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= 1903 Jamaica hurricane =
The 1903 Jamaica hurricane devastated Martinique , Jamaica , and the Cayman Islands in August 1903 . The second tropical cyclone of the season , the storm was first observed well east of the Windward Islands on August 6 . The system moved generally west @-@ northwestward and strengthened into a hurricane on August 7 . It struck Martinique early on August 9 , shortly before reaching the Caribbean Sea . Later that day , the storm became a major hurricane . Early on August 11 , it made landfall near Morant Point , Jamaica , with winds of 120 mph ( 195 km / h ) , with would be the hurricane 's maximum sustained wind speed . Early on the following day , the storm brushed Grand Cayman at the same intensity . The system weakened before landfall near Playa del Carmen , Quintana Roo , early on August 13 , with winds of 100 mph ( 155 km / h ) . The system emerging into the Gulf of Mexico early on August 14 after weakening while crossing the Yucatán Peninsula , but failed to re @-@ strengthen . Around 00 : 00 UTC on August 16 , the cyclone made landfall north of Tampico , Tamaulipas , with winds of 80 mph ( 130 km / h ) . The hurricane soon weakened to a tropical storm and dissipated over San Luis Potosí late on August 16 .
In Martinique , hundreds of homes were deroofed in Fort @-@ de @-@ France , while about 5 @,@ 000 people were left homeless in the villages of Fond , Fourniols , La Haye , Recluce , and Tivoli , all of which were established after the eruption of Mount Pelée in 1902 . The hurricane also left extensive damage to crops and eight fatalities . In Jamaica , several communities were completely or nearly destroyed , including Manchioneal , Port Antonio , and Port Maria . Thousands of homes also suffered damage in the capital city of Kingston . Banana crops were devastated so severely that many growers were forced into bankruptcy . Numerous ships were wrecked , particularly on the north coast of the island . There were at least 65 deaths and about $ 10 million ( 1903 USD ) in damage . In the Cayman Islands , more than 200 houses and seven of eight churches on Grand Cayman were destroyed or heavily damaged . Of the 23 ships in the harbor , only the Governor Blake survived . Most of the crews on board those ships were reported killed , but loss of life on shore was minimal . The storm also caused heavy damage on the Yucatán Peninsula . Many ships were wrecked and communications were cutoff in several places . In the Tampico area , there was considerable damage to the port and many ships being sunk or driven ashore . Much of the land between Tampico and Cárdenas in San Luis Potosí was submerged due to flooding . In all , the storm is believed to have killed at least 149 people .
= = Meteorological history = =
A tropical storm was first observed by a ship about 835 mi ( 1 @,@ 345 km ) northeast of Cayenne , French Guiana , early on August 6 , according to historic weather maps . However , due to scarce observations , its genesis likely occurred earlier than this time but was undetected operationally . With initial winds of 60 mph ( 95 km / h ) , the system moved generally west @-@ northwestward and strengthened into Category 1 hurricane on the modern day Saffir – Simpson hurricane wind scale about 24 hours later . The first indication of the storm to the east of Barbados was on August 8 via telegraph reports . Early on August 9 , the cyclone struck Martinique as either a strong Category 1 or a weak Category 2 hurricane . The storm entered the Caribbean Sea shortly thereafter . Around 12 : 00 UTC , the cyclone intensified into a Category 3 hurricane , becoming the first major hurricane in the Atlantic basin since the second storm of 1900 and the first in the Caribbean Sea since the 1899 San Ciriaco hurricane .
After 06 : 00 UTC on August 11 , the cyclone struck Jamaica near Morant Point with winds of 120 mph ( 195 km / h ) . At 06 : 00 UTC on August 12 , while brushing Grand Cayman , the hurricane peaked with maximum sustained winds of the same intensity and a minimum barometric pressure of 958 mbar ( 28 @.@ 3 inHg ) , observed by the Governor Blake . The system weakened to a Category 2 around the time of landfall near Playa del Carmen , Quintana Roo , early on August 13 , with winds of 100 mph ( 155 km / h ) . By 12 : 00 UTC , the storm further weakened to a Category 1 , based on the Empirical Inland Wind Decay Model . After crossing the Yucatán Peninsula and emerging into the Gulf of Mexico early on August 14 , the hurricane failed to re @-@ strengthen . Around 00 : 00 UTC on August 16 , it made landfall north of Tampico , Tamaulipas , with winds of 80 mph ( 130 km / h ) . The hurricane soon weakened to a tropical storm and dissipated over San Luis Potosí late on August 16 .
= = Impact = =
Telegraph reports of " a disturbance probably of dangerous strength " approaching Barbados from the east were sent to stations throughout the Lesser Antilles on August 8 . Shipping interests in the Gulf of Mexico and in parts of the western Atlantic were alerted daily of the progress of the hurricane until August 14 . Additionally , hurricane warnings were issued by the Weather Bureau for Florida and the Gulf Coast of the United States as the storm approached the western Caribbean , due to the possibility of the storm curving northward .
In the Windward Islands , Martinique suffered the worst damage . At Fort @-@ de @-@ France , hundreds of homes were unroofed . Streets were covered in roof tiles and impassible due to uprooted trees , which tore up the roads . Several vessels were severely damaged . Additionally , the towns of La Trinité , Le Carbet , Le François , Saint @-@ Joseph , and Sainte @-@ Marie " suffered considerably " . About 5 @,@ 000 people were left homeless in the destroyed villages of Fond , Fourniols , La Haye , Recluce , and Tivoli , all established after the eruption of Mount Pelée in 1902 . Throughout the island , there was extensive damage to crops . Eight deaths were reported , with one in Fort @-@ de @-@ France and seven in La Trinité .
