal system that protected it . However , the heroine 's inability to relinquish her romantic fantasies also reveals women 's collusion in their oppression through false and damaging sentimentalism . The novel pioneered the celebration of female sexuality and cross @-@ class identification between women . Such themes , coupled with the publication of Godwin 's scandalous Memoirs of Wollstonecraft 's life , made the novel unpopular at the time it was published .
Twentieth @-@ century feminist critics embraced the work , integrating it into the history of the novel and feminist discourse . It is most often viewed as a fictionalized popularization of the Rights of Woman , as an extension of Wollstonecraft 's feminist arguments in Rights of Woman , and as autobiographical .
= = Composition and plot summary = =
= = = Drafts = = =
Wollstonecraft struggled to write The Wrongs of Woman for over a year ; in contrast , she had dashed off A Vindication of the Rights of Men ( 1790 ) , her reply to Edmund Burke 's Reflections on the Revolution in France ( 1790 ) , in under a month and A Vindication of the Rights of Woman ( 1792 ) in six weeks . Godwin comments :
She was sensible how arduous a task it is to produce a truly excellent novel ; and she roused her faculties to grapple with it . All her other works were produced with a rapidity , that did not give her powers time fully to expand . But this was written slowly and with mature consideration . She began it in several forms , which she successively rejected , after they were considerably advanced . She wrote many parts of the work again and again , and , when she had finished what she intended for the first part , she felt herself more urgently stimulated to revise and improve what she had written , than to proceed , with constancy of application , in the parts that were to follow .
She also researched the book more than her others . By assuming the responsibilities of fiction editor and reviewing almost nothing but novels , she used her editorial position at Joseph Johnson 's Analytical Review to educate herself regarding novelistic techniques . She even visited Bedlam Hospital in February 1797 to research insane asylums .
At Wollstonecraft 's death in 1797 , the manuscript was incomplete . Godwin published all of the pieces of the manuscript in the Posthumous Works , adding several sentences and paragraphs of his own to link disjunct sections .
= = = Plot summary = = =
The Wrongs of Woman begins in medias res with the upper @-@ class Maria 's unjust imprisonment by her husband , George Venables . Not only has he condemned Maria to live in an insane asylum , but he has also taken their child away from her . She manages to befriend one of her attendants in the asylum , an impoverished , lower @-@ class woman named Jemima , who , after realizing that Maria is not mad , agrees to bring her a few books . Some of these have notes scribbled in them by Henry Darnford , another inmate , and Maria falls in love with him via his marginalia . The two begin to communicate and eventually meet . Darnford reveals that he has had a debauched life ; waking up in the asylum after a night of heavy drinking , he has been unable to convince the doctors to release him .
Jemima tells her life story to Maria and Darnford , explaining that she was born a bastard . Jemima 's mother died while she was still an infant , making her already precarious social position worse . She was therefore forced to become a servant in her father 's house and later bound out as an apprentice to a master who beat her , starved her , and raped her . When the man 's wife discovers that Jemima is pregnant with his child , she is thrown out of the house . Unable to support herself , she aborts her child and becomes a prostitute . She becomes the kept woman of a man of some wealth who seems obsessed with pleasure of every kind : food , love , etc . After the death of the gentleman keeping her , she becomes an attendant at the asylum where Maria is imprisoned .
In chapters seven through fourteen ( about half of the completed manuscript ) , Maria relates her own life story in a narrative she has written for her daughter . She explains how her mother and father loved their eldest son , Robert , more than their other children and how he ruled " despotically " over his siblings . To escape her unhappy home , Maria visited that of a neighbor and fell in love with his son , George Venables . Venables presented himself to everyone as a respectable and honorable young man ; in actuality , he was a libertine . Maria 's family life became untenable when her mother died and her father took the housekeeper as his mistress . A rich uncle who was fond of Maria , unaware of Venables ' true character , arranged a marriage for her and gave her a dowry of £ 5 @,@ 000 .
Maria quickly learned of her husband 's true character . She tried to ignore him by cultivating a greater appreciation for literature and the arts , but he became increasingly dissolute : he whored , gambled , and bankrupted the couple . Maria soon became pregnant after unwanted sexual encounters with her husband . As Maria 's uncle is leaving for the continent , he warns Maria of the consequences should she leave her husband . This is the first that separation or divorce are discussed in the novel and Maria seems to take his words as inspiration rather than the warning they are meant to be . After Venables attempts to pay one of his friends to seduce Maria ( a man referred to only as ' Mr. S ' ) so that he can leave her for being an adulteress , Maria tries to leave him . She initially escapes and manages to live in several different locations , often with other women who have also been wronged by their husbands , but he always finds her . When she tries to leave England with her newborn child and the fortune her now deceased uncle has left them , her husband seizes the child and imprisons Maria in the asylum . At this point the completed manuscript breaks off .
= = = Fragmentary endings = = =
The fragmentary notes for the remainder of the novel indicate two different trajectories for the plot and five separate conclusions . In both major plot arcs , George Venables wins a lawsuit against Darnford for seducing his wife ; Darnford then abandons Maria , flees England , and takes another mistress . When she discovers this treachery , Maria loses the child she was carrying by Darnford ( either through an abortion or a miscarriage ) . In one ending , Maria commits suicide . In another , more complete ending , Maria is saved from suicide by Jemima who has found her first daughter . Maria agrees to live for her child ( as Wollstonecraft herself had done after her second suicide attempt ) . Jemima , Maria and Maria 's daughter form a new family .
= = Style = =
In her pieces for the Analytical Review , Wollstonecraft developed a set of criteria for what constitutes a good novel :
A good tragedy or novel , if the criterion be the effect which it has on the reader , is not always the most moral work , for it is not the reveries of sentiment , but the struggles of passion — of those human passions , that too frequently cloud the reason , and lead mortals into dangerous errors ... which raise the most lively emotions , and leave the most lasting impression on the memory ; an impression rather made by the heart than the understanding : for our affections are not quite voluntary as the suffrages of reason . ( emphasis Wollstonecraft 's )
Wollstonecraft believed that novels should be " probable " and depict " moderation , reason , and contentment " . Thus it is surprising that The Wrongs of Woman draws inspiration from works such as Ann Radcliffe 's A Sicilian Romance ( 1790 ) and relies on gothic conventions such as the literal and figurative " mansion of despair " to which Maria is consigned . But it does so to demonstrate that gothic horrors are a reality for the average Englishwoman . Using elements of the gothic , Wollstonecraft can , for example , portray Maria 's husband as tyrannical and married life as wretched . As Wollstonecraft herself writes in the " Preface " to The Wrongs of Woman :
In many instances I could have made the incidents more dramatic , would I have sacrificed my main object , the desire of exhibiting the misery and oppression , peculiar to women , that arise out of the partial laws and customs of society .
One model for Wollstonecraft 's novel was Godwin 's Caleb Williams ( 1794 ) , which demonstrated how an adventurous and gothic novel could offer a social critique .
= = = Narrator = = =
The Wrongs of Woman usually uses third @-@ person narration , although large sections of Maria 's and Jemima 's tales are in first @-@ person narrative . The narrator often relates Maria 's feelings to the reader through the new technique of free indirect discourse , which blurs the line between the third @-@ person narrator and the first @-@ person dialogue of a text . Wollstonecraft juxtaposes the events of the novel with both Maria 's own retelling of them and her innermost feelings . The first @-@ person stories allow Maria and Jemima to address each other as equals : their stories of suffering , while still allowing each character to retain an individualized sense of self , are a levelling and bonding force between the two .
= = = Jacobin novel = = =
The Wrongs of Woman is what in the late eighteenth century was called a Jacobin novel , a philosophical novel that advocated the ideals of the French Revolution . Wollstonecraft 's novel argues along with others , such as Mary Hays 's Memoirs of Emma Courtney ( 1796 ) , that women are the victims of constant and systematic injustice . Wollstonecraft uses the philosophical dialogues in her novel to demonstrate women 's powerlessness .
Like other Jacobin novels , The Wrongs of Woman relies on a web of suggestive character names to convey its message : Jemima is named for Job 's daughter ; Henry Darnford 's name resembles that of Henry Darnley , the second husband of Mary , Queen of Scots ; and George Venables shares a name with the notorious womanizer George , Prince of Wales . Wollstonecraft added to the reality of her philosophical text by quoting from familiar literature , such as Shakespeare , alluding to important historical events , and referencing relevant facts . The Wrongs of Woman comments on the state of women in society by rewriting earlier texts with a feminist slant , such as Henry Fielding 's Tom Jones ; Fielding 's Mrs. Fitzpatrick becomes Wollstonecraft 's Maria . These rhetorical strategies made the philosophical elements of the novel more palatable to the public .
= = Themes = =
At the end of the Rights of Woman Wollstonecraft promised her readers a second part to the work . Rather than giving them another philosophical treatise , however , she offered them a novel tinged with autobiography , appropriately titled The Wrongs of Woman . In her " Preface " , she writes that the novel should be considered the story of " woman " and not the story of an " individual " . Wollstonecraft attempts to detail , as the scholar Anne K. Mellor has phrased it , " the wrongs done to women and the wrongs done by women " ( emphasis Mellor 's ) . The wrongs done to women include stifling and sexually repressed marriages , which Wollstonecraft describes using the language of slavery , while the wrongs done by women include a false sense of self @-@ worth generated through the language of sensibility . Unlike Wollstonecraft 's first novel , Mary : A Fiction ( 1788 ) , The Wrongs of Woman offers solutions to these problems , namely an empowering female sexuality , a purpose @-@ filled maternal role , and the possibility of a feminism that crosses class boundaries .
= = = Marriage and slavery = = =
In metaphors carried over from the Rights of Woman , Wollstonecraft describes marriage as a prison and women as slaves within it in The Wrongs of Woman . In the first chapter Maria laments , " [ is ] not the world a vast prison , and women born slaves ? " and later she makes a politically charged allusion to the French prison , the Bastille : " marriage had bastilled me for life " . Moreover , Maria 's body is bought and sold like a slave 's : she is worth £ 5 @,@ 000 on the open marriage market and her new husband attempts to sell her into prostitution . Commenting on her condition , Maria states : " a wife being as much a man 's property as his horse , or his ass , she has nothing she can call her own " . In the Rights of Woman , Wollstonecraft had used the metaphor of slavery not only to describe the horrors of marriage as it currently existed but also to offer a juxtaposition to the possibility of a new kind of marriage , one which assumed equality between affectionate and rational partners . In The Wrongs of Woman , this option is never presented ; instead , the reader is shown a series of disastrous marriages in which women are abused , robbed , and abandoned .
" Wollstonecraft 's fundamental insight in Maria " , according to scholar Mary Poovey , " concerns the way in which female sexuality is defined or interpreted — and , by extension , controlled — by bourgeois institutions . The primary agent of this control is marriage " . Wollstonecraft deconstructs the ideology of marriage , by which women are exchangeable commodities , are objectified , and are denied their natural rights .
= = = Sensibility and sentimentalism = = =
Sensibility in the second half of the eighteenth century was considered both a physical and a moral phenomenon . Physicians and anatomists believed that the more sensitive people 's nerves , the more emotionally affected they would be by their surroundings . Since women were thought to have keener nerves than men , it was also believed that women were more emotional than men . The emotional excess associated with sensibility also theoretically produced an ethic of compassion : those with sensibility could easily sympathize with people in pain . Thus historians have credited the discourse of sensibility and those who promoted it with the increased humanitarian efforts , such as the movement to abolish the slave trade , of the eighteenth century . But sensibility was also thought to paralyze those who had too much of it ; they were weakened by constant vicarious suffering .
By the time Wollstonecraft was writing The Wrongs of Woman , sensibility had already been under sustained attack for a number of years . Sensibility , which had initially promised to draw individuals together through sympathy , was now viewed as " profoundly separatist " ; novels , plays , and poems that employed the language of sensibility asserted individual rights , sexual freedom , and unconventional familial relationships based only upon feeling . Sensibility seemed to many , particularly during a time of political reaction , to offer too much political power to women and to emasculate British men needed for fighting France .
All of Wollstonecraft 's writings betray a tortured relationship with the language of sensibility and The Wrongs of Woman is no exception . As feminist scholar Mitzi Myers has observed , Wollstonecraft is usually described as an " enlightened philosopher strenuously advocating the cultivation of reason as the guide to both self @-@ realization and social progress " , but her works do not unambiguously support such a model of selfhood . Her emphasis on " feeling , imagination , and interiority " mark her as a Romantic , particularly in Letters Written in Sweden , Norway , and Denmark ( 1796 ) . Repeatedly , in both her fiction and non @-@ fiction , Wollstonecraft argues that the proper understanding of one 's emotions leads to a transcendent virtue .
However , because Wollstonecraft herself is contradictory and vague in the unfinished Wrongs of Woman , there is no real scholarly consensus on what exactly the novel says about sensibility . Wollstonecraft is intentionally breaking the conventions of sentimental fiction , but exactly what her goals are in doing so is unclear . For example , Maria and Jemima can seemingly be identified with the traditional categories of " reason " ( Jemima ) and " sensibility " ( Maria ) , but since such couples were usually male and female , Wollstonecraft 's characterization challenges conventional definitions of gender .
Some critics interpret Maria 's story ironically , arguing that the juxtaposition of Maria 's sentimental and romantic narrative with Jemima 's harsh and bleak narrative encourages such a reading . In this interpretation , Maria 's narrative is read as a parody of sentimental fiction that aims to demonstrate the " wrongs " that women inflict upon themselves when they overindulge in sensibility . Although Wollstonecraft promotes sensibility in this text , it is not the same kind that she condemns in the Rights of Woman ; proper sensibility , she contends , rests on sympathy and , most importantly , is controlled by reason . A woman with this kind of sensibility would not be " blown about by every gust of momentary feeling " . Other critics see The Wrongs of Woman as a " negation " of the anti @-@ sentimental arguments offered in the Rights of Woman . Citing Jemima 's infrequent appearances in the narrative and the narrator 's own use of the language of sensibility , they have difficulty in accepting the claim that the novel is undercutting or questioning the rhetoric of sensibility .
= = = = Female desire = = = =
One of the key differences between Wollstonecraft 's novels and her philosophical treatises , as feminist critic Cora Kaplan has argued , is that her fiction values female emotion while her treatises present it as " reactionary and regressive , almost counter @-@ revolutionary " . The Rights of Woman portrays sexuality as a masculine characteristic , and while Wollstonecraft argues that some masculine characteristics are universal , this is not one of them . In The Wrongs of Woman , however , she accepts , relishes , and uses the sexualized female body as a medium of communication : Maria embraces her lust for Darnford and establishes a relationship with him . While in the Rights of Woman she had emphasized companioniate relationships , arguing that passions should cool between lovers , in The Wrongs of Woman , she celebrates those passions . Challenging contemporary moralists such as John Gregory and Rousseau , Wollstonecraft claimed that women could be fully sexualized beings .
Initially , Maria wants to marry Venables because of his charitable nature ; she believes him to be the romantic hero that she has read about in novels . However , she later realizes his duplicity :
[ George ] continued to single me out at the dance , press my hand at parting , and utter expressions of unmeaning passion , to which I gave a meaning naturally suggested by the romantic turn of my thoughts . ... When he left us , the colouring of my picture became more vivid — Whither did not my imagination lead me ? In short , I fancied myself in love — in love with the disinterestedness , fortitude , generosity , dignity , and humanity , with which I had invested the hero I dubbed .
One of the important questions raised by the novel is whether Maria is deluded in her relationship with Darnford . Maria writes an autobiography for her daughter in which she admits that she was misled by Venables , but critics disagree over the extent to which she is also misled by Darnford . Some suggest that Maria repeats her mistake and imagines Darnford as a hero , citing as evidence Maria 's refusal to leave the madhouse , when she is free to do so , because she wants to remain with him , as well as her infatuation with Rousseau 's novel Julie , or the New Heloise . She imagines Darnford as its " hero " , St. Preux , the sometime lover but not husband of Julie . Maria 's reading and the plots she conjures in her imagination as a result of that reading are the cause of her downfall in this interpretation : unable or unwilling to separate fiction from reality , she incorporates Darnford into her romantic fantasies . Other critics , while agreeing that Maria is led astray by Darnford , argue that it is not her sexuality and eroticism that are the problem , but her choice of partner . They argue that Wollstonecraft is not portraying female sexuality as inherently detrimental , as she had in Mary and the Rights of Woman , rather she is criticizing the directions it often takes .
= = = Class and feminism = = =
The structure of The Wrongs of Woman , with its interwoven tales of the similarly abused upper @-@ middle @-@ class Maria , the lower @-@ middle @-@ class sailor 's wife Peggy , the working @-@ class shopkeeper , the boarding @-@ house owner , and the working @-@ class domestic servant Jemima , is an " unprecedented " representation of the shared concerns of women in a patriarchal society . Wollstonecraft wrote in a letter , published as part of the preface to The Wrongs of Woman , that she aimed " to show the wrongs of different classes of women , equally oppressive , though , from the difference of education , necessarily various " . Her novel is newly inclusive and one of the first works in the history of feminist literature that hints at a cross @-@ class argument that women of different economic positions have the same interests because they are women . In her narration , Jemima asks " who ever risked anything for me ? — Who ever acknowledged me to be a fellow @-@ creature ? " It is not until Maria grasps her hand in sympathy that she feels this ; furthermore , it is Jemima 's story that first prods Maria 's own " thoughts [ to ] take a wider range " and " thinking of Jemima 's peculiar fate and her own , she was led to consider the oppressed state of women , and to lament that she had given birth to a daughter " .
Jemima is the most fleshed out of the lower @-@ class women in the novel ; through her Wollstonecraft refuses to accept the submissiveness traditionally associated with femininity and expresses a frustrated anger that would have been viewed as unseemly in Maria . Jemima 's tale also challenges assumptions regarding prostitutes . Wollstonecraft rewrites the traditional narrative of the redeemed prostitute ( e.g. , Daniel Defoe 's Some Considerations on Streetwalkers ( 1726 ) ) . The novel presents prostitutes as " an exploited class " , akin to wives who are dependent on men , and demonstrates how they are a product of their environment . By making both Jemima and Maria prostitutes , Wollstonecraft rejects two contemporary stereotypes of the prostitute : the image of the woman who takes pleasure in her actions and is in love with her keeper and the image of the victim desirous of pity . Thus , rather than simply repulsing or eliciting the compassion of the reader , Jemima and Maria presumably forge a stronger , more lasting bond with the female reader who shares their plight .
Nevertheless , Jemima 's tale still retains elements of Wollstonecraft 's bourgeois ethos ; Jemima and the other working @-@ class women are only presented as Maria 's equal in suffering ; " women are linked across class , then , but less in solidarity than in hopelessness . " As Wollstonecraft scholar Barbara Taylor comments , " Maria 's relationship with Jemima displays something of the class fissures and prejudices that have marked organised feminist politics from their inception . " Jemima is taught to appreciate the finer things in life when she is a kept mistress and Maria later promises to care for her . Importantly , though , in one version of the ending , it is Jemima who rescues Maria and finds her child .
= = = Motherhood and the feminine self = = =
While some scholars emphasize The Wrongs of Woman 's criticism of the institution of marriage and the laws restricting women in the eighteenth century , others focus on the work 's description of " the experience of being female , with the emotional violence and intellectual debilitation " that accompanies it ( emphasis in original ) . It is in Wollstonecraft 's depiction of a female mind educating itself and creating a specifically feminine sense of self that she " breaks new ground " . Maria 's role as mother allows her to instruct herself , thereby creating her own sense of self ; in advising her daughter through the manuscript she is writing , Maria learns about herself and realizes her past errors . Her ability to formulate her own selfhood can be contrasted to the heroine of Wollstonecraft 's first novel , Mary : A Fiction , who transfers her maternal cravings from character to character .
Furthermore , while patriarchal marriages are one of the great wrongs perpetrated upon women , Wollstonecraft argues that a greater wrong is women 's lack of independence . Because they are unable to find respectable , well @-@ paid work , they are reliant upon men . Women such as Jemima are reduced to hard physical labor , stealing , begging , or prostituting themselves in order to survive ; they are demeaned by this work and think meanly of themselves because of it .
Because male @-@ female relationships are inherently unequal in her society , Wollstonecraft endeavours to formulate a new kind of friendship in The Wrongs of Woman : motherhood and sisterhood . It is Maria 's pathetic story regarding the kidnapping of her child that first interests Jemima in her plight . The novel fragments also suggest that the tale might not end with a marriage , but rather with the creation of a new kind of family , one constituted by two mothers for Maria 's child . With Jemima 's rescue of Maria , Wollstonecraft appears to reject the traditional romantic plot and invent a new one , necessitated by the failure of society to grant women their natural rights .
While more recent critics have emphasized the revolutionary aspects of the cross @-@ class friendship between Jemima and Maria , others have questioned the extent of that radicalism , arguing that Jemima 's story occupies a small section of the novel and is abruptly truncated . Mary Poovey also maintains that Wollstonecraft fails to extend her critique of marriage and society from the individual to the systemic level .
= = = Autobiographical elements = = =
Like Wollstonecraft 's first novel , Mary : A Fiction , The Wrongs of Woman is heavily autobiographical ; the two novels even repeat many of the same biographical details . After being abandoned by her lover and the father of her child , Gilbert Imlay ( the model for Darnford ) , Wollstonecraft attempted to commit suicide . Her despair over these events is written into the book as well as many other experiences from the mid @-@ 1790s . Moreover , Maria Venables 's family history shows clear similarities to Wollstonecraft 's own . Like Maria , Wollstonecraft had a mother who favored an elder brother and she also devotedly cared for that mother during her dying days , only to be pushed away during the final moments of her life . Wollstonecraft also looked after her sisters like Maria does , albeit without the help of a wealthy uncle . Perhaps most strikingly , Wollstonecraft 's sister Eliza left her husband , at Wollstonecraft 's prodding , much as Maria leaves hers . As Kelly explains , autobiography is common in Jacobin novels . Philosophical novels were expected to be autobiographical ; audiences believed that the philosophizing novelists would draw on their own experiences in order to illustrate their abstract principles .
= = Reception and legacy = =
The Posthumous Works , of which The Wrongs of Woman was the largest part , had a " reasonably wide audience " when it was published in 1798 , but it " was received by critics with almost universal disfavor " . This was in large part because the simultaneous release of Godwin 's Memoirs of the Author of A Vindication of the Rights of Woman revealed Wollstonecraft 's illegitimate child and her love affairs . Most reviewers and readers transferred the unconventional and unorthodox life Wollstonecraft herself had lived onto Maria and much that Maria had said and done onto Wollstonecraft , thereby realizing Wollstonecraft 's fears that her books would be read only as a mirror of her life . The eighteenth @-@ century moralist Hannah More , for example , called The Wrongs of Woman a " vindication of adultery " .
Many critics and even personal acquaintances failed to grasp Wollstonecraft 's fundamental point , that Maria 's " wrongs " are political , not personal . She wrote to one friend who had criticized it :
I am vexed and surprised at your not thinking the situation of Maria sufficiently important , and can only account for this want of – shall I say it ? delicacy of feeling , by recollecting that you are a man – For my part I cannot suppose any situation more distressing than for a woman of sensibility with an improving mind to be bound , to such a man as I have described , for life – obliged to renounce all the humanizing affections , and to avoid cultivating her taste lest her perception of grace , and refinement of sentiment should sharpen to agony the pangs of disappointment .
Even Godwin , her husband , complained , " I do not want a common @-@ place story of a brutal , insensible husband . " Both the Anti @-@ Jacobin Review and the Monthly Review reviewed the novel harshly . The Anti @-@ Jacobin Review , attacking both Wollstonecraft and her book as well as Godwin 's Political Justice and Memoirs , wrote :
The restrictions upon adultery constitute , in Maria 's opinion , A MOST FLAGRANT WRONG TO WOMEN . Such is the moral tendency of this work , such are the lessons which may be learned from the writings of Mrs. Wollstonecraft ; such the advantages which the public may derive from this performance given to the world by Godwin , celebrated by him , and perfectly consonant to the principles of his Political Justice . — But as there have been writers , who have in theory promulgated opinions subversive of morality , yet in their conduct have not been immoral , Godwin has laboured to inform the world , that the theory of Mrs. Wollstonecraft was reduced to practice ; that she lived and acted , as she wrote and taught . [ Footnote in original : We could point out some of this lady 's pupils , who have so far profited by the instructions received from her , as to imitate her conduct , and reduce her principles to practice . ] ( emphasis in original )
Under the heading " Prostitution " in the index to the magazine , the editors listed only one entry : Mary Wollstonecraft . Partially because of these reactions , female sexuality would not be celebrated so overtly in Britain for another century .
While Wollstonecraft 's arguments in The Wrongs of Woman may appear commonplace in light of modern feminism , they were " breathtakingly audacious " during the late eighteenth century : " Wollstonecraft 's final novel made explosively plain what the Rights of Woman had only partially intimated : that women 's entitlements — as citizens , mothers , and sexual beings — are incompatible with a patriarchal marriage system . " However , while The Wrongs of Woman is now read as the progenitor of many feminist texts and the inspiration for many feminist arguments and rhetorical styles ( e.g. , the personal confession ) , Wollstonecraft herself was not part of a feminist movement nor did she ever argue for one . Although The Wrongs of Woman presents " woman " as " wronged " , neither Wollstonecraft nor any other British woman who highlighted the inequalities suffered by women at the time ( such as Mary Hays or Mary Robinson ) ever put forth a collective solution . As part of the Enlightenment , they were dedicated to individualistic solutions .
= = Modern reprints = =
|
= De Havilland Comet =
The de Havilland DH 106 Comet was the world 's first production commercial jetliner . Developed and manufactured by de Havilland at its Hatfield Aerodrome , Hertfordshire , United Kingdom headquarters , the Comet 1 prototype first flew on 27 July 1949 . It featured an aerodynamically clean design with four de Havilland Ghost turbojet engines buried in the wings , a pressurised fuselage , and large square windows . For the era , it offered a relatively quiet , comfortable passenger cabin and showed signs of being a commercial success at its 1952 debut .
A year after entering commercial service , the Comets began suffering problems , with three of them breaking up during mid @-@ flight in well @-@ publicised accidents . These were later found to be due to catastrophic metal fatigue in the airframes , not well understood at the time . The Comet was withdrawn from service and extensively tested to discover the cause ; the first incident had been incorrectly blamed on adverse weather . Design flaws , including dangerous stresses at the corners of the square windows and installation methods , were ultimately identified . As a result , the Comet was extensively redesigned with oval windows , structural reinforcement , and other changes . Rival manufacturers meanwhile heeded the lessons learned from the Comet while developing their own aircraft .
Although sales never fully recovered , the improved Comet 2 and the prototype Comet 3 culminated in the redesigned Comet 4 series which debuted in 1958 and had a productive career of over 30 years . The Comet was adapted for a variety of military roles such as VIP , medical and passenger transport , as well as surveillance . The most extensive modification resulted in a specialised maritime patrol aircraft variant , the Hawker Siddeley Nimrod . Nimrod remained in service with the Royal Air Force ( RAF ) until June 2011 , over 60 years after the Comet 's first flight .
= = Development = =
= = = Origins = = =
On 11 March 1943 , the Cabinet of the United Kingdom formed the Brabazon Committee to determine the UK 's airliner needs after the conclusion of the Second World War . One of its recommendations was for a pressurised , transatlantic mailplane that could carry non @-@ stop , one long ton ( 1 @.@ 0 t ) of payload at a cruising speed of 400 mph ( 640 km / h ) . De Havilland chose to challenge the widely held scepticism of jet engines as too fuel @-@ hungry and unreliable , So committee member Sir Geoffrey de Havilland , head of the de Havilland company , used his personal influence and his company 's expertise to champion the development of a jet propelled aircraft ; and proposed a specification for a pure turbojet @-@ powered design . The committee accepted the proposal , calling it the " Type IV " ( of five designs ) , and awarded a development and production contract to de Havilland under the designation Type 106 in February 1945 . The type and design were to be so advanced that De Havilland had to undertake the design and development of both , the airframe , and the engines . This was because in 1945 no turbojet engine manufacturer in the world was drawing up a design specification for an engine with the thrust and specific fuel consumption , that could power an aircraft at the proposed cruising altitude ( 40 thousand feet ) , speed , and transatlantic range as was called for by the Type 106 . First @-@ phase development of the DH 106 focused on short and intermediate range mailplanes with a small passenger compartment and as few as six seats , before being redefined as a long @-@ range airliner with a capacity of 24 seats . Out of all the Brabazon designs , the DH 106 was seen as the riskiest both in terms of introducing untried design elements and for the financial commitment involved . Nevertheless , the British Overseas Airways Corporation ( BOAC ) found the Type IV 's specifications attractive , and initially proposed a purchase of 25 aircraft ; in December 1945 , when a firm contract was laid out , the order total was revised to 10 .
A design team was formed in 1946 under the leadership of chief designer Ronald Bishop , who had been responsible for the Mosquito fighter @-@ bomber . A number of unorthodox configurations were considered , ranging from canard to tailless designs ; all were subsequently rejected . The Ministry of Supply was , however , interested in the most radical of the proposed designs and ordered two experimental tailless DH 108s to serve as proof of concept aircraft for testing swept @-@ wing configurations in both low @-@ speed and high @-@ speed flight . During flight tests , the DH 108 gained a reputation for being accident @-@ prone and unstable , leading de Havilland and BOAC to gravitate to conventional configurations and , necessarily , designs with less technical risk . The DH 108s were later modified to test the DH 106 's power controls .
In September 1946 , prior to the completion of the DH 108s , BOAC requests necessitated a redesign of the DH 106 from its previous 24 @-@ seat configuration to a larger 36 @-@ seat version . With no time to develop the technology necessary for a proposed tailless configuration , Bishop opted for a more conventional 20 @-@ degree swept @-@ wing design with unswept tail surfaces , married to an enlarged fuselage accommodating 36 passengers in a four @-@ abreast arrangement with a central aisle . Replacing previously specified Halford H.1 Goblin engines , four new , more powerful Rolls @-@ Royce Avons were to be incorporated in pairs buried in the wing roots ; Halford H.2 Ghost engines were eventually applied as an interim solution while the Avons cleared certification . The redesigned aircraft was named the DH 106 Comet in December 1947 . Revised first orders from BOAC and British South American Airways totalled 14 aircraft with delivery projected for 1952 .
= = = Testing and prototypes = = =
As the Comet represented a new category of passenger aircraft , more rigorous testing was a development priority . From 1947 to 1948 , de Havilland conducted an extensive research and development phase , including the use of several stress test rigs at Hatfield for small components and large assemblies alike . Sections of pressurised fuselage were subjected to high @-@ altitude flight conditions via a large decompression chamber on @-@ site , and tested to failure . However , tracing fuselage failure points proved difficult with this method , and de Havilland ultimately switched to conducting structural tests with a water tank that could be safely configured to increase pressures gradually . The entire forward fuselage section was tested for metal fatigue by repeatedly pressurising to 2 @.@ 75 pounds per square inch ( 19 @.@ 0 kPa ) overpressure and depressurising through more than 16 @,@ 000 cycles , equivalent to about 40 @,@ 000 hours of airline service . The windows were also tested under a pressure of 12 psi ( 83 kPa ) , 4 @.@ 75 psi ( 32 @.@ 8 kPa ) above expected pressures at the normal service ceiling of 36 @,@ 000 ft ( 11 @,@ 000 m ) . One window frame survived 100 psi ( 690 kPa ) , about 1 @,@ 250 percent over the maximum pressure it was expected to encounter in service .
The first prototype DH 106 Comet ( carrying Class B markings G @-@ 5 @-@ 1 ) was completed in 1949 , and was initially used to conduct ground tests and brief early flights . The prototype 's maiden flight took place on 27 July 1949 out of Hatfield Aerodrome and lasted 31 minutes . At the controls was de Havilland chief test pilot John Cunningham , a famous night @-@ fighter pilot of the Second World War , along with co @-@ pilot Harold " Tubby " Waters , engineers John Wilson ( electrics ) and Frank Reynolds ( hydraulics ) , and flight test observer Tony Fairbrother .
The prototype was registered G @-@ ALVG just before it was publicly displayed at the 1949 Farnborough Airshow prior to the start of flight trials . A year later , the second prototype G @-@ 5 @-@ 2 made its maiden flight . The second prototype was registered G @-@ ALZK in July 1950 and it was used by the BOAC Comet Unit at Hurn from April 1951 to carry out 500 flying hours of crew training and route proving . Australian airline Qantas also sent its own technical experts to observe the performance of the prototypes , seeking to quell internal uncertainty about its prospective Comet purchase . Both prototypes could be externally distinguished from later Comets by the large single @-@ wheeled main landing gear , which was replaced on production models starting with G @-@ ALYP by four @-@ wheeled bogies .
= = Design = =
= = = Overview = = =
The Comet was an all @-@ metal low @-@ wing cantilever monoplane powered by four jet engines ; it had a four @-@ place cockpit occupied by two pilots , a flight engineer , and a navigator . The clean , low @-@ drag design of the aircraft featured many design elements that were fairly uncommon at the time , including a swept @-@ wing leading edge , integral wing fuel tanks , and four @-@ wheel bogie main undercarriage units designed by de Havilland . Two pairs of turbojet engines ( on the Comet 1s , Halford H.2 Ghosts , subsequently known as de Havilland Ghost 50 Mk1s ) were buried into the wings .
The original Comet was approximately the length of the later Boeing 737 @-@ 100 , but carried fewer people in a significantly more spacious environment . BOAC installed 36 reclining " slumberseats " with 45 @-@ inch ( 1 @,@ 100 mm ) centres on its first Comets , allowing for greater leg room in front and behind ; Air France had 11 rows of seats with four seats to a row installed on its Comets . Large picture window views and table seating accommodations for a row of passengers afforded a " feel of comfort and luxury " atypical of transportation of the period . Amenities included a galley that could serve hot and cold food and drinks , a bar , and separate men 's and women 's toilets . Provisions for emergency situations included several life rafts stored in the wings near the engines , and individual life vests were stowed under each seat .
One of the most striking aspects of Comet travel was the quiet , " vibration @-@ free flying " as touted by BOAC . For passengers used to propeller @-@ driven airliners , smooth and quiet jet flight was a novel experience .
= = = Avionics and systems = = =
For ease of training and fleet conversion , de Havilland designed the Comet 's flight deck layout with a degree of similarity to the Lockheed Constellation , an aircraft that was popular at the time with key customers such as BOAC . The cockpit included full dual @-@ controls for the captain and first officer , while a flight engineer controlled various key systems , including fuel , air conditioning , and electrical systems . The navigator occupied a dedicated station with a table across from the flight engineer .
Several of the Comet 's avionics systems were new to civil aviation . One such feature was irreversible powered flight controls , which increased the pilot 's ease of control and the safety of the aircraft by preventing aerodynamic forces from changing the directed positions and placement of the aircraft 's control surfaces . Additionally , a large number of the control surfaces , such as the elevators , were equipped with a complex gearing system as a safeguard against accidentally over @-@ stressing the surfaces or airframe at higher speed ranges .
The Comet had a total of four hydraulic systems , two primaries , one secondary , and a final emergency system for basic functions such as lowering the undercarriage . The undercarriage could also be lowered by a combination of gravity and a hand @-@ pump . Power was syphoned from all four engines for the hydraulics , cabin air conditioning , and the de @-@ icing system ; these systems had operational redundancy in that they could keep working even if only a single engine was active . The majority of hydraulic components were centred in a single avionics bay . A pressurised refuelling system , developed by Flight Refuelling Ltd , allowed the Comet 's fuel tanks to be refuelled at a far greater rate than other methods .
The cockpit was significantly altered for the Comet 4 's introduction , on which an improved layout focusing on the onboard navigational suite was introduced . An EKCO E160 radar unit was installed in the Comet 4 's nose cone , providing search functions as well as ground and cloud mapping capabilities , and a radar interface was built into the Comet 4 cockpit along with redesigned instruments .
Sud @-@ Est 's design bureau , while working on the Sud Aviation Caravelle in 1953 , licensed several design features from de Havilland , building on previous collaborations on earlier licensed designs , including the DH 100 Vampire ; the nose and cockpit layout of the Comet 1 was grafted onto the Caravelle . In 1969 , when the Comet 4 's design was modified by Hawker Siddeley to become the basis for the Nimrod , the cockpit layout was completely redesigned and bore little resemblance to its predecessors except for the control yoke .
= = = Fuselage = = =
Diverse geographic destinations and cabin pressurisation alike on the Comet demanded the use of a high proportion of alloys , plastics , and other materials new to civil aviation across the aircraft in order to meet certification requirements . The Comet 's high cabin pressure and fast operating speeds were unprecedented in commercial aviation , making its fuselage design an experimental process . At its introduction , Comet airframes would be subjected to an intense , high @-@ speed operating schedule which included simultaneous extreme heat from desert airfields and frosty cold from the kerosene @-@ filled fuel tanks .
The Comet 's thin metal skin was composed of advanced new alloys and was both riveted and chemically bonded , which saved weight and reduced the risk of fatigue cracks spreading from the rivets . The chemical bonding process was accomplished using a new adhesive , Redux , which was liberally used in the construction of the wings and the fuselage of the Comet ; it also had the advantage of simplifying the manufacturing process .
When several of the fuselage alloys were discovered to be vulnerable to weakening via metal fatigue , a detailed routine inspection process was introduced . As well as thorough visual inspections of the outer skin , mandatory structural sampling was routinely conducted by both civil and military Comet operators . The need to inspect areas not easily viewable by the naked eye led to the introduction of widespread radiography examination in aviation ; this also had the advantage of detecting cracks and flaws too small to be seen otherwise .
Operationally , the design of the cargo holds led to considerable difficulty for the ground crew , especially baggage handlers at the airports . The cargo hold had its doors located directly underneath the aircraft , so each item of baggage or cargo had to be loaded vertically upwards from the top of the baggage truck , then slid along the hold floor to be stacked inside . The individual pieces of luggage and cargo also had to be retrieved in a similarly slow manner at the arriving airport .
= = = Propulsion = = =
The Comet was powered by two pairs of turbojet engines buried in the wings close to the fuselage . Chief designer Bishop chose the Comet 's embedded @-@ engine configuration because it avoided the drag of podded engines and allowed for a smaller fin and rudder , since the hazards of asymmetric thrust were reduced . The engines were outfitted with baffles to reduce noise emissions , and extensive soundproofing was also implemented to improve passenger conditions .
Placing the engines within the wings had the advantage of a reduction in the risk of foreign object damage , which could seriously damage jet engines . The low @-@ mounted engines and good placement of service panels also made aircraft maintenance easier to perform . However , the Comet 's buried engine configuration increased its structural weight and complexity . Armour had to be placed around the engine cells to contain debris from any serious engine failures ; also , placing the engines inside the wing required a more complicated wing structure .
The Comet 1 featured 5 @,@ 050 lbf ( 22 @.@ 5 kN ) de Havilland Ghost 50 Mk1 turbojet engines . Two hydrogen peroxide @-@ powered de Havilland Sprite booster rockets were originally intended to be installed to boost takeoff under hot and high altitude conditions from airports such as Khartoum and Nairobi . These were tested on 30 flights , but the Ghosts alone were considered powerful enough and some airlines concluded that rocket motors were impractical . Sprite fittings were retained on production aircraft . Comet 1s subsequently received more powerful 5 @,@ 700 lbf ( 25 kN ) Ghost DGT3 series engines .
From the Comet 2 onwards , the Ghost engines were replaced by the newer and more powerful 7 @,@ 000 lbf ( 31 kN ) Rolls @-@ Royce Avon AJ.65 engines . To achieve optimum efficiency with the new powerplants , the air intakes were enlarged to increase mass air flow . Upgraded Avon engines were introduced on the Comet 3 , and the Avon @-@ powered Comet 4 was highly praised for its takeoff performance from high altitude locations such as Mexico City .
= = Operational history = =
= = = Introduction = = =
The earliest production aircraft , registered G @-@ ALYP ( " Yoke Peter " ) , first flew on 9 January 1951 and was subsequently lent to BOAC for development flying by its Comet Unit . On 22 January 1952 , the fifth production aircraft , registered G @-@ ALYS , received the first Certificate of Airworthiness awarded to a Comet , six months ahead of schedule . On 2 May 1952 , as part of BOAC 's route @-@ proving trials , G @-@ ALYP took off on the world 's first jetliner flight with fare @-@ paying passengers and inaugurated scheduled service from London to Johannesburg . The final Comet from BOAC 's initial order , registered G @-@ ALYZ , began flying in September 1952 and carried cargo along South American routes while simulating passenger schedules .
The Comet was a hit with passengers including Queen Elizabeth , the Queen Mother and Princess Margaret , who were guests on a special flight on 30 June 1953 hosted by Sir Geoffrey and Lady de Havilland , and thus became the first members of the British Royal Family to fly by jet . Flights on the Comet were about 50 percent faster than on advanced piston @-@ engined aircraft such as the Douglas DC @-@ 6 ( 490 mph for the Comet compared to the DC @-@ 6 's 315 mph ) , and a faster rate of climb further cut flight times . In August 1953 BOAC scheduled nine @-@ stop London to Tokyo flights by Comet for 36 hours , compared to 86 hours and 35 minutes on their Argonaut piston airliner . ( Pan Am 's DC @-@ 6B was scheduled for 46 hours 45 minutes . ) The five @-@ stop flight from London to Johannesburg was scheduled for 21 hr 20 min .
In their first year Comets carried 30 @,@ 000 passengers . As the aircraft could be profitable with a load factor as low as 43 percent , commercial success was expected . The Ghost engines allowed the Comet to fly above weather competitors had to fly through . They ran smoothly and were less noisy than piston engines , had low maintenance costs , and were fuel @-@ efficient above 30 @,@ 000 ft ( 9 @,@ 100 m ) . In summer 1953 eight BOAC Comets left London each week : three to Johannesburg , two to Tokyo , two to Singapore and one to Colombo .
In 1953 the Comet appeared to have achieved success for de Havilland . In addition to the sales to BOAC , two French airlines , Union Aéromaritime de Transport and Air France , each acquired three Comet 1As , an upgraded variant with greater fuel capacity , for flights to West Africa and the Middle East . A slightly longer version of the Comet 1 with more powerful engines , the Comet 2 , was being developed , and orders were placed by Air India , British Commonwealth Pacific Airlines , Japan Air Lines , Linea Aeropostal Venezolana , and Panair do Brasil . American carriers Capital Airlines , National Airlines , and Pan Am placed orders for the planned Comet 3 , an even larger , longer @-@ range version for transatlantic operations . Qantas was interested in the Comet 1 but concluded that a version with more range and better takeoff performance was needed for the London to Canberra route .
= = = Early hull losses = = =
On 26 October 1952 , the Comet suffered its first hull loss when a BOAC flight departing Rome 's Ciampino airport failed to become airborne and ran into rough ground at the end of the runway . Two passengers sustained minor injuries , and the aircraft , G @-@ ALYZ , was a total loss . On 3 March 1953 , a new Canadian Pacific Airlines Comet 1A , registered CF @-@ CUN and named Empress of Hawaii , failed to become airborne while attempting a night takeoff from Karachi , Pakistan , on a delivery flight to Australia . The aircraft plunged into a dry drainage canal and collided with an embankment , killing all five crew and six passengers on board . The accident was the first fatal jetliner crash , as well as the Comet 's first accident to result in fatalities . In response , Canadian Pacific cancelled its remaining order for a second Comet 1A and never operated the type in commercial service .
Both early accidents were originally attributed to pilot error , as over @-@ rotation had led to a loss of lift from the leading edge of the aircraft 's wings . It was later determined that the Comet 's wing profile experienced a loss of lift at a high angle of attack , and its engine inlets also suffered a lack of pressure recovery in the same conditions . As a result , de Havilland re @-@ profiled the wings ' leading edge with a pronounced " droop " , and wing fences were added to control spanwise flow . A fictionalised investigation into the Comet 's takeoff accidents was the subject of the 1959 novel Cone of Silence by Arthur David Beaty , a former BOAC captain . Cone of Silence was made into a film in 1960 , and Beaty also recounted the story of the Comet 's takeoff accidents in a chapter of his 1984 non @-@ fiction work , Strange Encounters : Mysteries of the Air .
The Comet 's second fatal accident occurred on 2 May 1953 , when BOAC Flight 783 , a Comet 1 , registered G @-@ ALYV , crashed in a severe thundersquall six minutes after taking off from Calcutta @-@ Dum Dum ( now Netaji Subhash Chandra Bose International Airport ) , India , killing all 43 on board . Witnesses observed the wingless Comet on fire plunging into the village of Jagalgori , leading investigators to suspect structural failure .
= = = = India Court of Inquiry = = = =
After the loss of G @-@ ALYV , the Central Government of India convened a court of inquiry to examine the cause of the accident . Professor Natesan Srinivasan joined the inquiry as the main technical expert . A large portion of the aircraft was recovered and reassembled at Farnborough , during which the break @-@ up was found to have begun with a left elevator spar failure in the stabilizer . The inquiry concluded that the aircraft had encountered extreme negative G forces during takeoff ; severe turbulence generated by adverse weather was determined to have induced down @-@ loading , leading to the loss of the wings . Examination of the cockpit controls suggested that the pilot may have inadvertently over @-@ stressed the aircraft when pulling out of a steep dive by over @-@ manipulation of the fully powered flight controls . Investigators did not consider metal fatigue as a contributory cause .
The inquiry 's recommendations revolved around the enforcement of stricter speed limits during turbulence , and two significant design changes also resulted : all Comets were equipped with weather radar and the " Q feel " system was introduced , which ensured that control column forces ( invariably called stick forces ) would be proportional to control loads . This artificial feel was the first of its kind to be introduced in any aircraft . The Comet 1 and 1A had been criticised for a lack of " feel " in their controls , and investigators suggested that this might have contributed to the pilot 's alleged over @-@ stressing of the aircraft ; Comet chief test pilot John Cunningham contended , however , that the jetliner flew smoothly and was highly responsive in a manner consistent with other de Havilland aircraft .
= = = Comet disasters of 1954 = = =
Rome 's Ciampino airport , the site of the first Comet hull loss , was the origin of more disastrous Comet flights just over a year later . On 10 January 1954 , 20 minutes after taking off from Ciampino , the first production Comet , G @-@ ALYP , broke up in mid @-@ air while operating BOAC Flight 781 and crashed into the Mediterranean off the Italian island of Elba with the loss of all 35 on board . With no witnesses to the disaster and only partial radio transmissions as incomplete evidence , no obvious reason for the crash could be deduced . Engineers at de Havilland immediately recommended 60 modifications aimed at any possible design flaw while the Abell Committee met to determine potential causes of the crash . BOAC also voluntarily grounded its Comet fleet pending investigation into the causes of the accident .
= = = = Abell Committee Court of Inquiry = = = =
Media attention centred on sabotage , while other speculation ranged from clear @-@ air turbulence to an explosion of vapour in an empty fuel tank . The Abell Committee focused on six potential aerodynamic and mechanical causes : control flutter ( which had led to the loss of DH 108 prototypes ) , structural failure due to high loads or metal fatigue of the wing structure , failure of the powered flight controls , failure of the window panels leading to explosive decompression , or fire and other engine problems . The committee concluded that fire was the most likely cause of the problem , and a number of changes were made to the aircraft to protect the engines and wings from damage that might lead to another fire .
During the investigation , the Royal Navy conducted recovery operations . The first pieces of wreckage were discovered on 12 February 1954 and the search continued until September 1954 , by which time 70 percent by weight of the main structure , 80 percent of the power section , and 50 percent of the aircraft 's systems and equipment had been recovered . The forensic reconstruction effort had just begun when the Abell Committee reported its findings . No apparent fault in the aircraft was found , and the British government decided against opening a further public inquiry into the accident . The prestigious nature of the Comet project , particularly for the British aerospace industry , and the financial impact of the aircraft 's grounding on BOAC 's operations , both served to pressure the inquiry to end without further investigation . Comet flights resumed on 23 March 1954 .
On 8 April 1954 , Comet G @-@ ALYY ( " Yoke Yoke " ) , on charter to South African Airways , was on a leg from Rome to Cairo ( of a longer route , SA Flight 201 from London to Johannesburg ) , when it crashed in the Mediterranean near Naples with the loss of all 21 passengers and crew on board . The Comet fleet was immediately grounded once again and a large investigation board was formed under the direction of the Royal Aircraft Establishment ( RAE ) . Prime Minister Winston Churchill tasked the Royal Navy with helping to locate and retrieve the wreckage so that the cause of the accident could be determined . The Comet 's Certificate of Airworthiness was revoked and Comet 1 line production was suspended at the Hatfield factory while the BOAC fleet was permanently grounded , cocooned and stored .
= = = = Cohen Committee Court of Inquiry = = = =
On 19 October 1954 , the Cohen Committee was established to examine the causes of the Comet crashes . Chaired by Lord Cohen , the committee tasked an investigation team led by Sir Arnold Hall , Director of the RAE at Farnborough , to perform a more detailed investigation . Hall 's team began considering fatigue as the most likely cause of both accidents , and initiated further research into measurable strain on the aircraft 's skin . With the recovery of large sections of G @-@ ALYP from the Elba crash and BOAC 's donation of an identical airframe , G @-@ ALYU , for further examination , an extensive " water torture " test eventually provided conclusive results . This time , the entire fuselage was tested in a dedicated water tank that was built specifically at Farnborough to accommodate its full length . Stress around the window corners was found to be much higher than expected and stresses on the skin were generally more than previously expected or tested . This was due to stress concentration , a consequence of the windows ' square shape , which generated levels of stress two or three times greater than across the rest of the fuselage .
In water tank testing , engineers subjected G @-@ ALYU to repeated re @-@ pressurisation and over @-@ pressurisation , and on 24 June 1954 , after 3 @,@ 057 flight cycles ( 1 @,@ 221 actual and 1 @,@ 836 simulated ) , G @-@ ALYU burst open . Hall , Geoffrey de Havilland and Bishop were immediately called to the scene , where the water tank was drained to reveal that the fuselage had ripped open at a corner of the forward left escape hatch cutout . A further test reproduced the same results . Based on these findings , Comet 1 structural failures could be expected at anywhere from 1 @,@ 000 to 9 @,@ 000 cycles . Before the Elba accident , G @-@ ALYP had made 1 @,@ 290 pressurised flights , while G @-@ ALYY had made 900 pressurised flights before crashing . Dr P.B. Walker , Head of the Structures Department at the RAE , said he was not surprised by this , noting that the difference was about three to one , and previous experience with metal fatigue suggested a total range of nine to one between experiment and outcome in the field could result in failure .
The RAE also reconstructed about two @-@ thirds of G @-@ ALYP at Farnborough and found fatigue crack growth from a rivet hole at the low @-@ drag fibreglass forward aperture around the Automatic Direction Finder , which had caused a catastrophic break @-@ up of the aircraft in high altitude flight . The punch rivet construction technique employed in the Comet 's design had exacerbated its structural fatigue problems ; the aircraft 's windows had been engineered to be glued and riveted , but had been punch riveted only . Unlike drill riveting , the imperfect nature of the hole created by punch riveting could cause fatigue cracks to start developing around the rivet . Principal investigator Hall accepted the RAE 's conclusion of design and construction flaws as the likely explanation for G @-@ ALYU 's structural failure after 3 @,@ 060 pressurisation cycles . The Cohen inquiry closed on 24 November 1954 , and although the inquiry had " found that the basic design of the Comet was sound " , de Havilland nonetheless began a refit programme to strengthen the fuselage and wing structure , employing thicker gauge skin and replacing all square windows and panels with rounded versions .
= = = Resumption of service = = =
With the discovery of the structural problems of the early series , all remaining Comets were withdrawn from service , while de Havilland launched a major effort to build a new version that would be both larger and stronger . All outstanding orders for the Comet 2 were cancelled by airline customers . The square windows of the Comet 1 were replaced by the oval versions used on the Comet 2 , which first flew in 1953 , and the skin sheeting was thickened slightly . Remaining Comet 1s and 1As were either scrapped or modified with oval windows and rip @-@ stop doublers .
All production Comet 2s were also modified to alleviate the fatigue problems ( most of these served with the RAF as the Comet C2 ) , while a programme to produce a Comet 2 with more powerful Avons was delayed . The prototype Comet 3 first flew in July 1954 , and was tested in a non @-@ pressurised state pending completion of the Cohen inquiry . Comet commercial flights would not resume until 1958 .
Development flying and route proving with the Comet 3 allowed accelerated certification of what was destined to be the most successful variant of the type , the Comet 4 . All airline customers for the Comet 3 subsequently cancelled their orders and switched to the Comet 4 , which was based on the Comet 3 but with improved fuel capacity . BOAC ordered 19 Comet 4s in March 1955 , while American operator Capital Airlines ordered 14 Comets in July 1956 . Capital 's order included 10 Comet 4As , a variant modified for short @-@ range operations with a stretched fuselage and short wings , lacking the pinion ( outboard wing ) fuel tanks of the Comet 4 . However , because of financial problems and a subsequent takeover by United Airlines , Capital would never operate the Comet .
The Comet 4 first flew on 27 April 1958 and received its Certificate of Airworthiness on 24 September 1958 ; the first was delivered to BOAC the next day . The base price of a new Comet 4 was around £ 1 @,@ 140 @,@ 000 , equivalent to £ 24 @,@ 020 @,@ 000 in today 's pounds . The Comet 4 enabled BOAC to inaugurate the first regular jet @-@ powered transatlantic services on 4 October 1958 between London and New York ( albeit still requiring a fuel stop at Gander International Airport , Newfoundland , on westward North Atlantic crossings ) . While BOAC gained publicity as the first to provide transatlantic jet service , by the end of the month rival Pan American World Airways was flying the Boeing 707 on the same route , and in 1960 the Douglas DC @-@ 8 as well . The American jets were larger , faster , longer @-@ ranged , and more cost @-@ effective than the Comet . After analysing route structures for the Comet , BOAC reluctantly cast about for a successor , and in 1956 entered into an agreement with Boeing to purchase the 707 .
The Comet 4 was ordered by two other airlines : Aerolíneas Argentinas took delivery of six Comet 4s from 1959 to 1960 , using them between Buenos Aires and Santiago , New York and Europe , while East African Airways received three new Comet 4s from 1960 to 1962 and operated them to the United Kingdom and to Kenya , Tanzania , and Uganda . The Comet 4A ordered by Capital Airlines was instead built for BEA as the Comet 4B with a further fuselage stretch of 38 in ( 97 cm ) and seating for 99 passengers . The first Comet 4B flew on 27 June 1959 and BEA began Tel Aviv to London @-@ Heathrow services on 1 April 1960 . Olympic Airways was the only other customer to order the type . The last Comet 4 variant , the Comet 4C , first flew on 31 October 1959 and entered service with Mexicana in 1960 . The Comet 4C had the Comet 4B 's longer fuselage and the longer wings and extra fuel tanks of the original Comet 4 , which gave it a longer range than the 4B . Ordered by Kuwait Airways , Middle East Airlines , Misrair ( later United Arab Airlines ) , and Sudan Airways , it was the most popular Comet variant .
= = = Later service = = =
In 1959 BOAC began shifting its Comets from transatlantic routes and released the Comet to associate companies , making the Comet 4 's ascendancy as a premier airliner brief . Besides the 707 and DC @-@ 8 , the introduction of the Vickers VC10 allowed competing aircraft to assume the high @-@ speed , long @-@ range passenger service role pioneered by the Comet . In 1960 , as part of a government @-@ backed consolidation of the British aerospace industry , de Havilland itself was acquired by Hawker Siddeley , within which it became a wholly owned division .
In the 1960s orders declined , with a total of 76 Comet 4s being delivered from 1958 to 1964 . In November 1965 BOAC retired its Comet 4s from revenue service , while other operators continued commercial passenger flights with the Comet until 1981 . Dan @-@ Air played a significant role in the fleet 's later history and , at one time , owned all 49 remaining airworthy civil Comets . On 14 March 1997 a Comet 4C serial XS235 and named Canopus , which had been acquired by the British Ministry of Technology and used for radio , radar and avionics trials , made the last documented production Comet flight .
= = Legacy = =
The Comet is widely regarded jointly as an adventurous step forward and a supreme tragedy ; nevertheless , the aircraft 's legacy does include numerous advances in aircraft design and in accident investigations . The inquiries into the accidents that plagued the Comet 1 were perhaps some of the most extensive and revolutionary that have ever taken place , establishing precedents in accident investigation ; many of the deep @-@ sea salvage and aircraft reconstruction techniques employed have remained in use within the aviation industry . In spite of the Comet being subjected to what was then the most rigorous testing of any contemporary airliner , pressurisation and the dynamic stresses involved were not thoroughly understood at the time of the aircraft 's development , nor was the concept of metal fatigue . While these lessons could be implemented on the drawing board for future aircraft , corrections could only be retroactively applied to the Comet .
According to de Havilland 's chief test pilot John Cunningham , who had flown the prototype 's first flight , representatives from American manufacturers such as Boeing and Douglas privately disclosed that if de Havilland had not experienced the Comet 's pressurisation problems first , it would have happened to them . Cunningham likened the Comet to the later Concorde , and added that he had assumed that the aircraft would change aviation , which it subsequently did . Aviation author Bill Withuhn concluded that the Comet had pushed " ' the state @-@ of @-@ the @-@ art ' beyond its limits . "
Aeronautical engineering firms were quick to respond to the Comet 's commercial advantages and technical flaws alike ; other aircraft manufacturers learned from , and profited by , the hard @-@ earned lessons embodied by de Havilland 's Comet . While the Comet 's buried engines were used on some other early jet airliners , such as the Tupolev Tu @-@ 104 , later aircraft , such as the Boeing 707 and Douglas DC @-@ 8 , would differ by employing podded engines held on pylons beneath the wings . Boeing stated that podded engines were selected for their passenger airliners because buried engines carried a higher risk of catastrophic wing failure in the event of engine fire . In response to the Comet tragedies , manufacturers also developed various means of pressurisation testing , often going so far as to explore rapid depressurisation ; subsequent fuselage skins were of a greater thickness than the skin of the Comet .
= = Variants = =
= = = Comet 1 = = =
The square @-@ windowed Comet 1 was the first model produced , a total of 12 aircraft in service and test . Following closely the design features of the two prototypes , the only noticeable change was the adoption of four @-@ wheel bogie main undercarriage units , replacing the single main wheels . Four Ghost 50 Mk 1 engines were fitted ( later replaced by more powerful Ghost DGT3 series engines ) . The span was 115 ft ( 35 @.@ 05 m ) , and overall length 93 ft ( 28 @.@ 35 m ) ; the maximum takeoff weight was over 105 @,@ 000 lb ( 47 @.@ 628 kg ) and over 40 passengers could be carried .
An updated Comet 1A was offered with higher @-@ allowed weight , greater fuel capacity , and water @-@ methanol injection ; 10 were produced . In the wake of the 1954 disasters , all Comet 1s and 1As were brought back to Hatfield , first placed in a protective cocoon and retained for testing . All were substantially damaged in stress testing or were scrapped entirely .
Comet 1X : Two RCAF Comet 1As were rebuilt with heavier @-@ gauge skins to a Comet 2 standard for the fuselage , and renamed Comet 1X .
Comet 1XB : Four Comet 1As were upgraded to a 1XB standard with a reinforced fuselage structure and oval windows . Both 1X series were limited in number of pressurisation cycles .
The DH 111 Comet Bomber , a nuclear bomb carrying variant developed to Air Ministry specification B35 / 46 , was submitted to the Air Ministry on 27 May 1948 . It had been originally proposed in 1948 as the " PR Comet " , a high @-@ altitude photo reconnaissance adaptation of the Comet 1 . The Ghost DGT3 @-@ powered airframe featured a narrowed fuselage , a bulbous nose with H2S Mk IX radar , and a four @-@ crewmember pressurised cockpit under a large bubble canopy . Fuel tanks carrying 2 @,@ 400 imperial gallons ( 11 @,@ 000 L ) were added to attain a range of 3 @,@ 350 miles ( 5 @,@ 390 km ) . The proposed DH 111 received a negative evaluation from the Royal Aircraft Establishment over serious concerns regarding weapons storage ; this along with the redundant capability offered by the RAF 's proposed V bomber trio led de Havilland to abandon the project on 22 October 1948 .
= = = Comet 2 = = =
The Comet 2 had a slightly larger wing , higher fuel capacity and more powerful Rolls @-@ Royce Avon engines , which all improved the aircraft 's range and performance ; its fuselage was 3 ft 1 in ( 0 @.@ 94 m ) longer than the Comet 1 's . Design changes had been made to make the aircraft more suitable for transatlantic operations . Following the Comet 1 disasters , these models were rebuilt with heavier gauge skin and rounded windows , and the Avon engines featuring larger air intakes and outward @-@ curving jet tailpipes . A total of 12 of the 44 @-@ seat Comet 2s were ordered by BOAC for the South Atlantic route . The first production aircraft ( G @-@ AMXA ) flew on 27 August 1953 . Although these aircraft performed well on test flights on the South Atlantic , their range was still not suitable for the North Atlantic . All but four Comet 2s were allocated to the RAF with deliveries beginning in 1955 . Modifications to the interiors allowed the Comet 2s to be used in a number of different roles . For VIP transport , the seating and accommodations were altered while provisions for carrying medical equipment including iron lungs were incorporated . Specialised ELINT and electronic surveillance capability was later added to some airframes .
Comet 2X : Limited to a single Comet Mk 1 powered by four Rolls @-@ Royce Avon 502 turbojet engines and used as a development aircraft for the Comet 2 .
Comet 2E : Two Comet 2 airliners were fitted with Avon 504s in the inner nacelles and Avon 524s in the outer ones . These aircraft were used by BOAC for proving flights during 1957 – 1958 .
Comet T2 : The first two of 10 Comet 2s for the RAF were fitted out as crew trainers , with the first aircraft ( XK669 ) flying for the first time on 9 December 1955 .
Comet C2 : Eight Comet 2s originally destined for the civil market were completed for the RAF and assigned to No. 216 Squadron .
Comet 2R : Three Comet 2s were modified for use in radar and electronic systems development , initially assigned to No. 90 Group ( later Signals Command ) for the RAF . In service with No. 192 and No. 51 Squadrons , the 2R series was equipped to monitor Warsaw Pact signal traffic and operated in this role from 1958 .
= = = Comet 3 = = =
The Comet 3 , which flew for the first time on 19 July 1954 , was a Comet 2 lengthened by 15 ft 5 in ( 4 @.@ 70 m ) and powered by Avon M502 engines developing 10 @,@ 000 lbf ( 44 kN ) . The variant added wing pinion tanks , and offered greater capacity and range . The Comet 3 was destined to remain a development series since it did not incorporate the fuselage @-@ strengthening modifications of the later series aircraft , and was not able to be fully pressurised . Only two Comet 3s began construction with G @-@ ANLO , the only airworthy Comet 3 , demonstrated at the Farnborough SBAC Show in September 1954 . The other Comet 3 airframe was not completed to production standard and was used primarily for ground @-@ based structural and technology testing during development of the similarly sized Comet 4 . Nine additional Comet 3 airframes were not completed and their construction was abandoned at Hatfield . In BOAC colours , G @-@ ANLO was flown by John Cunningham in a marathon round @-@ the @-@ world promotional tour in December 1955 . As a flying testbed , it was later modified with Avon RA29 engines fitted , as well as replacing the original long @-@ span wings with reduced span wings as the Comet 3B and demonstrated in British European Airways ( BEA ) livery at the Farnborough Airshow in September 1958 . Assigned in 1961 to the Blind Landing Experimental Unit ( BLEU ) at RAE Bedford , the final testbed role played by G – ANLO was in automatic landing system experiments . When retired in 1973 , the airframe was used for foam arrester trials before the fuselage was salvaged at BAE Woodford , to serve as the mock @-@ up for the Nimrod .
= = = Comet 4 = = =
The Comet 4 was a further improvement on the stretched Comet 3 with even greater fuel capacity . The design had progressed significantly from the original Comet 1 , growing by 18 ft 6 in ( 5 @.@ 64 m ) and typically seating 74 to 81 passengers compared to the Comet 1 's 36 to 44 ( 119 passengers could be accommodated in a special charter seating package in the later 4C series ) . The Comet 4 was considered the definitive series , having a longer range , higher cruising speed and higher maximum takeoff weight . These improvements were possible largely because of Avon engines with twice the thrust of the Comet 1 's Ghosts . Deliveries to BOAC began on 30 September 1958 with two 48 @-@ seat aircraft , which were used to initiate the first scheduled transatlantic services .
Comet 4B : Originally developed for Capital Airlines as the 4A , the 4B featured greater capacity through a 2m longer fuselage , and a shorter wingspan ; 18 were produced .
Comet 4C : This variant featured the Comet 4 's wings and the 4B 's longer fuselage ; 23 were produced .
The last two Comet 4C fuselages were used to build prototypes of the Hawker Siddeley Nimrod maritime patrol aircraft . A Comet 4C ( SA @-@ R @-@ 7 ) was ordered by Saudi Arabian Airlines with eventual disposition to the Saudi Royal Flight for the exclusive use of King Saud bin Abdul Aziz . Extensively modified at the factory , the aircraft included a VIP front cabin , a bed , special toilets with gold fittings and was distinguished by a green , gold and white colour scheme with polished wings and lower fuselage that was commissioned from aviation artist John Stroud . Following its first flight , the special order Comet 4C was described as " the world 's first executive jet . "
= = = Comet 5 proposal = = =
The Comet 5 was proposed as an improvement over previous models , including a wider fuselage with five @-@ abreast seating , a wing with greater sweep and podded Rolls @-@ Royce Conway engines . Without support from the Ministry of Transport , the proposal languished as a hypothetical aircraft and was never realised .
= = = Hawker Siddeley Nimrod = = =
The last two Comet 4C aircraft produced were modified as prototypes ( XV148 & XV147 ) to meet a British requirement for a maritime patrol aircraft for the Royal Air Force ; initially named " Maritime Comet " , the design was designated Type HS 801 . This variant became the Hawker Siddeley Nimrod and production aircraft were built at the Hawker Siddeley factory at Woodford Aerodrome . Entering service in 1969 , five Nimrod variants were produced . The final Nimrod aircraft were retired in June 2011 .
= = Operators = =
The original operators of the early Comet 1 and the Comet 1A were BOAC , Union Aéromaritime de Transport , and Air France . All early Comets were withdrawn from service for accident inquiries , during which orders from British Commonwealth Pacific Airlines , Japan Air Lines , Linea Aeropostal Venezolana , National Airlines , Pan American World Airways , and Panair do Brasil were cancelled . When the redesigned Comet 4 entered service , it was flown by customers BOAC , Aerolíneas Argentinas , and East African Airways , while the Comet 4B variant was operated by customers BEA and Olympic Airways , and the Comet 4C model was flown by customers Kuwait Airways , Mexicana , Middle East Airlines , Misrair Airlines , and Sudan Airways .
Other operators used the Comet either through leasing arrangements or through second @-@ hand acquisitions . BOAC 's Comet 4s were leased out to Air Ceylon , Air India , AREA Ecuador , Central African Airways , and Qantas Empire Airways ; after 1965 they were sold to AREA Ecuador , Dan @-@ Air , Mexicana , Malaysian Airways , and the Ministry of Defence . BEA 's Comet 4Bs were chartered by Cyprus Airways , Malta Airways , and Transportes Aéreos Portugueses . Channel Airways obtained five Comet 4Bs from BEA in 1970 for inclusive tour charters . Dan @-@ Air bought all of the surviving flyable Comet 4s from the late 1960s into the 1970s ; some were for spares reclamation but most were operated on the carrier 's inclusive tour charters ; a total of 48 Comets of all marks were acquired by the airline .
In military service , the United Kingdom 's Royal Air Force was the largest operator , with the 51 Squadron ( 1958 – 1975 ; Comet C2 , 2R ) , 192 Squadron ( 1957 – 1958 ; Comet C2 , 2R ) , 216 Squadron ( 1956 – 1975 ; Comet C2 and C4 ) , and the Royal Aircraft Establishment using the aircraft . The Royal Canadian Air Force also operated Comet 1As ( later retrofitted to 1XB ) through its 412 Squadron from 1953 to 1963 .
= = Accidents and incidents = =
The Comet was involved in 26 hull @-@ loss accidents , including 13 fatal crashes which resulted in 426 fatalities . Pilot error was blamed for the type 's first fatal accident , which occurred during takeoff at Karachi , Pakistan on 3 March 1953 and involved a Canadian Pacific Airlines Comet 1A . Three fatal Comet 1 crashes due to structural problems , specifically BOAC Flight 783 / 057 on 2 May 1953 , BOAC Flight 781 on 10 January 1954 , and South African Airways Flight 201 on 8 April 1954 , led to the grounding of the entire Comet fleet . After design modifications were implemented , Comet services resumed in 1958 .
Pilot error resulting in controlled flight into terrain was blamed for five fatal Comet 4 accidents : an Aerolíneas Argentinas crash near Asunción , Paraguay on 27 August 1959 , Aerolíneas Argentinas Flight 322 at Campinas near São Paulo , Brazil on 23 November 1961 , United Arab Airlines Flight 869 in Thailand 's Khao Yai mountains on 19 July 1962 , a Saudi Arabian Government crash in the Italian Alps on 20 March 1963 , and United Arab Airlines Flight 844 in Tripoli , Libya on 2 January 1971 . The Dan @-@ Air de Havilland Comet crash in Spain 's Montseny range on 3 July 1970 was attributed to navigational errors by air traffic control and pilots . Other fatal Comet 4 accidents include a British European Airways crash in Ankara , Turkey following instrument failure on 21 December 1961 , United Arab Airlines Flight 869 during inclement weather near Bombay , India on 28 July 1963 , and the terrorist bombing of Cyprus Airways Flight 284 off the Turkish coast on 12 October 1967 .
Nine Comets , including Comet 1s operated by BOAC and Union Aeromaritime de Transport and Comet 4s flown by Aerolíneas Argentinas , Dan @-@ Air , Malaysian Airlines , and United Arab Airlines , were irreparably damaged during takeoff or landing accidents that were survived by all on board . A hangar fire damaged a No. 192 Squadron RAF Comet 2R beyond repair on 13 September 1957 , and three Middle East Airlines Comet 4Cs were destroyed by Israeli troops at Beirut , Lebanon on 28 December 1968 .
= = Aircraft on display = =
Since retirement , three early @-@ generation Comet airframes have survived in museum collections . The only complete remaining Comet 1 , a Comet 1XB with the registration G @-@ APAS , is displayed at the RAF Museum Cosford . While painted in BOAC colours , it never flew for the airline , having been first delivered to Air France and then to the Ministry of Supply after conversion to 1XB standard ; this aircraft also served with the RAF as XM823 . The sole surviving Comet fuselage with the original square @-@ shaped windows , part of a Comet 1A registered F @-@ BGNX , has undergone restoration and is on display at the de Havilland Aircraft Museum in Hertfordshire , England . A Comet C2 Sagittarius with serial XK699 , later maintenance serial 7971M , has been on display at the gate of RAF Lyneham in Wiltshire , England since 1987 . In 2012 , with the planned closure of RAF Lyneham , the aircraft was slated to be dismantled and shipped to the RAF Museum Cosford where it will be re @-@ assembled for display .
Seven complete Comet 4s are housed in museum collections . The Imperial War Museum Duxford has a Comet 4 ( G @-@ APDB ) , originally in Dan @-@ Air colours as part of its Flight Line Display , and later in BOAC livery at its AirSpace building . A Comet 4B ( G @-@ APYD ) is stored in a facility at the Science Museum at Wroughton in Wiltshire , England . Comet 4Cs are exhibited at the Flugausstellung Leo Junior at Hermeskeil , Germany ( G @-@ BDIW ) , the Museum of Flight near Seattle , Washington ( N888WA ) , the National Museum of Flight near Edinburgh , Scotland ( G @-@ BDIX ) , and the Parque Zoológico Irapuato in Guanajuato , Mexico ( N777WA ) .
The last Comet to fly , Comet 4C Canopus ( XS235 ) , is kept in running condition at Bruntingthorpe Aerodrome , where fast taxi runs are regularly conducted . Since the 2000s , various parties have proposed restoring Canopus , which is maintained by a staff of volunteers , to airworthy , fully flight @-@ capable condition . The Bruntingthorpe Aerodrome also displays a related Hawker Siddeley Nimrod MR2 aircraft .
= = Specifications = =
Sources : Jane 's All The World 's Aircraft 1965 – 66 , De Havilland Aircraft since 1909 , and Flight International .
= = Popular culture = =
|
= Hurricane ! ( American Dad ! ) =
" Hurricane ! " is the second episode of the eighth season of the animated comedy series American Dad ! , an episode produced for season 7 . It aired on Fox in the United States on October 2 , 2011 . The episode plot mainly revolves around the Smith family , who prepare for evacuation in response to an oncoming hurricane . Reluctant to leave his home , Stan encourages his family to ride out the storm in their house with him . The hurricane sends a flood to the city of Langley Falls , which puts the entire family in danger .
" Hurricane ! " is the final part of the Night of the Hurricane block with Family Guy and The Cleveland Show . Kevin Reilly , the president of the entertainment division of Fox Broadcasting Company , introduced the idea of a crossover to Seth MacFarlane , the creator of all three shows . The episode was first announced at the 2010 San Diego Comic @-@ Con International . The episode plot is loosely modeled to that of the disaster film The Poseidon Adventure . Originally scheduled to air on May 1 , 2011 , as the season finale for the seventh season , " Hurricane ! " was postponed due to the tornado outbreak that occurred from April 25 – 28 . Other factors even included the March 11 , 2011 Japanese tsunami .
The episode was well received by television critics , who praised its humor and cultural references . It was viewed by 5 @.@ 72 million viewers upon its initial airing , while also receiving a 2 @.@ 6 / 6 rating in the 18 – 49 demographic , according to Nielsen ratings . " Hurricane ! " was written by Erik Sommers , and directed by Tim Parsons . It featured the guest voices of Mike Barker , Lisa Edelstein , Jeff Fischer , Mike Henry , Matt McKenna , Kevin Michael Richardson , and Kristen Schaal .
= = Plot = =
When a hurricane arrives at Langley Falls , the Smiths prepare to evacuate their home with their neighbor Buckle in his amphibious raft . Stan , however , recommends that the family stay home during the storm , believing it is the best way for everyone to be safe . Hayley and Jeff also wish to stay to help the animals that have been left behind in the zoo . Francine disagrees with Stan 's notion , Steve and Roger supporting her , as she points out Stan 's history with making terrible decisions during crisis situations . But before the debate can be resolved , the seawall breaks and the ocean floods down the street , removing Buckle and his raft out of its path and trapping the Smiths in their home nevertheless . The neighborhood is now flooded , and the house is drifting along the floodwater 's current . In an attempt to save the family from floating into any potential dangerous areas , Stan anchors the home ; however the anchoring system also acts as a hinge and rotates the house upside @-@ down , partially submerging it underwater .
The family becomes increasingly frightened and distrustful of him , especially when his latest advice leads Hayley to be attacked by a shark . With the shark loose in the house , the family fights for survival . Stan loses hope and admits Francine 's suggestions are better than his own , until Klaus gives him an encouragement speech which inspires him to prove himself reliable in a crisis once more . Stan obtains a bear from the zoo to battle the shark , which only further aggravates the situation when the two animals work together to kill the family . Refusing to accept Francine 's pleas to just get help , Stan instead throws a javelin that hits his wife in her shoulder instead of the bear . Buckle enters the house with a tranquilizer gun and sedates the two predators before also shooting Stan , who later tells Buckle that he made the right call . Despite the whole ordeal , Stan is no longer convinced that he should stay out of a future crisis .
After the storm clears , Stan looks out to scope the damage done by the storm , only to find himself in a stand @-@ off with Cleveland Brown and Peter Griffin , whose houses have ended up on both sides of the Smiths ' house , since the same hurricane hit their respective towns earlier . When Francine comes out the front door , Stan accidentally shoots her , which Peter claims to be " classic American Dad ! " due to its unpredictability .
= = Production = =
The episode was first announced in July 2010 by series creator Seth MacFarlane at the Comic @-@ Con International in San Diego , California . Kevin Reilly , the entertainment president of the Fox Broadcasting Company , originally pitched the idea for the crossover , which was inspired by theme nights of comedy shows from the 1980s . MacFarlane described the crossover event to be an " enormous challenge " and a " substantial undertaking " ; he chose to do one central story line so that each writing staff would not have to write stories for unfamiliar characters . He was also willing to do another crossover event if this one received successful ratings .
Much of the episode plot in " Hurricane ! " was modeled after the action adventure disaster film , The Poseidon Adventure . In his interview on the plot of the final part of the crossover episode , Mike Barker , a producer for American Dad , stated that " [ they ] end up flooding the house and turning it upside down . " He continued : " Ultimately , the house drifts and ends up in the same neighborhood as the Griffin and Brown homes . " The actual crossing over of the event occurs at the end of this episode when Stan gets involved in a stand off with Cleveland Brown of The Cleveland Show and Peter Griffin of Family Guy .
In April 2011 , executives of the Fox Broadcasting Company officially announced that " Hurricane ! " would air on May 1 as part of the Night of the Hurricane crossover , along with The Cleveland Show episode " The Hurricane ! " and Family Guy episode " Seahorse Seashell Party " . However , on April 29 , it was announced that the crossover event would be removed from the schedule , in response to a series of tornadoes that killed nearly 300 people in the Southern United States . The crossover was subsequently replaced by repeats of " I Am the Walrus " from American Dad ! , " Brian Writes a Bestseller " from Family Guy , and " Ain 't Nothin ' But Mutton Bustin ' " from The Cleveland Show . MacFarlane later agreed with the decisions after being consulted with the executives of Fox , and a spokeswoman for the company later announced that the episode would air the succeeding season .
" Hurricane ! " was directed by Tim Parsons , in his first directing credit of the season . This episode marked the first time Parsons has directed an American Dad ! episode since the seventh season episode " I Am the Walrus " . It was written by Erik Sommers , which also served as his first writing credit for the season . Sommers ' last production credit was the sixth season episode " You Debt Your Life " . In addition to the regular cast , voice actor Mike Henry , actress Lisa Edelstein and voice actress Kristen Schaal guest starred in the episode as Cleveland Brown , Sharri Rothberg , and Roger 's One Night Stand respectively . Recurring voice actors Jeff Fischer , Mike Barker , Matt McKenna , and Kevin Michael Richardson reprised their roles of Jeff Fischer , Terry Bates , Buckle , and Principal Brian Lewis respectively . In addition to his American Dad ! roles of Stan , Roger , and Greg Corbin , MacFarlane reprised his Family Guy role of Peter Griffin , while Henry guest starred as his role of Cleveland Brown . This episode marked the first time Henry made a guest appearance on American Dad since the season four episode " Stan 's Night Out " . Edelstein and McKenna reprised their roles of Shari and Buckle , having last done so in the season seven episode " Best Little Horror House in Langley Falls " .
= = Reception = =
= = = Ratings = = =
" Hurricane ! " first aired in the United States on October 2 , 2011 as part of the animation television night on Fox . It was preceded by episodes of The Simpsons , and its sister shows The Cleveland Show and Family Guy . It was viewed by 5 @.@ 71 million viewers upon its initial airing , despite simultaneously airing with Desperate Housewives on ABC , Amazing Race on CBS , and a match between the Baltimore Ravens and the New York Jets on NBC . Total viewership for the episode was the third highest of the animation television block on Fox , having moderately higher ratings than that of The Cleveland Show but lower ratings than that of The Simpsons and Family Guy . " Hurricane ! " garnered a 2 @.@ 6 / 6 rating in the 18 – 49 demographic , according to Nielsen ratings . Total viewership and ratings were slightly down from the previous episode , " Hot Water " , which was watched by 5 @.@ 83 million viewers and garnered a 3 @.@ 0 / 7 rating in the 18 – 49 demographic .
= = = Television reviews = = =
Critics generally praised the episode , with many deeming " Hurricane ! " as the best part of the crossover . Terron Moore of Ology praised the episode , giving it an 8 @.@ 5 out of ten rating . Points of acclaim went to the humor of the episode , to which Moore opined that it " was packed with a lot of funny lines , a lot of ridiculous Stan antics [ ... ] , and a pretty funny arc involving Roger and his girlfriend " .
Rowan Kaiser of The A.V. Club was polarized with the episode . Although she stated that the episode was not bad , Kaiser stated that it " didn 't quite work " . Kaiser went on to give the episode a ' B- ' grade , scoring higher than the Family Guy episode " Seahorse Seashell Party " , but lower than The Simpsons episode " Bart Stops to Smell the Roosevelts " . Another writer felt that the interactions between Stan and Francine were inferior to previous episodes of the series and wrote , " It breaks away from Francine and Stan 's fun relationship and veers into the more conventional cartoon relationship , where the husband is a buffoon and the wife has to keep him check . "
|
= Juliusz Słowacki =
Juliusz Słowacki ( Polish pronunciation : [ ˈjuljuʂ swɔˈvat ͡ ski ] ; 4 September 1809 – 3 April 1849 ) was a Polish Romantic poet . He is considered one of the " Three Bards " of Polish literature — a major figure in the Polish Romantic period , and the father of modern Polish drama . His works often feature elements of Slavic pagan traditions , Polish history , mysticism and orientalism . His style includes the employment of neologisms and irony . His primary genre was the drama , but he also wrote lyric poetry . His most popular works include the dramas Kordian and Balladyna and the poems Beniowski and Testament mój .
Słowacki spent his youth in the " Stolen Lands " , in Kremenets ( Polish : Krzemieniec ; now in Ukraine ) and Vilnius ( Polish : Wilno , in Lithuania ) . He briefly worked for the government of the Kingdom of Poland . During the November 1830 Uprising , he was a courier for the Polish revolutionary government . When the uprising ended in defeat , he found himself abroad and thereafter , like many compatriots , lived the life of an émigré . He settled briefly in Paris , France , and later in Geneva , Switzerland . He also traveled through Italy , Greece and the Middle East . Eventually he returned to Paris , where he spent the last decade of his life . He briefly returned to Poland when another uprising broke out during the Spring of Nations ( 1848 ) .
= = Life = =
= = = Youth = = =
= = = Emigration = = =
Like many of his countrymen , Słowacki decided to stay in France as a political refugee . In 1832 he published his first collections of poems and his first two dramas ( Mindowe and Maria Stuart ) . He also met Mickiewicz again ; reportedly , Mickiewicz approached his younger colleague and shook his hand . However , Słowacki 's poems , written in the 1820s , were unpopular among his Polish compatriots , as they failed to capture the sentiment of a people living under foreign occupation . Słowacki was angered by Mickiewicz , who not only stole the limelight with his Księgi narodu polskiego i pielgrzymstwa polskiego ( Books of the Polish nation and pilgrimage ) , but his part three of Dziady ( 1832 ) cast Słowacki 's stepfather , professor Bécu , in the role of a villain . In a letter to his mother Słowacki wrote that immediately after reading that work he was ready to challenge Mickiewicz for a duel ; that did not come to pass but from that moment on , Słowacki would see Mickiewicz as his main rival . Few days later , antagonized by worsening reception of his works among the Polish émigré community in Paris , including sharp criticism from Mickiewicz , Słowacki left on a trip to Geneva , Switzerland . The French authorities denied him the right to return to France as part of a larger program to rid the country of the potentially subversive Polish exiles who had settled there .
From 1833 @-@ 36 , he lived in Switzerland . A third volume of his poems , published in 1833 and containing works from the period of the Uprising , was far more nationalist in tone , and won more recognition in his homeland . At the same time , he wrote several works featuring romantic themes , and beautiful scenery , such as W Szwajcarii ( In Switzerland ) , Rozłączenie ( Separation ) , Stokrótki ( Daisies ) and Chmury ( Clouds ) .
In 1834 he published the drama Kordian , a romantic drama , illustrating the soul searching of the Polish people in the aftermath of the failed insurrection ; this work is considered one of his best creations .
In 1836 , Słowacki left Switzerland and embarked on a journey that started in Italy . In Rome he met and befriended Zygmunt Krasiński , the third of the Three Bards . Krasiński is also considered the first serious literary critic of Słowacki 's work . Słowacki would dedicate several of his works , including Balladyna , to Krasiński . From Rome , Słowacki went to Naples and later , to Sorrento . In August he left for Greece ( Corfu , Argos , Athens , Syros ) , Egypt ( Alexandria , Cairo , El Arish ) and the Middle East , including the Holy Land ( Jerusalem , Bethlehem , Jericho , Nazareth ) and neighboring territories ( Damascus , Beirut ) . It was a journey Słowacki described in his epic poem Podróż do Ziemi Świętej z Neapolu ( " Travel to the Holy Land from Naples " ) ; his other works of that period inclucded the poem Ojciec zadżumionych ( The Father of the Plague @-@ stricken ) , Grób Agamemnon ( Agamemnon 's Grave ) , Rozmowa z piramidami ( A talk with the pyramids ) , Anhelli and Listy poetyckie z Egiptu ( Poetic Letters from Egypt ) . In June 1837 he returned to Italy , settling briefly in Florence , and moved back to Paris in December 1838 .
In 1840 Mickiewicz was elected to the position of professor of Slavic literature at Collége de France ; it was one of the events that cemented his position over Słowacki in the Polish émigré community . The rivalry between the two Bards for primacy would continue till the ends of lives . In 1841 Słowacki traveled briefly to Frankfurt , but Paris would become his main home till his death . In 1840 and 1841 he wrote two notable dramas : Mazepa , the only of his dramas that was put on stage during his lifetime , and Fantazy , published posthumously , well received by critics . Over the next few years Słowacki wrote and published many works , including Testament mój ( My Last Will ) , in which he described his faith that his works would endure after his death .
Between 1841 and 1846 , he published Beniowski , considered by some his best lyrical poetry . Starting as a story of a historical figure , it developed into a discussion of the poet 's own life and opinions . In 1842 he joined the religious @-@ philosophical group , Koło Sprawy Bożej ( Circle of God 's Cause ) , led by Andrzej Towiański . This group included , among others , Mickiewicz . Towiański 's influence is credited with a new , mystical current in Słowacki 's works , seen in works such as the poem Beniowski and the drama Ksiądz Marek ( Father Mark ) . Słowacki left the Circle a year later , in 1843 .
In the summers of 1843 and 1844 Słowacki traveled to Pornic , a resort on the Atlantic coast in Brittany . It was there , in 1844 , that he wrote Genezis z Ducha ( Genesis from the Spirit ) . This work introduced his own philosophical system that would have a visible influence on his works in his last decade . Around 1839 Słowacki put his capital into the Parisian stock market . He was a shrewd investor who earned enough from the investments to dedicate his life to his literary career ; he was also able to pay the costs of having his books published .
= = = Last years = = =
In the late 1840s Słowacki attached himself to a group of like @-@ minded young exiles , determined to return to Poland and win its independence . One of his friends was the pianist and composer Frédéric Chopin . Others included enthusiasts of his work , such as Zygmunt Szczęsny Feliński , Józef Alojzy Reitzenheim and Józef Komierowski . Despite poor health , when he heard about the events of the Spring of Nations , Słowacki traveled with some friends to Poznań , then under Prussian control , hoping to participate in the Wielkopolska Uprising of 1848 . He addressed the National Committee ( Komitet Narodowy ) in Poznań on 27 April . " I tell you " , he declared as the rebels faced military confrontation with the Prussian Army , " that the new age has dawned , the age of holy anarchy . " But by 9 May , the revolt was crushed .
Arrested by the Prussian police , Słowacki was sent back to Paris . On his way there , he passed through Wrocław , where in mid @-@ June he was reunited with his mother , whom he had not seen for almost twenty years . He returned to Paris in July 1848 . His poem Papież Słowiański ( The Slavic Pope ) , published in late 1848 , gained new fame a century later when it seemed to foretell the 1978 ascent of Karol Wojtyła to the throne of St. Peter as Pope John Paul II . His final dramas ( Zawisza Czarny , Samuel Zborowski ) , attempted to explain history of Poland through Słowacki 's genesic philosophy . In March 1849 , Słowacki , his health failing , was visited three times by another Polish writer and poet , Cyprian Norwid , who later wrote about his visits in Czarne kwiaty ( Black Flowers ) . Up to his final days , Słowacki was writing poetry ; a day before his death he dictated passages of his final work , Król @-@ Duch ( King @-@ Spirit ) . This grandiose , visionary @-@ symbolic poem , " summary of the entire Romantic culture " , Słowacki 's masterpiece , weaving together Poland 's history and its contemporary political and literary thought , was never finished .
Słowacki died in Paris on 3 April 1849 from tuberculosis , and on 5 April he was buried in the Montmartre Cemetery in Paris . He never married . Only about 30 people attended his funeral . Krasiński , although estranged from Słowacki in the last few years , wrote of the funeral :
Słowacki 's tombstone at Montmartre was designed by his friend and executor of his last will , painter Charles Pétiniaud @-@ Dubos ; it did not weather the passage of time well however , and in 1851 a new , similar tombstone was put in place , this one designed by Polish sculptor Władysław Oleszczyński . In 1927 Słowacki 's remains were moved to Wawel Cathedral in Poland , but an empty grave still remains at Montmartre .