The storms severely damaged crops on Dominica , particularly cocoa . After several years of increasing amounts of exported cocoa , there was a decrease of approximately 1 @.@ 86 % in pounds between 1902 – 03 and 1903 @-@ 04 . In Puerto Rico , there was high winds and heavy rainfall along the north coast of the island .
The northern shore of Jamaica was devastated , with many ships being washed ashore . There was a storm surge about 20 ft ( 6 @.@ 1 m ) in height at Falmouth . This implies that the storm surge along Jamaica 's northern coast may have reached that height . Numerous ships were also wrecked along the coast . Only six homes remained standing at Port Antonio . The hotel , offices , plantations , and wharves owned by the United Fruit Company were nearly destroyed . Additionally , the company 's five vessels were beached , including the Alfred Dumois , Brighton , and Simon Dumois . In Port Maria , which was almost obliterated , " it was impossible to find where streets had been after the storm . " Homes were destroyed in such a way that " how anyone escaped alive is a mystery . " At Manchioneal , all but a few dwellings suffered destruction from the wind or were swept out to sea . The Norwegian steamship Salvatore di Giorgio was swept ashore at Annotto Bay . In the eastern portions of the island , entire villages were demolished , leaving thousands of peasants without shelter or food .
Thousands of homes were damaged in Kingston , while the electrical works building was deroofed , disabling the machinery . Local railroad traffic and streets cars stopped . Waves damaged wharves and capsized several vessels in the harbor . Some areas on the south side of the island were left completely devoid of crops . Although the western areas of Jamaica were not as devastated as other portions of the island , some banana plantations there were partially destroyed and there was a loss to orange and coffee crops . Throughout Jamaica , devastation to the banana crop was " complete " , forcing many growers into bankruptcy . It was estimated that the fruit trade would be paralyzed for as much as a year . Damage reached $ 10 million and there were at least 65 deaths , while other reports indicate as many as 90 fatalities .
At the Cayman Islands , wind gusts reached as high as 110 – 120 mph ( 180 – 190 km / h ) . More than 200 houses and seven of eight churches on Grand Cayman were destroyed or heavily damaged . In George Town , a number of dwellings were destroyed . Of the 23 ships in the harbor , only the Governor Blake survived . Most of the crews on board those ships were reported killed but loss of life on shore was minimal . Throughout the islands , all trees and crops were destroyed . In Cuba , the hurricane knocked out telegraphic communications in the eastern portions of the island , but the connection to Santiago de Cuba was quickly restored . A number of dwellings were damaged there , some were deroofed , while other homes were reduced to fragments . Pieces of sheet iron also became airborne . East of the city , all small ports received impact from the storm . Cienfuegos was " ravaged by the storm " , while extensive damage occurred in Cárdenas and Matanzas . In the outskirts of Havana , thatch houses were blown away . Farther west in Pinar del Río Province , some crops and small buildings were demolished .
In the Gulf of Mexico , the British steamship Rosina encountered the hurricane . The storm damaged the pipes and smokestacks , ripped out the ventilator , and washed 30 @,@ 000 oranges into the sea . Additionally , a Greek sailor was swept overboard and presumably drowned . The storm sunk or drove many ships ashore along the Yucatán Peninsula . Communications were disrupted in many areas after telegraph lines fell , while a number of roads were left impassible after trees toppled . In the Tampico area , there was considerable damage to the port and many ships being sunk or driven ashore . All of the bridges along Monterey and Mexican Gulf Railroad were destroyed . The roof at the general market was almost completely torn off . Many of the businesses suffered serious losses after rain subsequently poured in the building , with damage reaching at least $ 4 @,@ 200 ( 10 @,@ 000 pesos ) . The chamber of commerce building collapsed with people inside , though no injuries or deaths occurred . Much of the land between Tampico and Cárdenas in San Luis Potosí was submerged due to flooding . In Barra , a city in Tamaulipas , the hospital was nearly destroyed , as was the marketplace . In San Luis Potosí , the casino and restaurant in Tamasopo were demolished . Twenty bridges were destroyed in San Luis Potosí . Railroad traffic between San Luis Potosí and Monterrey , the capital of Nuevo León , was completely disrupted .
Overall , the storm is believed to have killed between 149 and 188 people .
= = Aftermath = =
After the storm , thousands in Jamaica were left destitute , without food or shelter . Committees were formed in each parish affected to assess the damage , with Governor Augustus Hemming later visiting the areas of destruction . On September 17 , the Parliament of Jamaica passed the Hurricane Loans Law , which provided low interest loans to planters impacted by the storm . The Secretary of State of Jamaica authorized just over $ 241 @,@ 000 ( 50 @,@ 000 £ ) to be used for the loans . A total of 2 @,@ 983 people applied for a loan , 1 @,@ 477 of whom were granted . During a meeting in Port Antonio , the citizens issued an appeal to Americans for aid , after receiving approval from Governor Hemming . Relief efforts originated both locally and from other British possessions via the West India Committee . The Daily Gleaner newspaper was credited for its efforts in obtaining considerable amounts of food and building materials . Trinidad , then a colony of the United Kingdom , donated almost $ 5 @,@ 000 ( £ 1 @,@ 000 ) .
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= Banksia grossa =
Banksia grossa , commonly known as the coarse banksia , is a species of shrub in the plant family Proteaceae endemic to Southwest Australia . It is one of fourteen species of banksia of the series Abietinae , all of which bear predominantly cylindrical or oval inflorescences . Collected in 1965 , it was described in 1981 by Alex George . Its thick leaves and large seeds distinguish it from other members of the Abietinae , and are the basis of its species name .