= = Work = =
Słowacki was a prolific writer ; his collected works ( Dzieła wszystkie ) were published in 17 volumes . His legacy includes 25 dramas and 253 works of poetry . He wrote in many genres : dramas , lyrical poems , literary criticism , letters , journals and memoirs , fragments of two novels , and a political brochure ; he was also a translator . His letters to his mother are among the finest letters in all Polish literature .
Although the majority of his works were in Polish , he tried his hand at several works in French language ( Le roi de Landawa , Beatrice Cenci ) . Many of his works were published only posthumously , often under arbitrary titles , as Słowacki never named them himself . He also left notes on works that he never began or never completed . Słowacki is also considered the father of modern Polish drama .
Polish literary historian Włodzimierz Szturc divides Słowacki 's work into four periods : Wolter 's circle ( pseudoclassicism ) , Christian ethic , Towiański 's ethic and genesic ethic . Other scholars offer slightly different periodizations ; for example dividing his works into a classical period , a Swiss period , a Parisian period and a genesis period . Jarosław Ławski combines Towiański 's period with the genesic ones , speaking of a " mystical " period . Overall , Słowacki 's early work was influenced by Byron and Shakespeare , and included works that was often historical in nature , like ( as in Maria Stuart or Mindowe ) , or exotic , Oriental locales ( as in Arab ) . His work took on a more patriotic tone following the failed November Insurrection of 1830 – 1831 . His final works are heavy in mystical and philosophical undertones . In the 1840s he developed his own philosophy , or mystical system , with works such as Król @-@ Duch and Genesis z Ducha being an exposition of his philosophical ideas ( " genesic philosophy " ) according to which the material world is an expression of an ever @-@ improving spirit capable of progression ( transmigration ) into constantly newer forms . As Ławski notes , his philosophical works can transcend clear boundaries of simple literary genres .
Słowacki 's works , situated in the period of romanticism in Poland , contain rich and inventive vocabulary , including many neologisms . They use fantasy , mysticism and symbolism and feature themes related to Poland 's history , essence of Polishness , and relation to a larger universe . Ławski , enumerating the main characteristics of Słowacki 's writings , notes first that he was a " creationist " , in the sense of creating new meanings and words ( many of his characters bear names he invented himself , such as Kordian ) . Second , he notes that Słowacki was not only inspired by works of others , from poets and writers to scholars and philosophers , but that his texts were often a masterful , ironic @-@ grotesque polemic with other creators . For example , Słowacki was so impressed by Antoni Malczewski 's Maria that he wrote a sequel to it , Jan Bielecki . Likewise , Kordian is seen as building on William Shakespeare 's Hamlet , and as Słowacki 's response to Mickiewicz 's Dziady . This Ławski calls " ivy @-@ like imagination " , comparing Słowacki 's approach to that of an ivy , growing around works of others and reshaping them into new forms in a sophisticated literary game . Third , Słowacki was a master of irony ; he used it not only on others , but on himself , and even on irony itself – the " irony of irony " .
= = Legacy = =
After his death , Słowacki acquired the reputation of a national prophet . He is now considered to be one of the " Three Bards " ( wieszczs ) of Polish literature . Słowacki was not a very popular figure in Paris , nor among his contemporaries . He wrote many dramas , which can be seen as his favorite genre , yet he was a playwright who never saw any of his work performed on stage ( only Mazepa was staged during his lifetime , and not in his presence ) . His works , written in Polish , dense with Slavic myths , philosophy and symbols , were difficult to translate to other languages . Słowacki 's unpopularity among other Polish émigrés can be attributed to his unwillingness to pander to contemporary tastes ; and in particular , his refusal to comfort his compatriots , shaken by the loss of Polish statehood and the failure of the November Uprising . Słowacki 's ironic and sometimes pessimistic attitude was not appreciated by his contemporaries , nor was his denial of Polish uniqueness .
Whereas Mickiewicz followed the Messianic tradition and in Konrad suggested that Poland 's fate was in the hands of God , Słowacki 's Kordian questioned whether his country was not instead a plaything of Satan . However , the same work has God and the Angels watching over Poland and the Earth . In Anhelli , Słowacki 's describes the tragic fate of Polish exiles in Siberia , painting a gloomy vision of Poland 's destiny ; the same topic was taken by Mickiewicz in the Books of the Polish Nation and of the Polish Pilgrimage as a call for Poles to spread hope and spirituality across Europe . While a small circle of his friends talked about his wit , perseverance and inspiration , in popular memory he was a " sickly man of weak character " , egocentric , bitter due to his failed rivalry with Mickiewicz . Mickiewicz himself wrote of Słowacki 's work as a " beautiful church , but without God inside " .
After his death , Słowacki gained a cult @-@ like status in Poland ; in particular , in the cultural center of Kraków . Several obituaries and longer articles appeared in the Polish press upon Słowacki 's death . His works , many of them published posthumously for the first time , found growing acceptance among a new generation ; an 1868 work noted that " Słowacki took the fancy of the Polish youth . He was its singer , its spiritual leader in the full meaning of the term " . Through undoubtedly a poet of the romantic era , he was increasingly popular among the positivists and the authors of the Young Poland period in the late 1800s and early 1900s . His works were popularized by other writers , such as Adam Asnyk and Michał Bałucki , and his dramas were shown in theaters . He became a major literary figure for the new generation of Polish writers . He also became respected abroad ; a 1902 English language book edited by Charles Dudley Warner noted that " the splendid exuberance of his thought and fancy ranks him among the great poets of the nineteenth century " .
In 1927 , some eight years after Poland had regained independence , the Polish government arranged for Słowacki 's remains to be transferred from Paris to Wawel Cathedral , in Kraków . He was interred in the Crypt of the National Bards , beside Mickiewicz . Słowacki 's interment at Waweł Cathedral was controversial , as many of his works were considered heretical by Polish Catholic @-@ Church officials . It took almost two decades and the backing of Józef Piłsudski , for whom Słowacki was a favorite poet , to obtain the Church 's agreement to interring Słowacki at Wawel Cathedral . At the 1927 ceremony , Piłsudski commanded :
Several streets and schools in modern Poland bear Juliusz Słowacki 's name . Three parks are dedicated to him : in Bielsko @-@ Biała , in Łódź and in Wrocław . ( Polish ) There are several monuments of Juliusz Słowacki , including ones in Warsaw ( 2001 ) and Wrocław ( 1984 ) .
Among the most notable landmarks bearing his name is the Juliusz Słowacki Theatre in Kraków , and the Juliusz Slowacki Museum in Kremenets , Ukraine , opened in 2004 at his family 's former manor house . In 2009 the Polish Sejm ( parliament ) declared that year , the two @-@ hundredth anniversary of Słowacki 's birth , to be the Year of Juliusz Słowacki .
= = Selected works = =
= = = Drama = = =
Balladyna ( 1835 , published 1839 , performed 1862 )
Fantazy ( 1841 , published 1866 , performed 1867 )
Horsztyński ( 1835 , published 1866 , performed 1871 )
Kordian ( 1833 , published 1834 , performed 1899 )
Ksiądz Marek ( Father Marek , 1843 , published same year , performed 1901 )
Książę niezłomny ( The Constant Prince , after Pedro Calderón de la Barca , 1843 , published 1844 , performed 1874 )
Lilla Weneda ( 1839 , published 1840 , performed 1863 )
Maria Stuart ( 1830 , performed 1862 )
Mazepa ( 1839 , published 1840 , performed in Hungarian 1847 , performed in Polish 1851 )
Sen srebny Salomei ( The Silver Dream of Salomea , 1843 , published 1844 , performed 1900 )
Samuel Zborowski ( 1845 , published 1903 , performed 1911 )
= = = Poetry = = =
Anhelli ( 1838 )
Arab ( 1830 )
Lambro , powstańca grecki ( Lambro , a Greek insurgent , 1833 )
Beniowski ( 1841 – 1846 )
Genezis z Ducha ( Genesis from the Spirit , 1844 )
Godzina myśli ( An Hour of Thought , 1832 – 1833 )
Hugo . Powieść krzyżacka ( Hugo . Teutonic Order Novel , 1830 )
Król @-@ Duch ( The Spirit King , portions published 1847 , published in full 1925 )
Ojciec zadżumionych ( The Father of the Plague @-@ stricken , 1838 )
Podróż do ziemi świętej ( " Voyage to the Holy Land " , 1866 )
Testament mój ( My Last Will , 1839 – 1840 )
W Szwajcarii ( In Switzerland , 1835 , published 1839 )
Wacław ( 1838 )
|
= Rhode Island Route 37 =
Route 37 , also known as the Lincoln Avenue Freeway , is a numbered state highway running 3 @.@ 47 miles ( 5 @.@ 58 km ) in Providence County and Kent County , Rhode Island , United States . The route is a nominally east – west freeway for its entire length . Route 37 serves the cities of Cranston and Warwick and is also a major east – west freeway in the Providence metropolitan area , linking T. F. Green Airport with Interstate 295 . The western terminus of Route 37 is an at @-@ grade intersection with Natick Avenue in Cranston . The freeway has numbered interchanges with I @-@ 295 , Rhode Island Route 2 , Pontiac Avenue , and I @-@ 95 before terminating at a trumpet interchange with U.S. Route 1 in Warwick .
Originally conceived as a freeway linking Scituate with suburban Warwick , the proposed alignment of Route 37 was later shortened to an alignment linking I @-@ 295 with I @-@ 95 . Construction on the freeway began in 1963 and was completed by 1969 . An eastward extension across upper Narragansett Bay was proposed in 1966 ; this proposal would have extended Route 37 north to I @-@ 195 and I @-@ 295 in Attleboro , Massachusetts , completing a beltway around the city of Providence . This extended route was approved and given the I @-@ 895 designation in 1968 , but the extension was ultimately canceled by the Rhode Island Department of Transportation ( RIDOT ) . In the 1980s , Route 37 was included in proposals for an eastward extension of Interstate 84 from Hartford , Connecticut to Rhode Island , but this alignment was also canceled . RIDOT has long @-@ range plans to extend Route 37 east to Route 117 in Downtown Warwick , but plans for a westward extension have been abandoned .
= = Route description = =
Route 37 begins at an at @-@ grade intersection with Natick Avenue in the city of Cranston ; Natick Avenue is an unnumbered road that is used to access Rhode Island Route 51 ( Phenix Avenue ) . Shortly after the intersection with Natick Avenue , Route 37 begins to head in a northeastern direction and has its first numbered exit at a cloverleaf interchange with I @-@ 295 . The interchange is signed as Exits 1A @-@ B from Route 37 west , but both the northbound and southbound lanes of I @-@ 295 are served via a single on @-@ ramp from Route 37 east . After the junction with I @-@ 295 , Route 37 passes through a densely settled region of Cranston and passes over Route 5 on a single @-@ span bridge . After passing under Glen Hills Drive , the freeway turns to head in a southwestern direction before intersecting Route 2 at a cloverleaf interchange signed as Exits 2A @-@ B.
After the interchange with Route 2 , Route 37 passes over Power Road before intersecting with Pontiac Avenue , an unnumbered , four @-@ lane highway in Cranston . The interchange , numbered as Exit 3 , is the only one along the length of Route 37 that does not have a suffixed exit number in either direction . Shortly after Exit 3 , Route 37 crosses over the Pawtuxet River and enters the city of Warwick . In Warwick , the freeway has a complicated interchange with I @-@ 95 that is signed as Exits 4A @-@ B. From westbound Route 37 , exit 4B is a right @-@ hand exit that is used to access I @-@ 95 north , while exit 4A is a left @-@ hand exit that is used to access I @-@ 95 south . Both ramps from eastbound Route 37 are right @-@ hand exits .
After the I @-@ 95 interchange , Route 37 widens to three lanes in each direction . The freeway crosses Jefferson Boulevard and Amtrak 's Northeast Corridor railroad on twin @-@ span bridges and passes to the north of the Lincoln Park Cemetery before interchanging with US 1 at exits 5A @-@ B. The freeway terminates at a trumpet interchange with US 1 , with the two left @-@ hand lanes defaulting onto US 1 north and the right @-@ hand lane serving US 1 south , which connects to T. F. Green Airport .
= = History = =
= = = Construction of the freeway = = =
The origins of Route 37 date back to 1956 , when the Rhode Island Department of Public Works ( RIDPW ) included the Route 37 Expressway on its list of proposed freeways for the state of Rhode Island . The freeway was originally proposed to begin at Route 116 in Hope , a village of Scituate , and extend east through Cranston to Route 117 in Warwick . The route would also have connections with the proposed I @-@ 295 in Cranston and I @-@ 95 in Warwick .
In 1959 , RIDPW approved construction of the expressway , amending the proposed route to an alignment extending roughly from I @-@ 295 to a junction with Route 10 ( Huntington Expressway ) in Warwick ; Route 10 would be extended south to Warwick as part of the plan . The routing was officially designated as Route 37 , but was also referred to as the " Lincoln Avenue Freeway " after a local road in Warwick that the new route would bypass . RIDPW originally planned to begin construction in 1960 , but it was delayed until 1963 due to ongoing construction projects with I @-@ 95 and I @-@ 195 in Providence . Route 37 was routed through mostly undeveloped land in the cities of Warwick and Cranston , and in 1969 , the construction of the freeway to an interchange with US 1 in Warwick was completed . The proposed southern extension of Route 10 was ultimately canceled by RIDPW .
= = = Proposed extensions = = =
In 1966 , Route 37 was included in a proposal to extend I @-@ 295 across Narragansett Bay to make a full beltway around the city of Providence . The plan , which was approved by both RIDPW and the Massachusetts Highway Department ( MassHighway ) , involved extending Route 37 eastward from its existing terminus at US 1 across Narragansett bay via a new bridge that would connect Warwick with the town of Barrington . The expressway would then head northward into the town of Warren , intersecting I @-@ 195 in the town of Swansea after crossing into Massachusetts . Eventually , the freeway would connect with I @-@ 295 at its existing northern terminus in Attleboro , Massachusetts .
In 1969 , the Federal Highway Administration ( FHWA ) designated the proposed expressway as I @-@ 895 instead of the originally proposed I @-@ 295 . The expressway was planned to extend the existing Route 37 by 24 @.@ 4 miles ( 39 @.@ 3 km ) , and was scheduled to be completed by 1975 . In 1971 , however , the expressway 's original routing was canceled due to community opposition in the towns of Barrington and Warren and concerns that a new bridge across Upper Narragansett Bay would interfere with aviation traffic at T. F. Green Airport . In 1971 , RIDOT submitted a new proposed alignment for I @-@ 895 that utilized the Jamestown and Newport Bridges in southern Newport County and bypassed Barrington and Warwick altogether , but the interstate was ultimately canceled in 1982 .
In 1981 , ten years after the eastern extension of Route 37 was canceled , RIDOT began planning studies for a western extension of the freeway . The expressway was included in a proposal to extend I @-@ 84 eastward from Hartford , Connecticut to Providence ; more northern alignments for the freeway had been rejected due to concerns of potential damage to the Scituate Reservoir . The southern routing of I @-@ 84 , which would have utilized Route 37 and terminated in Warwick , largely bypassed the reservoir 's watershed . In 1982 , however , I @-@ 84 was officially canceled by RIDOT after studies indicated that the southern alignment was not a feasible alternative .
= = = Recent history = = =
In June 2006 , erosion resulting from heavy rains exposed human remains near the westbound lanes of Route 37 in Cranston . Subsequent drainage improvements to the freeway led to the discovery of human remains from more than 70 individuals buried in late 19th and early 20th centuries . Archaeological research indicated that the portion of Route 37 in Cranston between Exits 2 and 3 was inadvertently constructed over a portion of the State Farm Cemetery in the 1960s . The cemetery 's wooden burial markers had deteriorated by the time Route 37 was constructed , and environmental studies that would have indicated the location of the cemetery were not conducted prior to the expressway 's construction . In late 2006 , the remains of 71 individuals were exhumed from the site of the previous cemetery and re @-@ interred at the State Institution Cemetery in Warwick . On July 14 , 2009 , RIDOT hosted a memorial service for the 71 people re @-@ interred in Warwick .
= = Future = =
In 1992 , RIDOT reviewed plans for an eastern extension of Route 37 . The department conducted planning studies on two proposed freeway alignments that would extend Route 37 into Downtown Warwick . The first proposal continued the freeway southeast from US 1 to Airport Road for 0 @.@ 75 miles ( 1 @.@ 2 km ) , while the second proposal extended the freeway east for 1 @.@ 5 miles ( 2 @.@ 4 km ) , intersecting Route 117 and Route 117A in the village of Hoxsie before terminating at Route 117 ( West Shore Road ) . The first option was ultimately dropped by RIDOT after studies indicated the routing would interfere with aviation traffic at T. F. Green Airport . The freeway extension to Route 117 , however , remains on RIDOT 's long @-@ term plans .
= = Exit list = =
|
= Armenian Revolutionary Federation =
The Armenian Revolutionary Federation ( ARF ) ( classical Armenian : Հայ Յեղափոխական Դաշնակցութիւն , ՀՅԴ ) , also known as Dashnaktsutyun ( in a short form , " Dashnak " ) , is an Armenian nationalist and socialist political party founded in 1890 in Tiflis , Russian Empire ( now Tbilisi , Georgia ) in 1890 by Christapor Mikaelian , Stepan Zorian , and Simon Zavarian . The party operates in Armenia , Nagorno @-@ Karabakh and in countries where the Armenian diaspora is present , notably in Lebanon , where the party is represented in the parliament as part of the March 8 alliance .
The ARF has traditionally advocated democratic socialism and is a full member of the Socialist International since 2003 , which it had originally joined in 1907 . It possesses the largest number of members from the political parties present in the Armenian diaspora , having established affiliates in more than 20 countries . Compared to other Armenian parties which tend to primarily focus on educational or humanitarian projects , the ARF is the most politically oriented of the organizations and traditionally has been one of the staunchest supporters of Armenian nationalism . The party campaigns for the recognition of the Armenian Genocide and the right to reparations . It also advocates the establishment of United Armenia , partially based on the Treaty of Sèvres of 1920 .
The ARF became active within the Ottoman Empire in the early 1890s with the aim of unifying the various small groups in the empire that were advocating for reform and defending Armenian villages from massacres that were widespread in some of the Armenian @-@ populated areas of the empire . ARF members formed fedayi groups that defended Armenian civilians through armed resistance . The Dashnaks also worked for the wider goal of creating a " free , independent and unified " Armenia , although they sometimes set aside this goal in favor of a more realistic approach , such as advocating autonomy .
In 1918 , the party was instrumental in the creation of the First Republic of Armenia , which fell to the Soviet communists in 1920 . After its leadership was exiled by the communists , the ARF established itself within Armenian diaspora communities , where it helped Armenians preserve their cultural identity . After the fall of the USSR , it returned to Armenia , where it now again has a significant presence as a major party in Armenia 's parliament . Prior to Serzh Sargsyan 's election as president of Armenia and for a short time thereafter , the ARF was a member of the governing coalition , even though it nominated its own candidate in the presidential elections .
ARF then reentered Sargsyan 's cabinet in February 2016 in what was defined as a " long @-@ term political cooperation " agreement with the Republican Party by means of which the ARF would share responsibility for all government policies .
= = Early history = =
In the late 19th century , Eastern Europe and Russia became the hub of small groups advocating reform in Armenian @-@ populated areas in the Ottoman Empire . In 1890 , recognizing the need to unify these groups in order to be more efficient , Christapor Mikaelian , Simon Zavarian and Stepan Zorian created a new political party called the " Federation of Armenian Revolutionaries " ( Հայ Յեղափոխականների Դաշնակցութիւն , Hay Heghapokhakanneri Dashnaktsutyun ) , which would eventually be called the " Armenian Revolutionary Federation " or " Dashnaktsutiun " in 1890 .
The Social Democrat Hunchakian Party at one point had agreed to join as well , seeing that the ARF 's political ideology was socialism . However , the Hunchakians claimed the new party was not Marxist enough and withdrew from the union . The original aim of the ARF was to gain autonomy for the Armenian @-@ populated areas in the Ottoman Empire . The party began to organize itself in the Ottoman Empire in the early 1890s and held its first major meeting in Tiflis , Russian Empire , in 1892 . At that meeting , the party adopted a decentralized modus operandi according to which the chapters in different countries were allowed to plan and implement policies in tune with their local political atmosphere . The party set its goal of a society based on the democratic principles of freedom of assembly , freedom of speech , freedom of religion and agrarian reform .
= = = Russian Empire = = =
The ARF gradually acquired significant strength and sympathy among Russian Armenians . Mainly because of the ARF 's stance towards the Ottoman Empire , the party enjoyed the support of the central Russian administration , as tsarist and ARF foreign policy had the same alignment until 1903 . On June 12 , 1903 , the tsarist authorities passed an edict to bring all Armenian Church property under imperial control . This was faced by strong ARF opposition , because the ARF perceived the tsarist edict as a threat to the Armenian national existence . As a result , the ARF leadership decided to defend Armenian churches by dispatching militiamen who acted as guards and by holding mass demonstrations .
In 1905 – 06 , the Armenian @-@ Tatar massacres broke out during which the ARF became involved in armed activities . Some sources claim that the Russian government incited the massacres in order to reinforce its authority during the revolutionary turmoil of 1905 . The first outbreak of violence occurred in Baku , in February 1905 . The ARF held the Russian authorities responsible for inaction and instigation of massacres that were part of a larger anti @-@ Armenian policy . On May 11 , 1905 , Dashnak revolutionary Drastamat Kanayan assassinated Russian governor general Nakashidze , who was considered by the Armenian population as the main instigator of hate and confrontation between the Armenians and the Tatars . Unable to rely on government forces to protect their interests and properties , the Armenian bourgeoisie turned to the ARF for protection . The Dashnak leaders argued that , given employment discrimination against Armenian workers in non @-@ Armenian concerns , the defence provided to the Armenian bourgeoisie was essential to the safekeeping of employment opportunities for Armenian laborers . The Russian Tsar 's envoy in the Caucasus , Vorontsov @-@ Dashkov , reported that the ARF bore a major portion of responsibilities for perpetrating the massacres . The ARF , however , argued that it helped to organize the defence of the Armenian population against Muslim attacks . The blows suffered at the hands of the Dashnakist fighting squads proved a catalyst for the consolidation of the Muslim community of the Caucasus . During that period , the ARF regarded armed activity , including terror , as necessary for the achievement of political goals .
In January 1912 , 159 ARF members , being lawyers , bankers , merchants and other intellectuals , were tried before the Russian senate for their participation in the party . They were defended by then @-@ lawyer Alexander Kerensky , who challenged much of the evidence used against them as the " original investigators had been encouraged by the local administration to use any available means " to convict the men . Kerensky succeeded in having the evidence reexamined for one of the defendants . He and several other lawyers " made openly contemptuous declarations " about this discrepancy to the Russian press , which was forbidden to attend the trials , and this in turn greatly embarrassed the senators . The Senate eventually opened an inquiry against the chief magistrate who had brought the charges against the Dashnak members and concluded that he was insane . Ninety @-@ four of the accused were acquitted , while the rest were either imprisoned or exiled for varying periods , the most severe being six years .
= = = Persian Empire = = =
The Dashnaktsutiun held a meeting on April 26 , 1907 , dubbed the Fourth General Congress , at which ARF leaders such as Aram Manukian , Hamo Ohanjanyan and Stepan Stepanian discussed their engagement in the Iranian Constitutional Revolution . They established that the movement was one that had political , ideological and economic components and was thus aimed at establishing law and order , human rights and the interests of all working people . They also felt that it would work for the benefit and interest of Armenian @-@ Iranians . The final vote was 25 votes in favour and one absentia .
From 1907 to 1908 , during the time when the Young Turks came to power in the Ottoman Empire , Armenians from the Caucasus , Western Armenia , and Iran started to collaborate with Iranian constitutionalists and revolutionaries . Political parties , notably the Dashnaktsutiun , wanted to influence the direction of the revolution towards greater democracy and to safeguard gains already achieved . The Dashnak contribution to the fight was mostly military , as it sent some of its well known fedayees to Iran after the guerrilla campaign in the Ottoman Empire ended with the rise of the Young Turks . A notable ARF member already in Iran was Yeprem Khan , who had established a branch of the party in the country . Yeprem Khan was highly instrumental in the Constitutional revolution of Iran . After the Persian national parliament was shelled by the Russian Colonel Vladimir Liakhov , Yeprem Khan rallied with Sattar Khan and other revolutionary leaders in the Constitutional Revolution of Iran against Mohammad Ali Shah Qajar . Relations between Sattar Khan and the ARF oscillated between amity and resentment . Sometimes he was viewed as being ignorant , while at other times he was dubbed a great hero . Nonetheless , the ARF came to collaborate with him and alongside Yeprem Khan posted many victories including the capture of Rasht in February 1909 . At the end of June 1909 , the fighters arrived in Tehran and after several battles , took over the Majles building and the Sepahsalar mosque . Yeprem Khan was then appointed chief of Tehran police . This caused tensions between the Dashnaks and Khan . `
= = = Ottoman Empire = = =
= = = = Abdul Hamid Period ( 1894 – 1908 ) = = = =
The ARF became a major political force in Armenian life . It was especially active in the Ottoman Empire , where it organized or participated in many revolutionary activities . In 1894 , the ARF took part in the Sasun Resistance , supplying arms to the local population to help the people of Sasun defend themselves against the Hamidian purges . In June 1896 , the Armenakans organized the Defense of Van in the province of Van , where Ottoman Hamidieh soldiers were to attack the city . The Armenakans , assisted by members of the Hunchakian and ARF parties , supplied all able @-@ bodied men of Van with weapons . They rose to defend the civilians from the attack and subsequent massacre .
To raise awareness of the massacres of 1895 – 96 , members of the Dashnaktsutiun led by Papken Siuni , occupied the Ottoman Bank on August 26 , 1896 . The purpose of the raid was to dictate the ARF 's demands of reform in the Armenian populated areas of the Ottoman Empire and to attract European attention to their cause since the Europeans had many assets in the bank . The operation caught European attention but at the cost of more massacres by Sultan Abdul Hamid II .
The Khanasor Expedition was performed by the Armenian militia against the Kurdish Mazrik tribe on July 25 , 1897 . During the Defense of Van , the Mazrik tribe had ambushed a squad of Armenian defenders and massacred them . The Khanasor Expedition was the ARF 's retaliation . Some Armenians consider this their first victory over the Ottoman Empire and celebrate each year in its remembrance .
On March 30 , 1904 , the ARF played a major role in the Sasun Uprising . The ARF sent arms and fedayi to defend the region for the second time . Among the 500 fedayees participating in the resistance were top figures such as Kevork Chavush , Sepasdatsi Murad and Hrayr Djoghk . They managed to hold off the Ottoman army for several months , despite their lack of fighters and firepower .
In 1905 , members of the Armenian Revolutionary Federation organized the Yıldız Attempt , an assassination attempt on Sultan Abdul Hamid II in the capital of the Ottoman Empire , Constantinople ( modern day Istanbul ) . The Yıldız Attempt failed to assassinate the Sultan because the timed bomb missed its target by a few minutes . The Dashnaksutiun also lost one of its founders , Kristapor Mikaelian , in an accidental explosion during the planning of the operation .
= = = = Young Turk Revolution ( 1908 – 14 ) = = = =
Two of the largest revolutionary groups trying to overthrow Sultan Abdul Hamid II had been the ARF and the Committee of Union and Progress , a group of mostly European @-@ educated Turks . In a general assembly meeting in 1907 , the ARF acknowledged that the Armenian and Turkish revolutionaries had the same goals . Although the Tanzimat reforms had given Armenians more rights and seats in the parliament , the ARF hoped to gain autonomy to govern Armenian populated areas of the Ottoman Empire as a " state within a state " . The " Second congress of the Ottoman opposition " took place in Paris , France , in 1907 . Opposition leaders including Ahmed Riza ( liberal ) , Sabahheddin Bey , and ARF member Khachatur Maloumian attended . During the meeting , an alliance between the two parties was officially declared . The ARF decided to cooperate with the Committee of Union and Progress , hoping that if the Young Turks came to power , autonomy would be granted to the Armenians .
In 1908 , Abdul Hamid II was overthrown during the Young Turk Revolution , which launched the Second Constitutional Era of the Ottoman Empire . Armenians gained more seats in the 1908 parliament , but the reforms fell short of the greater autonomy that the ARF had hoped for . The Adana massacre in 1909 also created antipathy between Armenians and Turks , and the ARF cut relations with the Young Turks in 1912 .
= = = World War I and the Armenian Genocide = = =
In 1915 , Dashnak leaders were deported and killed alongside other Armenian intellectuals during a purge by Ottoman officials against the leaders of the empire 's Armenian communities . The ARF , maintaining its ideological commitment to a " Free , Independent , and United Armenia " , led the defense of the Armenian people during the Armenian Genocide , becoming leaders of the successful Van Resistance . Jevdet Bey , the Ottoman administrator of Van , tried to suppress the resistance by killing two Armenian leaders ( Ishkhan and Vramian ) and trying to imprison Aram Manukian , who had risen to fame and gained the nickname " Aram of Van " . Moreover , on April 19 , he issued an order to exterminate all Armenians , and threatened to kill all Muslims who helped them .
About 185 @,@ 000 Armenians lived in Vaspurakan . In the city of Van itself , there were around 30 @,@ 000 Armenians , but more Armenians from surrounding villages joined them during the Ottoman offensive . The battle started on April 20 , 1915 , with Aram Manukian as the leader of the resistance , and lasted for two months . In May , the Armenian battalions and Russian regulars entered the city and successfully drove the Ottoman army out of Van . The Dashnaktsutiun was also involved in other less @-@ successful resistance movements in Zeitun , Shabin @-@ Karahisar , Urfa , and Musa Dagh . After the end of the Van resistance , ARF leader Aram Manukian became governor of the Administration for Western Armenia and worked to ease the sufferings of Armenians .
At the end of World War I , members of the Young Turks movement considered executors of the Armenian Genocide by the Armenian Revolutionary Federation were assassinated during Operation Nemesis .
= = = Republic of Armenia ( 1918 – 1920 ) = = =
As a result of the collapse of the Russian Empire in 1917 , the Armenian , Georgian , and Muslim leaders of the Caucasus united to create the Transcaucasian Federation in the winter of 1918 . The Treaty of Brest @-@ Litovsk had drastic consequences for the Armenians : Turkish forces reoccupied Western Armenia . The federation lasted for only three months , eventually leading to the proclamation of the Republics of Armenia , Georgia , and Azerbaijan . The negotiators for Armenia were from the ARF .
With the collapse of the Transcaucasian Federation , the Armenians were left to fend for themselves as the Turkish army approached the capital of Yerevan . At first , fearing a major military defeat and massacre of the population of Armenia , the Dashnaks wanted to evacuate the city of Yerevan . Instead , the Military Council headed by Colonel Pirumian decided that they would not surrender and would confront the Turkish army . The opposing armies met on May 28 , 1918 , near Sardarapat . The battle was a major military success for the Armenian army as it was able to halt the invading Turkish forces . The Armenians also stood their ground at the Battle of Kara Killisse and at the Battle of Bash Abaran . The creation of the First Republic of Armenia was proclaimed on the same day of the Battle of Sardarapat , and the ARF became the ruling party . However , the new state was devastated , with a dislocated economy , hundreds of thousands of refugees , and a mostly starving population .
During this period , in May 1918 , this group committed a massacre in Guba in Azerbaïdjan killing 3 000 civilians including Muslims , Mountain Jews and Lezgians .
The ARF , led by General Andranik , tried several times to seize Shusha ( known as Shushi by Armenians ) , a city in Karabakh . Just before the Armistice of Mudros was signed , Andranik was on the way from Zangezur to Shusha , to control the main city of Karabakh . Andranik 's forces got within 26 miles ( 42 km ) of the city when the First World War ended , and Turkey , along with Germany and Austria @-@ Hungary , surrendered to the Allies . British forces ordered Andranik to stop all military advances , assuring him that the conflict would be solved with the Paris Peace Conference of 1919 . Andranik , not wanting to antagonize the British , retreated to Goris , Zangezur .
The Armenian Revolutionary Federation had a strong presence in the DRA government . Most of the important government posts , such as prime minister , defence minister and interior minister were controlled by its members .
The DRA wanted to recover the country 's economy , and create new rules and regulations , but the situation required it to focus on overcoming widespread hunger in the country . The situation was complicated externally , provoked by Turkish and Azeri Muslim riots . In 1920 the situation in the country became worse , with apparent rapprochement between Soviet Russia and Kemal 's Turkey . When the Turkish @-@ Armenian war started in autumn 1920 , Armenia was isolated and abandoned by Western allies . The newly formed League of Nations did not provide any help . Soviet Russia intensified its pressure on Armenia . Losing the war , Armenia signed the Treaty of Alexandropol on December 2 , 1920 , which resulted in the recognition of large territorial losses to Turkey . The Armenia military @-@ revolutionary committee formed in Soviet Azerbaijan . Despite their tight grip on power , the ARF ceded power to the Communist Red Army troops invading from the north , which culminated with a Soviet takeover . The ARF was banned , its leaders exiled , and many of its members dispersed to other parts of the world .
= = Exile = =
After the communists took over the short @-@ lived First Republic of Armenia and ARF leaders were exiled , the Dashnaks moved their base of operations to where the Armenian diaspora had settled . With the large influx of Armenian refugees in the Levant , the ARF established a strong political structure in Lebanon and to a lesser extent , Syria . From 1921 to 1990 , the Dashnaktsutiun established political structures in more than 200 states including the USA , where another large influx of Armenians settled .
With political and geographic division came religious division . One part of the Armenian Church claimed it wanted to be separate from the head , whose seat was in Echmiadzin , Armenian SSR . Some Armenians in the US thought Moscow tried to use the Armenian Church to promote Communists ' ideas outside the country . The Armenian Church thus separated into two branches , Echmiadzin and Cilician , and started to operate separately . In the US , Echmiadzin branch churches of the Armenian Apostolic Church would not admit members of the ARF . This was one of the reasons why the ARF discouraged people from attending these churches and brought the representatives from a different wing of the church , the Armenian Catholicate of Cilicia , from Lebanon to the US . In 1933 , members of ARF were convicted in the assassination of Armenian archbishop Levon Tourian in New York City . Prior to his murder , the archbishop had been accused of being exclusively pro @-@ Soviet by the ARF . However , the ARF itself was legally exonerated from any direct complicity in the assassination .
During World War II , some Berlin @-@ based ARF members saw an opportunity to remove Soviet control from Armenia by supporting the Nazis . The Armenian Legion , composed largely of former Soviet Red Army POWs , was led by Drastamat Kanayan . It participated in the occupation of the Crimean Peninsula but was later based in the Netherlands and France a result of Adolf Hitler 's distrust of their loyalty .
During the 1950s , tensions arose between the ARF and Armenian SSR . The death of Catholicos Garegin of the Holy See of Cilicia prompted a struggle for succession . The National Ecclesiastic Assembly , which was largely influenced by the ARF , elected Zareh of Aleppo . This decision was rejected by the Echmiadzin @-@ based Catholicos of All Armenians , the anti @-@ ARF coalition , and Soviet Armenian authorities . Zareh extended his administrative authority over a large part of the Armenian diaspora , furthering the rift that had already been created by his election . This event split the large Armenian community of Lebanon , creating sporadic clashes between the supporters of Zareh and those who opposed his election .
Religious conflict was part of a greater conflict that raged between the two " camps " of the Armenian diaspora . The ARF still resented the fact that they were ousted from Armenia after the Red Army took control , and the ARF leaders supported the creation of a " Free , Independent , and United Armenia " , free from both Soviet and Turkish hegemony . The Social Democrat Hunchakian Party and Ramgavar Party , the main rivals of the ARF , supported the newly established Soviet rule in Armenia .
= = = Lebanon = = =
From 1923 to 1958 , conflicts erupted among Armenian political parties struggling to dominate and organize the diaspora . In 1926 , a struggle between committees of the ARF and Hunchakian parties for control of the newly established shanty @-@ town of Bourj Hammoud in Lebanon led to the assassination of ARF member Vahan Vartabedian . As retaliation for the murder , Hunchakian members Mihran Aghazarian and S. Dekhrouhi were assassinated in 1929 and 1931 respectively . In 1956 , when Bishop Zareh was consecrated Catholicos of Cilicia , the Catholicos of Echmiadzin refused to recognize his authority . This controversy polarized the Armenian community of Lebanon . As a result , in the context of the Lebanese civil strife of 1958 , an armed conflict erupted between supporters ( the ARF ) and opponents ( Hunchakians , Ramgavars ) of Zareh .
Prior to the Lebanese Civil War of 1975 – 90 , the party was closely allied to the Phalangist Party of Pierre Gemayel and generally ran joint tickets with the Phalangists , especially in Beirut constituencies with large Armenian populations . The refusal of the ARF , along with most Armenian groups , to play an active role in the civil war , however , soured relations between the two parties , and the Lebanese Forces ( a militia dominated by Phalangists and commanded by Bachir Gemayel , Pierre Gemayel 's son ) , responded by attacking the Armenian quarters of many Lebanese towns , including Bourj Hammoud . Many Armenians affiliated with the ARF took up arms voluntarily to defend their quarters . In the midst of the Lebanese civil war , a shadowy guerrilla organization called Justice Commandos of the Armenian Genocide emerged and carried out a string of assassinations from 1975 to 1983 . The guerrilla organization has sometimes been linked to the Dashnaks .
Ethnic Armenians are allocated six seats in Lebanon 's 128 @-@ member National Assembly . The Lebanese branch of the ARF has usually controlled a majority of the Armenian vote and won most of the ethnic Armenian seats in the National Assembly . A major change occurred in the parliamentary election of 2000 . With a rift between ARF and the Mustaqbal ( Future ) party of Rafik Hariri and the ARF was left with only one parliamentary seat , its worst result in many decades . The ARF called for a boycott of the 2005 Beirut elections . Relations soured further when on August 5 , 2007 by @-@ election in the Metn district , which includes the predominantly Armenian area of Bourj Hammoud , ARF decided to support Camille Khoury , the candidate backed by opposition leader Michel Aoun 's Free Patriotic Movement against Phalangist leader Amine Gemayel and subsequently won the seat . In the 2009 Lebanese general elections , the ARF won 2 seats in parliament which it holds presently . In June 2011 , a new Lebanese government was formed where ARF party members were appointed to two ministerial positions , including Ministry of Industry , as part of the March 8 alliance .
The ARF Lebanon branch is headquartered in Bourj Hammoud in the Shaghzoian Centre , along with the ARF Lebanon Central Committee 's Aztag Daily newspaper and " Voice Of Van " 24 @-@ hour radio station .
= = Independent Armenia = =
The ARF has always maintained its ideological commitment to " a Free , Independent , and United Armenia " . The term United Armenia refers to the borders of Armenia recognized by U.S. President Woodrow Wilson and outlined in the Treaty of Sèvres . After Armenia fell under Soviet control in 1920 , the ARF within the Armenian diaspora opposed Soviet rule over Armenia and rallied in support of Armenian independence . It contributed to organizing a social and cultural framework aimed at preserving the Armenian identity . However , because of tight communist control , the ARF could not operate in the Armenian SSR and the political party remained banned until 1991 .
When independence was achieved in 1991 , the ARF soon became one of the major and most active political parties , rivaled mainly by the Pan @-@ Armenian National Movement . Subsequently , on December 28 , 1994 , President Levon Ter @-@ Petrosyan in a famous television speech banned the ARF , which was the nation 's leading opposition party , along with Yerkir , the country 's largest daily newspaper . Ter @-@ Petrosyan introduced evidence that supposedly detailed a plot hatched by the ARF to engage in terrorism against his administration , endanger Armenia 's national security and overthrow the government . Throughout the evening , government security forces arrested leading ARF figures , and police seized computers , fax machines , files and printing equipment from ARF offices . In addition to Yerkir , government forces also closed several literary , women 's , cultural , and youth publications . Thirty @-@ one men , who would later be known as the " Dro Group " ( named after the Dro Committee , the group that was allegedly behind the plot ) , were arrested .
Gerard Libaridyan , an historian and close adviser of Ter @-@ Petrosyan , collected and presented the evidence against the defendants . He later stated in an interview that he was unsure if the evidence was true , inviting the notion that the party was banned because of its increasing chances of winning seats in the July 1995 parliamentary elections . Several months after the elections , most of the men were found not guilty with the exception of several defendants charged for engaging in corrupt business practices . The ban on the party was lifted , however , less than a week after Ter @-@ Petrosyan fell from power in February 1998 and was replaced by Robert Kocharyan , who was backed by the Dashnaks .
However , two members ARF : Arsen Artsruni and Armenak Mnjoyan still arrested so far .
In 2007 , the ARF was not part of but had a cooperation agreement in place with the governing coalition , which consisted of two parties in the government coalition , the Republican Party and Prosperous Armenia Party . The Country of Law party was also a member of the governing coalition until it pulled out in May 2006 . With 16 of the 131 seats in the National Assembly of Armenia , the Armenian Revolutionary Federation is the major socialist party in Armenia and the third @-@ largest party in parliament .
In addition to its parliamentary seats , the following governmental ministries were also headed by ARF members : Ministry of Agriculture , Davit Lokian ; Ministry of Education and Science , Levon Mkrtchian ; Ministry of Labor and Social Affairs , Aghvan Vardanian ; Ministry of Healthcare , Norair Davidian . On July 13 , 2007 , the ARF History Museum was inaugurated in Yerevan , displaying the history of the party and of its notable members .
In 2007 , the ARF announced that it would nominate its own candidate to run for president of Armenia in the February 2008 presidential election . In an innovation on November 24 – 25 , 2007 , the ARF conducted a non @-@ binding Armenia @-@ wide primary election . They invited the public to vote to advise the party which of two candidates , Vahan Hovhannisyan and Armen Rustamyan , they should formally nominate for president of Armenia in the subsequent official election . What characterized it as a primary instead of a standard opinion poll was that the public knew of the primary in advance , all eligible voters were invited , and the voting was by secret ballot . Nearly 300 @,@ 000 people voted in makeshift tents and mobile ballot boxes . Vahan Hovhannisyan received the most votes and was subsequently nominated for the presidential election by the ARF Supreme Council in a secret ballot . In the presidential election , Hovhannisyan placed fourth with 6 @.@ 2 % of the vote . In 2008 , ARF re @-@ joined the ruling political coalition in Armenia and supported strong police actions during the 2008 Armenian presidential election protests that led to ten deaths .
Due to the signature of the so @-@ called Zurich Protocols the ARF left the coalition and became an opposition party once again in 2009 , but relations with other factions in the Armenian opposition have remained frosty . In 2012 parliamentary election the ARF won 5 seats losing 11 parliamentary seats from 2007 .
ARF then reentered Sargsyan 's cabinet in February 2016 , obtaining three ministerial posts : Ministry of Economy , Local Government and Education ; also as a result of what was defined as a " long @-@ term political cooperation " agreement with the Republican Party , ARF also got to appoint the regional governors of Aragatsotn and Shirak Provinces .
= = = Electoral record = = =
In the 2000s , the party usually garnered some 10 to 15 of the vote in national elections . In a 2007 confidential telegram Anthony Godfrey , U.S. Embassy in Armenia chargé d 'affaires , wrote that the party " has had a historically loyal following of 10 to 12 percent of the population , but probably has little chance to expand from that base . "
= = Nagorno @-@ Karabakh = =
After the Soviet Union expanded into the South Caucasus , it established the Nagorno @-@ Karabakh Autonomous Oblast ( NKAO ) within the Azerbaijan SSR in 1923 . In the final years of the Soviet Union , the Armenian Revolutionary Federation established a branch in Nagorno @-@ Karabakh . In January 1991 , the Dashnaktsutiun won the parliamentary election and governed as the ruling party during the entirety of the Nagorno @-@ Karabakh war . The Dashnaks actively supported the independence of Nagorno @-@ Karabakh ( or Artsakh as Armenians call it ) . It aided the Nagorno @-@ Karabakh Defense Army by sending armed volunteers to the front lines and supplying the army with weapons , food , medicine and moral support . After deciding not to run in the second parliamentary elections , the Armenian Revolutionary Federation ran in the 1999 elections and won 9 of the 33 seats in the National Assembly of Nagorno Karabakh . At the June 2005 elections , the Dashnaktsutiun was part of an electoral alliance with Movement 88 that won 3 out of 33 seats .
= = Ideology and goals = =
The principal founders of the Armenian Revolutionary Federation were nationalist , socialists , and Marxist elements were omnipresent in the introductory section of the party 's first program written by Rosdom , entitled " General Theory " . The ARF first set down its ideological and political goals during the Hamidian regime . It denounced the Ottoman regime and the unbearable conditions of life for its Armenians and advocated changing the regime in power and securing more rights through revolution and armed struggle . The ARF had and still has socialism within its political philosophy . Its program expresses the entire , multifaceted make @-@ up of the Armenian revolutionary movement , including its national @-@ liberation , political , and social @-@ economic aspects .
Despite subsequent modifications , the above @-@ mentioned principles and tendencies continue to characterize the ideological world of the Dashnaktsutiun , and its approach toward issues has remained unchanged . In recent decades , the Armenian Revolutionary Federation reasserted itself ideologically and reformulated the section of its program called " General Theory " , adapting it to current concepts of socialism , democracy and rights of self @-@ determination . The party has long supported a parliamentary republican political system and campaigned for a " yes " vote in the 2015 constitutional referendum .
Its goals are :
Creation of a free , independent , and united Armenia . The borders of United Armenia shall include all territories designated as Armenia by the Treaty of Sèvres as well as the regions of Artsakh , Javakhk , and Nakhichevan ( See map ) .
International condemnation of the Genocide committed by the Ottoman Empire against the Armenians , return of the lands which are occupied , and just reparations to the Armenian nation
The gathering of worldwide expatriate Armenians on the lands of United Armenia .
Strengthening Armenia 's statehood , institutionalization of democracy and the rule of law , securing the people 's economic well being , and establishment of social justice , and a democratic and socialistic independent republic in Armenia
The ARF is often accused of having a present strategy that does not differ from the one used during the time of the Ottoman Empire . Its tactics are viewed as still being aimed at convincing Western governments and diplomatic circles to sponsor the party 's demands .
In 1907 , the Dashnaktsutiun joined the Second International until its dissolution during World War I. It later joined the reformed Socialist International and remained a full member until 1960 , when it decided to pull out of the organization . In 1996 , it was re @-@ accepted as an observer member , and in 1999 the Dashnaks earned full membership in the international organization . The party was also a member of the Labour and Socialist International between 1923 and 1940 .
A member of the ARF is called Dashnaktsakan ( in Eastern Armenian ) or Tashnagtsagan ( in Western Armenian ) . Other than calling each other by name , members formally address one another as Comrade ( Ընկեր or Unger for boys and men , Ընկերուհի or Ungerouhi for girls and women ) .
= = Affiliate organizations = =
The ARF is considered the foremost organization in the Armenian diaspora , having established numerous Armenian schools , community centers , Scouting and athletic groups , relief societies , youth groups , camps , and other organs throughout the world .
The ARF also works as an umbrella organ for the Armenian Relief Society , the Homenetmen Armenian General Athletic Union , the Hamazkayin Cultural Foundation , and many other community organizations . It operates the Armenian Youth Federation , which encourages the youth of the diaspora to join the political cause of the ARF and the Armenian people .
The ARF Shant Student Association and the ARF Armen Karo Student Association are organizations of college and university students on various campuses and are the only ARF organizations whose membership is exclusively from this group .
= = = US and Canada = = =
Armenian National Committee of America , an @-@ ARF affiliate organization , is the strongest Armenian lobby organization in the United States . Its sister organization Armenian National Committee of Canada , operated in Canada .
= = = Other countries = = =
Argentina , Australia , Bulgaria , Canada , Cyprus , Egypt , England , France , Georgia , Germany , Greece , Iran , Israel , Russia , Switzerland , Syria , Uruguay subsequently have played a significant role in the campaign for the recognition of the Armenian Genocide in their respective countries .
= = Media = =
ARF and its affiliate organizations worldwide publish 11 newspapers : 4 daily and 7 weekly . Also , there are two TV channels , including one online . Two radio stations are aired everyday , including one online .
Periodicals
Television
Radio
|
= Mark Giordano =
Mark Giordano ( born October 3 , 1983 ) is a Canadian professional ice hockey defenceman who currently serves as captain of the Calgary Flames of the National Hockey League ( NHL ) . An undrafted player , Giordano signed with the Flames as a free agent in 2004 after playing two seasons of major junior hockey with Owen Sound Attack of the Ontario Hockey League ( OHL ) . Since making his debut in 2006 , Giordano has played his entire NHL career with the Flames but left the team for one season , 2007 – 08 , to play for Dynamo Moscow of the Russian Super League .
Praised for his leadership and offensive skills , Giordano is the Flames ' top defenceman and was named to play his first NHL All @-@ Star Game in 2015 . The Flames have also honoured him for his charitable contributions ; he was named recipient of the J. R. " Bud " McCaig Award in 2012 . Internationally , Giordano played with Team Canada at the 2010 IIHF World Championship and was a member of the 2007 Spengler Cup winning team .
= = Early life = =
Mark Giordano was born in Toronto , Ontario on October 3 , 1983 . His father , Paul , is a real estate agent and his mother , Anna , a hairdresser . Giordano has an older sister , Michelle , and had another older sister , Mia , who was killed in a car accident when he was 14 . He taps his helmet twice with his stick at the end of the national anthems before each game as a quiet tribute to his sister , whose death had a lasting impact on Giordano and his family and brought them closer together .
As a youth , Giordano played both hockey and baseball , but focused on hockey as the demands of both sports on his time increased . Giordano played his minor hockey in North York and attended Chaminade College School .
= = Playing career = =
= = = Junior = = =
Giordano played one season of Junior A hockey with the Brampton Capitals of the Ontario Junior Hockey League in 2001 – 02 where he scored 24 goals in the playoffs to help lead the Capitals to the Ontario provincial championship . He then moved up to major junior , playing two seasons with the Owen Sound Attack of the Ontario Hockey League ( OHL ) . He was the top scoring defenceman on the team for both years . As a 19 @-@ year @-@ old rookie , Giordano recorded 48 points for Owen Sound in 2002 – 03 and , as one of the top first @-@ year players in the league , was named to the OHL First All @-@ Rookie Team .
Despite his offensive success in junior , Giordano went unselected at the NHL Entry Draft . He accepted an invitation to attend the Phoenix Coyotes ' training camp where , according to then @-@ Owen Sound General Manager Mike Futa , Giordano impressed team officials but believed that he would be best served by playing a second season in the OHL . Giordano finished the 2003 – 04 season with 49 points .
After graduating from junior hockey , Giordano enrolled at York University and planned to study at its school of business when he received a late invitation from the Calgary Flames to attend their summer camp . Former Flames coach Jim Playfair recalled that Giordano stood out among the group of invitees and said that his skill and skating ability set him apart : " Darryl ( Sutter ) met with three or four of those kids and gave them all the same contracts : Three years in the American League , and if it works out for you , you 've got a career . Gio took it and ran with it . " The Flames signed him to a contract following the camp .
= = = Professional = = =
The Flames assigned Giordano to their American Hockey League ( AHL ) affiliate , the Lowell Lock Monsters , for the 2004 – 05 season where he scored 6 goals and added 10 assists in 66 games . He remained in the AHL for much of the 2005 – 06 season , transferring to Calgary 's new affiliate , the Omaha Ak @-@ Sar @-@ Ben Knights . Giordano led the Knights in scoring , recording 16 goals and 58 points in 73 games . Additionally , he was second among defencemen in the AHL in goal scoring and fourth in points . The Flames recalled him to Calgary at mid @-@ season , and he made his NHL debut on January 30 , 2006 , against the St. Louis Blues . Giordano appeared in seven games with the Flames , and recorded his first NHL point with an assist on April 8 , 2006 , against the Vancouver Canucks . In the 2006 – 07 season , Giordano played only five games in Omaha as he spent the majority of the campaign in Calgary . In 48 games with the Flames , he recorded 7 goals and 15 points . Giordano scored his first two NHL goals on October 14 , 2006 , against the Toronto Maple Leafs .
Unable to come to terms on a new contract with the Flames prior to the 2007 – 08 season , Giordano left the NHL to sign with HC Dynamo Moscow of the Russian Super League . According to Playfair , Giordano did not sign in Russia over money . Instead , he left due to the fact that he felt he had proven what he could do in the AHL and , lacking a guarantee that he would be in the NHL , sought a higher calibre league in which to play . He scored 4 goals and 13 points in 50 games with Dynamo , and played with the winning Canadian team at the 2007 Spengler Cup . The Canadian national team named him an alternate at the 2008 IIHF World Championship in case of injury to a roster player , however he never appeared in a game . Though he feared his decision to leave for Russia would damage his relationship with the Flames , Giordano and the team came to terms on a three @-@ year contract that brought him back to Calgary for the 2008 – 09 NHL season .
Giordano appeared in 58 games for the Flames and scored 19 points before a shoulder injury ended his season . He required surgery to repair the damage suffered in a game against the Minnesota Wild . He recovered in time to begin the 2009 – 10 season , but several new additions to Calgary 's defensive corps left him concerned about his position with the team . Instead , he solidified his place on the roster with a career year ; Giordano set personal highs in goals ( 11 ) , points ( 30 ) and was + 17 for the Flames . The Hockey News named him one of the most underrated players in the league , and he was invited to join Team Canada at the 2010 IIHF World Championship . Giordano led the team 's defencemen with three goals in the tournament and added an assist in seven games .
Despite having the option to become an unrestricted free agent following the 2010 – 11 season , Giordano opted to remain in Calgary and signed a five @-@ year , $ 20 million contract extension with the Flames on October 29 , 2010 . He led the team 's defencemen in scoring and set another career high with 43 points in 82 games . Giordano missed several weeks of the 2011 – 12 season after suffering a torn hamstring . The injury caused Giordano , who was named an alternate captain prior to the season 's start , to miss 21 games . He finished with 27 points in 61 games , then scored 15 points in 47 games in the lockout @-@ shortened 2012 – 13 season .
Giordano was named the 19th captain in Flames history on September 20 , 2013 , as he succeeded Jarome Iginla , who was traded late in the 2012 – 13 season . Giordano was praised by his teammates and coaches staff for both his long tenure with the franchise and for his playing style : Giordano played in all situations for the Flames , was one of the hardest workers on the team and was willing to sacrifice himself to block a shot or defend his teammates . Head coach Bob Hartley praised Giordano 's influence on his teammates as the rebuilding Flames team established an identity as a squad which was noted across the league for its work ethic .
A blocked shot injured Giordano early in the 2013 – 14 season as he suffered a broken ankle in late October . He missed 18 games due to the injury , during which the Flames gained only five wins . He still recorded career highs of 13 goals and 47 points . Though he was not named to the team , Giordano 's growing reputation placed him on Team Canada 's short list for the 2014 Winter Olympics , and he received a first place vote ( finishing 10th overall ) in voting for the James Norris Memorial Trophy as the league 's top defenceman .
A surge in offensive production from Giordano and fellow defencemen T. J. Brodie and Dennis Wideman resulted in the Flames being one of the NHL 's biggest surprises early in the 2014 – 15 season . Predicted to finish near the bottom of the standings before the season , the Flames instead began December with one of the best records in the league , in large part due to the play of Giordano , who led all NHL defencemen with 25 points , four better than Brodie . His plus @-@ minus of + 14 ranked him second in the league . The NHL recognized Giordano 's early season play by naming him its First Star of the month of November . He was subsequently named as the Flames ' representative at the 60th National Hockey League All @-@ Star Game . Giordano played his 500th career game on February 2 , 2015 , in a victory over the Winnipeg Jets . He set a personal best by scoring his 48th point of the season in a 3 – 1 win over the New Jersey Devils on February 25 , but also suffered an injury in the game . The Flames announced one week later that he required surgery for a completely torn biceps tendon ; the estimated recovery time of four to five months meant that his season was over .
= = Personal life = =
Giordano and his wife are spokespeople for Habitat for Humanity . They launched a program called " 5 @-@ for @-@ 5 " in January 2011 that aimed to build five homes for the organization , one in the Calgary area and four in Africa and Asia . Giordano donated $ 25 @,@ 000 of the $ 130 @,@ 000 cost himself , and his contribution was matched by the Flames charitable foundation . The team honoured him for his work with Habitat for Humanity and the Flames Foundation for Life by naming him the recipient of the J. R. " Bud " McCaig Award in 2012 . Prior to the 2014 – 15 season , Giordano and his wife launched another initiative , known as the " Team Giordano Project " , where they and the Flames ' charitable arm donated funding to three Calgary schools to supply new gym equipment and computers , as well as to visit the schools and offer mentorship to the students .
= = Career statistics = =
= = = Regular season and playoffs = = =
= = = International = = =
= = Awards and honours = =
|
= Te Quiero ( Ricardo Arjona song ) =
" Te Quiero " is a latin pop song by Guatemalan recording artist Ricardo Arjona , released on 5 July 2012 as the third single from his thirteenth studio album , Independiente ( 2011 ) . The song was written by Arjona , who produced it with longtime collaborators Dan Warner and Lee Levin under their stage name Los Gringos . Additional recording work was handled by Peter Wallace , Matt Rollings , Carlos " Cabral " Junior and Isaías García .
The song became Arjona 's fifth single to reach number one on the US Billboard Top Latin Songs , his ninth to do so on the Latin Pop Songs chart and third on Latin Tropical Airplay . It also charted at No.10 on the Billboard Mexican Airplay chart . An accompanying music video for " Te Quiero " was released in June 2012 . It was directed by Gabriel Blanco and filmed during Arjona 's concert shows at the Vélez Sarsfield Stadium in Buenos Aires , Argentina , as part of his Metamorfosis World Tour , and marks the first time Arjona releases a music video recorded from his live performances while on tour .
= = Background = =
Independiente is the first album Arjona released as an independent artist , and through his own record label , Metamorfosis , a company he created to refocus his career . Presided by Arjona and some friends , Metamorfosis is based in Miami and Mexico City , and also includes the photographer and director Ricardo Calderón , Universal Music México 's executive Humberto Calderon and BMG 's Miriam Sommerz . Although the album is marketed with the new label , distribution was handled by Warner Music . Arjona commented many times , that he considered the way he decided to go independent raised more compromise than freedom , saying that " Inside the word ' Independent ' , even when it sounds like extreme freedom , there 's a big amount of compromise and the responsibility of being able to administrate , in the best way possible , such independence . "
Independiente was composed and written within one year , and marks the fourth time Arjona had collaborated with Tommy Torres , who had helped writing , composing , producing and providing backing vocals . The other three albums in which the two artists had worked together are Quién Dijo Ayer , in which Torres helped producing the singles " Quién " and " Quiero " , and offering additional work on the new versions of Arjona 's hits ; 5to Piso , and Adentro , respectively . Also , in the album , Arjona returned to his classic and trademark sound , which Torres has helped crafting it since six years now , after the drastic change he made in Poquita Ropa . On that album , the artist made use of the fewest instruments possible , simplifying his sound , and introducing what he called a " stripped @-@ down acoustic effort " of his music .
Weeks before the release of Independiente , Arjona issued a letter in which he talked about his past relations with recording companies . In the letter , he revealed that he entered in his first record label as an exchange , commenting that " a producer , friend of mine , told them [ the record label ] that if they don 't sign me they won 't sign two artists he had [ at that time ] " , and that he received the " minimum royalty percentage " out from his most successful albums . Billboard notes that although other groups have decided to launch independently their works after having a contract with major record labels , Arjona is by far the most important artist in the Latin pop to follow this trend .
= = Composition = =
" Te Quiero " is a latin pop song written and produced by Arjona , alongside longtime collaborators Dan Warner and Lee Levin under their stagename Los Gringos . Roger Hudson provided additional background vocals for the song , and Matt Rollings , Peter Wallace , Carlos " Cabral " Junior and Isaías García served as recording engineers , along with Warner and Levin . " Te Quiero " was mixed by David Thoener in The Blue Grotto at Nashville , Tennessee and mastered by Tom Coyne in Sterling Sound at New York City .
The song 's composition is heavily based on drums and guitars , along with additional Hammond B @-@ 3 , bass and percussion elements . David Jeffries from Allmusic , on his review of Independiente , stated that the song " builds into a full @-@ band rave @-@ up during its choruses . " A live version of " Te Quiero " was made and used on the music video for the song , and was included on the single release .
= = Promotion = =
= = = Music video = = =
The music video for " Te Quiero " was released on 20 June 2012 . The clip was filmed during Arjona 's concert shows at the Vélez Sarsfield Stadium in Buenos Aires , Argentina , as part of his Metamorfosis World Tour . The video was directed by Gabriel Blanco and was produced by Tamir Lotan . This is the first time Arjona releases a music video recorded from his live performances while on tour . The clip starts showing behind the scenes shots of Arjona , his team and his fans while the song begins to play . Then , it shows the singer on stage singing the song in front of the public at the Velez Stadium , interpolated with shots from people during the performance singing the song . The live version of the song used on the clip was included on the single release of the song . As of 14 August 2012 , the video has reached 2 @.@ 1 million views on YouTube .
= = = Live performances = = =
" Te Quiero " was in the set list for a televised program in 2011 . The special included guest singers such as Gaby Moreno , Ricky Muñoz ( from Mexican band Intocable ) and Paquita la del Barrio . Broadcast by Televisa , the program was made to showcast the new fourteen songs included on Independiente . Ricky Muñoz commented that he was " happy to do things for Ricardo [ Arjona ] " and elaborated that they met each other " some time ago " and that it was " a very special situation . " The show was later broadcast on 5 November 2011 by Canal de las Estrellas .
= = Track listing = =
Digital download
" Te Quiero " – 4 : 38
" Te Quiero " ( Live ) – 4 : 56
= = Credits and personnel = =
Credits are taken from Independiente liner notes .
= = Charts = =
= = Release history = =
|
= Superman : Ultimate Flight =
Superman : Ultimate Flight is a steel flying roller coaster designed by Bolliger & Mabillard . Themed to the popular comic book character , Superman : Ultimate Flight has been installed at three Six Flags theme parks around the United States : Six Flags Over Georgia , Six Flags Great Adventure and Six Flags Great America . Superman : Ultimate Flight simulates flying by positioning its passengers parallel to the track , supported by harnesses and facing the ground through most of the ride . In the station , riders board the train sitting down . After the train is locked and checked , the trains are raised into the flying position . After the ride , the seats are lowered back into the sitting position for the next round of riders .
= = History = =
The first flying roller coaster , in which passengers ride parallel with the track , was launched in 1997 at Granada Studios Tour as Skytrak Total . Shortly after , Bolliger & Mabillard began designing their own flying roller coaster . In January 2002 , both Alton Towers in the United Kingdom and Six Flags Over Georgia in the United States announced their intentions to build Bolliger & Mabillard " Flying Coasters " . On March 16 , 2002 , Alton Towers opened the first installation , Air . Less than a month later , Superman : Ultimate Flight opened at Six Flags Over Georgia , in Austell , Georgia .
Six Flags ordered two more versions of the attraction for the 2003 season for Six Flags Great Adventure in Jackson Township , New Jersey , and Six Flags Great America in Gurnee , Illinois . Six Flags Great Adventure 's version of the ride officially opened to the public on April 17 , 2003 . In preparation for the ride 's installation at Six Flags Great America , the park removed Shockwave , an Arrow Dynamics roller coaster that was located on part of the park 's parking lot . Grading works also had to take place to convert the parking lot into something more suitable for Superman : Ultimate Flight . The ride at Six Flags Great America opened on May 3 , 2003 .
In 2006 , a clone of the Superman : Ultimate Flight installations opened as Crystal Wing at the Happy Valley amusement park in Beijing , China .
= = Characteristics = =
Whilst all three Superman : Ultimate Flight roller coasters are the same model , there are some differences between them . All three feature a top height of 106 feet ( 32 m ) and a 100 @-@ foot ( 30 m ) first drop . They all reach a top speed of 51 miles per hour ( 82 km / h ) and feature two inversions . Superman : Ultimate Flight 's signature element is its 78 @-@ foot @-@ tall ( 24 m ) pretzel loop ; it was the first roller coaster in the world to feature one . A single cycle of the ride takes nearly 3 minutes to complete .
The original version at Six Flags Over Georgia features a dual @-@ platform loading station , permitting three trains to operate simultaneously . Each train has seven cars , with each car carrying four riders side @-@ by @-@ side in a single row . The other two versions use a more standard single @-@ platform loading station . While this allows a maximum of only two trains to operate at a time , each train compensates by having one additional row for a total of eight rows per train .
The length of the ride also varies between the locations . Both the Georgia and New Jersey installations feature a track length of 2 @,@ 759 feet ( 841 m ) , while the Illinois version features a track length of 2 @,@ 798 feet ( 853 m ) . The ride reaches its maximum speed of 51 miles per hour ( 82 km / h ) at the bottom of the 78 foot tall ( 24m ) pretzel loop , not on the first drop because the ride dives slightly below ground level .
The New Jersey and Illinois versions were also built on what used to be sections of parking lot . Georgia 's version was built on hilly terrain , and hence there is a short tunnel when the track enters the 270 degree helix leading into the heartline roll . All three roller coasters were manufactured by Clermont Steel Fabricators located in Batavia , Ohio .
As its name suggests , Superman : Ultimate Flight is themed after DC Comics ' Superman character . The track of all three rides is red , with yellow rails and blue supports . The rides ' queues are contained within each ride 's footprint and contain various elements of Superman theming . The installations at Six Flags Great America and Six Flag Great Adventure have dedicated gift shops near the ride 's exit that sell a variety of DC Comics merchandise .
= = Experience = =
= = = Station and loading = = =
Once in the station , riders of Superman : Ultimate Flight board a train sitting down , in a similar style to inverted roller coasters . Riders are restrained through a padded over @-@ the @-@ shoulder harness and a lap bar . At the ankles , two flaps hold the legs in position and close as the harness is locked in place . After the train is fully locked and checked , the trains are raised into the flying position and depart the station .
= = = Ride layout = = =
Superman : Ultimate Flight begins as the train turns to the right and begins to climb the 106 @-@ foot @-@ tall ( 32 m ) chain lift hill . After cresting the top of the lift hill , the train drops 100 feet ( 30m ) to the right at 51 miles per hour ( 82 km / h ) and prepares to enter the pretzel loop . In a pretzel loop , a train swoops up to a height of 78 feet ( 24 m ) before diving toward the ground , looping back under the starting point . At the bottom of the loop , riders face upward and experience strong , positive g forces . To complete the pretzel loop , the train climbs back to the top of the element , parallel to where it started . After exiting the element , the train then enters a 270 @-@ degree turn to the left , dropping back through the middle of the pretzel loop .
Next , the train passes through two consecutive horseshoe turns , first to the right and then to the left . As the name suggests , Horseshoe turns are highly banked horseshoe @-@ shaped turns which feature track entering from roughly the same direction as where it exits . As the train exits the second horseshoe , it swoops down and begins a 270 @-@ degree helix to the right , which leads into the ride 's second inversion , an inline twist . The inline twist sees riders perform a full rotation around the track , starting from a position where they are facing downward . After completing the twist , the train reaches the brake run and a final right @-@ hand turn that leads back into the station .
= = Reception = =
Superman : Ultimate Flight was generally well received . Arthur Levine from About.com rated the ride four out of five stars , describing the flying sensation as wonderful . He also praised Six Flags for the choice of theme , saying , " the Superman theme is ideally suited for the flying concept and adds a nice touch " . Alex Bove of Ultimate Rollercoaster also reviewed the ride favorably : " From its comfortable restraints , silky ride and delightful pacing to its avian aesthetics , Superman : Ultimate Flight demonstrates B & M 's unmatched attention to detail and their genuine desire to create enjoyable rides that surprise us over and over again " . Jeremy Thompson of Roller Coaster Philosophy compared the ride unfavorably to Batman : The Ride , which also appears at all three parks : " Batman is gritty and intense and based on quick variations in the layout , while Superman is graceful and slower paced , based on creating a singular flight sensation , and quite honestly it 's all a tad boring " . However , he added that the " flying position does transform the ride experience into something relatively different from the rest " .
In Amusement Today 's annual Golden Ticket Awards , Superman : Ultimate Flight was ranked in the top 50 steel roller coasters numerous times since its opening . It peaked at position 35 in 2004 , before dropping off the poll in 2007 .
In Mitch Hawker 's worldwide Best Roller Coaster Poll , Superman : Ultimate Flight was ranked as three separate entries from 2002 through to 2010 . The entries were grouped from 2012 onward . The ride 's ranking in the polls is shown in the table below .
|
= The Wounded Montenegrin =
The Wounded Montenegrin ( Serbian Latin : Ranjeni Crnogorac ) is the title of four nearly identical compositions by the artist Paja Jovanović depicting a wounded youth surrounded by peasants in traditional clothing , likely during the Montenegrin – Ottoman War of 1876 – 78 .
The first rendering garnered praise from critics , and won the first @-@ place prize at the Academy of Fine Arts ' annual art exhibition in Vienna in 1882 . Given its success , Jovanović was granted an Austro @-@ Hungarian government scholarship and entered into a contract with the French Gallery in London to produce a series of paintings on Balkan life . Art historians consider The Wounded Montenegrin one of Jovanović 's best Orientalist works . Jovanović went on to complete three further versions of the composition in the ensuing decades , three of which are oil paintings . The first is currently on display at the Matica Srpska gallery in Novi Sad , the second and third are in private collections , and the fourth is housed at the Museum of Yugoslav History in Belgrade .
= = Description = =
The original oil painting measures 114 by 189 centimetres ( 45 in × 74 in ) . It shows a muscular , wounded youth surrounded by ten peasants in a humble , single @-@ room dwelling . The peasants wear hand @-@ sewn shirts , rough leggings and leather shoes . They stand over a dirt floor , and in the background , a collection of eating utensils hang precariously from a makeshift shelf . The youth is cradled in the arms of a crouching , shaved @-@ headed warrior . The two are surrounded by a pair of heavily armed men on either side of them . Nearby , a light @-@ haired girl quietly grieves . To the right of these figures stands a grief @-@ stricken old man , himself surrounded by a number of figures in folk attire . To the far right , two figures can be seen standing inauspiciously in the shadows . The artist 's signature , rendered as Joanowits P. , can be found at the bottom right .
Jovanović composed a total of four versions of The Wounded Montenegrin , three oil paintings and one sketch . What distinguishes the first rendering from subsequent versions is its size ( it is the largest by far ) , detailed precision , and the artist 's removal of the two figures seen lingering in the shadows in the original . The second version , an oil painting , measures 100 by 152 centimetres ( 39 in × 60 in ) . The artist 's signature , P. Ivanovitch , can be seen at the bottom right . The third rendition is a sketch measuring 23 by 35 centimetres ( 9 @.@ 1 in × 13 @.@ 8 in ) , with the artist 's signature , Pa . Jo . , at the bottom right . The fourth version , another oil painting , measures 70 by 103 centimetres ( 28 in × 41 in ) . The artist 's signature , Paul Ivanovitch , can be seen at the bottom right .
Jovanović did not assign titles to his works , as he felt that if a painting was well composed viewers would be able to deduce the title themselves . Thus , the majority of the artist 's works are referred to by a number of different titles . The Wounded Montenegrin also appears under the titles The Wounded Herzegovinian ( Ranjeni Hercegovac ) , The Wounded Bosnian ( Ranjeni Bosanac ) , Sad Encounter ( Žalosni susret ) , Sad Farewell ( Žalosni rastanak ) and Unsuccessful Banditry ( Neuspelo razbojništvo ) .
= = History = =
= = = Background = = =
Paja Jovanović ( 1859 – 1957 ) was one of the most prominent Serbian realist painters of the late 19th century . During his early career , he came to be identified with Orientalist painting , depicting scenes from the Balkans , which were then under the control of the Ottoman Empire . Between 1877 and 1882 , he attended the Academy of Fine Arts in Vienna , where he came under the mentorship of painting instructors Christian Griepenkerl and Leopold Müller . Griepenkerl taught the young Jovanović the underlying structural principles of Renaissance and Baroque art , thus helping him better understand spatial problems and the arrangement of large numbers of figures , both moving and static . Müller encouraged Jovanović to take a naturalist approach to painting , recording only what he could see and relying as little as possible on his imagination . It was in this context that Müller instructed Jovanović to make direct studies of Balkan life during his visits home , purposely steering him towards Orientalist painting .
Orientalist works , vignettes of " exotic life " in the Middle East , North Africa and the Balkans , were quite popular with Central and Western European art collectors in the late 19th and early 20th centuries . At the time of The Wounded Montenegrin 's composition , events in the Balkans had been making headline news in European capitals for decades . The Montenegrins had fought and lost the 1861 – 62 Montenegrin – Ottoman War . This was followed by about a decade of peace , but in 1872 , the Ottomans massacred more than 20 Montenegrins . The Herzegovina Uprising of 1875 prompted Montenegro and Serbia to declare war on the Ottoman Empire , sparking the Great Eastern Crisis of 1875 – 78 . The wars ended in the Treaty of Berlin in 1878 , but occasional cross @-@ border skirmishing continued until the early 1880s . Although Jovanović never specified , it is likely the painting is set during the 1876 – 78 Montenegrin – Ottoman War .
= = = Provenance = = =
Jovanović composed the first , and most famous , version of the The Wounded Montenegrin in 1882 while studying at the Vienna Academy . It was sold to a merchant named Schwartz in Vienna later that year . Within several months , Schwartz sold the painting to a Budapest casino for 1 @,@ 000 florins . After World War II , it came into the possession of the Yugoslav embassy in Budapest , which gifted it to the Matica Srpska gallery in 1971 , where it is on permanent display . It is catalogued under inventory code ГМС Y / 3912 .
The second version of The Wounded Montenegrin was composed in 1891 . It was initially owned by Arthur Toot & Sons , a London art dealer , before coming into the possession of the Salon . Afterwards , it entered into a private collection , and remained in private ownership until 1989 , when it was auctioned off at Sotheby 's . Between 1989 and 1997 , it was housed at a museum in Rome , but sold again thereafter . It is currently in a private collection .
The third version , composed after 1900 , is part of a private collection . The fourth , painted in the 1920s , was in a private collection until World War II . After the war , it was confiscated by the communists . Following the death of Yugoslav leader Josip Broz Tito , it was put on display at Tito 's mausoleum , the House of Flowers . It is currently on display at the Museum of Yugoslav History , and catalogued under the inventory code 59 R.
= = Analysis = =
In line with Müller 's advice , Jovanović avoided creating a sentimental work and focused instead on depicting characters and situations he observed during his time in the Balkans . This differentiates the painting from other Orientalist paintings of the day , which were based on travel accounts rather than first @-@ hand experience . The art historian Lilien Filipovitch @-@ Robinson notes that the grouping of the figures and their interactions with one another are reminiscent of images of the lamentation over the body of Christ . The right half of the scene recedes into shadow while the brightly illuminated left , where the principal figures are located , appears to expand towards the viewer . Jovanović thus directs the viewer 's eye from left to right , foreground to background , through the circular pattern of the groupings as well as the diagonal lines of the peasants ' swords . In line with Müller 's teachings regarding light and colour , Jovanović adds touches of bright red to give warmth and movement to the scene , making it appear as though it is unfolding before the viewer . The brushwork is varied , ranging from the smooth broad strokes that define the solidity of the walls to quick short ones that make it appear like the figures are in motion .
Filipovitch @-@ Robinson praises Jovanović 's " skillful handling " of linear and aerial perspective . She notes that the work is devoid of the " studio @-@ contrived quality " of other Orientalist paintings , and argues that Jovanović 's main goal was not to depict a particular historical event but rather to remind his audience of the Balkan peoples ' ongoing struggle against the Ottoman Turks and provide a human face to those engaged in that struggle .
= = Reception and legacy = =
The painting was first shown in public in 1882 , at the Vienna Academy 's annual student exhibition , which exhibited works produced during the 1881 – 82 academic year . It was well received by art critics and Jovanović 's peers , who judged it to be the exhibition 's finest work and bestowed him the first @-@ place prize . Jovanović also received an Austro @-@ Hungarian government scholarship . The exact amount accorded to the artist is disputed . Petar Petrović , the curator of the National Museum of Serbia , writes that the scholarship amounted to 300 florins . Art historians Radmila Antić and Nikola Kusovac state the scholarship amounted to 1 @,@ 000 florins . Jovanović 's triumph at the student exhibition and the subsequent scholarship gave him the means to travel over the summer holidays , during which he came up with a number of ideas for future paintings , such as The Fencing Lesson ( Mačevanje ) . Winning the Vienna Academy prize established him as a respected painter of Orientalist works and set the stage for further recognition and success . In 1883 , Jovanović entered into a contract with Ernest Gambart 's French Gallery in London to produce a series of paintings on Balkan life . This contract assured him life @-@ long financial security .
Art historians consider The Wounded Montenegrin one of Jovanović 's best Orientalist works . Petrović calls it the " crowning achievement " of the artist 's studies under Müller . Jovanović went on to paint a number of other Orientalist pieces , notably The Snake Charmer ( 1887 ) .
= = = Endnotes = = =
|
= Walter de Beauchamp ( nobleman ) =
Walter de Beauchamp ( sometimes Walter I of Beauchamp , Walter of Beauchamp , Walter I de Beauchamp , or Walter de Bellocampo ; died between 1130 and 1133 ) was a medieval nobleman and Sheriff of Worcestershire . Married to the daughter of one of his predecessors as sheriff . Nothing is known for sure of his background before he appears as a witness to royal charters between 1108 and 1111 . Beauchamp also inherited offices in the royal household from his father @-@ in @-@ law , and also appears to have been a royal forester . He and another nobleman divided some of the lands of his father @-@ in @-@ law , but disagreements about the division lasted until the 12th century between the two families . He died between 1130 and 1133 , and one of his descendants later became Earl of Warwick .
= = Background and family = =
Beauchamp is sometimes known as Walter de Beauchamp of Elmley , to distinguish him from the members of the Beauchamp family of Bedford . He married the daughter of Urse d 'Abetot , who is usually named Emeline , although her name is not given in contemporary records . Urse d 'Abetot was the Sheriff of Worcestershire from around 1069 to around 1108 . Beauchamp may have been a tenant of his father @-@ in @-@ law prior to his marriage . Nothing is known for sure of Beauchamp 's background , and he first witnessed a royal charter sometime between 1108 and 1111 . Some documents suggest that his father may have been named Peveral de Beauchamp and that he had a brother named William Peveral de Beauchamp , but the only identifiable Peveral is younger than Walter .
= = Sheriff = =
In the 1110s , Beauchamp became Sheriff of Worcestershire , holding the office until 1130 . Some sources state he received the office in 1114 , and others place the acquisition of the office between December 1113 and April 1116 . Beauchamp inherited most of d 'Abetot 's lands and the hereditary office of Sheriff of Worcestershire when Roger d 'Abetot , Urse 's son , forfeited his lands and offices after being exiled by Henry I for murder . King Henry I of England granted Beauchamp the right to hunt wolves and foxes in the royal forests of Worcestershire . Along with the right to hunt in the royal forests came a grant of the right to keep pheasants on his own lands , and the right to fine anyone hunting the birds without his permission .
Beauchamp probably held the office of royal forester for Worcestershire as well as sheriff . The evidence for this is that after Beauchamp 's death , his son William was granted the revenues from the royal forests of Worcestershire at the same rate as his father had held them ; this strongly implies that the elder held the office of forester . The historian Judith Green felt that Walter de Beauchamp might possibly have held the office of constable , which had been held by his father @-@ in @-@ law , although the historian C. Warren Hollister felt that Beauchamp definitely did hold the office . He also a held the royal office of dispenser , an office which later became known as a butler . He acquired this because his wife inherited the office from her father . The date when he acquired the office is unknown . While a member of the royal household , Beauchamp witnessed a number of royal charters , mainly when the king was in England .
Beauchamp and the Bishop of Worcester had a dispute over the lands that Beauchamp inherited from d 'Abetot . The dispute caused the two sides to agree to the creation of the Worcester Survey , a land survey undertaken in Worcestershire sometime between 1108 and 1118 that shows changes in land ownership after the Domesday Book .
D 'Abetot 's widow Adeliza granted her dower lands in the county of Worcestershire to Beauchamp , which was confirmed by King Henry sometime between 1123 and 1129 , although the document cannot be dated more precisely than that . In 1130 , at Michaelmas , Henry allowed Beauchamp to not pay geld on his lands in Berkshire , and he is mentioned in the 1130 Pipe Roll as still living .
= = Death and legacy = =
Sometime between 1130 and 1133 , Beauchamp died and his son William de Beauchamp took over his lands . Stephen de Beauchamp , a tenant on the Beauchamp lands and a friend of Robert of Gloucester , was likely a younger son of Walter 's . The historian David Crouch says that another son was Walter , who is recorded as William 's brother and was a follower of Waleran , Count of Meulan . Beauchamp was the ancestor of the Beauchamp family of Elmley in Worcestershire , a member of which , William de Beauchamp , became Earl of Warwick .
The lands and offices of Urse 's brother Robert were divided between Beauchamp and Robert Marmion . Marmion and Beauchamp disagreed about the division of the lands , leading to a long dispute between the two families that was only settled in the late 12th century . Some sources state that another daughter of Urse d 'Abetot married Robert Marmion , which was the reason for the division of the lands and offices between the two men . Other sources are less sure , accepting this as one possibility among several for the divided inheritance between the Marmion and Beauchamp families . Because there are no contemporary sources showing that Urse had any children besides his son and the daughter who married Beauchamp , another possibility is that Urse 's brother Robert had a daughter who married Marmion , and that Urse managed to acquire part of her inheritance on the strength of his friendship with King William II of England .
|
= British Alpine Hannibal Expedition =
The British Alpine Hannibal Expedition was an experimental archeology event that took place in 1959 . British engineer John Hoyte led an expedition that tried to reenact aspects of Hannibal 's legendary crossing of the Alps during the Second Punic War in 218 BCE . The group successfully took the female Asian elephant Jumbo , provided by a zoo in Turin , from France over the Col du Mont Cenis into Italy .
= = Background = =
After the Carthaginian defeat in the First Punic War of 264 – 241 BCE , Hamilcar Barca secured an extensive territory in the Iberian peninsula for Carthage . At the beginning of the Second Punic War in 218 BCE , his son Hannibal took an army of perhaps 50 @,@ 000 men and 37 war elephants from Hispania ( modern @-@ day Spain ) to Italy , where he led a 15 year campaign against Rome . Hannibal avoided the coastal route , and took his army over the Alps . His march has been described by ancient historians Polybius and Livy . The exact route , however , has been subject of long but inconclusive scholarly discourse . In his 1955 book Alps and elephants : Hannibal 's march , Gavin de Beer lists 12 possible candidates from 30 different books .
= = The expedition = =
In 1955 , The Times published a debate about the route Hannibal might have taken over the Alps . This debate came to the attention of John Hoyte , then an engineering student at Cambridge University . Hoyte had an interest in both history and mountain climbing , and spent the summer of 1956 with friends hiking the Alps and comparing possible routes to the ancient descriptions . The group came to the conclusion that the Col de Clapier was the most likely pass , an opinion still supported by some modern historians .
A few years later , a friend suggested to test this theory with an actual elephant . Hoyte wrote letters to the British consuls in Lyon , France , Geneva , Switzerland , and Turin , enquiring about the possibility of obtaining an elephant for the experiment , but without a serious expectation of success . However , the Turin Zoo had just acquired a female Asian elephant , Jumbo , who was trained as a circus animal . The owner of the zoo volunteered Jumbo and became the first sponsor of the expedition . Hoyte put together a team of 8 people , including Richard Jolly as the expedition secretary and Colonel John Hickman , Lecturer ( later Reader ) in Veterinary Surgery at the University of Cambridge Veterinary School , who had gained experience with elephants during World War II in Burma . The group obtained insurance for Jumbo from Lloyd 's of London and further sponsorship from Life magazine , which later published a 7 page photo report .
The expedition started in late July 1959 in Montmelian , France . It followed the valley of the Arc river and then ascended towards the Col de Clapier . However , the route up to the pass had become narrowed and dangerous due to rockfall . The group retracted down into the valley and crossed the Col du Mont Cenis , another pass suggested for Hannibal 's route by none less than French emperor Napoleon . After 10 days of travel , the expedition successfully " invaded " Susa in Italy .
The members of the expedition originally planned to call the 5 @,@ 700 pound ( 2 @.@ 6 t ) elephant Hannibella , however , the animal could not be made to respond to the new name and thus remained Jumbo . Jumbo was 11 years old and equipped with leather boots and knee pads for the most treacherous passages . A specially made coat was provided to keep her warm . Despite a diet consisting of 150 pounds ( 68 kg ) of hay , 50 pounds ( 23 kg ) of apples , 40 pounds ( 18 kg ) of bread , 20 pounds ( 9 @.@ 1 kg ) of carrots , and a vitamin B supplement per day , she lost an estimated 300 pounds ( 140 kg ) during the first 4 days of the trip , and nearly 500 pounds ( 230 kg ) in total . On arrival in Italy , she consumed cake and a Magnum bottle of Chianti .
In 1960 , Hoyte published a report on the expedition as Trunk Road for Hannibal : With an Elephant Over the Alps . Expedition member Cynthia Pilkington published the book " Elephant Over the Alps " in 1961 , telling the story of the expedition .
|
= Sayf al @-@ Dawla =
Ali ibn Abu 'l @-@ Hayja ' Abdallah ibn Hamdan ibn al @-@ Harith Sayf al @-@ Dawla al @-@ Taghlibi ( Arabic : سيف الدولة أبو الحسن ابن حمدان ) , more commonly known simply by his laqab ( honorific epithet ) of Sayf al @-@ Dawla ( " Sword of the Dynasty " ) , was the founder of the Emirate of Aleppo , encompassing most of northern Syria and parts of western Jazira , and the brother of al @-@ Hasan ibn Abdallah ibn Hamdan ( better known as Nasir al @-@ Dawla ) .
The most prominent member of the Hamdanid dynasty , Sayf al @-@ Dawla originally served under his elder brother in the latter 's attempts to establish his control over the weak Abbasid government in Baghdad during the early 940s CE . After the failure of these endeavours , the ambitious Sayf al @-@ Dawla turned towards Syria , where he confronted the ambitions of the Ikhshidids of Egypt to control the province . After two wars with them , his authority over northern Syria , centred at Aleppo , and the western Jazira , centred at Mayyafariqin , was recognized by the Ikhshidids and the Caliph . A series of tribal rebellions plagued his realm until 955 , but he was successful in overcoming them and maintaining the allegiance of the most important Arab tribes . Sayf al @-@ Dawla 's court at Aleppo became the centre of a vibrant cultural life , and the literary cycle he gathered around him , including the great al @-@ Mutanabbi , helped ensure his fame for posterity .
Sayf al @-@ Dawla was widely celebrated for his role in the Arab – Byzantine Wars , facing a resurgent Byzantine Empire that in the early 10th century had begun to reconquer Muslim territories . In this struggle against a much superior enemy , he launched raids deep into Byzantine territory and managed to score a few successes , and generally held the upper hand until 955 . After that , the new Byzantine commander , Nikephoros Phokas , and his lieutenants spearheaded an offensive that broke Hamdanid power . The Byzantines annexed Cilicia , and even occupied Aleppo itself briefly in 962 . Sayf al @-@ Dawla 's final years were marked by military defeats , his own growing disability as a result of disease , and a decline in his authority that led to revolts by some of his closest lieutenants . He died in early 967 , leaving a much weakened realm , which by 969 had lost Antioch and the Syrian littoral to the Byzantines and become a Byzantine tributary .
= = Life = =
= = = Origin and family = = =
Sayf al @-@ Dawla was born Ali ibn Abdallah , the second son of Abdallah Abu 'l @-@ Hayja ibn Hamdan ( died 929 ) , son of Hamdan ibn Hamdun ibn al @-@ Harith , who gave his name to the Hamdanid dynasty . The Hamdanids were a branch of the Banu Taghlib , an Arab tribe resident in the area of the Jazira ( Upper Mesopotamia ) since pre @-@ Islamic times . The Taghlibs had traditionally controlled Mosul and its region until the late 9th century , when the Abbasid government tried to impose firmer control over the province . Hamdan ibn Hamdun was one of the most determined Taghlibi leaders in opposing this move . Notably , in his effort to fend off the Abbasids , he secured the alliance of the Kurds living in the mountains north of Mosul , a fact which would be of considerable importance in his family 's later fortunes . Family members intermarried with Kurds , who were also prominent in the Hamdanid military .
Hamdan was defeated in 895 and imprisoned with his relatives , but his son Husayn ibn Hamdan managed to secure the family 's future . He raised troops for the Caliph among the Taghlib in exchange for tax remissions , and established a commanding influence in the Jazira by acting as a mediator between the Abbasid authorities and the Arab and Kurdish population . It was this strong local base which allowed the family to survive its often strained relationship with the central Abbasid government in Baghdad during the early 10th century . Husayn was a successful general , distinguishing himself against the Kharijites and the Tulunids , but was disgraced after supporting the failed usurpation of Ibn al @-@ Mu 'tazz in 908 . His younger brother Ibrahim was governor of Diyar Rabi 'a ( the province around Nasibin ) in 919 and after his death in the next year he was succeeded by another brother , Dawud . Sayf al @-@ Dawla 's father Abdallah served as emir ( governor ) of Mosul in 905 / 6 – 913 / 4 , was repeatedly disgraced and rehabilitated , until re @-@ assuming control of Mosul in 925 / 6 . Enjoying firm relations with the powerful Mu 'nis al @-@ Muzaffar , he later played a leading role in the short @-@ lived usurpation of al @-@ Qahir against al @-@ Muqtadir in 929 , and was killed during its suppression .
Despite the coup 's failure and his death , Abdallah had been able to consolidate his control over Mosul , becoming the virtual founder of a Hamdanid @-@ ruled emirate there . During his long absences in Baghdad in his final years , Abdallah relegated authority over Mosul to his eldest son , al @-@ Hasan , the future Nasir al @-@ Dawla . After Abdallah 's death , Hasan 's position in Mosul was challenged by his uncles , and it was not until 935 that he was able to secure confirmation by Baghdad of his control over Mosul and the entire Jazira up to the Byzantine frontier .
= = = Early career under al @-@ Hasan Nasir al @-@ Dawla = = =
The young Ali ibn Abdallah began his career under his brother . In 936 , Hasan invited his younger brother to his service , promising him the governorship of Diyar Bakr ( the region around Amida ) in exchange for his help against Ali ibn Ja 'far , the rebellious governor of Mayyafariqin . Ali ibn Abdallah was successful in preventing Ibn Ja 'far from receiving the assistance of his Armenian allies , and also secured control over the northern parts of the neighbouring province of Diyar Mudar after subduing the Qaysi tribes of the region around Saruj . From this position , he also launched expeditions to aid the Muslim emirates of the Byzantine frontier zone ( the Thughur ) against the advancing Byzantines , and intervened in Armenia to reverse growing Byzantine influence ( see below ) .
In the meantime , Hasan became involved in the intrigues of the Abbasid court . Since the murder of Caliph al @-@ Muqtadir in 932 , the Abbasid government had all but collapsed , and in 936 the powerful governor of Wasit , Muhammad ibn Ra 'iq , assumed the title of amir al @-@ umara ( " commander of commanders " ) and with it de facto control of the Abbasid government . The Caliph al @-@ Radi was reduced to a figurehead role , while the extensive old civil bureaucracy was drastically reduced both in size and power . Ibn Ra 'iq 's position was anything but secure , however , and soon a convoluted struggle for control of the office of [ amir al @-@ umara , and the Caliphate with it , broke out among the various local rulers and the Turkish military chiefs , which ended in 946 with the victory of the Buyids .
Hasan initially supported Ibn Ra 'iq , but in 942 he had him assassinated and secured for himself the post of amir al @-@ umara , receiving the honorific laqab of Nasir al @-@ Dawla ( " Defender of the Dynasty " ) . The Baridis , a local family of Basra , who also desired control over the Caliph , continued to resist , and Nasir al @-@ Dawla now sent Ali against them . After scoring a victory over Abu 'l Husayn al @-@ Baridi at al @-@ Mada 'in , Ali was named governor of Wasit and awarded the laqab of Sayf al @-@ Dawla ( " Sword of the Dynasty " ) , by which he became famous . This double award to the Hamdanid brothers marked the first time that a laqab incorporating the prestigious element al @-@ Dawla was granted to anyone other than the wazir , the Caliphate 's chief minister .
The Hamdanids ' success proved short @-@ lived , however . They were politically isolated , and found little support among the Caliphate 's most powerful vassals , the Samanids of Transoxiana and the Ikhshidids of Egypt . Consequently , when in 943 a mutiny over pay issues broke out among their troops ( mostly composed of Turks , Daylamites , Qarmatians and only a few Arabs ) , under the leadership of the Turk Tuzun , they were forced to quit Baghdad . Caliph al @-@ Muttaqi appointed Tuzun as amir al @-@ umara , but soon quarrelled with him and fled north to seek Hamdanid protection . Tuzun , however , defeated Nasir al @-@ Dawla and Sayf al @-@ Dawla in the field , and in 944 an agreement was concluded which allowed the Hamdanids to keep the Jazira and even gave them nominal authority over northern Syria ( which at the time was not under Hamdanid control ) , in exchange for a large tribute . Henceforth , Nasir al @-@ Dawla would be tributary to Baghdad . However , his continued attempts to control Baghdad led to a clash with the Buyids . Eventually , in 958 / 9 Nasir al @-@ Dawla would be forced to seek refuge in the court of his brother , before Sayf al @-@ Dawla could negotiate his return to Mosul with the Buyid emir Mu 'izz al @-@ Dawla .
= = = Establishment of the Emirate of Aleppo = = =
Northern Syria had been under the control of the Ikhshidids since 935 / 6 , until Ibn Ra 'iq detached it from Egyptian control in 939 / 40 . In 942 , when Nasir al @-@ Dawla replaced the assassinated Ibn Ra 'iq , he attempted to impose his own control over the region , and particularly Ibn Ra 'iq 's own province of Diyar Mudar . Hamdanid troops took control of the Balikh River valley , but the local magnates were still inclined towards the Ikhshidids , and Hamdanid authority was tenuous . The Ikhshidids did not intervene directly , but supported ' Adl al @-@ Bakjami , the governor of Rahba . Al @-@ Bakjami captured Nasibin , where Sayf al @-@ Dawla had left his treasures , but was finally defeated and captured by Sayf al @-@ Dawla 's cousin Abu Abdallah al @-@ Husayn ibn Sa 'id ibn Hamdan , and executed at Baghdad in May 943 . Husayn then proceeded to occupy the entire province , from Diyar Mudar to the Thughur . Al @-@ Raqqah was taken by storm , but Aleppo surrendered without a fight in February 944 . Al @-@ Muttaqi now sent messages to al @-@ Ikhshid , asking for his support against the various warlords who wanted to control him . The Hamdanids confined the Caliph at Raqqah , but in summer 944 al @-@ Ikhshid arrived in Syria . Husayn abandoned Aleppo to the Egyptian , who then visited the exiled Caliph at Raqqah . Al @-@ Muttaqi confirmed Ikhshidid control over Syria , but after the Caliph refused to relocate himself to Egypt , the Egyptian ruler refused to commit himself to further aid for the Caliph against his enemies . The Ikhshid returned to Egypt , while al @-@ Muttaqi , powerless and dejected , went back to Baghdad , only to be blinded and deposed by Tuzun .
It was in this context that Sayf al @-@ Dawla turned his attention to Syria . The previous years had seen a series of personal humiliations , with defeats in the field by Tuzun followed by his failure to persuade al @-@ Muttaqi to nominate him as amir al @-@ umara . It was during the latter attempt that he also had one of his rivals , Muhammad ibn Inal al @-@ Turjuman , assassinated . As Thierry Bianquis writes , following the failure of his brother 's designs in Iraq , Sayf al @-@ Dawla 's turn to Syria was " born of resentment when , having returned to Nasibin , he found himself under @-@ employed and badly paid " . Nasir al @-@ Dawla seems to have encouraged his brother to turn to Syria after Husayn 's failure there , writing to Sayf al @-@ Dawla that " Syria lies before you , there is no one in this land who can prevent you from taking it " . With money and troops provided by his brother , Sayf al @-@ Dawla invaded northern Syria in the wake of the Ikhshid 's departure . He gained the support of the local Banu Kilab tribe , to which the Ikhshid @-@ appointed governor of Aleppo belonged , and entered the city unopposed in October 944 .
= = = = Conflict with the Ikhshidids = = = =
The Ikhshidids reacted , and sent an army north under Abu al @-@ Misk Kafur to confront Sayf al @-@ Dawla , who was besieging Homs . In the ensuing battle , the Hamdanid scored a crushing victory . Homs then opened its gates , and Sayf al @-@ Dawla set his sights on Damascus . Sayf al @-@ Dawla briefly occupied the city in early 945 , but was forced to abandon it in the face of the citizens ' hostility . In April 945 the Ikhshid himself led an army into Syria , although at the same time he also offered terms to Sayf al @-@ Dawla , proposing to accept Hamdanid control over northern Syria and the Thughur . Sayf al @-@ Dawla rejected the Ikhshid 's proposals , but was defeated in battle in May / June and forced to retreat to Raqqah . The Egyptian army proceeded to raid the environs of Aleppo . Nevertheless , in October the two sides came to an agreement , broadly on the lines of the earlier Ikhshidid proposal : the Egyptian ruler acknowledged Hamdanid control over northern Syria , and even consented to sending an annual tribute in exchange for Sayf al @-@ Dawla 's renunciation of all claims on Damascus . The pact was sealed by Sayf al @-@ Dawla 's marriage to a niece of the Ikhshid , and Sayf al @-@ Dawla 's new domain received the — purely formal — sanction by the Caliph , who also re @-@ affirmed his laqab , soon thereafter .
The truce with the Ikhshidids lasted until the death of the Ikhshid , in July 946 at Damascus . Sayf al @-@ Dawla immediately marched south , took Damascus , and then proceeded to Palestine . There he was confronted once again by Kafur , who defeated the Hamdanid prince in a battle fought in December . Sayf al @-@ Dawla then retreated to Damascus , and from there to Homs . There he gathered his forces , including large Arab tribal contingents , and in spring of 947 , he attempted to recover Damascus . He was again defeated in battle , however , and in its aftermath the Ikhshidids even occupied Aleppo in July . Kafur , the Ikhshidid army 's leader , did not press his advantage , but instead began negotiations . For the Ikhshidids , the maintenance of Aleppo was less important than southern Syria with Damascus , which was Egypt 's eastern bulwark . As long as their control over this region was not threatened , the Egyptians were more than willing to allow the existence of a Hamdanid state in the north . Furthermore , the Ikhshidids realized that they would have difficulty in asserting and maintaining control over northern Syria and Cilicia , which were traditionally oriented more towards the Jazira and Iraq . Not only would Egypt , threatened by this time by the Fatimids in the east , be spared the cost of maintaining a large army in these distant lands , but the Hamdanid emirate would also fulfil the useful role of a buffer state against incursions both from Iraq and also from Byzantium . The agreement of 945 was reiterated , with the difference that the Ikhshidids ceased paying tribute for Damascus . The frontier thus established , between Jaziran @-@ influenced northern Syria and the Egyptian @-@ controlled southern part of the country , was to last until the Mamluks seized the entire country in 1260 .
Sayf al @-@ Dawla , who returned to Aleppo in autumn , was now master of an extensive realm : the north Syrian provinces ( jund Hims , jund Qinnasrin and the jund al- ' Awasim ) in a line running south of Homs to the coast near Tartus , and most of Diyar Bakr and Diyar Mudar in the western Jazira . He also exercised a — mostly nominal — suzerainty over the towns of the Byzantine frontier in Cilicia . Sayf al @-@ Dawla 's domain was a " Syro @-@ Mesopotamian state " , in the expression of the Orientalist Marius Canard , and extensive enough to require two capitals : alongside Aleppo , which became Sayf al @-@ Dawla 's main residence , Mayyafariqin was selected as the capital for the Jaziran provinces . The latter were held ostensibly in charge of his elder brother Nasir al @-@ Dawla , but in reality , the size and political importance of Sayf al @-@ Dawla 's emirate allowed him to effectively throw off the tutelage of Nasir al @-@ Dawla . Although Sayf al @-@ Dawla continued to show his elder brother due deference , henceforth , their positions would be reversed .
= = = = Arab tribal revolts = = = =
Aside from his confrontation with the Ikhshidids , Sayf al @-@ Dawla 's consolidation over his realm was challenged by the need to maintain good relations with the restive native Arab tribes . Northern Syria at this time was controlled by a number of Arab tribes , who had been resident in the area since the Umayyad period , and in many cases even before that . The region around Homs was settled by the Banu Kalb and the Banu Tayyi , while the north , a broad stripe of land from the Orontes until beyond the Euphrates was controlled by the still largely nomadic Qaysi tribes of Uqayl , Numayr , Ka 'b and Kushayr , as well as the aforementioned Banu Kilab around Aleppo . Further south , the originally Yemeni Tanukh were settled around Maarat al @-@ Numaan , while the coasts were settled by the Bahra ' and Kurds .
In his relations with them , Sayf al @-@ Dawla befitted from the fact that he was an ethnic Arab , unlike most of the contemporary rulers in the Islamic Middle East , who were Turkish or Iranian warlords who had risen from the ranks of the military slaves ( ghilman ) . This helped him win support among the Arab tribes , and the bedouins played a prominent role in his administration . However , in accordance with the usual late Abbasid practice familiar to Sayf al @-@ Dawla and common across the Muslim states of the Middle East , the Hamdanid state was heavily reliant on and increasingly dominated by its non @-@ Arab , mostly Turkish , ghilman . This is most evident in the composition of his army , which , alongside Arab tribal cavalry , made heavy use of Daylamites as infantry and Turks as horse archers .
After winning recognition by the Ikhshidids , Sayf al @-@ Dawla began a series of campaigns of consolidation . His main target was to establish firm control over the Syrian littoral , as well as the routes connecting it to the interior . The operations there included a difficult siege of the fortress of Barzuya in 947 – 948 , which was held by a Kurdish brigand leader , who from there controlled the lower Orontes valley . In central Syria , a Qarmatian @-@ inspired revolt of the Kalb and Tayyi erupted in late 949 , led by a certain Ibn Hirrat al @-@ Ramad . The rebels enjoyed initial success , even capturing the Hamdanid governor of Homs , but they were quickly crushed . In the north , the attempts of the Hamdanid administrators to keep the bedouin from interfering with the more settled Arab communities resulted in regular outbreaks of rebellion between 950 and 954 , which had to be suppressed by Sayf al @-@ Dawla 's army .
Finally , in 955 a major rebellion broke out which involved all tribes , both bedouin and sedentary , including the Hamdanids ' close allies , the Kilab . Sayf al @-@ Dawla was able to resolve the situation quickly , initiating a ruthless campaign of swift repression that included driving the tribes into the desert to die or capitulate , coupled with diplomacy that played on the divisions among the tribesmen . Thus the Kilab were offered peace and a return to their favoured status , and were given additional lands at the expense of the Kalb , who were evicted from their homes along with the Tayyi and fled south to settle in the plains north of Damascus and the Golan Heights , respectively . At the same time , the Numayr were also expelled and encouraged to resettle in the Jazira around Harran .
The suppression of the great tribal revolt marked , in the words of Islamic scholar Hugh N. Kennedy , " the high point of Sayf al @-@ Dawla ’ s success and power " . For a short time , during that year , his suzerainty was also acknowledged in parts of Azerbaijan around Salmas , where the Kurd Daysam established brief control until evicted and finally captured by Marzuban ibn Muhammad .
= = = Wars with the Byzantines = = =
Through his assumption of control over the Syrian and Jaziran borderlands ( the Thughur ) with Byzantium in 945 / 946 , Sayf al @-@ Dawla emerged as the chief Arab prince facing the Byzantine Empire , and warfare with the Byzantines became his main preoccupation . Indeed , much of Sayf al @-@ Dawla 's reputation stems from his unceasing , though ultimately unsuccessful war with the Empire .
By the early 10th century , the Byzantines had gained the upper hand over their eastern Muslim neighbours . The onset of decline in the Abbasid Caliphate after 861 ( the " Anarchy at Samarra " ) was followed by the Battle of Lalakaon in 863 , which had broken the power of the border emirate of Malatya and marked the beginning the gradual Byzantine encroachment on the Arab borderlands . Although the emirate of Tarsus in Cilicia remained strong and Malatya continued to resist Byzantine attacks , over the next half @-@ century the Byzantines managed to overwhelm the Paulician allies of Malatya and advance to the Upper Euphrates , occupying the mountains north of the city . Finally , after 927 , peace on their Balkan frontier enabled the Byzantines , under John Kourkouas , to turn their forces east and begin a series of campaigns that culminated in the fall and annexation of Malatya in 934 , an event which sent shock @-@ waves among the other Muslim emirates . Arsamosata followed in 940 , and Qaliqala ( Byzantine Theodosiopolis , modern Erzurum ) in 949 .
The Byzantine advance evoked a great emotional response in the Muslim world , with volunteers , both soldiers and civilians , flocking to participate in the jihad against the Empire . Sayf al @-@ Dawla was also affected by this atmosphere , and became deeply impregnated with the spirit of jihad . The rise of the Hamdanid brothers to power in the frontier provinces and the Jazira is therefore to be regarded against the backdrop of the Byzantine threat , as well as the manifest inability of the Abbasid government to stem the Byzantine offensive . In Hugh Kennedy 's words , " compared with the inaction or indifference of other Muslim rulers , it is not surprising that Sayf al @-@ Dawla 's popular reputation remained high ; he was the one man who attempted to defend the Faith , the essential hero of the time " .
= = = = Early campaigns = = = =
Sayf al @-@ Dawla entered the fray against the Byzantines in 936 , when he led an expedition to the aid of Samosata , at the time besieged by the Byzantines . A revolt in his rear forced him to abandon the campaign , and he only managed to send a few supplies to the town , which fell soon after . In 938 , he raided the region around Malatya and captured the Byzantine fort of Charpete . Some Arab sources report a major victory over Kourkouas himself , but the Byzantine advance does not seem to have been affected . His most important campaign in these early years was in 939 – 940 , when he invaded southwestern Armenia and secured a pledge of allegiance and the surrender of a few fortresses from the local princes — the Muslim Kaysites of Manzikert and the Christian Bagratids of Taron and Gagik Artsruni of Vaspurakan — who had begun defecting to Byzantium , before turning west and raiding Byzantine territory up to Koloneia . This expedition temporarily broke the Byzantine leaguer around Qaliqala , but Sayf al @-@ Dawla 's preoccupation with his brother 's wars in Iraq over the next years meant that it was not followed up . This was a major missed chance ; as the historian Mark Whittow comments , a more sustained policy could have made use of the Armenian princes ' distrust of Byzantine expansionism , to form a network of clients and contain the Byzantines . Instead , the latter were given a free hand , which allowed them to press on and capture Qaliqala , cementing their dominance over the region .
= = = = Failures and victories , 945 – 955 = = = =
After establishing himself at Aleppo in 944 , Sayf al @-@ Dawla resumed warfare against Byzantium in 945 / 946 . From this time until the time of his death , he was the Byzantines ' chief antagonist in the East — by the end of his life Sayf al @-@ Dawla was said to have fought against them in over forty battles . Nevertheless , despite his frequent and destructive raids against the Byzantine frontier provinces and into Asia Minor , and his victories in the field , his mode of warfare was essentially defensive , and he never seriously attempted to challenge Byzantine control of the crucial mountain passes or conclude alliances with other local rulers in an effort to roll back the Byzantine conquests . Compared to Byzantium , Sayf al @-@ Dawla was the ruler of a minor principality , and could not match the means and numbers available to the resurgent Empire : the contemporary Arab sources report — with obvious , but nonetheless indicative , exaggeration — that Byzantine armies numbered up to 200 @,@ 000 , while Sayf al @-@ Dawla 's largest force numbered some 30 @,@ 000 . Sayf al @-@ Dawla 's origin in the Jazira also affected his strategic outlook in that , contrary to most Syria @-@ based polities in history , he neglected constructing a fleet or paying any attention at all to the Mediterranean .
Sayf al @-@ Dawla 's raid of winter 945 / 946 was of limited scale , and was followed by a prisoner exchange . Warfare on the frontiers then died down for a couple of years , and recommenced only in 948 . Despite scoring a victory over a Byzantine invasion in 948 , he was unable to prevent the sack of Hadath , one of the main Muslim strongholds in the Euphrates Thughur , by Leo Phokas , one of the sons of the Byzantine Domestic of the Schools ( commander @-@ in @-@ chief ) Bardas Phokas . Sayf al @-@ Dawla 's expeditions in the next two years were also failures . In 949 he raided into the theme of Lykandos but was driven back , and the Byzantines proceeded to sack Marash , defeat a Tarsian army and raid as far as Antioch . In the next year , Sayf al @-@ Dawla led a large force into Byzantine territory , ravaging the themes of Lykandos and Charsianon , but on his return he was ambushed by Leo Phokas in a mountain pass . In what became known as the ghazwat al @-@ musiba , the " dreadful expedition " , Sayf al @-@ Dawla lost 8 @,@ 000 men and barely escaped himself .
Sayf al @-@ Dawla nevertheless rejected offers of peace from the Byzantines , and launched another raid against Lykandos and Malatya , persisting until the onset of winter forced him to retire . In the next year , he concentrated his attention on rebuilding the fortresses of Cilicia and northern Syria , including Marash and Hadath . Bardas Phokas launched an expedition to obstruct these works , but was defeated . Bardas launched another campaign in 953 , but despite having a considerably larger force at his disposal , he was heavily defeated near Marash in a battle celebrated by Sayf al @-@ Dawla 's panegyrists . The Byzantine commander even lost his youngest son , Constantine , to Hamdanid captivity . Another expedition led by Bardas in the next year was also defeated , allowing Sayf al @-@ Dawla to complete the re @-@ fortification of Samosata and Hadath . The latter successfully withstood yet another Byzantine attack in 955 .
= = = = Byzantine ascendancy , 956 – 962 = = = =
Sayf al @-@ Dawla 's victories brought about the replacement of Bardas by his eldest son , Nikephoros Phokas . Blessed with capable subordinates like his brother Leo and his nephew John Tzimiskes , Nikephoros would bring about a reversal of fortunes in Sayf al @-@ Dawla 's struggle with the Byzantines . The young general also benefited from the culmination of military reforms that created a more professional army .
In spring 956 , Sayf al @-@ Dawla pre @-@ empted Tzimiskes from a planned assault on Amida , and invaded Byzantine territory first . Tzimiskes then seized a pass in Sayf al @-@ Dawla 's rear , and attacked him during his return . The hard @-@ fought battle , fought amidst torrential rainfall , resulted in a Muslim victory as Tzimiskes lost 4 @,@ 000 men . At the same time , however , Leo Phokas invaded Syria and defeated and captured Sayf al @-@ Dawla 's cousin Abu 'l- ' Asa 'ir , whom he had left behind in his stead . Later in the year , Sayf al @-@ Dawla was obliged to go to Tarsus to help repel a raid by the Byzantine Cibyrrhaeot fleet . In 957 , Nikephoros took and razed Hadath , but Sayf al @-@ Dawla was unable to react as he discovered a conspiracy by some of his officers to surrender him to the Byzantines in exchange for money . Sayf al @-@ Dawla executed 180 of his ghilman and mutilated over 200 others in retaliation . In the next spring , Tzimiskes invaded the Jazira , captured Dara , and scored a victory at Amida over an army of 10 @,@ 000 led by one of Sayf al @-@ Dawla 's favourite lieutenants , the Circassian Nadja . Together with the parakoimomenos Basil Lekapenos , he then stormed Samosata , and even inflicted a heavy defeat on a relief army under Sayf al @-@ Dawla himself . The Byzantines exploited Hamdanid weakness , and in 959 Leo Phokas led a raid as far as Cyrrhus , sacking several forts on their way .
In 960 , Sayf al @-@ Dawla tried to use the absence of Nikephoros Phokas with much of his army on his Cretan expedition , to re @-@ establish his position . At the head of a large army , he invaded Byzantine territory and sacked the fortress of Charsianon . On his return , however , his army was attacked and almost annihilated in an ambush by Leo Phokas and his troops . Once again , Sayf al @-@ Dawla managed to escape , but his military power was broken . The local governors now began to make terms with the Byzantines on their own , and the Hamdanid 's authority was increasingly questioned even in his own capital . Sayf al @-@ Dawla now needed time , but as soon as Nikephoros Phokas returned victorious from Crete in summer 961 , he began preparations for his next campaign in the east . The Byzantines launched their attack in the winter months , catching the Arabs off guard . They captured Anazarbus in Cilicia , and followed a deliberate policy of devastation and massacre to drive the Muslim population away . After Nikephoros repaired to Byzantine territory to celebrate Easter , Sayf al @-@ Dawla entered Cilicia and claimed direct control over the province . He began to rebuild Anazarbus , but the work was left incomplete when Nikephoros recommenced his offensive in autumn , forcing Sayf al @-@ Dawla to depart the region . The Byzantines , with an army reportedly 70 @,@ 000 strong , proceeded to take Marash , Sisium , Duluk and Manbij , thereby securing the western passes over the Anti @-@ Taurus Mountains . Sayf al @-@ Dawla sent his army north under Nadja to meet the Byzantines , but Nikephoros ignored them . Instead , the Byzantine general led his troops south and in mid @-@ December , they suddenly appeared before Aleppo . After defeating an improvised army before the city walls , the Byzantines stormed the city and plundered it , except for the citadel , which continued to hold out . The Byzantines departed , taking some 10 @,@ 000 inhabitants , mostly young men , with them as captives . Returning to his ruined and half @-@ deserted capital , Sayf al @-@ Dawla repopulated it with refugees from Qinnasrin .
= = = Illness , rebellions and death = = =
In 963 , the Byzantines remained quiet as Nikephoros was scheming to ascend the imperial throne , but Sayf al @-@ Dawla was troubled by the onset of hemiplegia as well as worsening intestinal and urinary disorders , which henceforth confined him to a litter . The disease limited Sayf al @-@ Dawla 's ability to intervene personally in the affairs of his state ; he soon abandoned Aleppo to the charge of his chamberlain , Qarquya , and spent most of his final years in Mayyafariqin , leaving his senior ghilman to carry the burden of warfare against the Byzantines and the various rebellions that sprung up in his domains . Sayf al @-@ Dawla 's physical decline , coupled with his military failures , especially the capture of Aleppo in 962 , meant that his authority became increasingly shaky among his subordinates , for whom military success was the prerequisite for political legitimacy .
Thus , in 961 , the emir of Tarsus , Ibn az @-@ Zayyat , unsuccessfully tried to turn over his province to the Abbasids . In 963 , his nephew , the governor of Harran , Hibat Allah , rebelled after killing Sayf al @-@ Dawla 's trusted Christian secretary in favour of his father , Nasir al @-@ Dawla . Nadja was sent to subdue the rebellion , forcing Hibat Allah to flee to his father 's court , but then Nadja himself rebelled and attacked Mayyafariqin , defended by Sayf al @-@ Dawla 's wife , with the intention of turning it over to the Buyids . He failed , and retreated to Armenia , where he managed to take over a few fortresses around Lake Van . In autumn 964 he again attempted to take Mayyafariqin , but was obliged to abandon it to subdue a revolt in his new Armenian domains . Sayf al @-@ Dawla himself travelled to Armenia to meet his former lieutenant . Nadja re @-@ submitted to his authority without resistance , but was murdered in winter 965 at Mayyafariqin , probably at the behest of Sayf al @-@ Dawla 's wife .
Nevertheless , despite his illness and the spreading famine in his domains , in 963 Sayf al @-@ Dawla launched three raids into Asia Minor . One of them even reached as far as Iconium , but Tzimiskes , named Nikephoros ' successor as Domestic of the East , responded by launching an invasion of Cilicia in winter . He destroyed an Arab army at the " Field of Blood " near Adana , and unsuccessfully besieged Mopsuestia before lack of supplies forced him to return home . In autumn 964 , Nikephoros , now emperor , again campaigned in the East , and met little resistance . Mopsuestia was besieged but held out , until the famine that plagued the province forced the Byzantines to withdraw . Nikephoros however returned in the next year and stormed the city and deported its inhabitants . On 16 August 965 , Tarsus was surrendered by its inhabitants , who secured safe passage to Antioch . Cilicia became Byzantine province , and Nikephoros proceeded to re @-@ Christianize it .
The year 965 also saw two further large @-@ scale rebellions within Sayf al @-@ Dawla 's domains . The first was led by a former governor of the coast , the ex @-@ Qarmatian Marwan al- ' Uqayli , which grew to threatening dimensions : the rebels captured Homs , defeated an army sent against them and advanced up to Aleppo , but Al- ' Uqayli was wounded in the battle for the city and died shortly after . In autumn , a more serious revolt broke out in Antioch , led by the former governor of Tarsus , Rashiq ibn Abdallah al @-@ Nasimi . The rebellion was obviously motivated by Sayf al @-@ Dawla 's inability to stop the Byzantine advance . After raising an army in the town , Rashiq led it to besiege Aleppo , which was defended by Sayf al @-@ Dawla 's ghilman , Qarguya and Bishara . Three months into the siege , the rebels had taken possession of part of the lower town , when Rashiq was killed . He was succeeded by a Daylamite named Dizbar . Dizbar defeated Qarquya and took Aleppo , but then departed the town to take control over the rest of northern Syria . In the same year , Sayf al @-@ Dawla was also heavily affected by the death of two of his sons , Abu 'l @-@ Maqarim and Abu 'l @-@ Baraqat .
In early 966 , Sayf al @-@ Dawla asked for and received a short truce and an exchange of prisoners with the Byzantines , which was held at Samosata . He ransomed many Muslim captives at great cost , only to see them go over to Dizbar 's forces . Sayf al @-@ Dawla resolved to confront the rebel : carried on his litter , he returned to Aleppo , and on the next day defeated the rebel 's army , helped by the defection of the Banu Kilab from Dizbar 's army . The surviving rebels were ruthlessly punished . However , Sayf al @-@ Dawla was still unable to confront Nikephoros when he resumed his advance . The Hamdanid ruler fled to the safety of the fortress of Shayzar while the Byzantines raided the Jazira , before turning on northern Syria , where they launched attacks on Manbij , Aleppo and even Antioch , whose newly appointed governor , Taki al @-@ Din Muhammad ibn Musa , went over to them with the city 's treasury . In early February 967 , Sayf al @-@ Dawla returned to Aleppo , where he died a few days later ( although a source claims that he died at Mayyafariqin ) . His body was embalmed and buried at a mausoleum in Mayyafariqin beside his mother and sister . A brick made of dust collected from his armour after his campaigns was reportedly placed under his head . He was succeeded by his only surviving son ( by his cousin Sakhinah ) , the fifteen @-@ year @-@ old Abu 'l @-@ Ma 'ali Sharif , better known as Sa 'd al @-@ Dawla . Sa 'd al @-@ Dawlas 's reign was marked by internal turmoil , and it was not until 977 that he was able to secure control of his own capital . By this time , the rump emirate was almost powerless and became a bone of contention between the Byzantines and the new power of the Middle East , the Fatimid Caliphate of Egypt .
= = Cultural activity and legacy = =
Sayf al @-@ Dawla surrounded himself with prominent intellectual figures , most notably the great poets al @-@ Mutanabbi and Abu Firas , the preacher Ibn Nubata , the grammarian Ibn Jinni , and the noted philosopher al @-@ Farabi . Al @-@ Mutanabbi 's time at the court of Sayf al @-@ Dawla was arguably the pinnacle of his career as poet . During his nine years at Aleppo , al @-@ Mutanabbi wrote 22 major panegyrics to Sayf al @-@ Dawla , which , according to the Arabist Margaret Larkin , " demonstrated a measure of real affection mixed with the conventional praise of premodern Arabic poetry . " The celebrated historian and poet , Abu al @-@ Faraj al @-@ Isfahani , was also part of the Hamdanid court , and dedicated his major encyclopedia of poetry and songs , Kitab al @-@ Aghani , to Sayf al @-@ Dawla . Abu Firas was Sayf al @-@ Dawla 's cousin and had been raised at his court , while Sayf al @-@ Dawla had married his sister Sakhinah and appointed him governor of Manbij and Harran . Abi Firas accompanied Sayf al @-@ Dawla on his wars against the Byzantines and was taken prisoner twice . It was during his second captivity in 962 – 966 that he wrote his famous Rumiyyat ( " Roman " , i.e. Byzantine ) poems . Sayf al @-@ Dawla 's patronage of poets had a useful political dividend too : it was part of a court poet 's duty to his patron to celebrate him in his work , and poetry helped spread the influence of Sayf al @-@ Dawla and his court far across the Muslim world . If Sayf al @-@ Dawla paid special favour to poets , his court contained scholars versed in religious studies , history , philosophy and astronomy as well , so that , as S. Humphreys comments , " in his time Aleppo could certainly have held its own with any court in Renaissance Italy " .
Sayf al @-@ Dawla was also unusual for 10th @-@ century Syria in his espousal of Twelver Shi 'a Islam in a hitherto solidly Sunni country . During his reign , the founder of the Alawite sect , al @-@ Khasibi , benefited from Sayf al @-@ Dawla 's patronage . Al @-@ Khasibi turned Aleppo into the stable centre of his new sect , and sent preachers from there as far as Persia and Egypt with his teachings . His main theological work , Kitab al @-@ Hidaya al @-@ Kubra , was dedicated to his Hamdanid patron . Sayf al @-@ Dawla 's active promotion of Shi 'ism began a process whereby Syria came to host a large Shi 'a population by the 12th century .
In addition , Sayf al @-@ Dawla played a crucial role in the history of the two cities he chose as his capitals , Aleppo and Mayyafariqin . His choice raised them from obscurity to the status of major urban centres ; Sayf al @-@ Dawla lavished attention on them , endowing them with new buildings , as well as taking care of their fortification . Aleppo especially benefited from Sayf al @-@ Dawla 's patronage : of special note is the great palace of Halba outside Aleppo , as well as the gardens and aqueduct which he built there . Aleppo 's rise to the chief city in northern Syria dates from his reign .
= = Political legacy = =
Sayf al @-@ Dawla has remained to this day one of the best @-@ known medieval Arab leaders . His bravery and leadership of the war against the Byzantines , despite the heavy odds against him , his literary activities and patronage of poets which lent his court an unmatched cultural brilliance , the calamities which struck him towards his end — defeat , illness and betrayal — have made him , in the words of Th . Bianquis , " from his time until the present day " , the personification of the " Arab chivalrous ideal in its most tragic aspect " .
Nevertheless , the picture presented by his contemporaries on the impact of Sayf al @-@ Dawla 's policies is less favourable : the 10th @-@ century chronicler Ibn Hawqal , who travelled the Hamdanid domains , paints a dismal picture of economic oppression and exploitation of the common people , linked with the Hamdanid practice of expropriating extensive estates in the most fertile areas and practising a monoculture of cereals destined to feed the growing population of Baghdad . This was coupled with heavy taxation — Sayf al @-@ Dawla and Nasir al @-@ Dawla are said to have become the wealthiest princes in the Muslim world — which allowed them to maintain their lavish courts , but at a heavy price to their subjects ' long @-@ term prosperity . According to Hugh Kennedy " even the capital of Aleppo seems to have been more prosperous under the following Mirdasid dynasty than under the Hamdanids " , while Bianquis claims that Sayf al @-@ Dawla 's wars and economic policies both contributed to a permanent alteration in the landscape of the regions they ruled : " by destroying orchards and peri @-@ urban market gardens , by enfeebling the once vibrant polyculture and by depopulating the sedentarised steppe terrain of the frontiers , the Hamdanids contributed to the erosion of the deforested land and to the seizure by semi @-@ nomadic tribes of the agricultural lands of these regions in the 11th century " .
His military record was also , in the end , one of failure : the Byzantine advance continued after his death , culminating in the fall of Antioch in 969 . Aleppo was transformed into a vassal state tributary to Byzantium , and for the next fifty years it would become the bone of contention between the Byzantines and a new Muslim power , the Egypt @-@ based Fatimid Caliphate . The Hamdanids ' military defeat was in the end inevitable , given the disparity of strength and resources with the Empire . This weakness was compounded by the failure of Nasir al @-@ Dawla to support his brother in his wars against Byzantium , by the Hamdanids ' preoccupation with internal revolts , and the feebleness of their authority over much of their domains . As the historian Mark Whittow comments , Sayf al @-@ Dawla 's martial reputation often masks the reality that his power was " a paper tiger , short of money , short of soldiers and with little real base in the territories he controlled " .
|
= Italian battleship Leonardo da Vinci =
Leonardo da Vinci was one of three Conte di Cavour @-@ class dreadnoughts built for the Regia Marina ( Italian Royal Navy ) in the early 1910s . Completed just before the beginning of World War I , the ship saw no action and was sunk by a magazine explosion in 1916 with the loss of 248 officers and enlisted men . The Italians blamed Austro @-@ Hungarian saboteurs for her loss , but it may have been accidental . Leonardo da Vinci was refloated in 1919 and plans were made to repair her . Budgetary constraints did not permit this and her hulk was sold for scrap in 1923 .
= = Description = =
Leonardo da Vinci was 168 @.@ 9 meters ( 554 ft 2 in ) long at the waterline , and 176 meters ( 577 ft 5 in ) overall . The ship had a beam of 28 meters ( 91 ft 10 in ) , and a draft of 9 @.@ 3 meters ( 30 ft 6 in ) . She displaced 23 @,@ 088 long tons ( 23 @,@ 458 t ) at normal load , and 25 @,@ 086 long tons ( 25 @,@ 489 t ) at deep load . The Conte di Cavour @-@ class dreadnoughts had a complete double bottom and their hull was subdivided by 23 longitudinal and transverse bulkheads . They had a crew of 31 officers and 969 enlisted men .
The ship 's machinery consisted of four Parsons steam turbines , each driving one propeller shaft . Steam for the turbines was provided by 20 Blechynden water @-@ tube boilers , eight of which burned oil and twelve of which burned both fuel oil and coal . Designed to reach a maximum speed of 22 @.@ 5 knots ( 41 @.@ 7 km / h ; 25 @.@ 9 mph ) from 31 @,@ 000 shaft horsepower ( 23 @,@ 000 kW ) , Leonardo da Vinci failed to reach this goal on her sea trials , despite generally exceeding the rated power of her turbines . The ship only made a maximum speed of 21 @.@ 6 knots ( 40 @.@ 0 km / h ; 24 @.@ 9 mph ) using 32 @,@ 800 shp ( 24 @,@ 500 kW ) . The ship could store a maximum of 1 @,@ 450 long tons ( 1 @,@ 470 t ) of coal and 850 long tons ( 860 t ) of oil that gave her a range of 4 @,@ 800 nautical miles ( 8 @,@ 900 km ; 5 @,@ 500 mi ) at 10 kn ( 19 km / h ; 12 mph ) , and 1 @,@ 000 nmi ( 1 @,@ 900 km ; 1 @,@ 200 mi ) at 22 knots ( 41 km / h ; 25 mph ) .
= = = Armament = = =
Leonardo da Vinci 's main armament consisted of thirteen 46 @-@ caliber 305 @-@ millimeter guns , in five gun turrets . The turrets were arranged all on the centerline , with a twin @-@ gun turret superfiring over a triple @-@ gun turret in fore and aft pairs , and a third triple turret amidships . These were designated ' A ' , ' B ' , ' Q ' , ' X ' , and ' Y ' from bow to stern . The turrets had an elevation capability of − 5 / + 20 degrees and the ship could carry 100 rounds for each gun , although 70 was the normal load . Sources disagree regarding these guns ' performance , but naval historian Giorgio Giorgerini claims that they fired 452 @-@ kilogram ( 996 lb ) armor @-@ piercing ( AP ) projectiles at the rate of one round per minute and that they had a muzzle velocity of 840 metres per second ( 2 @,@ 800 ft / s ) which gave a maximum range of 24 @,@ 000 meters ( 26 @,@ 000 yd ) .
The secondary armament consisted of eighteen 50 @-@ caliber 120 @-@ millimeter ( 4 @.@ 7 in ) guns mounted in casemates on the sides of the hull . These guns could depress to − 10 degrees and had a maximum elevation of + 15 degrees ; they had a rate of fire of six shots per minute . They could fire a 22 @.@ 1 @-@ kilogram ( 49 lb ) high @-@ explosive projectile with a muzzle velocity of 850 meters per second ( 2 @,@ 800 ft / s ) to a maximum distance of 12 @,@ 000 yards ( 11 @,@ 000 m ) . The ship carried a total of 3 @,@ 600 rounds for them . For defense against torpedo boats , Leonardo da Vinci carried fourteen 50 @-@ caliber 76 mm ( 3 @.@ 0 in ) guns ; thirteen of these could be mounted on the turret tops , but they could be mounted in 30 different positions , including some on the forecastle and upper decks . These guns had the same range of elevation as the secondary guns , although their rate of fire was higher at 10 rounds per minute . They fired a 6 @-@ kilogram ( 13 lb ) AP projectile with a muzzle velocity of 815 meters per second ( 2 @,@ 670 ft / s ) to a maximum distance of 10 @,@ 000 yards ( 9 @,@ 100 m ) . The ships were also fitted with three submerged 45 @-@ centimeter ( 18 in ) torpedo tubes , one on each broadside and the third in the stern .
= = = Armor = = =
The Conte di Cavour @-@ class ships had a complete waterline armor belt that was 2 @.@ 8 meters ( 9 ft 2 in ) high ; 1 @.@ 6 meters ( 5 ft 3 in ) of this was below the waterline and 1 @.@ 2 meters ( 3 ft 11 in ) above . It had a maximum thickness of 250 millimeters ( 9 @.@ 8 in ) amidships , reducing to 130 millimeters ( 5 @.@ 1 in ) towards the stern and 80 millimeters ( 3 @.@ 1 in ) towards the bow . The lower edge of this belt was a uniform 170 millimeters ( 6 @.@ 7 in ) in thickness . Above the main belt was a strake of armor 220 millimeters ( 8 @.@ 7 in ) thick that extended 2 @.@ 3 meters ( 7 ft 7 in ) up to the lower edge of the main deck . Above this strake was a thinner one , 130 millimeters thick , that extended 138 meters ( 452 ft 9 in ) from the bow to ' X ' turret . The upper strake of armor protected the casemates and was 110 millimeters ( 4 @.@ 3 in ) thick . The ships had two armored decks : the main deck was 24 mm ( 0 @.@ 94 in ) thick in two layers on the flat that increased to 40 millimeters ( 1 @.@ 6 in ) on the slopes that connected it to the main belt . The second deck was 30 millimeters ( 1 @.@ 2 in ) thick , also in two layers . Fore and aft transverse bulkheads connected the armored belt to the decks .
The frontal armor of the gun turrets was 280 millimeters ( 11 @.@ 0 in ) in thickness with 240 @-@ millimeter ( 9 @.@ 4 in ) sides , and an 85 @-@ millimeter ( 3 @.@ 3 in ) roof and rear . Their barbettes also had 230 @-@ millimeter armor above the forecastle deck that reduced to 180 millimeters ( 7 @.@ 1 in ) between the forecastle and upper decks and 130 millimeters below the upper deck . The forward conning tower had walls 280 millimeters thick those of the aft conning tower were 180 millimeters thick .
= = Construction and service = =
Leonardo da Vinci , named after the artist and inventor , was built by the Odero Shipbuilding Co . , at their Sestri Ponente , Genoa shipyard . She was laid down on 18 July 1910 , launched on 14 October 1911 , and completed on 17 May 1914 . The ship saw no combat during the war and spent most of it at anchor . She capsized in Taranto harbor , in 11 metres ( 36 ft ) of water , after an internal magazine explosion on the night of 2 / 3 August 1916 while loading ammunition . Casualties included 21 officers and 227 enlisted men . The subsequent investigation blamed Austro @-@ Hungarian saboteurs , but unstable propellant may well have been responsible .
The Regia Marina wanted to raise the ship and rejected initial plans to demolish the wreck with explosives . They ultimately settled on a plan to make the ship 's hull airtight and raise it using compressed air and pontoons . This required that the ship 's coal , ammunition , and gun turrets be removed or cut loose , respectively , by divers to reduce her weight . A further complication was that the largest drydock in Taranto had a maximum depth of only 12 @.@ 2 metres ( 40 ft ) and the upside @-@ down Leonardo da Vinci drew 15 @.@ 2 metres ( 50 ft ) . This meant that her funnels had to be cut off as well .
All of this preparation required over two years and the ship was refloated on 17 September 1919 . A deep channel had been dredged from her location to the drydock and she was moved there . A special wooden framework had to be built to support her , still inverted , after the water in the drydock had been drained . Her decks were not designed to handle the stresses involved in her unique situation and had to be reinforced to withstand the weight of the hull and preliminary repairs were made in preparation for righting her . A deep spot in the harbor was dredged for this task and some 400 long tons ( 410 t ) of ballast were added in spots calculated to assist in the righting effort . The primary work was done by 7 @,@ 500 long tons ( 7 @,@ 600 t ) of water pumped into the ship 's starboard side and she was successfully righted on 24 January 1921 . The Regia Marina planned to modernize Leonardo da Vinci by replacing her center turret with six 102 @-@ millimeter ( 4 in ) AA guns , but ultimately lacked the funds to do so and sold her for scrap on 22 March 1923 .
|
= The Legend of Zelda : Twilight Princess =
The Legend of Zelda : Twilight Princess ( Japanese : ゼルダの伝説 トワイライトプリンセス , Hepburn : Zeruda no Densetsu : Towairaito Purinsesu ) is an action @-@ adventure game developed and published by Nintendo for the GameCube and Wii home video game consoles . It is the thirteenth installment in the The Legend of Zelda series . Originally planned for release on the GameCube in November 2005 , Twilight Princess was delayed by Nintendo to allow its developers to refine the game , add more content , and port it to the Wii . The Wii version was released alongside the console in North America in November 2006 , and in Japan , Europe , and Australia the following month . The GameCube version was released worldwide in December 2006 .
The story focuses on series protagonist Link , who tries to prevent Hyrule from being engulfed by a corrupted parallel dimension known as the Twilight Realm . To do so , he takes the form of both a Hylian and a wolf , and is assisted by a mysterious creature named Midna . The game takes place hundreds of years after Ocarina of Time and Majora 's Mask , in an alternate timeline from The Wind Waker .
At the time of its release , Twilight Princess was considered the greatest entry in the Zelda series by many critics , including writers for 1UP.com , Computer and Video Games , Electronic Gaming Monthly , Game Informer , GamesRadar , IGN , and The Washington Post . It received several Game of the Year awards , and was the most critically acclaimed game of 2006 . As of September 2015 , 8 @.@ 85 million copies of the game have been sold worldwide , making it the best @-@ selling title in the series . In 2011 , the Wii version was rereleased under the Nintendo Selects label . A high @-@ definition remaster for the Wii U , The Legend of Zelda : Twilight Princess HD , was released in March 2016 .
= = Gameplay = =
The Legend of Zelda : Twilight Princess is an action @-@ adventure game focused on combat , exploration , and puzzle @-@ solving . It uses the basic control scheme introduced in Ocarina of Time , including context @-@ sensitive action buttons and L @-@ targeting ( Z @-@ targeting on the Wii ) , a system that allows the player to keep Link 's view focused on an enemy or important object while moving and attacking . Link can walk , run , and attack , and will automatically jump when running off of or reaching for a ledge . Link uses a sword and shield in combat , complemented with secondary weapons and items , including a bow and arrows , a boomerang , and bombs . While L @-@ targeting , projectile @-@ based weapons can be fired at a target without the need for manual aiming .
The context @-@ sensitive button mechanic allows one button to serve a variety of functions , such as talking , opening doors , and pushing , pulling , and throwing objects . The on @-@ screen display shows what action , if any , the button will trigger , determined by the situation . For example , if Link is holding a rock , the context @-@ sensitive button will cause Link to throw the rock if he is moving or targeting an object or enemy , or place the rock on the ground if he is standing still .
The GameCube and Wii versions feature several minor differences in their controls . The Wii version of the game makes use of the motion sensors and built @-@ in speaker of the Wii Remote . The speaker emits the sounds of a bowstring when shooting an arrow , Midna 's laugh when she gives advice to Link , and the series ' trademark " chime " when discovering secrets . The player controls Link 's sword by swinging the Wii Remote . Other attacks are triggered using similar gestures with the Nunchuk . Unique to the GameCube version is the ability for the player to control the camera freely , without entering a special " lookaround " mode required by the Wii ; however , in the GameCube version , only two of Link 's secondary weapons can be equipped at a time , as opposed to four in the Wii version .
The game features nine dungeons — large , contained areas where Link battles enemies , collects items , and solves puzzles . Link navigates these dungeons and fights a boss at the end in order to obtain an item or otherwise advance the plot . The dungeons are connected by a large overworld , across which Link can travel on foot ; on his horse , Epona ; or by teleporting with Midna 's assistance .
When Link enters the Twilight Realm , the void that corrupts parts of Hyrule , he transforms into a wolf . He is eventually able to transform between his Hylian and wolf forms at will . As a wolf , Link loses the ability to use his sword , shield , or any secondary items ; he instead attacks by biting and defends primarily by dodging attacks . However , " Wolf Link " gains several key advantages in return — he moves faster than he does as a human ( though riding Epona is still faster ) and digs holes to create new passages and uncover buried items , and has improved senses , including the ability to follow scent trails . He also carries Midna , a small imp @-@ like creature who gives him hints , uses an energy field to attack enemies , helps him jump long distances , and eventually allows him to " warp " to any of several preset locations throughout the overworld . Using Link 's wolf senses , the player can see and listen to the wandering spirits of those affected by the Twilight , as well as hunt for enemy ghosts named Poes .
The artificial intelligence ( AI ) of enemies in Twilight Princess is more advanced than that of enemies in The Wind Waker . Enemies react to defeated companions and to arrows or slingshot pellets that pass by , and can detect Link from a greater distance than was possible in previous games .
There is very little voice acting in the game , as is the case in most The Legend of Zelda titles to date . Link remains silent in conversation , but grunts when attacking or injured and gasps when surprised . His emotions and responses are largely indicated visually by nods and facial expressions . Other characters have similar language @-@ independent verbalizations , including laughter , surprised or fearful exclamations , and screams . Midna has the most voice acting — her on @-@ screen dialogue is often accompanied by a babble of pseudo @-@ speech , which was produced by scrambling English phrases sampled by Japanese voice actress Akiko Kōmoto .
= = Plot = =
Twilight Princess takes place several centuries after Ocarina of Time and Majora 's Mask . The game begins with a youth named Link , who is working as a ranch hand in Ordon Village . One day , the village is attacked by Bulblins , who carry off the village 's children with Link in pursuit before he encounters a wall of Twilight . A Shadow Beast pulls him beyond the wall into the Twilight @-@ shrouded forest , where he is transformed into a wolf and imprisoned . Link is soon freed by an imp @-@ like Twilight creature named Midna , who offers to help him if he obeys her unconditionally . She guides him to Princess Zelda , who explains that Zant , the King of the Twilight , infiltrated Hyrule Castle and forced her to surrender . The conquered kingdom was enveloped in Twilight , rendering all its inhabitants besides Link and Zelda spirits . In order to save Hyrule , Link must first revive the Light Spirits by entering the Twilight @-@ covered regions and , as a wolf , recovering the Spirits ' light from the Twilight beings that stole it . Once revitalized , each Spirit returns Link to his Hylian form .
During this time , Link also helps Midna acquire the Fused Shadows , fragments of a relic containing powerful dark magic . In return , she aids Link in rescuing Ordon Village 's children and assisting the monkeys of Faron , the Gorons of Eldin , and the Zoras of Lanayru . After restoring the Light Spirits and obtaining the Fused Shadows , Link and Midna are ambushed by Zant , who relieves Midna of the fragments . She ridicules him for abusing his tribe 's magic , but Zant reveals that his power comes from another source as he uses it to revert Link to his wolf state . Failing to seduce Midna into joining forces with him , Zant leaves her to die from the world 's light . Upon bringing a dying Midna to Zelda , Link learns he needs the Master Sword to lift Zant 's curse . Zelda sacrifices herself to heal Midna with her power before vanishing mysteriously . Moved by Zelda 's selflessness , Midna begins to care more about Link and the fate of the light world .
After gaining the Master Sword , Link is cleansed of the curse that kept him in wolf form . Deep within the Gerudo Desert , Link and Midna locate the Mirror of Twilight , the only known gateway between Hyrule and the Twilight Realm , but discover it is broken . The Sages there explain that Zant tried to destroy it , but merely managed to shatter it into fragments ; only the true ruler of the Twili can completely destroy the Mirror of Twilight . They also relate that they once used it to banish Ganondorf , the Gerudo tribe leader who attempted to steal the Triforce , to the Twilight Realm when executing him failed . Link and Midna set out to retrieve the missing shards of the Mirror . Once the portal has been restored , the Sages reveal to Link that Midna is the true ruler of the Twilight Realm , usurped by Zant when he cursed her into her current form . Confronting Zant , Link and Midna learn that Zant 's coup was made possible when he forged a pact with Ganondorf , who asked for Zant 's assistance in subjugating Hyrule . After Link defeats Zant , Midna recovers the Fused Shadows and destroys Zant after learning that only Ganondorf 's death can release her from her curse .
Returning to Hyrule , Link and Midna find Ganondorf in Hyrule Castle , with a lifeless Zelda suspended above his head . Ganondorf fights Link by possessing Zelda 's body and by transforming into a massive boar @-@ like beast , but Link defeats him and Midna is able to resuscitate Zelda . Ganondorf then revives , and Midna teleports Link and Zelda outside the castle so she can hold him off with the Fused Shadows . However , as Hyrule Castle collapses , it is revealed that Ganondorf was victorious as he crushes Midna 's helmet . Ganondorf engages Link on horseback ; assisted by Zelda and the Light Spirits , Link eventually knocks Ganondorf off his horse and they duel on foot before Link strikes down Ganondorf and plunges the Master Sword into his chest . With Ganondorf dead , the Light Spirits revivify Midna and restore her to her true form . After bidding farewell to Link and Zelda , Midna returns home and destroys the Mirror of Twilight with a tear to maintain balance between Hyrule and the Twilight Realm . As Hyrule Castle is rebuilt , Link leaves Ordon Village , heading to parts unknown .
= = Development = =
= = = Creation = = =
In 2003 , Nintendo announced that a new The Legend of Zelda game was in the works for the GameCube by the same team that had created the cel @-@ shaded The Wind Waker . At the following year 's Game Developers Conference , director Eiji Aonuma unintentionally revealed that the game 's sequel was in development under the working title The Wind Waker 2 ; it was set to use a similar graphical style to that of its predecessor . Nintendo of America told Aonuma that North American sales of The Wind Waker were sluggish because its cartoon appearance created the impression that the game was designed for a young audience . Concerned that the sequel would have the same problem , Aonuma expressed to producer Shigeru Miyamoto that he wanted to create a realistic Zelda game that would appeal to the North American market . Miyamoto , hesitant about solely changing the game 's presentation , suggested the team 's focus should instead be on coming up with gameplay innovations . He advised that Aonuma should start by doing what could not be done in Ocarina of Time , particularly horseback combat .
In four months , Aonuma 's team managed to present realistic horseback riding , which Nintendo later revealed to the public with a trailer at Electronic Entertainment Expo 2004 . The game was scheduled to be released the next year , and was no longer a follow @-@ up to The Wind Waker ; a true sequel to it was released for the Nintendo DS in 2007 , in the form of Phantom Hourglass . Miyamoto explained in interviews that the graphical style was chosen to satisfy demand , and that it better fit the theme of an older incarnation of Link . The game runs on a modified The Wind Waker engine .
Prior Zelda games have employed a theme of two separate , yet connected , worlds . In A Link to the Past , Link travels between a " Light World " and a " Dark World " ; in Ocarina of Time , as well as in Oracle of Ages , Link travels between two different time periods . The Zelda team sought to reuse this motif in the series ' latest installment . It was suggested that Link transform into a wolf , much like he metamorphoses into a rabbit in the Dark World of A Link to the Past . The story of the game was created by Aonuma , and later underwent several changes by scenario writers Mitsuhiro Takano and Aya Kyogoku . Takano created the script for the story scenes , while Kyogoku and Takayuki Ikkaku handled the actual in @-@ game script . Aonuma left his team working on the new idea while he directed The Minish Cap for the Game Boy Advance . When he returned , he found the Twilight Princess team struggling . Emphasis on the parallel worlds and the wolf transformation had made Link 's character unbelievable . Aonuma also felt the gameplay lacked the caliber of innovation found in Phantom Hourglass , which was being developed with touch controls for the Nintendo DS . At the same time , the Wii was under development with the code name " Revolution " . Miyamoto thought that the Revolution 's pointing device , the Wii Remote , was well suited for aiming arrows in Zelda , and suggested that Aonuma consider using it .
= = = Wii transition = = =
Aonuma had anticipated creating a Zelda game for what would later be called the Wii , but had assumed that he would need to complete Twilight Princess first . His team began work developing a pointing @-@ based interface for the bow and arrow , and Aonuma found that aiming directly at the screen gave the game a new feel , just like the DS control scheme for Phantom Hourglass . Aonuma felt confident this was the only way to proceed , but worried about consumers who had been anticipating a GameCube release . Developing two versions would mean delaying the previously announced 2005 release , still disappointing the consumer . Satoru Iwata felt that having both versions would satisfy users in the end , even though they would have to wait for the finished product . Aonuma then started working on both versions in parallel .
Transferring GameCube development to the Wii was relatively simple , since the Wii was being created to be compatible with the GameCube . At E3 2005 , Nintendo released a small number of Nintendo DS game cards containing a preview trailer for Twilight Princess . They also announced that Zelda would appear on the Wii ( then codenamed " Revolution " ) , but it was not clear to the media if this meant Twilight Princess or a different game .
The team worked on a Wii control scheme , adapting camera control and the fighting mechanics to the new interface . A prototype was created that used a swinging gesture to control the sword from a first @-@ person viewpoint , but was unable to show the variety of Link 's movements . When the third @-@ person view was restored , Aonuma thought it felt strange to swing the Wii Remote with the right hand to control the sword in Link 's left hand , so the entire Wii version map was mirrored . Details about Wii controls began to surface in December 2005 when British publication NGC Magazine claimed that when a GameCube copy of Twilight Princess was played on the Revolution , it would give the player the option of using the Revolution controller . Miyamoto confirmed the Revolution controller @-@ functionality in an interview with Nintendo of Europe and Time reported this soon after . However , support for the Wii controller did not make it into the GameCube release . At E3 2006 , Nintendo announced that both versions would be available at the Wii launch , and had a playable version of Twilight Princess for the Wii . Later , the GameCube release was pushed back to a month after the launch of the Wii .
Nintendo staff members reported that demo users complained about the difficulty of the control scheme . Aonuma realized that his team had implemented Wii controls under the mindset of " forcing " users to adapt , instead of making the system intuitive and easy to use . He began rethinking the controls with Miyamoto to focus on comfort and ease . The camera movement was reworked and item controls were changed to avoid accidental button presses . In addition , the new item system required use of the button that had previously been used for the sword . To solve this , sword controls were transferred back to gestures — something E3 attendees had commented they would like to see . This reintroduced the problem of using a right @-@ handed swing to control a left @-@ handed sword attack . The team did not have enough time before release to rework Link 's character model , so they instead flipped the entire game — everything was made a mirror image . Link was now right @-@ handed , and references to " east " and " west " were switched around . The GameCube version , however , was left with the original orientation . The Twilight Princess player 's guide focuses on the Wii version , but has a section in the back with mirror @-@ image maps for GameCube users .
= = = Music = = =
The game 's score was composed by Toru Minegishi and Asuka Ohta , with series regular Koji Kondo serving as the sound supervisor . Minegishi took charge of composition and sound design in Twilight Princess , providing all field and dungeon music . For the trailers , three pieces were written by different composers , two of which were created by Mahito Yokota and Kondo . Michiru Ōshima created orchestral arrangements for the three compositions , later to be performed by an ensemble conducted by Yasuzo Takemoto . Kondo 's piece was later chosen as music for the E3 2005 trailer and for the demo movie after the game 's title screen .
Media requests at the trade show prompted Kondo to consider using orchestral music for the other tracks in the game as well , a notion reinforced by his preference for live instruments . He originally envisioned a full 50 @-@ person orchestra for action sequences and a string quartet for more " lyrical moments " , though the final product used sequenced music instead . Kondo later cited the lack of interactivity that comes with orchestral music as one of the main reasons for the decision . Both six- and seven @-@ track versions of the game 's soundtrack were released on November 19 , 2006 , as part of a Nintendo Power promotion and bundled with replicas of the Master Sword and the Hylian Shield .
= = = Technical issues = = =
Following the discovery of a buffer overflow vulnerability in the Wii version of Twilight Princess , an exploit known as the " Twilight Hack " was developed , allowing the execution of custom code from a Secure Digital ( SD ) card on the console . A specifically designed save file would cause the game to load unsigned code , which could include Executable and Linkable Format ( ELF ) programs and homebrew Wii applications . Versions 3 @.@ 3 and 3 @.@ 4 of the Wii Menu prevented copying exploited save files onto the console until circumvention methods were discovered , and version 4 @.@ 0 of the Wii Menu patched the vulnerability .
= = = Wii U version = = =
A high @-@ definition remaster of the game , The Legend of Zelda : Twilight Princess HD , was developed by Tantalus Media for the Wii U. Announced during a Nintendo Direct presentation on November 12 , 2015 , it features enhanced graphics and Amiibo functionality . The game was released in North America and Europe on March 4 , 2016 ; in Australia on March 5 , 2016 ; and in Japan on March 10 , 2016 .
Certain bundles of the game contain a Wolf Link Amiibo figurine , which unlocks a Wii U @-@ exclusive dungeon called the " Cave of Shadows " and can carry data over to The Legend of Zelda : Breath of the Wild . Other Zelda @-@ related Amiibo figurines have distinct functions : Link and Toon Link replenish arrows , Zelda and Sheik restore Link 's health , and Ganondorf causes Link to take twice as much damage . A CD containing 20 musical selections from the game was available as a GameStop preorder bonus in North America ; it is included with the limited @-@ edition bundle in other regions .
= = Reception = =
= = = Reviews = = =
Twilight Princess was released to universal critical acclaim and commercial success . It received perfect scores from major publications such as 1UP.com , Computer and Video Games , Electronic Gaming Monthly , Game Informer , GamesRadar , and GameSpy . On the review aggregator Metacritic , Twilight Princess holds scores of 95 / 100 for the Wii version and 96 / 100 for the GameCube version , indicating " universal acclaim " . GameTrailers in their review called it one of the greatest games ever created .
On release , Twilight Princess was considered to be the greatest Zelda game ever made by many critics including writers for 1UP.com , Computer and Video Games , Electronic Gaming Monthly , Game Informer , GamesRadar , IGN and The Washington Post . Game Informer called it " so creative that it rivals the best that Hollywood has to offer " . GamesRadar praised Twilight Princess as " a game that deserves nothing but the absolute highest recommendation " . Cubed3 hailed Twilight Princess as " the single greatest videogame experience " . Twilight Princess 's graphics were praised for the art style and animation , although the game was designed for the GameCube , which is technically lacking compared to the next generation consoles . Both IGN and GameSpy pointed out the existence of blurry textures and low @-@ resolution characters . Despite these complaints , Computer and Video Games felt the game 's atmosphere was superior to that of any previous Zelda game , and regarded Twilight Princess 's Hyrule as the best version ever created . PALGN praised the game 's cinematics , noting that " the cutscenes are the best ever in Zelda games " . Regarding the Wii version , GameSpot 's Jeff Gerstmann said the Wii controls felt " tacked @-@ on " , although 1UP.com said the remote @-@ swinging sword attacks were " the most impressive in the entire series " . Gaming Nexus considered Twilight Princess 's soundtrack to be the best of this generation , though IGN criticized its MIDI @-@ formatted songs for lacking " the punch and crispness " of their orchestrated counterparts . Hyper 's Javier Glickman commended the game for its " very long quests , superb Wii controls and being able to save anytime " . However , he criticised it for " no voice acting , no orchestral score and slightly outdated graphics " .
= = = Awards = = =
Twilight Princess received the awards for Best Artistic Design , Best Original Score , and Best Use of Sound from IGN for its GameCube version . Both IGN and Nintendo Power gave Twilight Princess the awards for Best Graphics and Best Story . Twilight Princess received Game of the Year awards from GameTrailers , 1UP.com , Electronic Gaming Monthly , Game Informer , Games Radar , GameSpy , Spacey Awards , X @-@ Play and Nintendo Power . It was also given awards for Best Adventure Game from the Game Critics Awards , X @-@ Play , IGN , GameTrailers , 1UP.com , and Nintendo Power . The game was considered the Best Console Game by the Game Critics Awards and GameSpy . The game placed 16th in Official Nintendo Magazine 's list of the 100 Greatest Nintendo Games of All Time . IGN ranked the game as the 4th @-@ best Wii game . Nintendo Power ranked the game as the third @-@ best game to be released on a Nintendo system in the 2000s decade .
= = = Sales and legacy = = =
During its first week , the game was sold with three of every four Wii purchases . The game had sold 5 @.@ 82 million copies on the Wii as of March 31 , 2011 , and 1 @.@ 32 million on the GameCube as of March 31 , 2007 . As of September 30 , 2015 , the game has sold 8 @.@ 85 million copies worldwide on both platforms , making it the best @-@ selling installment in the series .
A Japan @-@ exclusive manga series based on Twilight Princess , penned and illustrated by Akira Himekawa , was first released on February 8 , 2016 . The series is available solely via publisher Shogakukan 's MangaOne mobile application . While the manga adaptation began almost ten years after the initial release of the game on which it is based , it launched only a month before the release of the high @-@ definition remake .
To commemorate the launch of the My Nintendo loyalty program in March 2016 , Nintendo released My Nintendo Picross : The Legend of Zelda : Twilight Princess , a Picross puzzle game developed by Jupiter for download to the Nintendo 3DS .
|
= Michael Plumb =
John Michael Plumb ( born March 28 , 1940 ) is an American equestrian and Olympic champion who competes in the sport of three @-@ day eventing . He holds the title of the US Olympic competitor who has competed in the greatest number of Olympics , winning two team gold medals , three team silvers and one individual silver .
He has also competed at the World Equestrian Games and Pan @-@ American Games , winning medals at both , as well as competing in the Rolex Kentucky Three Day and steeplechase events . He has been named to the Hall of Fame of the United States Eventing Association ( USEA ) , as well as winning annual USEA awards , and is the only equestrian rider to have been inducted to the United States Olympic Hall of Fame . He was previously married to fellow Olympian Donnan Plumb , and the couple has three sons .
= = Personal life = =
Plumb was born in Islip , New York , and grew up in Syosset , New York . His father , Charles , was a steeplechase rider and huntsman , and his mother , Meem , was also an equestrian . Plumb began riding at the Meadow Brooks Hounds Pony Club , where he participated in Pony Club . In 1972 , he graduated from the University of Delaware . He married Donnan Sharp Plumb , a dressage rider who competed in the 1968 Summer Olympics ; they later divorced . The couple had three sons – Hugh , Matt and Charlie ; Charlie became a successful event rider . Matt and Hugh had a career in auto racing .
= = Career = =
= = = Competition = = =
Plumb began his international competitive three @-@ day event career at the 1959 Pan American Games in Chicago , Illinois . Throughout his career he competed for the United States in several other Pan @-@ American Games , and won three gold medals , including an individual gold in 1963 and team golds in 1963 and 1967 . Plumb also competed at several Eventing World Championships , accruing four medals . In 1974 he assisted the US team to a silver , while also taking silver in the individual competition , and helped the US team to bronze medals in both 1978 and 1982 .
As of 2008 , Plumb was the US Olympic athlete with the greatest number of appearances in any sport at the Games . He was named to the US team in every Olympic games between 1960 ( his first ) and 1984 , as well as appearing for the last time at the 1992 Summer Olympics , and competed at all of the Games except for 1980 , when the US did not compete . During his seven Olympic appearances , he gathered multiple medals . At the 1960 Summer Olympics , Plumb took an individual 15th , while the US team did not finish the competition . At the 1964 Games , he repeated his individual performance , while the US team improved to take the silver medal . At these Games , he became the first rider ever to win a medal on a horse that he had never previously ridden in competition . Plumb had planned to ride his main event horse , Markham , but on the flight to the Games in Tokyo , the horse panicked , possibly due to a bad experience previously suffered in a horse trailer . In order to keep him from destroying his stall and potentially the aircraft , the horse was euthanized . Plumb instead rode Bold Minstrel , a horse loaned to him by another top @-@ level eventer .
In 1968 , at Ciudad de Mexico , Plumb took an individual 14th , while the US team again finished with a silver . In 1970 , when Jack le Goff became coach of the United States eventing team , Plumb was one of only three active US riders with international experience in the sport . Between then and 1984 , when le Goff retired , the US eventing team , with Plumb as part , amassed three team and three individual medals , as well as additional triumphs at the World Equestrian Games and Pan @-@ American Games . At the 1972 Summer Olympics , the US team took the silver medal for the third Games in a row , while Plumb finished 20th individually . At the 1976 Games , Plumb achieved his only individual medal , taking silver , while the US team took gold . Despite the US boycott of the 1980 Moscow Olympics , Plumb competed at the alternate games in Fontainebleau , France . The team repeated this performance at the 1984 Olympics , while Plumb took an individual 10th place . In 1988 , he was slated to make the US Equestrian Team , but was not able to compete due to a fall that resulted in a broken collarbone . In 1992 , Plumb competed in his last Olympics , placing 48th individually while the team took 10th .
Plumb has ridden in steeplechase competitions , and in 1976 placed second at the Maryland Hunt Cup , an event which his father had won in 1929 . He has also competed multiple times at the Rolex Kentucky Three Day .
= = = Influence = = =
In 2002 , Plumb was named as one of the 50 most influential horsemen of the 20th century by the equine magazine Chronicle of the Horse . In 2003 , Plumb was inducted to the United States Eventing Association Hall of Fame , along with one of his horses , Plain Sailing . Good Mixture , another of Plumb 's horses , was inducted in 2009 . In 2008 , Plumb became the first ( and to date , only ) equestrian to be inducted into the United States Olympic Hall of Fame . The United States Eventing Association awarded Plumb their Leading Rider of the Year Award on ten occasions . Plumb is known for his training abilities with both horses and other riders , and as of 2008 he continued to ride and train at his stables in Southern Pines , North Carolina .
Plumb is reticent about discussing his accomplishments , but colleagues have referred to him as the " ultimate team member " who could be counted on to be at the top of his game and a consistent performer . As team captain at the 1992 Barcelona Olympics , he was noted for helping his teammates understand everything that was going on around them . His athleticism and personal courage have been praised by those who know him , such as Michael Page , chef d ’ equipe for the 1986 US World Championship team , who recounted how Plumb medaled at the competition despite three broken ribs . Plumb admits to being completely focused on riding and " not a social person " , with former coach Jack le Goff saying that " horses are his only reason for being on earth " .
|
= Lipid =
Lipids are a group of naturally occurring molecules that include fats , waxes , sterols , fat @-@ soluble vitamins ( such as vitamins A , D , E , and K ) , monoglycerides , diglycerides , triglycerides , phospholipids , and others . The main biological functions of lipids include storing energy , signaling , and acting as structural components of cell membranes . Lipids have applications in the cosmetic and food industries as well as in nanotechnology .
Lipids may be broadly defined as hydrophobic or amphiphilic small molecules ; the amphiphilic nature of some lipids allows them to form structures such as vesicles , multilamellar / unilamellar liposomes , or membranes in an aqueous environment . Biological lipids originate entirely or in part from two distinct types of biochemical subunits or " building @-@ blocks " : ketoacyl and isoprene groups . Using this approach , lipids may be divided into eight categories : fatty acids , glycerolipids , glycerophospholipids , sphingolipids , saccharolipids , and polyketides ( derived from condensation of ketoacyl subunits ) ; and sterol lipids and prenol lipids ( derived from condensation of isoprene subunits ) .
Although the term lipid is sometimes used as a synonym for fats , fats are a subgroup of lipids called triglycerides . Lipids also encompass molecules such as fatty acids and their derivatives ( including tri- , di- , monoglycerides , and phospholipids ) , as well as other sterol @-@ containing metabolites such as cholesterol . Although humans and other mammals use various biosynthetic pathways both to break down and to synthesize lipids , some essential lipids cannot be made this way and must be obtained from the diet .
= = Categories of lipids = =
= = = Fatty acids = = =
Fatty acids , or fatty acid residues when they are part of a lipid , are a diverse group of molecules synthesized by chain @-@ elongation of an acetyl @-@ CoA primer with malonyl @-@ CoA or methylmalonyl @-@ CoA groups in a process called fatty acid synthesis . They are made of a hydrocarbon chain that terminates with a carboxylic acid group ; this arrangement confers the molecule with a polar , hydrophilic end , and a nonpolar , hydrophobic end that is insoluble in water . The fatty acid structure is one of the most fundamental categories of biological lipids , and is commonly used as a building @-@ block of more structurally complex lipids . The carbon chain , typically between four and 24 carbons long , may be saturated or unsaturated , and may be attached to functional groups containing oxygen , halogens , nitrogen , and sulfur . If a fatty acid contains a double bond , there is the possibility of either a cis or trans geometric isomerism , which significantly affects the molecule 's configuration . Cis @-@ double bonds cause the fatty acid chain to bend , an effect that is compounded with more double bonds in the chain . Three double bonds in 18 @-@ carbon linolenic acid , the most abundant fatty @-@ acyl chains of plant thylakoid membranes , render these membranes highly fluid despite environmental low @-@ temperatures , and also makes linolenic acid give dominating sharp peaks in high resolution 13 @-@ C NMR spectra of chloroplasts . This in turn plays an important role in the structure and function of cell membranes . Most naturally occurring fatty acids are of the cis configuration , although the trans form does exist in some natural and partially hydrogenated fats and oils .
Examples of biologically important fatty acids include the eicosanoids , derived primarily from arachidonic acid and eicosapentaenoic acid , that include prostaglandins , leukotrienes , and thromboxanes . Docosahexaenoic acid is also important in biological systems , particularly with respect to sight . Other major lipid classes in the fatty acid category are the fatty esters and fatty amides . Fatty esters include important biochemical intermediates such as wax esters , fatty acid thioester coenzyme A derivatives , fatty acid thioester ACP derivatives and fatty acid carnitines . The fatty amides include N @-@ acyl ethanolamines , such as the cannabinoid neurotransmitter anandamide .
= = = Glycerolipids = = =
Glycerolipids are composed of mono- , di- , and tri @-@ substituted glycerols , the best @-@ known being the fatty acid triesters of glycerol , called triglycerides . The word " triacylglycerol " is sometimes used synonymously with " triglyceride " . In these compounds , the three hydroxyl groups of glycerol are each esterified , typically by different fatty acids . Because they function as an energy store , these lipids comprise the bulk of storage fat in animal tissues . The hydrolysis of the ester bonds of triglycerides and the release of glycerol and fatty acids from adipose tissue are the initial steps in metabolizing fat .
Additional subclasses of glycerolipids are represented by glycosylglycerols , which are characterized by the presence of one or more sugar residues attached to glycerol via a glycosidic linkage . Examples of structures in this category are the digalactosyldiacylglycerols found in plant membranes and seminolipid from mammalian sperm cells .
= = = Glycerophospholipids = = =
Glycerophospholipids , usually referred to as phospholipids , are ubiquitous in nature and are key components of the lipid bilayer of cells , as well as being involved in metabolism and cell signaling . Neural tissue ( including the brain ) contains relatively high amounts of glycerophospholipids , and alterations in their composition has been implicated in various neurological disorders . Glycerophospholipids may be subdivided into distinct classes , based on the nature of the polar headgroup at the sn @-@ 3 position of the glycerol backbone in eukaryotes and eubacteria , or the sn @-@ 1 position in the case of archaebacteria .
Examples of glycerophospholipids found in biological membranes are phosphatidylcholine ( also known as PC , GPCho or lecithin ) , phosphatidylethanolamine ( PE or GPEtn ) and phosphatidylserine ( PS or GPSer ) . In addition to serving as a primary component of cellular membranes and binding sites for intra- and intercellular proteins , some glycerophospholipids in eukaryotic cells , such as phosphatidylinositols and phosphatidic acids are either precursors of or , themselves , membrane @-@ derived second messengers . Typically , one or both of these hydroxyl groups are acylated with long @-@ chain fatty acids , but there are also alkyl @-@ linked and 1Z @-@ alkenyl @-@ linked ( plasmalogen ) glycerophospholipids , as well as dialkylether variants in archaebacteria .
= = = Sphingolipids = = =
Sphingolipids are a complicated family of compounds that share a common structural feature , a sphingoid base backbone that is synthesized de novo from the amino acid serine and a long @-@ chain fatty acyl CoA , then converted into ceramides , phosphosphingolipids , glycosphingolipids and other compounds . The major sphingoid base of mammals is commonly referred to as sphingosine . Ceramides ( N @-@ acyl @-@ sphingoid bases ) are a major subclass of sphingoid base derivatives with an amide @-@ linked fatty acid . The fatty acids are typically saturated or mono @-@ unsaturated with chain lengths from 16 to 26 carbon atoms .
The major phosphosphingolipids of mammals are sphingomyelins ( ceramide phosphocholines ) , whereas insects contain mainly ceramide phosphoethanolamines and fungi have phytoceramide phosphoinositols and mannose @-@ containing headgroups . The glycosphingolipids are a diverse family of molecules composed of one or more sugar residues linked via a glycosidic bond to the sphingoid base . Examples of these are the simple and complex glycosphingolipids such as cerebrosides and gangliosides .
= = = Sterol lipids = = =
Sterol lipids , such as cholesterol and its derivatives , are an important component of membrane lipids , along with the glycerophospholipids and sphingomyelins . The steroids , all derived from the same fused four @-@ ring core structure , have different biological roles as hormones and signaling molecules . The eighteen @-@ carbon ( C18 ) steroids include the estrogen family whereas the C19 steroids comprise the androgens such as testosterone and androsterone . The C21 subclass includes the progestogens as well as the glucocorticoids and mineralocorticoids . The secosteroids , comprising various forms of vitamin D , are characterized by cleavage of the B ring of the core structure . Other examples of sterols are the bile acids and their conjugates , which in mammals are oxidized derivatives of cholesterol and are synthesized in the liver . The plant equivalents are the phytosterols , such as β @-@ sitosterol , stigmasterol , and brassicasterol ; the latter compound is also used as a biomarker for algal growth . The predominant sterol in fungal cell membranes is ergosterol .
= = = Prenol lipids = = =
Prenol lipids are synthesized from the five @-@ carbon @-@ unit precursors isopentenyl diphosphate and dimethylallyl diphosphate that are produced mainly via the mevalonic acid ( MVA ) pathway . The simple isoprenoids ( linear alcohols , diphosphates , etc . ) are formed by the successive addition of C5 units , and are classified according to number of these terpene units . Structures containing greater than 40 carbons are known as polyterpenes . Carotenoids are important simple isoprenoids that function as antioxidants and as precursors of vitamin A. Another biologically important class of molecules is exemplified by the quinones and hydroquinones , which contain an isoprenoid tail attached to a quinonoid core of non @-@ isoprenoid origin . Vitamin E and vitamin K , as well as the ubiquinones , are examples of this class . Prokaryotes synthesize polyprenols ( called bactoprenols ) in which the terminal isoprenoid unit attached to oxygen remains unsaturated , whereas in animal polyprenols ( dolichols ) the terminal isoprenoid is reduced .
= = = Saccharolipids = = =
Saccharolipids describe compounds in which fatty acids are linked directly to a sugar backbone , forming structures that are compatible with membrane bilayers . In the saccharolipids , a monosaccharide substitutes for the glycerol backbone present in glycerolipids and glycerophospholipids . The most familiar saccharolipids are the acylated glucosamine precursors of the Lipid A component of the lipopolysaccharides in Gram @-@ negative bacteria . Typical lipid A molecules are disaccharides of glucosamine , which are derivatized with as many as seven fatty @-@ acyl chains . The minimal lipopolysaccharide required for growth in E. coli is Kdo2 @-@ Lipid A , a hexa @-@ acylated disaccharide of glucosamine that is glycosylated with two 3 @-@ deoxy @-@ D @-@ manno @-@ octulosonic acid ( Kdo ) residues .
= = = Polyketides = = =
Polyketides are synthesized by polymerization of acetyl and propionyl subunits by classic enzymes as well as iterative and multimodular enzymes that share mechanistic features with the fatty acid synthases . They comprise a large number of secondary metabolites and natural products from animal , plant , bacterial , fungal and marine sources , and have great structural diversity . Many polyketides are cyclic molecules whose backbones are often further modified by glycosylation , methylation , hydroxylation , oxidation , and / or other processes . Many commonly used anti @-@ microbial , anti @-@ parasitic , and anti @-@ cancer agents are polyketides or polyketide derivatives , such as erythromycins , tetracyclines , avermectins , and antitumor epothilones .
= = Biological functions = =
= = = Membranes = = =
Eukaryotic cells feature compartmentalized membrane @-@ bound organelles that carry out different biological functions . The glycerophospholipids are the main structural component of biological membranes , such as the cellular plasma membrane and the intracellular membranes of organelles ; in animal cells the plasma membrane physically separates the intracellular components from the extracellular environment . The glycerophospholipids are amphipathic molecules ( containing both hydrophobic and hydrophilic regions ) that contain a glycerol core linked to two fatty acid @-@ derived " tails " by ester linkages and to one " head " group by a phosphate ester linkage . While glycerophospholipids are the major component of biological membranes , other non @-@ glyceride lipid components such as sphingomyelin and sterols ( mainly cholesterol in animal cell membranes ) are also found in biological membranes . In plants and algae , the galactosyldiacylglycerols , and sulfoquinovosyldiacylglycerol , which lack a phosphate group , are important components of membranes of chloroplasts and related organelles and are the most abundant lipids in photosynthetic tissues , including those of higher plants , algae and certain bacteria .
Plant thylakoid membranes have the largest lipid component of a non @-@ bilayer forming monogalactosyl diglyceride ( MGDG ) , and little phospholipids ; despite this unique lipid composition , chloroplast thylakoid membranes have been shown to contain a dynamic lipid @-@ bilayer matrix as revealed by magnetic resonance and electron microscope studies .
A biological membrane is a form of lamellar phase lipid bilayer . The formation of lipid bilayers is an energetically preferred process when the glycerophospholipids described above are in an aqueous environment . This is known as the hydrophobic effect . In an aqueous system , the polar heads of lipids align towards the polar , aqueous environment , while the hydrophobic tails minimize their contact with water and tend to cluster together , forming a vesicle ; depending on the concentration of the lipid , this biophysical interaction may result in the formation of micelles , liposomes , or lipid bilayers . Other aggregations are also observed and form part of the polymorphism of amphiphile ( lipid ) behavior . Phase behavior is an area of study within biophysics and is the subject of current academic research . Micelles and bilayers form in the polar medium by a process known as the hydrophobic effect . When dissolving a lipophilic or amphiphilic substance in a polar environment , the polar molecules ( i.e. , water in an aqueous solution ) become more ordered around the dissolved lipophilic substance , since the polar molecules cannot form hydrogen bonds to the lipophilic areas of the amphiphile . So in an aqueous environment , the water molecules form an ordered " clathrate " cage around the dissolved lipophilic molecule .
The formation of lipids into protocell membranes represents a key step in models of abiogenesis , the origin of life .
= = = Energy storage = = =
Triglycerides , stored in adipose tissue , are a major form of energy storage both in animals and plants . The adipocyte , or fat cell , is designed for continuous synthesis and breakdown of triglycerides in animals , with breakdown controlled mainly by the activation of hormone @-@ sensitive enzyme lipase . The complete oxidation of fatty acids provides high caloric content , about 9 kcal / g , compared with 4 kcal / g for the breakdown of carbohydrates and proteins . Migratory birds that must fly long distances without eating use stored energy of triglycerides to fuel their flights .
= = = Signaling = = =
In recent years , evidence has emerged showing that lipid signaling is a vital part of the cell signaling . Lipid signaling may occur via activation of G protein @-@ coupled or nuclear receptors , and members of several different lipid categories have been identified as signaling molecules and cellular messengers . These include sphingosine @-@ 1 @-@ phosphate , a sphingolipid derived from ceramide that is a potent messenger molecule involved in regulating calcium mobilization , cell growth , and apoptosis ; diacylglycerol ( DAG ) and the phosphatidylinositol phosphates ( PIPs ) , involved in calcium @-@ mediated activation of protein kinase C ; the prostaglandins , which are one type of fatty @-@ acid derived eicosanoid involved in inflammation and immunity ; the steroid hormones such as estrogen , testosterone and cortisol , which modulate a host of functions such as reproduction , metabolism and blood pressure ; and the oxysterols such as 25 @-@ hydroxy @-@ cholesterol that are liver X receptor agonists . Phosphatidylserine lipids are known to be involved in signaling for the phagocytosis of apoptotic cells and / or pieces of cells . They accomplish this by being exposed to the extracellular face of the cell membrane after the inactivation of flippases which place them exclusively on the cytosolic side and the activation of scramblases , which scramble the orientation of the phospholipids . After this occurs , other cells recognize the phosphatidylserines and phagocytosize the cells or cell fragments exposing them .
= = = Other functions = = =
The " fat @-@ soluble " vitamins ( A , D , E and K ) – which are isoprene @-@ based lipids – are essential nutrients stored in the liver and fatty tissues , with a diverse range of functions . Acyl @-@ carnitines are involved in the transport and metabolism of fatty acids in and out of mitochondria , where they undergo beta oxidation . Polyprenols and their phosphorylated derivatives also play important transport roles , in this case the transport of oligosaccharides across membranes . Polyprenol phosphate sugars and polyprenol diphosphate sugars function in extra @-@ cytoplasmic glycosylation reactions , in extracellular polysaccharide biosynthesis ( for instance , peptidoglycan polymerization in bacteria ) , and in eukaryotic protein N @-@ glycosylation . Cardiolipins are a subclass of glycerophospholipids containing four acyl chains and three glycerol groups that are particularly abundant in the inner mitochondrial membrane . They are believed to activate enzymes involved with oxidative phosphorylation . Lipids also form the basis of steroid hormones .
= = Metabolism = =
The major dietary lipids for humans and other animals are animal and plant triglycerides , sterols , and membrane phospholipids . The process of lipid metabolism synthesizes and degrades the lipid stores and produces the structural and functional lipids characteristic of individual tissues .
= = = Biosynthesis = = =
In animals , when there is an oversupply of dietary carbohydrate , the excess carbohydrate is converted to triglycerides . This involves the synthesis of fatty acids from acetyl @-@ CoA and the esterification of fatty acids in the production of triglycerides , a process called lipogenesis . Fatty acids are made by fatty acid synthases that polymerize and then reduce acetyl @-@ CoA units . The acyl chains in the fatty acids are extended by a cycle of reactions that add the acetyl group , reduce it to an alcohol , dehydrate it to an alkene group and then reduce it again to an alkane group . The enzymes of fatty acid biosynthesis are divided into two groups , in animals and fungi all these fatty acid synthase reactions are carried out by a single multifunctional protein , while in plant plastids and bacteria separate enzymes perform each step in the pathway . The fatty acids may be subsequently converted to triglycerides that are packaged in lipoproteins and secreted from the liver .
The synthesis of unsaturated fatty acids involves a desaturation reaction , whereby a double bond is introduced into the fatty acyl chain . For example , in humans , the desaturation of stearic acid by stearoyl @-@ CoA desaturase @-@ 1 produces oleic acid . The doubly unsaturated fatty acid linoleic acid as well as the triply unsaturated α @-@ linolenic acid cannot be synthesized in mammalian tissues , and are therefore essential fatty acids and must be obtained from the diet .
Triglyceride synthesis takes place in the endoplasmic reticulum by metabolic pathways in which acyl groups in fatty acyl @-@ CoAs are transferred to the hydroxyl groups of glycerol @-@ 3 @-@ phosphate and diacylglycerol .
Terpenes and isoprenoids , including the carotenoids , are made by the assembly and modification of isoprene units donated from the reactive precursors isopentenyl pyrophosphate and dimethylallyl pyrophosphate . These precursors can be made in different ways . In animals and archaea , the mevalonate pathway produces these compounds from acetyl @-@ CoA , while in plants and bacteria the non @-@ mevalonate pathway uses pyruvate and glyceraldehyde 3 @-@ phosphate as substrates . One important reaction that uses these activated isoprene donors is steroid biosynthesis . Here , the isoprene units are joined together to make squalene and then folded up and formed into a set of rings to make lanosterol . Lanosterol can then be converted into other steroids such as cholesterol and ergosterol .
= = = Degradation = = =
Beta oxidation is the metabolic process by which fatty acids are broken down in the mitochondria and / or in peroxisomes to generate acetyl @-@ CoA . For the most part , fatty acids are oxidized by a mechanism that is similar to , but not identical with , a reversal of the process of fatty acid synthesis . That is , two @-@ carbon fragments are removed sequentially from the carboxyl end of the acid after steps of dehydrogenation , hydration , and oxidation to form a beta @-@ keto acid , which is split by thiolysis . The acetyl @-@ CoA is then ultimately converted into ATP , CO2 , and H2O using the citric acid cycle and the electron transport chain . Hence the citric acid cycle can start at acetyl @-@ CoA when fat is being broken down for energy if there is little or no glucose available . The energy yield of the complete oxidation of the fatty acid palmitate is 106 ATP . Unsaturated and odd @-@ chain fatty acids require additional enzymatic steps for degradation .