Found in sand or sand over laterite among heath between Eneabba and Badgingarra in Western Australia , it grows as a many @-@ stemmed shrub to 1 m ( 3 @.@ 3 ft ) high with narrow leaves and oval brownish flower spikes up to 10 cm ( 4 in ) high , composed of hundreds of individual flowers . Flowering occurs throughout the cooler months of March to September . Flower spikes develop woody follicles which bear the seeds . After bushfire , Banksia grossa regenerates from its woody lignotuber ; bushfires also stimulate the release of seeds , which germinate after disturbance . Visitors to ( and likely pollinators of ) inflorescences include insects and a nocturnal mammal , the white @-@ tailed dunnart .
= = Description = =
Banksia grossa grows as a bushy shrub , generally 70 to 1 m ( 2 @,@ 756 to 39 in ) high , or occasionally up to 1 @.@ 5 m ( 4 @.@ 9 ft ) high . Its many stems rise from a woody lignotuber . Young stems have a coating of woolly hairs , while older stems are covered in flaky pale brown bark . Borne on 3 to 5 mm long petioles , the somewhat fleshy leaves are needle @-@ like . Although they are between 4 to 12 cm ( 1 @.@ 5 to 4 @.@ 5 in ) long , and only 2 to 3 mm wide , they are still thicker than those of other members of the series Abietinae . The margins of the leaves are straight with no teeth and rolled over , and the upper surfaces are sparsely hairy when young , but later hairless . New growth occurs over spring and early summer .
Flowers occur in a typical Banksia flower spike : an inflorescence made up of hundreds of small individual flowers , or florets , densely packed around ( and completely obscuring ) a woody cylindrical axis . In B. grossa , this axis is 5 to 7 cm ( 2 to 3 in ) high with a diameter of 0 @.@ 7 – 0 @.@ 9 cm ( 0 @.@ 28 – 0 @.@ 35 in ) . From this , the florets radiate out laterally , giving the inflorescence a diameter of 8 or 9 cm ( 3 or 3 @.@ 5 in ) . Flowers are rusty brown to golden brown , and consist of a hairy 3 @.@ 4 – 4 @.@ 5 cm ( 1 @.@ 3 – 1 @.@ 8 in ) long tubular perianth which opens at maturity ( anthesis ) to release the dark red to purple style . 3 @.@ 8 – 4 @.@ 8 cm ( 1 @.@ 5 – 1 @.@ 9 in ) long , the style extends past the perianth and is curved at the tip . The flower spikes arise from short thick branchlets running off larger stems , though some flower spikes are terminal ( located at the ends of branches and more prominently displayed in the foliage ) .
Flowering occurs between March and September , though early flowering in December has been recorded . It takes five to eight weeks for a flower to develop from bud to the end of flowering . About three weeks before the flowers open , they develop a strong musky smell . The opening of flowers occurs sequentially , starting at the bottom of the inflorescence and sweeping through to the top over a period of around two weeks . At anthesis the flowers produce copious quantities of nectar ; indeed , some flowers produce so much that it drips to the ground . After flowering , the old florets wither and curl against the spike , giving it a hairy appearance . Now known as an infructescence , it is roughly ellipsoidal , 6 to 10 cm high ( 2 @.@ 2 – 4 in ) and 4 to 8 cm ( 1 @.@ 5 to 3 in ) wide . Up to 25 smooth , elliptical follicles develop on the spike , each containing up to two wide wedge @-@ shaped winged seeds . One field study revealed , on average , eight follicles for each fertile cone . Initially covered in fine fur , these are 2 to 4 @.@ 5 cm ( 0 @.@ 79 to 1 @.@ 77 in ) long , 1 – 1 @.@ 8 cm ( 0 @.@ 39 – 0 @.@ 71 in ) high and jut out by 1 – 1 @.@ 8 cm ( 0 @.@ 39 – 0 @.@ 71 in ) . The fur rubs off and they become smooth with wear , and generally remain closed until opened by fire .
The seeds of Banksia grossa are the largest of all the species of the series Abietinae . Measuring 2 @.@ 8 – 3 @.@ 9 cm ( 1 @.@ 1 – 1 @.@ 5 in ) long , they are made up of a cuneate ( wedge @-@ shaped ) seed body , 1 @.@ 4 – 1 @.@ 8 cm ( 0 @.@ 55 – 0 @.@ 71 in ) long by 0 @.@ 4 – 0 @.@ 9 cm ( 0 @.@ 16 – 0 @.@ 35 in ) wide , and a 2 @.@ 7 – 3 @.@ 3 cm ( 1 @.@ 1 – 1 @.@ 3 in ) wide wing . The woody separator is the same shape as the seed , with an impression where the seed body lies next to it . The bright green cotyledons are obovate and can be either convex or concave , measuring 1 @.@ 6 to 2 @.@ 2 cm long by 0 @.@ 9 to 1 @.@ 2 cm wide . These arise from a stocky seedling stem , known as the hypocotyl , which is reddish and covered in short hairs . The auricles of the cotyledons are 2 mm long . Seedling leaves arise 0 @.@ 6 to 0 @.@ 8 cm beyond the cotyledons and are oppositely arranged . Linear , they are 1 @.@ 4 to 1 @.@ 6 cm long with recurved margins and are covered in white hair . The stem remains reddish . Subsequent leaf pairs are successively longer .
= = Taxonomy = =
The first known specimen collection of B. grossa was made by botanist Fred W. Humphreys in 1965 . Alex George has expressed surprise that it was not collected by earlier visitors to the area , speculating that " perhaps they were diverted by its similarity to B. leptophylla and B. sphaerocarpa . " George formally described the species in his 1981 monograph " The genus Banksia L.f. ( Proteaceae ) " , based on a specimen collected by him on the Brand Highway , 76 km north of Regans Ford , on 14 May 1969 . He placed it in subgenus Banksia because of its flower spike ; section Oncostylis because its styles are hooked ; and the resurrected series Abietinae , which he constrained to contain only round @-@ fruited species . It was placed in phyletic order between B. micrantha and B. leptophylla . The specific epithet is from the Latin grossus ( " coarse " ) and refers to the leaves , flowers and fruit , all of which George observed were more coarse than other members of B. ser . Abietinae .