= = Nutrition and health = =
Most of the fat found in food is in the form of triglycerides , cholesterol , and phospholipids . Some dietary fat is necessary to facilitate absorption of fat @-@ soluble vitamins ( A , D , E , and K ) and carotenoids . Humans and other mammals have a dietary requirement for certain essential fatty acids , such as linoleic acid ( an omega @-@ 6 fatty acid ) and alpha @-@ linolenic acid ( an omega @-@ 3 fatty acid ) because they cannot be synthesized from simple precursors in the diet . Both of these fatty acids are 18 @-@ carbon polyunsaturated fatty acids differing in the number and position of the double bonds . Most vegetable oils are rich in linoleic acid ( safflower , sunflower , and corn oils ) . Alpha @-@ linolenic acid is found in the green leaves of plants , and in selected seeds , nuts , and legumes ( in particular flax , rapeseed , walnut , and soy ) . Fish oils are particularly rich in the longer @-@ chain omega @-@ 3 fatty acids eicosapentaenoic acid ( EPA ) and docosahexaenoic acid ( DHA ) . A large number of studies have shown positive health benefits associated with consumption of omega @-@ 3 fatty acids on infant development , cancer , cardiovascular diseases , and various mental illnesses , such as depression , attention @-@ deficit hyperactivity disorder , and dementia . In contrast , it is now well @-@ established that consumption of trans fats , such as those present in partially hydrogenated vegetable oils , are a risk factor for cardiovascular disease .
A few studies have suggested that total dietary fat intake is linked to an increased risk of obesity and diabetes . However , a number of very large studies , including the Women 's Health Initiative Dietary Modification Trial , an eight @-@ year study of 49 @,@ 000 women , the Nurses ' Health Study and the Health Professionals Follow @-@ up Study , revealed no such links . None of these studies suggested any connection between percentage of calories from fat and risk of cancer , heart disease , or weight gain . The Nutrition Source , a website maintained by the Department of Nutrition at the Harvard School of Public Health , summarizes the current evidence on the impact of dietary fat : " Detailed research — much of it done at Harvard — shows that the total amount of fat in the diet isn 't really linked with weight or disease . "
|
= Chelsea Manning =
Chelsea Elizabeth Manning ( born Bradley Edward Manning , December 17 , 1987 ) is a United States Army soldier who was convicted by court @-@ martial in July 2013 of violations of the Espionage Act and other offenses , after disclosing to WikiLeaks nearly three @-@ quarters of a million classified or unclassified but sensitive military and diplomatic documents . Manning was sentenced in August 2013 to 35 years imprisonment , with the possibility of parole in the eighth year , and to be dishonorably discharged from the Army . Manning is a trans woman who , in a statement the day after sentencing , said she had felt female since childhood , wanted to be known as Chelsea , and desired to begin hormone replacement therapy . From early life and through much of her Army life , Manning was known as Bradley ; she was diagnosed with gender identity disorder while in the Army .
Assigned in 2009 to an Army unit in Iraq as an intelligence analyst , Manning had access to classified databases . In early 2010 , she leaked classified information to WikiLeaks and confided this to Adrian Lamo , an online acquaintance . Lamo informed Army Counterintelligence , and Manning was arrested in May that same year . The material included videos of the July 12 , 2007 Baghdad airstrike , and the 2009 Granai airstrike in Afghanistan ; 251 @,@ 287 U.S. diplomatic cables ; and 482 @,@ 832 Army reports that came to be known as the Iraq War Logs and Afghan War Diary . Much of the material was published by WikiLeaks or its media partners between April and November 2010 .
Manning was ultimately charged with 22 offenses , including aiding the enemy , which was the most serious charge and could have resulted in a death sentence . She was held at the Marine Corps Brig , Quantico in Virginia , from July 2010 to April 2011 under Prevention of Injury status — which entailed de facto solitary confinement and other restrictions that caused domestic and international concern — before being transferred to Fort Leavenworth , Kansas , where she could interact with other detainees . She pleaded guilty in February 2013 to 10 of the charges . The trial on the remaining charges began on June 3 , 2013 , and on July 30 she was convicted of 17 of the original charges and amended versions of four others , but was acquitted of aiding the enemy . She is serving a 35 @-@ year sentence at the maximum @-@ security U.S. Disciplinary Barracks at Fort Leavenworth .
Reaction to Manning 's disclosures , arrest , and sentence was mixed . Denver Nicks , one of her biographers , writes that the leaked material , particularly the diplomatic cables , was widely seen as a catalyst for the Arab Spring that began in December 2010 , and that Manning was viewed as both a 21st @-@ century Tiananmen Square Tank Man and an embittered traitor . Reporters Without Borders condemned the length of the sentence , saying that it demonstrated how vulnerable whistleblowers are .
= = Background = =
= = = Early life = = =
Born Bradley Edward Manning in 1987 in Oklahoma City , Oklahoma , she was the second child of Susan Fox , originally from Wales , and Brian Manning , an American . Brian had joined the United States Navy in 1974 at the age of 19 , and served for five years as an intelligence analyst . Brian met Susan in a local Woolworths while stationed in Wales at Cawdor Barracks . Manning 's older sister was born in 1976 . The couple returned to the United States in 1979 , settling first in California . After their move near Crescent , Oklahoma they bought a two @-@ story house with an above @-@ ground swimming pool and 5 acres ( 2 hectares ) of land , where they kept pigs and chickens .
Manning 's sister Casey , 11 years her senior , told the court @-@ martial that both their parents were alcoholics , and that their mother had drunk continually while pregnant with Chelsea . Captain David Moulton , a Navy psychiatrist , told the court that Manning 's facial features showed signs of fetal alcohol syndrome . Casey became Manning 's principal caregiver , waking at night to make a bottle for the baby . The court heard that Manning was fed only milk and baby food until the age of two . As an adult she reached 5 ft 2 in ( 1 @.@ 57 m ) and weighed around 105 pounds ( 48 kg ) .
Manning 's father took a job as an information technology ( IT ) manager for a rental car agency , which required travel . The family lived several miles out of town and Manning 's mother was unable to drive . She spent her days drinking , while Manning was left largely to fend for herself , playing with Legos or on the computer . Brian would stock up on food before his trips , and leave pre @-@ signed checks that Casey mailed to pay the bills . A neighbor said that whenever Manning 's elementary school went on field trips , she would give her own son extra food or money so he could make sure Manning had something to eat . Friends and neighbors considered the Mannings a troubled family .
= = = Parents ' divorce , move to Wales = = =
Those who knew Manning said that even as a child , she always had a mind of her own . She was an atheist who was openly opposed to religion , for example , remaining silent during the part of the Pledge of Allegiance that refers to God . In a 2011 interview Manning 's father said , " People need to understand that he 's a young man that had a happy life growing up . " He also said that Manning excelled at the saxophone , science , and computers , creating her first website at the age of ten . Manning taught herself how to use PowerPoint , won the grand prize three years in a row at the local science fair , and in sixth grade , took top prize at a statewide quiz bowl .
A childhood friend of Manning 's , speaking about a conversation they had when Manning was 13 , said " he told me he was gay . " The friend also said that Manning 's home life was not good and that her father was very controlling . Around this time , Manning 's parents divorced . She and her mother Susan moved out of the house to a rented apartment in Crescent , Oklahoma . Susan 's instability continued and in 1998 she attempted suicide ; Manning 's sister drove their mother to the hospital , with the 11 @-@ year @-@ old Manning sitting in the back of the car trying to make sure their mother was still breathing .
Manning 's father remarried in 2000 , the same year as his divorce . His new wife was also named Susan and had a son from a previous relationship . Manning apparently reacted badly when the son changed his surname to Manning too ; she started taking running jumps at the walls , telling her mother : " I 'm nobody now . "
In November 2001 , Manning and her mother left the United States and moved to Haverfordwest , Wales , where her mother had family . Manning attended the town 's Tasker Milward secondary school . A schoolfriend there told Ed Caesar for The Sunday Times that Manning 's personality was " unique , extremely unique . Very quirky , very opinionated , very political , very clever , very articulate . " Manning 's interest in computers continued , and in 2003 , she and a friend set up a website , angeldyne.com , a message board that offered games and music downloads .
Manning became the target of bullying at the school because she was the only American and was viewed as effeminate . Manning had identified to two friends in Oklahoma as gay , but was not open about it at school in Wales . The students would imitate her accent , and apparently abandoned her once during a camping trip ; her aunt told The Washington Post that Manning awoke to an empty camp site one morning , after everyone else had packed up their tents and left without her .
= = = Return to the United States = = =
Fearing that her mother was becoming too ill to cope , in 2005 ( at the age of 17 ) Manning returned to the United States . She moved in with her father in Oklahoma City , where he was living with his second wife and her child . Manning got a job as a developer with a software company , Zoto , and was apparently happy for a time , but was let go after four months . Her boss told The Washington Post that on a few occasions , Manning had " just locked up , " and would simply sit and stare , and in the end communication became too difficult . The boss told the newspaper that " nobody 's been taking care of this kid for a really long time . "
By then , Manning was living as an openly gay man . Her relationship with her father was apparently good , but there were problems between Manning and her stepmother . In March 2006 , Manning reportedly threatened her stepmother with a knife during an argument about Manning 's failure to get another job ; the stepmother called the police and Manning was asked to leave the house . Manning drove to Tulsa in a pickup truck her father had given her , at first sleeping in it , then moving in with a friend from school . The two got jobs at Incredible Pizza in April . Manning moved on to Chicago before running out of money and again having nowhere to stay . Her mother arranged for Brian 's sister , Debra , a lawyer in Potomac , Maryland , to take Manning in . Nicks writes that the 15 months Manning spent with her aunt were among the most stable of her life . Manning had a boyfriend , took several low @-@ paid jobs , and spent a semester studying history and English at Montgomery College , but left after failing an exam .
= = Military service = =
= = = Enlistment in the Army = = =
Manning 's father spent weeks in the fall of 2007 asking her to consider joining the Army . Hoping to gain a college education through the G.I. Bill , and perhaps to study for a PhD in physics , she enlisted in September that year . She told her Army supervisor later that she had also hoped joining such a masculine environment would resolve her gender identity disorder .
Manning began basic training at Fort Leonard Wood , Missouri , on October 2 , 2007 . She wrote that she soon realized she was neither physically nor mentally prepared for it . Six weeks after enlisting , she was sent to the discharge unit . She was allegedly being bullied , and in the opinion of another soldier , was having a breakdown . The soldier told The Guardian : " The kid was barely five foot ... He was a runt , so pick on him . He 's crazy , pick on him . He 's a faggot , pick on him . The guy took it from every side . He couldn 't please anyone . " Denver Nicks writes that Manning , who was used to being bullied , fought back — if the drill sergeants screamed at her , she would scream at them — to the point where they started calling her " General Manning . "
The decision to discharge her was revoked , and she started basic training again in January 2008 . After graduating in April , she moved to Fort Huachuca , Arizona , in order to attend Advanced Individual Training ( AIT ) for Military Occupational Specialty ( MOS ) 35F , intelligence analyst , receiving a TS / SCI security clearance ( Top Secret / Sensitive Compartmented Information ) . According to Nicks , this security clearance , combined with the digitization of classified information and the government 's policy of sharing it widely , gave Manning access to an unprecedented amount of material . Nicks writes that Manning was reprimanded while at Fort Huachuca for posting three video messages to friends on YouTube , in which she described the inside of the " Sensitive Compartmented Information Facility " ( SCIF ) where she worked . Upon completion of her initial MOS course , Manning received the Army Service Ribbon and the National Defense Service Medal .
= = = Move to Fort Drum , deployment to Iraq = = =
In August 2008 , Manning was sent to Fort Drum in Jefferson County , New York , where she joined the 2nd Brigade Combat Team , 10th Mountain Division , and trained for deployment to Iraq . In the fall of 2008 while stationed there , she met Tyler Watkins , who was studying neuroscience and psychology at Brandeis University , near Boston . Watkins was her first serious relationship , and she posted happily on Facebook about it , regularly traveling 300 miles ( 480 km ) to Boston on visits .
Watkins introduced her to a network of friends and the university 's hacker community . She also visited Boston University 's " hackerspace " workshop , known as " Builds " , and met its founder , David House , the MIT researcher who was later allowed to visit her in jail . In November 2008 , she gave an anonymous interview to a high @-@ school reporter during a rally in Syracuse in support of gay marriage :
" I was kicked out of my home and I once lost my job . The world is not moving fast enough for us at home , work , or the battlefield . I 've been living a double life . ... I can 't make a statement . I can 't be caught in an act . I hope the public support changes . I do hope to do that before ETS [ Expiration of Term of Service ] . "
Nicks writes that Manning would travel back to Washington , D.C. , for visits . An ex @-@ boyfriend helped her find her way around the city 's gay community , introducing her to lobbyists , activists , and White House aides . Back at Fort Drum , she continued to display emotional problems and , by August 2009 , had been referred to an Army mental @-@ health counselor . A friend told Nicks that Manning could be emotionally fraught , describing an evening they had watched two movies together — The Last King of Scotland and Dancer in the Dark — after which Manning cried for hours . By September 2009 her relationship with Watkins was in trouble ; they reconciled for a short time , but it was effectively over .
After four weeks at the Joint Readiness Training Center ( JRTC ) in Fort Polk , Louisiana , Manning was deployed to Forward Operating Base Hammer , near Baghdad , arriving in October 2009 . From her workstation there , she had access to SIPRNet ( the Secret Internet Protocol Router Network ) and JWICS ( the Joint Worldwide Intelligence Communications System ) . Two of her superiors had discussed not taking her to Iraq ; it was felt she was a risk to herself and possibly others , according to a statement later issued by the Army — but the shortage of intelligence analysts held sway . In November 2009 , she was promoted from Private First Class to Specialist .
= = = Contact with gender counselor = = =
In November 2009 Manning wrote to a gender counselor in the United States , said she felt female , and discussed having surgery . The counselor told Steve Fishman of New York Magazine in 2011 that it was clear Manning was in crisis , partly because of her gender concerns , but also because she was opposed to the kind of war in which she found herself involved .
She was by all accounts unhappy and isolated . Because of the military 's " Don 't ask , don 't tell " policy ( known as DADT and in effect until September 20 , 2011 ) , Manning was unable to live as an openly gay man without risk of being discharged . But she apparently made no secret of her orientation : her friends said she kept a fairy wand on her desk . When she told her roommate she was attracted to men , he responded by suggesting they not speak to each other . Manning 's working conditions included 14- to 15 @-@ hour night shifts in a tightly packed , dimly lit room .
On December 20 , 2009 , during a counseling session with two colleagues to discuss her poor time @-@ keeping , Manning was told she would lose her one day off a week for persistent lateness . She responded by overturning a table , damaging a computer that was sitting on it . A sergeant moved Manning away from the weapons rack , and other soldiers pinned her arms behind her back and dragged her out of the room . Several witnesses to the incident believed her access to sensitive material ought to have been withdrawn at that point . The following month , January 2010 , she began posting on Facebook that she felt hopeless and alone .
= = = State of mind over release of material = = =
Manning told Amnesty International
These documents were important because they relate to two connected counter @-@ insurgency conflicts in real @-@ time from the ground . Humanity has never had this complete and detailed a record of what modern warfare actually looks like . Once you realize that the co @-@ ordinates represent a real place where people live that the dates happened in our recent history ; that the numbers are actually human lives – with all the love , hope , dreams , hatred , fear , and nightmares that come with them – then it 's difficult to ever forget how important these documents are .
= = = Release of material to WikiLeaks = = =
Manning said her first contact with WikiLeaks took place in January 2010 , when she began to interact with them on IRC and Jabber . She had first noticed them toward the end of November 2009 , when they posted 570 @,@ 000 pager messages from the September 11 attacks .
On January 5 , 2010 , Manning downloaded the 400 @,@ 000 documents that became known as the Iraq War logs . On January 8 she downloaded 91 @,@ 000 documents from the Afghanistan database , the Afghan War logs . She saved the material on CD @-@ RW , and smuggled it through security by labeling the CD @-@ RW media " Lady Gaga " . She then copied it onto her personal computer . The next day she wrote a message in a readme.txt file ( see right ) , which she told the court was initially intended for The Washington Post .
Manning copied the files from her laptop to an SD card for her camera so that she could take it with her to the United States while on R & R leave . Army investigators later found the SD card in Manning 's basement room in her aunt 's home in Potomac , Maryland . On January 23 Manning flew to the United States via Germany for two weeks of leave . It was during this visit that she first went out dressed as a woman , wearing a wig and makeup . After her arrest , her former partner , Tyler Watkins , told Wired that Manning had said during the visit that she had found some sensitive information and was considering leaking it .
Manning contacted The Washington Post and The New York Times to ask if they were interested in the material ; the Post reporter did not sound interested and the Times did not return the call . Manning decided instead to pass it to WikiLeaks , and on February 3 sent them the Iraq and Afghan War logs via Tor . She returned to Iraq on February 11 , with no acknowledgement from WikiLeaks that they had received the files .
On or around February 18 she passed WikiLeaks a diplomatic cable , dated January 13 , 2010 , from the U.S. Embassy in Reykjavík , Iceland . They published it within hours , which suggested to Manning that they had received the other material too . She found the Baghdad helicopter attack ( " Collateral murder " ) video in a Judge Advocate 's directory , and passed it to WikiLeaks on or around February 21 . In late March she sent them a video of the May 2009 Granai airstrike in Afghanistan ; this was the video later removed and apparently destroyed by Daniel Domscheit @-@ Berg when he left the organization . Between March 28 and April 9 she downloaded the 250 @,@ 000 diplomatic cables , and uploaded them to a WikiLeaks dropbox on April 10 .
Manning told the court that , during her interaction with WikiLeaks on IRC and Jabber , she developed a friendship with someone there , believed to be Julian Assange ( although neither knew the other 's name ) , which she said made her feel she could be herself . Army investigators found 14 to 15 pages of encrypted chats , in unallocated space on her MacBook 's hard drive , between Manning and someone believed to be Assange . She wrote in a statement that the more she had tried to fit in at work , the more alienated she became from everyone around her . The relationship with WikiLeaks had given her a brief respite from the isolation and anxiety .
= = = Email to supervisor , recommended discharge = = =
On April 24 , 2010 , Manning sent an email to her supervisor , Master Sergeant Paul Adkins — with the subject line " My Problem " — saying she was suffering from gender identity disorder . She attached a photograph of herself dressed as a woman and with the filename breanna.jpg. She wrote :
This is my problem . I 've had signs of it for a very long time . It 's caused problems within my family . I thought a career in the military would get rid of it . It 's not something I seek out for attention , and I 've been trying very , very hard to get rid of it by placing myself in situations where it would be impossible . But , it 's not going away ; it 's haunting me more and more as I get older . Now , the consequences of it are dire , at a time when it 's causing me great pain in itself ...
Adkins discussed the situation with Manning 's therapists , but did not pass the email to anybody above him in his chain of command ; he told Manning 's court @-@ martial that he was concerned the photograph would be disseminated among other staff . Captain Steven Lim , Manning 's company commander , said he first saw the email after Manning 's arrest , when information about hormone replacement therapy was found in Manning 's room on base ; at that point Lim learned that Manning had been calling herself Breanna .
Manning told former " grey hat " hacker Adrian Lamo that she had set up Twitter and YouTube accounts as Breanna to give her female identity a digital presence , writing to Lamo : " I wouldn 't mind going to prison for the rest of my life [ for leaking information ] , or being executed so much , if it wasn 't for the possibility of having pictures of me ... plastered all over the world press ... as [ a ] boy ... [ ... ] the CPU is not made for this motherboard ... " On April 30 she posted on Facebook that she was utterly lost , and over the next few days wrote that she was " not a piece of equipment , " and was " beyond frustrated " and " livid " after being " lectured by ex @-@ boyfriend despite months of relationship ambiguity ... "
On May 7 , according to Army witnesses , Manning was found curled in a fetal position in a storage cupboard ; she had a knife at her feet and had cut the words " I want " into a vinyl chair . A few hours later she had an altercation with a female intelligence analyst , Specialist Jihrleah Showman , during which she punched Showman in the face . The brigade psychiatrist recommended a discharge , referring to an " occupational problem and adjustment disorder . " Manning 's supervisor removed the bolt from her weapon , making it unable to fire , and she was sent to work in the supply office , although at this point her security clearance remained in place . As punishment for the altercation with Showman , she was demoted from Specialist ( E @-@ 4 ) to Private First Class ( E @-@ 3 ) three days before her arrest on May 27 .
Ellen Nakashima writes that , on May 9 , Manning contacted Jonathan Odell , a gay American novelist in Minneapolis , via Facebook , leaving a message that she wanted to speak to him in confidence ; she said she had been involved in some " very high @-@ profile events , albeit as a nameless individual thus far . " On May 19 , according to Army investigators , she emailed Eric Schmiedl , a mathematician she had met in Boston , and told him she had been the source of the Baghdad airstrike video . Two days later , she began the series of chats with Adrian Lamo that led to her arrest .
= = Publication of leaked material = =
= = = WikiLeaks = = =
WikiLeaks was set up in late 2006 as a disclosure portal , initially using the Wikipedia model , where volunteers would write up restricted or legally threatened material submitted by whistleblowers . It was Julian Assange — an Australian Internet activist and journalist , and the de facto editor @-@ in @-@ chief of WikiLeaks — who had the idea of creating what Ben Laurie called an " open @-@ source , democratic intelligence agency . " The open @-@ editing aspect was soon abandoned , but the site remained open for anonymous submissions .
According to Daniel Domscheit @-@ Berg , a former WikiLeaks spokesperson , part of the WikiLeaks security concept was that they did not know who their sources were . The New York Times wrote in December 2010 that the U.S. government was trying to discover whether Assange had been a passive recipient of material from Manning , or had encouraged or helped her to extract the files ; if the latter , Assange could be charged with conspiracy . Manning told Lamo in May 2010 that she had developed a working relationship with Assange , communicating directly with him using an encrypted Internet conferencing service , but knew little about him . WikiLeaks did not identify Manning as their source . Army investigators found pages of chats on Manning 's computer between Manning and someone believed to be Julian Assange . Nicks writes that , despite this , no decisive evidence was found of Assange offering Manning any direction .
= = = Reykjavik13 = = =
On February 18 , 2010 , WikiLeaks posted the first of the material from Manning , the diplomatic cable from the U.S. Embassy in Reykjavík , a document now known as Reykjavik13 . On March 15 WikiLeaks posted a 32 @-@ page report written in 2008 by the U.S. Department of Defense about WikiLeaks itself , and on March 29 it posted U.S. State Department profiles of politicians in Iceland .
= = = Baghdad airstrike = = =
WikiLeaks named the Baghdad airstrike video " Collateral Murder , " and Assange released it on April 5 , 2010 , during a press conference at the National Press Club in Washington , D.C. The video showed two American helicopters firing on a group of ten men in the Amin District of Baghdad . Two were Reuters employees there to photograph an American Humvee under attack by the Mahdi Army . Pilots mistook their cameras for weapons . The helicopters also fired on a van , targeted earlier by one helicopter , that had stopped to help wounded members of the first group . Two children in the van were wounded and their father was killed . Pilots also engaged a building where retreating insurgents were holed up . The Washington Post wrote that it was this video , viewed by millions , that put WikiLeaks on the map . According to Nicks , Manning emailed a superior officer after the video aired and tried to persuade her that it was the same version as the one stored on SIPRNet . Nicks writes that it seemed as though Manning wanted to be caught .
= = = Afghan War logs , Iraq War logs = = =
WikiLeaks and three media partners — The New York Times , The Guardian , and Der Spiegel — began publishing the 91 @,@ 731 documents that became known as the Afghan War logs on July 25 , 2010 . This was followed on October 22 , 2010 , by 391 @,@ 832 classified military reports covering the period January 2004 to December 2009 ; these became known as the Iraq War logs . Nicks writes that the publication of the former was a watershed moment , the " beginning of the information age exploding upon itself . "
= = = Diplomatic cables , Guantanamo Bay files = = =
Manning was also responsible for the " Cablegate " leak of 251 @,@ 287 State Department cables , written by 271 American embassies and consulates in 180 countries , dated December 1966 to February 2010 . The cables were passed by Assange to his three media partners , plus El País and others , and published in stages from November 28 , 2010 , with the names of sources removed . WikiLeaks said it was the largest set of confidential documents ever to be released into the public domain . The rest of the cables were published unredacted by WikiLeaks on September 1 , 2011 , after David Leigh and Luke Harding of The Guardian published the passphrase for a file that was still online ; Nicks writes that one Ethiopian journalist had to leave his country and the U.S. government said it had to relocate several sources . Manning was also the source of the Guantanamo Bay files leak , obtained by WikiLeaks in 2010 and published by The New York Times on April 24 , 2011 .
= = = Granai airstrike = = =
Manning said she gave WikiLeaks a video , in late March 2010 , of the Granai airstrike in Afghanistan . The airstrike occurred on May 4 , 2009 , in the village of Granai , Afghanistan , killing 86 to 147 Afghan civilians . The video was never published ; Julian Assange said in March 2013 that Daniel Domscheit @-@ Berg had taken it with him when he left WikiLeaks , and had apparently destroyed it .
= = Manning and Adrian Lamo = =
= = = First contact = = =
On May 20 , 2010 , Manning contacted Adrian Lamo , a former " grey hat " hacker convicted in 2004 of having accessed The New York Times computer network two years earlier without permission . Lamo had been profiled that day by Kevin Poulsen in Wired magazine ; the story said Lamo had been involuntarily hospitalized and diagnosed with Asperger syndrome . Poulsen , by then a reporter , was himself a former hacker who had used Lamo as a source several times since 2000 . Indeed it was Poulsen who , in 2002 , had told The New York Times that Lamo had gained unauthorized access to its network ; Poulsen then wrote the story up for SecurityFocus . Lamo would hack into a system , tell the organization , then offer to fix their security , often using Poulsen as a go @-@ between .
Lamo said Manning sent him several encrypted emails on May 20 . He said he was unable to decrypt them but replied anyway and invited the emailer to chat on AOL IM . Lamo said he later turned the emails over to the FBI without having read them .
= = = Chats = = =
In a series of chats between May 21 and 25 , Manning — using the handle " bradass87 " — told Lamo that she had leaked classified material . She introduced herself as an Army intelligence analyst , and within 17 minutes , without waiting for a reply , alluded to the leaks .
Lamo replied several hours later . He said : " I 'm a journalist and a minister . You can pick either , and treat this as a confession or an interview ( never to be published ) & enjoy a modicum of legal protection . " They talked about restricted material in general , then Manning made her first explicit reference to the leaks : " This is what I do for friends . " She linked to a section of the May 21 , 2010 , version of Wikipedia 's article on WikiLeaks , which described the WikiLeaks release in March that year of a Department of Defense report on WikiLeaks itself . She added " the one below that is mine too " ; the section below in the same article referred to the leak of the Baghdad airstrike ( " Collateral Murder " ) video . Manning said she felt isolated and fragile , and was reaching out to someone she hoped might understand .
Manning said she had started to help WikiLeaks around Thanksgiving in November 2009 — which fell on November 26 that year — after WikiLeaks had released the 9 / 11 pager messages ; the messages were released on November 25 . She told Lamo she had recognized that the messages came from an NSA database , and that seeing them had made her feel comfortable about stepping forward . Lamo asked what kind of material Manning was dealing with ; Manning replied : " uhm ... crazy , almost criminal political backdealings ... the non @-@ PR @-@ versions of world events and crises ... " Although she said she dealt with Assange directly , Manning also said Assange had adopted a deliberate policy of knowing very little about her , telling Manning : " lie to me . "
Lamo again assured her that she was speaking in confidence . Manning wrote : " but im not a source for you ... im talking to you as someone who needs moral and emotional fucking support , " and Lamo replied : " i told you , none of this is for print . "
Manning said the incident that had affected her the most was when 15 detainees had been arrested by the Iraqi Federal Police for printing anti @-@ Iraqi literature . She was asked by the Army to find out who the " bad guys " were , and discovered that the detainees had followed what Manning said was a corruption trail within the Iraqi cabinet . She reported this to her commanding officer , but said " he didn 't want to hear any of it " ; she said the officer told her to help the Iraqi police find more detainees . Manning said it made her realize , " i was actively involved in something that i was completely against ... "
She explained that " i cant separate myself from others ... i feel connected to everybody ... like they were distant family , " and cited Carl Sagan , Richard Feynman and Elie Wiesel . She said she hoped the material would lead to " hopefully worldwide discussion , debates , and reforms. if not ... than [ sic ] we 're doomed as a species . " She said she had downloaded the material onto music CD @-@ RWs , erased the music and replaced it with a compressed split file . Part of the reason no one noticed , she said , was that staff were working 14 hours a day , seven days a week , and " people stopped caring after 3 weeks . "
= = = Lamo approaches authorities , chat logs published = = =
Shortly after the first chat with Manning , Lamo discussed the information with Chet Uber of the volunteer group ProjectVIGILANT , which researches cybercrime , and with Timothy Webster , a friend who had worked in Army counterintelligence . Both advised Lamo to go to the authorities . His friend reported the conversation to United States Army Counterintelligence , and Lamo was contacted by counterintelligence agents shortly thereafter . He told them he believed Manning was endangering lives . He was largely ostracized by the hacker community afterwards . Nicks argues , on the other hand , that it was thanks to Lamo that the government had months to ameliorate any harm caused by the release of the diplomatic cables .
Lamo met with FBI and Army investigators on May 25 in California , and showed them the chat logs . On or around that date he also passed the story to Kevin Poulsen of Wired , and on May 27 gave him the chat logs and Manning 's name under embargo . He met with the FBI again that day , at which point they told him Manning had been arrested in Iraq the day before . Poulsen and Kim Zetter broke the news of the arrest in Wired on June 6 . Wired published around 25 percent of the chat logs on June 6 and 10 , and the full logs in July 2011 , after the material about Manning 's gender identity disorder had appeared elsewhere .
= = Legal proceedings = =
= = = Arrest and charges = = =
Manning was arrested by the U.S. Army Criminal Investigation Division ( CID ) , on May 27 , 2010 , and transferred four days later to Camp Arifjan in Kuwait . She was charged with several offenses in July , replaced by 22 charges in March 2011 , including violations of Articles 92 and 134 of the Uniform Code of Military Justice ( UCMJ ) , and of the Espionage Act . The most serious charge was " aiding the enemy , " a capital offense , although prosecutors said they would not seek the death penalty . Another charge , which Manning 's defense called a " made up offense " but of which she was found guilty , read that Manning " wantonly [ caused ] to be published on the internet intelligence belonging to the US government , having knowledge that intelligence published on the internet is accessible to the enemy . "
= = = Detention = = =
While in Kuwait , Manning was placed on suicide watch after her behavior caused concern . She was moved from Kuwait to the Marine Corps Base Quantico , Virginia , on July 29 , 2010 , and classified as a maximum custody detainee with Prevention of Injury ( POI ) status . POI status is one stop short of suicide watch , entailing checks by guards every five minutes . Her lawyer , David Coombs , a former military attorney , said Manning was not allowed to sleep between 5 am ( 7 am on weekends ) and 8 pm , and was made to stand or sit up if she tried to . She was required to remain visible at all times , including at night , which entailed no access to sheets , no pillow except one built into her mattress , and a blanket designed not to be shredded . Manning complained that she regarded it as pretrial punishment .
Her cell was 6 × 12 ft ( 1 @.@ 8 x 3 @.@ 6 m ) with no window , containing a bed , toilet and sink . The jail had 30 cells built in a U shape , and although detainees could talk to one another , they were unable to see each other . Her lawyer said the guards behaved professionally , and had not tried to harass or embarrass Manning . She was allowed to walk for up to one hour a day , meals were taken in the cell , and she was shackled during visits . There was access to television when it was placed in the corridor , and she was allowed to keep one magazine and one book . Because she was in pretrial detention , she received full pay .
On January 18 , 2011 , after Manning had an altercation with the guards , the commander of Quantico classified her as a suicide risk . Manning said the guards had begun issuing conflicting commands , such as " turn left , don 't turn left , " and upbraiding her for responding to commands with " yes " instead of " aye . " Shortly afterwards , she was placed on suicide watch , had her clothing and eyeglasses removed , and was required to remain in her cell 24 hours a day . The suicide watch was lifted on January 21 after a complaint from her lawyer , and the brig commander who ordered it was replaced . On March 2 she was told that her request for removal of POI status — which entailed among other things sleeping wearing only boxer shorts — had been denied . Her lawyer said Manning joked to the guards that , if she wanted to harm herself , she could do so with her underwear or her flip @-@ flops . The comment resulted in Manning being ordered to strip naked in her cell that night and sleep without clothing . On the following morning only , Manning stood naked for inspection . Following her lawyer 's protest and media attention , Manning was issued a sleeping garment on or before March 11 .
The detention conditions prompted national and international concern . Juan E. Mendez , United Nations Special Rapporteur on torture , told The Guardian that the U.S. government 's treatment of Manning was " cruel , inhuman and degrading . " In January 2011 Amnesty International asked the British government to intervene because of Manning 's status as a British citizen by descent , although Manning 's lawyer said Manning did not regard herself as a British citizen . The controversy claimed a casualty in March that year when State Department spokesman Philip J. Crowley criticized Manning 's treatment and resigned two days later . In early April , 295 academics ( most of them American legal scholars ) signed a letter arguing that the treatment was a violation of the U.S. Constitution . On April 20 the Pentagon transferred Manning to the Midwest Joint Regional Correctional Facility , a new medium @-@ security facility at Fort Leavenworth , Kansas , where she was placed in an 80 @-@ square @-@ foot cell with a window and a normal mattress , able to mix with other pretrial detainees and keep personal objects in her cell .
= = = Evidence presented at Article 32 hearing = = =
In April 2011 , a panel of experts , having completed a medical and mental evaluation of Manning , ruled that she was fit to stand trial . An Article 32 hearing , presided over by Lieutenant Colonel Paul Almanza , was convened on December 16 , 2011 , at Fort Meade , Maryland ; the hearing resulted in Almanza 's recommending that Manning be referred to a general court @-@ martial . She was arraigned on February 23 , 2012 , and declined to enter a plea .
During the Article 32 hearing , the prosecution , led by Captain Ashden Fein , presented 300 @,@ 000 pages of documents in evidence , including chat logs and classified material . The court heard from two Army investigators , Special Agent David Shaver , head of the digital forensics and research branch of the Army 's Computer Crime Investigative Unit ( CCIU ) ; and Mark Johnson , a digital forensics contractor from ManTech International , who works for the CCIU . They testified that they had found 100 @,@ 000 State Department cables on a workplace computer Manning had used between November 2009 and May 2010 ; 400 @,@ 000 military reports from Iraq and 91 @,@ 000 from Afghanistan on an SD card found in her basement room in her aunt 's home in Potomac , Maryland ; and 10 @,@ 000 cables on her personal MacBook Pro and storage devices that they said had not been passed to WikiLeaks because a file was corrupted . They also recovered 14 to 15 pages of encrypted chats , in unallocated space on Manning 's MacBook hard drive , between Manning and someone believed to be Julian Assange . Two of the chat handles , which used the Berlin Chaos Computer Club 's domain ( ccc.de ) , were associated with the names Julian Assange and Nathaniel Frank .
Johnson said he found SSH logs on the MacBook that showed an SFTP connection , from an IP address that resolved to Manning 's aunt 's home , to a Swedish IP address with links to WikiLeaks . Also found was a text file named " Readme " , attached to the logs and apparently written by Manning to Assange , which called the Iraq and Afghan War logs " possibly one of the most significant documents of our time , removing the fog of war and revealing the true nature of 21st century asymmetric warfare . " The investigators testified they had also recovered an exchange from May 2010 between Manning and Eric Schmiedl , a Boston mathematician , in which Manning said she was the source of the Baghdad helicopter attack ( " Collateral Murder " ) video . Johnson said there had been two attempts to delete material from the MacBook . The operating system had been re @-@ installed in January 2010 , and on or around January 31 , 2010 , an attempt had been made to erase the hard drive by doing a " zero @-@ fill , " which involves overwriting material with zeroes . The material was recovered after the overwrite attempts from unallocated space .
Manning 's lawyers argued that the government had overstated the harm the release of the documents had caused , and had overcharged Manning to force her to give evidence against Assange . The defense also raised questions about whether Manning 's confusion over her gender identity affected her behavior and decision making .
= = = Guilty plea , trial , sentence = = =
The judge , Army Colonel Denise Lind , ruled in January 2013 that any sentence would be reduced by 112 days because of the treatment Manning received at Quantico . On February 28 , Manning pleaded guilty to 10 of the 22 charges . Reading for over an hour from a 35 @-@ page statement , she said she had leaked the cables " to show the true cost of war . " Prosecutors pursued a court @-@ martial on the remaining charges .
The trial began on June 3 , 2013 . Manning was convicted on July 30 , on 17 of the 22 charges in their entirety , including five counts of espionage and theft , and an amended version of four other charges ; she was acquitted of aiding the enemy . The sentencing phase began the next day .
Captain Michael Worsley , a military psychologist who had treated Manning before her arrest , testified that Manning had been left isolated in the Army , trying to deal with gender @-@ identity issues in a " hyper @-@ masculine environment . " David Moulton , a Navy forensic psychiatrist who saw Manning after the arrest , said Manning had narcissistic traits , and showed signs of both fetal alcohol syndrome and Asperger syndrome . He said that , in leaking the material , Manning had been " acting out [ a ] grandiose ideation . "
A defense psychiatrist , testifying to Manning 's motives , suggested a different agenda :
Well , Pfc Manning was under the impression that his leaked information was going to really change how the world views the wars in Afghanistan and Iraq , and future wars , actually . This was an attempt to crowdsource an analysis of the war , and it was his opinion that if ... through crowdsourcing , enough analysis was done on these documents , which he felt to be very important , that it would lead to a greater good ... that society as a whole would come to the conclusion that the war wasn 't worth it ... that really no wars are worth it .
On August 14 , Manning apologized to the court : " I am sorry that my actions hurt people . I 'm sorry that they hurt the United States . I am sorry for the unintended consequences of my actions . When I made these decisions I believed I was going to help people , not hurt people . ... At the time of my decisions I was dealing with a lot of issues . "
Manning 's offenses carried a maximum sentence of 90 years . The government asked for 60 years as a deterrent to others , while Manning 's lawyer asked for no more than 25 years . She was sentenced on August 21 to 35 years in prison , reduction in rank to private ( private E @-@ 1 or PVT ) , forfeiture of all pay and allowances , and a dishonorable discharge . She was given credit for 1 @,@ 293 days of pretrial confinement , including 112 days for her treatment at Quantico , and will be eligible for parole after serving one @-@ third of the sentence . There may also be additional credit for good behavior , which means she could be released after eight years . She is confined at the United States Disciplinary Barracks ( USDB ) at Fort Leavenworth , Kansas .
On April 14 , 2014 , Manning 's request for clemency was denied , as a result of which the case will go to the United States Army Court of Criminal Appeals for further review .
= = = Request for presidential pardon = = =
On September 3 , 2013 , Manning 's lawyer applied for a presidential pardon for his client . Coombs filed a Petition for Pardon / Commutation of Sentence to President Obama through the pardon attorney at the Department of Justice and Secretary of the Army John M. McHugh . In the petition , which was filed with the legal name " Bradley Manning " and used male @-@ gender pronouns , Coombs contended that Manning 's disclosures did not cause any " real damage , " and that the documents in question did not merit protection as they were not sensitive . The request for a pardon included a supporting letter from Amnesty International which said that Manning 's leaks had exposed violations of human rights . Coombs 's letter touched on Manning 's role as a whistleblower , asking that Manning be granted a full pardon or that her sentence be reduced to time served .
= = = United States Army Court of Criminal Appeals = = =
In April 2015 , Amnesty International posted online a letter from Manning in which she wrote , " I am now preparing for my court @-@ martial appeal before the first appeals court . The appeal team , with my attorneys Nancy Hollander and Vince Ward , are hoping to file our brief before the court in the next six months . We have already had success in getting the court to respect my gender identity by using feminine pronouns in the court filings ( she , her , etc . ) . "
= = Reaction to disclosures = =
The publication of the leaked material , particularly the diplomatic cables , attracted in @-@ depth coverage worldwide , with several governments blocking websites that contained embarrassing details . Alan Rusbridger , editor of The Guardian , said : " I can 't think of a time when there was ever a story generated by a news organisation where the White House , the Kremlin , Chávez , India , China , everyone in the world was talking about these things . ... I 've never known a story that created such mayhem that wasn 't an event like a war or a terrorist attack . "
United States Navy Admiral Michael Mullen , then Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff , said the leaks had placed the lives of American soldiers and Afghan informants in danger . Journalist Glenn Greenwald argued that Manning was the most important whistleblower since Daniel Ellsberg leaked the Pentagon Papers in 1971 . In an impromptu questioning session after a fundraiser , captured on a cell phone video , President Barack Obama said that Manning " broke the law " , which was later criticized as " unlawful command influence " on Manning 's upcoming trial .
Manning and WikiLeaks were credited as catalysts for the Arab Spring that began in December 2010 , when waves of protesters rose up against rulers across the Middle East and North Africa , after the leaked cables exposed government corruption . In Tunisia , where the uprisings began on December 17 , 2010 , one of the leaked cables — published around 10 days earlier — showed that the President 's daughter and her husband had their ice cream flown in from Saint @-@ Tropez .
A Washington Post editorial asked why an apparently unstable Army private had been able to access and transfer sensitive material in the first place . According to a biographer , Manning 's sexuality came into play by illustrating for the far right that gay people were unfit for military service , while the American mainstream thought of Manning as a gay soldier driven mad by bullying .
= = Non @-@ military tributes = =
In 2011 , Manning was awarded a " Whistleblowerpreis " by the German Section of the International Association of Lawyers against Nuclear Arms and the Federation of German Scientists . In 2012 , she was awarded " People 's Choice Award " awarded by Global Exchange . In 2013 , she was awarded the Sean MacBride Peace Prize by the International Peace Bureau . In 2014 , she was awarded the Sam Adams Award by Sam Adams Associates for Integrity in Intelligence .
Icelandic and Swedish Pirate Party MPs nominated Manning and fellow whistleblower Edward Snowden for the 2014 Nobel Peace Prize . In a statement to the Nomination Committee , the Pirate Party members said Manning and Snowden " have inspired change and encouraged public debate and policy changes that contributed to a more stable and peaceful world " . In 2013 , Roots Action launched a petition nominating Manning for the prize that received more than 100 @,@ 000 supporting signatures .
In April 2015 a bronze statute of Manning , Edward Snowden , and Julian Assange was erected in Berlin 's Alexanderplatz . Germany 's Green Party sponsored the statue created by Italian sculptor David Dormino .
= = Gender transition = =
= = = 2013 = = =
On August 22 , 2013 , the day after sentencing , Manning 's attorney issued a press release to the Today show announcing that his client was a female , and asked that she be referred to by her new name of Chelsea and feminine pronouns . Manning 's statement included the following :
As I transition into this next phase of my life , I want everyone to know the real me . I am Chelsea Manning . I am a female . Given the way that I feel , and have felt since childhood , I want to begin hormone therapy as soon as possible . I hope that you will support me in this transition . I also request that , starting today , you refer to me by my new name and use the feminine pronoun ( except in official mail to the confinement facility ) . I look forward to receiving letters from supporters and having the opportunity to write back .
The news media split in its reaction to Manning 's request ; some organizations used the new name and pronouns , and others continued to use the former ones . Advocacy groups such as GLAAD , the National Lesbian and Gay Journalists Association , and the Human Rights Campaign ( HRC ) encouraged media outlets to refer to Manning by her self @-@ identified name and pronoun .
= = = 2014 = = =
In April 2014 , the Kansas District Court considered a petition from Manning for a legal name change . The petition was granted that month . An Army spokesman stated that while the Army will update personnel records to acknowledge the name change , the military will continue to regard Manning as a male . Manning is seeking hormone therapy and the right to live as a woman while confined , consistent with her gender dysphoria , which has been confirmed by two Army medical specialists . Such treatment is provided in civilian federal prisons when it is found to be medically necessary , but it is not available in military prisons . The Pentagon policy considers transgender individuals ineligible to serve .
In July , the Federal Bureau of Prisons rejected a request by the Army to transfer Manning from the USDB to a civilian facility for treatment of her gender dysphoria . Instead , the Army will keep Manning in military custody and begin rudimentary gender treatment , which could include allowing her to wear female undergarments and possibly receive hormone treatments . No decision was announced regarding whether or not Manning will be transferred from the all @-@ male USDB to a female facility .
On August 12 , 2014 , the ACLU and Manning 's civilian attorney David Coombs said Manning was not receiving treatment for her gender identity condition as previously approved by Secretary of Defense Hagel . They notified the USDB , Hagel and other Defense Department officials that a lawsuit would be filed if they did not confirm by September 4 that treatment would be provided . On August 22 , Army spokeswoman Lt. Col. Alayne Conway told NBC News , " The Department of Defense has approved a request by Army leadership to provide required medical treatment for an inmate diagnosed with gender dysphoria . " Although Conway would not discuss " the medical needs of an individual , " she did say , " In general terms , the initial stages of treatment for individuals with gender dysphoria include psychotherapy and elements of the ' real life experience ' therapy . Treatment for the condition is highly individualized and generally is sequential and graduated . " The Army declined to say when treatment might begin .
In September , Manning filed a lawsuit in federal district court in Washington , D.C. , against Secretary of Defense Hagel , claiming she had " been denied access to medically necessary treatment " for gender disorder . She sued to be allowed to grow her hair longer and use cosmetics , and to receive hormone treatments " to express her female gender . "
= = = 2015 = = =
On February 12 , 2015 , USA Today reported that the commandant of the USDB wrote in a February 5 memo , " After carefully considering the recommendation that ( hormone treatment ) is medically appropriate and necessary , and weighing all associated safety and security risks presented , I approve adding ( hormone treatment ) to Inmate Manning 's treatment plan . " According to USA Today , Manning remained a soldier , and the decision to administer hormone therapy was a first for the Army . Manning was not allowed to grow her hair longer . Her ACLU attorney said that the delay in approving her hormone treatment " came with a significant cost to Chelsea and her mental health . "
On March 5 , in response to Manning 's request for an order compelling the military to use pronouns that conform to her chosen gender identity , the U.S. Army Court of Criminal Appeals ruled , " Reference to appellant in all future formal papers filed before this court and all future orders and decisions issued by this court shall either be neutral , e.g. , Private First Class Manning or appellant , or employ a feminine pronoun . "
On March 14 , the digital library host Cryptome posted an unsigned public copy of a court document , filed March 10 , wherein the parties to Manning 's September 2014 lawsuit against Secretary of Defense Hagel agreed to stay proceedings for seven months , after which time they would address how the litigation should proceed in light of Manning 's status at that time . The document revealed that the Army was then providing Manning with weekly psychotherapy , including psychotherapy specific to gender dysphoria ; cross @-@ sex hormone therapy ; female undergarments ; the ability to wear prescribed cosmetics in her daily life at the USDB ; and speech therapy .
In April 2015 , Amnesty International posted online a letter from Manning in which she disclosed ,
I finally began my prescribed regime of hormones to continue my overdue gender transition in February . It 's been such an amazing relief for my body and brain to finally come into alignment with each other . My stress and anxiety levels have tapered off quite considerably . Overall , things are beginning to move along nicely .
= = Prison life = =
In March 2015 , Bloomberg News reported that Manning can be visited only by those she had named before her imprisonment , and not by journalists . She cannot be photographed or give interviews on camera . Manning is not allowed to browse the web , but consults print news and has access to new gender theory texts .
In April 2015 , Amnesty International posted online a letter from Manning in which she described her daily life . " My days here are busy and very routine , " Manning wrote . " I am taking college correspondence courses for a bachelor 's degree . I also work out a lot to stay fit , and read newspapers , magazines and books to keep up @-@ to @-@ date on current events around the world and learn new things . "
Also that month , Cosmopolitan published the first interview with Manning in prison , conducted by mail . Cosmo reported that Manning is optimistic about recent progress but says not being allowed to grow her hair long is " painful and awkward … I am torn up . I get through each day okay , but at night , when I 'm alone in my room , I finally burn out and crash . " Manning said it was " very much a relief " to announce that she is a woman , and did not fear the public response . " Honestly , I 'm not terribly worried about what people out there might think of me . I just try to be myself . " According to Cosmo , Manning has her own cell with " two tall vertical windows that face the sun , " and can see " trees and hills and blue sky and all the things beyond the buildings and razor wire . " Manning denies being harassed by other inmates , and claims some have become confidantes .
= = = Writing = = =
In February 2015 , Katharine Viner , editor @-@ in @-@ chief of Guardian US , announced that Manning had joined The Guardian as a contributing opinion writer on war , gender , and freedom of information . Viner added that Manning would not be paid in this capacity . In 2014 , The Guardian had published two op @-@ eds by Manning : " How to make Isis fall on its own sword " ( September 16 ) and " I am a transgender woman and the government is denying my civil rights " ( December 8 ) . Manning 's debut under the new arrangement , " The CIA 's torturers and the leaders who approved their actions must face the law , " appeared on March 9 , 2015 .
In April 2015 , Manning began communicating via Twitter , under the handle @ xychelsea , by using a voice phone to dictate to intermediaries , who then tweet on her behalf .
= = = Suicide attempt = = =
On July 5 , 2016 , Manning was taken to a hospital after what media sources characterized as a suicide attempt . The following week , Manning confirmed through an attorney statement that she attempted to end her own life .
|
= Action of 25 September 1806 =
The Action of 25 September 1806 was a naval battle fought during the Napoleonic Wars off the French Biscay port of Rochefort . A French squadron comprising five frigates and two corvettes , sailing to the French West Indies with supplies and reinforcements , was intercepted by a British squadron of six ships of the line that was keeping a close blockade of the port as part of the Atlantic campaign of 1806 . The British ships , under the command of Commodore Sir Samuel Hood , spotted the French convoy early in the morning of 25 September , just a few hours after the French had left port , and immediately gave chase . Although the French ships tried to escape , they were heavily laden with troops and stores , and the strong winds favoured the larger ships of the line , which caught the French convoy after a five @-@ hour pursuit , although they had become separated from one another during the chase .
At 05 : 00 the leading British ship , HMS Monarch , was within range and opened fire on the French squadron , which divided . One frigate went north and was intercepted by HMS Mars , while another , accompanied by the two corvettes , turned south and managed to outrun HMS Windsor Castle . The main body of the French force remained together and met the attack of Monarch and the British flagship HMS Centaur with their broadsides . Although outnumbered and outclassed by the British squadron the French ships fought hard , inflicting damage on the leading British ships and severely wounding Commodore Hood . Eventually the strength of the British squadron told , and despite a fierce resistance the French ships surrendered one by one , the British capturing four of the seven vessels in the squadron .
= = Background = =
The principal naval campaign of 1806 was fought in the Atlantic Ocean , following a raid by two large French battle squadrons on British trade routes , focused particularly on the Caribbean . The security of the French Caribbean was under severe threat during the wars , as the Royal Navy dominated the region and restricted French movements both between the islands and between the West Indies and France itself . This dominance was enforced by rigorous blockade , in which British ships attempted to ensure that no French military or commercial vessel was able to enter or leave French harbours both in Europe and in the French colonies . In the Caribbean , this strategy was designed to destroy the economies and morale of the French West Indian territories in preparation for attack by British expeditionary forces . To counter this strategy , the French government repeatedly sent convoys and individual warships to the French Caribbean islands with supplies of food , military equipment and reinforcements . These resupply efforts ranged from small individual corvettes to large battle squadrons and were under orders to avoid conflict wherever possible . Despite these orders , many were intercepted by British blockade forces , either in the Caribbean or off the French coast itself .
The largest French resupply effort of the Napoleonic Wars was a squadron under Contre @-@ Admiral Corentin @-@ Urbain Leissègues , sent to Santo Domingo in December 1805 with troops and supplies . In conjunction with a second squadron under Vice @-@ Admiral Jean @-@ Baptiste Willaumez , this force was then ordered to raid British trade routes and disrupt the movement of British merchant shipping across the Atlantic . Leissègues reached Santo Domingo in February 1806 , but within days a British battle squadron had intercepted and destroyed his force at the Battle of San Domingo . Willaumez was able to avoid attack by British forces during the spring of 1806 , and cruised in the Caribbean during much of the summer , but his force was eventually dispersed by a hurricane in August and the survivors forced to shelter on the American Eastern Seaboard . Unaware of the dispersal of Willaumez 's squadron , the British naval authorities sought to block its return to Europe by stationing strong battle squadrons off the principal French Atlantic ports . One of their most important targets was the city of Rochefort , heavily fortified port in which a powerful French naval force was based , and a squadron of six Royal Navy ships of the line was assigned to watch it in case Willaumez attempted to return there . In August , command of the blockade squadron was awarded to Commodore Sir Samuel Hood , a highly experience naval commander .
In Rochefort , an expedition was planned to carry supplies to the French West Indies while the British were distracted by Willaumez 's operations . Assigned to the operation was Commodore Eleonore @-@ Jean @-@ Nicolas Soleil , an officer who had served on Allemand 's expedition , a successful operation the year before . To carry the supplies and reinforcements , Soleil was provided with seven ships : Four large modern frigates rated at 40 @-@ guns but actually carrying 44 – 46 , a smaller and older frigate of 36 guns and two small corvettes of 16 guns each . All of the ships were heavily laden , each carrying as many as 650 men , but it was hoped that their size and speed would allow them to defeat anything smaller than they were and to escape anything larger .
= = Battle = =
Soleil 's squadron departed Rochefort on the evening of 24 September , aiming to bypass Hood 's squadron in the dark . However at 01 : 00 on 25 September , with the wind coming from the northeast , lookouts on HMS Monarch spotted sails to the east . Hood 's squadron was spread out , tacking southeast towards the Chassiron Lighthouse at Saint @-@ Denis @-@ d 'Oléron with HMS Centaur in the centre , HMS Revenge to the east ( or windward ) and Monarch to the west . HMS Mars was also close by , with the rest of the squadron spread out in the rear . Hood 's immediate reaction was that the sails must belong to a squadron of French ships of the line , and ordered his ships to form a line of battle in anticipation . Even as the signal was raised however , lookouts on Monarch identified the strangers as frigates and Hood abandoned his previous orders and raised a new signal ordering a general chase , confident that his ships could destroy the convoy even without the power and defensive capability of a line of battle .
As soon as Soleil realised that he had been spotted he gave orders for his ships to sail to the southwest as fast as possible , hoping to outdistance the British squadron . However his convoy were all heavily laden and were therefore slower than they would normally be , while the heavy swell and strong winds favoured the large ships of the line . The chase continued throughout the night , until by 04 : 00 Monarch was clearly gaining on the convoy , with Centaur 8 nautical miles ( 15 km ) behind . At 05 : 00 , Captain Richard Lee was close enough to fire his bow @-@ chasers , small guns situated at the front of his ship , at the rearmost French frigate , the Armide . Captain Jean @-@ Jacques @-@ Jude Langlois returned the fire with his stern @-@ chasers and the French ships raised the Tricolour in anticipation of battle . Recognising that he was facing an overwhelming British force , Soleil split his ships , sending Thétis and the corvettes Lynx and Sylphe southwards and Infatigable to the north . This had limited success in achieving the desired effect of dividing the pursuit , with Captain William Lukin taking HMS Mars out of the British line in pursuit of Infatigable while the slow HMS Windsor Castle was sent after the three south bound ships , but the main body of the Royal Navy squadron remained on course .
At 10 : 00 , Soleil accepted that his remaining ships would rapidly be overhauled by Monarch and drew them together , forming a compact group with which to receive the British attack . He also ordered his captains to focus their fire on the enemy sails , rigging and masts , hoping to inflict enough damage to delay the pursuit and allow his force to escape . Within minutes Monarch was heavily engaged with Armide and Minerve but Captain Lee found himself at a disadvantage : the heavy swell that has suited his ship during the chase also prevented him from opening his lower gunports in case of flooding . This halved his available cannon and as a result his isolated ship began to suffer severe damage to its rigging and sails from the frigates ' gunnery . Within 20 minutes , Monarch was unable to manoeuvree , but Lee continued fighting until Centaur could reach the melee , the flagship opening fire at 11 : 00 . Hood passed the battling Monarch and Minerve , concentrating his fire on Armide and the flagship Gloire . For another 45 minutes the battle continued , Centaur suffering damage to her rigging and sails from the French shot and taking casualties from musket fire from the soldiers carried aboard . Among the wounded was Commodore Hood , who was shot in the right forearm , the ball eventually lodging in his shoulder . Hood retired below and command passed to his second in command , Lieutenant Case .
At 11 : 45 , Armide surrendered to Centaur , followed 15 minutes later by Minerve . Both ships had suffered heavy damage and casualties in the unequal engagement and could not hope to continue their resistance with the rest of the British squadron rapidly approaching . To the north , Infatigable had failed to outrun Mars and Captain Lukin forced the frigate to surrender after a brief cannonade . With three ships lost and the other three long disappeared to the south , Soleil determined to flee westwards , hoping the damage he had inflicted on Centaur 's sails was sufficient to prevent her pursuit . However , Gloire had also been damaged and could not distance herself from the British flagship sufficiently before support arrived in the form of Mars . With his ship undamaged , Lukin was able to easily catch the fleeing frigate and opened fire at 14 : 30 , combat continuing for half an hour before Soleil surrendered , his frigate badly damaged . To the south , Windsor Castle had proven far too slow to catch the smaller French ships , which had easily outrun the second rate and escaped .
= = Aftermath = =
It took some time for the British squadron to effect repairs on their ships and prizes in preparation for the journey back to Britain . They had suffered light casualties of nine killed and 29 wounded , but among the more seriously injured was Hood , whose arm had been amputated during the battle . [ Note A ] French losses were much heavier but are unknown : Hood did not include them in his official report but promised to provide them soon afterwards in a follow up letter , which , if it was written , has never been located . All four of the captured frigates were large new vessels that were immediately purchased for service in the Royal Navy , Gloire and Armide retaining their names while Infatigable became HMS Immortalite and Minerve became HMS Alceste . Although Hood and his men were commended at the time , subsequent historical focus has been on the bravery of the inexperienced French crews in resisting an attack by an overwhelming force for so long . William James wrote in 1827 of the " gallant conduct on the part of the French ships " and William Laird Clowes , writing in 1900 stated that " The resistance offered by the French to a force so superior was in every way credible " .
Within days of the action Hood had been promoted to rear @-@ admiral and awarded a pension of £ 500 a year , but despite his wound he continued in service , fighting a notable action with Russian ships in the Baltic Sea in 1807 and later operating off the Spanish coast in the early Peninsular War . French efforts to resupply their West Indian colonies continued throughout the next three years , costing a heavy toll of men and ships lost to the British blockade . By 1808 , the situation in the French Caribbean had become desperate and the French increased their supply convoys , losing five frigates and a ship of the line in failed reinforcement efforts during late 1808 and early 1809 . The weakened colonies were unable to resist British attack , and co @-@ ordinated invasions forced the surrender of first Martinique in January 1809 and Guadeloupe a year later , Cayenne and Santo Domingo also falling to British , Spanish and Portuguese forces .
= = Order of battle = =
|
= Our Father ( Dexter ) =
" Our Father " is the third season premiere and twenty @-@ fifth overall episode of the American television drama series Dexter , which first aired on September 28 , 2008 on Showtime in the United States . The episode was written by Clyde Phillips and directed by Keith Gordon . In the episode , which takes place several months after the second season finale , Dexter Morgan ( Michael C. Hall ) mistakenly kills an innocent man but forms a friendship with the man 's brother , well @-@ known assistant district attorney Miguel Prado ( Jimmy Smits ) . Dexter 's sister Debra ( Jennifer Carpenter ) , meanwhile , has turned over a new leaf in her life and is determined to become a detective .
To carry the remainder of the third season , Dexter 's writers introduced Miguel as a new character so that his relationship with Dexter could serve as a " central arc " . In order to allow them to explore Dexter 's psychological and emotional reactions , the writers revealed Dexter 's girlfriend Rita Bennett ( Julie Benz ) to be pregnant . They also had Dexter kill an innocent person to develop the ongoing theme of rebellion despite initially rejecting the idea of Dexter killing " somebody who doesn 't deserve it " . Filming of the episode began in early June in Los Angeles , California at Sunset Gower Studios , though a small crew flew to Miami , Florida , where the show is set , to film short pieces of Dexter , which were integrated into " Our Father " and other episodes . The episode brought in 1 @.@ 22 million viewers , an improvement from second season 's premiere and finale , and attracted mixed reviews from critics .
= = Plot = =
Several months after the deaths of his colleague Sgt. James Doakes and his Narcotics Anonymous sponsor Lila Tournay ( Jaime Murray ) , Dexter 's life has returned to normal . He looks up a drug dealer , Fred " Freebo " Bowman ( Mike Erwin ) , whom he believes to have killed two female college students . Pretending to want to buy heroin , Dexter visits Freebo 's house , where he sees Freebo 's girlfriend Teegan Campbell ( Jelly Howie ) . He returns to the house at night and finds Freebo fighting with another man ( Nick Hermz ) . When the man attacks Dexter , Dexter stabs and kills him in self @-@ defense . Dexter flees , shocked about breaking his father Harry 's " code " and killing an innocent person . He is called to the scene the following day and discovers that the man was Oscar Prado , the brother of well @-@ known assistant district attorney Miguel Prado . Miguel seeks an explanation and consolation from Dexter , and invites him to Oscar 's wake . Dexter attends , leaving Debra alone on their dead father 's birthday . He begins to question Harry 's code and whether his loyalty is necessary .
In the police department , Det . Angel Batista ( David Zayas ) is promoted to a sergeant . Debra has changed her hairstyle and given up men , alcohol and cigarettes . Det . Joey Quinn ( Desmond Harrington ) , recently transferred to the department , is being investigated by Internal Affairs . Sgt. Yuki Amado ( Liza Lapira ) asks Debra repeatedly to keep an eye on Quinn , but Debra declines even when she discovers that " snitching " may earn her a detective 's shield . She discovers from one of Quinn 's informants , Anton Briggs ( David Ramsey ) , that Oscar was a drug addict , but after she loudly divulges the information in Miguel 's presence , Lt. María LaGuerta ( Lauren Vélez ) asks that Batista remove her from the case . Batista does so and instead puts her on the case of a " Jane Doe " , who Dexter recognizes as Teegan .
Dexter 's personal life is going well ; his relationship with Rita has become more amorous and he is bonding with her children , Astor ( Christina Robinson ) and Cody ( Preston Bailey ) . Rita craves chocolate pudding and , recalling the last instance of this , realizes that she is pregnant .
= = Production = =
Dexter 's writing staff began meeting in March 2008 to brainstorm ideas for the third season 's storylines . Writer Clyde Phillips said that , when the writers decided to open season 3 with the revelation of Rita 's pregnancy , " we were thinking about how it would affect Dexter psychologically and emotionally to create a life when he has spent most of his adult life taking lives . " They chose to introduce Miguel as a new character with the intention for his and Dexter 's relationship to be " the central arc of the season " , according to Hall . Smits was the only actor who was considered for the role of Miguel . Smits was not initially interested in joining the cast , but after Phillips explained Miguel 's dark side to him , Smits accepted the job offer because it was an opportunity to play a character dissimilar to any he had played before . He said , " They promised upfront that this was really going to challenge me , that it would be stuff that I haven 't done before , and they 've really given me a shot . They 've delivered the goods . " In regard to Dexter 's abandonment of Harry 's Code , Hall said that " That need to rebel is a real engine for what unfolds this season . " Smits was hired to appear in ten of the season 's twelve episodes . When asked at the beginning of the second season whether there was any possibility of Dexter killing an innocent person , show runner Daniel Cerone said that by not doing so , they were " protecting the character " . He thought that it was " very important for the show that he does kill people who deserve it " . Phillips said that " We don 't want him knowingly killing somebody who doesn 't deserve it out of impulse or something , but we have explored the notion of his having killed someone without properly vetting that person and perhaps making a mistake . "
Production was scheduled to commence in late May , but was delayed until early June . A small crew flew to Miami with Hall and , according to producer Sara Colleton , filmed " a lot of pieces — not just Dexter walking in and out of his door or car , but also scenes that we know we 'll need and can use " , before returning to the show 's permanent sets at Sunset Gower Studios in Los Angeles .
= = Reception = =
" Our Father " brought in 1 @.@ 22 million viewers , a 20 percent improvement on both the second season 's premiere and finale , and Showtime 's highest @-@ rated drama season premiere since 2004 when Nielsen Media Research began compiling their ratings for premium networks . In the United Kingdom , the episode was the ninth most @-@ watched program in its timeslot with 194 @,@ 000 viewers and an audience share of 1 @.@ 2 percent , a significant decline from " It 's Alive ! " , the second season premiere .
" Our Father " received mixed reviews from critics ; some thought that it was dull , though Smits ' performance received widespread critical acclaim . Alan Sepinwall of The Star @-@ Ledger said that he was " frustrated " by the episode despite not finding any faults with it , writing , " I can 't help thinking that I 've seen as much of Dexter Morgan 's world as I need to . " Matt Fowler , writing for IGN , thought that the revelation of Rita 's pregnancy was " an interesting development , but not necessarily something that instantly catapults me to the edge of my seat " but that Smits as Miguel could improve " even [ a ] great [ show ] like Dexter " . The Australian 's Stephen Romei felt that , with the beginning of the third season , " Dexter has gone from an eight to a six " on a scale of one to ten , saying that the show " has lost its edge " with the hypocrisy of Dexter being a supposed sociopath despite holding several relationships . Los Angeles Times critic Claire Zulkey was " not sure yet whether [ the third season 's changes are ] good " . Ray Ellis of Blogcritics felt that " the series has settled into a state of complacency " and could not " escape the feeling I 've seen this before " . On the other hand , the San Francisco Chronicle 's Tim Goodman wrote that " the whiff of normalcy for Dexter " gives viewers " a magnificent tease " and likened the fast @-@ moving plot to " the urgency of brilliance " . TV Squad critic Debra McDuffee was " pleasantly surprised by Smits " and said that , thus far , " season three is a good one " . TV Guide 's Paula Paige , who was " thrilled " to see Smits join the cast , said , " What the Dexter season three opener lacked in explosive excitement , it certainly made up for in Jimmy Smits . " Daniel Fienberg , writing for Zap2it , said that the combination of Hall and Smits was " as good as TV acting gets " and that , in comparison to the second season 's opening , " the show 's creative team appears to have done it again " .
|
= Breakout ( Miley Cyrus song ) =
" Breakout " is a pop song by American recording artist Miley Cyrus . It was released to Radio Disney as promotion for Cyrus ' second album of the same name . It was originally recorded by American pop singer Katy Perry as a demo track for her debut album One of the Boys but due to not being included in the album , the song was passed on to Cyrus . " Breakout " is a dance @-@ pop whose instrumentation includes keyboard , guitar , and drums while lyrics discuss growing up and being carefree .
Contemporary critics received " Breakout " very well , appreciating its lyrical content . Digital downloads began immediately after the Breakout 's release on July 22 , 2008 , and led to commercial success in Australia , Canada , and the United States ; its highest international peak was at number forty @-@ five on the Canadian Hot 100 . Cyrus performed the song in several venues ; her first , in the 2008 Disney Channel Games was used as a promotional music video and on her first world tour , the Wonder World Tour , it was the opening number .
= = Development = =
" Breakout " was written by Ted Bruner , Trey Vittetoe and Gina Schock of the Go @-@ Go 's . It was first recorded by American pop singer Katy Perry , recording the track as a demo for her debut album One of the Boys , though it was never fully executed for the album and was passed to Cyrus , on whose version Perry sings backing vocals , soon after a leaked version of Katy Perry on the Internet . Perry discussed her role with Bliss magazine : " My vocals are actually on Breakout . I thought , ' Yes , I 'm singing on a Miley single ' . " Cyrus said naming the album Breakout was influenced by the song as it was " one of [ her ] favorite songs " on the album ; this was because the song is feminine but has appeals to different age groups : " Moms , dads , sisters , brothers can , you know , relate to it . And it 's basically because you just want to go out and have fun with your friends and sometimes , you know , go out dancing and let loose once in a while . "
= = Composition = =
" Breakout " is a dance @-@ pop song with a strong use of pop rock elements , lasting three minutes and twenty @-@ six seconds . Written in the key of E major , it follows the chord progression G5 — Dsus — Csus2 — Dsus , beginning with a fast beat , composed of chiming electric guitar and drums and later progressing to " the snares skip and the keyboards shimmer " . In the view of Chris William of Entertainment Weekly , " Breakout " ' s lyrics are " a harangue against life 's cruelest inequities " , drawing attention to the opening verse , " Every week 's the same / Stuck in school 's so lame / My parents say that I 'm lazy / Getting up at 8 a.m. ' s crazy / Tired of bein ' told what to do / So unfair , so uncool , " though adding that the song was a sign that the " little girl isn 't growing up " . However , Mikael Wood of The Los Angeles Times said the song was indeed about growing up fast , referencing the lines " It feels so good to let go " and " Wish it would never end " and Jodi Rosen of Rolling Stone also believed " she 's venting the frustrations of a teen who 's too grown @-@ up to submit to her parents , teachers or anyone else " with the lines " tired of bein ' told what to do " .
= = Critical reception = =
" Breakout " received positive responses from contemporary critics , with Chris William , writing for Entertainment Weekly stating that Gina Schock left influences from The Go @-@ Go 's ' 1982 hit single " Vacation " with " just the right amount of maturing " . Mikael Wood of The Los Angeles Times called the song " a slightly tougher , more guitar @-@ based sound than last year 's Meet Miley Cyrus " , while Bill Lamb of About.com said the song was one of the " top tracks on Breakout " and Heather Phares of Allmusic said the song 's " school girl rebellion " was " designed to present the feisty , carefree Miley " .
According to Sarah Rodman of The Boston Globe , " Breakout " is " pure pop realm with the Go @-@ Go 's @-@ style fizz " and Jody Rosen of Rolling Stone called the song " a more self @-@ possessed [ ... ] sophisticated pop record under her own name " . Ash Dosanjh of Yahoo ! Music said , " You can forgive Cyrus 's lack of poetic profundity because this is a dancefloor smash complete with ecstatic beats pummelling throughout . " Along with " 7 Things " , Robert Christgau called the song " one of the best of Breakout " . Ben Ratliff wrote for The New York Times that " Breakout " " appeals to both age groups " , adding , " it ’ s a girls @-@ only call to fun , but it hints at a decadent , school @-@ free future . " However , Sal Cinquemani of Slant Magazine described " Breakout " as a " noxious Avril Lavigne knockoff — an anti @-@ education screed filled with declarations " .
= = Chart performance = =
As it was not released as a single , " Breakout " received exclusive airplay on Radio Disney , thus its chart appearances consisted mainly of digital downloads . On the week ending August 9 , 2008 , " Breakout " debuted and peaked at number fifty @-@ six in the Billboard Hot 100 where it spent seven consecutive weeks . In the same week , " Breakout " was placed at number twenty @-@ seven on Hot Digital Songs and entered the Canadian Hot 100 at number forty @-@ five , where it peaked , spending three consecutive weeks on that chart . " Breakout " also debuted and peaked at number ninety @-@ four in the Australian Singles Chart .
= = Live performances = =
Cyrus premiered " Breakout " at the opening of the 2008 Disney Channel Games , held on May 4 , 2008 at Walt Disney World in Orlando , Florida , as part of Disney Channel 's summer @-@ season activities . During performance , a recording of which was aired as a promotional music video on the Disney Channel , Cyrus was dressed in a short , sequined black dress with a red tee shirt and black leggings underneath . On May 17 , she performed the song at the 2008 Zootopia and , on July 25 , in New York City , at the Rockefeller Center , which was broadcast by The Today Show . On June 7 , 2009 , Cyrus performed the song at twentieth annual A Time for Heroes Celebrity Carnival , an outdoor carnival supporting the Elizabeth Glaser Pediatric AIDS Foundation .
" Breakout " was on the set list of Cyrus 's 2009 Wonder World Tour , her first world tour . Cyrus performed the song as the opening number at each venue while wearing a black leather tank top and hot pants and a white fur vest . The performances began with Cyrus trapped in a huge , crystal @-@ like ice dome which emerged from the bottom of the stage . As she breaks out of the cocoon , Cyrus begins to sing " Breakout " , gradually switching from slow to upbeat tempo and , towards the end of the performances , she and the backup dancers perform on movable scaffolding . Melinda M. Thompson of The Oregonian reported that , in the September 14 concert in Portland , Oregon , at the Rose Garden Arena , drew a large response , bringing " screaming teens to their feet as she hit the stage ready to party " . Lael Loewenstein of Variety stated that the performance in the September 22 concert in Los Angeles , California , at the Staples Center , touched " on the theme of self @-@ reinvention " , a theme which Loewenstein thought was to " announce her image reboot " . She later performed the song at the Rock in Rio concerts in Lisbon , Portugal and Madrid , Spain .
= = Charts = =
|
= Bank Street ( football ground ) =
Bank Street , known for a time as Bank Lane , was a multi @-@ purpose stadium in Clayton , Manchester , England . It was mostly used for football matches and was the second home ground of Manchester United Football Club ( then known as Newton Heath Football Club ) , after North Road , which they left in 1893 . The stadium had a capacity of around 50 @,@ 000 , but the club moved to Old Trafford in 1910 because club owner John Henry Davies believed he could not sufficiently expand the ground .
The stadium was in poor repair towards the end of its life and , shortly after the club moved out to Old Trafford , the main stand at Bank Street blew down in a storm . The site is now occupied by the car park of the Manchester Velodrome , with a plaque on a house wall on Bank Street indicating the presence of the former ground . The site is close to the City of Manchester Stadium , the home of Manchester City Football Club .
= = History = =
= = = Early years = = =
Also known as Bank Lane , the ground was located on Bank Street in the Manchester suburb of Clayton , opposite the junction with Ravensbury Street and between the railway line and the Albion Chemical works . Known locally as the Bradford and Clayton athletic ground , it was owned by the Bradford and Clayton Athletic Company . After Newton Heath F.C. ( who became Manchester United in 1902 ) were evicted from their old ground at North Road by the Manchester Deans and Canons , who believed it to be inappropriate for the club to charge an entry fee to the ground , secretary A. H. Albut procured the use of the Bank Street ground in June 1893 . The site was let to the club for eight months of the year , with pre @-@ season training permitted on occasional nights in the summer . The ground was without stands , but , by the start of the 1893 – 94 season , two stands had been built ; one spanning the full length of the pitch on one side and the other behind the goal at the " Bradford end " . At the opposite end , the " Clayton end " , the ground had been " built up , thousands thus being provided for " .
Newton Heath 's first Football League match at Bank Street was played against Burnley on 1 September 1893 , when 10 @,@ 000 people saw Alf Farman score a hat @-@ trick , Newton Heath 's only goals in a 3 – 2 win . The remaining stands were completed for the following league game against Nottingham Forest three weeks later . However , Newton Heath did not fare well in their first season at the new ground and were unable to retain their First Division status at the end of the season , finishing bottom of the 16 @-@ team division . At the time , the condition of the Bank Street pitch was well documented . On one occasion during the 1894 – 95 season , Walsall Town Swifts turned up at the ground and were greeted by what they regarded as a " toxic waste dump " . After lodging an official complaint about the pitch to the referee , they were finally persuaded to take to the field , only to be beaten 14 – 0 ( unofficially , the biggest win in the history of Manchester United ) . However , the Football League ruled in favour of Walsall and the match was ordered to be replayed , though the result was not much better for the visitors the second time round , this time losing 9 – 0 .
= = = Expansion = = =
In October 1895 , before the visit of Manchester City to Bank Street , the club purchased a 2 @,@ 000 @-@ capacity stand from Broughton Rangers Rugby League Club , and put up another stand on the " reserved side " ( as distinct from the " popular side " ) . However , weather restricted the attendance for the Manchester City match to just 12 @,@ 000 . Improvements to the ground were restricted by the running track that encompassed the pitch , which , by the request of the Bradford and Clayton Athletic Company , could not be removed . However , the ground came into the possession of the club 's former president , Mr W. Crompton , in 1898 , allowing them to make whatever improvements to it they desired . One report in the Manchester Courier predicted the addition of a 25 @-@ foot ( 7 @.@ 6 m ) tall stand on the side adjacent to Bank Street itself , with a refreshment stand underneath , while the opposite stand would be moved back 6 yards ( 5 @.@ 5 m ) and raised up on brickwork by around 16 feet ( 4 @.@ 9 m ) , with the space underneath to be used as changing rooms for the players and referee and various rooms for the club committee .
These improvements would cost a lot of money , however , and this , in combination with the players ' ever @-@ increasing wages , sent the club into a period of financial turmoil . The club was presented with a winding up order in January 1902 , and Bank Street was on the brink of being repossessed until they were saved at the eleventh hour by a wealthy local brewer , John Henry Davies . He and four other men , among them club captain Harry Stafford , invested a total of £ 2 @,@ 000 in the club , now renamed Manchester United F.C. , and Davies himself paid £ 500 for the erection of a new 1 @,@ 000 @-@ seat stand at Bank Street . Within four years , the stadium had cover on all four sides , as well as the ability to hold approximately 50 @,@ 000 spectators , some of whom could watch from the viewing gallery atop the Main Stand . The stadium was even deemed worthy enough to host a match between Football League and Scottish Football League representative sides in April 1904 , hosting 25 @,@ 000 spectators as the Football League side won 2 – 1 .
Around the turn of the 20th century , Newton Heath pulled off a significant coup by persuading the Manchester Evening News to set up an office at Bank Street . In response to Manchester City 's relationship with the Manchester Evening Chronicle , the Heathens ' believed that their partnership with the Evening News would cultivate interest in the club , while the newspaper would benefit from increased coverage of football .
= = = Departure and destruction = = =
Following Manchester United 's first league title in 1908 and the FA Cup a year later , it was decided that Bank Street was too restrictive for Davies ' ambition and the club would have to move to a new stadium five miles away in Old Trafford . Bank Street was sold to the Manchester Corporation for £ 5 @,@ 500 and leased back to the club on a monthly basis until the new stadium was complete . Bank Street played host to just 5 @,@ 000 spectators for its final game on 22 January 1910 ; a 5 – 0 home win over Tottenham Hotspur . Manchester United 's move away from Bank Street seemed to have come at the perfect time , as , only a few days after the Tottenham match , one of the stands was blown down in a storm . The roof of the grandstand was blown across the road , landing on the houses opposite , and the stand was left in tatters . The Tottenham match was meant to have been played at Old Trafford , but building problems at the new ground had caused the fixture to revert to Bank Street . Despite the destruction of the Bank Street End stand , the club 's reserve team continued to use the ground for matches until the expiry of the lease on 1 January 1912 . The remaining timber at the site was then sold to Keyley Bros. for £ 275 . The site had various industrial uses for the next 80 years , until it was cleared for inclusion in the new Manchester Velodrome in the early 1990s . The actual site occupied by the stadium now serves as the Velodrome car park , while a red plaque attached to a house opposite marks the site as part of United 's history .
|
= Juan Larrea ( politician ) =
Juan Larrea ( June 24 , 1782 in Catalonia , Spain – June 20 , 1847 in Buenos Aires ) was a Spanish businessman and politician in Buenos Aires during the early nineteenth century . He headed a military unit during the second British invasion of the Río de la Plata , and worked at the Buenos Aires Cabildo . He took part in the ill @-@ fated Mutiny of Álzaga . Larrea and Domingo Matheu were the only two Spanish @-@ born members of the Primera Junta , the first national government of Argentina .
He supported the secretary Mariano Moreno within the Junta , and was moved to the distant city of San Juan when the Morenists were removed from government . He returned as a deputy for Córdoba in the Assembly of Year XIII constituent assembly , promoting many resolutions . Together with Carlos María de Alvear , he organized the strategy for the downfall of the royalist stronghold in Montevideo , a threat to Buenos Aires during the Argentine War of Independence . Despite the victory , he faced political conflicts with admiral William Brown and an economic crisis , and was exiled from the country .
He moved to Bordeaux , France , but returned to Buenos Aires when his exile was lifted by the Oblivion law . He served as consul for a time , but his business declined and he committed suicide on June 20 , 1847 . He was the last surviving member of the Primera Junta .
= = Biography = =
= = = Early life and Viceroyalty = = =
Juan Larrea was born on June 24 , 1782 , in the city of Mataró , Catalonia . His father was Martín Ramón de Larrea , who was in charge of customs operations in Mataró , and his mother was Tomasa Espeso . He studied mathematics and navigation , and focused his education towards a career in commerce . His father died in 1793 , so Larrea became the patriarch of the family . They moved to Buenos Aires , where he established a warehouse for wines , leather , and sugar . He traded with Peru , Upper Peru , Paraguay , Chile and colonial Brazil . By 1806 he was a well respected businessman , and a syndic of the Royal Consulate . He promoted the role of deputies from Buenos Aires at the Madrid court , to better the representation of the Brazilian viceroyalty and reduce the privileges of peninsular merchants .
Buenos Aires and other nearby cities faced the British invasions of the Río de la Plata in 1806 and 1807 . In the absence of reinforcements from Spain , viceroy Santiago de Liniers arranged that everyone in Buenos Aires capable of bearing arms should join the resistance against the second invasion . Larrea established the Legion of Catalan Volunteers with Jaime Nadal y Guarda , Jaime Lavallol and José Olaguer Reynals . Larrea was appointed captain of this military unit . The defense was successful , and the British were driven away from the viceroyalty .
Larrea 's business prospered , and in 1808 the Buenos Aires Cabildo appointed him to oversee a naval patrol to suppress shipments of contraband . This gave him an opportunity to put his nautical skills to use . He also participated in the secret meetings of patriots who promoted political change , and joined the 1809 Mutiny of Álzaga , which attempted to depose viceroy Liniers and replace him with a Junta . The mutiny failed , but the patriots continued to plot , and in 1810 the May Revolution succeeded in deposing the new viceroy . Larrea did not take part in the discussions at the open cabildo , but was appointed as member of the Primera Junta .
= = = Primera Junta = = =
Larrea 's prestige as an influential businessman promoted his appointment as member of the Primera Junta . However , as with the other members , the precise reasons for his inclusion are unclear . The Junta 's membership has been considered a balance between Carlotists and Alzaguists . Larrea resigned his wages from his position as Junta member , and organized the resources for the upcoming war of independence . Together with Manuel de Sarratea he drafted a new code regulating business in Argentina , and he also secured the exile of former viceroy Baltasar Hidalgo de Cisneros by bribing the captain of the ship carrying him , the Dart , to avoid any landfall until reaching the Canary Islands on the far side of the Atlantic . He supported the execution of Liniers after the defeat of his counter @-@ revolution , and supported the secretary Mariano Moreno against the president Cornelio Saavedra . Larrea voted for the incorporation of deputies from other cities into the Junta , although he had previously indicated his opposition to the proposal . It was intended by Saavedra that this change would reduce Moreno 's influence within the Junta .
The proposal prevailed , and the Primera Junta became the Junta Grande by incorporating the new deputies . The resignation and death of Mariano Moreno did not reduce the conflicts between Morenists and Saavedrists . A rebellion on behalf of Saavedrism ensued , on 5 and 6 April 1811 , aiming at the resignation of all remaining Morenists , including Larrea . Larrea was accused of joining factions and risking public security , and was deposed . Taken prisoner , he was moved to the nearby city of Luján , and then to the distant San Juan .
= = = Return to politics = = =
Larrea resumed business activities in San Juan , avoiding politics until 1812 . The Revolution of October 8 , 1812 returned the Morenists to power , and so Larrea could return to Buenos Aires . He returned as a deputy for Córdoba to the Assembly of Year XIII constituent assembly .
In the assembly , Larrea promoted a customs law which taxed most imports , but made exceptions for machines , scientific tools , books , weapons and military supplies . He organized a local mint , and the supply of the Army of the North . The presidency of the assembly rotated , and Larrea presided from April 30 to June 1 , 1813 . During this time the Assembly outlawed torture and repealed all noble titles , and also chose the official Argentine National Anthem .
Larrea served briefly in the Second Triumvirate , replacing José Julián Pérez as finance minister , until the Assembly replaced the Triumvirate with the Supreme Director , an office placing the powers of head of state in the hands of one person . Gervasio Antonio de Posadas was chosen as the first Supreme Director . Posadas was concerned about Montevideo , a nearby city which had been under royalist control since the beginning of the war , and a constant threat to Buenos Aires . Carlos María de Alvear complemented the existing siege of Montevideo with a naval blockade , in which Larrea 's expertise was instrumental . Alvear developed the military strategy , and Larrea took care of the financial aspects . Larrea drafted a report of the nature , costs and strength of the proposed navy , and the captains and sailors that were required , and planned to negotiate with the American William White . Larrea also appointed the Irish admiral William Brown to lead the attack . The royalist forces in Montevideo were finally defeated in June , 1814 .
Larrea did not get on well with Brown , who blamed him for disagrements and supply shortages , and even for discontent among the sailors . Buenos Aires did not have a naval tradition , and therefore most of the people involved in the naval campaign were foreigners . As a result , their commitment to the war was often limited . After the capture of Montevideo , Larrea instructed Brown to report directly to the minister of war , and not correspond with himself . Nevertheless , the disagreements continued . Due to the economic crisis caused by the war , Larrea sold the captured ships , decommissioned the navy and sold off the government 's own ships , but the sailors complained that they had not received their wages , their reward for the military victory nor their percentage of the sale of the captured ships . Larrea and White were blamed for this . Larrea resigned by the end of the year , after signing an order for the creation of an infantry and a cavalry regiment for the Army of the Andes . Larrea blamed White for the unresolved dispute over the sailors ' wages , declaring that he had arranged that White would organize the payment of the wages . Alvear resigned in 1815 after the mutiny of Álvarez Thomas , and all the members of his administration were put on trial . Larrea was accused of abuse of power , administrative fraud and stealing from the national treasury . All his properties were confiscated , and he was exiled .
= = = Exile and return = = =
After his exile , Larrea moved to Bordeaux in France , and did business with some of his old associates . He continued correspondence with Bernardino Rivadavia , and in 1818 he moved to Montevideo , under Brazilian control at that time , and strengthened his contacts in Buenos Aires from there . He was finally able to return to Buenos Aires in 1822 due to the oblivion law .
Once he returned to Buenos Aires , Larrea avoided political activities and concentrated on business activities . He established a mailing service between Buenos Aires and Le Havre ( France ) , but the venture failed . He then worked in animal husbandry , both in Buenos Aires and in Montevideo . He was appointed consul of the United Provinces by governor Manuel Dorrego , and moved back to Bordeaux to strengthen commerce with France .
He resigned as consul in 1830 , shortly after the first appointment of Juan Manuel de Rosas as governor , and returned to private business once more . His business began to fail , and he lived at various times in Montevideo , Colonia del Sacramento and Bordeaux , before returning again to Buenos Aires . He committed suicide on June 20 , 1847 . He was the last surviving member of the Primera Junta .
|
= Transformers : Fall of Cybertron =
Transformers : Fall of Cybertron is a third @-@ person shooter video game developed by High Moon Studios and published by Activision . It is the sequel to the 2010 video game Transformers : War for Cybertron , and directly follows the events of that game as the Autobots struggle to defeat their Decepticon foes in a war for their home planet of Cybertron . The game was released on August 21 , 2012 , in North America and on August 24 , 2012 , in Europe for Microsoft Windows , PlayStation 3 , and Xbox 360 .
The game tells the story of the Transformers , fictional robotic life forms , and the final days of conflict on their home planet of Cybertron . An origins subplot for the Dinobots is also told , reimagined from the Transformers : Generation 1 continuity . Other subplots also tell an adapted story for several characters . Some of the voice cast from the 1984 series The Transformers return to reprise their roles , including Peter Cullen as Autobot leader Optimus Prime and Gregg Berger as Grimlock . Other actors return to reprise their roles from Transformers : War for Cybertron .
Fall of Cybertron received generally favorable reviews from critics . The Microsoft Windows and Xbox 360 versions have an aggregate Metacritic score of 79 / 100 , while the PlayStation 3 version holds a score of 77 / 100 . Critics generally felt that the game was true to the Transformers franchise and provided good fan service , but some thought that the story pace slowed at times . Gameplay was mostly praised , but some reviewers cited the removal of War for Cybertron 's cooperative campaign as a low point . Graphics and audio also received broadly positive comments , though some reviewers noticed frame rate issues with the PlayStation 3 version . A tie in titled Transformers : Rise of the Dark Spark , which is partially set between War for Cybertron and Fall of Cybertron was released June 24 , 2014 .
= = Gameplay = =
Transformers : Fall of Cybertron , like its predecessor Transformers : War for Cybertron , is a third @-@ person shooter . Players can control each transformer in both its robot and alternate forms . Instead of a traditional health system , the game features a system similar to the Halo series of video games . The player character has both a regenerating shield and health , the latter of which can be replenished by a health pack . The weapon selection in Fall of Cybertron is expanded , with new weapons that can take on very significant upgrades , including one that allows a weapon to fire up to 75 % faster . These are purchased through Teletran 1 kiosks found throughout the game .
Every character has been given their own unique ability . For example , Jazz can fire a grappling hook to reach high or distant places , Optimus Prime can command the massive Metroplex , and the Combaticons have the ability to combine into the Decepticon Bruticus . Segments in which players control Bruticus are designed to accommodate its larger size . Scale is maintained so the character towers over enemies . The Autobot Grimlock , who transforms into a dinosaur , is controlled differently than other characters . Carrying only a sword and shield , Grimlock cannot transform at will , instead accumulating rage as he battles opponents . When he gains enough rage , Grimlock is able to transform and inflict massive damage . The online cooperative campaign play featured in the first game has been removed in favor of levels that utilize each character 's specific abilities .