George 's arrangement remained current until 1996 , when Kevin Thiele and Pauline Ladiges published an arrangement informed by a cladistic analysis of morphological characteristics . They retained George 's subgenera and many of his series , but discarded his sections . Banksia ser . Abietinae was found to be very nearly monophyletic , and so was retained . It further resolved into four subclades , so Thiele and Ladiges split it into four subseries . Banksia grossa appeared as the most basal member of the second of these :
This clade became the basis for the new subseries Sphaerocarpae , which Thiele defined as containing those species with lignotubers , styles loosely curling around the infructescence ( although this trait was reversed in B. micrantha ) , and " transversely aligned cells of the seed wing inner face " . The species other than B. grossa also have shouldered follicles .
Questioning the emphasis on cladistics in Thiele and Ladiges ' arrangement , George published a slightly modified version of his 1981 arrangement in his 1999 treatment of Banksia for the Flora of Australia series of monographs . The placement of B. grossa was the same as in 1981 , except that B. telmatiaea was moved to set between it and B. leptophylla . The placement of B. grossa in George 's 1999 arrangement may be summarised as follows :
Banksia
B. subg . Banksia
B. sect . Banksia ( 9 series , 50 species , 9 subspecies , 3 varieties )
B. sect . Coccinea ( 1 species )
B. sect . Oncostylis
B. ser . Spicigerae ( 7 species , 2 subspecies , 4 varieties )
B. ser . Tricuspidae ( 1 species )
B. ser . Dryandroideae ( 1 species )
B. ser . Abietinae
B. sphaerocarpa ( 5 varieties )
B. micrantha
B. grossa
B. telmatiaea
B. leptophylla ( 2 varieties )
B. lanata
B. scabrella
B. violacea
B. incana
B. laricina
B. pulchella
B. meisneri ( 2 subspecies )
B. nutans ( 2 varieties )
B. subg . Isostylis ( 3 species )
Since 1998 , Austin Mast has been publishing results of ongoing cladistic analyses of DNA sequence data for the subtribe Banksiinae . His analyses suggest a phylogeny that is very different from George 's arrangement . Banksia grossa was inferred to be sister to a polytomous clade consisting of B. leptophylla , B. telmatiaea , B. scabrella and B. lanata :
Early in 2007 , Mast and Thiele initiated a rearrangement of Banksia by merging Dryandra into it , and publishing B. subg . Spathulatae for the taxa having spoon @-@ shaped cotyledons . They foreshadowed publishing a full arrangement once DNA sampling of Dryandra was complete ; in the meantime , if Mast and Thiele 's nomenclatural changes are taken as an interim arrangement , then B. grossa is placed in B. subg . Spathulatae .
= = Distribution and habitat = =
Banksia grossa mainly occurs from west of Yandanooka in the north , south to Badgingarra National Park , and east almost to Coorow . It grows in shallow sand over laterite , in deep sand , and occasionally atop lateritic rises , on flat or gently undulating land , among kwongan shrubland . Around 40 % of plants occur on road verges .
= = Ecology = =
Banksia grossa resprouts from its woody lignotuber after bushfire . Shrubs carry relatively low numbers of seeds compared with plant species that regenerate by seed after bushfire . A field study in Eneabba showed shrubs bore anywhere from 30 to 90 seeds per plant . Seeds borne on plants , however , are less likely to be eaten by animals than seed lying dormant in the soil , and hence survive to produce future seedlings . Populations of resprouting plants , like B. grossa , benefit more from longer intervals between fires as their stored seedbank takes longer to accumulate than reseeding species . The follicles generally open after bushfire , releasing seeds which germinate after disturbance . Species with persistent flowers on old spikes often require higher temperatures for follicles to open after burning ; laboratory testing resulted in 50 % opening after exposure to 270 ° C and 90 % after 400 ° C.
The leaves of B. grossa are adapted to a dry climate . The lower surfaces are protected by the strongly revolute shape of the leaf , the leaf margins curling around underneath almost to the mid @-@ vein . The trichomes ( leaf hairs ) run along the mid @-@ vein and the margins , further protecting the surface where the stomates are located , thus minimising water loss . Cladistic analysis suggests this species and its relatives in the series Abietinae developed long narrow leaves with inrolled margins as they invaded drier climates in Australia 's southwest , having evolved from ancestors with broad leaves .
The inflorescences are highly attractive to insects . The rare bee species Hylaeus globuliferus is a recorded visitor . Large numbers of ladybirds have been reported drinking the nectar of this species , while ignoring nearby Banksia attenuata inflorescences . The white @-@ tailed dunnart ( Sminthopsis granulipes ) has been observed visiting flower spikes . Pollen has been found on the snouts and in the scat of several species of dasyurid marsupials , which suggests these animals are likely pollinators of Banksia species in general . No pollinators of this species were recorded in The Banksia Atlas survey .
Banksia grossa is one of five closely related Banksia species that have highly unusual flower nectar . Whereas other Banksia species produce nectar that is clear and watery , the nectar of these species is pale yellow initially , but gradually becomes darker and thicker , changing to a thick , olive @-@ green mucilage within one to two days of secretion , and eventually becoming " an almost black , gelatinous lump adhering to the base of the flowers " . It was first noted by Byron Lamont in 1980 ; he attributed it to cyanobacteria that feed off the nectar sugars . Noting that many of these cyanobacteria had heterocysts , he speculated that they aid the plant by fixing atmospheric nitrogen , which is then washed off the flower heads by rain , and absorbed by the proteoid root mat . This purported symbiosis was investigated by Barrett and Lamont in 1985 , but no evidence of nitrogen fixing was found . Further investigation by Markey and Lamont in 1996 suggested that the discolouration is not caused by cyanobacteria or other microorganisms in the nectar , but is rather " a chemical phenomenon of plant origin " . Their analyses indicated that the nectar had unusually high levels of sugar and free amino acids , but three of these species , including B. sphaerocarpa , have since been shown to have normal nectar sugar compositions . The purpose of coloured nectar is unclear , especially as pollinators such as nocturnal mammals are not thought to forage by sight . However , nectar that becomes more obvious by appearance or smell as it ages might encourage pollinators to prioritise it over newer nectar . It is possible the colour change is unrelated to pollination .
= = Cultivation = =
Banksia grossa is cultivated for its attractive needle @-@ like leaves and rusty @-@ brown flower spikes , both of which can be quite variable in colour . This species favours well @-@ drained sandy or loamy acidic soils with a pH of 5 @.@ 5 to 7 , and a sunny aspect . Once established , it tolerates dry spells . It can be pruned heavily as it resprouts from its lignotuber .
Propagation is by seed . The seeds do not require any treatment before sowing , and take around 14 days to germinate . This is a slow @-@ growing plant , taking 5 to 7 years to reach maturity and begin flowering .
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= LG G2 =
The LG G2 is an Android smartphone developed by LG Electronics . Serving as a successor to 2012 's Optimus G and the 2013 Optimus G Pro phablet , the G2 was unveiled at a press event in New York City on 7 August 2013 , and first released in September 2013 . The G2 is primarily distinguished by software features that LG billed would " learn " from users , a high fidelity sound system designed to produce higher quality audio , a 5 @.@ 2 in ( 130 mm ) 1080p screen with technology that the company claimed would improve energy efficiency and reduce the size of the bezel around it , along with the unique placement of its power and volume keys — eschewing their typical location on the edge of a smartphone by placing them on the rear below the camera lens .
The device was released to mostly positive reception ; the G2 was universally praised for LG 's efforts to produce a more seamless and compact design , its high performance , the quality of its display and camera , along with its long @-@ lasting battery . Critics were divided on certain aspects of its design , such as its rear button layout , and its plastic chassis — which was panned for closely resembling recent Samsung Galaxy products and being a regression from the glass @-@ based chassis of the Optimus G. Similarly , while its software and user interface was praised for its usability and large number of customization options , some reviewers felt that the software suffered from feature creep and contained notable usability regressions in comparison to " stock " Android .
Sales of the G2 exceeded LG 's estimates ; in late @-@ December 2013 , a Korean news agency reported that at least 3 million units of the G2 had been sold worldwide .
= = Release = =
The G2 was first unveiled during a press event at New York City 's Jazz at Lincoln Center on 7 August 2013 . LG announced that it would begin to release the G2 globally on over 130 carriers within the next two months , in markets such as South Korea and the United States .
To promote the G2 , LG attempted to hold a city @-@ wide scavenger hunt in Seoul , South Korea ; during a press event at a local park on 9 August 2013 , helium balloons ( tying in with its " G in the Cloud " advertising campaign ) were released that contained 100 vouchers . After the vouchers were scattered through the city by the deflating balloons , LG planned to give away G2s to those who found the vouchers . While only members of the media were formally invited , the event was disrupted by members of the public who learned about the promotion on the internet . As the balloons were released , attendees attempted to use BB guns and other makeshift tools to retrieve them . The resulting quarrel which broke out over the balloons resulted in 20 injuries ; following the incident , LG apologized and stated that it would pay for the medical treatment of those injured in the event . LG also called off plans to hold similar events in other South Korean cities .
The G2 was first released in the United States by Verizon on 12 September 2013 , and released by AT & T the following day . T @-@ Mobile released the G2 on 25 September , while Sprint released theirs on 8 November 2013 . The G2 was released in Canada on 27 September 2013 , across six national and regional carriers , including Bell , Rogers , SaskTel , Telus , Vidéotron , and Wind Mobile .
= = Specifications = =
= = = Hardware = = =
The G2 's exterior consists of a polycarbonate shell — unlike its predecessor , which used a glass @-@ based construction . The rear cover is adorned with a subtle pattern resembling carbon fiber . The G2 's volume and power keys are located directly below the camera on the rear of the device . The power button contains an LED lamp , which can be used as a notification light . The positioning of the buttons on the rear deviates from the majority of smartphones , where they are located on the bezel ( side edge ) of the phone . LG argued that buttons located on the bezel were harder to reach on larger smartphones , and made it more likely for users to drop their phone when adjusting the volume during a call . As such , the G2 's buttons are instead located where the index finger would normally lie when the phone is held . Alongside the power button , the G2 is also powered on by double @-@ tapping on the screen , and turned off by double @-@ tapping on the status bar or a blank area on the home screen , a feature branded as " KnockOn " . When the phone is off , the volume keys can also be used to launch directly into the camera or QuickMemo applications by holding them down .
The G2 is powered by a 2 @.@ 26 & GHz quad @-@ core Snapdragon 800 processor with 2 GB of RAM and support for LTE or LTE Advanced networks where available . The G2 is equipped with a 5 @.@ 2 @-@ inch 1080p IPS display ; to reduce the size of its screen bezel , wiring for touchscreen components is routed both above and below the screen itself . To help conserve battery life , the G2 also implements a panel self @-@ refresh system ; if the display is showing static content , it is refreshed solely from framebuffer memory ( referred to as " graphics RAM " ) , allowing other display components ( such as the GPU ) to become idle . LG claimed that this system would allow the screen to use 26 % less power than comparable displays on other smartphones .