The survival mode Escalation from War for Cybertron returns . In this mode players must defend against increasingly difficult waves of enemies . As gameplay progresses , new sections of the level open , which give players access to upgraded weapons and abilities . Franchise characters are used in Escalation , while players can customize one of four character classes — Scientist , Infiltrator , Destroyer , and Titan — in competitive multiplayer . Autobot and Decepticon Transformers can be customized with parts earned through a ranking system or purchased through the game 's marketplace . Several parts from famous Transformers can be used , such as heads , torsos , legs , and arms . Hundreds of pieces and color options are available . Players can also buy and upgrade their gear .
= = Synopsis = =
= = = Setting = = =
Transformers : Fall of Cybertron is a direct continuation of Transformers : War for Cybertron . Giant robotic life forms known as Transformers are at civil war . Two factions , the Autobots and the Decepticons , vie for control of their home world , Cybertron . The events of the previous game have left the planet unable to sustain life , and the Autobots , desperate to ensure the continued existence of the Transformer race , seek to flee the planet . The Decepticons , still bent on domination , will stop at nothing to ensure that the Autobots either submit to the Decepticons or are eliminated . Fall of Cybertron depicts the final battle between the two robot factions , which results in the desolation of their home world , forcing the Autobots to seek refuge in our galaxy , the Milky Way . The developer , High Moon Studios , hoped to show a darker tone than the original game . Game Informer 's Matt Miller stated that the game " changes and improves upon so many of the fundamental ideas that the developer considers the game a natural successor rather than a true sequel . "
= = = Characters = = =
^ a Not a playable character ^ b Downloadable content , playable only in multiplayer ^ c Alternate skin available ( preorder / downloadable content ) ^ d Slag was renamed Slug in the game due to Slag being a derogatory term in some cultures ^ e Playable in escalation
= = = Plot = = =
The game begins on the Ark , the spacecraft the Autobots use to flee their dying homeworld of Cybertron . On their journey , the Decepticons attack . Optimus Prime engages Megatron directly on the outer surface of the Ark . Bumblebee scrambles to his aid and finds Optimus just as Megatron is about to deliver a fatal blow . He dives in front of the shot , taking the hit for Optimus . The game then flashes back to six days earlier .
The Autobots defend the docked Ark from Decepticon forces . Optimus realizes they have broken through Grimlock 's post after unsuccessfully trying to contact him . Optimus leaves to help Ironhide and his forces defend the Ark . Jazz and Cliffjumper are sent to investigate , and while eliminating enemy tanks , Optimus 's turret suddenly deactivates . As he leaves to repair it the room transforms around him , leading him to a brightly lit chamber where he activates the city @-@ sized Transformer Metroplex . The titan disables two Decepticon cannons but is shot point @-@ blank by a third . Starscream and the Combaticons capture Optimus soon after and bring him before Megatron . As Megatron prepares to execute Optimus , Metroplex arrives and pummels him into the ground . Having lost Megatron , Starscream claims leadership of the Decepticons and orders a retreat .
Meanwhile , Jazz and Cliffjumper arrive at the Sea of Rust to locate Grimlock and his Lightning Strike Coalition Force . They find an enormous tower in a lake of energon firing a bright beam into Cybertron 's orbit . They find Shockwave at the scene and discover it is a Space Bridge . Shockwave escapes the ensuing confrontation , and Cliffjumper becomes trapped , leaving Jazz to fight off the incoming Insecticons . Cliffjumper overloads the tower , and he and Jazz are saved from the Tower 's explosion by Sideswipe . They report back to Optimus .
Shortly after the Autobots salvage energon from the tower , Starscream and his Combaticons arrive to reclaim it . Onslaught , the Decepticon team 's leader , briefs them on a plan to ambush the Autobot transport carrying the energon . Combaticons Vortex , Blast Off and Brawl destroy the supports of a bridge the transport must cross . Meanwhile , Swindle engages Autobot ground forces and destroys the wheel struts underneath the transport . The transport transforms into flight mode and the Autobots engage the Decepticon team . Starscream orders the Combaticons to abort the mission , but they defy him and combine to form Bruticus , who brings the transport down , inadvertently losing half the energon in the crash . Starscream arrives at the crash site and arrests the Combaticons for insubordination .
Elsewhere , Soundwave assembles a newer , more powerful chassis for Megatron . He awakens , frees the Combaticons , stops Starscream 's coronation as King of the Decepticons and reclaims leadership of the Decepticons . He then leads a full @-@ scale assault on the Autobot stronghold of Iacon , where the massive Decepticon Trypticon 's remains are kept . Megatron invades the facility and takes Trypticon 's power core , the heart of a transformer . He informs Trypticon that he is not being rescued as he " failed " him , but he congratulates him for destroying Iacon City and few more Autobots . Trypticon is then transformed into the Nemesis , the Decepticon flagship .
Starscream , having been humiliated at the hands of Megatron , infiltrates Shockwave 's base , where he finds Grimlock being held prisoner . He offers Grimlock freedom in exchange for his fealty , but Grimlock escapes by throwing Starscream into the restraint controls . He reunites with his teammates Swoop , Slug , and Snarl and defeats the defending Insecticons . Grimlock learns from Shockwave that their processors were tampered with , leaving Grimlock with a speech impairment . By way of his Space Bridge , Shockwave also found a new planet inhabited by large creatures ; these were used to inspire all of their new alternate forms . Grimlock was further modified , and now cannot transform on command , but must be in a state of rage to do so . Grimlock recalls a name that Sharpshot gave them , the Dinobots , and claims it as their new team name . Grimlock then notices another Space Bridge tower that Shockwave has constructed nearby . Grimlock fights his way to Shockwave , knocking him from the tower and destroying it . The crumbling tower falls , and the portal in Cybertron 's orbit begins to decay .
Before the launch , Metroplex sacrifices himself by transferring all of his energon to the Ark . Optimus then calls for the launch of the Ark to try and escape through the portal before it closes , but Decepticons arrive in the Nemesis to stop them . Soundwave leads the first wave of troops onto the ship through giant cables and destroys the Ark 's automated defense system . Jetfire is then launched into space to disengage the cables . Bruticus launches from the Nemesis and destroys the Ark 's fuel line before being blasted off the ship into empty space by Jazz and Jetfire . Nearby , Megatron and Optimus engage in battle . Before a winner can be declared , Optimus and Megatron are pulled off of the hull of the Ark and into the portal with both ships . The portal finally closes , leaving their home planet alone and quiet .
= = Development = =
During an investor conference in November 2010 Hasbro confirmed that a sequel to the 2010 game Transformers : War for Cybertron would be developed . Transformers : Fall of Cybertron was officially announced on October 6 , 2011 , in an article posted on the gaming magazine Game Informer 's website . In the article , Game Informer noted that their November issue would contain an exclusive feature on the upcoming game and the cover would include concept art . 1UP.com 's Chris Pereira wrote that fans would be excited to hear another original Transformers game from High Moon Studios was being developed , since the game based on the film Transformers : Dark of the Moon did not meet critical expectations . Henry Gilbert of Games Radar was also pleased to see an original game being developed and said " we 're glad [ ... ] developer High Moon Studios is back to what it does best : crafting new / old adventures for the Autobots and Decepticons " . High Moon Studios originally announced that they would not be releasing Fall of Cybertron on the Microsoft Windows platform but changed their plans . The Windows version was completed by Mercenary Technologies , while High Moon Studios handled the PlayStation 3 and Xbox 360 releases . The game is powered by Epic Games ' Unreal Engine 3 and utilizes the Havok physics engine .
= = = Design = = =
Some characters who previously appeared in War for Cybertron feature updated appearances and transformation schemes , or moving parts that animate regardless of player action , similar to breathing . The character Optimus Prime was redesigned for a " more warrior @-@ type feel " , with more bulk added to his body mass . The weaponry in Fall of Cybertron was also modified and enhanced ; the designers of the game put out a call to everyone in the studio for new weapon ideas . Matt Tieger of High Moon explained that in addition to new designs , each weapon could be upgraded , continuing , " We really made a conscious choice to make every upgrade a significant improvement , so one upgrade might increase your firing speed by 75 % . We could have made the system so that there were a lot of upgrades that each improved your guns a little bit , but we wanted to make each upgrade feel like this giant thing . That way when players buy it they ’ re really going to feel the difference . "
= = = Audio = = =
At E3 2012 veteran Transformers voice actors Peter Cullen and Fred Tatasciore were confirmed to reprise their respective roles of Optimus Prime and Megatron . Tatasciore also voices Ratchet and the city @-@ sized Transformer Metroplex . Gregg Berger voices Grimlock from The Transformers for the first time in twenty @-@ five years . Other cast members include : Sam Riegel as Starscream ; Keith Szarabajka as Ironhide ; Nolan North as Cliffjumper , Bruticus and Brawl ; Steven Blum as Shockwave , Swindle and Sharpshot ; Isaac C. Singleton Jr. as Soundwave ; and Troy Baker as Jazz , Jetfire , and Kickback . Jim Ward provides the voice for Perceptor , David Boat voices Vortex , Travis Willingham performs as Sideswipe , Slug and Onslaught , Jamieson Price voices Warpath , and Keith Silverstein portrays Blast @-@ Off and Rumble .
The game features Stan Bush 's song " The Touch " , originally featured in the 1986 film The Transformers : The Movie . The rerecorded 2007 version was used during promotional trailers for preorder items , while the game 's end credits utilize both it and a remixed version of the song . The remixed version , called the " Power Mix " , was based on the melancholy " Sam 's Theme " version of the song , which was created for possible inclusion in the live @-@ action film Revenge of the Fallen . The credits begin with the " Power Mix " version , and segue into the 2007 version . Bush later released the " Power Mix " on iTunes the following September .
= = Marketing and release = =
The first official cinematic trailer for the video game was shown at the 2011 Spike TV Video Game Awards on December 10 , 2011 and featured the song " The Humbling River " by Puscifer . A second cinematic trailer , dubbed " Our World " , was released in March 2012 . Gameplay was shown during the 2012 Botcon convention . On July 5 , 2012 , the UK release date for the game was brought forward one week to August 24 , 2012 . A trailer featuring an in @-@ game look at the city @-@ sized Transformer Metroplex was released with the announcement . The song featured was an Everlove cover of the Siouxsie and the Banshees song " Cities in Dust " . The launch trailer was released on August 17 , 2012 , and featured the theme " The Last Kingdom " by Alessio Nanni and Daniel Lessner . The game was released in North America on August 21 , 2012 , and Europe on August 24 .
A toy line based on the game was manufactured by Hasbro under the Transformers : Generations banner . Bruticus , a character formed by combining five Decepticons , is part of the line . Other figures include Optimus Prime , Jazz , and Shockwave . It was announced the toy line would be released August 21 , 2012 , in North America , a week earlier than originally planned .
In North America , Amazon.com and video game retailer GameStop offered preorder codes for downloadable content . GameStop offered a G1 Retro Pack that unlocks a The Transformers Generation 1 themed Optimus Prime skin , a Generation 1 inspired Megatron rifle based the character 's alternate mode , and a Shockwave Blast Cannon . Amazon offered a Generation 2 Bruticus skin . In the United Kingdom , Play.com also offered preorder codes . The codes unlocked the Dinobot Swoop for use in the competitive multiplayer .
Multiple downloadable content packs were released . The Multiplayer Havoc Pack launched on the game 's release date of August 21 , 2012 , and contains five characters for use in multiplayer : Perceptor , Ultra Magnus , Blast Off , Wheeljack , and Zeta Prime . It also unlocks the associated customization pieces related to these characters . The Dinobots , excluding Sludge , make up the DLC Dinobot Destructor Pack , released on September 11 . The Insecticons , G1 Optimus , Megatron , Hound , and G2 Bruticus were released as DLC for single and multiplayer in the Massive Fury Pack on September 25 . Players can also purchase specific customization pieces for their multiplayer characters via microtransactions , allowing players to access content they would otherwise have to play to unlock .
= = Reception = =
Fall of Cybertron has received generally positive reviews . The PlayStation 3 version received an aggregate score of 77 / 100 at Metacritic , while the Xbox 360 and Windows versions both hold scores of 79 / 100 . GameRankings reports similar scores ; the Xbox 360 version has an aggregate score of 81 @.@ 40 % , the PlayStation 3 a score of 76 @.@ 48 % , and the Windows version a score of 79 @.@ 17 % Jeff Gerstmann of Giant Bomb gave the game a 60 % approval , the lowest score reported .
Alec Meer of Eurogamer praised the developer 's focus on staying true to the Transformers source material : " Fall of Cybertron is a love @-@ letter to a fictional universe created in 1984 that has ... continued to this day . " Matt Miller of Game Informer agreed , calling the narrative " tightly crafted " . G4TV 's Matt Keil lauded the story , character development and voice acting . He called the game " a cinematic shooter that stands on the strength of its design and gameplay " . GameSpot 's Kevin VanOrd stated that while the game 's levels focused on flight are enjoyable and that some levels give players a sense of power , the campaign mode was " too often more exciting to watch than to play " . Corey Cohen of Official Xbox Magazine gave high marks for the variety of characters players control during the campaign . He noted that each felt unique from the others , but thought that the game could have utilized the gargantuan transformer Metroplex more . Miller cited that the variety of playable Transformers and their unique abilities kept the game interesting , adding that the control scheme suited each unique character well .
In a more critical review , Giant Bomb 's Jeff Gerstmann felt that the game had uneven pacing and gameplay . " The highs in Transformers : Fall of Cybertron are very high [ ... ] but it doesn 't go far enough in that direction to stand out " he stated . Gerstmann disliked the frame rate drops during heavy action sequences . IGN 's Matt Cabral also noted this , but dismissed these moments as " occasional hiccups " . Cabral gave high marks for visual presentation , including the transformations each character used to change forms . Both Cabral and Keil criticized the lack of cooperative campaign gameplay , a feature available in the game 's predecessor , as a low point of Fall of Cybertron .
According to the NPD Group , the game sold well during the month of its release , placing seventh in sales despite only being available during the last ten days . Fall of Cybertron sold 105 @,@ 000 copies during its North America debut according to Game Informer .
= = Sequel Tie @-@ In = =
A video game titled Transformers : Rise of the Dark Spark was developed by Edge of Reality and published by Activision . It takes place between the events of War for Cybertron and Fall of Cybertron . It is also a crossover to the fourth live @-@ action film Transformers : Age of Extinction , and is therefore a tie @-@ in to the film . It features characters from both timelines .
|
= Chen Liting =
Chen Liting ( Chinese : 陈鲤庭 ; pinyin : Chén Lǐtíng ; 20 October 1910 – 27 August 2013 ) was a Chinese playwright , drama and film director , screenwriter , and film theorist . He was one of the most prominent film directors and screenwriters in pre @-@ Communist China , together with Shi Dongshan , Cai Chusheng , and Zheng Junli . His most famous film was Women Side by Side ( 1949 ) .
Chen was abandoned as an infant , and then lost his both foster parents during early childhood . Before becoming a film director , Chen worked mainly in drama . His patriotic play Put Down Your Whip was highly influential and performed countless times during the Japanese invasion of China . During the war he also made a famous staging of the play Qu Yuan , and wrote one of the first Chinese books on film theory .
After the early 1950s , Chen 's attempts at filmmaking were repeatedly thwarted by the PRC government for political reasons . He worked as general manager of Tianma Film Studio before being imprisoned during the Cultural Revolution . After his rehabilitation at the end of the period , he spent three years on the historical film Da Feng Ge , but retired after that film was also cancelled due to politics .
= = Early life = =
Born in Shanghai in 1910 , Chen Liting was abandoned as an infant and adopted by foster parents . However , he lost his adoptive father at the age of four , and three years later his adoptive mother also died . Chen was brought up by his uncle , the brother of his adoptive father . He attended a boarding school in Jiangyin at the age of 12 , and in 1924 entered Chengzhong Middle School in Shanghai .
As a high school student at Chengzhong , Chen was influenced by the post @-@ May Fourth surge of modern drama . In 1928 , he entered Daxia University ( a predecessor of East China Normal University ) in Shanghai , where he translated , directed , and acted in The Rising of the Moon , a play by the Irish dramatist Lady Gregory . It was the first Chinese production of the play .
= = Put Down Your Whip = =
After university , Chen worked as a primary school teacher in rural Nanhui County outside of Shanghai . In late 1931 , he wrote the patriotic play Put Down Your Whip ( also translated as Lay Down Your Whip ) , inspired by Meiniang , an earlier play by Tian Han . It became extremely influential and was staged countless times throughout China during the Anti @-@ Japanese War . The play was staged both by amateur performers as well as famous actors . The actress Wang Ying even performed an English version of the play in the White House for President Roosevelt and his wife . The future Madame Mao , then known as Li Yunhe , was also among its many performers . The play has been described in Chinese media as a " spiritual atomic bomb " against the Japanese invaders . It also inspired famous paintings by artists Xu Beihong and Situ Qiao .
= = Sino @-@ Japanese War = =
Chen returned to Shanghai in 1932 , where he wrote film reviews and translated Soviet books on filmmaking into Chinese . After the Japanese invaded China in 1937 , Chen joined the resistance movement , serving as the leader of the fourth brigade of the Shanghai Salvation Drama Troupe , which performed numerous patriotic street plays including Put Down Your Whip . The troupe fled Shanghai before it fell to the Japanese , traveling and performing for the next three years under harsh conditions through central and southwest China .
In 1941 , Chen arrived in Chongqing , China 's wartime capital , where he joined the China Film Studio and the Central Cinematography Studio run by the Nationalist government . However , he mainly worked in theatre , directing plays written by Wu Zuguang , Xia Yan , and Chen Baichen . His most impressive wartime contribution was the staging of Qu Yuan , a famous 1942 play by Guo Moruo . In 1942 , he also published Rules of Cinema , which is considered the first comprehensive Chinese book on film theory .
= = Between WWII and 1949 = =
After the Japanese surrender in 1945 , Chen returned to Shanghai . He joined the China Film No. 2 Studio that was newly established by the Nationalist government . He wrote and directed the film Far Away Love , whose premiere in Shanghai 's Huanghou Theatre on 18 January 1947 was considered a landmark event in postwar Chinese cinema . The film starred prominent actors and actresses such as Zhao Dan , Qin Yi , and Wu Yin , and the Ministry of Defence put uniformed soldiers under Chen 's command for the filming . It was the first in a series of controversial epics on the social turmoil caused by the war . In late 1947 , he made another film Rhapsody of Happiness , written by Chen Baichen .
After moving to the Kunlun Film Company , a new private studio , Chen directed Women Side by Side ( also translated as Three Women or Female Fighters ) in early 1949 . Chen and the famous playwright Tian Han cowrote the screenplay . The film is his most famous and it is considered his masterpiece .
= = People 's Republic of China = =
After the founding the People 's Republic of China in 1949 , Chen directed two more films : Inescapable ( 1950 ) and Work Is Beautiful ( 1951 ) . But he worked mostly in administrative positions , serving as a member of the National People 's Congress , and general manager of Tianma Film Studio from 1957 until 1966 .
In the 1950s Chen was appointed director for the upcoming film Li Shizhen . However , due to his insistence that the director , rather than government administrators , have artistic control , he was dismissed and the film was directed by his friend Shen Fu .
In the early 1960s , Chen spent three years preparing to make a film about the life of Lu Xun , starring Zhao Dan , Yu Lan , and Sun Daolin , but the film was cancelled by the Shanghai 's Communist Party Chief Ke Qingshi for political reasons .
Like many other intellectuals , Chen was imprisoned during the Cultural Revolution ( 1966 – 76 ) . After being rehabilitated at the end of the period , Chen returned to work for the Shanghai Film Studio , where he was responsible for artistic quality . He and Chen Baichen worked together for three years to make the historical film Da Feng Ge , based on the Han Dynasty palace intrigues of Empress Lü Zhi after the death of Emperor Gaozu . However , the film was again cancelled by high @-@ ranking politicians , as it was reminiscent of the political struggles after the death of Chairman Mao Zedong . Chen Baichen had a heart attack on hearing news of the cancellation , while Chen Liting , then almost 70 years old , retired from filmmaking .
In 2008 , Chen Liting 's biography by Xia Yu ( 夏瑜 ) , titled Far Away Love after his film , was published by China Film Publishing House ( ISBN 9787106029890 ) . He was awarded a prize by Chinese President Hu Jintao for making " exceptional contributions to the art of drama " .
On the morning of 27 August 2013 , Chen Liting died at Huadong Hospital in Shanghai at the age of 102 .
= = Family = =
Chen Liting married Mao Yinfen ( 毛吟芬 ) during the Great Leap Forward . After nearly 40 years of marriage , she died on 18 September 1998 . The couple had one child , a daughter named Chen Maoni ( 陈毛妮 ) , who emigrated to the United States .
|
= Gorgeous ( Kanye West song ) =
" Gorgeous " is a song by American hip hop recording artist Kanye West from his fifth studio album , My Beautiful Dark Twisted Fantasy ( 2010 ) . The track features a hook provided by Kid Cudi , a recording artist formerly signed to West 's label GOOD Music , and a rap verse provided by the Wu @-@ Tang Clan member Raekwon . The song was written by West , Cudi , Raekwon , No I.D. , Mike Dean and Rhymefest , and was produced by West , No I.D. and Dean . It contains elements of The Turtles 's cover version of the song " You Showed Me " . " Gorgeous " received mostly positive reviews from music critics , who generally praised the intricacy of the production , the quality of the guest features and the rock music inspired aesthetic of the song . Several critics cited West 's verses as a highlight of the track , complimenting his lyricism and delivery .
Before its release , West premiered an a cappella version of the song in the form of a freestyle rap on Funkmaster Flex 's Hot 97 radio show . Despite not being released as a single , the song appeared on the Billboard Bubbling Under Hot 100 Singles chart . Cudi and West performed the song live at SXSW , and West performed the track at the Lollapalooza musical festival . " Gorgeous " was also utilized in West 's short film Runaway .
= = Background = =
The majority of My Beautiful Dark Twisted Fantasy was recorded in Oahu , Hawaii , including " Gorgeous " . Following several media controversies , West decided to record his next album in a reclusive manner only working with artists he considered himself familiar with . The song features rapper and occasional singer Kid Cudi , a performer West once described as his favorite artist . The two had previously collaborated on West 's fourth album 808s & Heartbreak , an album that served as a big influence on Cudi . As a friend of West , Cudi was invited to Hawaii to listen to recording sessions of the album . One day when Cudi was hanging around the studio , he overheard the composition of " Gorgeous " , which he was overwhelmed by . He asked immediately to be featured on the track . While a majority of the artists who worked on the album passed their time playing games of basketball , Cudi smoked marijuana and worked @-@ out on a treadmill in preparation of the recording of his lines . On the recording of the song , Cudi mused ;
“ Gorgeous was one of those records that , as soon as I heard the beat , I was like , ‘ Man , this is the one . This is that ' This Can ’ t Be Life ' Kanye beat . This is that classic ‘ [ Kan ] Ye beat . I want to be on this . ’ I came up to him , and I was like , ‘ Man , are you working on this record ? Are you working on this beat ? ’ He goes , ‘ Yeah … do you got an idea for it ? ’ I was like , ‘ Yeah , I might . I didn ’ t . I was lying like a motherfucker . I was like , ‘ Yeah , man , I want to get on this joint . ”
Cudi commented that the way the song was recorded was similar to the way prior collaborations between the two were recorded ; West will bounce ideas off of other writers and gauge their reaction before going forward with any of his own ideas . In an interview with MTV Cudi commented , " that 's always our collab formula , and that 's just how ' Gorgeous ' came about . He just kind of told me what he was trying to say , I threw out some words , we rearranged words , and we came out with a bunch of different options before we come up with the hook . "
It was announced that Raekwon of the Wu @-@ Tang Clan would also be featured on the song , who West had invited to Hawaii . Raekwon initially had no interest in working with West musically , and originally only went to Hawaii to share some insight with him . According to the rapper , a lot of artists in the music industry refuse to be honest and give genuine advice because they don 't want to help their competition , comparing the mentality to a group of crabs in a barrel . One of the reasons for Raekwon 's desire to give West advice was because the frontman of the Wu @-@ Tang Clan , RZA , spoke positively of West . RZA stated that West embodied the mentality of the Wu @-@ Tang Clan , and praised his skills as a producer . RZA was a part of the recording sessions for the album in Hawaii , and contributed to the production of songs " Dark Fantasy " and " So Appalled " . Eventually after being impressed by West himself , Raekwon decided to collaborate with West on several tracks , including " Gorgeous " . Raekwon described West as a hard worker , and stated that the " first thing I can tell you about Kanye West is that he 's a hard worker . When you look at him , you can tell that he still has that whole hip @-@ hop thing in his bones . "
= = Composition = =
" Gorgeous " is a bluesy , rock @-@ driven song that features West 's thoughts on social injustice . Other topics such as sexual exploitation and social disillusionment are expressed throughout the track . It contains elements of The Turtles 's cover version of the song " You Showed Me " , which is where the guitar riff is derived . The song opens with a melodic electric guitar chord , erupting into the hook provided by Cudi . The production style found within the song is noticeably more subdued than average West compositions , quietly playing aongside the lush guitar playing . West muses about social issues and comments on his past critics , rapping at a modest pace over the guitar @-@ driven production . Jon Caramanica of The New York Times commented on West 's lyrical presentation on the track and compared him to rapper Jay @-@ Z , writing " on ' Gorgeous ' he sneers at the competition , ' you blowing up ? / that ’ s good / fantastic ' , maybe the iciest blow @-@ off since ' Jay @-@ Z ’ s You got a little dough ? That ’ s cool with me . ' " Sputnikmusic 's Channing Freeman felt that the song was " broodingly slow " and that it was " driven by piano chords and a questing electric guitar . " Dan Vidal of URB commented on the intricacy of the lyrics :
" On ' Gorgeous , ' he treats his distorted vocals as if they were another instrument to be blended seamlessly into the mix alongside the muted electric guitar @-@ riff . He spits : Penitentiary chances , the devil dances / and eventually answers to the call of autumn / all them fallin ’ , for the love of ballin ’ / get caught with 30 rocks , the cop look like Alec Baldwin . This track is an excellent microcosm of the album because it exemplifies the pinnacle of Ye ’ s visionary talent . ”
The line " choke a South Park writer with a fishstick " is a reference to the South Park episode " Fishsticks " which parodied West . While he enjoyed the episode , it reportedly hurt his feelings . MTV highlighted the full verse , which goes ; " but this pimp is at the top of Mount Olympus / Ready for the world 's games / This is my Olympics / We make ' em say ' ho ' cause the game is so pimpish / Choke a ' South Park ' writer with a fish stick . " The line " What 's a black beetle anyway , a roach ? " is a reference to The Beatles .
= = Reception = =
The song attracted widespread praise by music critics , many of whom ranked it among West 's best songs . Pitchfork Media 's Ryan Dombal compared elements of the song to the rock band The Strokes , and stated that it contained some of the best lyrics ever written by West . Dan Vidal of URB largely praised the track , writing that it was an excellent song overall , though wrote that " in my personal opinion , I don ’ t really think Kid Cudi can sing ; and I ’ m not sure why his generally off @-@ key caterwauling is appealing to people , but here it ’ s hypnotically on point – matching perfectly with the track ’ s imposing tone . " MTV wrote that the song featured West at his most boastful lyrically , musing that " while his lyrics are razor sharp , the production here is softer , resulting in a melodic finger wag to his naysayers rather than searing jabs . " David Amidon of PopMatters praised the performance by West on the song but felt that neither guest appearance ultimately left much of an impression . On the other hand , Sputnikmusic 's Channing Freeman felt that both Cudi and Raekwon fit perfectly on the guitar @-@ driven track .
Rolling Stone writer Rob Sheffield wrote " nobody else is making music this daring and weird " and described the song as " spooky space funk " . The Washington Post 's Chris Richards stated " West 's moment of post @-@ Beatles anxiety comes during ' Gorgeous , ' a song that moans and groans with a dark urgency that permeates this album . " Entertainment Weekly 's Simon Vozick @-@ Levinson described the song as " narcissistic " and noted West 's insults of his critics in the song . Alex Denney of NME praised West 's sense of humor on the song and praised the guitar work . Andrew Martin of Prefix Magazine called West 's first verse on the song a " bilious rant about racial inequality " . AbsolutePunk 's Drew Beringer stated that West sounded angry on the song , and viewed that it contained some of his best lyrics . Andrew Barber of Complex stated that the track had several quotable lines , and commented that West was a " frontrunner " for hip @-@ hop 's best producers and rappers combinations . Barber called Cudi 's hook excellent , and mused that the " guitar riff on the beat will stay stuck in your head for days . " The song charted at 23 on the Bubbling Under Hot 100 Singles chart as reported by Billboard , however it only spent one week on the chart . The song also appeared on the South Korean Gaon Chart at 86 .
= = Marketing = =
The song was also featured during the third scene of Runaway , a 35 @-@ minute music video directed by West set to music from My Beautiful Dark Twisted Fantasy . The song plays during the scene where Selita Ebanks ' character inspects around the garden , interacting with the animals and plants , while Kanye watches her from inside . Cudi and West performed the song together at the SXSW musical festival . During the 2011 Lollapalooza festival in Chile , " Gorgeous " was featured on the setlist . West also performed an a cappella version of the song during a concert in New York . A case of pre @-@ release promotion was exhibited when West , performed a freestyle of the song on Hot 97 . The lyrics from the freestyle later became " Gorgeous " . West performed the freestyle alongside Pusha T , a rapper signed to his GOOD Music Label .
= = Chart positions = =
|
= Hawaii hotspot =
The Hawaii hotspot is a volcanic hotspot located near the namesake Hawaiian Islands , in the northern Pacific Ocean . One of the most well @-@ known and heavily studied hotspots in the world , the Hawaii plume is responsible for the creation of the Hawaiian – Emperor seamount chain , a chain of volcanoes over 5 @,@ 800 kilometres ( 3 @,@ 600 mi ) long . Four of these volcanoes are active , two are dormant , and more than 123 are extinct , many having since been ground beneath the waves by erosion as seamounts and atolls . The chain extends from south of the island of Hawaiʻi to the edge of the Aleutian Trench , near the eastern edge of Russia . While most volcanoes are created by geological activity at tectonic plate boundaries , the Hawaii hotspot is located far from plate boundaries . The classic hotspot theory , first proposed in 1963 by John Tuzo Wilson , proposes that a single , fixed mantle plume builds volcanoes that then , cut off from their source by the movement of the Pacific Plate , become increasingly inactive and eventually erode below sea level over millions of years . According to this theory , the nearly 60 ° bend where the Emperor and Hawaiian segments of the chain meet was caused by a sudden shift in the movement of the Pacific Plate . In 2003 , fresh investigations of this irregularity led to the proposal of a mobile hotspot theory , suggesting that hotspots are mobile , not fixed , and that the 47 @-@ million @-@ year @-@ old bend was caused by a shift in the hotspot 's motion rather than the plate 's .
Ancient Hawaiians were the first to recognize the increasing age and weathered state of the volcanoes to the north as they progressed on fishing expeditions along the islands . The volatile state of the Hawaiian volcanoes and their constant battle with the sea was a major element in Hawaiian mythology , embodied in Pele , the deity of volcanoes . After the arrival of Europeans on the island , in 1880 – 1881 James Dwight Dana directed the first formal geological study of the hotspot 's volcanics , confirming the relationship long observed by the natives . 1912 marked the founding of the Hawaiian Volcano Observatory by volcanologist Thomas Jaggar , initiating continuous scientific observation of the islands . In the 1970s , a mapping project was initiated to gain more information about the complex geology of Hawaii 's seafloor .
The hotspot has since been tomographically imaged , showing it to be 500 to 600 km ( 310 to 370 mi ) wide and up to 2 @,@ 000 km ( 1 @,@ 200 mi ) deep , and olivine and garnet @-@ based studies have shown its magma chamber is approximately 1 @,@ 500 ° C ( 2 @,@ 730 ° F ) . In its at least 85 million years of activity the hotspot has produced an estimated 750 @,@ 000 km3 ( 180 @,@ 000 cu mi ) of rock . The chain 's rate of drift has slowly increased over time , causing the amount of time each individual volcano is active to decrease , from 18 million years for the 76 @-@ million @-@ year @-@ old Detroit Seamount , to just under 900 @,@ 000 for the one @-@ million @-@ year @-@ old Kohala ; on the other hand , eruptive volume has increased from 0 @.@ 01 km3 ( 0 @.@ 002 cu mi ) per year to about 0 @.@ 21 km3 ( 0 @.@ 050 cu mi ) . Overall , this has caused a trend towards more active but quickly @-@ silenced , closely spaced volcanoes — whereas volcanoes on the near side of the hotspot overlap each other ( forming such superstructures as Hawaiʻi island and the ancient Maui Nui ) , the oldest of the Emperor seamounts are spaced as far as 200 km ( 120 mi ) apart .
= = Theories = =
Tectonic plates generally focus deformation and volcanism at plate boundaries . However , the Hawaii hotspot is more than 3 @,@ 200 kilometers ( 1 @,@ 988 mi ) from the nearest plate boundary ; while studying it in 1963 , Canadian geophysicist J. Tuzo Wilson proposed the hotspot theory to explain these zones of volcanism so far from regular conditions , a theory that has since come into wide acceptance .
= = = Wilson 's stationary hotspot theory = = =
Wilson proposed that small , long lasting , exceptionally hot areas of magma exist under the Earth 's surface ; these heat centers create thermally active mantle plumes , which in turn sustain long @-@ lasting volcanic activity . This " mid @-@ plate " volcanism builds peaks that rise from relatively featureless sea floor , initially as seamounts as later as fully @-@ fledged volcanic islands . Plate tectonics cause the local tectonic plate ( in the case of the Hawaii hotspot , the Pacific Plate ) to slowly slide over the hotspot , carrying its volcanoes with it without affecting the plume . Over hundreds of thousands of years , the magma supply for the volcano is slowly cut off , eventually going extinct . No longer active enough to overpower erosion , the volcano slowly sinks beneath the waves , becoming a seamount once again . As the cycle continues , a new volcanic center manifests , and a volcanic island arises anew . The process continues until the mantle plume itself collapses .
This cycle of growth and dormancy strings together volcanoes over millions of years , leaving a trail of volcanic islands and seamounts across the ocean floor . According to Wilson 's theory , the Hawaiian volcanoes should be progressively older and increasingly eroded the further they are from the hotspot , and this is easily observable ; the oldest rock in the main Hawaiian islands , that of Kauaʻi , is about 5 @.@ 5 million years old and deeply eroded , while the rock on Hawaiʻi island is a comparatively young 0 @.@ 7 million years of age or less , with new lava constantly erupting at Kīlauea , the hotspot 's present center . Another consequence of his theory is that the chain 's length and orientation serves as a record direction and speed of the Pacific Plate 's movement . A major feature of the Hawaiian trail is a sudden 60 ° bend at a 40- to 50 @-@ million @-@ year @-@ old section of its length , and according to Wilson 's theory , this is evidence of a major change in plate direction , one that would have initiated subduction along much of the Pacific Plate 's western boundary . This part of the theory has recently been challenged , and the bend might be attributed to the movement of the hotspot itself .
Geophysicists believe that hotspots originate at one of two major boundaries deep in the Earth , either a shallow interface in the lower mantle between an upper convecting layer and a lower non @-@ convecting layer , or a deeper D ' ' ( " D double @-@ prime " ) layer , approximately 200 kilometres ( 120 mi ) thick and immediately above the core @-@ mantle boundary . A mantle plume would initiate at the interface when the warmer lower layer heats a portion of the cooler upper layer . This heated , buoyant , and less @-@ viscous portion of the upper layer would become less dense due to thermal expansion , and rise towards the surface as a Rayleigh @-@ Taylor instability . When the mantle plume reaches the base of the lithosphere , the plume heats it and produces melt . This magma then makes its way to the surface , where it is erupted as lava .
Arguments for the validity of the hotspot theory generally center on the steady age progression of the Hawaiian islands and nearby features : a similar bend in the trail of the Macdonald hotspot , the Austral – Marshall Islands seamount chain , located just south ; other Pacific hotspots following the same age @-@ progressed trend from southeast to northwest in fixed relative positions ; and seismologic studies of Hawaii which show increased temperatures at the core – mantle boundary , evidencing a mantle plume .
= = = Shallow hotspot theory = = =
Another hypothesis is that melting anomalies form simply as a result of lithospheric extension , which allows pre @-@ existing melt to rise to the surface . These melting anomalies are called " hotspots " in plume theory , but this name pre @-@ supposes the mantle source is unusually hot , a feature that has not been confirmed by observation . In the case of the Emperor @-@ Hawaiian seamount chain , the Pacific plate boundary system was very different at ~ 80 Ma , when the Emperor seamount chain began to form . There is evidence that the chain started on a spreading ridge ( the Pacific @-@ Kula Ridge ) that has now been subducted at the Aleutian trench . The locus of melt extraction migrated off the ridge and into the plate interior , leaving a trail of volcanism behind it . This migration may have occurred because this part of the plate was extending in order to accommodate intraplate stress . Thus , a long @-@ lived region of melt escape was sustained . Seismic tomography does not support the plume hypothesis . Notwithstanding the numerous papers that have been published citing seismological evidence for a plume in the region , these proposed plumes are all in different places , many of them tilting at high angles and in different directions , and some of them thousands of kilometers from the Big Island . No reliable image of a mantle plume extending down to the core – mantle boundary has been obtained .
= = = Moving hotspot theory = = =
The most heavily challenged element of Wilson 's theory is whether or not hotspots are indeed fixed relative to the overlying tectonic plates . Drill samples , collected by scientists as far back as 1963 , suggest that the hotspot may have drifted over time , at the relatively rapid pace of about 4 centimeters ( 1 @.@ 6 in ) per year during the late Cretaceous and early Paleogene eras ( 81 @-@ 47 Mya ) ; in comparison , the Mid @-@ Atlantic Ridge spreads at a rate of 2 @.@ 5 cm ( 1 @.@ 0 in ) per year . In 1987 , a study published by Peter Molnar and Joann Stock found that the hotspot does move relative to the Atlantic Ocean ; however , they interpreted this as the result of the relative motions of the North American and Pacific plates rather than that of the hotspot itself .
In 2001 the Ocean Drilling Program ( since merged into the Integrated Ocean Drilling Program ) , an international research effort to study the world 's seafloors , funded a two @-@ month expedition aboard the research vessel JOIDES Resolution to collect lava samples from four submerged Emperor seamounts . The project drilled Detroit , Nintoku , and Koko seamounts , all of which are in the far northwest end of the chain , the oldest section . These lava samples were then tested in 2003 , suggested a mobile Hawaiian hotspot and a shift in its motion as the cause of the bend . Lead scientist John Tarduno told National Geographic :
The Hawaii bend was used as a classic example of how a large plate can change motion quickly . You can find a diagram of the Hawaii – Emperor bend entered into just about every introductory geological textbook out there . It really is something that catches your eye . "
Despite the large shift , the change in direction was never recorded by magnetic declinations , fracture zone orientations or plate reconstructions ; nor could a continental collision have occurred fast enough to produce such a pronounced bend in the chain . To test whether or not the bend was a result of a change in direction of the Pacific Plate , scientists analyzed the lava samples ' geochemistry to determine where and when they formed . Age was determined by the radiometric dating of radioactive isotopes of potassium and argon . Researchers estimated that the volcanoes formed during a period 81 million to 45 million years ago . Tarduno and his team determined where the volcanoes formed by analyzing the rock for the magnetic mineral magnetite . While hot lava from a volcanic eruption cools , tiny grains within the magnetite align with the Earth 's magnetic field , and lock in place once the rock solidifies . Researchers were able to verify the latitudes at which the volcanoes formed by measuring the grains ' orientation within the magnetite . Paleomagnetists concluded that the Hawaiian hotspot had drifted southward sometime in its history , and that , 47 million years ago , the hotspot 's southward motion greatly slowed , perhaps even stopping entirely .
= = History of study = =
= = = Ancient Hawaiian = = =
The possibility that the Hawaiian islands became older as one moved to the northwest was suspected by ancient Hawaiians long before Europeans arrived . During their voyages , seafaring Hawaiians noticed differences in erosion , soil formation , and vegetation , allowing them to deduce that the islands to the northwest ( Niʻihau and Kauaʻi ) were older than those to the southeast ( Maui and Hawaii ) . The idea was handed down the generations through the legend of Pele , the fiery Hawaiian Goddess of Volcanoes .
Pele was born to the female spirit Haumea , or Hina , who , like all Hawaiian gods and goddesses , descended from the supreme beings , Papa , or Earth Mother , and Wakea , or Sky Father . According to the myth , Pele originally lived on Kauai , when her older sister Nāmaka , the Goddess of the Sea , attacked her for seducing her husband . Pele fled southeast to the island of Oahu . When forced by Nāmaka to flee again , Pele moved southeast to Maui and finally to Hawaii , where she still lives in the Halemaumau Crater at the summit of Kīlauea . There she was safe , because the slopes of the volcano are so high that even Nāmaka 's mighty waves could not reach her . Pele 's mythical flight , which alludes to an eternal struggle between volcanic islands and ocean waves , is consistent with geologic evidence about the ages of the islands decreasing to the southeast .
= = = Modern studies = = =
Three of the earliest recorded observers of the volcanoes were the Scottish scientists Archibald Menzies in 1794 , James Macrae in 1825 , and David Douglas in 1834 . Just reaching the summits proved daunting : Menzies took three attempts to ascend Mauna Loa , and Douglas died on the slopes of Mauna Kea . The United States Exploring Expedition spent several months studying the islands in 1840 – 1841 . American geologist James Dwight Dana was on that expedition , as was Lieutenant Charles Wilkes , who spent most of the time leading a team of hundreds that hauled a pendulum to the summit of Mauna Loa to measure gravity . Dana stayed with missionary Titus Coan , who would provide decades of first @-@ hand observations . Dana published a short paper in 1852 .
Dana remained interested in the origin of the Hawaiian Islands , and directed a more in @-@ depth study in 1880 and 1881 . He confirmed that the islands ' age increased with their distance from the southeastern @-@ most island by observing differences in their degree of erosion . He also suggested that many other island chains in the Pacific showed a similar general increase in age from southeast to northwest . Dana concluded that the Hawaiian chain consisted of two volcanic strands , located along distinct but parallel curving pathways . He coined the terms " Loa " and " Kea " for the two prominent trends . The Kea trend includes the volcanoes of Kīlauea , Mauna Kea , Kohala , Haleakalā , and West Maui . The Loa trend includes Lōiʻhi , Mauna Loa , Hualālai , Kahoʻolawe , Lānaʻi , and West Molokaʻi . Dana proposed that the alignment of the Hawaiian Islands reflected localized volcanic activity along a major fissure zone . Dana 's " great fissure " theory served as the working hypothesis for subsequent studies until the mid @-@ 20th century .
Dana 's work was followed up by geologist C. E. Dutton 's 1884 expedition , who refined and expanded Dana 's ideas . Most notably , Dutton established that the island of Hawaii actually harbored five volcanoes , whereas Dana counted three . This is because Dana had originally regarded Kīlauea as a flank vent of Mauna Loa , and Kohala as part of Mauna Kea . Dutton also refined others of Dana 's observations , and is credited with the naming of ' a 'ā and pāhoehoe @-@ type lavas , although Dana had noted a distinction . Stimulated by Dutton 's expedition , Dana returned in 1887 , and published many accounts of his expedition in the American Journal of Science . In 1890 he published the most detailed manuscript of its day , and remained the definitive guide to Hawaiian volcanism for decades . 1909 saw the publication of two large volumes which extensively quoted from earlier works now out of circulation .
In 1912 geologist Thomas Jaggar founded the Hawaiian Volcano Observatory . The facility was taken over in 1919 by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration and in 1924 by the United States Geological Survey ( USGS ) , which marked the start of continuous volcano observation on Hawaii island . The next century was a period of thorough investigation , marked by contributions from many top scientists . The first complete evolutionary model was first formulated in 1946 , by USGS geologist and hydrologist Harold T. Stearns . Since that time , advances have enabled the study of previously limited areas of observation ( e.g. improved rock dating methods and submarine volcanic stages ) .
In the 1970s , the Hawaiian seafloor was mapped using ship @-@ based sonar . Computed SYNBAPS ( Synthetic Bathymetric Profiling System ) data filled holes between the ship @-@ based sonar bathymetric measurements . From 1994 to 1998 the Japan Agency for Marine @-@ Earth Science and Technology ( JAMSTEC ) mapped Hawaii in detail and studied its ocean floor , making it one of the world 's best @-@ studied marine features . The JAMSTEC project , a collaboration with USGS and other agencies , utilized manned submersibles , remotely operated underwater vehicles , dredge samples , and core samples . The Simrad EM300 multibeam side @-@ scanning sonar system collected bathymetry and backscatter data .
= = Characteristics = =
= = = Position = = =
The Hawaii hotspot has been imaged through seismic tomography , and is estimated to be 500 – 600 km ( 310 – 370 mi ) wide . Recent diffraction tomography and high @-@ resolution local tomography indicate a lower @-@ mantle mantle plume , and a pond of plume material is evidenced by a large low @-@ velocity zone in the upper mantle . These low seismic velocity zones often indicate hotter and more buoyant mantle material . A narrow low @-@ velocity column extending downward from 670 to 1 @,@ 500 km ( 420 to 930 mi ) under Hawaii connects with a large low @-@ velocity zone at 2 @,@ 000 km ( 1 @,@ 200 mi ) on the boundary between the core and mantle north of Hawaiʻi , showing that the plume is tilted to a certain degree , deflected toward the south by mantle flow . Uranium decay @-@ series disequilibria data has shown that the actively flowing region of the melt zone is 220 ± 40 km ( 137 ± 25 mi ) km wide at its base and 280 ± 40 km ( 174 ± 25 mi ) at the upper mantle upwelling , consistent with tomographic measurements .
= = = Temperature = = =
Indirect studies found that the magma chamber is located about 90 – 100 kilometers ( 56 – 62 mi ) underground , which matches the estimated depth of the Cretaceous Period rock in the oceanic lithosphere ; this may indicate that the lithosphere acts as a lid on melting by arresting the magma 's ascent . The lava 's original temperature was found in two ways , by testing garnet 's melting point in lava and by adjusting the lava for olivine deterioration . Both USGS tests seem to confirm the temperature at about 1 @,@ 500 ° C ( 2 @,@ 730 ° F ) ; in comparison , the estimated temperature for mid @-@ ocean ridge basalt is about 1 @,@ 325 ° C ( 2 @,@ 417 ° F ) .
The surface heat flow anomaly around the Hawaiian Swell is only of the order of 10 mW / m2 , far less than the continental United States range of 25 to 150 mW / m2 . This is unexpected for the classic model of a hot , buoyant plume in the mantle . However , it has been shown that other plumes display highly variable surface heat fluxes and that this variability may be due to variable hydrothermal fluid flow in the Earth 's crust above the hotspots . This fluid flow advectively removes heat from the crust , and the measured conductive heat flow is therefore lower than the true total surface heat flux . The low heat across the Hawaiian Swell indicates that it is not supported by a buoyant crust or upper lithosphere , but is rather propped up by the upwelling hot ( and therefore less @-@ dense ) mantle plume that causes the surface to rise through a mechanism known as " dynamic topography " .
= = = Movement = = =
Hawaiian volcanoes drift northwest from the hotspot at a rate of about 5 – 10 centimeters ( 2 @.@ 0 – 3 @.@ 9 in ) a year . The hotspot has migrated south by about 800 kilometers ( 497 mi ) relative to the Emperor chain . Paleomagnetic studies support this conclusion based on changes in Earth 's magnetic field , a picture of which was engrained in the rocks at the time of their solidification , showing that these seamounts formed at higher latitudes than present @-@ day Hawaii . Prior to the bend , the hotspot migrated an estimated 7 centimeters ( 2 @.@ 8 in ) per year ; the rate of movement changed at the time of the bend to about 9 centimeters ( 3 @.@ 5 in ) per year . The Ocean Drilling Program provided most of the current knowledge about the drift . The 2001 expedition drilled six seamounts and tested the samples to determine their original latitude , and thus the characteristics and speed of the hotspot 's drift pattern in total .
Each successive volcano spends less time actively attached to the plume . The large difference between the youngest and oldest lavas between Emperor and Hawaiian volcanoes indicates that the hotspot 's velocity is increasing . For example , Kohala , the oldest volcano on Hawaii island , is one million years old and last erupted 120 @,@ 000 years ago , a period of just under 900 @,@ 000 years ; whereas one of the oldest , Detroit Seamount , experienced 18 million or more years of volcanic activity .
The oldest volcano in the chain , Meiji Seamount , perched on the edge of the Aleutian Trench , formed 85 million years ago . At its current velocity , the seamount will be destroyed within a few million years , as the Pacific Plate slides under the Eurasian Plate . It is unknown whether the seamount chain has been subducting under the Eurasian Plate , and whether the hotspot is older than Meiji Seamount , as any older seamounts have since been destroyed by the plate margin . It is also possible that a collision near the Aleutian Trench had changed the velocity of the Pacific Plate , explaining the hotspot chain 's bend ; the relationship between these features is still being investigated .
= = = Magma = = =
The composition of the volcanoes ' magma has changed significantly according to analysis of the strontium – niobium – palladium elemental ratios . The Emperor Seamounts were active for at least 46 million years , with the oldest lava dated to the Cretaceous Period , followed by another 39 million years of activity along the Hawaiian segment of the chain , totaling 85 million years . Data demonstrate vertical variability in the amount of strontium present in both the alkalic ( early stages ) and tholeitic ( later stages ) lavas . The systematic increase slows drastically at the time of the bend .
Almost all magma created by the hotspot is igneous basalt ; the volcanoes are constructed almost entirely of this or the similar in composition but coarser @-@ grained gabbro and diabase . Other igneous rocks such as nephelinite are present in small quantities ; these occur often on the older volcanoes , most prominently Detroit Seamount . Most eruptions are runny because basaltic magma is less viscous than magmas characteristic of more explosive eruptions such as the andesitic magmas that produce spectacular and dangerous eruptions around Pacific Basin margins . Volcanoes fall into several eruptive categories . Hawaiian volcanoes are called " Hawaiian @-@ type " . Hawaiian lava spills out of craters and forms long streams of glowing molten rock , flowing down the slope , covering acres of land and replacing ocean with new land .
= = = Eruption frequency and scale = = =
There is significant evidence that lava flow rates have been increasing . Over the last six million years they have been far higher than ever before , at over 0 @.@ 095 km3 ( 0 @.@ 023 cu mi ) per year . The average for the last million years is even higher , at about 0 @.@ 21 km3 ( 0 @.@ 050 cu mi ) . In comparison , the average production rate at a mid @-@ ocean ridge is about 0 @.@ 02 km3 ( 0 @.@ 0048 cu mi ) for every 1 @,@ 000 kilometers ( 621 mi ) of ridge . The rate along the Emperor seamount chain averaged about 0 @.@ 01 cubic kilometers ( 0 @.@ 0024 cu mi ) per year . The rate was almost zero for the initial five million or so years in the hotspot 's life . The average lava production rate along the Hawaiian chain has been greater , at 0 @.@ 017 km3 ( 0 @.@ 0041 cu mi ) per year . In total , the hotspot has produced an estimated 750 @,@ 000 cubic kilometers ( 180 @,@ 000 cu mi ) of lava , enough to cover California with a layer about 1 @.@ 5 kilometers ( 1 mi ) thick .
The distance between individual volcanoes has shrunk . Although volcanoes have been drifting north faster and spending less time active , the far greater modern eruptive volume of the hotspot has generated more closely spaced volcanoes , and many of them overlap , forming such superstructures as Hawaiʻi island and the ancient Maui Nui . Meanwhile , many of the volcanoes in the Emperor seamounts are separated by 100 kilometers ( 62 mi ) or even as much as 200 kilometers ( 124 mi ) .
= = = Topography and geoid = = =
A detailed topographic analysis of the Hawaiian – Emperor seamount chain reveals the hotspot as the center of a topographic high , and that elevation falls with distance from the hotspot . The most rapid decrease in elevation and the highest ratio between the topography and geoid height are over the southeastern part of the chain , falling with distance from the hotspot , particularly at the intersection of the Molokai and Murray fracture zones . The most likely explanation is that the region between the two zones is more susceptible to reheating than most of the chain . Another possible explanation is that the hotspot strength swells and subsides over time .
In 1953 , Robert S. Dietz and his colleagues first identified the swell behavior . It was suggested that the cause was mantle upwelling . Later work pointed to tectonic uplift , caused by reheating within the lower lithosphere . However , normal seismic activity beneath the swell , as well as lack of detected heat flow , caused scientists to suggest dynamic topography as the cause , in which the motion of the hot and buoyant mantle plume supports the high surface topography around the islands . Understanding the Hawaiian swell has important implications for hotspot study , island formation , and inner Earth .
= = Volcanoes = =
Over its 85 million year history , the Hawaii hotspot has created at least 129 volcanoes , more than 123 of which are extinct volcanoes , seamounts , and atolls , four of which are active volcanoes , and two of which are dormant volcanoes . They can be organized into three general categories : the Hawaiian archipelago , which comprises most of the U.S. state of Hawaii and is the location of all modern volcanic activity ; the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands , which consist of coral atolls , extinct islands , and atoll islands ; and the Emperor Seamounts , all of which have since eroded and subsided to the sea and become seamounts and guyots ( flat @-@ topped seamounts ) .
= = = Volcanic characteristics = = =
Hawaiian volcanoes are characterized by frequent rift eruptions , their large size ( thousands of cubic kilometers in volume ) , and their rough , decentralized shape . Rift zones are a prominent feature on these volcanoes , and account for their seemingly random volcanic structure . The tallest mountain in the Hawaii chain , Mauna Kea , rises 4 @,@ 205 meters ( 13 @,@ 796 ft ) above mean sea level . Measured from its base on the seafloor , it is the world 's tallest mountain , at 10 @,@ 203 meters ( 33 @,@ 474 ft ) ; Mount Everest rises 8 @,@ 848 meters ( 29 @,@ 029 ft ) above sea level . Hawaii is surrounded by a myriad of seamounts ; however , they were found to be unconnected to the hotspot and its volcanism . Kīlauea has erupted continuously since 1983 through Puʻu ʻŌʻō , a minor volcanic cone , which has become an attraction for volcanologists and tourists alike .
= = = Landslides = = =
The Hawaiian islands are carpeted by a large number of landslides sourced from volcanic collapse . Bathymetric mapping has revealed at least 70 large landslides on the island flanks over 20 km ( 12 mi ) in length , and the longest are 200 km ( 120 mi ) long and over 5 @,@ 000 km3 ( 1 @,@ 200 cu mi ) in volume . These debris flows can be sorted into two broad categories : slumps , mass movement over slopes which slowly flatten their originators , and more catastrophic debris avalanches , which fragment volcanic slopes and scatter volcanic debris past their slopes . These slides have caused massive tsunamis and earthquakes , fractured volcanic massifs , and scattered debris hundreds of miles away from their source .
Slumps tend to be deeply rooted in their originators , moving rock up to 10 km ( 6 mi ) deep inside the volcano . Forced forward by the mass of newly ejected volcanic material , slumps may creep forward slowly , or surge forward in spasms that have caused the largest of Hawaii 's historical earthquakes , in 1868 and 1975 . Debris avalanches , meanwhile , are thinner and longer , and are defined by volcanic amphitheaters at their head and hummocky terrain at their base . Rapidly moving avalanches carried 10 km ( 6 mi ) blocks tens of kilometers away , disturbing the local water column and causing a tsunami . Evidence of these events exists in the form of marine deposits high on the slopes of many Hawaiian volcanoes , and has marred the slopes of several Emperor seamounts , such as Daikakuji Guyot and Detroit Seamount .
= = = Evolution and construction = = =
Hawaiian volcanoes follow a well @-@ established life cycle of growth and erosion . After a new volcano forms , its lava output gradually increases . Height and activity both peak when the volcano is around 500 @,@ 000 years old and then rapidly decline . Eventually it goes dormant , and eventually extinct . Erosion then weathers the volcano until it again becomes a seamount .
This life cycle consists of several stages . The first stage is the submarine preshield stage , currently represented solely by Lōʻihi Seamount . During this stage , the volcano builds height through increasingly frequent eruptions . The sea 's pressure prevents explosive eruptions . The cold water quickly solidifies the lava , producing the pillow lava that is typical of underwater volcanic activity .
As the seamount slowly grows , it goes through the shield stages . It forms many mature features , such as a caldera , while submerged . The summit eventually breaches the surface , and the lava and ocean water " battle " for control as the volcano enters the explosive subphase . This stage of development is exemplified by explosive steam vents . This stage produces mostly volcanic ash , a result of the waves dampening the lava . This conflict between lava and sea influences Hawaiian mythology .
The volcano enters the subaerial subphase once it is tall enough to escape the water . Now the volcano puts on 95 % of its above @-@ water height over roughly 500 @,@ 000 years . Thereafter eruptions become much less explosive . The lava released in this stage often includes both pāhoehoe and ʻaʻā , and the currently active Hawaiian volcanoes , Mauna Loa and Kīlauea , are in this phase . Hawaiian lava is often runny , blocky , slow , and relatively easy to predict ; the USGS tracks where it is most likely to run , and maintains a tourist site for viewing the lava .
After the subaerial phase the volcano enters a series of postshield stages involving subsidence and erosion , becoming an atoll and eventually a seamount . Once the Pacific Plate moves it out of the 20 ° C ( 68 ° F ) tropics , the reef mostly dies away , and the extinct volcano becomes one of an estimated 10 @,@ 000 barren seamounts worldwide . Every Emperor seamount is a dead volcano .
|
= The Rapes of Graff =
" The Rapes of Graff " is the sixteenth episode of the second season of the American mystery television series Veronica Mars , and the thirty @-@ eighth episode overall . Written by John Enbom and directed by Michael Fields , the episode premiered on UPN on March 29 , 2006 .
The series depicts the adventures of Veronica Mars ( Kristen Bell ) as she deals with life as a high school student while moonlighting as a private detective . In this episode , while visiting Hearst College , Veronica runs into her old boyfriend , Troy ( Aaron Ashmore ) . He is subsequently charged with the brutal date rape of a student named Stacy ( Alia Shawkat ) . Meanwhile , Logan ( Jason Dohring ) deals with the aftermath of breaking up with Hannah ( Jessy Schram ) .
" The Rapes of Graff " features several notable guest appearances . Michael Cera and Alia Shawkat , two of the stars on Arrested Development , appear as two college students . Veronica Mars was previously referenced on that show , and the pair were scheduled for a guest appearance soon after Arrested Development was cancelled . In addition , Aaron Ashmore returns as Troy Vandegraff , a character who had not been seen since the fifth episode , " You Think You Know Somebody " . The episode received 2 @.@ 15 million viewers and was critically acclaimed , with praise focusing on the guest stars and the episode 's case @-@ of @-@ the @-@ week .
= = Synopsis = =
In class , Veronica and the whole class are asked to participate in Woody Goodman 's ( Steve Guttenberg ) essay contest . Wallace ( Percy Daggs III ) invites Veronica to visit Hearst College . Logan abruptly breaks up with Hannah without giving an explanation , leaving her heartbroken . A student named Dean ( Michael Cera ) conducts Veronica and Wallace 's tour of Hearst , and the pair suddenly run into Troy . Veronica mocks Troy to his face , but he insists that he has changed his ways . At a party , one of the students hits on Veronica . The student gets more aggressive with Veronica , and when Troy begins to defend her , the student punches him . Later that night , Veronica sees Troy making out with Stacy ( Alia Shawkat ) . When Veronica is sleeping , Troy calls her unexpectedly , pleading for help , and Veronica visits him at the police station , where he has been charged in the date @-@ rape of Stacy . Meanwhile , Keith ( Enrico Colantoni ) comes to the aid of Cliff ( Daran Norris ) , from whom a briefcase of money was stolen .
Veronica recognizes " Daphne " , the perpetrator in Cliff 's case , as Madison Sinclair ( Amanda Noret ) . In order to prove his innocence to Veronica , Troy says that he left his name and number in Stacy 's room , arguing that a rapist would not have done such a thing . Veronica checks Stacy 's room and finds Troy 's name half @-@ erased . Stacy receives a box of someone else 's hair outside her door , and Veronica deduces that there have probably been other victims of the rapist , so she goes looking for someone who bought a wig recently , finding no one . Dean informs Veronica that the fraternity has a contest about how many girls they have had sex with , and the recruit with the lowest number of " points " is punished by being forced to shave his head . Veronica tracks down Stacy 's rape to someone named " Ice Man . " She barges into the fraternity 's basement , where she is stopped by two members .
Both fraternity members deny any involvement . Veronica finds another rape victim , and they both tell Stacy that Troy could not have been the rapist because he was on the other side of the country when the first girl was raped . Veronica discovers that the losing fraternity member sent the hair to Stacy , which was his own , because she made him lose the " contest . " Logan tells Hannah the truth about why they broke up , and it turns out that he only asked her out so that her father would drop the charges in the murder of Felix Toombs . Nevertheless , they reconcile , and Logan and Hannah are about to have sex before Dr. Griffith ( Rick Peters ) enters and takes her away . Wallace gets admitted into Hearst , and Hannah has been sent away to boarding school . Veronica learns that the Fitzpatricks could have framed Terrence Cook ( Jeffrey Sams ) for the bus crash .
= = Production = =
The episode was written by John Enbom and directed by Michael Fields , marking Enbom 's eighth writing credit and Fields 's fourth writing credit for the show . The episode 's title is a spoonerism of the title of the novel The Grapes of Wrath by John Steinbeck . Phil Klemmer , another of the series ' writers , thought of the episode 's title . Both writers knew that this episode 's serial rapist case would later be used in the third season . The writers planned for one of Veronica 's classmates to be dating Don Lamb before they decided on Madison . The episode features guest appearances by Michael Cera and Alia Shawkat , then best known for their roles on Arrested Development as George Michael Bluth and Maeby Fünke , respectively . Their two characters had briefly mentioned the show in a season three episode titled " Family Ties " . The show had previously been alluded to on Arrested Development when some of George Michael 's dialogue is redacted and replaced by a subtitle that reads , " reference to off @-@ network high school private eye drama censored by Fox . " Series creator and executive producer Rob Thomas recalled contacting them soon after the show was cancelled and learning that Cera was a fan of the show :
Honestly , the day I heard they were shutting down production on that show , I called our casting director and said , ' Book them for " Veronica Mars " as soon as possible . ' I didn 't talk to Alia , but I talked to Michael and it turned out he 's a ' Veronica Mars ' fan and is excited to be doing it . So I 'm thrilled about that .
Both Cera and Shawkat requested that their roles not be similar to their characters on Arrested Development . Thomas reported their guest appearances to Chicago Tribune roughly two months before the episode aired . Cera was originally slated to return in season 3 , but due to scheduling conflicts , the role of Moe Flater was created instead .
The episode also features the return of Aaron Ashmore as Troy Vandegraff , a character who had not been seen since " You Think You Know Somebody " , an early season 1 episode . Ashmore enjoyed his reappearance on the show , stating in an interview that " It was kinda nice coming back and being the good guy and not the bad guy for once . " After the episode aired , Ashmore stated that " I think Veronica Mars is a great show , so if they wanted me to , I would love to [ bring back the character ] . I love the show , and I love the character of Troy , too . " However , the character would not return to the show after " The Rapes of Graff " . " The Rapes of Graff " also includes the final appearance of recurring character Hannah Griffith ( Jessy Schram ) , who appeared in a total of four episodes on the show .
= = Reception = =
= = = Ratings = = =
In its original broadcast , " The Rapes of Graff " received 2 @.@ 15 million viewers , marking a decrease from the previous episode , " The Quick and the Wed " and tying for 113th of 124 in the weekly rankings with a rerun of Charmed .
= = = Reviews = = =
" The Rapes of Graff " was critically acclaimed . Price Peterson of TV.com gave a positive review . Although he expressed confusion over the lack of closure , he praised other aspects of the episode . " My pervasive need for justice left me feeling pretty disappointed when we never found out who the utterly repulsive villain had been behind these sex crimes ... Other than the lack of closure , though , this was a solid , well @-@ written episode and it was nice seeing the ( supposed ) redemption of Troy . Television reviewer Alan Sepinwall was very positive towards the episode , praising it as a return to form for the series . " Now that 's more like it , Veronica Mars . A good self @-@ contained mystery , a suggestion that the show could do okay once Veronica leaves high school , a gratuitously awesome " Arrested Development " double @-@ cameo , the biggest spotlight yet for wisecracking Cliff , and a fine showcase for Jason Dohring , who 's becoming so good that Veronica may need to investigate a case of show @-@ stealing . " He went on to laud the supporting characters ' performances , especially the subplot involving Cliff and Sheriff Lamb : " Cliff and Lamb are my favorite non @-@ Keith adult characters , so any subplot that has one busting on the other gets the Sepinwall seal of approval . "
Television Without Pity gave the episode an " A " . Rowan Kaiser of The A.V. Club gave a glowing review , stating that " I have to say , this is one of the most dense and interesting episodes of Veronica Mars yet , on a number of different levels . " He went on to praise the return of Troy , the various subplots , and the episode 's ambiguous conclusion . The reviewer summed up by saying , " With all that going on , it could have been easy for this episode to fall apart somewhere ... " The Rapes of Graff " really managed to do everything it was trying to do quite well . It may have been missing something special to put it in the absolute top tier of Veronica Mars episodes , but it 's still a marvelous episode for pulling all those different strands together . Anais Bordages of BuzzFeed ranked the episode 27th of 64 episodes of Veronica Mars , but nevertheless gave a positive review , calling it " awesome " . She elaborated , " The banter is excellent , our main character shoots down every sexist on campus , and Michael Cera has a cameo . Even better : The other part of the episode revolves around Cliff ’ s sexual misfortunes . " On a similar list , TV Line ranked the episode 16th .
|
= Sticky bomb =
The Grenade , Hand , Anti @-@ Tank No. 74 , commonly known as the S.T. Grenade or sticky bomb , was a British hand grenade designed and produced during the Second World War . The grenade was one of a number of anti @-@ tank weapons developed for use by the British Army and Home Guard as an ad hoc solution to a lack of sufficient anti @-@ tank guns in the aftermath of the Dunkirk evacuation . Designed by a team from MIR ( c ) including Major Millis Jefferis and Stuart Macrae , the grenade consisted of a glass sphere containing an explosive made of nitroglycerin and additives ( this added stability to the mix , as well as giving it its squash @-@ head @-@ like effect ) covered in a powerful adhesive , and surrounded by a sheet @-@ metal casing . When the user pulled a pin on the handle of the grenade , the casing would fall away and expose the sphere ; another pin would activate the firing mechanism , and the user would then attempt to attach the grenade to an enemy tank or other vehicle , ideally with enough force to break the glass ball . After it was attached , releasing the lever on the handle would activate a five @-@ second fuse , which would then detonate the nitroglycerin .
The grenade had several faults with its design . In tests , it failed to adhere to dusty or muddy tanks and , if the user was not careful after freeing the grenade from its casing , it could easily stick to his uniform . The Ordnance Board of the War Department did not approve the grenade for use by the British Army , but personal intervention by the Prime Minister , Winston Churchill , led to the grenade going into production . Between 1940 and 1943 , approximately 2 @.@ 5 million were produced . It was primarily issued to the Home Guard , but was also used by British and Commonwealth forces in North Africa , accounting for six German tanks ; used by Allied Forces on the Anzio Beachhead , including the First Special Service Force ; as well as by Australian Army units during the New Guinea campaign . The French Resistance were also issued a quantity of the grenades .
= = Development = =
Since at least 1938 , Jefferis had been toying with the idea of a demolition or anti @-@ tank weapon that would be ideal for irregular warfare . It would work by having an explosive charge deform so that it has a substantial area of intimate contact with the surface of the target . Then , when detonated , the effect of the explosion would be focused on a small area and would rupture an armoured plate much thicker than would otherwise be the case . Sappers call such a device a " poultice " or " squash head " charge . Jefferis enlisted Drs Bauer and Schulman of the Colloid Science Department of Cambridge University , they had experimented with lengths of bicycle inner tube filled with plasticine to represent the explosive . These were fitted with wooden handles and dipped in rubber solution to make them sticky . In experiments , these prototypes proved difficult to aim and only by chance did any stick to the metal bins used to represent tanks .
With the end of the Battle of France and the evacuation of the British Expeditionary Force from the port of Dunkirk between 26 May and 4 June 1940 , a German invasion of Great Britain seemed likely . However , the British Army was not well equipped to defend the country in such an event ; in the weeks after the Dunkirk evacuation it could only field twenty @-@ seven divisions . The Army was particularly short of anti @-@ tank guns , 840 of which had been left behind in France and only 167 were available in Britain ; ammunition was so scarce for the remaining guns that regulations forbade even a single round being used for training purposes .
Under the circumstances , Jefferis considered that his idea might have more general application for the British Army and the Home Guard . Jefferis was in charge of a department known as MIR ( c ) , which had been created to develop and deliver weapons for use by guerilla and resistance groups in Occupied Europe . MIR ( c ) was now charged with the development of the Sticky Bomb .
The problem of designing a sticky bomb had been delegated to the enthusiastic genius of Robert Stuart Macrae . Clearly , some sort of flexible bag was required to contain an explosive gel so that it did not matter how the bomb landed on the target . However , a flexible bag is hard to throw and trials had not been at all satisfactory .
Discussions of the problem in Macrae 's office were overheard by Gordon Norwood , a master printer who Macrae had recruited from his former magazine publishing employer , but he was not directly working on the weapon . Norwood suggested that what was needed was a frangible container and to the annoyance of the War Office store keeper he obtained a 150 W light bulb with which to demonstrate his point : a spherical glass flask inside a sock of woven wool is rigid when thrown , but on contact the glass breaks and the bomb deforms to the required shape . Experiments with glass flasks filled with cold porridge confirmed that this was the way to go . The grenade needed a delay for the thrower to get clear , so the woollen sock was covered in a sticky substance ensuring that the bomb stayed in place for a few seconds before detonating . Having covered the bomb in glue , a non @-@ sticky handle was required ; in the handle , a delay fuse ignited by releasing a sprung lever so that a five second time delay starts as the grenade leaves the thrower 's hand ( just like the levers found on a conventional Mills bomb type hand grenade ) .
Meanwhile , finding a suitable adhesive was a significant problem . After unsuccessful experiments with a variety of candidates , somebody suggested birdlime – a viscous sticky compound used since ancient times to trap birds by spreading it on tree branches and waiting for birds to get stuck . Birdlime performed better than anything previously tested , but it was still not good enough . Macrae 's tin of birdlime was labelled with a large letter ' K ' and an indication that tin came from Stockport but with no more clues as to the manufacturer . Macrae got on a train to Stockport and there found a helpful taxi driver who took him to Kay Brothers Ltd . The company 's Chief Chemist was soon working on the problem of a suitable adhesive and within a matter of weeks the problem was solved to Macrae 's satisfaction .
The filling for the bomb was developed by ICI . It was nitroglycerin @-@ based with a variety of additives to make it more stable and viscous . The glass flask containing the main charge held about 1 1 ⁄ 2 pounds ( 680 g ) of this explosive that was described as having the consistency of Vaseline .
The adhesive surface was protected by a light metal case which was released by pulling a safety pin : the case fell away as two hemispheres connected by a sprung hinge . The inside of the case was fitted with a number of rubber spikes that kept it clear of the glued surface of the grenade . Early models also had a strip of adhesive tape round the neck of the casing .
Development continued , but there were problems with service regulations that were not written with such an unconventional weapon in mind . The sticky bomb was inevitably rather fragile and even a specially designed box could not fully meet the army 's demanding requirements for withstanding rough handling without damage . It seemed there were problems at every turn . The Prime Minister , Winston Churchill , who was concerned with the state of the country 's anti @-@ tank defences , learnt about the grenade and urged its development . The Ordnance Board of the War Office did not approve the grenade to be used by the Army . However , Churchill ordered further tests to be conducted in July , and after personally viewing a demonstration of the grenade ordered that it immediately be put into production . His memo of October 1940 simply read " Sticky bomb . Make one million " . A couple of days later , Anthony Eden , then Secretary of State for War , added a scribbled note to a cabinet minute that recorded the order to go ahead with the bomb :
Anti @-@ Tank ( & indeed anti @-@ enemy generally ) bombs for Home Defence are vitally urgent and should be available in very large quantities . I don 't mind where they come from as long as we get them , home or abroad . [ emphasis as in original ]
In spite of top level pressure , the arguments rumbled on . Trials were disappointing , it was not possible to get the bomb to adhere to any surface that was wet or covered with even the thinnest film of dried mud " a customary condition of tanks " as Major @-@ General Ismay , on 27 June , could not resist pointing out .
Churchill was not amused :
General Ismay , I understand that the trials were not entirely successful and the bomb failed to stick on tanks which were covered in dust and mud . No doubt some more sticky mixture can be devised and Major Jefferis should persevere . Any chortling by officials who have been slothful in pushing this bomb , over the fact that at present it has not succeeded will be viewed with great disfavour by me .
Macrae , Ismay and Churchill all saw fit to record these arguments over the technical issue of stickiness . As Eden had pointed out , there was a lot at stake . The British infantry and Home Guard had little with which to put up a fight against tanks and to any who had witnessed trials of Molotov Cocktails and SIP grenades it was evident that they could do little to a modern tank other than to provide a blinding pall of smoke . What was needed was a hand weapon to deliver a coup de grâce by punching through the armoured plate . The sticky bomb could do the job and little else was available .
In his memoirs , Ismay recalled that he never solved the puzzle of how to convey his very genuine concerns of the time to the right people . A thrown sticky bomb simply would not reliably stick to a vertical surface . However , the bomb would stick if it was thrown onto the top of a tank where the plates were more or less horizontal – and thinner – but this reduced the throwing range to twenty yards at the most – getting that close would only be possible in an ambush or in street fighting .
Churchill considered any obstruction , however well @-@ meaning , as singularly lacking in imagination . In the event of invasion , he foresaw a desperate fight to the last and after the war , he wrote about how he envisaged the use of the sticky bomb : " We had the picture in mind that devoted soldiers or civilians would run close up to the tank and even thrust the bomb upon it , though its explosion cost them their lives . There were undoubtedly many who would have done it [ Italics added for emphasis ] . " He also later recorded how he intended to use the slogan : " You can always take one with you . "
Arguments rumbled on and there were endless delays . Early versions of the sticky bomb were prone to leaks as well as breakage in transport . There were understandable concerns over the explosive charge : pure nitroglycerin is notoriously susceptible to the slightest knock , but the mixture developed by ICI proved to be very safe even if it should get into the hinges of the storage boxes . By December 1940 , fewer than 66 @,@ 000 had been produced and the rate of production was disappointing at five to ten thousand per week . Further , it was suggested that the original order of one million be reduced to 200 @,@ 000 . Minor improvements to the design were made , of which the most significant was to replace the glass flask with plastic . Finally , after passing all the required tests , the sticky bomb – now the No 74 Grenade Mk II – was accepted by the Ordnance Board ; it was put into full @-@ scale production and it became a service issue .
On 14 May 1941 , Lieutenant @-@ General Sir Ian Jacob reflected :
The most extraordinary feature of the whole business , however , was the fact that the Secretary of State for War , in a Minute addressed to the Prime Minister on 25 November 1940 , said that the Director of Artillery and the Ordnance Board had only just been able to obtain from ICI the details of the explosive contained in the bomb . Seeing that the bomb was demonstrated in June 1940 , this statement can hardly hold water . The War Office seems to be to blame in that , up to the end of April , 1941 , no sticky bombs had been issued to any unit , nor had any dummies been provided for training . In view of our acute shortage of anti @-@ tank weapons , the whole story is discreditable .
Between 1940 and 1943 approximately 2 @.@ 5 million were produced .
= = Design = =
The Grenade , Hand , Anti @-@ Tank No. 74 consisted of a glass sphere in which was contained approximately 1 @.@ 25 pounds ( 0 @.@ 57 kg ) of semi @-@ liquid nitroglycerin devised by ICI . The sphere was covered in stockinette which was coated with a liberal amount of birdlime , an extremely adhesive substance from which the nickname ' sticky bomb ' was derived . A casing made out of thin sheet @-@ metal , and formed of two halves , was then placed around the sphere and held in place by a wooden handle , inside which was a five @-@ second fuse . The handle also contained two pins and a lever ; the first pin was pulled out to make the casing fall away , and the second to activate the firing mechanism in the grenade . This primed the grenade , with the lever being held down to ensure the fuse was not triggered ; then the user would run up to the tank and stick the grenade to its hull , using as much force as possible to break the sphere and spread the nitroglycerin onto the hull in a thick paste . Another alternative was for the user to throw it at the tank from a distance . Either way , the lever would be released and the fuse activated , and the grenade would then detonate .
The grenade did possess several problems with its design . Users were urged to actually run up to the tank and place it by hand , rather than throw it , thus the adhesive could very easily stick to their uniform in the process ; the user would then be placed in the unenviable situation of attempting to pry the grenade loose whilst still holding onto the lever . It was also discovered that as time passed the nitroglycerin began to deteriorate and become unstable , which made it even more difficult to use . As the grenade was a short @-@ range weapon , users were trained to hide in a trench or other place of concealment until the tank went past them , and then to stick the grenade to the rear of the tank , where its armour was thinnest . Users were relatively safe from a few yards away , as long as they were not in line with the handle when it detonated . The Mark II design used a plastic casing instead of glass , and a detonator instead of a cap .
= = Operational use = =
According to a War Office training pamphlet dated 29 August 1940 , the sticky bomb should be regarded as a portable demolition device which can be " quickly and easily applied " . It was reckoned to be effective against armour of up to one inch ( 25 mm ) thickness and was suitable for use against " baby " tanks , armoured cars and the vulnerable points on medium and heavy tanks . The safest and easiest application was simply to drop it from an upstairs window ; otherwise , it could be used in an ambush of mobile tanks moving along a narrow road or in an attack on tanks parked up for the night . The sticky bomb could be either thrown or slapped in place by hand , in the latter case , the advice was to use sufficient force to break the glass thereby creating a greater area of contact resulting in a more effective explosion . Finally , there was also the option of placing the bomb first and then pulling out the pin at a safe distance by means of a length of string .
Macrae credits the Australian army with developing the technique of slapping a sticky bomb directly onto a tank instead of throwing it from a relatively safe distance . Since the bomb used a blast effect , it was safe to do this and walk away provided only that the bomb 's handle was pointing away from the bomber – the handle would be shot away from the explosion " like a bullet . " Macrae gives no date for the development of this tactic . Macrae confirmed that placing the bomb rather than throwing it gives better adhesion and allows thicker plates to be penetrated .
The potential of the sticky bomb for physical humour has frequently proved too tempting to be neglected , a good example being David Niven 's novel Go Slowly , Come Back Quickly . The unfortunate officer Stanni , while attempting to demolish a smelly privy , loses his dignity and a large section of trouser fabric to such an incident . The sticky bomb also featured in the British television comedy series Dad 's Army . In the episode Fallen Idol Lance @-@ Corporal Jack Jones sticks his grenade to an improvised target and retires as instructed but keeps a hold of the grenade which is now primed and stuck to an old dustbin lid .
However , the dangers inherent in the weapon were real enough , if the bomb became inadvertently stuck in mid @-@ throw , it could easily be pulled from a soldier 's hand triggering the firing mechanism and putting him in mortal danger . There were tragic accidents during training .
By July 1941 , 215 @,@ 000 sticky bombs had been produced . Of these , nearly 90 @,@ 000 had been sent abroad to North and South Africa , the Middle East and to Greece where it did useful service . The remainder were stored at Ordnance Depots or distributed to army and Home Guard units . There were many calls for the total production to be cut back and it is not clear how many were manufactured by the end of the war , but it was probably not much more than 250 @,@ 000 .
The grenade was first issued in 1940 to Home Guard units , who appeared to have taken a liking to it despite its flaws . Although the Ordnance Board had not approved the grenade to be used by Regular Army units , a quantity were provided for training purposes . However , a number of sticky bombs did find their way to British and Commonwealth units participating in the campaign in North Africa , and were used as anti @-@ tank weapons . During the Afrika Korps advance towards the town of Thala in February 1943 , they accounted for six German tanks . They were also issued to units of the Australian Army , who used them during the Battle of Wau and the Battle of Milne Bay . They were used by various allied units on the Anzio Beachhead , namely the First Special Service Force , who obtained them from the British . A large number were also supplied to the French Resistance .
= = Recognition = =
In 1947 , the Royal Commission on Awards to Inventors considered claims from Macrae and from the managing director of Kay Brothers . Macrae 's legal representative was Edward Terrell – himself a wartime inventor . At the time the crown opposed granting an award ; when Macrae was asked what elements of the sticky bomb he claimed to have invented , he replied " I am claiming no invention ; I merely claim the development of the bomb , which was my job . " However , in 1951 , the commission recommended that Macrae should receive an ex @-@ gratia payment of £ 500 [ about £ 14 @,@ 200 in 2016 ] and Norwood received £ 250 [ £ 7 @,@ 100 ] for his contribution .
= = Users = =
Users of the grenade included :
Australia
Free French Forces
United Kingdom
|
= Hurricane Jeanne ( 1980 ) =
Hurricane Jeanne was a moderate hurricane that formed and dissipated in the Gulf of Mexico without making landfall . The tenth tropical cyclone and eighth hurricane of the 1980 Atlantic hurricane season , Jeanne developed over the southern Caribbean on November 7 . It moved swiftly northward , and it intensified to a tropical storm on November 9 . It entered the southern Gulf of Mexico on November 10 . Jeanne turned to the west on November 11 , and it rapidly intensified to its peak intensity of 100 mph ( 155 km / h ) . It weakened on November 12 , and its forward motion slowed ; the cyclone weakened further to a tropical storm because of dry air intrusion , and it executed a clockwise loop on November 15 . It dissipated on November 16 .
At the time , Jeanne was one of three November hurricanes in the Gulf of Mexico ; it was the first tropical cyclone to attain hurricane strength in the Gulf of Mexico during November . The late season storm surprised maritime interests , and two barges broke free from towing vessels . Indirectly , the hurricane produced heavy precipitation that peaked at 23 @.@ 28 inches ( 591 mm ) in Key West . Minor beach erosion occurred along the Texas coast , where tides were two to four feet above normal ; coastal flooding affected the state , which was heavily impacted by tropical cyclones in August and September . Jeanne caused no deaths .
= = Meteorological history = =
On the late afternoon of November 7 , an area of disturbed weather organized to a tropical depression 60 miles ( 100 km ) east of Atlántico Norte , Nicaragua . Its origins were traced to a tropical wave that originated over western Africa on October 26 . Atmospheric conditions resembled an early fall pattern , and a large ridge was situated over the Gulf of Mexico and Southwestern United States . The depression moved northward into the Caribbean Sea , and the environment supported further development . On November 9 , the depression strengthened to a 40 mph ( 65 km / h ) tropical storm and was given the name Jeanne . Later , an Air Force reconnaissance aircraft reported a strengthening system ; maximum sustained winds increased to 50 mph ( 80 km / h ) , and a minimum pressure of 999 mbar was measured . The tropical cyclone moved northward into the southern Gulf of Mexico on November 10 . Jeanne 's northward movement was blocked by the ridge , and the cyclone slowly turned to the west . On November 11 , Jeanne quickly intensified to a minimal hurricane ; later , it attained its peak intensity of 100 mph ( 155 km / h ) .
On November 12 , Jeanne weakened to a Category 1 hurricane . It entered the western Gulf of Mexico , and its forward motion diminished as the ridge moved east . Later , Jeanne diminished to a 65 mph ( 105 km / h ) tropical storm . A developing trough remained west of Jeanne , and the cyclone was embedded in a weak pressure gradient . Although Jeanne briefly re @-@ intensified to 70 mph ( 110 km / h ) , an advancing frontal boundary brought dry air over the western Gulf of Mexico . Jeanne weakened to a depression on November 14 . It executed a clockwise loop , and it merged with the frontal boundary on November 16 .
= = Preparations = =
Some residents on Dauphin Island voluntarily evacuated , spurred by memories of 1979 's Hurricane Frederic and Jeanne 's northward motion . 3 @,@ 000 workers evacuated their oil rigs because of Jeanne 's high waves . The National Hurricane Center advised small watercraft to remain in ports from Brownsville to Tarpon Springs . Forecasters expected tides of 2 feet above normal in Louisiana , which increased to 4 feet above normal along coastal Texas . In Terrebonne and Lafourche parishes , schools were closed because of uncertainties regarding Jeanne 's path . The hurricane center also expected Jeanne to make landfall in southwestern Louisiana , although the hurricane eventually stayed offshore ; thousands of residents moved inland , while Civil Defense officials remained alert . Forecasters expected locally heavy rainfall , although they suggested it would remain below 8 inches ( 203 mm ) .
= = Impact = =
The combination of a large high pressure system and Jeanne produced rough seas over the northern Gulf of Mexico ; wave heights reached 15 feet ( 4 @.@ 60 m ) . On November 11 , a ship reported sustained winds of 110 mph ( 175 km / h ) , although this reading was discarded and attributed to intense squalls . In Key West , the storm 's outer fringes produced a record @-@ breaking 24 @-@ hour rainfall total of 23 @.@ 28 inches ( 591 mm ) ; 13 @.@ 58 inches ( 345 mm ) fell within six hours . It remains the record 24 @-@ hour November rainfall total for the city as of 2012 . The previous record was set in 1954 . The heavy precipitation was attributed to a mesoscale feature ; an inflow band intersected with an adjacent stationary front , which also contributed to the deluge . Schools and most businesses were closed , while flights were grounded at Key West International Airport ; authorities urged residents to stay home . Telephone and power services were cut to some areas of the city .
Elsewhere , several ships were caught off guard by the late arrival of Jeanne . The cyclone entered the Gulf of Mexico , and two barges broke loose from towing vessels via strong winds and high waves . One barge was an oil rig tender that contained 16 people ; it was carried several hundred miles across the central Gulf of Mexico . All crew members survived , and there were no maritime deaths related to the hurricane . Jeanne produced a prolonged period of rough surf and heavy swells along the Texas coast . Tides reached 2 to 4 feet ( 1 @.@ 20 m ) above normal . The hurricane caused coastal flooding ; the worst flooding occurred near Galveston .
Jeanne was one of only four tropical cyclones in the 20th century to attain hurricane status in the Gulf of Mexico without making landfall ; the others were Laurie of 1969 , Henri of 1979 , and Alberto of 1982 .
|
= Shikishima @-@ class battleship =
The Shikishima class ( 敷島型戦艦 , Shikishima @-@ gata senkan ) was a two @-@ ship class of pre @-@ dreadnought battleships built for the Imperial Japanese Navy in the late 1890s . As Japan lacked the industrial capacity to build such warships herself , they were designed and built in the UK . The ships participated in the Russo @-@ Japanese War of 1904 – 1905 , including the Battle of Port Arthur on the second day of the war . Hatsuse sank after striking two mines off Port Arthur in May 1904 . Shikishima fought in the Battles of the Yellow Sea and Tsushima and was lightly damaged in the latter action , although shells prematurely exploded in the barrels of her main guns in each battle . The ship was reclassified as a coast defence ship in 1921 and served as a training ship for the rest of her career . She was disarmed and hulked in 1923 and finally broken up for scrap in 1948 .
= = Design and description = =
Combat experience in the First Sino @-@ Japanese War convinced the Imperial Japanese Navy of weaknesses in the Jeune Ecole naval philosophy , and Japan embarked on a program to modernize and expand its fleet . As with the earlier Fuji @-@ class battleships , Japan lacked the technology and capability to construct its own battleships , and turned again to the United Kingdom . They were ordered as part of the Ten Year Naval Expansion Programme and paid for from the £ 30 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 indemnity paid by China after losing the Sino @-@ Japanese War of 1894 – 1895 .
The design of the Shikishima class was a modified and improved version of the Majestic @-@ class battleships of the Royal Navy . They had the same armament and similar machinery as the Fuji class which was intended to allow them to work together as a homogenous group . The Shikishima @-@ class ships had an overall length of 412 feet ( 125 @.@ 6 m ) , a beam of 75 @.@ 5 – 76 @.@ 75 feet ( 23 @.@ 0 – 23 @.@ 4 m ) , and a normal draught of 26 @.@ 25 – 26 @.@ 5 feet ( 8 @.@ 0 – 8 @.@ 1 m ) . They displaced 14 @,@ 850 – 15 @,@ 000 long tons ( 15 @,@ 090 – 15 @,@ 240 t ) at normal load . The hull had a double bottom and was subdivided into 261 watertight compartments . The crew numbered about 741 officers and enlisted men , although this increased to 849 when serving as a flagship .