The G2 's audio hardware and software is optimized to support 24 @-@ bit / 192 kHz audio ; during LG 's press event , ringtones recorded by the Vienna Boys ' Choir ( which are also bundled with the device ) were used to demonstrate the high quality audio from its internal speaker . The G2 also includes a 13 @-@ megapixel rear @-@ facing camera with optical image stabilization , and an infrared emitter which allows it to serve as a universal remote with the accompanying QuickRemote app .
The G2 comes with either 16 or 32 GB of non @-@ expandable storage , and includes a non @-@ removable 3000 mAh battery . The Verizon Wireless model of the G2 offers support for Qi wireless charging . Unlike the models released in other countries , South Korean models of the G2 have a removable back cover , a MicroSD card slot for expanded storage , and a removable 2610 mAh battery .
= = = Software = = =
The G2 ships with Android 4 @.@ 2 @.@ 2 " Jelly Bean " with a custom interface and software . It contains a number of features that are designed to " learn " from users by predicting future actions , and allow for flexibility and customization . The G2 retains features from previous LG models such as the Optimus G and G Pro , including QuickMemo ( which allows users to write notes on top of a screenshot ) , QuickRemote ( a feature which allows the device to serve as a universal remote ) , QSlide pop @-@ up apps , and Voice Mate . New features introduced by the G2 include TextLink , which analyzes text messages to detect content such as addresses and times that can be passed to other apps ( such as the calendar , a note , or Google Maps ) , a pop @-@ up menu of relevant apps triggered when plugging in headphones or a USB cable ( Plug & Pop ) , the ability to answer a phone call by holding the phone to the user 's head ( AnswerMe ) , Slide Aside , a multitasking feature which allows users to " slide " away apps onto cards with a three @-@ finger gesture , the Clip Tray ( which collects content that had been copied to the clipboard ) , and Guest Mode . The G2 uses on @-@ screen buttons ; users can change their background color ( which includes black and white options , either solid colored or with a gradient ) , customize the order of the buttons , or add additional buttons for opening QuickMemo or the notification shade . The G2 's default music player supports the playback of WAV and FLAC files with 24 @-@ bit / 192 kHz audio .
An update to Android 4 @.@ 4 @.@ 2 " KitKat " was released in South Korea in November 2013 , and for international models in March 2014 . LG touted a " noticeable speed boost " over Jelly Bean , along with battery life improvements , user interface tweaks , and other improvements brought by KitKat . A further update added a new security feature known as " Knock Code " ( as introduced by the LG G Pro 2 ) , which allows users to unlock their device by tapping quadrants of the screen in a sequence .
An update to Android 5 @.@ 0 @.@ 1 " Lollipop " was first released in South Korea in January 2015 . Alongside other internal improvements , it introduces the refreshed " G UI " first introduced by the LG G3 , which itself received improvements to match the new visual style and features of Lollipop , The update was also released for the international model and the U.S. carrier versions , but will not be released in Canada .
= = = Model variants = = =
Several different model variants of the G2 are sold , with most variants differing only in support for regional network types and bands . However , the South Korean version features a removable ( but smaller ) battery and a MicroSD slot , while the U.S. Verizon Wireless version includes Qi wireless charging , but has a noticeably different rear cover design with different designs for the buttons and camera , and replaces the solid black option for the button background with a pink pattern option . In January 2014 , in honor of the Chinese New Year , LG released two " limited edition " models of the G2 in selected Asian markets ; available in red or gold colors , the limited edition models featured textured casings instead of the glossier plastic used normally by the G2 .
= = = Accessories = = =
The QuickWindow case accessory for the G2 was unveiled on 30 July 2013 — prior to the unveiling of the phone itself . The QuickWindow case consists of a plastic shell with a polyurethane flip cover . The cover contains a rounded rectangular window that exposes a portion of the display , allowing a number of functions to be accessed without opening the cover , including notifications , a customizable clock , and a music player .
= = Reception = =
= = = Pre @-@ release = = =
While complimenting its performance and other unique features , The Verge believed that LG was trying too hard to compete with the Samsung Galaxy S4 by closely imitating its design , specifications , and emphasis on features instead of differentiating itself through further innovations . TechRadar also praised its performance and display quality , but considered the design of the G2 itself to be " dull " , and believed that while offering many options for advanced users , LG 's skinned version of Android 4 @.@ 2 was too complex for " casual " users ( especially noting its notification pull @-@ down , where roughly half the screen is taken up by options ) .
= = = Critical reception = = =
The LG G2 was released to mostly positive reception . In December 2013 , the British magazine Stuff named the G2 its 2013 Phone of the Year and Gadget of the Year , reporting that " LG has previously struggled to make an impact on the smartphone market , but the LG G2 is as good as smartphones get in 2013 , and shows the established names how it should be done . "
The G2 was considered by critics to be well @-@ built , but was criticized for replacing the glass @-@ based construction of the Optimus G with a plainer , plastic @-@ based design , drawing comparisons to recent Samsung products . Ars Technica further criticized the Verizon Wireless version for having a cheaper appearance than the international versions , with a plainer rear cover , modified buttons , and a different speaker layout . The G2 's rear buttons were met with equally mixed reception , with most reviewers believing that users would be able to adjust themselves to operate them . Accordingly , the ability to wake the phone by tapping on the screen was considered a more convenient method . The G2 was praised for its high @-@ end hardware , with Engadget describing the device as a " beast " with specifications that " seem familiar to anyone who 's read a flagship Android phone review in the last 12 months " , recognizing that it had become harder for manufacturers to differentiate their flagship products beyond displays and processors . The G2 's display was praised for its high resolution and color accuracy , along with LG 's efforts to reduce the screen bezel size . The G2 was also praised for having unexpectedly longer battery life than any of its competitors ( along with Motorola 's Droid Razr Maxx ) . After lasting about 20 hours of " standard " use in its testing , the G2 's battery was considered by Engadget to be " a sign that we 're finally crossing into a world of sensible smartphone batteries . "
LG 's Android interface design received mixed reviews ; TechRadar gave it a positive review , describing it as being " easy enough for novice and expert smartphone users alike " , and noting its dynamic elements and customization features . Its increased customization abilities ( including different lock screen and home screen animations , and the ability to change the background and layout of the on @-@ screen navigation buttons ) was noted by reviewers . The usefulness of the " Slide Aside " feature was questioned due to the availability of other , more efficient means to switch apps . LG 's software was generally panned for being unpolished in places , suffering from feature creep , and containing too many unneeded visual effects and skeuomorphic elements ( the latter having generally fallen out of favor ) . The G2 's software was also panned for containing usability digressions in comparison to stock Android , such as the notification tray being taken up by options , not using Android 4 @.@ 2 's updated " Complete action using " menu and behavior , and , despite using on @-@ screen buttons , continued use of the " Menu " key which was officially deprecated by Google in its Android human interface guidelines for Android 4.x ( on apps which comply with the HIG , overflow menus are intended to be displayed within the apps themselves . The device 's Menu key is replaced by a " Recent apps " key , and a small " Menu " key appears to the side when needed ) .