= = = Propulsion = = =
The ships were powered by two Humphrys Tennant vertical triple @-@ expansion steam engines , each driving one propeller , using steam generated by 25 Belleville boilers . The engines were rated at 14 @,@ 500 indicated horsepower ( 10 @,@ 800 kW ) , using forced draught , and designed to reach a top speed of 18 knots ( 33 km / h ; 21 mph ) although they proved to be faster during their sea trials . Shikishima reached a top speed of 19 @.@ 027 knots ( 35 @.@ 238 km / h ; 21 @.@ 896 mph ) using 14 @,@ 667 indicated horsepower ( 10 @,@ 937 kW ) . The ships carried a maximum of 1 @,@ 643 tonnes ( 1 @,@ 617 long tons ) of coal which allowed them to steam for 5 @,@ 000 nautical miles ( 9 @,@ 300 km ; 5 @,@ 800 mi ) at a speed of 10 knots ( 19 km / h ; 12 mph ) .
= = = Armament = = =
The main battery of the Shikishima class consisted of the same four Elswick Ordnance Company 40 @-@ calibre twelve @-@ inch guns as used in the Fuji class . They were mounted in twin @-@ gun barbettes fore and aft of the superstructure that had armoured hoods to protect the guns and were usually called gun turrets . The hydraulically powered mountings could be loaded at all angles of traverse while the guns were loaded at a fixed angle of + 13 @.@ 5 ° . They fired 850 @-@ pound ( 386 kg ) projectiles at a muzzle velocity of 2 @,@ 400 ft / s ( 730 m / s ) .
Secondary armament of the Shikishima class consisted of fourteen 40 @-@ calibre Type 41 six @-@ inch quick @-@ firing guns mounted in casemates . Eight of these guns were positioned on the main deck on the side of the ship 's hull and the other six guns were placed in the superstructure . They fired 100 @-@ pound ( 45 kg ) shells at a muzzle velocity of 2 @,@ 300 ft / s ( 700 m / s ) . Protection against torpedo boat attacks was provided by twenty QF 12 @-@ pounder 12 cwt guns and four 47 @-@ millimetre ( 1 @.@ 9 in ) 2 @.@ 5 @-@ pounder Hotchkiss guns . The 12 @-@ pounders fired 3 @-@ inch ( 76 mm ) , 12 @.@ 5 @-@ pound ( 5 @.@ 7 kg ) projectiles at a muzzle velocity of 2 @,@ 359 ft / s ( 719 m / s ) . The ships were also equipped with four submerged 18 @-@ inch torpedo tubes , two on each broadside .
= = = Armour = = =
The waterline main belt of the Shikishima @-@ class vessels consisted of Harvey armour 8 feet ( 2 @.@ 4 m ) high , 3 feet 7 inches ( 1 @.@ 1 m ) of which was above the waterline at normal load , and had a maximum thickness of 9 inches ( 229 mm ) for the middle 220 feet ( 67 m ) of the ship . It was only 4 inches ( 102 mm ) inches thick at the ends of the ship and was surmounted by a six @-@ inch strake of armor that ran between the barbettes for 220 feet . The barbettes were 14 inches ( 356 mm ) thick , but reduced to 10 inches ( 254 mm ) at the level of the lower deck . The armour of the barbette hoods had a maximum thickness of 10 inches ( 254 mm ) while their roofs were three inches thick . Diagonal bulkheads 12 – 14 inches ( 305 – 356 mm ) thick connected the barbettes to the side armor , but the bulkheads were only six inches thick at the lower deck level . The casemates protecting the secondary armament were also six inches thick . The flat portion of the deck armour was 2 @.@ 5 inches ( 64 mm ) thick and four inches thick where it sloped down to the bottom of the armour belt . This significantly improved the ships ' protection as any shell that penetrated their vertical armour also had to penetrate the sloping deck before it could reach the machinery compartments or magazines . Outside the central armoured citadel , the sloped deck had a thickness of 2 inches ( 51 mm ) . The forward conning tower was protected by 14 inches of armour , but the aft conning tower only had three inches of armour .
= = Ships = =
At the start of the Russo @-@ Japanese War , Hatsuse and Shikishima were assigned to the 1st Division of the 1st Fleet . They participated in the Battle of Port Arthur on 9 February 1904 when Admiral Tōgō Heihachirō led the 1st Fleet in an attack on the Russian ships of the Pacific Squadron anchored just outside Port Arthur . Tōgō chose to attack the Russian coastal defences with his main armament and engage the Russian ships with his secondary guns . Splitting his fire proved to be a bad idea as the Japanese 8 @-@ inch ( 203 mm ) and six @-@ inch guns inflicted very little damage on the Russian ships who concentrated all their fire on the Japanese ships with some effect . Hatsuse was hit twice during the battle , 10 men being killed and 17 wounded , but Shikishima was only hit once with 17 men wounded .
Both ships participated in the action of 13 April when Tōgō successfully lured out two battleships of the Pacific Squadron . When the Russians spotted the five battleships of the 1st Division , they turned back for Port Arthur and the battleship Petropavlovsk struck a minefield laid by the Japanese the previous night . It sank in less than two minutes after one of her magazines exploded . Emboldened by his success , Tōgō resumed long @-@ range bombardment missions , which prompted the Russians to lay more minefields .
On 14 May 1904 , Hatsuse , Shikishima , and the battleship Yashima , the protected cruiser Kasagi , and the dispatch boat Tatsuta put to sea to relieve the Japanese blockading force off Port Arthur . On the following morning , the squadron encountered a newly laid Russian minefield . Hatsuse struck one mine that disabled her steering and Yashima struck another when moving to assist Hatsuse . Hatsuse struck another mine while drifting about a half @-@ hour later that detonated one of her magazines and the ship sank in a little over a minute . The catastrophe claimed 496 crewmen although the escorting ships were able to rescue 336 men .
Shikishima was not hit during the Battle of the Yellow Sea in August 1904 , although a shell exploded prematurely in one of her 12 @-@ inch guns , disabling it . During the Battle of Tsushima in May 1905 , she was hit nine times ; the most serious of which penetrated beneath a six @-@ inch gun , killing or wounding the entire gun crew . Again the ship had another 12 @-@ inch shell prematurely detonate in one of the forward guns , wrecking it completely . Shikishima was reclassified as a first @-@ class coast defence ship in September 1921 , and was used for training duties in various capacities until disarmed and reclassified as a transport in 1923 . Her hulk continued to be used as a training ship until she was scrapped in 1948 .
|
= 522666 =
" ' 522666 " is the fifth episode of the first season of the American crime @-@ thriller television series Millennium . It premiered on the Fox network on November 22 , 1996 . The episode was written by Glen Morgan and James Wong , and directed by David Nutter . " 522666 " featured guest appearances by Sam Anderson , Hiro Kanagawa and Joe Chrest .
Millennium Group consultant Frank Black ( Lance Henriksen ) is approached by the FBI when a series of bombs are detonated in Washington , DC . Black 's investigation soon reveals that the culprit seeks to be seen as a hero , setting off explosions in order to rescue people from the scenes ; leaving Black to track down the fame @-@ hungry bomber before more people are killed .
" 522666 " was one of many collaborations between Nutter , Morgan and Wong , with the three having worked together on several television series previously . The episode opens with a reference to existentialist philosopher Jean @-@ Paul Sartre , and featured Henriksen performing all of his own stunts .
= = Plot = =
Outside a bar in Washington DC , Raymond Dees ( Joe Chrest ) calls 911 on a payphone . He says nothing , simply typing the numbers 522666 on the phone 's keypad . Later , he watches the bar from a parking garage nearby , masturbating as the bomb he has left inside detonates .
Millennium Group consultant Frank Black ( Lance Henriksen ) watches the aftermath of the explosion on the news , knowing that the group will ask for his assistance with the case . Dees is among the rescuers seen on the broadcast . Black travels to DC and meets up with fellow group member Peter Watts ( Terry O 'Quinn ) . The two join the FBI task force investigating the bombing , led by special agents Pierson ( Sam Anderson ) and Takahashi ( Hiro Kanagawa ) . Watts and Black quickly dismiss several false claims of responsibility by terrorist groups . Black listens to the 911 call left by Dees , deducing that the numbers dialled spell the word kaboom on a telephone keypad .
Black and the FBI investigate the crime scene ; Black not only realises the bomber 's proficiency with explosives , but is able to work out that he viewed the bombing from the parking garage . In a bin in the garage , they find a tissue covered in Dees ' semen . Black informs the FBI that the bomber is smart enough to be able to tap into their phonecalls , and volunteers to bait him into eavesdropping on his mobile phone . Black 's deduction is correct , and as he attempts to stall Dees on the phone while the FBI trace the call , he realises from Dees ' language that the bomber is seeking to become famous through his actions . Dees informs the FBI that he has planned another bombing for the next morning .
The FBI task force rush to locate the bomb , tracing the phonecall to a small section of the city that might house it . Scanning the area , Black notices another parking garage opposite an office block , and attempts to have the building evacuated . However , Dees has planted a second bomb which detonates fifteen minutes early , while Black is inside the building . However , he is pulled to safety by a stranger , who is interviewed on the news following the explosion — Raymond Dees .
Black comes to in a hospital bed , tended to by his wife Catherine Black ( Megan Gallagher ) . She explains to him what has happened , and turns on the evening news to show him the interview with his rescuer . However , watching Dees speak , Black quickly realises he is the bomber . The FBI locate Dees ' home , but his electronic surveillance had alerted him long before , and he has escaped before they even arrive . However , as Black sits in his car , he receives a call from Dees , who has booby @-@ trapped the car . The FBI are able to monitor this call with Dees ' equipment . Dees tells Black that they will both soon be famous , letting Black know that he has a remote detonator for the car 's explosives . Before he can use it , he is killed by a police marksman .
When Black 's car is searched , it is clear it was never rigged with anything — Dees had planned the whole thing , knowing that he would be killed . As news reports spread concerning the bomber 's identity and his death at the hands of the police , Black sees that Dees has achieved the fame he longed for .
= = Production = =
" 522666 " was directed by David Nutter , who had directed both " Pilot " and " Gehenna " previously , and would also direct " Loin Like a Hunting Flame " later in the season . Writers James Wong and Glen Morgan had previously written " Dead Letters " , and would go on to write an additional thirteen episodes during the first and second seasons of the series . Nutter , Morgan and Wong had all previously collaborated on both Millennium 's sister show The X @-@ Files , and the Morgan and Wong @-@ created series Space : Above and Beyond .
Guest star Hiro Kanagawa , who portrays FBI special agent Takahashi , has appeared several times in Millennium 's sister show The X @-@ Files , in the second and fourth seasons ; as well as in The X @-@ Files ' spin @-@ off series The Lone Gunmen . Kanagawa would also make several more appearances on Millennium , acting in unrelated roles in the episodes " The Time Is Now " , " Human Essence " , and " Bardo Thodol " . The episode also featured a guest appearance by William MacDonald as FBI Agent Nolan ; MacDonald would later reappear in the third season episode " Through a Glass Darkly " .
Lance Henriksen performed all his own stunts in this episode , having been introduced to acting by a stuntman friend of his . The episode opens with a quote from French existentialist philosopher and writer Jean @-@ Paul Sartre — " I am responsible for everything ... except my very responsibility " , which was taken from the 1943 treatise Being and Nothingness . Sarte 's writing echoes the motivations of the character of Raymond Dees , with author N. E. Genge noting that both believed that " just because the individual was incapable of changing destiny alone was no reason for him to stop trying " .
= = Broadcast and reception = =
" 522666 " was first broadcast on the Fox Network on November 22 , 1996 , and earned a Nielsen rating of 7 @.@ 6 , meaning that roughly 7 @.@ 6 percent of all television @-@ equipped households were tuned in to the episode .
The episode received mixed to positive reviews from critics . The A.V. Club 's Zack Handlen rated the episode a B- , finding that the episode 's ' cat and mouse ' chase between Black and Dees was " well constructed " and " exciting " , and drawing comparisons between the episode and the film Seven . However , he felt that the ending was poor , and that Megan Gallagher 's portrayal of Catherine Black let the episode down . Bill Gibron , writing for DVD Talk , rated the episode 3 out of 5 , finding that the focus on technological investigative techniques was " decidedly dull " , and that although the episode 's premise was initially " interesting " , it grew " derivative after a while " . Robert Shearman and Lars Pearson , in their book Wanting to Believe : A Critical Guide to The X @-@ Files , Millennium & The Lone Gunmen , note that the episode 's premise is the first in the series " to play it entirely straight " , avoiding Black 's paranormal abilities . Shearman and Pearson rated the episode four @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half stars out of five , describing it as not only " a chilling study of one man 's madness , but an indictment upon the modern obsession with celebrity " . This interpretation has also been echoed by Mark Pizzato , in his work Inner Theatres of Good and Evil . Pizzato claims that the episode " reflects the media 's melodramatic fetishizing of villains and heroes , showing the bomber not only as a vulgar onanist , but also as Frank 's savior and a martyr to the mass audience " .
|
= Mark Vlasic =
Mark Richard Vlasic ( born October 25 , 1963 ) is a former American football quarterback who played in the National Football League ( NFL ) for six seasons . During this time , he played for the San Diego Chargers , Kansas City Chiefs and Tampa Bay Buccaneers . Over the course of his career , he played in 15 games , completed 75 of 142 passes for 762 yards , threw four touchdowns and five interceptions , and finished his career with a passer rating of 63 @.@ 2 .
A graduate of Center High School and the University of Iowa , Vlasic was selected 88th in the 1987 NFL Draft by the San Diego Chargers . He was a backup for Dan Fouts during his first season , then started two games the following year . After not seeing playing time in 1989 , Vlasic started the season opener in 1990 , his last year with San Diego . He played for two seasons with Kansas City and one with Tampa Bay , but was released in 1994 , having not had actual playing time since 1991 .
= = High school and college = =
Vlasic was born in Rochester , Pennsylvania . He attended high school at Center High School in Center Township , Pennsylvania , and was a standout in football and basketball during his time there . He was the starting quarterback for Center in his junior year , throwing for 777 yards in the first eight games of the season . In his junior year of basketball , Vlasic was a starter , in one game scoring 23 points and 11 rebounds with a bad back . He continued to play football and basketball during his senior year , with performances that included a 36 @-@ point effort against Las Vegas Western High School , making 18 of 20 shots . As a result of his high school career , Vlasic was inducted into the Beaver County Sports Hall of Fame in 1999 .
After graduating from high school , Vlasic played college football at the University of Iowa . For four years , he served as a backup to Chuck Long , now a member of the College Football Hall of Fame . During his junior year , as the backup quarterback , he also served as the holder for field goal kicks . After placekicker Rob Houghtlin won a 12 @-@ 10 game against the University of Michigan thanks to a last second field goal , a mob tore down the goalpost , which injured four fans including Vlasic , who was at the bottom of a pile of fans .
The following season Vlasic , now a fifth @-@ year senior , became the starter , as Long graduated . Although he was taking over for the Heisman Trophy runner @-@ up , his strong arm was complimented , albeit backhandedly , by coach Hayden Fry , who said , " He 's got a stronger arm than Long , and he proves it every day by overthrowing his receivers . " In Vlasic 's first game as starter , he threw for 288 yards in a 43 @-@ 7 win against Iowa State University , a game that made Hayden Fry the most victorious coach in Iowa football history . After two more victories , Vlasic went down with a separated shoulder , returning to the lineup after freshmen Dan McGwire and Tom Poholsky took over the starting role . In a late October game against Northwestern , Vlasic threw a 93 @-@ yard touchdown pass to Quinn Early , the longest in Iowa history , in a 27 @-@ 20 victory against Northwestern University . Despite his injury causing him to serve as a backup most of the season , he was given the start for the 1986 Holiday Bowl against San Diego State University . In the Holiday Bowl , Vlasic completed 15 of 28 passes 222 yards and ran for a touchdown as Iowa won , 39 @-@ 38 .
= = Professional career = =
= = = San Diego Chargers = = =
Vlasic was selected by the San Diego Chargers in the 4th round of the 1987 NFL Draft . Chargers coach Al Saunders chose Vlasic because he wanted to find a young quarterback to observe and succeed Dan Fouts . He signed with the team in late July , and spent the preseason competing with Rick Neuheisel , Tom Flick , and others for the backup quarterback job . While he performed well in the preseason , the Chargers were looking to have him sit out a year so he could learn the ins @-@ and @-@ outs or pro football . After Flick was cut and Mark Herrmann named the primary backup , Vlasic beat out Neuheisel for the final quarterback spot on the Chargers ' roster , though Neuheisel would rejoin the team later that season due to the strike . Despite making the roster , Vlasic spent most of the season after the players ' strike on the team 's inactive list . However , when Fouts was scratched from a December game against the Denver Broncos due to a shoulder injury , Vlasic was called up to be Herrman 's backup . He made his professional debut on December 27 , 1987 , playing the final 5 : 29 of the game . He completed three of six passes for eight yards , was sacked , and threw an interception in the Chargers ' 24 @-@ 0 loss against Denver .
Before the 1988 San Diego Chargers season began , Dan Fouts chose to retire from the game after 15 seasons , leaving Vlasic as the main backup to starter Mark Herrmann , and as a result the Chargers began trying to trade for an experienced quarterback . The Chargers also signed Mark Malone and Babe Laufenberg to compete for the starting job , and traded Herrmann to the Indianapolis Colts . After months of training and the 1988 preseason , Vlasic began the season as the third string quarterback behind Malone and Laufenberg , who won the starting job . In November , after Laufenberg was injured , the Chargers decided to make Vlasic the starter instead of Malone due to the latter 's ineffectiveness , as well as a six game losing streak . He made his season debut against the Atlanta Falcons on November 13 , and threw for 190 yards in a 10 – 7 victory . As a result of his performance , coach Al Saunders said that Vlasic would have the starting job for the rest of the season . Vlasic 's second start came against the Los Angeles Rams where he threw for 80 yards and a touchdown . However , he suffered torn ligaments in his left knee late in the third quarter , and was lost for the season . He finished the season with 25 of 52 passes completed and a passer rating of 54 @.@ 2 .
Vlasic spent the 1989 off @-@ season recovering form his injury , while the Chargers added another quarterback to the roster upon drafting Billy Joe Tolliver . After working out with the team during the preseason , he started the season on the Physically Unable to Perform list . With the Chargers having a reliable starter in Jim McMahon , who had been signed to the team , Vlasic was kept on the list for the season . In 1990 , McMahon was released and John Friesz was drafted out of the University of Idaho , leaving Vlasic to compete with Friesz and David Archer for the backup quarterback job . As the preseason began for the 1990 San Diego Chargers season , the team released Archer , and the plan was for Friesz to split backup quarterback duties during the preseason . After an impressive preseason by Vlasic and only a pedestrian one by Tolliver , Chargers coach Dan Henning named Vlasic as the starting quarterback against the Dallas Cowboys in the season opener , citing that he was " steadier " than Tolliver . After losing the game 17 – 14 , the switch was made back to Tolliver as the starting quarterback , and was eventually named starter for the rest of the season . Despite this , Vlasic remained optimistic , saying , " I feel confident in my ability , and I always have . I know I can get the job done whatever the situation . I have to believe that . " Over the course of the 1990 season , Vlasic played in six games , completing 19 of 40 passes for 168 yards , one touchdown , two interceptions , and a passer rating of 46 @.@ 7 .
At the end of the season , coach Henning said that Tolliver was to be the starter heading into next season , and that the team would not protect Vlasic under Plan B free agency , meaning he could sign with any interested team . As a result , he began to meet with other teams that were looking for a quarterback , including the Cowboys and Green Bay Packers .
= = = Kansas City Chiefs = = =
After meeting with the Cowboys and Kansas City Chiefs , it was reported that Vlasic signed a two @-@ year deal with the Chiefs in March , with Vlasic 's agent confirming but Chiefs general manager Carl Peterson denying it . The Cowboys stated that they would not enter a bidding war , and the signing was confirmed shortly afterward . Vlasic spent the 1991 preseason competing with Steve Pelluer and Mike Elkins for the backup quarterback job . By the end of the preseason , both Pelluer and Elkins were cut , leaving Vlasic as the backup behind Steve DeBerg . He spent most of the season backing up DeBerg and getting occasional action . His most significant day as a backup came on November 17 against the Denver Broncos . Vlasic relieved DeBerg , who had thrown four interceptions , and completed nine of 14 passes for 91 yards and a touchdown in a 24 – 20 loss . The highlight of Vlasic 's season was a matchup on December 8 against his old team , the Chargers . After replacing DeBerg in the second half with the Chiefs down by 14 points , Vlasic completed 12 of 18 passes for 150 yards and a touchdown as the Chiefs beat the Chargers in overtime , 20 – 17 , and giving the Chiefs a playoff berth in the process . As a result of this performance , Vlasic was given the start for next week 's game against the San Francisco 49ers . However , he sprained his knee in the second quarter , and did not play the final regular season game . Vlasic missed the wild card playoff game against the Oakland Raiders , but was available for the divisional playoff series against the Buffalo Bills . After DeBerg left in the second quarter due to injury , Vlasic entered the game in what was his only playoff appearance . He completed nine of 20 passes for 124 yards and threw four interceptions in a 37 – 14 blowout that marked the end of the Chiefs ' playoff run . Vlasic 's stats for 1991 were 28 completions in 44 attempts , 316 yards , two touchdowns , and a passer rating of 100 @.@ 2 .
As the 1992 Kansas City Chiefs season began , the team 's first big move was the signing of quarterback Dave Krieg to compete with DeBerg and Vlasic . A couple weeks after Krieg 's signing , DeBerg signed with the Tampa Bay Buccaneers , leaving Vlasic as the primary backup to Krieg . The Chiefs went into training camp and went through the preseason with Krieg , Vlasic , and rookie draft pick Matt Blundin . Krieg ended up playing every snap of the season , leaving both Vlasic without a year 's worth of playing time as his contract expired . The trading of Joe Montana to the Chiefs put a definitive end to Vlasic 's time in Kansas City .
= = = Tampa Bay Buccaneers = = =
On April 30 , 1992 Vlasic signed a two @-@ year contract with the Tampa Bay Buccaneers , reuniting himself with former teammate Steve DeBerg . Vlasic began the preseason competing the third string quarterback job behind Mike Pawlawski while DeBerg and Craig Erickson competed for the starting job . At the end of preseason , however , Vlasic was among the final group cut by the Buccaneers . When DeBerg was cut from the team in early November , Vlasic was re @-@ signed to the team in his place . He remained on the roster for the 1994 preseason , but his only preseason pass was intercepted and returned for a touchdown , and he was waived shortly afterward . This marked the end of Vlasic 's professional football career .
= = Personal life = =
Before his inaugural season of pro football , Vlasic , a finance major at Iowa , got a real estate license in case pro football did not work out . Vlasic is currently a Senior Wealth Advisor with Mariner Wealth Advisors in Leawood KS .
He has a wife , Amy , two daughters , Erica and Vanessa , a son , Ethan , and a dog Lola .
|
= Marguerite LeHand =
Marguerite Alice " Missy " LeHand ( September 13 , 1898 – July 31 , 1944 ) was private secretary to U.S. President Franklin D. Roosevelt ( FDR ) for 21 years . According to Roosevelt biographer Doris Kearns Goodwin , during FDR 's presidency , LeHand became " the most celebrated private secretary in the country " .
Born into a poor Irish @-@ American family in New York , LeHand attended secretarial school , took a series of clerical jobs , and eventually began to work for the Democratic Party 's New York office . There she came to the attention of FDR 's wife Eleanor during his 1920 vice presidential candidacy and was hired as FDR 's personal secretary . After FDR was partially paralyzed by polio , LeHand became his daily companion , to the extent of adopting his favorite hobbies , games , and drinks . She remained his secretary when he became Governor of New York in 1929 and when he became president in 1933 , serving until a 1941 stroke left her unable to speak . She moved to her sister 's home in Boston and died in 1944 .
The exact nature of LeHand 's relationship with FDR is debated by historians . It is generally accepted that their relationship contained a romantic element , though scholars remain divided on whether the pair had a sexual relationship . LeHand was engaged to U.S. Ambassador William Bullitt in 1933 , but never married , later asking a friend , " How could anyone ever come up to FDR ? "
= = Early life = =
LeHand was born in Potsdam , New York , to Daniel J. and Mary J. ( née Graffin ) LeHand , who were the children of Irish immigrants . When Marguerite was young , her father , a gardener with a drinking problem , deserted the family . She had a sister , Anna , and two brothers , Daniel and Bernard . The family later moved to Somerville , Massachusetts . As a child , LeHand was struck by rheumatic fever , and Eleanor Roosevelt later stated that the disease had left her delicate and barred from strenuous exercise . She graduated from Somerville High School in 1917 and then attended secretarial school . Although she never attended college , in 1937 Rosary College recognized her professional achievements with an honorary Doctor of Laws .
After holding a variety of clerical positions in the Boston area and passing the Civil Service exam , she moved to Washington , DC to serve as a clerk during the First World War . At the recommendation of Charles McCarthy , Roosevelt 's assistant at the Navy Department , she became a secretary with the Democratic Party 's New York headquarters . In 1920 , when Franklin Roosevelt was running for Vice President on a ticket with James M. Cox against Warren Harding and Calvin Coolidge , LeHand 's work on the campaign and her clear personal devotion to FDR caught the eye of the Roosevelts . In early 1921 , FDR hired her as his personal secretary and gave her the initial job of cleaning up his correspondence . Roosevelt biographer Jean Edward Smith described the young LeHand as " five feet , seven inches tall ... warm and attractive , with ink @-@ blue eyes , black hair already turning gray , and an engaging throaty voice . She was also modest , well mannered , exceptionally capable , and thoroughly organized . "
= = Secretary to Roosevelt = =
LeHand quickly became a key part of Roosevelt 's staff , managing his correspondence and appointment calendar . She was nicknamed " Missy " by Roosevelt 's sons and soon became popularly known by this name . In turn , she nicknamed her boss " F.D. " , a name only she was allowed to use . In the summer of 1921 , Roosevelt was struck by polio during a vacation to Campobello Island , leaving him paralyzed below the waist ; LeHand then became his inseparable companion . She once described her early work with FDR thus :
The first thing for a private secretary to do is to study her employer . After I went to work for Mr. Roosevelt , for months I read carefully all the letters he dictated ... I learned what letters he wanted to see and which ones it was not necessary to show him ... I came to know exactly how Mr. Roosevelt would answer some of his letters , how he would couch his thoughts . When he discovered that I had learned these things it took a load off his shoulders , for instead of having to dictate the answers to many letters he could just say yes or no and I knew what to say and how to say it .
Each winter in the mid @-@ 1920s , FDR would spend four months on his houseboat , Larocco , off the Florida coast . LeHand lived with him and acted as his hostess . She also accompanied him to the spa town of Warm Springs , Georgia , overseeing and encouraging his physical therapy . In early 1927 , FDR sold the Larocco , leaving LeHand distraught by the disruption of their life together ; she had a nervous breakdown , and was briefly hospitalized and placed under suicide watch . She recovered and returned to work in November .
LeHand opposed FDR 's proposed plan to run for Governor of New York in 1928 , telling him , " Don 't you dare " . When he ultimately decided to run , she suffered another illness that Goodwin describes as " probably a second nervous breakdown " . By the time he was elected and assumed office , however , she was well enough to resume work and moved into the second floor of the Governor 's Mansion in Albany , continuing on as his secretary . With Eleanor often away working in New York City during this time , LeHand was FDR 's day @-@ to @-@ day companion . During her long tenure as FDR 's secretary , LeHand came to share many of his likes and dislikes . She enthusiastically learned to play poker , and would spend hours working with him on his stamp collection . She adopted even his figures of speech and favorite drinks .
Roosevelt was elected President of the United States in 1932 , assuming the office in 1933 . There was little doubt that LeHand would follow him to the White House . As her obituary in the New York Times said , " when her employer was elected to the Presidency , it had become an established fact that neither other offers of employment or proposals of marriage could entice the prematurely gray and handsome young woman from the career she had chosen . " During Roosevelt 's tenure as president , LeHand became a federal employee . Until the 1941 stroke that incapacitated her , she lived on the third floor of the White House and continued to manage Roosevelt 's daily business . She also presided as the White House hostess during Eleanor 's absences . In August 1933 , Newsweek ran a profile of her describing her as FDR 's " Super @-@ Secretary " , making her nationally famous .
= = Relationship with Roosevelt = =
The question of whether LeHand and Roosevelt 's relationship contained a sexual component was widely discussed among their contemporaries and continues to be debated by historians . Hazel Rowley argues that " there is no doubt that Franklin 's relationship with Missy was romantic " , but notes the possibility that the relationship could not have been consummated due to FDR 's disability . Goodwin states that " beneath the complexity , it is absolutely clear that Franklin was the love of Missy 's life , and that he adored her and depended on her for affection and support as well as work " . Doug Wead wrote in his work on the parents of presidents , The Raising of a President ,
Some Roosevelt historians insist that their relationship was never consummated . Eleanor and the children accepted the relationship , which speaks for its innocence . Sara [ Roosevelt ] spoke favorably of Missy 's family and upbringing . Years later , only Elliott , of all the children , would declare that it had not been as benign as historians like to believe .
In 1973 , FDR 's son Elliott published An Untold Story : The Roosevelts of Hyde Park , in which he recalled seeing LeHand in his father 's lap and alleged that she " shared a familiar life in all its aspects with father " . His eldest brother Jimmy disagreed , arguing that FDR 's illness had made sexual function too difficult for him to have a physical affair . " I suppose you could say they came to love one another " , he wrote , " but it was not a physical love . "
Despite the closeness of LeHand and Franklin 's relationship , Eleanor and LeHand remained on good terms . Eleanor Roosevelt biographer Blanche Wiesen Cook describes the First Lady as treating LeHand warmly , " as an elder daughter or , in the manner of Asian matriarchs , as the junior wife " . The two women went shopping together , and Eleanor took a solicitous interest in LeHand 's smoking and general health . Eleanor also accompanied LeHand to her mother 's funeral in Potsdam in 1932 . Elliott later stated that he believed " Missy alleviated Mother 's guilt " , allowing her to travel without worrying that Franklin would lack for companionship . In one of her later books , Eleanor wrote that she occasionally failed to " meet the need of someone whom I dearly love " , stating , " You must learn to allow someone else to meet the need , without bitterness or envy , and accept it . " Cook reads these passages as veiled references to LeHand 's role in Franklin 's life , and Eleanor 's acceptance of that role .
= = = Other relationships = = =
LeHand had a brief romance with Eleanor 's bodyguard ( and rumored love ) Earl Miller in 1931 . Miller later told biographer Joseph Lash that he had begun the affair out of respect for Eleanor , feeling that she was hurt by LeHand 's relationship with Franklin . LeHand quickly became attached to Miller , but broke off the affair after discovering that he was also seeing another White House worker .
In 1933 , LeHand became engaged to the diplomat William Christian Bullitt , Jr . , then the U.S. ambassador to Russia . FDR 's son James later described this as " the one real romance " of her life . However , the engagement ended after LeHand visited him in Moscow and reportedly discovered him having an affair . Later in life , a friend asked LeHand if she regretted not having married , to which LeHand replied , " Absolutely not ... How could anyone ever come up to FDR ? "
FDR aide and confidant Harry Hopkins briefly courted LeHand in 1939 , following the death of his second wife , Barbara . Goodwin states while the pair were close , and their friendship sparked Washington gossip , but nothing appears to have come of it : " Missy had probably cut it short , as she had cut short every other relationship in her life that might subordinate her great love for FDR . "
= = Illness , death , and memorials = =
In June 1941 , LeHand , who had suffered rheumatic fever as a child and was somewhat frail , collapsed at a White House dinner party and two weeks later suffered a major stroke that left her partially paralyzed with little speech function . A factor that may have led to her illness was stress stemming from fears that the exiled Princess Märtha of Sweden , a Washington @-@ area resident during World War II , had replaced her as FDR 's favorite companion , occupying the seat next to him that had long been LeHand 's in automobile rides . FDR paid LeHand 's medical bills and made provisions in his will for her care . During the 1941 Christmas season , LeHand , now an invalid , attempted suicide . In early 1942 , she spent some weeks in her old room at the White House , but quickly deteriorated due to her frustrations at not being able to help . After an incident in which she tried to set herself on fire , it was agreed that LeHand would return to her sister 's home in Somerville , Massachusetts , and she departed from Washington on May 16 , 1942 .
FDR rewrote his will to leave half of the income from his estate ( which was eventually probated at more than $ 3 million ) for LeHand 's care , and half to Eleanor . The will stated that upon LeHand 's death the income would go to Eleanor , with the principal eventually divided equally among his children . As LeHand died before FDR , her half reverted to Eleanor .
An assistant of LeHand 's , Grace Tully , took over as Roosevelt 's secretary , but was never a companion for Roosevelt in the same way as LeHand had been . During LeHand 's brief return to the White House after her stroke , to help her feel included , Tully brought letters and State Department correspondence for her to read .
When LeHand died on July 31 , 1944 , the president issued a statement :
Memories of more than a score of years of devoted service enhance the sense of personal loss which Miss LeHand 's passing brings . Faithful and painstaking , with charm of manner inspired by tact and kindness of heart , she was utterly selfless in her devotion to duty . Hers was a quiet efficiency , which made her a real genius in getting things done . Her memory will ever be held in affectionate remembrance and appreciation , not only by all the members of our family but by the wide circle of those whose duties brought them into contact with her .
Eleanor Roosevelt attended LeHand 's funeral in Cambridge , Massachusetts , over which Bishop ( later Cardinal ) Richard Cushing presided . Other mourners included Associate Supreme Court Justice Felix Frankfurter and former ambassador Joseph P. Kennedy . In her will , LeHand left the furniture in her White House apartment to Grace Tully and the First Couple .
= = = SS Marguerite LeHand = = =
In March 1945 , the United States Maritime Commission christened an 18 @,@ 000 ton C3 cargo vessel , the SS Marguerite LeHand , in Pascagoula , Mississippi . As LeHand was leaving on her maiden voyage , she struck the U.S. Coast Guard lighthouse tender Magnolia amidships , sinking it and killing one Coast Guardsman .
= = = Representations in television and film = = =
LeHand was a character in the 1958 Broadway play Sunrise at Campobello and its 1960 film adaptation , in which she was played by Jean Hagen . The productions portray FDR 's initial struggles with polio after his 1921 diagnosis , and his decision to continue his political career .
Priscilla Pointer played the role of LeHand in the 1977 ABC television production Eleanor and Franklin : The White House Years . In the 2012 movie Hyde Park on Hudson , which portrays the visit of British monarchs George VI and Queen Consort Elizabeth to FDR 's estate at Hyde Park , LeHand is played by Elizabeth Marvel .
LeHand 's work and friendship with Franklin Roosevelt is chronicled in the 2014 documentary film The Roosevelts , directed by Ken Burns .
|
= Maria Kanellis =
Maria Louise Kanellis @-@ Bennett ( born February 25 , 1982 ) is an American professional wrestler , valet , actress and singer currently signed to Total Nonstop Action Wrestling ( TNA ) under the ring name Maria ( Kanellis @-@ Bennett ) . She is best known for her time with World Wrestling Entertainment ( WWE ) , and Ring of Honor ( ROH ) as the valet of her real @-@ life husband Michael Bennett .
Kanellis 's career began as a contestant on the reality show Outback Jack in 2004 . In the same year , she placed fifth in the Raw Diva Search , but was later hired by WWE as a backstage interviewer . Kanellis began competing in the ring as a wrestler in 2005 . She also posed for the April 2008 cover of Playboy magazine , which was incorporated into a storyline on Raw . She released her debut album Sevin Sins on April 13 , 2010 on iTunes .
= = Early life = =
Kanellis was born in Ottawa , Illinois . She has two younger siblings ; a brother and sister named Bill and Janny , respectively . Kanellis grew up with an interest in playing sports , particularly volleyball , basketball , and softball . She graduated from Ottawa Township High School in 2000 , before spending some time as a student at Northern Illinois University . Before her career in wrestling began , Kanellis regularly competed in beauty pageants .
= = Professional wrestling career = =
= = = World Wrestling Entertainment = = =
= = = = Diva Search and debut ( 2004 @-@ 2005 ) = = = =
She competed in the Raw Diva Search in 2004 , deciding to enter the contest after seeing an advertisement while watching Raw . Even though she only placed fifth in the contest , she was hired by the company . She stood out in the contest by giving fellow contestant Carmella DeCesare the finger after being eliminated from the contest . Maria began making appearances in Ohio Valley Wrestling ( OVW ) , WWE 's then @-@ developmental territory , under head trainer Paul Heyman . She contributed booking ideas , and her work at OVW earned her a spot on the Raw brand roster . Maria was brought on to Raw as a ditzy backstage interviewer and the host of WWE KissCam in November 2004 . Her gimmick involved her asking wrong questions , irritating and amusing WWE Superstars and Divas this gimmik would last until 2008 .
In 2005 , Maria began a more physical role , and was defeated in her first official match on the January 10 , 2005 episode of Raw by Christy Hemme in a Lingerie Pillow Fight . She also competed in a Fulfill Your Fantasy Diva Battle Royal at Taboo Tuesday for the WWE Women 's Championship , but was the first to be eliminated , courtesy of Trish Stratus and Mickie James . In another physical moment , Stratus slapped Maria so hard that one of her fillings legitimately fell out . On November 14 , Maria competed in a non @-@ title Diva Battle Royal at the Eddie Guerrero tribute Raw show . Maria stood by herself for most of the match , only getting involved when she saw the opportunity to eliminate a competitor , and ultimately eliminated both Jillian Hall and Victoria . She was one of the last three women left in the match , but was eliminated by both Melina and Trish Stratus .
On the November 28 episode of Raw , Maria interviewed then @-@ Raw General Manager Eric Bischoff , and asked him whether or not he thought he was going to be fired . He then booked her in a match with Kurt Angle out of spite , and Maria was laid out with the Angle Slam . As a result , one week later , Maria testified in the trial against Bischoff , who was being fired because of his controversial actions as General Manager . As Mick Foley questioned her , she answered , " Last week Bischoff abused his power in a way that was both malicious and capricious , and it 's this rash of discourse that ultimately led to a locker room of disdain and mutiny , and it should be grounds for his immediate dismissal . "
= = = = Various feuds ( 2006 – 2007 ) = = = =
In early 2006 , Maria defeated Victoria in a match . Afterwards , she was attacked and stripped of her clothes by Vince 's Devils ( Victoria , Torrie Wilson , and Candice Michelle ) , but she was saved by Ashley Massaro . During a commercial break that night , Vince McMahon announced a Gauntlet Bra & Panties Match for New Year 's Revolution between all five girls . At the event , Maria was the first to enter the Gauntlet match and eliminated Michelle and Wilson before being eliminated by Victoria . The match was ultimately won by Massaro . On April 10 , episode of Raw , Maria received a shot at the WWE Women 's Championship , but was defeated by the defending champion Mickie James .
Maria teamed with John Cena to take on Edge and Lita in the main event on the February 6 episode of Raw . Maria scored the victory after a spear meant for Cena hit Lita . One month later , Maria lost a singles match to Lita . After the match , Edge was preparing to spear Maria , but Mick Foley ran in to help her . On October 16 , Maria won a Fatal Four @-@ Way Bra and Panties match against Victoria , Candice Michelle , and Torrie Wilson to advance to the semi @-@ finals in a Women 's Championship Tournament . Maria , however , lost in the semi @-@ finals of the tournament to Lita .
On the January 1 , 2007 episode of Raw , Maria attempted to interview Kevin Federline , but was instead slapped by Melina and called a " bitch " . This led to a match between the two later that night , which Melina won . At New Year 's Revolution , Maria and Candice Michelle ran to the ring during the Women 's Championship match between Victoria and Mickie James to stop Melina from interfering , helping James retain the championship . For two consecutive weeks afterward , Maria had two tag team partners , Mickie James and Jeff Hardy , respectively , to take on Melina and a partner . She lost the match with James , but won the other with Hardy .
= = = = Relationship with Santino Marella ( 2007 – 2008 ) = = = =
Maria began an on @-@ screen romance with Santino Marella in June 2007 . She also resumed competing in the ring occasionally , often jobbing , or losing quickly , in short matches . On the November 5 episode of Raw , Marella was confronted by the returning Stone Cold Steve Austin for criticizing his movie , The Condemned . As a part of the storyline , the argument ended as Marella received a Stone Cold Stunner from Austin , who then went backstage , only to return with a Budweiser beer truck to hose down Marella and Maria with beer .
After former Playboy cover @-@ girl Ashley Massaro 's return in early 2008 , Kanellis engaged in backstage segments where Massaro suggested Maria should be on the cover of Playboy , including at the Royal Rumble , to the disdain of Marella . As a part of the storyline , Maria defeated Beth Phoenix on February 18 , to " earn the right " to be on the cover of the magazine . During her Playboy cover unveiling , Maria 's cover was plastered over with images of Marella . After Marella offered an ultimatum of posing for the magazine or staying with him as a couple , she stated , " No man and no one is going to make this decision for me " and broke up with her on @-@ screen boyfriend . Maria , along with Ashley , ( who had replaced an injured Candice Michelle ) were defeated by Phoenix and Melina at WrestleMania XXIV in a Playboy BunnyMania Lumberjill match . After the match , Maria passionately kissed the Master of Ceremonies , Snoop Dogg .
= = = = SmackDown ( 2008 – 2010 ) = = = =
As part of the 2008 WWE Supplemental Draft , Maria was drafted to the SmackDown brand . She made her debut on the August 1 episode of SmackDown by defeating Victoria . On the October 17 episode of SmackDown ! , Maria won a " Las Vegas Dice on a Pole " match to become the number one contender for the WWE Divas Championship , but lost a subsequent match for the title against then @-@ champion Michelle McCool .
Maria participated in the Raw Divas vs. Smackdown Divas match at Survivor Series , where she eliminated Jillian Hall , but her team ultimately lost the match . On the December 5 episode of SmackDown ! , Maria got an upset victory over the Divas Champion Michelle McCool , but she was defeated by Maryse in a number one contender 's match for the title two weeks later . At the Armageddon pay @-@ per @-@ view on December 14 , Maria teamed up with Kelly Kelly , Mickie James and McCool defeating Maryse , Jillian Hall , Victoria and Natalya in an Eight @-@ Diva Santa 's Little Helper tag team match . On the December 26 episode of SmackDown ! , she served as a special guest referee in the Divas Championship match between Maryse and McCool , where Maryse became the new champion . After the match , McCool turned heel and attacked Maria , injuring her shoulder . Maria returned and attacked McCool during a match , on the January 21 , 2009 , episode of SmackDown . On the February 10 episode of SmackDown , she defeated McCool following interference from Eve Torres . Over the next several weeks , Maria competed in various tag @-@ team matches against McCool , with Maria winning three out of four matches . She also competed at WrestleMania XXV for the " Miss WrestleMania " crown , but was eliminated by Victoria . Throughout June , Maria served as the special guest referee in Diva matches .
Maria made her in @-@ ring return on the July 3 episode of SmackDown , teaming with Melina to defeat LayCool ( Michelle McCool and Layla . Soon after , she entered into an on @-@ screen relationship with Dolph Ziggler , despite her being a fan favorite and him being a villainous character . At Night of Champions , Maria accompanied Ziggler to his match with Rey Mysterio for Intercontinental Championship . In the following weeks , Melina implied that Ziggler was cheating on Maria , which Maria did not believe . Maria and Ziggler later broke up on the October 10 episode of SmackDown in a backstage segment , after she cost him his match with John Morrison .
Maria then took a brief hiatus from the ring to film the Celebrity Apprentice , but returned on the December 4 episode of SmackDown by helping Mickie James fend off an attack by LayCool . She made her in @-@ ring return the following week , teaming up with James to defeat LayCool . On December 14 , Maria won the Slammy Award for Diva of the Year , which was voted for by WWE fans . On the February 12 , 2010 , episode of SmackDown , Maria began an on @-@ screen relationship with Matt Hardy . Her last match in WWE was a six @-@ person @-@ tag @-@ team match on the February 25 episode of WWE Superstars , where she , Hardy , and The Great Khali lost to The Hart Dynasty ( Tyson Kidd , David Hart Smith and Natalya Neidhart . Maria was released from her WWE contract on February 26 .
= = = Ring of Honor ( 2011 – 2015 ) = = =
Maria confirmed on her Twitter account that she would be appearing at Ring of Honor 's Final Battle pay @-@ per @-@ view on December 23 , 2011 . She accompanied her real @-@ life boyfriend , Mike Bennett , as a villainess , in a three @-@ way elimination match against Jay Lethal and El Generico for the ROH World Television Championship . At the event , Bennett was unsuccessful in winning the title . Kanellis continued accompanying Bennett at the January 7 , 2012 , tapings of Ring of Honor Wrestling , where she was dubbed the " First Lady of ROH " .
At the June 21 tapings of Ring of Honor Wrestling , Kanellis accompanied Bennett and Brutal Bob Evans to ring , where they lost to Eddie Edwards and Adam Cole . After the match , Kanellis , Bennett and Bob attacked Cole and Edwards , but were stopped by Sara Del Rey , who Edwards had brought in to neutralize Kanellis . At the Boiling Point pay @-@ per @-@ view on August 11 , Maria and Bennett lost to Del Rey and Edwards in an mixed tag team match . Kanellis ' storyline with Del Rey ended abruptly the following month , when Del Rey signed a contract with WWE . In September 2012 , Kanellis and Bennett became involved in a storyline with Mike Mondo after he kissed Kanellis during one of Bennett 's matches . Mondo continued to cost Bennett matches , until Glory by Honor in October , when Bennett defeated Mondo to end the feud . At the November 3 tapings of Ring of Honor Wrestling , Maria accompied Bennett to the ring where he unsuccessfully challenged Kevin Steen for the ROH World Heavyweight Championship . On December 16 at Final Battle 2012 : Doomsday pay @-@ per @-@ view , Kanellis along with Bob accompied Bennett to the ring where he defeated Jerry Lynn in his final ROH match before retirement . At the Border Wars pay @-@ per @-@ view on May 4 , 2013 , Kanellis accompied Bennett to the ring where he was defeated by Roderick Strong , despite Kanellis attempting to interfere on Bennett 's behalf . On September 19 , Maria and Bennett defeated The Brutal Burgers ( Brutal Bob Evans & Cheeseburger ) in a Intergender tag team match . On October 26 , during Bennett 's match with Kevin Steen at the Glory by Honor XII pay @-@ per @-@ view , Kanellis tried to interfere but was attacked by Lisa Marie Varon .
Kanellis and Bennett returned to ROH at the January 4 , 2014 , tapings of Ring of Honor Wrestling which aired on February 1 , with Kanellis helping Bennett defeat Cedric Alexander . Throughout the summer , Maria and Bennett would get involved in Matt Hardy 's feud with The Briscoes , which would result a tag team match at the Best in the World pay @-@ per @-@ view on June 22 , which Hardy and Bennett would lose despite Maria 's interference . During the feud , The Kingdom stole Jay Briscoe 's title ; Matt Hardy customized it as the Iconic Championship . At All Stars Extravaganza 6 , Bennett and Maria customized the title as the Championship of Love . They were interrupted by Jay Briscoe 's brother , Mark . Bennett and Kanellis left ROH after the December 19 , 2015 , Ring of Honor Wrestling taping , after failing to come to terms on a new contract with the promotion .
= = = Other promotions ( 2012 – 2015 ) = = =
On February 25 , 2012 , Maria won a tournament to determine the inaugural Family Wrestling Entertainment ( FWE ) Women 's Champion . The victory also marked Kanellis ' first championship in professional wrestling . She held the championship until March 24 , when she lost it to Winter in a three @-@ way match also involving Rosita . In July , Kanellis regained the championship from Winter . Kanellis successfully defended her title against Angelina Love at FWE : No Limits .
In September 2012 , Kanellis made her debut for Chikara , managing Mike Bennett and The Young Bucks to the finals of the 2012 King of Trios tournament . Alongside Gavin Loudspeaker , Kanellis hosted the 2014 National Pro Wrestling Day . On October 4 , 2014 , Maria lost the FWE Women 's Championship against Ivelisse Vélez
= = = New Japan Pro Wrestling ( 2015 ) = = =
On April 6 , 2015 , Kanellis managed Bennett and Matt Taven to capture New Japan Pro Wrestling 's IWGP Tag Team Championship at Invasion Attack 2015 . The following day , NJPW announced that , due to Kanellis ' popularity , the promotion had booked its first match involving female wrestlers since October 2002 , which would see Kanellis team up with Bennett and Taven to take on Amber Gallows , Doc Gallows and Karl Anderson at Wrestling Dontaku 2015 on May 3 . Kanellis pinned Amber to win the match . On July 5 at Dominion 7 @.@ 5 in Osaka @-@ jo Hall , Kanellis accompanied Bennett and Taven to their first IWGP Tag Team Championship defense against Doc Gallows and Karl Anderson . The Kingdom lost the match and the championship , after Doc Gallows superkicked Kanellis , which distracted Bennett , leaving Taven alone to lose the match .
= = = Total Nonstop Action Wrestling ( 2016 – present ) = = =
On January 5 , 2016 , during Impact Wrestling 's premiere on Pop TV , Maria made her debut as a heel introducing her husband as " The Miracle " Mike Bennett . In February , Maria started her first feud in the company , with Gail Kim , the then TNA Knockouts Champion , after the latter refused Maria 's help to make her go " mainstream " . On the April 19 episode of Impact Wrestling , Maria won a ladder match to become the new TNA Knockouts Division Commissioner .
= = Other media = =
In 2004 , she was a contestant on the reality show , Outback Jack . She made it to the final three before being eliminated .
During the week of November 5 , 2007 , she appeared on five episodes of Family Feud with several other WWE superstars . She also appeared on the February 6 , 2008 episode of Project Runway with some of the other WWE Divas . On August 17 , 2008 , Maria , Candice Michelle , and Eve Torres were on an episode of Sunset Tan . Kanellis later appeared on VH1 's Top 20 Video Countdown , along with John Cena . On December 17 , 2009 , she was a guest host on G4 's Attack of the Show . Kanellis began a new career as a mixed martial arts announcer for HDNet on March 26 , 2010 at the King of the Cage event in Reno , Nevada . Kanellis was also a contestant on the Celebrity Apprentice , which premiered in March 2010 . She was eliminated on the May 16 episode . She placed fifth out of fourteen contestants .
Kanellis was first asked to pose for Playboy when she was nineteen years old , but she turned down the offer in fear of embarrassing her sister . She eventually posed for the cover of the April 2008 issue , with an accompanying nude pictorial . For the pictorial , she chose her own wardrobe and made the black hooded jacket she wore in one of the photos . That same year , FHM named her 53rd of 100 on their " The Sexiest Women 2008 " list . With WWE transitioning to PG content a few months after Kanellis 's pictorial and Playboy itself announcing it would go non @-@ nude starting with the March 2016 issue , Kanellis was ultimately the last active WWE Diva to pose nude for the magazine .
Kanellis is also a singer and released her debut album Sevin Sins on April 13 , 2010 , with " Fantasy " as the first single .
In early 2011 , Kanellis starred in online comedy webshow Funny or Die , and in March 2011 she launched her own perfume line called Signature . In September 2011 , Kanellis launched her DVD line in conjunction with Code Red DVD called Maria 's B Movie Mayhem .
In January 2014 , Kanellis and Bennett launched a weekly podcast called Mike & Maria in Wonderland .
= = = Discography = = =
= = = = EPs = = = =
2010 : Sevin Sins
= = = Filmography = = =
= = Personal life = =
Kanellis previously dated fellow wrestler CM Punk between 2005 and 2007 , after the pair met during their tenures at OVW . In a December 2011 interview , Kanellis confirmed she was dating Mike Bennett , and they later got engaged . On October 10 , 2014 , Bennett and Kanellis got married . Following her wedding she became a step mother to Bennett 's son Austin .
In 2013 , Kanellis began working toward an associate degree in art at university .
= = In wrestling = =
Finishing moves
Beautiful Bulldog ( Running bulldog ) — 2006 — 2007 ; 2009 – present
Diving clothesline — 2008
Diving crossbody — 2008 — 2009 ; used as a signature thereafter
Signature moves
Bronco buster , with theatrics
Cartwheel evasion
Headscissors takedown
Enzuigiri
Monkey flip
Multiple pin variations
Inside cradle
Roll @-@ up
Schoolgirl
Sunset flip
Roundhouse kick
Seeing Stars ( Handstand calf kick )
Split – legged fist drop
Thesz press
Nicknames
" First Lady of ROH "
" The First Lady of ( Professional ) Wrestling "
Wrestlers managed
Santino Marella
Dolph Ziggler
Michael / Mike Bennett
Matt Taven
Adam Cole
Matt Hardy
The Young Bucks
Managers
Santino Marella
Candice Michelle
Trish Stratus
John Cena
Entrance themes
" Pa @-@ Pa @-@ Pa @-@ Pa @-@ Party " by Jim Johnston ( WWE ; 2005 – 2006 )
" With Legs Like That " by Zebrahead ( WWE ; 2006 – 2010 / FWE ; 2012 – 2014 )
" Sevin Sins " by Maria Kanellis ( FWE ; 2012 – 2014 )
" S.U.M. " by Avenue F ( ROH ; 2010 – 2014 )
" Something for You " by David Rolfe ( ROH ; 2014 ; used while part of The Kingdom )
" Something for You / Suffer Unto Me " by Avenue F & David Rolfe ( ROH ; 2014 – 2016 ; used while part of The Kingdom )
" Fire Guitar " by Fabio Codega ( NJPW ; April 5 , 2015 – December 9 , 2015 ; used while part of The Kingdom )
" Forever in My Dreams " by Thomas Bergersen and Nick Phenoix ( TNA ; January 5 , 2016 – present )
= = Championships and accomplishments = =
Family Wrestling Entertainment
FWE Women 's Championship ( 2 times )
Pro Wrestling Illustrated
PWI ranked her No. 21 of the top 50 female wrestlers in the PWI Female 50 in 2008
World Wrestling Entertainment
Slammy Award for Diva of the Year ( 2009 )
|
= Nepotism ( The Office ) =
" Nepotism " is the seventh season premiere of the American comedy television series The Office and the show 's 127th episode overall . Written by Daniel Chun and directed by Jeffrey Blitz , the episode aired on NBC in the United States on September 23 , 2010 . The episode guest stars Kathy Bates as Jo Bennett , Evan Peters as Luke Cooper , and Hugh Dane as Hank .
The series depicts the everyday lives of office employees in the Scranton , Pennsylvania branch of the fictional Dunder Mifflin Paper Company . In the episode , the office turns against Michael Scott when he refuses to fire the new office assistant , Luke ( Peters ) , who has a terrible attitude and happens to be Michael 's nephew . Meanwhile , after accidentally ruining one of Jim Halpert 's ( John Krasinski ) pranks , Pam Halpert ( Jenna Fischer ) tries to prank Dwight Schrute ( Rainn Wilson ) in return .
" Nepotism " received generally positive reviews from television critics ; many commented upon the episode 's opening lip dub , although some noted it did not advance any story arcs . According to Nielsen ratings , the episode was watched by 8 @.@ 40 million viewers , a slight increase from the sixth season premiere , " Gossip " , and it finished second in its timeslot .
= = Synopsis = =
The office returns from summer with a new office assistant , Luke ( Evan Peters ) . However , it soon becomes clear that he only goofs off , deliberately messes up food and coffee runs , and has a poor attitude that leads everyone to openly despise him . When Michael ( Steve Carell ) steps up to defend him , it is revealed that Luke is Michael 's nephew , whom Michael hired in hope that it will end the estrangement between him and his half sister , Luke 's mother . The office demands Michael get rid of Luke , but he refuses . Later on in the day , the office employees discover the trunk of Luke 's car is filled with packages from the office that he neglected to send ( along with Michael 's rejected pants from Talbot 's ) . Since Luke is now costing the office customers , Gabe ( Zach Woods ) sends a heads @-@ up on the situation to CEO Jo Bennett ( Kathy Bates ) , who sternly tells Michael to deal with the situation . During a meeting Luke continues to rebel and act out , so Michael spanks him in front of the entire office , leaving Luke to quit and run away crying and the rest of them satisfied . Gabe assigns Michael six hours of counseling with Toby ( Paul Lieberstein ) after his ' physical assault ' of a fellow employee ; Michael is aghast at having to sit down with his archenemy , but under company policies the only alternative is termination .
Meanwhile , the rest of the office tells the camera crew what they 've been doing over the summer . Erin ( Ellie Kemper ) started dating Gabe , and Andy ( Ed Helms ) tries to play it cool by using his anger management techniques . Kelly attended a corporate training class as part of the " Print in All Colors " initiative for Sabre , and is trying to impress everyone by dressing up and ' sounding smarter ' . Dwight ( Rainn Wilson ) bought the industrial park building , and Jim ( John Krasinski ) begins a lengthy prank to overload Dwight 's key ring with fake keys . Seeing Jim adding on keys , Pam ( Jenna Fischer ) instinctively laughs , alerting Dwight to Jim 's prank . Though Jim tries to take it gracefully , Pam senses that he is mad at her for spoiling the prank , so she tries to make it up to him by devising a prank of her own . She enlists Kevin to rewire the elevator so the buttons all do different things . To her dismay , Kevin 's alterations to the elevator 's ' circus board ' result in Pam and Dwight getting trapped in the elevator together . In the end the backfired prank does impress Jim .
= = Production = =
" Nepotism " was written by Daniel Chun and directed by Jeffrey Blitz , both of whom had worked on several previous episodes of The Office as writer and director , respectively . It was the seventh season premiere , and the first new episode to be broadcast since Steve Carell publicly announced he would depart from The Office by the end of the seventh season . At the time that " Nepotism " was filmed , the writers and producers had not yet determined who would replace Michael Scott as the office 's manager , nor whether that character would be the primary protagonist of the show . " Nepotism " features Kathy Bates , Hugh Dane and Evan Peters in guest appearances as Jo Bennet , Hank Tate and Luke Cooper , respectively . It was also the first episode to feature Zach Woods as a regular cast member , although he had previously guest starred as Gabe Lewis in several sixth season episodes . " Nepotism " featured an updated opening credits sequence which more strongly highlighted the entire supporting cast , rather than just the main characters .
The official website for The Office included three cut scenes from " Nepotism " within a week of its original release . In the first clip , Toby reveals that he self @-@ published his murder mystery novel and sold four copies , but is now being sued for plagiarism , while Kevin interviews that he 's decided to deliberately lie all the time about everything . In the second clip , which is one minute and 17 seconds , Michael attempts to instruct Luke on how to use the photocopier . In the final clip , Dwight inquires about buying a robot .
= = Cultural references = =
During the cold open , the cast performs a lip dub to " Nobody but Me " , performed by The Human Beinz , with the intention of placing the video on the Internet . This refers to an Internet meme trend that started with a 2009 YouTube video released by students of the Université du Québec à Montréal , in which hundreds of students lip @-@ synched The Black Eyed Peas song " I Gotta Feeling " in one continuous take .
After pranking Dwight , Pam declares herself the " Bart Simpson of Scranton " , a reference to the mischievous protagonist from the animated comedy series The Simpsons . Creed indicates he follows Luke on the social @-@ networking website Twitter specifically because Luke does not write about the actress Betty White , who was particularly popular at the time the episode aired . The same day " Nepotism " was broadcast , White appeared in the second @-@ season premiere of Community , another comedy series on NBC .
Michael claims that during his summer he caught the West Nile virus , an illness commonly transported by mosquito bite . He also claims to have watched Inception , a Christopher Nolan @-@ directed science fiction film that was critically and commercial successful in the summer of 2010 . Michael alludes , however , that he may have only dreamed about watching the film , a reference to the ambiguity surrounding the movie 's plot about extracting information from dreams . In one scene , Darryl explains he blew out his knee playing softball over the summer and watched a great deal of the cable news network CNN , which led him to develop grave concerns about the ongoing War in Afghanistan . Luke declares himself a lover of cinema and says his favorite films are Citizen Kane , a classic 1941 film by Orson Welles , and The Boondock Saints , a 1999 crime thriller film . When Jim comments on the outrageous number of keys on Dwight 's keyring , Dwight responds by saying , " The bigger the keychain , the more powerful the man " , which Jim recognizes as a quote by the janitor from the show Scrubs . While trying to recall the last time he saw Luke , Michael remembers it was the release year of Ace Ventura : When Nature Calls ( 1995 ) , a comedy film starring Jim Carrey . Michael has Luke pick up pants for him from Talbots , a retail store that specializes in women 's clothing and accessories ; this also serves as a callback to the Season 3 episode " The Negotiation " , where Michael accidentally bought and then wore a women 's pantsuit produced by a clothing brand called MISSterious . While reflecting on how difficult it is to work with family , he wonders aloud how the Ringling brothers have managed the Ringling Bros. and Barnum & Bailey Circus for so many years . He also claims that mixing family and business is a beautiful thing by illustrating what a bad idea it would have been to have open auditions for the band Hanson . Throughout the episode , Dwight wears a CamelBak , a hydration backpack from which the wearer drinks water through a hose .
= = Reception = =
" Nepotism " first aired on September 23 , 2010 . In its original American broadcast , it was viewed by an estimated 8 @.@ 40 million viewers with a 4 @.@ 4 rating / 11 % share in the 18 – 49 demographic coming second in its time slot and improving its rating by 1 @.@ 80 million viewers from last season 's finale .
The Atlantic writer Suzanne Merkelson praised the episode , and felt the opening lip @-@ syncing scene highlighted the talents of the entire cast . However , she said the subplots were not as strong as the main story involving Michael , which underscored the challenge writers would have in maintaining The Office after Steve Carell 's departure . The A.V. Club writer Myles McNutt , who said he was critical of the sixth season , said " Nepotism " was effective both in its main storyline involving Michael and Luke , and its B story involving Pam pulling a prank on Dwight . Although slightly disappointed that the episode did not allude to Michael 's eventual replacement , McNutt said " Nepotism " demonstrated The Office would continue to be the same show even without Carell . Aishini Thiyagarajan of The Cornell Daily Sun highly praised the episode , claiming it highlighted the best traits of all the characters . She especially praised the cold open and the ending scene with Michael spanking Luke . Phoebe Reilly of New York magazine said the episode lacked any poor points , and said it established the season as one of " a mix of high jinks and heart " . Rick Porter of Zap2it described " Nepotism " as " an old @-@ school episode " with a strong main story and subplot , and praised Kelly 's new attitude following her executive training . His only criticism was that Dwight seemed too over @-@ the @-@ top , particularly while wielding a knife during the cold open lip dub .
Kevin Fitzpatrick of UGO Networks said that this was a good episode , but not an especially important one which failed to advance any ongoing story lines . Although he called scenes like Michael spanking Luke and his defense of Luke during the meeting as " classic Scott " , Fitzpatrick also said the episode does little to start establishing a proper send @-@ off for the character 's final season . Time magazine television critic James Poniewozik called it " a fine but unremarkable , meat @-@ and @-@ potatoes Office about a Michael screw @-@ up " , which made him question whether the show could continue after Carell left . Although he complimented individual moments , Poniewozik called the cold open a " self @-@ congratulatory , awkward ( and ) unearned curtain call " . Joel Keller of TV Squad praised the cold open , but felt the rest of the episode was extremely disappointing . Keller said few of the characters ' stories about how they spent their summers stood out , and said Michael 's spanking of Luke was awkward and unfunny . Brooklynne Kelly Peters of Blast magazine said the episode started strong with the lip synching cold open , but that the rest of the episode was not as funny as the series often is , describing it as " mundane hilarity " .
The spanking scene , with Michael Scott 's shouts of , " You are going to learn to be more professional ! That is what you are going to do ! " has become a popular soundbite on The Dennis Prager Show whenever the radio show 's production crew makes a mistake .
|
= Windosill =
Windosill is a 2009 puzzle video game by Vectorpark for Microsoft Windows , OS X , Linux , web browsers , and iOS . The player advances through eleven rooms through interacting with each level 's environmental objects . It was developed by artist Patrick Smith , who taught himself to animate and program the game in Adobe Flash . He was inspired by a variety of painters and artists . The game was first released for Windows , OS X , and web browsers in 2009 , and was later ported to the iPad in 2011 with several added features .
The game received " universal acclaim " , according to video game review score aggregator Metacritic . Reviewers noted the game 's especially short duration , memorability , art style , and emphasis on exploration over problem solving . Windosill has influenced games including Alto 's Adventure , Blek , Donut County , and Monument Valley .
= = Gameplay = =
In Windosill , the player solves logic puzzles to progress through eleven successive rooms . Everything on @-@ screen is interactive . The player experiments with the environmental objects in each room to find a hidden cube , which unlocks the door to the next level , through which the player guides a toy car . Responsive objects in each room include light switches , piles of leaves , clocks , " a squishy thing with an eye on top " , a building that grows legs when spun , a box that grows hair when touched , and a smokestack that can be squeezed to make clouds . Interactions with these objects reveal subsequent objects and possible interactions .
= = Development = =
Patrick Smith , a Brooklyn @-@ based artist , drew , animated , and programmed Windosill by himself for Microsoft Windows , OS X , Linux , web browser , and iPad ( iOS ) platforms . His collection of interactive animations and games , which he began around 2001 , are released under the name " Vectorpark " . Although Edge previously covered and praised Smith 's prior work , they wrote that he " is notable for never having made the jump to the mainstream " .
Smith first sketched Windosill level ideas in pencil , and transferred his favorites into Adobe Illustrator , where he added detail , " shapes and colors " . He then animated and programmed the scenes in Adobe Flash , and incorporated sounds from Freesound . While Smith studied painting at Washington University , he learned to animate and program on his own . He developed his own 3D and physics code instead of using existing software libraries , as he prefers to use code he fully understands . When Smith built the game , he considered the " aesthetic and functional aspects holistically " . Smith 's main inspirations when creating Windosill were mainly artists and not games : surrealists René Magritte and Joan Miró , metaphysical painter Giorgio de Chirico , animators Max and Dave Fleischer of Fleischer Studios , cartoonists Chris Ware and Jim Woodring , sculptor Alexander Calder , and Italian Renaissance painters Paolo Uccello and Piero della Francesca . Smith credits the latter painters for his use of flat shapes as 3D forms . Windosill was not designed for a specific audience — in fact , Smith designed them for his own enjoyment — but he noted that its " toy @-@ like " qualities and emphasis on discovery were intentional .
Windosill was originally released in 2009 as a downloadable Flash game for Microsoft Windows and OS X. In this version , the first half of Windosill 's was free @-@ to @-@ play and its second half could be unlocked with payment . Smith was satisfied with its sales , but said " it will take a long time to fund itself " . An iOS ( iPad @-@ only ) port was released on December 15 , 2011 , and added two features : Complex Gravity ( which adds " tilt controls " ) and See @-@ Thru ( which makes the room 's elements transparent ) . It also includes a 20 @-@ piece collection of concept art . The game was included in the April 2012 Amanita Design Humble Bundle .
= = Reception = =
The game received " universal acclaim " , according to video game review score aggregator Metacritic . Reviewers noted the game 's especially short duration , memorability , and emphasis on exploration over problem solving . Multiple reviewers praised the game 's art style . Nissa Campbell of TouchArcade described the style as " surreal " , and Tim Rattray of Slide to Play wrote that Windosill is " serious " in its attempt to " be ' art ' " . Critics described Windosill as not just a game but " a toy " in itself . GameSetWatch selected the game for their " Best of Indie Games " the week of May 2 , 2009 .
Campbell of TouchArcade wrote that the iOS port was " always meant to be " due to the tactility of the game 's puzzles . Campbell added that iOS multitouch changed how players could interact with the puzzles , though it did not change any of the solutions . The reviewer wrote that the controls were intuitive and designed for experimenting , as there is no tutorial . Kirk Hamilton of Kotaku similarly wrote that the game helped him remember " how wonderfully tactile the iPad can be " .
Rattray of Slide to Play described Windosill as " an interactive abstract mosaic " and " absolute thrill ride " . He described the puzzle design and production value as " brilliant " , and praised the " fitting " sound effects , " smooth " controls , and " perfect " frame rate . 148Apps 's Dan Lee also called the puzzles " brilliant " , and described them as " so abstract " as to require unconventional thinking . Anthony Burch of Destructoid added that the puzzles were designed such that players would not become " frustrated or bored " . Lee and Rattray said there was little reason to return to the game after playing through , apart from a few minutes to experiment with the added iOS features . While Lee considered this a " niggle " , Rattray praised its brevity .
Windosill has influenced games including Alto 's Adventure , Blek , Donut County , and Monument Valley . Smith later made the 2015 interactive alphabet game Metamorphabet .
|
= Clint Grant =
Donald Clinton " Clint " Grant ( August 17 , 1916 – April 21 , 2010 ) was an American photographer and photojournalist based in Dallas , Texas . He was a staff photographer with The Dallas Morning News from 1949 to 1986 . He was particularly known for his " humorous and touching " images of animals and children . Grant 's photographs were published in numerous newspapers and magazines , including Paris Match , Newsweek and Time ; five of his feature photos were published on the back page of issues of Life magazine .
Grant was on assignment in November 1963 to cover President John F. Kennedy 's trip from Washington , D.C. , to Dallas . One of his photographs made the front page of the November 22 edition of the Morning News ; a copy is believed to be the last thing Kennedy ever signed . Grant also would make several pictures at Parkland Memorial Hospital within minutes after Kennedy 's motorcade arrived following the shooting in Dealey Plaza .
Grant was the recipient of multiple photojournalism awards during his career , including the Medallion for Excellence in Photojournalism . He retired from The Dallas Morning News in 1986 , but continued working in a semi @-@ retired capacity for more than a decade thereafter . He died in Dallas of heart failure at age 93 .
= = Early life = =
Clint Grant was born in Nashville , Tennessee . During his time at Vanderbilt University , economic troubles brought on by the Great Depression forced Grant 's family to move from Nashville ; they settled in Dallas , Texas , where his father was asked to lead the Art Department at the Morning News . Grant got a job with the Photo Department , but he was drafted into the United States Army before he could report to work . Grant served during World War II in Europe , where he never used a camera .
Grant married Myrtis Ann Halliburton in 1939 after a brief courtship ; they had known each other for ten months before they walked down the aisle . When they met , he worked behind the dairy counter at the local A & P market where she was a customer .
= = Photography and photojournalism = =
When Grant returned from overseas to Dallas in 1945 , all Morning News staff photographers resumed their duties , leaving him without a job . He ran a photography studio until 1949 , when a position at the newspaper became available .
During his early years with the News , Grant was one of up to ten staff photographers , including Jack Beers , Tom Dillard , Doris Jacoby and Joe Laird . He gained a reputation as a " kind and generous " mentor while with the newspaper , accompanying many young photographers on their early assignments ; one such staffer later recalled that whenever the Morning News needed a feature photograph , they would send " the trusty Clint Grant " to the zoo to work with an animal . His editor said Grant 's knack for putting both people and animals at ease for photographs came largely because he " had the patience of Job . "
Grant 's work also accompanied sports stories . A photograph of a boxing fan and a fallen fighter was named one of the best sports pictures of 1956 .
Grant taught classes in photography in the 1950s and ' 60s at North Texas University , where he served on the journalism advisory board . He was also the official photographer for the Dallas Zoo and the State Fair of Texas .
In an interview , Grant said he had his own tricks for making photos , especially of unwilling subjects at the sites of news stories . He would pre @-@ focus , pretend to not aim the camera , and " shoot from the hip . " He believed that any good photojournalist should have the skills necessary to do the job without needing to use the viewfinder .
One of Grant 's photos was blown up to eight feet and displayed for one year in Grand Central Terminal in New York . He also photographed the culinary creations of some of the best chefs in Dallas , who all knew Grant and respected his work . A menu item at the Casa Dominguez restaurant in Dallas was named for Grant .
Two collections of Grant 's work have been published : Moments from Life : An Exhibition of Photographs from the Grant Estate in 2000 , and 50 Years of the Best Photos of Clint Grant in 2001 . Moments from Life was published to accompany a traveling exhibit of 55 of Grant 's images . One of his photographs was included in Humor in News Photography , a collection published in 1961 . Grant was assigned to photograph some new cars and laid his hat atop one of the taillights ; the resulting image resembled " a Halloween spook , a Martian or the pilot of a satellite . " A Grant picture published by Life magazine was included in its 1988 compilation Life Smiles Back .
In addition to his feature photographs , Grant was known for his work accompanying hard news stories . Grant photographed every U.S. president and vice president starting with Harry S. Truman and through the administration of George H. W. Bush . He was present for the 1961 funeral for three @-@ time House Speaker Sam Rayburn , where he captured former Presidents Truman and Dwight D. Eisenhower , President Kennedy , House Parliamentarian Clarence Cannon , and Vice President Lyndon B. Johnson standing together .
= = = John F. Kennedy = = =
= = = = Dallas , 1960 = = = =
John F. Kennedy and his running mate , Lyndon B. Johnson , were close to securing their spots on the Democrats ' ticket when they took a two @-@ day swing through the Dallas – Fort Worth area in September 1960 . Landing at Meacham Airport , the candidates rode in a motorcade through Dallas to the Chance Vought Aircraft factory , where Kennedy made an address . Clint Grant accompanied Kennedy and Johnson , making numerous photographs of the trip ; the pictures were developed , but kept in storage until their publication in 2013 .
= = = = Dallas , 1963 = = = =
Several days before President Kennedy made his November flight to Texas , Grant had been assigned to cover the state 's delegation in Washington , D.C. , then fly back with the White House press corps ; he was the only photographer to make the trip . At Dallas Love Field , Grant made the only published photograph from that visit of the president and Jacqueline Kennedy , Lyndon Johnson and Lady Bird Johnson , and Texas Governor John Connally and Nellie Connally , all in the same image . Another of Grant 's photos , from San Antonio 's Aerospace Medicine Center , was published on the front page of the Dallas Morning News on November 22 ; a copy was signed that morning by President Kennedy — across the photo , " To Jan White " — and is believed to be the last item he signed before he climbed aboard the presidential limousine for his intended trip to the Dallas Trade Mart .
Grant tried to find a seat in the third camera car in the motorcade — the one reserved for local photographers — but it was full ; he was then given a spot in the second camera car . Too far back to capture the shooting in Dealey Plaza , Grant 's car had just turned onto Houston Street from Main Street " when we heard one shot — pause — two shots in rapid succession . " Thinking someone was playing a prank , he gave it no further thought until he saw bystanders " prone on the ground " along Elm Street , where he made a photograph from the moving camera car of Bill and Gayle Newman lying atop their children on the grass .
Afterward , Grant suggested to his colleagues that they should catch up with the presidential limousine . Since he was the only Dallas @-@ based member of the press in camera car two , Grant directed his driver to the Trade Mart , where they saw " no cars , no activity " . A worker across the street said he saw a limousine speed past , accompanied by motorcycles with their sirens blaring ; Grant knew immediately that they were headed to Parkland Memorial Hospital . Once at Parkland , Grant started snapping pictures of anything he could , including Vice President Johnson 's car , and a man and a police officer " delivering a box thought to contain blood plasma . "
Grant later covered the trial of Jack Ruby . On the day the verdict was read , he believed his assignment was to photograph the jurors , but they " were too well shielded " .
Twenty @-@ five years after the assassination , Grant wrote that the events didn 't really sink in until after he 'd finished his work that day . " Then I was stunned , disappointed and embarrassed that it had happened — especially in my home town . I felt like crawling under a log . Although I wasn 't a great admirer , he was my President and I have great respect for whoever holds the office . "
= = = = Reporters ' panel , 1993 = = = =
Grant took part in " Reporters Remember 11 @-@ 22 @-@ 63 " at Southern Methodist University in Dallas in November 1993 . The panel discussion , broadcast on C @-@ SPAN as Journalists Remember the JFK Assassination , featured members of the press who spoke of their experiences on the day 30 years earlier that Kennedy was killed . From the dais , Grant recalled having asked his boss if he should go back to Washington , D.C. , with Kennedy 's body and being told no . Grant said he returned to Love Field to retrieve his luggage ahead of a planned visit to Vice President Johnson 's ranch nearby ; just as he reached the planes he saw Judge Sarah T. Hughes leaving Air Force One . " I 'd just missed her swearing in the new president . "
= = Later life and death = =
Grant retired his position with The Dallas Morning News in 1986 ; he stayed on in a semi @-@ retired capacity until 1997 . Five years later , Grant was awarded an honorary degree from Knox College in Illinois , which congratulated Grant for " more than 100 state , regional and national honors for photojournalism " . Associate Professor of Art Lynette Lombard lauded Grant for his body of work starting in 1963 and , in particular , his pictures " of world leaders , of children and of everyday life . " In her address , Lombard said , " Clint Grant 's work for the Dallas Morning News made him one of this country 's most important photojournalists . Through his photography , he has helped establish photojournalism as one of our most important forms of documentation of the public record " .
Clint Grant died of heart failure in his Dallas home in 2010 . Myrtis Grant , his wife of nearly 71 years , died in Dallas six months later .
|
= Battle of Machias ( 1777 ) =
The Battle of Machias ( August 13 – 14 , 1777 ) was an amphibious assault on the Massachusetts town of Machias ( in present @-@ day eastern Maine ) by British forces during the American Revolutionary War . Local militia aided by Indian allies successfully prevented British troops from landing . The raid , led by Commodore Sir George Collier was executed in an attempt to head off a planned second assault on Fort Cumberland , which had been besieged in November 1776 . The British forces landed below Machias , seized a ship , and raided a storehouse .
The outcome of the raid was disputed . Collier claimed that the action was successful in destroying military stores for an attack on Fort Cumberland ( although such stores had not been delivered to Machias ) , while the defenders claimed that they had successfully prevented the capture of Machias and driven off the British .
= = Background = =
The small community of Machias , located in the eastern district of Massachusetts that is now the state of Maine , was a persistent thorn in the side of British naval authorities since the start of the American Revolutionary War . In June 1775 its citizens rose up and seized a small naval vessel , and the community had ever since been a base for privateering .
In 1777 John Allan , an expatriate Nova Scotian , was authorized by the Second Continental Congress to organize an expedition to establish a Patriot presence in the western part of Nova Scotia ( present @-@ day New Brunswick ) . Although Congress authorized him to recruit as many as 3 @,@ 000 men , the Massachusetts government was only prepared to give him a colonel 's commission and authority to raise a regiment in eastern Massachusetts to establish a presence in the St. John River valley . Allan based his effort in Machias , and had by June landed some 40 men in the area . However , British authorities in Halifax had received some intelligence of Allan 's intended mission , and a larger British force arrived at the St. John River on June 23 . Men Allan had left at the settlements near the mouth of the river skirmished with the British but then withdrew upriver . Allan was forced to make a difficult overland journey back to Machias after his small force retreated up the river . He was joined on this journey by a number of sympathetic Maliseet Indians that he had persuaded to join the American cause . In early August the Massachusetts Provisional Congress voted to disband forces recruited for Allan 's expedition , because of the imminent threat posed by the army of General John Burgoyne in upstate New York .
Papers documenting Allan 's fairly elaborate plans , including a projected attack on Fort Cumberland , were taken during the action on the St. John River , and fell into the hands of Captain Sir George Collier , second in command to Admiral Mariot Arbuthnot in the naval station at Halifax . This spurred Collier to act , since there had already been one attempt on Fort Cumberland the previous year . He therefore organized an assault on Machias , Allan 's base of operations and the source of many of his recruits . Because Collier and the commander of land forces at Halifax , General Eyre Massey , did not get along , Collier decided to launch the expedition without taking on any British Army troops . He sailed from Halifax in late July in the frigate HMS Rainbow , accompanied by the brig HMS Blonde , planning to use the marines aboard those ships in ground operations . He was joined by the frigate HMS Mermaid and the sloop HMS Hope while making the passage to Machias .
The defense of Machias consisted of local militia under the command of Colonel Jonathan Eddy , the leader of the 1776 attack on Fort Cumberland . He had been warned that the British were organizing an attack . The militia laid a log boom across the Machias River , and constructed several earthen redoubts further upriver , armed with cannons taken from local privateers . The defense was coincidentally reinforced by 40 to 50 Maliseet , Passamaquoddy , and Penobscots that Colonel Allan had called to Machias to explain what had gone wrong with his expedition .
= = Battle = =
After leaving Halifax , Nova Scotia , Collier 's fleet arrived at the mouth of the river early on August 13 . He boarded 123 marines onto the Hope , and ordered her and the Blonde up the river . Word of this reached the militia , and 35 men mustered to oppose them . The ships reached the log boom , and a firefight began between the two forces . The militia resistance was sufficient to keep the British from attempting a landing that day . Early the next morning , under the cover of fog , the marines were landed . They cut the log boom , seized a sloop carrying lumber , and set fire to a storehouse , seizing stores of flour , rice , corn , shoes , and ammunition before returning to the ships .
The two ships then moved further up the river until they reached the town itself . All along the way they were harassed by musket and cannon fire from the shore , as the militia and their Indian allies positioned themselves to dispute possible landing sites . When darkness set in the Indians reportedly began chanting and shouting in an attempt to magnify their numbers . At this point , " To the great Surprise and Astonishment of every one [ , ] in Less than half an Hour after Coming to an Anchor , the Brig & Sloop Both Gote under way without firing a Gun " and " made down the River against the Tide of flood . " The Hope , however , ran aground while making its way downstream in the twilight . The militia hauled a swivel gun to a nearby shore , and peppered her with shot the next morning before she was refloated by the tide and made her way into Machias Bay .
= = Aftermath = =
Colonel Allan ascribed the militia 's success to British concerns that they might be entering a trap . He also grandiosely likened the encounter to another battle , writing " not an Action during the War Except Bunker Hill there was such a slaughter " . American estimates of British casualties ran from 40 to 100 , while claiming their own casualties at one killed and one wounded . The British reported their losses as three killed and 18 wounded , which were mainly incurred when the Hope grounded .
After departing from Machias , Collier cruised the Maine coast , capturing smaller American ships , and raided communities on the Sheepscot River . There he captured a frigate laden with mast timbers destined for France . In his report Collier declared the mission a success , and claimed to have successfully forestalled another invasion of Nova Scotia . He also believed that with another 100 men " the destruction [ of Machias ] would have been compleat " . General Massey , whose troops had been preparing to participate in the expedition but were excluded by Collier 's abrupt departure from Halifax , wrote that Collier " wanted the whole honour of destroying Machias " , and that he " stole out of Halifax , made a futile attack on Machias , was most shamefully drove from thence ... "
Machias was not attacked again during the war , although it became somewhat isolated when the British occupied Castine in 1779 , establishing the colony New Ireland . Collier returned to successfully defend New Ireland from the American patriot Penobscot Expedition . ( Machias and other parts of eastern Maine were successfully occupied by British forces during the War of 1812 , again the British created the colony New Ireland , but were returned to United States control after the war . )
|
= Insect wing =
Insect wings are adult outgrowths of the insect exoskeleton that enable insects to fly . They are found on the second and third thoracic segments ( the mesothorax and metathorax ) , and the two pairs are often referred to as the forewings and hindwings , respectively , though a few insects lack hindwings , even rudiments . The wings are strengthened by a number of longitudinal veins , which often have cross @-@ connections that form closed " cells " in the membrane ( extreme examples include Odonata and Neuroptera ) . The patterns resulting from the fusion and cross @-@ connection of the wing veins are often diagnostic for different evolutionary lineages and can be used for identification to the family or even genus level in many orders of insects .
The physical dynamics of flight are composed of direct and indirect flight . Those species that employ direct flight have wing muscles directly attached to the wing base , so that a small downward movement of the wing base lifts the wing itself upward . However , insects with indirect flight have muscles that attach to the thorax and deform it ; since the wings are extensions of the thoracic exoskeleton , the deformations of the thorax cause the wings to move as well .
The wings may be present in only one sex ( often the male ) in some groups such as velvet ants and Strepsiptera , or selectively lost in " workers " of social insects such as ants and termites . Rarely , the female is winged but the male not , as in fig wasps . In some cases , wings are produced only at particular times in the life cycle , such as in the dispersal phase of aphids . Beyond the mere presence / absence of wings , the structure and colouration will often vary with morphs , such as in the aphids , migratory phases of locusts and in polymorphic butterflies .
At rest , the wings may be held flat , or folded a number of times along specific patterns ; most typically , it is the hindwings which are folded , but in a very few groups such as vespid wasps , it is the forewings . How and why insect wings evolved is not well understood . Three main theories on the origins of insect flight are that wings developed from paranotal lobes , extensions of the thoracic terga ; that they are modifications of movable abdominal gills as found on aquatic naiads of mayflies ; and that insect wings arose from the fusion of pre @-@ existing endite and exite structures each with pre @-@ existing articulation and tracheation .
= = Morphology = =
= = = Internal = = =
Each of the wings consists of a thin membrane supported by a system of veins . The membrane is formed by two layers of integument closely apposed , while the veins are formed where the two layers remain separate and the lower cuticle may be thicker and more heavily sclerotized . Within each of the major veins there is a nerve and a trachea , and , since the cavities of the veins are connected with the hemocoel , hemolymph can flow into the wings . Also veins are the wing 's lumen , being an extension of the hemocoel , which contains the tracheae , nerves , and hemolymph . As the wing develops , the dorsal and ventral integumental layers become closely apposed over most of their area forming the wing membrane . The remaining areas form channels , the future veins , in which the nerves and tracheae may occur . The cuticle surrounding the veins becomes thickened and more heavily sclerotized to provide strength and rigidity to the wing . Two types of hair may occur on the wings : microtrichia , which are small and irregularly scattered , and macrotrichia , which are larger , socketed , and may be restricted to veins . The scales of Lepidoptera and Trichoptera are highly modified macrotrichia .
= = = Venation = = =
In some very small insects , the venation may be greatly reduced . In Chalcidoidea ( Chalcid wasps ) , for instance , only the subcosta and part of the radius are present . Conversely , an increase in venation may occur by the branching of existing veins to produce accessory veins or by the development of additional , intercalary veins between the original ones , as in the wings of Orthoptera ( grasshoppers and crickets ) . Large numbers of cross @-@ veins are present in some insects , and they may form a reticulum as in the wings of Odonata ( dragonflies and damselflies ) and at the base of the forewings of Tettigonioidea and Acridoidea ( katydids and grasshoppers respectively ) .
The archedictyon is the name given to a hypothetical scheme of wing venation proposed for the very first winged insect . It is based on a combination of speculation and fossil data . Since all winged insects are believed to have evolved from a common ancestor , the archediction represents the " template " that has been modified ( and streamlined ) by natural selection for 200 million years . According to current dogma , the archedictyon contained 6 – 8 longitudinal veins . These veins ( and their branches ) are named according to a system devised by John Comstock and George Needham — the Comstock @-@ Needham System :
Costa ( C ) – the leading edge of the wing
Subcosta ( Sc ) – second longitudinal vein ( behind the costa ) , typically unbranched
Radius ( R ) – third longitudinal vein , one to five branches reach the wing margin
Media ( M ) – fourth longitudinal vein , one to four branches reach the wing margin
Cubitus ( Cu ) – fifth longitudinal vein , one to three branches reach the wing margin
Anal veins ( A1 , A2 , A3 ) – unbranched veins behind the cubitus
The costa ( C ) is the leading marginal vein on most insects , although sometimes there is a small vein above the costa called the precosta , although in almost all extant insects , the precosta is fused with the costa ; The costa rarely ever branches because is at the leading edge , which is associated at its base with the humeral plate . The trachea of the costal vein is perhaps a branch of the subcostal trachea . Located after the costa is the third vein , the subcosta , which branches into two separate veins : the anterior and posterior . The base of the subcosta is associated with the distal end of the neck of the first axillary ( see section below ) . The fourth vein is the radius ( R ) , which is branched into five separate veins . The radius is generally the strongest vein of the wing . Toward the middle of the wing , it forks into a first undivided branch ( R1 ) and a second branch , called the radial sector ( Ra ) , which subdivides dichotomously into four distal branches ( R2 , R3 , R4 , R5 ) . Basally , the radius is flexibly united with the anterior end of the second axillary ( 2Ax ) .
The fifth vein of the wing is the media . In the archetype pattern ( A ) , the media forks into two main branches : a media anterior ( MA ) , which divides into two distal branches ( MA1 , MA2 ) , and a median sector , or media posterior ( MP ) , which has four terminal branches ( M1 , M2 , M3 , M4 ) . In most modern insects the media anterior has been lost , and the usual " media " is the four @-@ branched media posterior with the common basal stem . In the Ephemerida , according to present interpretations of the wing venation , both branches of the media are retained , while in Odonata the persisting media is the primitive anterior branch . The stem of the media is often united with the radius , but when it occurs as a distinct vein its base is associated with the distal median plate ( m ' ) or is continuously sclerotized with the latter . The cubitus , the sixth vein of the wing , is primarily two branched . The primary forking of the takes place near the base of the wing , forming the two principal branches ( Cu1 , Cu2 ) . The anterior branch may break up into a number of secondary branches , but commonly it forks into two distal branches . The second branch of the cubitus ( Cu2 ) in Hymenoptera , Trichoptera , and Lepidoptera was mistaken by Comstock and Needham for the first anal . Proximally the main stem of the cubitus is associated with the distal median plate ( m ' ) of the wing base .