The G2 's camera was considered good for its class , with its processor contributing to quicker HDR photo processing than its competitors . The Verge remarked that despite LG having " practically stole [ n ] " Samsung 's camera design and modes , the G2 's camera interface were among the better implementations of Android camera software due to its available options . However , its low @-@ light photos and some of its other modes were panned for not being as good as those of other devices such as the Nokia Lumia 920 and HTC One . In a photography @-@ focused review by Digital Photography Review , the optical image stabilization system was praised for helping maintain good levels of exposure , and well @-@ lit photos were found to have a decent level of detail , noting that its lens was " sharp pretty much all across the frame and free of chromatic aberrations . " However , it was noted that " as the light gets dimmer and in [ sic ] the ISO starts to increase " , the device began to suffer from " very heavy @-@ handed noise reduction which results in visible softness " , and further noted that " [ its ] detail starts to suffer as soon as you go higher than base ISO and by ISO 400 most low @-@ contrast detail is gone . " However , in a December 2013 comparison against other recent phones such as the One , Galaxy S4 Zoom , Xperia Z1 , iPhone 5S , and Lumia 1020 by TechRadar , the G2 was named the best cameraphone of the six for " [ performing ] very well in terms of picture quality , ease of use and functionality , as well as post processing " , although it was panned for not having as many options as its competitors , and for the probability of fingers accidentally getting into landscape shots due to the positioning of the lens .
= = = Sales = = =
In December 2013 , Asia Today reported that 2 @.@ 3 million units of the G2 had been sold since its release in September 2013 , with at least 600 @,@ 000 sold in South Korea alone . These numbers were below LG 's original estimates of 3 million units . However , later in the month , news agency Yonhap reported more positive numbers from analysts , with at least 3 million units sold and 900 @,@ 000 sold in South Korea .
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= Tales of Symphonia =
Tales of Symphonia ( Japanese : テイルズ オブ シンフォニア , Hepburn : Teiruzu Obu Shinfonia ) is a Japanese role @-@ playing game released for the Nintendo GameCube on August 29 , 2003 in Japan . It was published by Namco and is the fifth core product of the Tales series . The game was localized and released in North America on July 13 , 2004 and in Europe on November 19 , 2004 . In Japan , the game was ported for the PlayStation 2 with additional content and was released on September 22 , 2004 .
The game takes place in a fictional world called Sylvarant and follows Lloyd Irving . Lloyd accompanies his childhood friend , Colette Brunel , who is destined to go on a journey to save their world . As their journey progresses , they learn that saving Sylvarant endangers Tethe 'alla , a world parallel to their own . The game 's central theme is Kimi to Hibiki au RPG ( 君と響きあうRPG ? , lit . " RPG that resonates with you " ) .
The game 's reception was generally positive with critics praising the gameplay but criticizing the plot . It received a Japan Game Awards in 2003 and had received re @-@ releases under the Player 's Choice and PlayStation 2 the Best labels . In the United States , over 100 thousand copies were sold during the first two weeks and has sold over a million copies worldwide .
Since its release , Tales of Symphonia spawned a substantial media franchise in Japan . The game has been adapted into seven manga collections , two novel series , seven drama CDs , and an OVA anime series . A sequel entitled Tales of Symphonia : Dawn of the New World was released for the Wii in 2008 . Tales of Symphonia and its sequel was collected as a PlayStation 3 high definition release in Tales of Symphonia Chronicles in 2013 . A Steam version was released on February 2 , 2016 .
= = Gameplay = =
Like previous installments in the Tales series , Tales of Symphonia consists primarily of three major areas : an overworld field map , town and dungeon maps , and a battle screen . The overworld map is a 3D model , featuring a scaled @-@ down version of the game 's fictional world which the player travels through to reach the game 's locations . As with preceding games in the series , the world map can be traversed by foot , on the party 's quadrupedal pet Noishe , and on flying vehicles known as Rheairds . On field maps , characters are directed across realistically scaled environments . The battle screen is a 3D representation of an area , in which the player commands the characters in battles against CPU @-@ controlled enemies .
On the overworld and field maps , various skits between the characters can be viewed . They involve animated character portraits , subtitles , and , in the Japanese version , full voice acting . Skits concern anything from character development to side details . Overworld map skits affect Lloyd 's relationships with other party members . The player will be able to make certain decisions that imperceptibly affect how the other characters think of Lloyd . Some of these choices have minor ramifications for the game 's storyline .