Postcubitus ( Pcu ) is the first anal of the Comstock and Needham system . The Postcubitus , however , has the status of an independent wing vein and should be recognized as such . In nymphal wings , its trachea arises between the cubital trachea and the group of vannal tracheae . In the mature wings of more generalized insect the Postcubitus is always associated proximally with the cubitus and is never intimately connected with the flexor sclerite ( 3Ax ) of the wing base . In Neuroptera , Mecoptera , and Trichoptera the postcubitus may be more closely associated with the vannal veins , but its base is always free from the latter . The postcubitus is usually unbranched ; it is primitively two branched . The vannal veins ( lV to nV ) are the anal veins that are immediately associated with the third axillary , and which are directly affected by the movement of this sclerite that brings about the flexion of the wings . In number the vannal veins vary. from 1 to 12 , according to the expansion of the vannal area of the wing . The vannal tracheae usually arise from a common tracheal stem in nymphal insects , and the veins are regarded as branches of a single anal vein . Distally the vannal veins are either simple or branched . Jugal Veins ( J ) of the jugal lobe of the wing is often occupied by a network of irregular veins , or it may be entirely membranous ; but sometimes it contains one or two distinct small veins , the first jugal vein , or vena arcuata , and the second jugal vein , or vena cardinalis ( 2J ) .
C @-@ Sc cross @-@ veins – run between the costa and subcosta
R cross @-@ veins – run between adjacent branches of the radius
R @-@ M cross @-@ veins – run between the radius and media
M @-@ Cu cross @-@ veins – run between the media and cubitus
All the veins of the wing are subject to secondary forking and to union by cross @-@ veins . In some orders of insects the cross @-@ veins are so numerous that the whole venational pattern becomes a close network of branching veins and cross @-@ veins . Ordinarily , however , there is a definite number of cross @-@ veins having specific locations . The more constant cross @-@ veins are the humeral cross @-@ vein ( h ) between costa and subcosta , the radial cross @-@ vein ( r ) between R and the first fork of Rs , the sectorial cross @-@ vein ( s ) between the two forks of R8 , the median cross @-@ vein ( m – m ) between M2 and M3 , and the mediocubital cross @-@ vein ( m @-@ cu ) between media and cubitus .
The veins of insect wings are characterized by a convex @-@ concave placement , such as those seen in mayflies ( i.e. , concave is " down " and convex is " up " ) which alternate regularly and by its triadic type of branching ; whenever a vein forks there is always an interpolated vein of the opposite position between the two branches . A concave vein will fork into two concave veins ( with the interpolated vein being convex ) and the regular alteration of the veins is preserved . The veins of the wing appear to fall into an undulating pattern according to whether they have a tendency to fold up or down when the wing is relaxed . The basal shafts of the veins are convex , but each vein forks distally into an anterior convex branch and a posterior concave branch . Thus the costa and subcosta are regarded as convex and concave branches of a primary first vein , Rs is the concave branch of the radius , posterior media the concave branch of the media , Cu1 and Cu2 are respectively convex and concave , while the primitive Postcubitus and the first vannal have each an anterior convex branch and a posterior concave branch . The convex or concave nature of the veins has been used as evidence in determining the identities of the persisting distal branches of the veins of modern insects , but it has not been demonstrated to be consistent for all wings .
= = = Fields = = =
Wing areas are delimited and subdivided by fold @-@ lines along which the wing can fold , and flexion @-@ lines along which the wing can flex during flight . The fundamental distinction between the flexion @-@ lines and the fold @-@ lines is often blurred , as fold @-@ lines may permit some flexibility or vice versa . Two constants that are found in nearly all insect wings are the claval ( a flexion @-@ line ) and jugal folds ( or fold line ) ; forming variable and unsatisfactory boundaries . Wing foldings can very complicated , with transverse folding occurs in the hind wings of Dermaptera and Coleoptera , and in some insects the anal area can be folded like a fan . There are about four different fields found on the insect wings :
Remigium
Anal area ( vannus )
Jugal area
Axillary area
Alula
Most veins and crossveins occur in the anterior area of the remigium , which is responsible for most of the flight , powered by the thoracic muscles . The posterior portion of the remigium is sometimes called the clavus ; the two other posterior fields are the anal and jugal ares . When the vannal fold has the usual position anterior to the group of anal veins , the remigium contains the costal , subcostal , radial , medial , cubital , and postcubital veins . In the flexed wing the remigiumturns posteriorly on the flexible basal connection of the radius with the second axillary , and the base of the mediocubital field is folded medially on the axillary region along the plica basalis ( bf ) between the median plates ( m , m ' ) of the wing base .
The vannus is bordered by the vannal fold , which typically occurs between the postcubitus and the first vannal vein . In Orthoptera it usually has this position . In the forewing of Blattidae , however , the only fold in this part of the wing lies immediately before the postcubitus . In Plecoptera the vannal fold is posterior to the postcubitus , but proximally it crosses the base of the first vannal vein . In the cicada the vannal fold lies immediately behind the first vannal vein ( lV ) . These small variations in the actual position of the vannal fold , however , do not affect the unity of action of the vannal veins , controlled by the flexor sclerite ( 3Ax ) , in the flexion of the wing . In the hind wings of most Orthoptera a secondary vena dividens forms a rib in the vannal fold . The vannus is usually triangular in shape , and its veins typically spread out from the third axillary like the ribs of a fan . Some of the vannal veins may be branched , and secondary veins may alternate with the primary veins . The vannal region is usually best developed in the hind wing , in which it may be enlarged to form a sustaining surface , as in Plecoptera and Orthoptera . The great fanlike expansions of the hind wings of Acrididae are clearly the vannal regions , since their veins are all supported on the third axillary sclerites on the wing bases , though Martynov ( 1925 ) ascribes most of the fan areas in Acrididae to the jugal regions of the wings . The true jugum of the acridid wing is represented only by the small membrane ( Ju ) mesad of the last vannal vein . The jugum is more highly developed in some other Orthoptera , as in the Mantidae . In most of the higher insects with narrow wings the vannus becomes reduced , and the vannal fold is lost , but even in such cases the flexed wing may bend along a line between the postcubitus and the first vannal vein .
The Jugal Region , or Neala , is a region of the wing that is usually a small membranous area proximal to the base of the vannus strengthened by a few small , irregular veinlike thickenings ; but when well developed it is a distinct section of the wing and may contain one or two jugal veins . When the jugal area of the forewing is developed as a free lobe , it projects beneath the humeral angle of the hind wing and thus serves to yoke the two wings together . In the Jugatae group of Lepidoptera it bears a long finger @-@ like lobe . The jugal region was termed the neala ( " new wing " ) because it is evidently a secondary and recently developed part of the wing .
The axillary region is region containing the axillary sclerites has in general the form of a scalene triangle . The base of the triangle ( a @-@ b ) is the hinge of the wing with the body ; the apex ( c ) is the distal end of the third axillary sclerite ; the longer side is anterior to the apex . The point d on the anterior side of the triangle marks the articulation of the radial vein with the second axillary sclerite . The line between d and c is the plica basalis ( bf ) , or fold of the wing at the base of the mediocubital field .
At the posterior angle of the wing base in some Diptera there is a pair of membranous lobes ( squamae , or calypteres ) known as the alula . The alula is well developed in the house fly . The outer squama ( c ) arises from the wing base behind the third axillary sclerite ( 3Ax ) and evidently represents the jugal lobe of other insects ( A , D ) ; the larger inner squama ( d ) arises from the posterior scutellar margin of the tergum of the wing @-@ bearing segment and forms a protective , hoodlike canopy over the halter . In the flexed wing the outer squama of the alula is turned upside down above the inner squama , the latter not being affected by the movement of the wing . In many Diptera a deep incision of the anal area of the wing membrane behind the single vannal vein sets off a proximal alar lobe distal to the outer squama of the alula .
= = = Joints = = =
The various movements of the wings , especially in insects that flex the wings horizontally over the back when at rest , demand a more complicated articular structure at the wing base than a mere hinge of the wing with the body . Each wing is attached to the body by a membranous basal area , but the articular membrane contains a number of small articular sclerites , collectively known as the pteralia . The pteralia include an anterior humeral plate at the base of the costal vein , a group of axillaries ( Ax ) associated with the subcostal , radial , and vannal veins , and two less definite median plates ( m , m ' ) at the base of the mediocubital area . The axillaries are specifically developed only in the wing @-@ flexing insects , where they constitute the flexor mechanism of the wing operated by the flexor muscle arising on the pleuron . Characteristic of the wing base is also a small lobe on the anterior margin of the articular area proximal to the humeral plate , which , in the forewing of some insects , is developed into a large , flat , scale @-@ like flap , the tegula , overlapping the base of the wing . Posteriorly the articular membrane often forms an ample lobe between the wing and the body , and its margin is generally thickened and corrugated , giving the appearance of a ligament , the so @-@ called axillary cord , continuous mesally with the posterior marginal scutellar fold of the tergal plate bearing the wing .
The articular sclerites , or pteralia , of the wing base of the wing @-@ flexing insects and their relations to the body and the wing veins , shown diagrammatically , are as follows :
Humeral plates
First Axillary
Second Axillary
Third Axillary
Fourth Axillary
Median plates ( m , m ' )
The humeral plate is usually a small sclerite on the anterior margin of the wing base , movable and articulated with the base of the costal vein . Odonata have their humeral plate greatly enlarged , with two muscles arising from the episternum inserted into the Humeral plates and two from the edge of the epimeron inserted into the axillary plate .
The first axillary sclerite ( lAx ) is the anterior hinge plate of the wing base . Its anterior part is supported on the anterior notal wing process of the tergum ( ANP ) ; its posterior part articulates with the tergal margin . The anterior end of the sclerite is generally produced as a slender arm , the apex of which ( e ) is always associated with the base of the subcostal vein ( Sc ) , though it is not united with the latter . The body of the sclerite articulates laterally with the second axillary . The second axillary sclerite ( 2Ax ) is more variable in form than the first axillary , but its mechanical relations are no less definite . It is obliquely hinged to the outer margin of the body of the first axillary , and the radial vein ( R ) is always flexibly attached to its anterior end ( d ) . The second axillary presents both a dorsal and a ventral sclerotization in the wing base ; its ventral surface rests upon the fulcral wing process of the pleuron . The second axillary , therefore , is the pivotal sclerite of the wing base , and it specifically manipulates the radial vein .
The third axillary sclerite ( 3Ax ) lies in the posterior part of the articular region of the wing . Its form is highly variable and often irregular , but the third axillary is the sclerite on which is inserted the flexor muscle of the wing ( D ) . Mesally it articulates anteriorly ( f ) with the posterior end of the second axillary , and posteriorly ( b ) with the posterior wing process of the tergum ( PNP ) , or with a small fourth axillary when the latter is present . Distally the third axillary is prolonged in a process which is always associated with the bases of the group of veins in the anal region of the wing here termed the vannal veins ( V ) . The third axillary , therefore , is usually the posterior hinge plate of the wing base and is the active sclerite of the flexor mechanism , which directly manipulates the vannal veins . The contraction of the flexor muscle ( D ) revolves the third axillary on its mesal articulations ( b , f ) and thereby lifts its distal arm ; this movement produces the flexion of the wing . The Fourth Axillary sclerite is not a constant element of the wing base . When present it is usually a small plate intervening between the third axillary and the posterior notal wing process and is probably a detached piece of the latter .
The median plates ( m , m ' ) are also sclerites that are not so definitely differentiated as specific plates as are the three principal axillaries , but nevertheless they are important elements of the flexor apparatus . They lie in the median area of the wing base distal to the second and third axillaries and are separated from each other by an oblique line ( bf ) which forms a prominent convex fold during flexion of the wing . The proximal plate ( m ) is usually attached to the distal arm of the third axillary and perhaps should be regarded as a part of the latter . The distal plate ( m ' ) is less constantly present as a distinct sclerite and may be represented by a general sclerotization of the base of the mediocubital field of the wing . When the veins of this region are distinct at their bases , they are associated with the outer median plate .
= = = Muscles = = =
The muscles that control flight in insects can take up to 10 % to 30 % of the total body mass . The muscles that control flight vary with the two types of flight found in insects : indirect and direct . Insects that use first , indirect , have the muscles attach to the tergum instead of the wings , as the name suggests . As the muscles contract , the thoracic box becomes distorted , transferring the energy to the wing . There are two " bundles " of muscles , those that span parallel to the tergum , the dorsolongitudinals , and those that are attached to the tegum and extend to the sternum , the dorsoventrals . In direct muscle , the connection is directly from the pleuron ( thoracic wall ) to individual sclerites located at the base of the wing . The subalar and basalar muscles have ligament attachments to the subalar and basalar sclerites . Here resilin , a highly elastic material , forms the ligaments connecting flight muscles to the wing apparatus .
In more derived orders of insects , such as Diptera ( flies ) and Hymenoptera ( wasp ) , the indirect muscles occupy the greatest volume of the pterothorax and function as the primary source of power for the wingstroke . Contraction of the dorsolongitudinal muscles causes the severe arching of the notum which depresses the wing while contraction of the dorsoventral muscles causes opposite motion of notum . Other more primitive insects , such as Orthoptera ( locusts ) , Coleoptera ( beetles ) , and Odonata ( dragonflies ) use direct muscles that are responsible for developing the needed power for the up and down strokes .
Insect wing muscle is a strictly aerobic tissue . Per unit protein it consumes fuel and oxygen at rates taking place in a very concentrated and highly organized tissue so that the steady @-@ state rates per unit volume represent an absolute record in biology . The fuel and oxygen rich blood is carried to the muscles through diffusion occurring in large amounts , in order to maintain the high level of energy used during flight . Many wing muscles are large and may be as large as 10 mm in length and 2 mm in width . Moreover , in some Diptera the fibres are of giant dimensions . For instance , in the very active Rutilia , the cross @-@ section is 1800 µm long and more than 500 µm wide . The transport of fuel and oxygen from the surroundings to the sites of consumption and the reverse transport of carbon dioxide therefore represent a challenge to the biologist both in relation to transport in the liquid phase and in the intricate system of air tubes , i.e. in the tracheal system .
= = = Coupling , folding , and other features = = =
In many insect species , the fore and hind wing are coupled together , which improves the aerodynamic efficiency of flight . The most common coupling mechanism ( e.g. , Hymenoptera and Trichoptera ) is a row of small hooks on the forward margin of the hind wing , or " hamuli " , which lock onto the fore wing , keeping them held together ( hamulate coupling ) . In some other insect species ( e.g. , Mecoptera , Lepidoptera , and some Trichoptera ) the jugal lobe of the fore wing covers a portion of the hind wing ( jugal coupling ) , or the margins of the fore and hind wing overlap broadly ( amplexiform coupling ) , or the hindwing bristles , or frenulum , hook under the retaining structure or retinaculum on the forewing .
When at rest , the wings are held over the back in most insects , which may involve longitudinal folding of the wing membrane and sometimes also transverse folding . Folding may sometimes occur along the flexion lines . Though fold lines may be transverse , as in the hind wings of beetles and earwigs , they are normally radial to the base of the wing , allowing adjacent sections of a wing to be folded over or under each other . The commonest fold line is the jugal fold , situated just behind the third anal vein , although , most Neoptera have a jugal fold just behind vein 3A on the forewings . It is sometimes also present on the hindwings . Where the anal area of the hindwing is large , as in Orthoptera and Blattodea , the whole of this part may be folded under the anterior part of the wing along a vannal fold a little posterior to the claval furrow . In addition , in Orthoptera and Blattodea , the anal area is folded like a fan along the veins , the anal veins being convex , at the crests of the folds , and the accessory veins concave . Whereas the claval furrow and jugal fold are probably homologous in different species , the vannal fold varies in position in different taxa . Folding is produced by a muscle arising on the pleuron and inserted into the third axillary sclerite in such a way that , when it contracts , the sclerite pivots about its points of articulation with the posterior notal process and the second axillary sclerite .
As a result , the distal arm of the third axillary sclerite rotates upwards and inwards , so that finally its position is completely reversed . The anal veins are articulated with this sclerite in such a way that when it moves they are carried with it and become flexed over the back of the insect . Activity of the same muscle in flight affects the power output of the wing and so it is also important in flight control . In orthopteroid insects , the elasticity of the cuticle causes the vannal area of the wing to fold along the veins . Consequently , energy is expended in unfolding this region when the wings are moved to the flight position . In general , wing extension probably results from the contraction of muscles attached to the basalar sclerite or , in some insects , to the subalar sclerite .
= = Flight = =
Two groups of relatively large insects , the Ephemeroptera ( mayflies ) and the Odonata ( dragonflies and damselflies ) have the flight muscles attached directly to their wings ; the wings can beat no faster than the rate at which nerves can send impulses to command the muscles to beat . All other living winged insects fly using a different mechanism , involving indirect flight muscles which cause the thorax to vibrate ; the wings can beat faster than the rate at which the muscles receive nerve impulses . This mechanism evolved once , and is the defining feature ( synapomorphy ) for the infraclass Neoptera .
There are two basic aerodynamic models of insect flight . Most insects use a method that creates a spiralling leading edge vortex . Some very small insects use the fling and clap or Weis @-@ Fogh mechanism in which the wings clap together above the insect 's body and then fling apart . As they fling open , the air gets sucked in and creates a vortex over each wing . This bound vortex then moves across the wing and , in the clap , acts as the starting vortex for the other wing . Circulation and lift are increased , at the price of wear and tear on the wings .
Many insects can hover by beating their wings rapidly , requiring sideways stabilization as well as lift .
A few insects use gliding flight , without the use of thrust . It is found in some species of arboreal ants , known as gliding ants .
= = Evolution = =
Sometime in the Carboniferous Period , some 350 million years ago , when there were only two major land masses , insects began flying . How and why insect wings developed , however , is not well understood , largely due to the scarcity of appropriate fossils from the period of their development in the Lower Carboniferous . Three main theories on the origins of insect flight are that wings developed from paranotal lobes , extensions of the thoracic terga ; that they are modifications of movable abdominal gills as found on aquatic naiads of mayflies ; or that they developed from thoracic protrusions used as radiators .
= = = Fossils = = =
Fossils from the Devonian ( 400 million years ago ) are all wingless , but by the Carboniferous ( 320 million years ago ) , more than 10 different genera of insects had fully functional wings . There is little preservation of transitional forms between the two periods . The earliest winged insects are from this time period ( Pterygota ) , including the Blattoptera , Caloneurodea , primitive stem @-@ group Ephemeropterans , Orthoptera and Palaeodictyopteroidea . Very early Blattopterans ( during the Carboniferous ) had a very large discoid pronotum and coriaceous forewings with a distinct CuP vein ( an unbranched wing vein , lying near the claval fold and reaching the wing posterior margin ) . Even though the oldest definitive insect fossil is the Devonian Rhyniognatha hirsti , estimated at 396 – 407 million years old , it possessed dicondylic mandibles , a feature associated with winged insects .
During the Permian , the dragonflies Odonata were the dominant aerial predator and probably dominated terrestrial insect predation as well . True Odonata appeared in the Permian and all are amphibian . Their prototypes are the oldest winged fossils , go back to the Devonian , and are different from other wings in every way . Their prototypes may have had the beginnings of many modern attributes even by late Carboniferous and it is possible that they even captured small vertebrates , for some species had a wing span of 71 cm . The earliest beetle @-@ like species during the Permian had pointed , leather like forewings with cells and pits . Hemiptera , or true bugs had appeared in the form of Arctiniscytina and Paraknightia having forewings with unusual venation , possibly diverging from Blattoptera .
A single large wing from a species of Diptera in the Triassic ( 10 mm instead of usual 2 – 6 mm ) was found in Australia ( Mt . Crosby ) .This family Tilliardipteridae , despite of the numerous ' tipuloid ' features , should be included in Psychodomorpha sensu Hennig on account of loss of the convex distal 1A reaching wing margin and formation of the anal loop .
= = = Hypotheses = = =
Paranotal hypothesis : This hypothesis suggests that the insect 's wings developed from paranotal lobes , a preadaptation found in insect fossils that is believed to have assisted stabilization while hopping or falling . In favor of this hypothesis is the tendency of most insects , when startled while climbing on branches , to escape by dropping to the ground . Such lobes would have served as parachutes and enable the insect to land more softly . The theory suggests that these lobes gradually grew larger and in a later stage developed a joint with the thorax . Even later would appear the muscles to move these crude wings . This model implies a progressive increase in the effectiveness of the wings , starting with parachuting , then gliding and finally active flight . Still , lack of substantial fossil evidence of the development of the wing joints and muscles poses a major difficulty to the theory , as does the seemingly spontaneous development of articulation and venation , and it has been largely rejected by experts in the field .
Epicoxal hypothesis : This theory suggested that a possible origin for insect wings might have been the movable abdominal gills found in many aquatic insects , such as on naiads of mayflies . According to this theory these tracheal gills , which started their way as exits of the respiratory system and over time were modified into locomotive purposes , eventually developed into wings . The tracheal gills are equipped with little winglets that perpetually vibrate and have their own tiny straight muscles .
Endite @-@ exite hypothesis : The hypothesis with perhaps the strongest evidence is that which stems from the adaptation of endites and exites , appendages on the respective inner and outer aspects of the primitive arthropod limb . This was advanced by Trueman based on a study by Goldschmidt in 1945 on Drosophila melanogaster , in which a pod variation displayed a mutation transforming normal wings to what was interpreted as a triple @-@ jointed leg arrangement with some additional appendages but lacking the tarsus , where the wing 's costal surface normally would be . This mutation was reinterpreted as strong evidence for a dorsal exite and endite fusion , rather than a leg , with the appendages fitting in much better with this hypothesis . The innervation , articulation and musculature required for the evolution of wings are already present in podomeres .
Paranota plus leg gene recruitment hypothesis : The fossil larvae of Coxoplectoptera provided important new clues to the disputed question of the evolutionary origin of insect wings . Before the larvae fossil discovery the paranotal @-@ hypothesis and the leg @-@ exite @-@ hypothesis have been considered as incompatible alternative explanations , which have both been supported by a set of evidences from the fossil record , comparative morphology , developmental biology and genetics . The expression of leg genes in the ontogeny of the insect wing has been universally considered as conclusive evidence in favour of the leg @-@ exite @-@ hypothesis , which proposes that insect wings are derived from mobile leg appendages ( exites ) . However , the larvae of Coxoplectoptera show that the abdominal gills of mayflies and their ancestors , which are generally considered as corresponding structures to insect wings , articulated within the dorsal tergite plates . This cannot be seen in modern mayfly larvae , because their abdominal tergites and sternites are fused to rings , without any traces left even in embryonic development . If larval gills and wings are corresponding ( " serial homologous " ) structures and thus share the same evolutionary origin , the new results from Coxoplectoptera demonstrate that also wings are of tergal origin , as proposed by the classical paranotal @-@ hypothesis . Staniczek , Bechly & Godunko ( 2011 ) therefore suggested a new hypothesis that could reconcile the apparently conflicting evidence from paleontology and developmental genetics : wings first originated as stiff outgrowths of tergal plates ( paranota ) , and only later in evolution became mobile , articulated appendages through secondary recruiting of leg genes .
Suggestions have been made that wings may have evolved initially for sailing on the surface of water as seen in some stoneflies . An alternative idea is that it drives from directed aerial gliding descent — a preflight phenomena found in some apterygote , a wingless sister taxa to the winged insects . The earliest fliers were similar to dragonflies with two sets of wings , direct flight muscles , and no ability to fold their wings over their abdomens . Most insects today , which evolved from those first fliers , have simplified to either one pair of wings or two pairs functioning as a single pair and using a system of indirect flight muscles .
Natural selection has played an enormous role in refining the wings , control and sensory systems , and anything else that affects aerodynamics or kinematics . One noteworthy trait is wing twist . Most insect wings are twisted , as are helicopter blades , with a higher angle of attack at the base . The twist generally is between 10 and 20 degrees . In addition to this twist , the wing surfaces are not necessarily flat or featureless ; most larger insects have wing membranes distorted and angled between the veins in such a way that the cross @-@ section of the wings approximates an airfoil . Thus , the wing 's basic shape already is capable of generating a small amount of lift at zero angle of attack ( see Insect wing ) . Most insects control their wings by adjusting tilt , stiffness , and flapping frequency of the wings with tiny muscles in the thorax ( below ) . Some insects evolved other wing features that are not advantageous for flight , but play a role in something else , such as mating or protection .
Some insects , occupying the biological niches that they do , need to be incredibly maneuverable . They must find their food in tight spaces and be capable of escaping larger predators – or they may themselves be predators , and need to capture prey . Their maneuverability , from an aerodynamic viewpoint , is provided by high lift and thrust forces . Typical insect fliers can attain lift forces up to three times their weight and horizontal thrust forces up to five times their weight . There are two substantially different insect flight mechanisms , and each has its own advantages and disadvantages – just because odonates have a more primitive flight mechanism does not mean they are less able fliers ; they are , in certain ways , more agile than anything that has evolved afterward .
= = Morphogenesis = =
While the development of wings in insects is clearly defined in those who are members of Endopterygota , which undergo complete metamorphosis ; in these species , the wing develops while in the pupal stage of the insects life cycle . However , insects that undergo incomplete metamorphosis do not have a pupal stage , therefore they must have a different wing morphogenesis . Insects such as those that are hemimetabolic have wings that start out as buds , which are found underneath the exoskeleton , and do not become exposed until the last instar of the nymph .
The first indication of the wing buds is of a thickening of the hypodermis , which can be observed in insect species as early the embryo , and in the earliest stages of the life cycle . During the development of morphological features while in the embryo , or embryogenesis , a cluster of cells grow underneath the ectoderm which later in development , after the lateral ectoderm has grown dorsally to form wind imaginal disc . An example of wing bud development in the larvae , can be seen in those of White butterflies ( Pieris ) . In the second instar the histoblast become more prominent , which now form a pocket @-@ like structure . As of the third and fourth instars , the histoblast become more elongated . This greatly extended and evaginated , or protruding , part is what becomes the wing . By the close of the last instar , or fifth , the wing is pushed out of the wing @-@ pocket , although continues to lie under the old larval cuticle while in its prepupal stage . It is not until the butterfly is in its pupal stage that the wing @-@ bud becomes exposed , and shortly after eclosion , the wing begins to expand and form its definitive shape .
The development of tracheation of the wings begin before the wing histoblast form , as it is important to note that they develop near a large trachea . During the fourth instar , cells from the epithelium of this trachea become greatly enlarged extend into the cavity of the wing bud , with each cell having developed a closely coiled tracheole . Each trachcole is of unicellular origin , and is at first intracellular in position ; while tracheae are of multicellular origin and the lumen of each is intercellular in position . The development of tracheoles , each coiled within a single cell of the epithelium of a trachea , and the subsequent opening of communication between the tracheoles and the lumen of the trachea , and the uncoiling and stretching out of the tracheoles , so that they reach all parts of the wing .
In the earlier stages of its development , the wing @-@ bud is not provided with special organs of respiration such as tracheation , as it resembles in this respect the other portions of the hypodermis of which it is still a part . It should be noted , however , that the histoblast is developed near a large trachea , a cross @-@ section of which is shown in , which represents sections of these parts of the first , second , third and fourth instars respectively . At the same time the tracheoles uncoil , and extend in bundles in the forming vein @-@ cavities of the wing @-@ bud . At the molt that marks the beginning of the pupal stadium stage , they become functional . At the same time , the larval tracheoles degenerate ; their function having been replaced by the wing tracheae .
= = Nomenclature = =
Most of the nomenclature of insect orders is based on the Ancient Greek word for wing , πτερόν ( pteron ) , as the suffix -ptera .
= = Adaptations = =
= = = Variation = = =
Insect wings are fundamental in identifying and classifying species as there is no other set of structures in studying insects more significant . Each order and insect family has distinctive wing shapes and features . In many cases , even species may be distinguished from each other by differences of color and pattern . For example , just by position one can identify species , albeit to a much lesser extent . Though most insects fold their wings when at rest , dragonflies and some damselflies rest with their wings spread out horizontally , while groups such as the caddisflies , stoneflies , alderflies , and lacewings hold their wings sloped roof @-@ like over their backs . A few moths wrap their wings around their bodies , while many flies and most butterflies close their wings together straight upward over the back .
Many times the shape of the wings correlates with the type of insect flight . The best @-@ flying insects tend to have long , slender wings . In many species of Sphingidae ( sphinx moths ) , the forewings are large and sharply pointed , forming with the small hind wings a triangle that is suggestive of the wings of fast , modern airplanes . Another , possibly more important correlation , is that of the size and power of the muscles to the speed and power of flight . In the powerfully flying insects , the wings are most adapted for the stresses and aerodynamics of flight . The veins are thicker , stronger , and closer together toward the front edge ( or " leading edge " ) and thinner yet flexible toward the rear edge ( or " trailing edge " ) . This makes the insect wing an excellently constructed airfoil , capable of exerting both propulsion and lift while minimizing drag .
Variation of the wing beat may also occur , not just amongst different species , but even among individuals at different times . In general , the frequency is dependent upon the ratio between the power of the wing muscles and the resistance of the load . Large @-@ winged , light @-@ bodied butterflies may have a wing beat frequency of 4 – 20 per second whereas small @-@ winged , heavy @-@ bodied flies and bees beat their wings more than 100 times a second and mosquitoes can beat up to 988 – 1046 times a second . The same goes for flight ; though it is generally difficult to estimate the speed of insects in flight , most insects can probably fly faster in nature than they do in controlled experiments .
= = = Coleoptera = = =
In species of Coleoptera ( beetles ) , the only functional wings are the hind wings . The hind wings are longer than the elytra , folded longitudinally and transversely under the elytra . The wing is rotated forwards on its base into flight position . This action spread the wing and unfolded longitudinally and transversely . There is the spring mechanism in the wing structure , sometimes with the help of abdomen movement , to keep the wing in folded position . The beetle wing venation is reduced and modified due to the folding structure , which include :
Costa ( C ) , Subcosta posterior ( ScP ) – at the leading wing marginal , fused for most of the length .
Radius anterior ( RA ) – divided into two branches beyond the middle of the wing .
Radius posterior ( RP ) – basal connection is lost .
Media posterior ( MP ) – branches , long and strong vein .
Cubitus anterior ( CuA )
Anal veins ( AA , AP ) – veins behind the cubitus , separated by anal fold .
In most species of beetles , the front pair of wings are modified and sclerotised ( hardened ) to form elytra and they protect the delicate hindwings which are folded beneath . The elytra are connected to the pterathorax ; being called as such because it is where the wings are connected ( pteron meaning " wing " in Greek ) . The elytra are not used for flight , but tend to cover the hind part of the body and protect the second pair of wings ( alae ) . The elytra must be raised in order to move the hind flight wings . A beetle 's flight wings are crossed with veins and are folded after landing , often along these veins , and are stored below the elytra . In some beetles , the ability to fly has been lost . These include some ground beetles ( family Carabidae ) and some " true weevils " ( family Curculionidae ) , but also some desert and cave @-@ dwelling species of other families . Many of these species have the two elytra fused together , forming a solid shield over the abdomen . In a few families , both the ability to fly and the elytra have been lost , with the best known example being the glow @-@ worms of the family Phengodidae , in which the females are larviform throughout their lives .
= = = Lepidoptera = = =
The two pairs of wings are found on the middle and third segment , or mesothorax and metathorax respectively . In the more recent genera , the wings of the second segment are much more pronounced , however some more primitive forms have similarly sized wings of both segments . The wings are covered in scales arranged like shingles , forming the extraordinary variety seen in color . The mesothorax is evolved to have more powerful muscles to propel moth or butterfly through the air , with the wing of said segment having a stronger vein structure . The largest superfamily , Noctuidae , has the wings modified to act as Tympanal or hearing organs Modifications in the wing 's venation include :
Costa ( C ) – not found in Butterflies .
Subcosta ( Sc ) + Radius 1 ( Sc + R1 ) – at the leading wing marginal , fused or very close for most of the length , in hind wing fused and well developed in the humeral area , subcosta never branches in butterfly .
Radius ( R2 @-@ R5 ) – radius divides into branches beyond the middle of the wing up to five branches in Papilionidae . On forewing , the last R is stalked in all butterflies except Hesperiidae is separated .
Radius sector ( Rs ) – in hind wing .
Media ( M1 @-@ M3 ) – the basal section has been lost .
Cubitus anterior ( CuA1 @-@ CuA2 ) – CuP section has been lost .
Anal veins ( A , 1A + 2A , 3A ) – either one vein A , or two veins 1A + 2A , 3A .
Humeral vein – The hind wing of most butterflies has the humeral vein , except Lycaenidae There is the enlargement of the humeral area of the hind wing which is overlapped with the fore wing . The humeral vein strengthened the hind wing overlapped area so that the two wings coupling better .
The wings , head parts of thorax and abdomen of Lepidoptera are covered with minute scales , from which feature the order ' Lepidoptera ' derives its names , the word " lepteron " in Ancient Greek meaning ' scale ' . Most scales are lamellar , or blade @-@ like and attached with a pedicel , while other forms may be hair @-@ like or specialized as secondary sexual characteristics . The lumen or surface of the lamella , has a complex structure . It gives color either due to the pigmentary colors contained within or due to its three @-@ dimensional structure . Scales provide a number of functions , which include insulation , thermoregulation , aiding gliding flight , amongst others , the most important of which is the large diversity of vivid or indistinct patterns they provide which help the organism protect itself by camouflage , mimicry , and to seek mates .
= = = Odonata = = =
Species of Odonata ( Damselflies and dragonflies ) both have two pairs of wings which are about equal in size and shape and are clear in color . There are five , if the R + M is counted as 1 , main vein stems on dragonfly and damselfly wings , and wing veins are fused at their bases and the wings cannot be folded over the body at rest , which also include :
Costa ( C ) – at the leading edge of the wing , strong and marginal , extends to the apex of the wing .
Subcosta ( Sc ) – second longitudinal vein , it is unbranched , joins C at nodus .
Radius and Media ( R + M ) – third and fourth longitudinal vein , the strongest vein on the wing , with branches , R1 @-@ R4 , reach the wing margin , the media anterior ( MA ) are also reach the wing margin . IR2 and IR3 are intercalary veins behind R2 and R3 respectively .
Cubitus ( Cu ) – fifth longitudinal vein , cubitus posterior ( CuP ) is unbranched and reach the wing margin .
Anal veins ( A1 ) – unbranched veins behind the cubitus .
A nodus is formed where the second main vein meets the leading edge of the wing . The black pterostigma is carried near the wing tip .
The main veins and the crossveins form the wing venation pattern . The venation patterns are different in different species . There may be very numerous crossveins or rather few . The Australian Flatwing Damselfly 's wings are one of the few veins patterns . The venation pattern is useful for species identification . Almost all Anisoptera settle with the wings held out sideways or slightly downward , however most Zygoptera settle with the wings held together , dorsal surfaces apposed . The thorax of Zygoptera is so oblique that when held in this way the wings fit neatly along the top of the abdomen . They do not appear to be held straight up as in butterflies or mayflies . In a few zygopteran families the wings are held horizontally at rest , and in one anisopteran genus ( e.g. Cordulephya , Corduliidae ) the wings are held in the typical damselfly resting position . Adult species possess two pairs of equal or subequal wings . There appear to be only five main vein stems . A nodus is formed where the second main vein ( subcosta ) meets the leading edge of the wing . In most families a conspicuous pterostigma is carried near the wing tip . Identification as Odonata can be based on the venation . The only likely confusion is with some lacewings ( order Neuroptera ) which have many crossveins in the wings . Until the early years of the 20th century Odonata were often regarded as being related to lacewings and were given the ordinal name Paraneuroptera , but any resemblance between these two orders is entirely superficial . In Anisoptera the hindwing is broader than the forewing and in both wings a crossvein divides the discoidal cell into a Triangle and Supertriangle .
= = = Orthoptera = = =
Species of Orthoptera ( Grasshoppers and crickets ) have forewings that are tough opaque tegmina , narrow which are normally covering the hind wings and abdomen at rest . The hind wings are board membranous and folded in fan @-@ like manner , which include the following venation :
Costa ( C ) – at the leading marginal of the forewing and hind wing , unbranched .
Subcosta ( Sc ) – second longitudinal vein , unbranched .
Radius ( R ) – third longitudinal vein , branched to Rs in forewing and hind wing .
Media anterior ( MA ) – fourth longitudinal vein , branched in basal part as Media posterior ( MP ) .
Cubitus ( Cu ) – fifth longitudinal vein , on forewing and hind wing dividing near the wing base into branched CuA , and unbranched CuP .
Anal veins ( A ) – veins behind the cubitus , unbranched , two in forewing , many in hind wing .
= = = Phasmatodea = = =
Costa ( C ) – at the leading marginal of the hind wing , unbranched , absent in forewing .
Subcosta ( Sc ) – second longitudinal vein , unbranched .
Radius ( R ) – third longitudinal vein , branched to Rs in hind wing , unbranched in forewing .
Media anterior ( MA ) – fourth longitudinal vein , branched in basal part as Media posterior ( MP ) .
Cubitus ( Cu ) – fifth longitudinal vein , unbranched .
Anal veins ( A ) – veins behind the cubitus , unbranched , two in forewing , many in hind wing 1A @-@ 7A in one group and the rest in another group .
Stick insect have forewings that are tough , opaque tegmina , short and covering only the base part of the hind wings at rest . Hind wings from costa to Cubitus are tough and opaque like the forewings . The large anal area are membranous and folded in fan @-@ like manner . There are no or very few branching in Stick Insect wing veins .
= = = Dermaptera = = =
Other orders such as the Dermaptera ( earwigs ) , Orthoptera ( grasshoppers , crickets ) , Mantodea ( praying mantis ) and Blattodea ( cockroaches ) have rigid leathery forewings that aren 't used for flying , sometimes called tegmen ( pl. tegmina ) , elytra , or pseudoelytron .
= = = Hemiptera = = =
In Hemiptera ( true bugs ) , the forewings may be hardened , though to a lesser extent than in the beetles . For example , the anterior part of the front wings of stink bugs is hardened , while the posterior part is membranous . They are called hemelytron ( pl. hemelytra ) . They are only found in the suborder Heteroptera ; the wings of the Homoptera , such as the cicada , are typically entirely membranous . Both forewings and hindwings of Cicada are membranous , most species are glass @-@ like although some are opaque . Cicadas are not good fliers and most fly only a few seconds . When flying , forewing and hind wing are hooked together by a grooved coupling along the hind wing costa and forewing margin . Most species have a basic venation as shown in the following picture .
Costa ( C ) – at the leading wing marginal , in forewing extends to the node and lies close to Sc + R.
Subcosta + Radius ( Sc + R ) – in forewing Sc and R fused together to the node . Radial sector ( Rs ) arises near the node and unbranches .
Radius anterior ( RA )
Radius posterior ( RP )
Media ( M ) – branches to M1 to M4 .
Cubitus anterior ( CuA ) – branches to CuA1 and CuA2 .
Cubitus posterior ( CuP ) – unbranches .
Anal veins ( A ) – veins behind the cubitus , 1A and 2A fused in the forewing , CuP and 2A are folded .
Also notice there are the ambient veins and peripheral membranes on the margin of both wings .
= = = Diptera = = =
In the Diptera ( true flies ) , there is only one pair of functional wings , with the posterior pair of wings are reduced to halteres , which help the fly to sense its orientation and movement , as well as to improve balance by acting similar to gyroscopes . In Calyptratae , the very hindmost portion of the wings are modified into somewhat thickened flaps called calypters which cover the halteres .
Costa ( C ) – not found in Diptera .
Subcosta ( Sc ) – became the leading wing vein , unbranched .
Radius ( R ) – branched to R1 @-@ R5 .
Media ( M ) – branched to M1 @-@ M4 .
Cubitus anterior ( CuA ) - unbranched , CuP is reduced in Diptera . Some species CuA and 1A are separated , some species meets when reaching the wing margin , some species fused .
Anal veins ( A ) – only two anal veins 1A and 2A are present , 2A is not distinctive in some species .
Discal Cell ( dc ) – well defined in most species .
= = = Blattodea = = =
Species of Blattodea ( cockroaches ) have a forewing , are also known as tegmen , that is more or less sclerotized . It is used in flight as well as a form of protection of the membranous hind wings . The veins of hind wing are about the same as front wing but with large anal lobe folded at rest between CuP and 1A . The anal lobe usually folded in a fan @-@ like manner .
Costa ( C ) – at the leading edge of the wing .
Subcosta ( Sc ) – second longitudinal vein , it is relatively short .
Radius ( R ) – third longitudinal vein , with many pectinate branches .
Media ( M ) – fourth longitudinal vein , reach the wing margin .
Cubitus anterior ( CuA ) – fifth longitudinal vein , with dichotomous branches occupy large part of tegmen .
Cubitus posterior ( CuP ) – is unbranched , curved and reach the wing margin .
Anal veins ( A ) – veins behind the cubitus .
= = = Hymenoptera = = =
The Hymenoptera adults , include sawflies , wasps , bees and non @-@ working ants , all of which have two pairs of membranous wings .
Costa ( C ) – not found in Hymenoptera .
Subcosta ( Sc ) – unbranched .
Radius ( R ) – branched to R1 @-@ R5 .
Media ( M ) – M is unbranched , in forewing M is fused with Rs for part of its length .
Cubitus ( CuA ) – unbranched , CuP is absent in Hymenoptera .
Anal veins ( A ) – only two anal veins 1A and 2A are present , 2A is not distinctive in some species .
Wing @-@ coupling – Row of hooks on the leading edge of hind wing engage the hind margin of the forewing , strongly couple the wings in flight .
Line of wing folding – Some species , including Vespidae , the forewing are longitudinally folded along the ' line of wing folding ' at rest .
Pterostigma – is present for some species .
The forward margin of the hind wing bears a number of hooked bristles , or " hamuli " , which lock onto the fore wing , keeping them held together . The smaller species may have only two or three hamuli on each side , but the largest wasps may have a considerable number , keeping the wings gripped together especially tightly . Hymenopteran wings have relatively few veins compared with many other insects , especially in the smaller species .
= = = Other families = = =
Termites are relatively poor fliers and are readily blown downwind in wind speeds of less than 2 km / h , shedding their wings soon after landing at an acceptable site , where they mate and attempt to form a nest in damp timber or earth . Wings of most termites have three heavy veins along the basal part of the front edge of the forewing and the crossveins near the wing tip are angled , making trapezoidal cells . Although subterranean termite wings have just two major veins along the front edge of the forewing and the cross veins towards the wingtip are perpendicular to these veins , making square and rectangular cells .
Species of Thysanoptera ( thrips ) have slender front and hind wings with long fringes of hair , called fringed wings . While species of Trichoptera ( caddisfly ) have hairy wings with the front and hind wings clothed with setae .
|
= Lucy Li =
Lucy Li ( born October 1 , 2002 ) is an American female amateur golfer . She currently holds records as the youngest qualifier for the U.S. Women 's Amateur and the U.S. Women 's Open . She is the second youngest qualifier for the U.S. Women 's Amateur Public Links , but the youngest ever to advance to match play in that event . Li was an age group winner at the inaugural Masters Drive , Chip , and Putt Championship in Augusta , Georgia . She is currently a student of Jim McLean .
= = Background = =
Born in Stanford , California , Li now lives in Redwood Shores . Her father , Warren Li , is a San Francisco Bay Area computer consultant and stockbroker . Her mother , Amy Zeng , is a former Hewlett @-@ Packard employee . Warren and Amy were raised in China and moved to the United States from Australia in 1998 . Warren has a Ph.D. in computer science , while Amy has a master 's degree in the field . Lucy was born in 2002 . She lived with her Aunt Tao Zeng four months per year to train in Florida near Trump National Doral Miami and McLean 's Golf School . Li is homeschooled . She performs some of her schoolwork through independent study in the months she is in Florida .
Li took diving lessons at Stanford University and was platform diving from 10 metres ( 32 @.@ 8 ft ) at age 4 . She was also active in gymnastics and music . Some sources claim that she began practicing at Mariners Point Golf Center at about age 4 or 5 , with informal coaching from her mother and Aunt . Other sources claim that she began playing golf at age 7 while watching her older brother Luke , a Princeton University student , who was hitting balls at a driving range . Li likes to tell the latter story , but Mariners Point head pro , Joby Ross , confirmed that at about 3 or 4 years old Li was very boisterous about her interest in the sport to the point of throwing tantrums when being asked to leave . At age 7 her parents called Jim McLean , who also coaches or has coached Lexi Thompson , Cristie Kerr , Keegan Bradley and Erik Compton , and arranged a visit to meet him at Doral . Afterwards , the family made summer living arrangements with her Aunt . Then , McLean began working with her . Li 's practice course is Cinnabar Hills in San Jose .
= = Career = =
Li holds record for youngest match @-@ play qualifier in U.S. Women 's Amateur Public Links history ( 10 years , 8 months , 16 days ) , surpassing Michelle Wie 's 2000 record by a mere 7 days . Li was the second youngest qualifier in May 2013 for the U.S. Women 's Amateur Public Links before becoming the youngest to advance to match play that June . The lone person younger than Li was Allisen Corpuz , who qualified in 2008 .
She is also the youngest U.S. Women 's Amateur qualifier , surpassing Latanna Stone 's 2012 record age of 10 years , 11 months and 2 days by beginning the first day of the tournament at age 10 years , 10 months and 4 days old on August 5 , 2013 .
In 2014 , at the first ever Drive , Chip and Putt Championship on the Sunday preceding the 78th edition Masters Tournament at Augusta National Golf Club , she won the Girls 10 – 11 age division . The event was televised on the Golf Channel and was sponsored by the United States Golf Association , Professional Golfers ' Association of America and Augusta National to increase youth participation in the sport . Over 10 @,@ 000 youth from over 110 sites participated in a qualification process that yielded 88 qualifiers from 8 age / gender brackets from each of 11 regions .
On May 19 , 2014 , she became the youngest ( age 11 ) to qualify for the U.S. Women 's Open , surpassing Thompson 's record ( 12 years , 4 months , 18 days ) from the 2007 Open . Notably , Li not only qualified , but she won her qualifying event by seven strokes at Old Course at Half Moon Bay Golf Links . Thompson missed the cut in 2007 with a 36 @-@ hole 168 total . Li was the second youngest to compete ; nine years prior to the introduction of qualification in 1976 , Beverly Klass played in the 1967 Open at age 10 years , 7 months , and 21 days . Although Li 's qualification was largely heralded , some were befuddled at the state of the sport when a sixth grader could even qualify for one of the most prestigious events of the year . Li , who had reached a 1 @.@ 5 handicap by April , had a handicap better than threshold 2 @.@ 4 , making her eligible to participate in qualifications .
Li was 11 years , 8 months , and 19 days on June 19 , the opening round of the 2014 U.S. Women 's Open , held at Course No. 2 of Pinehurst Resort & Country Club . Edel Golf designed custom clubs that Golf Digest described as " blinged @-@ out " for Li to use in the Open . In the first round on Thursday , Li shot a 78 ( + 8 ) , which had been the highest score that anyone who made the cut in the 2013 Open had tallied . She followed that up with a second 78 on Friday for 156 ( + 16 ) and missed the cut by seven strokes . She then walked the course as a fan that Sunday . She scheduled an appearance in the July U.S. Women 's Amateur Public Links in DuPont , Washington next . Li shot 74 and 70 to qualify for match play where she lost to Alice Chen in sudden @-@ death of the first round after posting a stroke play equivalent of a 71 . She did not schedule any other USGA events in 2014 , deciding instead to play local events and be an 11 @-@ year @-@ old . In 2015 , she did not qualify for the 2015 U.S. Women 's Open .
|
= Union Stock Yards =
The Union Stock Yard & Transit Co . , or The Yards , was the meatpacking district in Chicago for more than a century , starting in 1865 . The district was operated by a group of railroad companies that acquired swampland and turned it into a centralized processing area . By the 1890s , the railroad money behind the Union Stockyards was Vanderbilt money . The Union Stockyards operated in the New City community area for 106 years , helping Chicago become known as " hog butcher for the world " and the center of the American meatpacking industry for decades .
The stockyards became the focal point of the rise of some of the earliest international companies . These companies refined novel industrial innovations and influenced financial markets . Both the rise and fall of the district owe their fortunes to the evolution of transportation services and technology in America . The stockyards have become an integral part of the popular culture of Chicago 's history .
From the Civil War until the 1920s and peaking in 1924 , more meat was processed in Chicago than in any other place in the world . Construction began in June 1865 with an opening on Christmas Day in 1865 . The Yards closed at midnight on Friday , July 30 , 1971 , after several decades of decline during the decentralization of the meatpacking industry . The Union Stock Yard Gate was designated a Chicago Landmark on February 24 , 1972 , and a National Historic Landmark on May 29 , 1981 .
= = History = =
Before construction of the various private stockyards , tavern owners provided pastures and care for cattle herds waiting to be sold . With the spreading service of railroads , several small stockyards were created in and around the City of Chicago . In 1848 , a stockyard called the Bulls Head Market was opened to the public . The Bulls Head Stock Yards were located at Madison Street and Ogden Avenue . In the years that followed , several small stockyards were scattered throughout the city . Between 1852 and 1865 , five ( 5 ) railroads were constructed to Chicago . The stockyards that sprang up were usually built along various rail lines of these new railroad companies . Some railroads built their own stockyards in Chicago . The Illinois Central and the Michigan Central railroads combined to build the largest set of pens on the lake shore east of Cottage Grove Avenue from 29th Street to 35th Street . In 1878 , the New York Central Railroad managed to buy a controlling interest in the Michigan Central Railroad . In this way , Cornelius Vanderbilt , owner of the New York Central Railroad , got his start in the stockyard business in Chicago .
Several factors contributed to consolidation of the Chicago stockyards : westward expansion of railroads between 1850 and 1870 , which drove great commercial growth in Chicago as a major railroad center , and the Mississippi River blockade during the Civil War that closed all north @-@ south river trade . The United States government purchased a great deal of beef and pork to feed the Union troops fighting the Civil War . As a consequence , hog receipts at the Chicago stockyards rose from 392 @,@ 000 hogs in 1860 to 1 @,@ 410 @,@ 000 hogs over the winter butchering season of 1864 @-@ 1865 ; over the same time period , beef receipts in Chicago rose from 117 @,@ 000 head to 339 @,@ 000 head . With an influx of butchers and small meat packing concerns , the number of businesses greatly increased to process the flood of livestock being shipped to the Chicago stockyards . The goal was to butcher and process the livestock locally rather than transferring it to other northern cities for butchering and processing . Keeping up with the huge number of animals arriving each day proved impossible until a new wave of consolidation and modernization altered the meatpacking business in the post @-@ Civil War era .
The Union Stock Yards , designed to consolidate operations , was built in 1864 on swampland south of the city . It was south and west of the earlier stock yards in an area bounded by Halsted Street on the east , South Racine Avenue on the west , with 39th Street as the northern boundary and 47th Street as the southern boundary . Led by the Alton , Chicago & St. Louis Railroad and the Lake Shore and Michigan Southern Railway a consortium of nine railroad companies ( hence the " Union " name ) acquired the 320 @-@ acre ( 1 @.@ 3 km2 ) swampland area in southwest Chicago for $ 100 @,@ 000 in 1864 . The stockyards were connected to the city 's main rail lines by 15 miles ( 24 km ) of track . In 1864 , the Union Stock Yards were located just outside the southern boundary of the City of Chicago . Within five years the area was incorporated into the city .
Eventually , the 375 @-@ acre ( 1 @.@ 52 km2 ) site had 2300 separate livestock pens , room to accommodate 75 @,@ 000 hogs , 21 @,@ 000 cattle and 22 @,@ 000 sheep at any one time . Additionally , hotels , saloons , restaurants , and offices for merchants and brokers sprang up in the growing community around the stockyards . Led by Timothy Blackstone , a founder and the first president of the Union Stock Yards and Transit Company , " The Yards " experienced tremendous growth . Processing two million animals yearly by 1870 , in two decades the number rose to nine million by 1890 . Between 1865 and 1900 , approximately 400 million livestock were butchered within the confines of the Yards .
By the start of the 20th century , the stockyards employed 25 @,@ 000 people and produced 82 percent of the domestic meat consumed nationally . In 1921 , the stockyards employed 40 @,@ 000 people . Two thousand men worked directly for the Union Stock Yard & Transit Co . , and the rest worked for companies such as meatpackers , which had plants in the stockyards . By 1900 , the 475 @-@ acre ( 1 @.@ 92 km2 ) stockyard contained 50 miles ( 80 km ) of road , and had 130 miles ( 210 km ) of track along its perimeter . At its largest size , The Yards covered nearly 1 square mile ( 3 km2 ) of land , from Halsted Street to Ashland Avenue and from 39th ( now Pershing Rd . ) to 47th Streets .
At one time , 500 @,@ 000 US gallons ( 2 @,@ 000 m3 ) a day of Chicago River water were pumped into the stockyards . So much stockyard waste drained into the South Fork of the river that it was called Bubbly Creek due to the gaseous products of decomposition . The creek bubbles to this day . When the City permanently reversed the flow of the Chicago River in 1900 , the intent was to prevent the Stock Yards ' waste products , along with other sewage , from flowing into Lake Michigan and contaminating the City 's drinking water .
The meatpacking district was served between 1908 and 1957 by a short Chicago ' L ' line with several stops , devoted primarily to the daily transport of thousands of workers and even tourists to the site . The line was constructed when the City of Chicago forced the removal of surface trackage on 40th Street .
Evolving methods of transportation and distribution led to declining business and the closing of the Union Stock Yards in 1971 . National Wrecking Company negotiated a contract whereby National Wrecking cleared a 102 @-@ acre site and removed some 50 acres of animal pens , auxiliary buildings and the eight story Exchange Building . It took approximately eight months to complete the job and ready the site for the building of an industrial park .
= = = Effect on industry = = =
The size and scale of the stockyards , along with technological advancements in rail transport and refrigeration , allowed for the creation of some of America 's first truly global companies led by entrepreneurs such as Gustavus Franklin Swift and Philip Danforth Armour . Philip Armour was the first person to build a modern large @-@ scale meatpacking plant in Chicago in 1867 . The Armour plant was built at 45th Street and Elizabeth Avenue immediately to the west of the Union Stockyards . This new plant employed the modern " assembly line " ( or rather dis @-@ assembly line ) method of work . The mechanized process with its killing wheel and conveyors helped inspire the automobile assembly line that Henry Ford popularlized in 1913 . For a time the Armour plant , located on a twelve ( 12 ) acre site , was renowned as the largest factory in the world .
In addition , hedging transactions by the stockyard companies was pivotal in the establishment and growth of the Chicago @-@ based commodity exchanges and futures markets . Selling on the futures market allowed the seller to have a guaranteed price at a set time in the future . This was extremely helpful to those sellers who expected their cattle or hogs to come to market with a glut of other cattle or hogs when prices might necessarily be substantially lower than the guaranteed futures price .
Following the arrival of Armour in 1867 , Gustav Swift 's company arrived in Chicago in 1875 and built another modern large @-@ scale meatpacking plant at 42nd Street and South Justine Street . The Morris Company built a meatpacking plant at 42nd Street and Elizabeth Street . The Hammond Company and the Wilson Company also built a meatpacking plants in the area west of the Chicago stockyards . Eventually , meatpacking byproduct manufacturing of leather , soap , fertilizer , glue ( such as the large glue factory located at 44th Street and Loomis Street ) , pharmaceuticals , imitation ivory , gelatin , shoe polish , buttons , perfume , and violin strings prospered in the neighborhood . Additionally , there was a " Hair Factory , " located at 44th Street and Ashland Avenue , which processed hair from butchered animals into saleable items .
Next to the Union Stock Yards , the International Amphitheatre building was built on west side of Halsted Street at 42nd Street in the 1930s , originally to hold the annual International Live Stock Exposition which began in 1900 . However , the International Amphitheatre became a venue for many events ( including the 1952 and 1956 Democratic National Conventions , the 1952 and 1960 Republican National Conventions and most famously the 1968 Democratic National Convention ) and its use continued for years after the stockyards closed in 1971 .
= = = Fires = = =
The Chicago Union Stock Yards Fire started on December 22 , 1910 , destroying $ 400 @,@ 000 of property and killing twenty @-@ one firemen , including the Fire Marshal James J. Horan . Fifty engine companies and seven hook and ladder companies fought the fire until it was declared extinguished by Chief Seyferlich on December 23 . In 2004 , a memorial to all Chicago firefighters who have died in the line of duty was erected just behind the Union Stock Yards Gate at the intersection of Exchange Avenue and Peoria Street .
A larger fire occurred on Saturday , May 19 , 1934 , which burned almost 90 % of the stockyards , including the exchange building , stockyard inn , and the International Livestock Exposition building . This larger fire was seen as far away as Indiana , and caused approximately $ 6 million worth of damages . While only one watchman was killed , a few cattle also perished , but the yards were in business the following Sunday evening .
= = = Workers and Unions = = =
Following the opening of the new Union Stockyards on December 25 , 1865 , a community of workers began living in the area just west of the packing plants between Ashland Avenue and South Robey Street and bounded on the north by 43rd Street and on the south by 47th Street . At first , the residents were overwhelmingly Irish and German — 60 % Irish and 30 % German . Officially designated the " Town of Lake " until its incorporation into the City of Chicago in about 1870 , the neighborhood was known locally as " Packingtown . " However , much later in the 1930s , the community would become known as the " Back of the Yards . "
The overwhelming sensation about the neighborhood was the smell of the community caused not just by the packing plants located immediately to the east , but also by the 345 @-@ acre Chicago Union Stock Yards containing 2 @,@ 300 pens of livestock , located further east from the packing plants .
= = = Back of the Yards Community = = =
Settlement in the area that was to become known as the " Back of the Yards " began in the 1850s before there were any meat packers or stockyards in the area . At this time the area was known as the " Town of Lake . " Indeed , the area would continue to be called Town of Lake until 1939 . Witness that the newspaper of the area was called the Town of Lake Journal . Only with the founding of the community organization called the " Back of the Yards Neighborhood Council " in 1939 did the neighborhood west and south of the meat packinghouses start being called the " Back of the Yards . " It was a name that the residents proudly claimed as their own . In 1939 , the Town of Lake Journal officially changed its name to Back of the Yards Journal .
Pioneers to the area first called " Town of Lake " were S. S. Crocker and John Caffrey . Indeed , Crocker earned the nickname " Father of the Town of Lake . " By February 1865 the area was incorporated officially as " Town of Lake " the area still consisted of fewer than 700 persons . In the early 1860s the meat packing industry of the United States was still located in Cincinnati , Ohio , the original " Porkopolis " of the pre @-@ Civil War era . However , with the end of the American Civil War , the meat packing industry had started to move westward along with the westward migration of the population of the United States . For the meat packing industry moving west meant coming to Chicago . As early as 1827 , Archibauld Clybourn had established himself as a butcher in a log slaughter house on the north branch of the Chicago River and supplied most to the garrison of Fort Dearborn . Other small butchers came later . In 1848 , the Bull 's Head Stockyard began operations at Madison Street and Ogden Avenue on the West Side of Chicago . Operations for this early stockyard , however , still meant holding and feeding cattle and hogs in transit to meat packing plants further east — Indianapolis and , of course , Cincinnati .
= = Decline and current use = =
The prosperity of the stockyards was due to both the concentration of railroads and the evolution of refrigerated railroad cars . Its decline was due to further advances in post @-@ World War II transportation and distribution . Direct sales of livestock from breeders to packers , facilitated by advancement in interstate trucking , made it cheaper to slaughter animals where they were raised and excluded the intermediary stockyards . At first , the major meatpacking companies resisted change , but Swift and Armour both surrendered and vacated their plants in the Yards in the 1950s .
In 1971 , the area bounded by Pershing Road , Ashland , Halsted , and 47th Street became The Stockyards Industrial Park . The neighborhood to the west and south of the industrial park is still known as Back of the Yards , and is still home to a thriving immigrant population .
= = = Gate = = =
A remnant of the Union Stock Yard Gate still arches over Exchange Avenue , next to the firefighters ' memorial , and can be seen by those driving along Halsted Street . This limestone gate , marking the entrance to the stockyards , survives as one of the few relics of Chicago 's heritage of livestock and meatpacking . The steer head over the central arch is thought to represent " Sherman , " a prize @-@ winning bull named after John B. Sherman , a founder of the Union Stock Yard and Transit Company . The gate is a designated U.S. National Historic Landmark .
= = In popular culture = =
In 1906 Upton Sinclair published The Jungle , uncovering the horrid conditions in the stockyards around the start of the 20th century . The stockyards are referred to in Carl Sandburg 's poem Chicago : " proud to be Hog Butcher , Tool Maker , Stacker of Wheat , Player with Railroads and Freight Handler to the Nation . " Frank Sinatra mentioned the yards in his 1964 song " My Kind of Town , " and the stockyards receive a mention in the opening chapter of Thomas Pynchon 's novel Against the Day . The Skip James song " Hard Times Killing floor blues " refers to the nickname of the slaughter part of the stockyards during the great depression in the 1930s . The Yards were a major tourist stop , with visitors such as Rudyard Kipling , Paul Bourget and Sarah Bernhardt . The play Saint Joan of the Stockyards , a version of the story of Joan of Arc by Bertolt Brecht takes place in the stockyards . The 1950 film Union Station with William Holden has the final scene at the Union Stockyards .
|
= 2007 Appalachian State vs. Michigan football game =
The 2007 Appalachian State vs. Michigan football game was a regular season college football game between the Appalachian State Mountaineers and Michigan Wolverines . It was held at Michigan Stadium in Ann Arbor on September 1 , 2007 , and was the first game of the season for both teams . The Wolverines entered the game ranked No. 5 in both major Football Bowl Subdivision ( FBS ) polls and media outlets considered them to be preseason favorites to win the Big Ten conference championship as well as possible contenders for the national championship , while the Mountaineers were ranked No. 1 in The Sports Network 's Football Championship Subdivision ( FCS ) poll and were preseason favorites to win their third consecutive FCS national championship .
Games between FBS and FCS teams typically result in lopsided victories for the FBS team , and the Appalachian State – Michigan game was not expected to be an exception . The predicted outcome was a lopsided victory for Michigan , and Las Vegas sportsbooks did not give a betting line . The game was the first to be broadcast on the then @-@ new Big Ten Network , and began with a strong first half for Appalachian State , who held a 28 – 17 lead at the end of the half . Michigan regained the lead at 32 – 31 in the fourth quarter , but Appalachian State took the lead for a second time on a short field goal with 26 seconds left . The Mountaineers blocked a game @-@ winning field goal attempt from Michigan at the end of regulation to secure a 34 – 32 win . Immediately hailed as one of the greatest upsets in college football history , the game served as the lead story of SportsCenter and was the cover story for the following week 's edition of Sports Illustrated . Appalachian State became the second FCS team to defeat a ranked FBS team , and as a result of the game Michigan dropped out of the top 25 of the AP Poll entirely , marking the first time a team had fallen from the top five to out of the poll entirely as the result of a single game . In the aftermath of the game , the Associated Press amended their polling policy to make FCS teams eligible for the AP Poll , which had previously been limited to FBS teams .
The Appalachian State Mountaineers finished the 2007 season with a 13 – 2 record and won a third consecutive FCS title . They also became the first FCS team to receive votes in the final AP Poll , tying South Florida for the 34th overall ranking . Michigan finished their season 9 – 4 , winning the Capital One Bowl , and ranked No. 18 in the final AP Poll . A rematch in 2014 at Michigan Stadium was won decisively by the Wolverines , 52 – 14 . The 2014 rematch was the Mountaineers ' first game as an FBS school .
= = Background = =
= = = Divisions and subdivisions = = =
The National Collegiate Athletic Association ( NCAA ) is split into three divisions : Division I , Division II , and Division III . According to the NCAA , Division I consists of " the largest programs that provide the most athletically related financial aid for student @-@ athletes " . Division I football is split into two subdivisions : the Football Bowl Subdivision ( FBS ) and the Football Championship Subdivision ( FCS ) . USA Today notes that the FBS is considered the tier at which major Division I universities play , while the FCS is a tier in which smaller programs compete . FBS member teams are allowed to have up to 85 scholarship players , while FCS member teams are allowed to award 63 scholarships . However , FCS teams can divide their 63 scholarships by giving some players ' partial scholarships ' . FBS teams vie to play in bowl games , while FCS teams aim to qualify for a postseason tournament . The two subdivisions were created in 1978 , and no other Division I sports are split in such a manner . The difference between the two subdivisions is great enough that John V. Lombardi , a former chancellor at UMass , which played FCS football before moving to FBS in 2012 , and a former president at FBS @-@ level Florida and Louisiana State , said that " even a crummy team in [ FBS ] football has higher visibility than a great team in [ FCS ] . "
FBS teams are allowed to schedule FCS teams , and one win against an FCS team can be counted towards their bowl @-@ eligible status provided the FCS team meets certain scholarship requirements . FCS teams are often paid upwards of USD $ 500 @,@ 000 for participating in games against FBS teams . This arrangement generally results in lopsided losses for FCS teams , but the money FCS schools earn from games against FBS teams helps fund their athletic departments , as well as offering broader exposure for their athletic programs .
= = = Scheduling = = =
Appalachian State had routinely scheduled FBS teams , playing against schools such as LSU ( 2005 ) , Auburn ( 1999 ) , Kansas ( 2005 ) , and NC State ( 2006 ) . They also had games against Wake Forest in every season from 1979 to 1996 , as well as in 1998 , 2000 , and 2001 . Appalachian State had won six of these games , all of them against Wake Forest . The Mountaineers had not beaten an FBS team since 2000 . Michigan , a historic college football power with a large fan base , had never played an FCS team . According to Appalachian State athletic director Charlie Cobb , both schools had gaps in their schedule as late as February 2007 ; the friendship between Mountaineers coach Jerry Moore and Wolverines coach Lloyd Carr played a key role in completing the deal . While attempting to determine the amount of money Appalachian State would be paid for playing Michigan , negotiations between the two schools reached a halt . Moore went to school officials and urged them to accept any offer Michigan gave them ; he recalled telling them that " It 's an opportunity game . It 'll be a one @-@ shot , once @-@ in @-@ a @-@ lifetime deal to go up there and play . It 's an unbelievable environment . " Appalachian State ultimately settled on a $ 400 @,@ 000 payment in return for playing against Michigan to open the 2007 season .
= = Pre @-@ game = =
Michigan was expected to handily defeat Appalachian State , who entered the game as considerable underdogs . Las Vegas sports books did not offer a betting line because they believed that it would be a mismatch . The day before the game , an Associated Press article said that the Mountaineers were " almost certain to lose badly " and " aren 't expected to be anything more than sacrificial lambs . " Another article predicted that Michigan would easily win , but that Michigan 's inexperienced secondary could possibly be tested by quarterback Armanti Edwards . This weakness is what the Mountaineers hoped to capitalize on : they spent most of the week leading up to the game studying game film , and felt that the Michigan defense had a tendency to leave the middle of the field defenseless . On the other hand , the Mountaineers lacked the depth of the Wolverines , having 22 fewer scholarship players .
= = = Appalachian State Mountaineers = = =
Appalachian State were ranked as the No. 1 team in the preseason FCS poll from The Sports Network , receiving 67 out of 70 first @-@ place votes . The team had won the previous two FCS national championships and were favorites to win a third consecutive title according to media outlets . They had also won their last 14 games , the longest in either Division I subdivision at the time . They had an overall record of 6 – 34 – 1 against major FBS teams . The Mountaineers ran a no @-@ huddle , spread option system , which they implemented in 2005 , their first championship season . Two of the major offensive weapons for the team were Edwards , who had scored 15 passing touchdowns and 15 rushing touchdowns in 2006 , and running back Kevin Richardson , who had scored an FCS @-@ record 30 rushing touchdowns in 2006 . The defensive unit for the Mountaineers was helmed by Corey Lynch , a safety ; the Mountaineer defense ranked 11th in rush defense and 35th in pass defense during the 2006 season , but the team lost five of its six best tacklers from that season , as well as defensive lineman Marques Murrell , who led the FCS in sacks during the 2006 season . Despite losses at the defensive line , the secondary , the team 's defensive strong point , remained virtually intact from the previous season . The Mountaineers ' kicker was senior Julian Rauch , who made 10 out of 14 field goal attempts during the 2006 season .
= = = Michigan Wolverines = = =
Michigan entered the game as the No. 5 @-@ ranked team in both the AP Poll and the Coaches ' Poll . Media outlets projected the team as favorites to win the Big Ten conference , and as contenders for a national championship . Michigan featured a strong senior class of offensive tackle Jake Long , tailback Mike Hart , and quarterback Chad Henne , each of whom had decided to stay in school rather than declare eligibility for the NFL Draft . The players attributed their decision to several factors , such as Michigan having lost their last three games to rival Ohio State and the Wolverines ' streak of three consecutive bowl losses . The three also desired to finish their college careers on a high note . Mark Schlabach of ESPN.com stated that " [ the trio ] , along with receivers Mario Manningham and Adrian Arrington , gives Michigan what could potentially be one of the most explosive offenses in college football " . Prior to the season , the team named Hart and Long as captains , along with linebacker Shawn Crable , a fifth @-@ year senior . Michigan aimed to open the game in a three @-@ receiver formation , which has the potential to spread the opposing defense out ; Michigan coach Lloyd Carr noted that " when you have some of the skill that we have at the wide receiver positions and can spread a defense out , that 's [ a ] positive . " At the same time , Michigan was anticipated to run only a limited selection of plays from this set , to limit the ability of their upcoming opponents to develop an effective game plan against them . Michigan 's defense , which led the FBS in run defense in 2006 , lost seven starters from the previous season , including four All @-@ Americans ( cornerback Leon Hall and defensive linemen Alan Branch , David Harris , and LaMarr Woodley ) , each of whom were drafted in the first two rounds of the 2007 NFL Draft . Wolverines linebacker Chris Graham , a senior , expected the defense to be defined by speed , noting that each position on the defense was " loaded in speed " .
= = Game summary = =
= = = Broadcast and game notes = = =
The game was the first ever to be broadcast on the Big Ten Network . At the time the network had approximately 17 million subscribers , most of which came from a deal with DirecTV . According to Mark Silverman , the president of the Big Ten Network , only a " small percentage " of Wolverine fans were able to watch it . Silverman attributed this to the fact that Comcast and Charter , two of the major cable television providers in the state of Michigan , did not carry the Big Ten Network . Thom Brennaman provided play @-@ by @-@ play commentary , Charles Davis performed as the color analyst , and Charissa Thompson reported from the sidelines . The game marked Thompson 's debut as a sideline analyst on any network , while Brennaman and Davis were more experienced , having covered high @-@ profile college football games such as the 2007 Fiesta Bowl and the 2007 BCS National Championship Game for Fox Sports .
The weather during the game was clear and sunny , with temperatures in the mid @-@ 70s ° F ( low @-@ 20s ° C ) and wind heading north at 10 – 15 miles ( 16 – 24 kilometers ) per hour . The referee , the head of the officiating team , was John O 'Neill . Overall attendance was recorded as 109 @,@ 218 . The game kicked off at 12 : 07 p.m. and ended at 3 : 40 p.m. , having lasted a total of three hours and thirty @-@ seven minutes .
= = = First quarter = = =
Michigan received the ball first , with Mike Massey returning the Julian Rauch kick to the Michigan 33 @-@ yard line . Michigan gained a first down after converting a third and one with a three @-@ yard run by Mike Hart . Chad Henne then completed an 18 @-@ yard pass to Massey , followed by a 33 @-@ yard rush from Hart , pushing Michigan to the four @-@ yard line of Appalachian State . Hart then ran the ball in for a touchdown , and the ensuing extra point made the score 7 – 0 . Appalachian State 's CoCo Hillary took the kickoff to the 26 @-@ yard line of the Mountaineers . After the Mountaineers opened with a run for no gain and a six @-@ yard completion , Armanti Edwards completed a 68 @-@ yard touchdown pass to Dexter Jackson . The extra point was converted , tying the score at 7 – 7 . The following two drives resulted in three @-@ and @-@ outs for both teams , but after a Mountaineer punt went out of bounds at the Michigan 48 @-@ yard line , the Wolverines mounted a ten @-@ play , 52 @-@ yard drive culminating in a ten @-@ yard touchdown pass from Henne to Greg Matthews . The extra point gave Michigan a 14 – 7 lead . Appalachian State started their drive with 3 : 09 left in the quarter at their own 35 @-@ yard line , completing nine plays and driving to the Michigan 36 yard @-@ line before the end of the quarter .
= = = Second quarter = = =
Following the start of the second quarter , Appalachian State ran another six plays , ending the drive with a nine @-@ yard touchdown pass by Edwards to Hans Batichon . The extra point again evened the score , this time at 14 – 14 . Michigan was forced into a three @-@ and @-@ out and had to punt the ball , with Appalachian State starting their next drive at the Michigan 37 . On the fifth play of the next drive , the Mountaineers scored a touchdown on a 20 @-@ yard pass from Edwards to Jackson . The Mountaineers converted the extra point attempt , giving them the lead at 21 – 14 . Michigan began their next drive at their 20 @-@ yard line , and drove down to the Appalachian State 40 @-@ yard line in four plays . Their next play , a Brandon Minor run for five yards , was followed by a Minor run for no yards and an incomplete pass . The Wolverines opted to go for it on fourth down but failed to convert , turning the ball over to Appalachian State . The following Mountaineer drive featured nine running plays in a row , the last a six @-@ yard run by Edwards for a touchdown . The extra point was successful , increasing the Mountaineer lead and making the score 28 – 14 . Michigan returned the next kickoff to their 32 @-@ yard line , with 2 : 15 left on the clock . The Wolverines drove to the Appalachian five @-@ yard line , ultimately settling for a field goal with 23 seconds left , cutting Appalachian State 's lead to eleven points .
= = = Third quarter = = =
Appalachian State returned the opening kickoff of the second half to their own 36 @-@ yard line , but Michigan defender Morgan Trent intercepted an Edwards throw on the second play of the drive . Michigan took possession at the Appalachian State 40 @-@ yard line , driving to the 25 @-@ yard line before kicking a field goal to decrease the Mountaineer lead to eight points . Appalachian State began play after the kickoff at their own 24 @-@ yard line , driving 64 yards in 11 plays and scoring a 31 @-@ yard field goal to make the score 31 – 20 Appalachian State . After the ensuing kickoff , Michigan ran four plays before Minor fumbled the ball on the fifth . The fumble was recovered by Appalachian State defender Pierre Banks at the Michigan 28 @-@ yard line . However , Appalachian State failed to get a first down on the ensuing drive , and Rauch missed a 46 @-@ yard field goal attempt . Michigan went three @-@ and @-@ out on their next drive and had to punt , but a fumble by Edwards on the following Appalachian State drive was recovered by Michigan defender John Thompson , giving them control of the ball at the Appalachian State 31 @-@ yard line . Michigan drove 31 yards over six plays , scoring a touchdown on a four @-@ yard run by Hart . The Wolverines went for a two @-@ point conversion , but failed to convert , making the score 31 – 26 in favor of Appalachian State . Appalachian State received the kickoff at their own 26 @-@ yard line with 19 seconds left in the third quarter , and the quarter ended following a six @-@ yard completion by Edwards to Batichon .
= = = Fourth quarter = = =
Appalachian State continued their drive but were forced to punt after a three @-@ and @-@ out . Michigan began their drive at the Appalachian State 34 @-@ yard line , but a Henne pass was intercepted by Mountaineer defender Leonard Love on the fourth play of the drive . Love returned the ball 26 @-@ yards , and Appalachian State began the drive at their own 41 @-@ yard line , but were forced to punt after going three @-@ and @-@ out . Michigan got the ball at their own 24 @-@ yard line and mounted a nine @-@ play , 43 @-@ yard drive to the Appalachian State 33 @-@ yard line . On the final play , a fourth and five , Henne 's pass fell incomplete , turning the ball over to Appalachian State , who were again forced to punt after a three @-@ and @-@ out . After returning the punt to their own 46 @-@ yard line , Hart ran the ball 54 yards for a touchdown , giving Michigan the lead 32 – 31 with 4 : 36 left . Michigan chose to go for two , but the conversion attempt failed . Edwards was picked off on the first play of the ensuing drive , giving Michigan control of the ball at the Appalachian State 43 @-@ yard line . Michigan ran five plays before attempting a 43 @-@ yard field goal . The attempt was blocked , however , giving Appalachian State control of the ball with 1 : 37 left . With no timeouts left , the Mountaineers drove 69 yards down the field in just over a minute in game time , setting up a Rauch field goal from 24 yards out with 26 seconds left . The attempt was good , giving Appalachian State a 34 – 32 lead . Michigan regained control of the ball on the ensuing kickoff , and a 46 @-@ yard pass from Henne to Mario Manningham gave the Wolverines a 37 @-@ yard field goal attempt with six seconds left on the clock . The attempt was blocked by Corey Lynch , securing a 34 – 32 win by the Mountaineers .
= = = Broadcast Calls = = =
Thom Brennaman 's call of the final play for the Big Ten Network :
David Jackson and Steve Brown 's call of the final play for Appalachian State Radio :
= = = Scoring summary = = =
= = Statistical summary = =
Appalachian State recorded 227 yards through the air , while Michigan finished with 233 yards . Michigan finished with significantly more rushing yards , recording 246 rushing yards as opposed to the 160 rushing yards gained by Appalachian State . In total , the Wolverines recorded 479 total yards of offense , while Appalachian State recorded 387 total yards . The Wolverines recorded 23 first downs , four more than the Mountaineers , while Appalachian State turned the ball over three times , one more than Michigan . Both teams recorded seven penalties , but Michigan recorded more penalty yards . Appalachian State held the edge in time of possession , holding the ball for 31 minutes and 12 seconds ; Michigan held the ball for 28 minutes and 48 seconds .
Appalachian State quarterback Armanti Edwards completed 17 of 23 passes for 227 yards , three touchdowns , and two interceptions while averaging 9 @.@ 9 yards per throw . Kevin Richardson led the team in rushing yards , running the ball 24 times for 88 yards , and Edwards was second on the team with 17 rushes for 62 yards and one touchdown . Edwards accounted for all four Mountaineer touchdowns . Dexter Jackson led the team in receiving , catching three passes for 98 yards and two touchdowns ; he also had one carry for 19 yards .
Michigan quarterback Chad Henne completed 19 of 37 passes for 233 yards , with an average of 6 @.@ 3 yards per throw ; he threw one touchdown and one interception . Mike Hart , who missed almost two quarters due to a thigh injury , led Michigan in rushing , recording 188 yards and three touchdowns on 23 carries . Greg Matthews led the Wolverines in receiving , accounting for 68 yards and one touchdown on seven catches .
Pierre Banks led the Mountaineers in tackles , recording 12 tackles overall . Banks also recorded the only sack for the Mountaineers and recovered a fumble . Corey Lynch finished second with 11 tackles , as well as blocking a kick . Leonard Love recorded the only interception for the Mountaineers . For Michigan , Shawn Crable led the team with 10 tackles . Crable also forced a fumble and recorded 1 @.@ 5 sacks . Chris Graham finished with 9 tackles , the second @-@ most on the Wolverines . Brandent Englemon and Morgan Trent each intercepted a pass , while Tim Jamison , Terrance Taylor , and Will Johnson received full or partial credit for sacks .
= = Aftermath = =
= = = Appalachian State = = =
Appalachian State was unanimously selected as the No. 1 team in the FCS football poll in the week after their victory against Michigan . Although several voters in the AP Poll stated they would like to vote for Appalachian State , the Mountaineers were ineligible to receive votes because the poll was only limited to FBS teams ; in response , the AP amended their policy the following week to allow FCS teams to receive votes in the AP Poll . The Mountaineers received 19 points in the week 3 edition of the AP Poll and 5 points in the week 4 edition of the AP Poll . The team also extended their winning streak to 17 games before losing to Wofford in week 5 . Appalachian State lost to rival Georgia Southern in week 7 , dropping them to 5 – 2 and 2 – 2 in the Southern Conference ( SoCon ) , which placed them in a poor position to repeat for a third consecutive time as conference champions . However , the Mountaineers won all of their remaining regular season games to finish 9 – 2 , and their 5 – 2 Southern Conference record was good enough to earn a share of the SoCon conference title with Wofford . After close victories over James Madison ( 28 – 27 ) and Eastern Washington ( 38 – 35 ) in the first two rounds of the FCS playoffs , Appalachian State easily defeated Richmond ( 55 – 35 ) in the semifinals and Delaware ( 49 – 21 ) in the championship game , winning their third consecutive FCS National Championship . They became the first team to win three consecutive FCS titles , and the first Division I football team to win three consecutive titles since Army , who had won three straight titles from 1944 to 1946 . At the end of the season , the Mountaineers became the first FCS team to receive votes in the final AP Poll . They received five votes , which placed Appalachian State at a tie for 34th overall with South Florida .
= = = Michigan = = =
Michigan 's loss to Appalachian State effectively ended their chances of winning a national championship . The Wolverines dropped out of the top 25 entirely on the AP Poll the following week , the first time a team had missed the top 25 in the AP Poll the week after they were in the top 10 . In their next game , Michigan lost to Oregon 39 – 7 , the largest margin of defeat for Michigan at Michigan Stadium since 1968 . Following the loss to Oregon , Michigan won their next eight games , leading the team to rank as high as No. 13 in the AP Poll . After Michigan lost their final two games , ending the regular season with an 8 – 4 record , they dropped off the poll entirely . After Michigan 's season @-@ ending loss to Ohio State , Carr announced he would retire as the team 's coach after their bowl game . The Wolverines received an invitation to the Capital One Bowl , where they defeated Florida 41 – 35 to finish their season 9 – 4 . Following their win in the Capital One Bowl , Michigan finished at No. 18 in the final AP Poll .
= = = Media reaction = = =
Thom Brennaman immediately hailed the game as one of the greatest upsets in the history of sports ; Charissa Thompson told coach Jerry Moore that it was " one of the greatest upsets in college football history . " Many media outlets described it as one of , if not the greatest , upsets in the history of college football . The win marked the first time an FCS team had beaten a ranked FBS program . Dan Wetzel of Yahoo ! Sports wrote that :
" This game was supposed to be the prime example of what had gone wrong in money hungry college football . The powers that be had expanded the season a couple years back , adding an extra game so big schools could bring in cream @-@ puff opponents while collecting millions in revenue . Michigan had never played a I @-@ AA opponent in its history . Now we know why , the Wolverines were ducking them . Instead of an easy tune @-@ up for Michigan , Appalachian State leaves with its most profound victory ever and a check for $ 400 @,@ 000 that was supposed to be their pay for getting punished . "
Sports Illustrated writer Stewart Mandel wrote that he felt " utterly unqualified " to put the game into perspective , and said " there 's no logical reason whatsoever this should have happened . But it did . And it wasn 't the slightest bit fluky . " He also expressed disappointment that he would not be able to vote for the Mountaineers in his AP Poll ballot , explaining that " it may well turn out that Michigan was grossly overrated , but all I know is this : There will not be 25 other teams that accomplish more this opening weekend than Appalachian State did Saturday . There won 't even be five . " Pat Forde of ESPN.com called it " the most astonishing college football result I can remember , " saying that " we 'll still be talking about it a few decades from now . Especially in the locker rooms of every huge underdog , where they 'll say , ' If Appalachian State can beat Michigan , why can 't we shock the world , too ? . ' " He felt the upset was particularly impressive because upsets of such a magnitude do not happen often in college football . The New York Times writer Viv Bernstein called the game " one of the biggest upsets in college football history " and called it " a stunning upset by any measure . " The game was the lead story on SportsCenter and was the cover story for the following week 's edition of Sports Illustrated ; Appalachian Statewide receiver Dexter Jackson was featured on the cover , which has the headline " Alltime Upset : Appalachian State Stuns No. 5 Michigan . "
In 2012 , Jerry Hinnen of CBS Sports described it as " the biggest upset of the past five years of college football " , and described it as having " set the table " for an " epically chaotic " 2007 season as well as " four years ' worth of headline @-@ making upsets to follow . " Dennis Dodd of CBS Sports said in 2012 that " we may never see its likes again . " He said that the game " reminded us why the college game is the best , " but felt that such a result would become more unlikely in the future , as many conferences are moving to increase to nine conference games , reducing the need to play FCS teams .
Since Appalachian State 's victory , two other FCS teams have defeated ranked FBS teams . In 2010 , James Madison defeated 13th @-@ ranked Virginia Tech 21 – 16 . In 2013 , Eastern Washington beat 25th @-@ ranked Oregon State , 49 – 46 . The year also saw North Dakota State record a 24 @-@ 21 victory over Kansas State , the defending Big 12 champions .
= = = Reaction in Boone and on other campuses = = =
Just minutes after the game ended , Appalachian State students began celebrating on the two main streets in Boone , North Carolina : King Street and Rivers Street . The group eventually advanced to Kidd Brewer Stadium , Appalachian State 's home field , and tore down one of the goalposts . The students proceeded to carry the goalpost over a mile before depositing it in the front yard of the school 's chancellor , Kenneth E. Peacock . He was fine with this , saying " as good as today was for Appalachian State , they can take it up there and put it down . I can 't wait to get there and see it . " Several students jumped nude into the duck pond behind ASU 's dining hall , a campus tradition for celebrating big football victories . When the team returned to their stadium in buses at 11 : 00 p.m. , they were greeted by a crowd of thousands of students and fans . It took the team 20 minutes to get from their buses to the locker room due to the crowd . The celebration in Boone was not limited to Appalachian State 's campus ; the Boone Mall was " flooded " with cars , and a sports apparel shop carrying ASU gear , Sports Fanatic , reported that sales were seven times higher than normal .
In Ann Arbor , Michigan , the reaction was far different . The Ann Arbor News reported that the Michigan fans who attended the game were " shell @-@ shocked . " Appalachian State 's win also proved popular among fans of Michigan 's rivals . The Associated Press reported that , following the end of Ohio State 's 38 @-@ 6 home victory against Youngstown State , Ohio Stadium aired the final minutes of the Appalachian State @-@ Michigan game on the stadium 's big screen ; although most of the fans had already left , the outcome " elicited a large roar " from the remaining attendees . Similarly , The Daily Collegian reported that as Penn State was closing a 59 @-@ 0 home victory over Florida International , the update " Twenty seconds to play fourth quarter , Appalachian State 34 , Michigan 32 " was announced over the stadium 's loudspeak . The student section and several Penn State players quickly crowded inside of Beaver Stadium to watch the closing seconds on in @-@ stadium televisions ; when the game @-@ winning kick was blocked , they " converged into a mosh pit " in celebration . The Detroit Free Press reported that the loudest cheers during Michigan State 's home victory against UAB came when the scoreboard displayed the final score of the Appalachian State vs. Michigan game ; to conclude his postgame press conference , Michigan State defensive coordinator Pat Narduzzi stated : " And Michigan lost , too . " The Ohio State locker room erupted into a " roar " after the players learned of Michigan 's loss . Conversely , Michigan State running back Javon Ringer expressed disappointment at the game 's result , saying " I kinda really wanted [ Michigan ] to be undefeated for us . " Ohio State coach Jim Tressel gave a similar reaction , saying that " I 'm never glad when a conference opponent loses outside of your game with them ... You 're always rooting for your brethren in the Big Ten . " ESPN.com reported that in the hours after the game , " at least one street vendor was doing brisk business selling freshly minted Mountaineers T @-@ shirts near the Ohio State campus " , while stores near the campus were " swamped with requests for gear bearing the Mountaineers ' gold and black colors and logo " , primarily from Ohio State fans who were rejoicing over their rival 's defeat . Appalachian State 's campus bookstore received a large number of phone calls from people wanting to buy gear , many of them from Ohio , but were unable to sell them in large quantities due to a state law prohibiting university bookstores from selling items to people who are not students , faculty , or alumni .
= = = Rematch = = =
In 2011 Appalachian State and Michigan agreed to play a rematch , scheduled for 2014 to be the season @-@ opener for both teams . Appalachian State will be paid $ 850 @,@ 000 to play this game . Michigan 's athletic director , Dave Brandon , felt a rematch would be an excellent way to gain attention for Michigan football and said " The networks were fighting over who gets to televise that game . " Jerry Moore said that " To have the University of Michigan invite us back is the ultimate compliment for us as a program and a university . We 're grateful for the opportunity to have a new generation of players experience a gameday at the Big House and to test themselves against college football 's all @-@ time winningest program . " Appalachian State played their first year of football in the FBS in 2014 and joined the Sun Belt Conference as full members . The rematch would be much different this time around , with Michigan beating Appalachian State 52 – 14 ; Appalachian State never held a lead in the game .
|
= Psilocybe tampanensis =
Psilocybe tampanensis is a very rare psychedelic mushroom in the Strophariaceae family . Originally collected in the wild in a sandy meadow near Tampa , Florida in 1977 , the fungus has never again been reported in Florida , but was later collected in Mississippi . The original Florida specimen was cloned , and descendants remain in wide circulation . The fruit bodies ( mushrooms ) produced by the fungus are yellowish @-@ brown in color with convex to conic caps up to 2 @.@ 4 cm ( 0 @.@ 9 in ) in diameter atop a thin stem up to 6 cm ( 2 @.@ 4 in ) long . Psilocybe tampanensis forms psychoactive truffle @-@ like sclerotia that are known and sold under the nickname " philosopher 's stones " . The fruit bodies and sclerotia are consumed by some for recreational or entheogenic purposes . In nature , sclerotia are produced by the fungus as a form of protection from wildfires and other natural disasters .
= = Taxonomy = =
The species was described scientifically by Steven H. Pollock and Mexican mycologist and Psilocybe authority Gastón Guzmán in a 1978 Mycotaxon publication . According to Paul Stamets , Pollock skipped a " boring taxonomic conference " near Tampa , Florida to go mushroom hunting , and found a single specimen growing in a sand dune , which he did not recognize . Pollock later cloned the specimen and produced a pure culture , which remains widely distributed today . The type specimen is kept at the herbarium of the Instituto Politécnico Nacional in Mexico . Guzmán classified P. tampanensis in his section Mexicanae , a grouping of related Psilocybe species characterized primarily by having spores with lengths greater than 8 micrometers .
= = Description = =
The cap ranges in shape from convex or conic with a slight umbo , expanding in age to become flattened or with a slight central depression ; it reaches diameters of 1 – 2 @.@ 4 cm ( 0 @.@ 4 – 0 @.@ 9 in ) . The surface is smooth , not striate ( grooved ) , ochraceous brown to straw brown , buff to yellowish @-@ grey when dry , with slight bluish tones at the margin , hygrophanous , and somewhat sticky when wet . The gills are more or less adnate ( broadly attached to the stem slightly above the bottom of the gill , with most of the gill fused to the stem ) and brown to dark purple brown in color with lighter edges . The stem is 2 – 6 cm ( 0 @.@ 8 – 2 @.@ 4 in ) long , 1 – 2 mm ( 0 @.@ 04 – 0 @.@ 08 in ) thick , and equal in width throughout to slightly enlarged near the base . There are fibrils near the top of the stem . The partial veil is cortinate ( cobweb @-@ like , similar to the partial veil of Cortinarius species ) , and soon disappears . The flesh is whitish to yellowish , and bruises blue when injured . The taste and odor are slightly farinaceous ( similar to freshly ground flour ) .
The spore print is purple @-@ brown . When viewed with a microscope , the spores of P. tampanensis are somewhat rhombic in face view and roughly elliptical in side view ; they have dimensions of 8 @.@ 8 – 9 @.@ 9 by 8 – 8 @.@ 8 by 5 @.@ 5 – 6 @.@ 6 μm . Spores appear brownish @-@ yellow when mounted in a solution of potassium hydroxide , and have a thick , smooth wall , a distinct germ pore , and a short appendage . The basidia ( spore @-@ bearing cells ) are four @-@ spored , hyaline ( translucent ) , and measure 14 – 22 by 8 – 10 µm . The cheilocystidia ( cystidia on the gill face ) measure 16 – 22 by 4 – 9 µm , and are lageniform ( flask @-@ shaped ) with flexous thin necks that are 2 @.@ 2 – 3 µm thick , and infrequently have irregular branches . There are no pleurocystidia ( cystidia on the gill face ) . Clamp connections are present in the hyphae .
= = = Similar species = = =
Guzmán considers Psilocybe tampanensis to be intermediate in form between P. mexicana and P. caerulescens . Psilocybe mexicana has a more Mycena @-@ like fruit body shape , and longer basidia measuring 22 – 24 by 7 @.@ 7 – 11 μm . It is known only from Mexico and Guatemala . Psilocybe caerulescens , found in the USA and Venezuela , is also somewhat similar , but has a collybioid habit ( small to medium @-@ sized mushrooms with a convex cap ) , with spores measuring 6 @.@ 7 – 8 by 5 @.@ 2 – 6 @.@ 5 by 3 @.@ 3 – 5 @.@ 2 μm , and cheilocystidia that are 15 – 22 by 4 @.@ 4 – 5 @.@ 5 μm .
= = Habitat and distribution = =
For almost two decades after its discovery , Psilocybe tampanensis was known only from the type locality , southeast of Brandon , Florida . In 1996 , Guzmán reported finding it in a meadow with sandy soil in a deciduous forest in Pearl River County , Mississippi , a habitat similar to that of the type location . Due to its scarcity , however , its habitat preferences are not known with certainty . Like all Psilocybe species , it is saprobic .
Like some other psychoactive grassland species such as Psilocybe semilanceata , Conocybe cyanopus , P. tampanensis can form sclerotia – a hardened mass of mycelia that is more resistant to adverse environmental conditions than normal mycelia . This truffle @-@ like form gives the fungus some protection from wildfires and other natural disasters . Other Psilocybe species known to produce sclerotia include Psilocybe mexicana and Psilocybe caerulescens . Sclerotia are also produced when the species is grown in culture .
= = Recreational use = =
Psilocybe tampanensis contains the psychedelic compounds psilocin and psilocybin , and is consumed for recreational and entheogenic purposes . The species was found to be one of the most popular psychoactive mushrooms confiscated by German authorities in a 2000 report , behind Psilocybe cubensis , Psilocybe semilanceata , and Panaeolus cyanescens . The alkaloid content in the confiscated samples ranged from not detectable to 0 @.@ 19 % psilocybin , and 0 @.@ 01 to 0 @.@ 03 % psilocin . According to mycologist Michael Beug , dried fruit bodies can contain up to 1 % psilocybin and psilocin ; in terms of psychoactive potency , Stamets considers the mushroom " moderately to highly active " .
The psychoactive compounds are also present in the sclerotia : in one analysis , the levels of psilocybin obtained from sclerotia ranged from 0 @.@ 31 % to 0 @.@ 68 % by dry weight , and were dependent upon the composition of the growth medium . Sclerotia are sold under the nickname " philosopher 's stones " . They have been described as " resembling congealed muesli " , and having a somewhat bitter taste similar to walnut . Strains existing as commercial cultivation kits sold originally in countercultural drug magazines are derived from the original fruit body found by Pollock in Florida . Methods were originally developed by Pollock , and later extended by Stamets in the 1980s to cultivate the sclerotia on a substrate of rye grass ( Lolium ) , and on straw . Sclerotia prepared in this way take from 3 to 12 weeks to develop . Pollock was granted a US patent in 1981 for his method of producing sclerotia .
= = = Legal status = = =
Psilocin and psilocybin are scheduled drugs in many countries , and mushrooms containing them are prohibited by extension . In the United States , Federal law was passed in 1971 that put the psychoactive components into the most restricted schedule I category . For about three decades following this , several European countries remained relatively tolerant of mushroom use and possession . In the 2000s ( decade ) , in response to increases in prevalence and availability , all European countries banned possession or sale of psychedelic mushrooms ; the Netherlands was the last country to enact such laws in 2008 . However , they did not include psilocybin @-@ containing sclerotia in the 2008 law , and thus , psilocybin @-@ containing fungal compounds are available commercially in the Netherlands . In parallel legal developments in Asia , P. tampanensis was one of 13 psychoactive mushrooms specifically prohibited by law in Japan in 2002 .
|
= Hurricane Hernan ( 2002 ) =
Hurricane Hernan was the second of three Category 5 hurricanes during the 2002 Pacific hurricane season . The twelfth tropical cyclone , tenth named storm and sixth hurricane of the season , Hernan originated from a tropical wave that formed in the Atlantic Ocean and crossed to the Pacific Ocean . The wave spawned a low pressure system which organized into a tropical depression on August 30 , a tropical storm on August 31 and a hurricane later that day . Hernan rapidly intensified and reached peak intensity as a Category 5 storm on the Saffir @-@ Simpson Hurricane Scale . Proceeding northwest , it maintained this strength for eight hours , but on September 2 it entered cooler waters and began to weaken . By September 6 it had degenerated into a remnant area of low pressure .
Hernan was the second most intense hurricane of the season , and it maintained Category 5 status for the second @-@ longest time of the season , behind Hurricane Kenna . Although Hernan remained far from land , swells of 15 to 20 feet ( 4 to 6 meters ) caused minor beach erosion along the coast of Mexico . In addition , an associated remnant plume of moisture generated light shower activity in southern California as it tracked just offshore .
= = Meteorological history = =
On August 16 , a tropical wave left the coast of Africa . It traveled westward across the Atlantic Ocean , crossing over Central America and emerging in the eastern Pacific , where it merged with a pre @-@ existing intertropical convergence zone disturbance . The system gradually developed moderate convection , and on August 30 it had developed sufficient convection to be designated Tropical Depression 10 @-@ E. The depression produced persistent strong thunderstorms , primarily in two areas of deep convection located to the northeast and west of the center of circulation . Although the center was elongated , wind shear over the system remained light and outflow was good , which led forecasters to predict modest intensification . On the afternoon of August 30 , banding features became evident , and the depression was upgraded to Tropical Storm Hernan with sustained winds of 45 mph ( 72 km / h ) . Further organization occurred , and the center of circulation became encircled by convective thunderstorms . On August 31 , the storm was upgraded to Hurricane Hernan as it moved northwestward about 400 miles ( 634 km ) southwest of Acapulco .
Light wind shear and favorable ocean temperatures led to steady intensification of the storm , and satellite images indicated that an eye had developed late on August 31 . Minimum pressure lowered to 987 mb ( hPa ) , and the maximum winds increased to 100 mph , Category 2 on the Saffir @-@ Simpson Hurricane Scale . The storm quickly reached Category 3 , a major hurricane , and soon after , Category 4 . As it did so , its eye became ragged , while its lateral movement to the northwest rose to 17 mph around the southern periphery of a strong deep @-@ layer ridge over the United States . By September 1 , the hurricane reached its peak intensity of 160 mph ( 260 km / h ) and a minimum pressure of 921 mb ( hPa ) . It had reached Category 5 , the second of three such powerful storms that would do so during the season .
By September 2 , the storm 's convective thunderstorms warmed slightly , indicating weakening to just below Category 5 . An eyewall replacement cycle took place , and two eye structures formed as gradual weakening continued . By September 2 , the storm was downgraded to Category 3 just before it turned slightly to the west . The storm underwent another eyewall replacement cycle as winds decreased further . As the storm entered cooler waters , winds decreased to 100 mph ( 160 km / h ) , below major hurricane intensity . Soon Hernan was downgraded to Category 1 , and the eye became cloud @-@ filled . On September 5 , Hernan was downgraded to a tropical storm as winds rapidly weakened to 45 mph ( 72 km / h ) despite developing a new band of convection . That same day , the storm was downgraded to a tropical depression as it began to lose tropical characteristics . Strong wind shear developed , further dissipating the depression . On September 6 , the system degenerated into a remnant low @-@ pressure system which spawned a remnant plume of moisture that meandered off the coast of California , producing light showers .
= = Impact and intensity = =
Hurricane Hernan remained far from shore and caused little damage to land . It brought light wind to Socorro Island off the coast of Mexico . Rough surf caused minor impact ; in the open waters near the center of Hernan , waves generated by the storm were unofficially estimated to exceed 70 feet ( 21 meters ) . However , official buoys reported swells of 57 feet ( 17 meters ) . Along the coast of Mexico , waves reached 15 to 20 feet ( 4 to 6 meters ) , causing minor beach erosion . A portion of Hernan 's remnant moisture off the southern California coast produced light rainfall and slippery roads . Hernan had no known effects on shipping .
When Hernan grew from tropical storm to Category 5 , it intensified at a rate of 1 @.@ 73 mbar ( hPa ) per hour , just under the threshold for " rapid intensification " . However , for a 12 @-@ hour period from August 31 to September 1 , it deepened at 2 @.@ 58 mbar ( hPa ) per hour , within the range of " explosive deepening " due to favorable conditions including light wind shear and warm water .
|
= New York State Route 285 =
New York State Route 285 ( NY 285 ) was a state highway in Oneida County , New York , in the United States . The southern terminus of the 6 @.@ 87 @-@ mile ( 11 @.@ 06 km ) route was at an intersection with NY 69 west of the hamlet of Taberg in the town of Annsville . Its northern terminus was in the community of Thompson Corners , where it ended at a junction with County Route 67A ( CR 67A ) and CR 70 . NY 285 was little more than a connector between NY 69 and Thompson Corners , as it did not pass through any other areas of interest .
NY 285 initially extended from Taberg to the hamlet of Florence when it was assigned as part of the 1930 renumbering of state highways in New York . It was truncated to Thompson Corners c . 1935 , but extended slightly in the 1960s when NY 69 was realigned to bypass Taberg . Ownership and maintenance of NY 285 was transferred to Oneida County on September 1 , 1988 , and the NY 285 designation was removed just over two months later . The route is now County Route 70A .
= = Route description = =
NY 285 began at an intersection with NY 69 southwest of the hamlet of Taberg in the town of Annsville . The route headed northward , intersecting with Main Street , which connected NY 285 to Taberg . Here , NY 285 turned to the northwest and became Taberg – Florence Road . Just outside Taberg , the route passed Saint Patrick 's Cemetery , as well as the remains of an old Protestant cemetery situated directly across NY 285 from it . As it continued northwestward through a rural portion of Oneida County , NY 285 passed a junkyard near the intersection with Pond Hill Road . Past an intersection with Carlisle Road , NY 285 entered a state reforestation area . As such , the surrounding landscape became mostly forested areas . Near the center of the reforestation area , the highway intersected with Skinner Settlement Road ( CR 85 ) . After passing over Corkin Hill , NY 285 headed downhill into the town of Florence .
After crossing into Florence , NY 285 remained in the reforestation area , and continued towards Thompson Corners on a linear , northwesterly routing . It passed Greely Cemetery , then continued to Thompson Corners , a very small community in southeastern Florence . NY 285 terminated here at an intersection with Empeyville Road ( CR 67A ) and Wolcott Hill Road ( CR 70 ) . CR 70 turned northwest at this junction to follow NY 285 's right @-@ of @-@ way to the hamlet of Florence and eventually to the Oneida County line .
= = History = =
NY 285 was assigned as part of the 1930 renumbering of state highways in New York to a highway connecting NY 69 ( Main Street ) in Taberg to the isolated hamlet of Florence in the town of the same name via Thompson Corners . The route was truncated southeastward to Thompson Corners c . 1935 . In the early 1960s , NY 69 was rerouted to follow a new purpose @-@ built highway that bypassed most of Taberg to the south . Most of NY 69 's original alignment through the hamlet was transferred to the town of Annsville ; however , its former western approach into Taberg along Taberg Road was realigned to meet the bypass and became a short extension of NY 285 .
On September 1 , 1988 , ownership and maintenance of NY 285 was transferred from the state of New York to Oneida County . The portion of the exchange relating to NY 285 was described in New York State Highway Law as follows , with annotations in brackets :
... to transfer to the county of Oneida for future maintenance as part of the county highway system in Oneida and to issue official orders of abandonment of those portions of highway described as follows : " beginning at a point on or near state highway five thousand one hundred thirty @-@ nine [ NY 69 ] , west of the hamlet of Taberg , thence running generally northwesterly to a county highway in or near the hamlet of Thompson Corners .
In return , the state of New York assumed maintenance over a portion of River Street ( CR 32 ) that connected NY 69 in Oriskany to NY 49 in Marcy . This highway became NY 922E , an unsigned reference route . Meanwhile , the NY 285 designation remained in place until November 4 , 1988 , when it was officially removed from the highway . The former routing of NY 285 became CR 70A , a spur of the pre @-@ existing CR 70 .
= = Major intersections = =
The entire route was in Oneida County .
|
= Ich bin vergnügt mit meinem Glücke , BWV 84 =
Ich bin vergnügt mit meinem Glücke ( I am content in my good fortune ) , BWV 84 , is a church cantata by Johann Sebastian Bach . He composed the solo cantata for soprano in Leipzig in 1727 for the Sunday Septuagesima , and led the first performance , probably on 9 February 1727 .
Bach composed the work in his fourth year as Thomaskantor in Leipzig . The text is similar to a cantata text Ich bin vergnügt mit meinem Stande ( I am content with my position ) , which Picander published in 1728 , but it is not certain that he wrote also the cantata text . Its thoughts about being content are in the spirit of the beginning Enlightenment , expressed in simple language . The closing chorale is the 12th stanza of the hymn " Wer weiß , wie nahe mir mein Ende " by Ämilie Juliane von Schwarzburg @-@ Rudolstadt . Ich bin vergnügt mit meinem Glücke is one of the few works which Bach called " Cantata " himself .
Bach structured the work in five movements , alternating arias and recitatives , and a closing chorale . The scoring requires only a small ensemble of a soprano soloist , three additional vocal parts for the chorale , and a Baroque instrumental ensemble of oboe , strings and basso continuo . While the first aria is pensive and elegiac , the second aria is of dancing folk @-@ like character .
= = History and words = =
Bach wrote the solo cantata in Leipzig , in his fourth year as Thomaskantor ( director of church music ) in Leipzig , for the third Sunday before Lent , called Septuagesima . The prescribed readings for the Sunday were taken from the First Epistle to the Corinthians , " race for victory " ( 1 Corinthians 9 : 24 – 10 : 5 ) , and from the Gospel of Matthew , the parable of the Workers in the Vineyard ( Matthew 20 : 1 – 16 ) . Bach had already composed two cantatas for the occasion in earlier years , Nimm , was dein ist , und gehe hin , BWV 144 , in 1724 , and the chorale cantata Ich hab in Gottes Herz und Sinn , BWV 92 , in 1725 . Ich bin vergnügt mit meinem Glücke is one of the few works which Bach called " Cantata " himself .
As in the earlier years , the cantata text is related to the gospel in the general way that the Christian should be content with his share of good fortune , without envy of others who may seem more fortunate . The title and the text show similarities to Picander 's Ich bin vergnügt mit meinem Stande ( I am content with my position ) , published in 1728 . It is unclear if both texts are by Picander , or if Picander based his on a former one , or if Picander 's was already available at the time of the composition but was changed . As the Bach scholar Klaus Hofmann observes , the thoughts are in the spirit of the beginning Enlightenment , " praise of frugality , of modesty with that which God has allocated to us , of satisfaction , of lack of envy towards others " . The language is no longer the " rhetorical pathos of baroque poetry " , but " radicality and artistry of the imagery . The language is simple and terse ; it is rational rather than figurative . "
The closing chorale is the 12th stanza of the funeral hymn " Wer weiß , wie nahe mir mein Ende " by Ämilie Juliane von Schwarzburg @-@ Rudolstadt ( 1686 ) . Bach had used its first stanza in his cantatas Wo gehest du hin ? BWV 166 ( 1724 ) and in Wer weiß , wie nahe mir mein Ende ? BWV 27 ( 1726 ) .
Bach led the first performance , probably on 9 February 1727 .
= = Scoring and structure = =
Bach structured the cantata in five movements . A sequence of alternating arias and recitatives is concluded by a chorale . Bach scored the work for soprano soloist , a four @-@ part choir only in the chorale , and a Baroque instrumental ensemble of oboe ( Ob ) , two violins ( Vl ) , viola ( Va ) , and basso continuo . The heading of the autograph score reads : " J.J. Dominica Septuagesimae Cantata " , which means : " Jesus help . Cantata for the Sunday Septuagesima " . Bach added a more precise extra page : " Dominica Septuages . / Ich bin vergnügt mit meinem Glücke / à / Soprano Solo è / 3 Ripieni / 1 Hautbois / 2 Violini / Viola / e Continuo / di / Joh : Seb : Bach " . The scoring is modest , appropriate for the weeks leading to Lent . The duration is given as about 15 minutes .
In the following table of the movements , the scoring follows the Neue Bach @-@ Ausgabe . The keys and time signatures are taken from the book on all cantatas by the Bach scholar Alfred Dürr , using the symbol for common time ( 4 / 4 ) . The continuo , playing throughout , is not shown .
= = Music = =
Although the vocal and instrumental parts are limited , Bach achieves variety by movements of different instrumentation and character .
= = = 1 = = =
The opening aria , " Ich bin vergnügt mit meinem Glücke , das mir der liebe Gott beschert . " ( I am content with the fortune that my dear God bestows on me . ) , is slow and pensive , accompanied by all instruments , reminiscent of the slow movement of an oboe concerto . John Eliot Gardiner , who conducted in 2000 the Bach Cantata Pilgrimage , noted in the project diary that Bach , who possibly was not content with his situation in Leipzig , composed music portraying " ambivalence and complexity " . His music is " dynamic and fluctuating " , capturing " wistful , resigned , elegiac " moods . The musicologist Julian Mincham notes that the aria compares to Ich bin in mir vergnügt , BWV 204 ( I am content in myself ) which he describes as " also a highly personal work for solo soprano with a similar theme , exploring comparable human emotions " .
= = = 2 = = =
The first recitative , " Gott ist mir ja nichts schuldig " ( God indeed owes me nothing ) , is secco .
= = = 3 = = =
The second aria , " Ich esse mit Freuden mein weniges Brot und gönne dem Nächsten von Herzen das Seine . " ( I eat my little bit of bread with joy and heartily leave to my neighbor his own . ) , is dancing and accompanied by two obbligato parts , oboe and violin . They express in vivid figuration in the violin and a slightly simplified version in the oboe the text " ein fröhlicher Geist , ein dankbares Herze , das lobet und preist " ( a happy spirit , a thankful heart , that gives praise ) . Hofmann observes that the aria depicts a " pastoral idyll with a rustic musical scene – a tribute to the Enlightenment utopia of simple , happy country life . " The violin 's figuration suggests the drone of bagpipes or hurdy @-@ gurdy . The voice leaps in upward sixths , in " folk @-@ like character " and conveying " contented tranquillity " . Mincham notes that the first four notes of the oboe ritornello are the first four notes of the closing chorale turned to major .
= = = 4 = = =
The second recitative , " Im Schweiße meines Angesichts will ich indes mein Brot genießen " ( In the sweat of my brow I will meanwhile enjoy my bread ) , is accompanied by the strings .
= = = 5 = = =
The chorale , " Ich leb indes in dir vergnüget und sterb ohn alle Kümmernis " ( Meanwhile I live contented in You and die without any trouble ) , is a four @-@ part setting of the tune " Wer nur den lieben Gott lässt walten " by Georg Neumark . Gardiner interprets the marking a soprano solo e a 3 ripieni ( for soprano and three ripieno parts ) as meaning that no instruments play colla parte with the voices .
= = Selected recordings = =
The listing is taken from the selection provided on the Bach @-@ Cantatas website . In the following table , large choirs and orchestras are marked by red background , ensembles playing on period instruments in historically informed performance are marked by a green background under the header Instr ..
|
= Kumari 21F =
Kumari 21F is a 2015 Indian Telugu @-@ language drama film directed by Palnati Surya Pratap , and written and co @-@ produced by Sukumar with Vijay Bandreddi and Thomas Reddy under their banners Sukumar Writings and P. A. Motion Pictures . Devi Sri Prasad composed the film 's music and R. Rathnavelu was its director of photography . Kumari 21F focuses on a romantic relationship between Siddhu , a chef and Kumari , a struggling model . Siddhu 's friends doubt Kumari 's character and she rejects his proposal , citing a lack of maturity . The film 's centrepiece revolves around Siddhu 's realisation and his attempts to unite with Kumari after an incident .
The film was produced on a budget of ₹ 60 — 150 million . Sukumar took inspiration from his college days in Razole where a young woman went to a picnic with some young men ; a major undertaking for a woman at that time , which earned her the undeserved label of a " loose " character . Raj Tarun and Hebah Patel were signed to play the roles of Siddhu and Kumari . Neither Prasad nor Rathnavelu was charged remuneration for the film . Principal photography commenced in December 2014 and was finished in 70 working days ; according to Rathnavelu , lighting played a key role during the filming process and digital low lighting photography techniques were used .
Kumari 21F was released worldwide on 20 November 2015 in about 500 screens . It received critical acclaim ; praise was directed towards the film 's climax , performances , cinematography and music . Kumari 21F grossed ₹ 380 million and earned a distributor share of ₹ 180 million during its run . It was declared a commercial success based on the return on distributor 's investment of ₹ 100 million and became the 12th highest grossing Telugu film of the year .
= = Plot = =
Siddhu is a chef leading a middle class life with his mother in K.G.B. colony . His father Ravikanth is accused of having an extra @-@ marital affair that leads to the separation of his parents . Siddhu aims to be a chef on a cruise liner in Singapore and his financial status does not support him . His friends Shankar , Srinu and Suresh steal money from people who use the local ATM ; they hide in some local ruins for three days and Siddhu cooks for them and provides liquor , receiving a share of the money in return .
Siddhu meets Kumari , a struggling model from Mumbai who has recently moved to the colony . They fall in love ; Siddhu is often confused by Kumari 's bold and daring attitude . His friends tell Siddhu is not Kumari 's first boyfriend and she may have had past relationships . Siddhu grows suspicious about her virginity and Kumari realises this . She rejects his marriage proposal , saying he does not have the maturity to love her .
Siddhu tries to make Kumari jealous by romancing his neighbour Madhu , but his ploy fails . Kumari continues to love him unconditionally ; her attitude confuses Siddhu . Siddhu 's friends discover Kumari is actually Meena , a Mumbai @-@ based model who was caught in a police raid at a brothel . She rejects their sexual advances , which angers them . Siddhu refuses to leave her , further angering the trio .
After an ATM robbery , the trio escapes and Srinu loses his cellphone ; Kumari finds it and hands it to the police . The trio shelter in the ruins ; when Siddhu meets them , Shankar reveals that Kumari is actually Meena and shares a video of a press meet issued by the Mumbai police that features her and others linked to a prostitution case . Kumari rejects Siddhu 's advances that night ; the following day , he discovers his father never had an extra @-@ marital relationship and his mother misunderstood . To make sure Siddhu is happy , Kumari asks him to visit her that night to fulfill his desire .
The trio reach Kumari 's house before Siddhu , sedate her with narcotics mixed with juice and rape her . Siddhu arrives to propose to her and finds the trio there . After chasing them away , he reads Kumari 's letter that makes him recognise his lack of maturity . He starts rearranging everything to make sure Kumari is not aware of the assault . He sees blood stains on her sari and assumes she is a virgin . He removes the sari , washes away the stains , and puts it back . When Kumari gains consciousness , Siddhu tells her she fell asleep after the trio left and he was waiting for her . She is suspicious but Siddhu persuades her and proposes marriage her , to which she agrees .
The police arrests Siddhu and interrogates him to find the whereabouts of his friends , which he refuses to reveal . He is released from jail and marries Kumari . Three years later , Siddhu is running a kitchen in Hyderabad and the inspector plans to close the case because he could not find the trio . It is revealed that Siddhu has chained them in the ruins and has been feeding and torturing them for the past three years ; they beg him to kill them . The film ends with Siddhu beating the trio after feeding them and saying he is not mature enough to forgive them .
= = Cast = =
Raj Tarun as Siddhu
Hebah Patel as Meena Kumari
Noel Sean as Shankar
Naveen Neni as Suresh
Sudharshan as Sollu Srinu
Hema as Siddhu 's mother
Bhanu as Madhu
= = Production = =
= = = Development = = =
In October 2014 , Sukumar announced he would co @-@ produce a film along with Vijay Bandreddi and Thomas Reddy under the banner P.A. Motion pictures . P. Surya Pratap , who made his directorial debut with Current ( 2009 ) , was chosen to direct this film . Sukumar titled the film Kumari 21F because it is about a 21 @-@ year @-@ old woman named Kumari . He said it is not a female @-@ centric film and both the lead roles , for which Raj Tarun and Sheena Bajaj were chose , would be equally important . Tarun charged a remuneration of ₹ 25 million .
Sukumar wrote the film 's story and screenplay , taking inspiration from his college days in Razole where a young woman went to a picnic with some young men ; a major undertaking for a woman at the time . Rumours were spread and the woman was labelled as a " loose " character , which stayed in Sukumar 's mind . He defined Kumari as an " honest and genuine human being who isn 't afraid of expressing herself " and the " sort of girl most people would know " , despite going overboard at times with her characterisation during the scripting stage .
Sukumar 's technicians Devi Sri Prasad and R. Rathnavelu were signed as the film 's music composer and director of photography respectively . In an interview with Behindwoods in December 2014 , Rathnavelu said the necessity of rejuvenating himself after Lingaa ( 2014 ) , the film 's script and his friendship with Sukumar were the reasons for choosing to work for this film . Neither Rathnavelu nor Prasad charged any remuneration for the film . Hebah Patel replaced Bajaj after the makers were impressed with her performance in Ala Ela ( 2015 ) . Patel went through many workshops for her role that occupied 80 % of the screen space ; her voice was dubbed by Lipsika . Tarun did little preparation for his role because he felt it was " brilliantly conceived " and an extension of the roles he played in Uyyala Jampala ( 2014 ) and Cinema Choopistha Maava ( 2015 ) .
= = = Filming = = =
Kumari 21F was produced on a budget of ₹ 60 — 150 million . The film 's principal photography commenced in December 2014 , and was finished in 70 working days . Initially , Krishna Nagar , Hyderabad , was chosen as the film 's backdrop . Rathnavelu felt they would create a noisy , crowded environment if shot there and chose to shoot in an isolated colony and in confined spaces . 60 % of the film was shot at the R & B colony in Malakpet , Hyderabad . The song " Bang Bang Bangkok " was filmed in picturesque locales in Bangkok , and was choreographed by Prasad . Prasad said he composed a few signature steps during the composition of the song , which Sukumar and Rathnavelu liked . They wanted him choreograph the song .
According to Rathnavelu , lighting played a key role in Kumari 21F . He shot the film with limited equipment and mostly used natural light . The experience he gained working on Haridas ( 2013 ) helped him with this film ; he used Digital low lighting photography techniques , thereby using 80 % of the generally required lighting . He found the climax sequences challenging to film because the emphasis was more on visuals rather than dialogue . Patel said of her experience during the filming of some intimate sequences , " There were so many people on the sets , so it was obviously uncomfortable . But then , I got myself mentally prepared for this kind of thing in a workshop I had undergone before the shoot . It also helped that I became good friends with Raj Tarun and that made things way less awkward " . Tarun said he and Patel " put in a part of us into the characters to make the romance more believable " .
= = Music = =
The official soundtrack was composed by Devi Sri Prasad and consists of five songs . Lyrics were written by Ramanjaneyulu , Krishna Kanth and Chandrabose for one song each . Prasad wrote the lyrics for " Bang Bang Bangkok " , which he sang with Ranina Reddy and Rita . A lyric from the song , " Good boy goes to heaven , Bad boy goes to Bangkok " , was well received . For " Meghaalu Lekunna " , which was sung by Yazin Nisar , Sri Mani wrote the pallavi and Anantha Sreeram wrote the charanams . " Meghaalu Lekunna " was recorded using a live orchestra , which Nisar found " rare these days " . The soundtrack album was released on 31 October 2015 at Shilpakala Vedika , Hyderabad , with actor Allu Arjun attending the event as the guest of honour . Aditya Music marketed the soundtrack album .
Karthik Srinivasan of The Hindu said the song " Meghaalu Lekunna " , " sounds at best like the Telugu version of a song by the Hindi pop band Euphoria " , that the tune is " similarly lush and folkish " , and that Prasad does " some interesting things in the interludes — the use of violins and solo @-@ violin in the first and second interludes , to be specific " . Madhavi Tata of Outlook India called Prasad 's music , particularly " Love Cheyyala Vadda " ( " To love or not to " ) , a " winner " . The Times of India gave the soundtrack 2 stars out of 5 and said the album " falls desperately short " of the standards expected from Prasad . The reviewer called " Meghaalu Lekunna " a " beautiful and melodious track , courtesy the tantalising acoustic guitar , violin and flute sounds " , and praised Nisar 's rendition of it .
Track listing
= = Release = =
Kumari 21F was released worldwide on 20 November 2015 ; its release clashed with those of Cheekati Raajyam , the Telugu version of Thoongaa Vanam and the 24th James Bond film Spectre . Kumari 21F was released in 350 screens in Andhra Pradesh and Telangana , 50 screens in other parts of India , and 90 screens in international markets . Abhishek Pictures acquired the theatrical distribution rights for the Guntur , Krishna , East , West and Nellore areas . Dil Raju acquired the theatrical rights for the Nizam region . New York @-@ based company Creative Cinemas acquired the film 's United States theatrical distribution rights , making it their debut in film distribution in the international market .
The film was screened in 22 screens across Tamil Nadu , including 12 in Chennai . It received an " A " ( Adults only ) certificate from the Central Board of Film Certification , which asked the makers to trim a lip @-@ kissing sequence and mute several objectionable lines of dialogue , and suggested a few cuts . Regarding the Board 's decision against unrestricted viewing , Sukumar said , " Even a father was once a young boy . I think this story gives him the space to both identify with his feelings as a young man and to understand what his son or daughter might be going through " .
= = = Marketing = = =
One of the first @-@ look posters released in October 2015 was alleged to have been plagiarised from the Russian magazine Chai @-@ llot . After the film 's first @-@ look teaser was released by N. T. Rama Rao Jr . , the makers announced a dubsmash challenge . Interested female participants were asked to search for an audio clip uploaded by the film 's team and upload it on their Facebook pages . They were asked to e @-@ mail the link or send a message on Facebook . The first 500 participants won invitations to the soundtrack launch event and 21 participants with most likes on their videos shared the stage with the film 's cast and crew at the event . One winner was crowned " Kumari 21F " and received a special gift .
= = Reception = =
= = = Critical reception = = =
Karthik Keramalu of CNN @-@ IBN gave Kumari 21F 3 @.@ 5 stars out of 5 and called it a " surprisingly good " film , adding , " The emotions of the leads are true and it rightly says that at the end of the day trust is all that matters and nothing else comes into the picture " . Sify gave the film 3 stars out of 5 and called it a " coming @-@ of @-@ age story told in bold manner with an unusual climax " , and praised the film 's music and cinematography . Siddharth Rao of The Times of India also gave the film 3 stars out of 5 and stated , " In an industry where a damsel @-@ in @-@ distress @-@ wooed @-@ and @-@ saved @-@ by @-@ an @-@ angry @-@ young @-@ man is the norm , this is a refreshing film which provokes some thought " . Rao also said , " The best part is the way that the film 's climax is presented ; the director Surya Pratap has definitely done a very mature job " .
The Hans India also gave the film 3 stars out of 5 and stated , " Sukumar popularly known as a creative director in the industry , has once again come out with an unusual story . The film may disappoint normal audience but it will surely entertain the youth audience " . Suresh Kavirayani of Deccan Chronicle gave the film 3 stars out of 5 , called it a " [ b ] old and beautiful " one and praised the performances and the film 's climax . Giving 2 @.@ 75 stars out of 5 , Behindwoods also called the film " [ b ] old and beautiful " and stated , " Kumari 21F starts off as a feel good romantic film , shifts gears slowly and gets very intense towards the end ... Sukumar must be credited for having given us a memorable character that would be talked about for years . You don ’ t find such bold female characters in Telugu cinema often . "
Y. Sunita Chowdary of The Hindu called the film " [ r ] egressive and cliched " , and stated , " It 's not enough if a canvas boasts of the biggest names in the industry , the content should be simple and progressive " . She called the performances " strong and authentic " . A. Harini Prasad of The New Indian Express called Kumari 21F a " Lacklustre Love Story " and stated , " Though the basic theme is enticing , the story @-@ telling fails to impress . Raj Tharun ’ s performance and the climax , which is gripping , are probably the only things that could drive you to the theaters " .
= = = Box office = = =
Kumari 21F debuted with an average occupancy of 80 % globally ; it grossed more than ₹ 30 million with a distributor share of more than ₹ 20 million , out of which approximately ₹ 56 @,@ 69 @,@ 014 was collected from Guntur , Krishna , East , West and Nellore areas . It collected US $ 27 @,@ 153 from 80 screens in the US on the first day . In its first weekend , Kumari 21F grossed ₹ 85 million with a distributor share of ₹ 55 million at the AP / Nizam box office . According to trade analyst Taran Adarsh , it grossed US $ 149 @,@ 752 ( ₹ 9 @.@ 9 million ) in its first weekend at the North American box office . The first weekend global gross and share figures stood at ₹ 105 @.@ 8 million and ₹ 63 @.@ 4 million respectively . It collected US $ 188 @,@ 457 ( ₹ 12 @.@ 5 million ) at the US box office in its first weekend , becoming one of the highest grossing Telugu films of the year there .
In ten days , Kumari 21F grossed ₹ 174 million and collected a distributor share of ₹ 106 @.@ 6 million at the AP / Nizam box office . It grossed ₹ 23 million with a distributor share of ₹ 0 @.@ 85 million at the Karnataka box office . The ten @-@ day global gross figure stood at ₹ 210 million and Kumari 21F was declared a profitable venture . After losing screens to Size Zero and Shankaraabharanam , Kumari 21F collected US $ 3 @,@ 190 from eight screens in the US and its 17 @-@ day total stood at US $ 252 @,@ 151 ( ₹ 16 @.@ 8 million ) . Its US screen count was reduced to four in its fourth week and the 24 @-@ day US revenue was US $ 253 @,@ 961 ( ₹ 17 million ) . With this , Kumari 21F secured the tenth position in the list of the ten highest @-@ grossing Telugu films of the year at the US box office .
In its lifetime , Kumari 21F grossed ₹ 380 million and earned a distributor share of ₹ 180 million worldwide . It was declared a commercial success based on the return on distributor 's investment of ₹ 100 million and became the 12th highest grossing Telugu film of the year .
|
= Fly on the Wall ( song ) =
" Fly on the Wall " is a song recorded by American recording artist Miley Cyrus for her second studio album , Breakout ( 2008 ) . It was released as the third and final single from the album on February 27 , 2009 by Hollywood Records . The song contains pop rock , dance @-@ pop and synthpop elements . The song 's lyrics have been interpreted in a number of ways , such as a description of an abusive boyfriend . In actuality , Cyrus says the song describes paparazzi and their extensive personal privacy invasions .
The song received critical praise , with several critics claiming it defied teen pop expectations and was Breakout 's best track . Despite only reaching number eighty @-@ four on the United States chart Billboard Hot 100 , " Fly on the Wall " performed better commercially in various European regions . " Fly on the Wall " reached its highest international peak on the UK Singles Chart , at number sixteen . The single 's music video was directed by Philip Andelman and premiered on FNMTV . The " Thriller " inspired video takes place mainly in a parking garage in which Cyrus encounters and attempts to escape the paparazzi . Cyrus promoted the song through several venues , including a performance on her second headlining tour , the Wonder World Tour , that incorporated a short segment of the " Thriller " dance . Cyrus also performed the song in the Gypsy Heart Tour . The song , along with " Start All Over " and " " Who Owns My Heart " are the only singles released by Cyrus that haven 't been certified at least platinum in the United States .
= = Background = =
The song 's lyrics , written by Cyrus , Antonina Armato , Tim James and Devrim Karaoglu , have been mistakenly interpreted in a variety of ways . The song 's protagonist sings in first person perspective while condemning an unspecified subject for wanting to invade her privacy . The majority of reviewers thought the protagonist was referring to a " controlling boyfriend " . Ben Ratliff of The New York Times sided with the boyfriend , and believed the song 's protagonist was " bullying some poor boy for the sin of wanting to know what she talks about with her friends . " Sarah Rodman of The Boston Globe believed the song could have described a number of subjects , such as " a former boyfriend , the media , and even her fans . " However , in an interview with Jocelyn Vena of MTV News , Cyrus said the song was about " the media " and " how they think they know everything about [ her ] , when they don 't . They want to be a fly on my wall and watch [ her ] 24 / 7 . " Cyrus elaborated on the concept in an interview with Nancy O 'Dell of Access Hollywood . She stated ,
" Paparazzi . I wrote it for the media , always feeling like they need to be in my life . Sometimes they just wish that they could blend in and be there all the time . And that they might know me a little bit better if they were in my house , in my room and my different places . So , it 's like going to different spots and trying to get away from them and it 's not going away like little annoying flies . "
= = Composition = =
" Fly on the Wall " is a pop rock song with strong uses of electric guitars , keyboards and soprano vocals . Influences derive from electronic music and industrial music . It is set in common time with a moderately fast rock tempo of 143 beats per minute . The song is written in the key of G minor . Cyrus ' vocals spans two octaves , from G3 to D5 . The song has the following chord progression , G5 — D — Gm7 . The song 's chorus has the use of a vocal hook ; the hook sings , " fly on the wall " .
= = Critical reception = =
" Fly on the Wall " received critical acclaim . Heather Phares of Allmusic said the song was a " G @-@ rated version " of Britney Spears ' song " Toxic " and provided hints of Cyrus ' future musical direction . Sarah Rodman of The Boston Globe said " Fly on the Wall " was a change of pace for Cyrus and called it " the album 's most interesting tune . " Mikael Wood of The Los Angeles Times said the song is a result of regular Walt Disney Company standards , yet " the CD 's best cut . " Along with " Full Circle , " Sal Cinquemani of Slant Magazine said the song was a " more worthy " follow @-@ up to " See You Again . " Mordechai Shinefield of The Village Voice stated the song was " blazingly brilliant " and that it was " the best , angriest song [ on Breakout ] . " Johnny Dee of Virgin Media said the song and " 7 Things " were " feisty pop belters " that would encourage a long @-@ term career . Ratliff negatively compared " Fly on the Wall " to the Pussycat Dolls and said that although Cyrus ' voice is generally rich with a deep range , it became " pinched and stingy " in the single . However , he also said the song was " teen @-@ accurate " .
= = Chart performance = =
For the week ending August 9 , 2008 , " Fly on the Wall " charted at number 69 on Hot Digital Songs due to the release of Breakout , but failed to reach the Billboard Hot 100 ; the following week , the song completely fell from the sales chart . During late 2008 , the song reached its peak on several US charts , reaching number 72 in Hot 100 Airplay , and 64 in the Pop 100 and Pop 100 Airplay . For the week ending January 10 , 2009 , the song debuted and peaked at number 83 in the Hot 100 due to airplay , falling from the chart in the succeeding week . In the Canadian Hot 100 , the peaked and debuted at number 73 on the week ending August 9 , 2008 due to digital downloads . It then ascended and descended the Canadian Hot 100 before reaching its last week , ending on February 7 , 2009 .
The song was more successful in European nations . For the week ending January 1 , 2009 , " Fly on the Wall " debuted on the UK Singles Chart at number 90 . Throughout January and February 2009 , the song moved up , finding new peaks for four consecutive weeks . For the week ending February 28 , the song ascended to number sixteen and became Cyrus ' second best charting single in the United Kingdom . It then slid several spots down , until its last week on the singles chart at number 86 , for the week ending April 4 . In the European Hot 100 , " Fly on the Wall " peaked at number fifty @-@ seven on the week ending March 7 , 2009 and spent a total of five weeks on the chart . For the week ending January 29 in the Irish Singles Chart , the song debuted at number 49 . Weeks later , the song reached its peak at number 23 before falling off the chart on March 12 . In Austria , the song debuted and peaked on the week ending March 18 at number 57 and fell from the chart after two weeks . It spent seven weeks on the German Singles Chart , where it debuted and peaked at 62 .
= = Music video = =
In an interview with MTV News , director Philip Andelman explained that Cyrus was already determined to poke fun at the paparazzi when she contacted him for a " Fly on the Wall " music video . Andelman did not want to create " something too serious " and worked to give the video a " playful " aspect . Cyrus elaborated on the concept of the music video in an interview with Nancy O 'Dell of Access Hollywood . Cyrus said ,
" The concept is kind of ' Thriller ' -esque [ sic ] . It 's kind of like where the paparazzi become these zombies and they 're all like attacking me . And my boyfriend is trying to save me , but I don 't know if he 's a paparazzi too . So , it 's like me trying to hide and get away . It 's really fun , but I 'm escaping from my boyfriend and escaping from the paparazzi and trying to find my way through the whole video . "
The video commences with a short segment of dramatic music . It then focuses on Cyrus , wearing a white tank top , jeans , boots and a black leather jacket , and her boyfriend leaving a movie theater and discussing the movie they saw . Suddenly , Cyrus ' boyfriend begins to cough as a full moon emerges from behind the clouds . Cyrus is confused , then horrified as she watches him transform into a paparazzi , and runs away from him as he shouts " Miley , come here ! I just want a couple of shots ! " and tries to snap pictures of her . The music of " Fly on the Wall " begins as Cyrus runs into a parking garage and tries to hide behind a pillar and a black Mercedes @-@ Benz SLR McLaren . As soon as Cyrus tries to move away from the car , a mob of paparazzi begins to chase her with their cameras . Throughout much of the video , Cyrus runs and hides from the mob . Clips interspaced throughout the video feature her in a long silver shirt and jeans singing and dancing in front of the Mercedes . Eventually , Cyrus is cornered by the paparazzi . She is scared , but then surprised and perplexed when the mob unexpectedly begins to dance in a synchronized manner . Her boyfriend , appearing normal , then arrives in the Mercedes to rescue her . Inside the car , Cyrus describes her strange encounter with the paparazzi to him . Unknown to Cyrus , her boyfriend has planted a video camera in the car ; the music video concludes with a shot of the website he posts the video on beneath the headline , " Miley Cyrus Bugs at Paparazzi ! ! ! " The music video to " Fly on the Wall " was first seen on December 5 , 2008 on MTV 's FNMTV . The video is inspired by Michael Jackson 's iconic music video , " Thriller " , but trades zombies for paparazzi . MTV also compared the " Fly on the Wall " video for those for " Circus " by Britney Spears and " Rumors " by Lindsay Lohan .
= = Live performances = =
Cyrus first performed the song at the opening ceremony of the 2008 Disney Channel Games on May 4 , 2008 . The performance had Cyrus in a red coat and was later used a promotional music video on Disney Channel . On May 17 , 2008 , she performed the song at the 2008 Zootopia . On July 18 , 2008 the song was performed in a concert series for Good Morning America along with " Breakout , " " 7 Things " and " Bottom of the Ocean . " During the performance , Cyrus wore a plaid shirt , mini @-@ shorts and boots . On August 1 , 2008 , Cyrus performed " Fly on the Wall " on FNMTV . On November 21 , it was sung at the 2008 American Music Awards . A critic from ABC stated that Cyrus " fearlessly embraced new creative directions " with her performance of " Fly on the Wall . " On November 25 , Cyrus performed the song on the season finale of Dancing with the Stars . On New Year 's Eve of 2008 , Cyrus wore a white T @-@ shirt , pants , boots and a plaid jacket to present FNMTV 's New Year 's Special with Pete Wentz . She opened the episode by performing the song , paired with " 7 Things . " On January 19 , 2009 , the song was performed at the Kids ' Inaugural : " We Are the Future " event in celebration of Barack Obama 's inauguration . For the event , she had an abundance of background dancers , and Cyrus wore a casual patterned gray T @-@ shirt , black pants , and boots . She also performed the song in London in an Apple Store . The set , with some songs by Cyrus ' father , was sold exclusively by the United Kingdom iTunes Store as an extended play titled iTunes Live from London . On June 7 , 2009 at the twentieth annual A Time for Heroes Celebrity Carnival , Cyrus performed " Fly on the Wall " .
" Fly on the Wall " was one of the songs on the set list of Cyrus ' first international concert tour , the Wonder World Tour . The performance began with two overhead screens displaying a frog catching a fly while two acrobats scaled imaginary walls . Cyrus and her dancers then emerged from a green tractor to begin the song . She wore an extravagant white dress with a feathered back and used elaborate choreography . At one point during the performance , Cyrus unexpectedly flew over the crowd for a few seconds . At the conclusion , Cyrus and her background dancers grouped together to perform a segment of the dance from Michael Jackson 's " Thriller " music video . She performed it at the Rock in Rio concert in Lisbon , Portugal on May 29 , 2010 and Madrid , Spain on June 4 , 2010 .
Cyrus performed the song during the Gypsy Heart Tour .
= = Release history = =
= = Charts = =
|
= Wake Up / Escape from the Citadel =
" Wake Up " and " Escape from the Citadel " are the first two episodes of the sixth season of the American animated television series Adventure Time . " Wake Up " was written and storyboarded by Andy Ristaino and Cole Sanchez , whereas " Escape from the Citadel " was storyboarded by Tom Herpich and Steve Wolfhard . Both episodes ' stories were developed by Kent Osborne , Pendleton Ward , Jack Pendarvis , and Adam Muto . The two episodes originally aired on Cartoon Network on April 21 , 2014 . The episodes guest star Kumail Nanjiani as Prismo , M. Emmet Walsh as the Cosmic Owl , Miguel Ferrer as Death , Ron Perlman as the Lich , and Stephen Root as Martin .
The series follows the adventures of Finn ( voiced by Jeremy Shada ) , a human boy , and his best friend and adoptive brother Jake ( voiced by John DiMaggio ) , a dog with magical powers to change shape and grow and shrink at will . In " Wake Up " , Finn and Jake try to commit a cosmic crime in order to gain access to a multiverse prison called the Citadel to meet Finn 's father is trapped . Prismo ( voiced by Nanjiani ) offers to help them , but he is murdered by the Lich ( voiced by Perlman ) . In " Escape from the Citadel " , Jake , Finn , and the Lich are transported to the Citadel , where Finn and Jake meet Martin ( voiced by Root ) , Finn 's father , who is not what Finn expected . The three are forced to run from the Lich , as he begins to destroy the Citadel . At this time , Martin flees , and Finn tries to give chase , but his grass sword takes over his entire arm , causing Finn to lose it . Despite Finn 's loss of his father and limb , Finn and Jake are vindicated when the Lich is turned into a giant baby .
Both " Wake Up " and " Escape from the Citadel " , were met with critical acclaim . Robert Lloyd of the Los Angeles Times felt that the episode was exciting , whereas Oliver Sava of The A.V. Club applauded the episode 's use of humor as a way of balancing out the heavier aspects of the plot . Many of the reviews also praised Nanjiani 's return as Prismo . Reviews were also complimentary towards the darker nature of " Escape from the Citadel " . Both episodes were watched by 3 @.@ 321 million viewers .
= = Plot = =
= = = " Wake Up " = = =
Jake is partying with Prismo ( voiced by Kumail Nanjiani ) . At the party , Peppermint Butler ( voiced by Steve Little ) and Death ( voiced by Miguel Ferrer ) note that the Lich ( voiced by Ron Perlman ) is sitting ominously in the corner . Prismo explains that , after the events of an earlier episode , the Lich , an entity driven by the pursuit of causing mass death , is now harmless , functioning like a machine without a purpose . Later , Finn confronts Jake about the revelation that his father is still alive . Jake convinces him to ask Prismo to send them to the Citadel . Prismo explains that the only way to gain access to the Citadel is to commit a cosmic crime ; he instructs Finn and Jake to find and wake a certain old man who is asleep in the debris surrounding his Time Room .
It is revealed that this man is the actual , corporeal Prismo , and the version Finn and Jake are familiar with is merely a dream . Prismo explains that killing a wishmaster — as in , waking up the man — is a cosmic crime , but that he will return when his corporal body falls back asleep . At that instant , the Lich springs into action , physically waking and destroying Prismo , killing him . Suddenly , an interdimensional being arrives and begins taking the Lich to the Citadel , to which Finn and Jake give chase .
= = = " Escape from the Citadel " = = =
Finn and Jake grab hold of the captured Lich as he is transported to the Citadel . Once there , they discover a human figure encased in a crystal @-@ like substance , who they conclude must be Finn 's father . Meanwhile , the Lich uses his malevolent magic to begin melting the Citadel and turning its prisoners to his will . Finn 's father , Martin ( voiced by Stephen Root ) , is eventually freed by the Lich 's actions , and as the Citadel guardians battle the escaping prisoners he , Finn , and Jake try to escape . One of the Citadel guardians , however , uses its laser and melts away part of Martin 's flesh on his leg . Finn retrieves some guardian blood , which repairs and heals Martin . However , Finn starts to realize that his father is not the hero that he thought he would be .
Soon thereafter , Martin leaves Finn and Jake to save himself and the Lich appears , ordering Finn to fall . He delivers a monologue , explaining his desire to extinguish all life in the universe . Finn , overcome by the Lich 's power , feebly tries to fight back and ends up throwing some of the guardian blood on the Lich , which causes him to grotesquely begin growing flesh . With the Lich disposed of , Finn pursues his father , who is hitching a ride with escaping criminals on a loose piece of the Citadel , still held on by a vein . One of the criminals cuts the vein , but Finn holds on , causing his grass sword to envelope his arm and eventually rip away , severing it . Martin escapes , and Finn and Jake share a somber moment . Jake eventually reveals to Finn that the Lich has now been turned into a large humanoid baby ; the two leave him on the doorstep of Tree Trunks ( voiced by Polly Lou Livingston ) and Mr. Pig 's house .
= = Production = =
" Wake Up " was written and storyboarded by Andy Ristaino and Cole Sanchez , whereas " Escape from the Citadel " was storyboarded by Tom Herpich and Steve Wolfhard ; both episodes ' stories were developed by Kent Osborne , Pendleton Ward , Jack Pendarvis , and Adam Muto . Art direction was handled by Nick Jennings , whereas supervising direction was helmed by Elizabeth Ito ( for " Wake Up " ) and Muto ( for " Escape from the Citadel " ) . The design for the Citadel , which is featured in both episodes , was crafted by series storyboard artist Tom Herpich , who used Google SketchUp to design a 3 @-@ D model of the structure .
" Wake Up " featured the return of Kumail Nanjiani as Prismo , M. Emmet Walsh as the Cosmic Owl , and Miguel Ferrer as Death and one of the heads of Grob Gob Glob Grod . " Escape from the Citadel " featured the introduction of Finn 's father , Martin is voiced by Stephen Root . Root had previously voiced the characters Grimby and the Royal Tart Toter in the second season episode " The Other Tarts " . Ethan Maher voiced the baby version of the Lich . Herpich himself played the part of the Void Caster .
= = Cultural references = =
When the Lich is addressing Finn , he refers to the escaped criminals as " Ancients " , a reference to one of the many name for deities in H.P. Lovecraft 's Cthulhu mythos . Oliver Sava of The A.V. Club wrote that the transformation of Finn 's arm was similar to Tetsuo Shima 's transformation in the anime Akira . Jason Krell of io9 described similarities between the scene immediately following the loss of Finn 's arm and the end of the 1980 film The Empire Strikes Back .
= = Reception = =
" Wake Up " and " Escape from the Citadel " , first aired on Cartoon Network on April 21 , 2014 . The episodes were viewed by 3 @.@ 321 million viewers and scored a 0 @.@ 7 Nielsen rating in the 18- to 49 @-@ year @-@ old demographic . Nielsen ratings are audience measurement systems that determine the audience size and composition of television programming in the United States , which means that the episodes were seen by 0 @.@ 7 percent of all 18- to 49 @-@ year @-@ olds who were watching television at the time of the episodes ' airing . Furthermore , the episode was the 23rd most @-@ watched cable program on the night it aired . These episodes were the last to have been watched by over 3 million viewers .
Both episodes received largely positive reviews from television critics . Robert Lloyd of the Los Angeles Times , wrote that " Wake Up " and " Escape from the Citadel " form a " beautiful , strange and exciting " two @-@ part special episode of the series . He specifically cited the plot as a highlight , as well as the return to the series by Nanjiani as Prismo . Eric Kohn of IndieWire awarded both this episode and " Escape from the Citadel " an " A – " , writing that while the episode featured extremely dark material , it was never presented in a way so as to drive viewers away . Kohn wrote highly of the comedy and naturalistic dialogue that took place during Prismo 's opening party in " Wake Up " , and felt that the addition about Prismo 's origins helped the show slip " in a certain wise gaze [ concerning ] the fog of time " . In regards to " Escape from the Citadel " , he also noted that " the fate of the Lich takes an amusing new turn , " and that the storyline concerning " Finn 's cursed sword arm — an ingredient that has festered in the sidelines for weeks — reaches a beguiling new state . "
Oliver Sava of The A.V. Club awarded " Wake Up " and " Escape from the Citadel " an " A " . Sava praised Nanjiani 's " delightfully low @-@ key " performance in the former , noting that his " soft , smooth voice is perfect for a character that is so laid back he 's completely flat , and his casual delivery of ominous lines helps keep the tone light as the material gets heavier . " Furthermore , he noted that the jokes were more pronounced in this episode , making the opening scene during Prismo 's party that much funnier . Sava felt that the Lich 's monologue to Finn in " Escape from the Citadel " was " even creepier thanks to Ron Perlman 's gravely voice for The Lich and the evocative staging by writers / storyboard artists Tom Herpich and Steve Wolfhard " , who were able to " achieve a fascinating combination of terror and hope when Finn touches The Lich with Guardian blood and starts a grotesquely stunning transformation that strips the villain of his power by making him a giant baby . " Sava also complimented the episode for being full of harsh realizations concerning Finn 's father and the vulnerability of his body . Ultimately he concluded that " the developments of these two episodes dramatically alter the series ' status quo to give this season an added boost of momentum from the very beginning . "
|
= The Game ( mind game ) =
The Game is a mental game where the objective is to avoid thinking about The Game itself . Thinking about The Game constitutes a loss , which must be announced each time it occurs . It is impossible to win most versions of The Game . Depending on the variation of The Game , the whole world , or all those aware of the game , are playing it all the time . Tactics have been developed to increase the number of people aware of The Game and thereby increase the number of losses .
Though the origins of The Game are unknown , a game featuring ironic processing was played by Leo Tolstoy in 1840 .
= = Gameplay = =
There are three commonly reported rules to The Game :
Everyone in the world is playing The Game . ( Sometimes narrowed to : " Everybody in the world who knows about The Game is playing The Game " , or alternatively , " You are always playing The Game . " ) A person cannot choose to not play The Game ; it does not require consent to play and one can never stop playing .
Whenever one thinks about The Game , one loses .
Losses must be announced . This can be verbally , with a phrase such as " I just lost The Game " , or in any other way : for example , via Facebook . Some people may have signals or expressions that remind others of The Game .
What constitutes thinking about The Game is not always clear . If one discusses The Game without explicitly realizing that they have lost , this may or may not constitute a loss . If someone says " What is The Game ? " before understanding the rules , whether they have lost is up for interpretation . According to some interpretations , one does not lose when someone else announces their loss , although the second rule implies that one loses regardless of what made them think about The Game . After a player has announced a loss , or after one thinks of The Game , some variants allow for a grace period between three seconds to thirty minutes to forget about the game , during which the player cannot lose the game again .
The common rules do not define a point at which The Game ends . However , some players state that The Game ends when the Prime Minister of the United Kingdom announces on television that " The Game is up . "
Most variations of The Game do not allow for a person to win . One interpretation is that one is winning the game whenever they are not thinking about it . An xkcd comic reads : " You just won The Game " and tells players , " You 're free ! " Another is that one has won when they have completely forgotten about The Game .
= = = Strategies = = =
Strategies focus on making others lose The Game . Common methods include saying " The Game " out loud or writing about The Game on a hidden note , in graffiti in public places , or on banknotes . Associations may be made with The Game , especially over time , so that one thing inadvertently causes one to lose . Some players enjoy thinking of elaborate pranks that will cause others to lose the game .
Other strategies involve merchandise : T @-@ shirts , buttons , mugs , posters and bumper stickers have been created to advertise The Game . The Game is also spread via social media websites such as Facebook and Twitter .
= = Origin = =
The origins of The Game are uncertain . In a 2008 news article , Justine Wettschreck says The Game has probably been around since the early 1990s , and may have originated in Australia or England . One theory is that it was invented in London in 1996 when two British engineers , Dennis Begley and Gavin McDowall , missed their last train and had to spend the night on the platform ; they attempted to avoid thinking about their situation and whoever thought about it first lost . Another theory also traces The Game to London in 1996 , when it was created by Jamie Miller " to annoy people " . Journalist Mic Wright of The Next Web recalled playing The Game at school in the late 1990s .
However , The Game may have been created in 1977 by members of the Cambridge University Science Fiction Society when attempting to create a game that did not fit in with game theory . A blog post by Paul Taylor in August 2002 described The Game ; Taylor claimed to have " found out about [ the game ] online about 6 months ago " . This is the earliest known reference on the internet .
The Game is most commonly spread through the internet , such as via Facebook or Twitter , or by word of mouth .
= = Psychology = =
The Game is an example of ironic processing ( also known as the " White Bear Principle " ) , in which attempts to avoid certain thoughts make those thoughts more persistent . There are early examples of ironic processing : in 1840 , Leo Tolstoy played the " white bear game " with his brother , where he would " stand in a corner and not think of the white bear " . Fyodor Dostoyevsky mentioned the same game in 1863 in the essay Winter Notes on Summer Impressions .
One psychological study of The Game by Cory Antiel involved 12 participants ; they were asked to record when and why they lost over four weeks . The study itself caused 57 % of participants ' losses ; Antiel claimed The Zeigarnik effect contributed to this . The participants recorded vastly different numbers of losses ; common reasons included " references to taking notes " , " references to time " and " seeing or thinking about other people who also play The Game " . Priming and sensitization played a large part in losses ; no strong correlation with habituation was found .
= = Reception = =
The Game has been described as challenging and fun to play , and as pointless , childish and infuriating . In some Internet forums , such as Something Awful and GameSpy , and several schools , including one in Ohio , The Game has even been banned . The Game has been described as a game , a meme and a " mind virus " .
Newspapers , including Metro , Rutland Herald , The Canadian Press and De Pers , have contained articles about The Game ; Wikinews has interviewed the owner of LoseTheGame.com. Webcomics Saturday Morning Breakfast Cereal , xkcd and Real Life have featured sketches relating to The Game . YouTube videos about The Game have attracted hundreds of thousands of views . In 2008 , the largest Facebook group relating to The Game had over 200 @,@ 000 members . The knowledge engine WolframAlpha answers the query " What is ' The Game ' ? " with the response " You just lost . "
Several celebrities know about The Game . Actor Simon Pegg has tweeted about The Game . Alex Baker has talked about The Game on multiple occasions on Kerrang Radio and Facebook .
Other attempts to increase losses of The Game have involved hoaxes and hacking . The 2009 Time 100 poll was manipulated by the hacktivist group Anonymous , so that the top 21 people 's names formed an acrostic for " marblecake also the game " , referencing The Game .
|
= Waptia =
Waptia fieldensis is an extinct species of arthropod from the Middle Cambrian Burgess Shale Lagerstätte of Canada . It grew to a length of about 8 cm ( 3 in ) and resembled modern shrimp in both morphology and habit . It had a large bivalved carapace and a segmented body terminating into a pair of tail flaps . It was an active swimmer , feeding on organic particles it gathers from the seafloor substrate . It is also one of the oldest animals with direct evidence of brood care .
Based on the number of individuals , Waptia fieldensis is the third most abundant arthropod from the Burgess Shale Formation , with thousands of specimens collected . It was among the first fossils found by the American paleontologist Charles D. Walcott in 1909 . He described it in 1912 and named it after two mountains near the discovery site – Mount Wapta and Mount Field .
Waptia fieldensis is the only species classified under the genus Waptia . Although it bears a remarkable resemblance to modern crustaceans , its taxonomic affinities remain unclear . It is currently classified as a stem group crustacean and tentatively included in the clade Crustaceomorpha .
= = Description = =
Waptia fieldensis had a maximum body length of 8 centimetres ( 3 @.@ 1 in ) . The exoskeleton was very thin and easily distorted from fossilisation . It possessed a large bivalved carapace that was narrow at the front with wide posterior margins that covered the cephalon and most of the thorax . The cephalon had five short somites ( body segments ) with three to five pairs of small and poorly preserved feeding appendages .
A single pair of long and slender antennae is present , the segments of which are relatively few and elongated . They were most probably used as sensory organs , with most segments possessing small setae ( bristles ) . A pair of short lobed structures ( possible antennules ) are also present , their position corresponding to the location of the second pair of antennae in modern @-@ day crustaceans . In between them is a small triangular rostral plate with a narrow and sharp central ridge .
The well @-@ developed compound eyes were stalked . The striking morphological similarities of the eyes of Waptia fieldensis to that of extant mysid shrimps make it very likely that they were capable of producing true visual images or were at least sensitive to motion . A median eye may have also been present . Nervous tissue , including a putative brain , has been identified .
The thorax is divided into two groups of somites . The anterior group is composed of four somites , each with well @-@ developed walking limbs with lengths that extend past the margins of the carapace . Their morphological details are not well preserved but their distal segments appear to possess a multitude of small spines . It is unknown if these limbs are biramous , but they are assumed to be the endopodites , the inner branches ( ramus ) of the leg , with the exopodites , or outer branches , absent or not preserved .
The posterior thoracic group is made up of six somites , each possessing a pair of long multi @-@ jointed appendages . The segments of these appendages are longer near the body and taper towards the flexible distal segments , extending past the carapace . They bear a fringe of long , slender filaments , all of which are directed towards the middle of the body , a characteristic shared by extant crustaceans . Though usually squashed into blade @-@ like shapes from the fossilisation process , the filaments were slender cylindrical tubes when the animal was alive . The filaments at the tipmost segment are often bunched together . These appendages are believed to be the exopodites and may have functioned as gills and as swimming limbs . They are possibly biramous , with some specimens showing traces of what may be small endopodites at their bases .
The abdomen is composed of five somites , all of which lack appendages except the last . The back @-@ facing margins of these somites bear small spines and four or more larger spines . The last abdominal somite forks into a pair of flattened spatulate appendages ( the uropods ) that function as a tail fan ( caudal rami ) . In addition to stabilising the body while swimming , a quick flick of the tail fan can rapidly propel the animal backwards , which may have functioned as a means of escaping predators like in modern shrimp . Traces of four fused segments are evident in the three faint lines dividing each lobe of the tail fan . A long telson is present at the end of the body . Traces of a rounded stomach , small digestive glands , and an intestine that terminates into a tiny anal opening on the telson can also be observed in some specimens .
= = Discovery = =
Waptia fieldensis was one of the first fossils discovered by Charles D. Walcott from the Burgess Shale in August 1909 . A rough sketch of Waptia is present in his diary for August 31 , 1909 , alongside sketches of Marrella and Naraoia . A formal description for the species was published by Walcott in 1912 . The species was named after the two mountains connected by the Fossil Ridge containing the Burgess Shale locality , Mount Wapta and Mount Field of Yoho National Park , British Columbia , Canada . The name of Mount Wapta itself comes from the First Nation Nakoda word wapta , meaning " running water " ; while Mount Field was named after the American telecommunications pioneer Cyrus West Field .
= = Taphonomy = =
Specimens of Waptia fieldensis were recovered from the Burgess Shale Lagerstätte of Canada , which dates from the Middle Cambrian period ( 510 to 505 million years ago ) . The locality was once about 200 m ( 660 ft ) underwater ; it was located at the bottom of a warm and shallow tropical sea adjacent to a submarine limestone cliff ( now the Cathedral Limestone Formation ) . Undersea landslides caused by the collapse of parts of the limestone cliff would periodically bury the organisms in the area ( as well as organisms carried by the landslides ) in fine @-@ grained mud that later became shale .
Based on the number of individuals , Waptia fieldensis constitutes about 2 @.@ 55 % of the total number of organisms recovered from the Burgess Shale , and 0 @.@ 86 % of the Greater Phyllopod bed . This makes them the third most abundant arthropods of the Burgess Shale ( after Marrella and Canadaspis ) . The National Museum of Natural History alone houses more than a thousand specimens of the species from the Burgess Shale . Waptia fieldensis are often found disarticulated , with parts remaining in close proximity to each other .
Several possible specimens of W. fieldensis were also recovered from the Middle Cambrian Spence Shale member of the Langston Formation in Utah in 2008 .
= = Taxonomy = =
Waptia fieldensis is the only species accepted under the genus Waptia . It is classified under the family Waptiidae ( established by Walcott in 1912 ) , the order Waptiida ( established by Leif Størmer in 1944 ) , and ( tentatively ) the clade Crustaceomorpha . Early restorations of Waptia fieldensis by Charles R. Knight in 1940 erroneously depicted it as a primitive shrimp , but modern paleontologists now consider it among the Burgess Shale arthropods that are of unknown and uncertain taxonomic placement .
Some authors have suggested that it may be allied to crustaceans , but like many Cambrian crustaceomorphs , the mouthparts were not preserved , making it impossible to reliably classify them within the crustacean crown group . Others propose that it may be only distantly related to crustaceans , being at least a member of a stem group of crustaceans , or even of all arthropods . Despite being one of the first species recovered and being the third most abundant fossils of the Burgess Shale , there is still no in @-@ depth work on the morphology of Waptia fieldensis .
In 1975 , an apparently very similar species was described from the Lower Cambrian ( 515 to 520 million years ago ) Maotianshan Shale Lagerstätte of Chengjiang , China . It was originally placed within the " ostracod " -like genus Mononotella , as Mononotella ovata . In 1991 , Xian @-@ Guang Hou and Jan Bergström reclassified it under the new genus Chuandianella when additional discoveries of more complete specimens made its resemblance to W. fieldensis more apparent . Like W. fieldensis , Chuandianella ovata had a bivalved carapace with a median ridge , a pair of caudal rami , a single pair of antennae , and stalked eyes . In 2004 , Jun @-@ Yuan Chen tentatively transferred it to the genus Waptia . However , C. ovata had eight abdominal somites in contrast to five in W. fieldensis . Its limbs were biramous and were undifferentiated , unlike those of W. fieldensis . Other authors deemed these differences to be enough to separate it from Waptia to its own genus .
In 2002 , a second similar species , Pauloterminus spinodorsalis , was recovered from the Lower Cambrian Sirius Passet Lagerstätte of the Buen Formation of northern Greenland . It was also identified as a possible waptiid . Like C. ovata it had biramous undifferentiated appendages , but it also had only five abdominal somites like W. fieldensis . However , the poor preservation of the P. spinodorsalis specimens , particularly of the appendages on the head , make it difficult to ascertain its taxonomic placement . This difficulty is further compounded by evidence that the fossils of P. spinodorsalis may in fact be moults ( exuviae ) , and not of the actual animal .
= = Ecology = =
In addition to their striking , superficial similarity to contemporary shrimp , Waptia fieldensis were also very shrimp @-@ like in their habits . They were bottom @-@ dwelling ( nektobenthic ) deposit feeders . The lack of strong feeding appendages indicates that they were more likely to feed by sifting through the sea bottom for edible organic particles . Their tails and the feather @-@ like filaments on their posterior thoracic somites also imply that they were active swimmers .
In 2015 , egg clutches were identified in six specimens from the Burgess Shale . The clutch sizes were small , only containing up to 24 eggs , but each egg was relatively large , with an average diameter of 2 mm ( 0 @.@ 079 in ) . They were tucked inside the carapace , attached along the inner surface . Along with Kunmingella douvillei from the Chengjiang biota ( around 7 million years older than the Burgess Shale ) , which also had fossilized eggs preserved inside the carapace , they constitute the oldest direct evidence of brood care and of K @-@ selection among animals . It indicates that they probably lived in an environment which required them to take special measures to ensure the survival of their young .
|
= Mars Attacks ! =
Mars Attacks ! is a 1996 American comedy science fiction film directed by Tim Burton and written by Jonathan Gems . Based on the cult trading card series of the same name minus the punctuation , the film features an ensemble cast consisting of Jack Nicholson ( in a dual role ) , Glenn Close , Annette Bening , Pierce Brosnan , Danny DeVito , Martin Short , Sarah Jessica Parker , Michael J. Fox , Rod Steiger , Tom Jones , Lukas Haas , Natalie Portman , Jim Brown , Lisa Marie Smith , and Sylvia Sidney . The film is a parody of science fiction B movies with elements of black comedy and political satire .
Alex Cox had tried to make a Mars Attacks ! film in the 1980s before Burton and Gems began development in 1993 . When Gems turned in his first draft in 1994 , Warner Bros. commissioned rewrites from Gems , Burton , Scott Alexander and Larry Karaszewski in an attempt to lower the budget to $ 60 million . The final production budget came to $ 80 million , while Warner Bros. spent another $ 20 million on the Mars Attacks ! marketing campaign . Filming took place from February to November 1996 . The film was shot in California , Nevada , Kansas , Arizona and Argentina . The soundtrack became famous for the Martians ' quirky speech pattern , which was created by reversing the sound of a duck 's quack .
The filmmakers hired Industrial Light & Magic to create the Martians using computer animation after their previous plan to use stop motion , supervised by Barry Purves , fell through because of budget limitations . Mars Attacks ! was released on December 13 , 1996 to mixed reviews from critics . The film grossed approximately $ 101 million in box office totals , which was seen as a disappointment . Mars Attacks ! was nominated for the Hugo Award for Best Dramatic Presentation and earned multiple nominations at the Saturn Awards .
= = Plot = =
In Kentucky , a family watches in confusion a herd of cattle running past their home , on fire . A spaceship explodes before it returns to Mars , and hundreds of other Martian ships leave Mars and head towards Earth .
President James Dale along with his aides addresses the United States concerning the historic event . People around the country follow the story . The President 's science aides set up a first contact meeting with the Martians in Pahrump , Nevada as President Dale watches the development on TV with his wife Marsha and his daughter Taffy .
Using a universal translator , the Ambassador of the Martians announces that they intend to colonize the Earth . To prevent this intention from causing panic , the translator is reprogrammed to say that the Martians " come in peace " . When a hippie releases a dove as a symbol of peace , the Ambassador shoots it , then he and the other Martians slaughter a large number of people at the event including General Casey , news reporter Jason Stone , and Billy @-@ Glenn Norris before capturing chat show host Nathalie Lake and her pet Chihuahua Poppy whose heads they transpose .
Thinking that the Martians assumed that the dove was a symbol of war , President Dale tells Professor Donald Kessler to negotiate with the Martians , whose ambassador is invited to address the United States Congress . At this meeting , the Martians massacre most of Congress . Donald begs the Martian Ambassador to stop , but is rendered unconscious and taken aboard their ship where he is later shown with his body parts dismembered and his disembodied head remaining animated . General Decker tries to convince President Dale to retaliate with nuclear warfare , but he refuses .
After an attempt to assassinate Dale fails , The Martians invade Earth , starting with Washington , D.C. As they attack the White House , the Secret Service tries to rush the President and the First Lady to the bunker . Dale makes it , but Taffy is separated from them during the chaos and Marsha is crushed to death by the Nancy Reagan chandelier . After the U.S. government unsuccessfully attempts a nuclear attack on the mother ship , the Martians exact revenge by defacing world landmarks for amusement . That night , the Martians infiltrate the bunker where Dale has been taken and the leader reduces Decker to the size of an insect before killing him . The Martians kill everyone else in the bunker except for Dale , who makes an impassioned speech in an attempt to plea for peace and his life . The Martian uses a false hand to kill Dale .
As the Martians ravage Las Vegas with Art Land being one of their victims , Byron Williams , a casino employee and former world champion boxer , leads a small group of survivors consisting of Barbara Land , Tom Jones , a waitress named Cindy , and a gambler to an airfield in the hopes of flying a small jet to safety . They barely make it , losing the gambler in the process , but discover a large group of Martians stationed there as they are preparing to take off . Byron creates a diversion by challenging them to a fistfight . While he succeeds in killing the Ambassador , he is outnumbered and overwhelmed , but Tom , Barbara , and Cindy escape .
Billy @-@ Glenn 's brother Richie discovers that the Martians ' heads explode when they hear Slim Whitman 's " Indian Love Call . " He and his grandmother Florence drive around town , using the song to kill Martians . The military thereafter broadcast the song around the globe , killing most of the Martians and their leader , and causing the few remaining survivors to either flee from Earth or surrender . Nathalie and Donald kiss while drowning when the Martian spaceship crashes into the ocean .
In the aftermath , Richie and Florence are awarded the Medal of Honor by Taffy , with her being the only surviving member of the government . Byron , who survived his Martian brawl , arrives in D.C. to reunite with his former wife and their two sons ( who saved Dale 's life in the White House using two guns they stole from a dead Martian ) as the devastating is being cleaned up . Barbara , Cindy , and Tom Jones emerge from a cave with some animals to see a crashed Martian ship in the adjacent Lake Tahoe .
= = Cast = =
Jack Nicholson as President James Dale , the President of the United States .
Jack Nicholson also portrays Art Land , a developer in Las Vegas .
Glenn Close as First Lady Marsha Dale , James Dale 's wife .
Annette Bening as Barbara Land , Art Land 's wife .
Pierce Brosnan as Professor Donald Kessler , a science expert who works for President Dale and is later captured and experimented on by the Martians .
Danny DeVito as Rude Gambler
Martin Short as Press Secretary Jerry Ross
Sarah Jessica Parker as Nathalie Lake , a talk show host who is later captured and experimented on by the Martians .
Michael J. Fox as Jason Stone , a news reporter who is killed during the Martians ' first attack .
Rod Steiger as General Decker , a US Army general who works for President Dale .
Lukas Haas as Richie Norris , Billy @-@ Glenn Norris 's younger brother .
Natalie Portman as Taffy Dale , James and Marsha Dale 's daughter .
Jim Brown as Byron Williams , a Las Vegas casino employee and former boxer .
Lisa Marie Smith as Martian Girl , a Martian posing as a human female .
Sylvia Sidney as Florence Norris , Richie and Billy @-@ Glenn 's grandmother .
Tom Jones as Himself
Christina Applegate as Sharona , Billy @-@ Glenn 's girlfriend .
Pam Grier as Louise Williams , Byron 's former wife .
Jack Black as Billy @-@ Glenn Norris , a US Army private who is Richie 's older brother and gets himself killed trying to stand up to the Martians .
Paul Winfield as General Casey
Janice Rivera as Cindy , a co @-@ worker of Byron .
Brian Haley as Mitch , a Secret Service agent .
Joe Don Baker as Mr. Norris , Billy @-@ Glenn and Richie 's father .
O @-@ Lan Jones as Sue @-@ Ann Norris , Billy @-@ Glenn and Richie 's mother .
Ray J and Brandon Hammond as Cedric and Neville Williams , Byron and Louise 's sons .
Jerzy Skolimowski as Dr. Zeigler , a scientist who created a device that ( badly ) translated the Martian language .
Barbet Schroeder as Maurice , the President of France .
Joseph Maher as White House Decorator
Steve Valentine as TV Director
Frank Welker as Martian Vocal Effects
Roger L. Jackson as Dr. Zeigler 's translator ( voice uncredited )
= = Production = =
= = = Development = = =
In 1985 , Alex Cox pitched the idea of a film based on the Mars Attacks trading card series as a joint @-@ production to Orion and Tristar Pictures . He wrote three drafts over the next four years , but was replaced by Martin Amis before Orion / Tristar placed Mars Attacks in turnaround .
Jonathan Gems , who had previously written multiple unproduced screenplays for director Tim Burton , came up with his own idea for a Mars Attacks film in 1993 . The writer pitched both concepts of Mars Attacks and Dinosaurs Attack ! to Burton , who both decided that Dinosaurs Attack ! would be too similar to Jurassic Park ( 1993 ) . Burton , who was busy preparing Ed Wood ( 1994 ) , believed that Mars Attacks ! would be a perfect opportunity to pay homage to the films of Edward D. Wood , Jr . , especially Plan 9 from Outer Space ( 1959 ) , and other 1950s science fiction B movies , such as Invaders from Mars ( 1953 ) , It Came from Outer Space ( 1953 ) , The War of the Worlds ( 1953 ) , Target Earth ( 1954 ) , Invasion of the Body Snatchers ( 1956 ) and Earth vs. the Flying Saucers ( 1956 ) .
Burton set Mars Attacks ! up with Warner Bros. and the studio purchased the film rights to the trading card series on his behalf . The original theatrical release date was planned for the summer of 1996 . Gems completed his original script in 1994 , which was budgeted by Warner Bros. at $ 260 million . The studio wanted to make the film for no more than $ 60 million . After turning in numerous drafts in an attempt to lower the budget , Gems was replaced by Ed Wood writers Scott Alexander and Larry Karaszewski .
Gems eventually returned to the project , writing a total of 12 drafts of the script . Although he is credited with both the screen story and screenplay of Mars Attacks ! , Gems dedicates his novelization of the movie to Burton , who " co @-@ wrote the screenplay and didn 't ask for a credit " . Warner Bros. was dubious of the Martian dialogue and wanted Burton to add closed captioning subtitles , but he resisted . Working with Burton , Gems pared the film 's 60 leading characters down to 23 , and the worldwide destruction planned for the film was isolated to three major cities . Scenes featuring Martians attacking China , the Philippines , Japan , Europe , Africa , India , and Russia were deleted from the screenplay . " Bear in mind this was way before Independence Day ( 1996 ) was written , " Gems commented . " We had things like Manhattan being destroyed building by building , the White House went and so did the Empire State Building . Warner Bros. figured all this would be too expensive , so we cut most of that out to reduce the cost . " Howard Stern claimed that the film 's climax , where an attack by Martians was thwarted by playing Slim Whitman songs to them , was originally created by him when he worked at WNBC in 1982 , in a sketch named " Slim Whitman vs. The Midget Aliens From Mars . " As Burton listened to the sketch while being interviewed by Stern , he dismissed it as mere coincidence .
= = = Casting = = =
The decision to hire an A @-@ list ensemble cast for Mars Attacks ! parallels the strategy Irwin Allen used for his disaster films , notably The Poseidon Adventure ( 1972 ) and The Towering Inferno ( 1974 ) . Warren Beatty was the original choice for the role of President Dale , but dropped out . Paul Newman replaced him , but then considered playing another role , and left the production over concerns about the film 's violence . Michael Keaton was also considered . Jack Nicholson was then approached , who jokingly remarked he wanted to play all the roles . Burton agreed to cast Nicholson as both Art Land and President Dale , specifically remembering his positive working relationship with the actor on Batman ( 1989 ) .
Susan Sarandon was originally set to play Barbara Land before Annette Bening was cast . Bening modeled the character after Ann @-@ Margret 's performance in Viva Las Vegas ( 1964 ) . Hugh Grant was the first choice for Professor Donald Kessler , which eventually went to Pierce Brosnan . Meryl Streep , Diane Keaton and Stockard Channing were considered for First Lady Marsha Dale , but Glenn Close won the role . In addition to Nicholson , other actors who reunited with Burton on Mars Attacks ! include Sylvia Sidney from Beetlejuice ( 1988 ) , Sarah Jessica Parker ( who signed on before reading the script ) from Ed Wood ( 1994 ) , O @-@ Lan Jones from Edward Scissorhands ( 1990 ) , and Danny DeVito from Batman Returns ( 1992 ) , continuing Burton 's trend of recasting actors several times from his previous works . Mars Attacks ! is also notable for one of the few times that Johnny Depp turned down a role in a Burton film . He was approached to play reporter Jason Stone . Michael J. Fox was cast instead .
= = = Filming = = =
The originally scheduled start date was mid @-@ August 1995 but filming was delayed until February 26 , 1996 . Director Tim Burton hired Peter Suschitzky as the cinematographer because he was a fan of his work in David Cronenberg 's films . Production designer Thomas Wynn ( A Beautiful Mind , Malcolm X ) intended to have the war room pay tribute to Dr. Strangelove ( 1964 ) . During production , Burton insisted that the art direction , cinematography and costume design of Mars Attacks ! incorporate the look of the 1960s trading cards .
On designing the Martian ( played by Burton 's then @-@ girlfriend Lisa Marie Smith ) who seduces Jerry Ross ( Martin Short ) , costume designer Colleen Atwood took combined inspiration from the playing cards , Marilyn Monroe , the work of Alberto Vargas and Jane Fonda in Barbarella ( 1968 ) . Filming for Mars Attacks ! ended on June 1 , 1996 . The film score was written / composed by Burton 's regular Danny Elfman , to whom Burton was reconciled after a quarrel occurred during The Nightmare Before Christmas ( 1993 ) , for which they did not co @-@ operate in producing Ed Wood ( 1994 ) . Elfman enlisted the help of Oingo Boingo lead guitarist Steve Bartek to help arrange the compositions for the orchestra .
= = = Visual effects = = =
Tim Burton initially intended to use stop motion animation to feature the Martians , viewing it as a homage to the work of Ray Harryhausen , primarily Jason and the Argonauts . Similar to his own Beetlejuice , Burton " wanted to make [ the special effects ] look cheap and purposely fake @-@ looking as possible . " He first approached Henry Selick , director of The Nightmare Before Christmas , to supervise the stop motion work , but Selick was busy directing James and the Giant Peach , also produced by Burton . Despite the fact that Warner Bros. was skeptical of the escalating budget and had not yet greenlit the film for production , Burton hired Barry Purves to shepherd the stop @-@ motion work . Purves created an international team of about 70 animators , who worked on Mars Attacks ! for eight months and began compiling test footage in Burbank , California . The department workers studied Gloria Swanson 's choreography and movement as Norma Desmond in Sunset Boulevard for inspiration on the Martians ' movement .
When the budget was projected at $ 100 million ( Warner Bros. wanted it for no more than $ 75 million ) , producer Larry J. Franco commissioned a test reel from Industrial Light & Magic ( ILM ) , the visual effects company he worked with on Jumanji . Burton was persuaded to change his mind to employ computer animation , which brought the final production budget to $ 80 million . Although Purves was uncredited for his work , stop @-@ motion supervisors Ian Mackinnon and Peter Saunders , who would later collaborate with Burton on Corpse Bride , received character design credit . Warner Digital Studios was responsible for the scenes of global destruction , airborne flying saucer sequences , the Martian landing in Nevada , and the robot that chases Richie Norris in his pickup truck . Warner Digital also used practical effects , such as building scale models of Big Ben and other landmarks . The destruction of Art Land 's hotel was footage of the real @-@ life night @-@ time demolition of The Landmark Hotel and Casino , a building Burton wished to immortalize .
= = Reception = =
= = = Release = = =
Warner Bros. spent $ 20 million on the movie 's marketing campaign ; together with $ 80 million spent during production , the final combined budget came to $ 100 million . A novelization , written by writer Jonathan Gems , was published by Puffin Books in January 1997 . The film was released in the United States on December 13 , 1996 , earning $ 9 @.@ 38 million in its opening weekend . Mars Attacks ! eventually made $ 37 @.@ 77 million in US totals and $ 63 @.@ 6 million elsewhere , coming to a worldwide total of $ 101 @.@ 37 million .
The film was considered a box office bomb in the US but generally achieved greater success both critically and commercially in Europe . Many observers found similarities with Independence Day , which also came out in 1996 . " It was just a coincidence . Nobody told me about it . I was surprised how close it was , " director Tim Burton continued , " but then it 's a pretty basic genre I guess . Independence Day was different in tone – it was different in everything . It almost seemed like we had done kind of a Mad magazine version of Independence Day . " During Mars Attacks ! theatrical run in January 1997 , TBS purchased the broadcasting rights of the film .
= = = Critical reaction = = =
Mars Attacks ! drew mixed responses from critics . Based on 63 reviews collected by Rotten Tomatoes , 52 % of the reviewers enjoyed the film , with an average score of 5 @.@ 9 / 10 . By comparison , Metacritic calculated an average score of 52 / 100 from 19 reviews . Roger Ebert observed the homages to the 1950s science fiction B movies . " Ed Wood himself could have told us what 's wrong with this movie : the makers felt superior to the material . To be funny , even schlock has to believe in itself . Look for Infra @-@ Man ( 1975 ) or Invasion of the Bee Girls ( 1973 ) and you will find movies that lack stars and big budgets and fancy special effects but are funny and fun in a way that Burton 's megaproduction never really understands . "
Kenneth Turan of the Los Angeles Times wrote that " Mars Attacks ! is all 1990s cynicism and disbelief , mocking the conventions that Independence Day takes seriously . This all sounds clever enough but in truth , Mars Attacks ! is not as much fun as it should be . Few of its numerous actors make a lasting impression and Burton 's heart and soul is not in the humor " . Desson Thomson from The Washington Post said " Mars Attacks ! evokes plenty of sci @-@ fi classics , from The Day the Earth Stood Still ( 1951 ) to Dr. Strangelove ( 1964 ) , but it doesn 't do much beyond that superficial exercise . With the exception of Burton 's jolting sight gags ( I may never recover from the vision of Sarah Jessica Parker 's head grafted on to the body of a chihuahua ) , the comedy is half @-@ developed , pedestrian material . And the climactic battle between Earthlings and Martians is dull and overextended . "
Richard Schickel , writing in Time magazine , gave a positive review . " You have to admire everyone 's chutzpah : the breadth of Burton 's ( and writer Jonathan Gems ' ) movie references , which range from Kurosawa to Kubrick ; and above all their refusal to offer us a single likable character . Perhaps they don 't create quite enough deeply funny earthlings to go around , but a thoroughly mean @-@ spirited big @-@ budget movie is always a treasurable rarity . " Jonathan Rosenbaum from the Chicago Reader praised the surreal humor and black comedy , which he found to be in the vein of Dr. Strangelove and Gremlins ( 1984 ) . He said it was far from clear whether the movie was a satire , although critics were describing it as one . Todd McCarthy of Variety called Mars Attacks ! " a cult sci @-@ fi comedy miscast as an elaborate , all @-@ star studio extravaganza . "
= = = Awards = = =
Mars Attacks ! was on the shortlist for the Academy Award for Best Visual Effects nomination , but the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences chose Independence Day , Dragonheart and Twister instead . The film was nominated for seven categories at the Saturn Awards . Danny Elfman won Best Music , while director Tim Burton , writer Jonathan Gems , actor Lukas Haas , costume designer Colleen Atwood and the visual effects department at Industrial Light & Magic received nominations . Mars Attacks ! was nominated for both the Saturn Award for Best Science Fiction Film ( which went to Independence Day ) and the Hugo Award for Best Dramatic Presentation .
|
Subsets and Splits
No community queries yet
The top public SQL queries from the community will appear here once available.