Battle system
During battle sequences , the game uses the Multi @-@ Line Linear Motion Battle System . Four characters from the party are chosen to battle ; those not controlled by a player are guided by artificial intelligence with instructions set by the player beforehand . Damage dealt to the opponent fills a " Unison Gauge " . When this is full , a " Unison Attack " can be triggered , allowing the party to use techniques simultaneously on a single enemy . When certain techniques are combined , a special attack results in additional damage .
After battle , a currency called Grade is awarded or subtracted based on specific criteria that are fulfilled in battle . It is used to purchase bonuses during New Game Plus . Players are also prompted to cook food after battles if they have the materials . Cooking recipes determine the benefits received such as health recovery . The degree of the benefit is determined by which character is chosen to cook .
Tales of Symphonia 's skill system is built around the use of " EX Gems " , which come in four ranks . Each character can equip up to four EX Gems and set abilities to those gems . The abilities determine if the characters will learn Strike or Technical techniques and spells . Combinations of EX Gem abilities can also grant additional abilities called " EX @-@ Skills " . The development of a character 's attributes is determined by their equipped " Title " . Titles are earned through story progression , side quests , or completion of miscellaneous criteria .
= = Plot = =
Lloyd Irving and his friend , Genis Sage accompany the chosen , Colette Brunel and her guardians , Raine Sage and Kratos Aurion on her journey of world regeneration . The purpose of the journey is to replenish Sylvarant with mana , a necessary energy to their survival . The path of the journey consists of five temples which must be unsealed by Colette . On their journey , they meet Sheena Fujibayashi who comes from Tethe 'alla , a world parallel to Sylvarant . She tells them about how the two worlds vie for each other 's mana through the journey of regeneration . Hoping to save both worlds , the party is told by the angel Remiel both worlds can be saved by Colette 's journey . At the final seal , they are betrayed by Remiel and Kratos ; both are revealed to be part of Cruxis , an evil organization led by Mithos Yggdrasill .
The party leaves for Tethe 'alla to search for a way to save both worlds and are joined by Zelos Wilder , Presea Combatir , and Regal Bryant . The party learns that awakening the Summon Spirits in both worlds will sever the mana tie between them . Believing that to be the answer , they successfully sever all mana ties between the two worlds . Their actions instead destabilize the Great Seed , the supplier of mana to both worlds , causing it to grow and engulf Sylvarant at an exponential rate . After the party re @-@ stabilizes the seed , they learn from Yuan Ka @-@ Fai about the origins of Sylvarant and Tethe 'alla and how they used to be one world but was split by Mithos with the Eternal Sword ; the party realizes they can save the world if they wield the Eternal Sword , merge the worlds , and germinate the Great Seed . They decide to confront and defeat Mithos before seeking the Eternal Sword .
Kratos is revealed to have been gathering materials to have Lloyd use the Eternal Sword . He succeeds but Mithos survives his apparent death and possess a member from the party before fleeing to the comet Derris @-@ Kharlan . Mithos attempts to take the Great Seed with him but is foiled and killed by Lloyd . Using the Eternal Sword , Lloyd merges Sylvarant and Tethe 'alla together and germinates the Great Seed into a Giant Kharlan Tree to supply the world with mana .
= = Development and release = =
The game was first announced on May 8 , 2002 by Namco to be one of the many titles it would be releasing on the Nintendo GameCube . Namco stated it would be a part of the Tales of Phantasia series and expected comics , animation , drama CDs and novels to be spun off from the game . Its name was revealed to be Tales of Symphonia in February 2003 . An April 2003 edition of Famitsu revealed the game has been in development for two years , its developers are the same from Tales of Eternia , the game will have the most main characters in the Tales series , and will be the first 3D game in the series . During Electronic Entertainment Expo 2003 , a North American localization was confirmed . A conference by Namco on June 9 , 2003 revealed the game will be on two disks and its theme song will be " Starry Heavens " by Day After Tomorrow . To celebrate its release in Japan , the game was bundled with a symphonic green Nintendo GameCube . For the North American version , the localization producer replaced Starry Heavens with an orchestral anthem and focused on hiring professional voice actors to dub the game in order to appeal to the Western audience . The game was released in Japan on August 29 , 2003 and was localized in North America and Europe on July 13 , 2004 and November 19 , 2004 respectively . The game was re @-@ released in North America under the Player 's Choice label on July 19 , 2004 .
During the second week of April 2004 , Weekly Shōnen Jump announced a PlayStation 2 port of Tales of Symphonia . It received new in @-@ game additions and its theme song is " Soshite Boku ni Dekiru Koto " ( そして僕にできるコト ? , lit . " And Thus , I Can Do It " ) by Day After Tomorrow . It was released exclusively in Japan on September 22 , 2004 and re @-@ released under the PlayStation 2 the Best label on July 7 , 2005 .
= = = Scenario = = =
Takumi Miyajima , the game 's writer , explained Tales of Symphonia was planned to create a " unique symphonia " , dependent on the player 's choices and the affection system . Miyajima wrote many scenarios , with the most significant events centered on Zelos Wilder . Originally , Zelos ' death was supposed to be canon . His survival would have been dependent on the affection system : He would die early on if he was ranked the lowest in the affection system , would die at the end if he ranked in the middle , and would only survive if he ranked the top . However , the development staff suggested to have Kratos Aurion return to the party and the team discussed how it would work . The change in scenario had Miyajima rework Zelos ' death into a non @-@ canon path of the story . While generally a self @-@ contained story , Symphonia apparently takes place within either the same or a similar timeline to the first Tales game , Tales of Phantasia .
= = = Sequel and Chronicles release = = =
The sequel Tales of Symphonia : Knight of Ratatosk ( テイルズ オブ シンフォニア ラタトスクの騎士 , Teiruzu Obu Shinfonia Ratatosuku no Kishi ) , localized in English as Tales of Symphonia : Dawn of the New World , was announced on July 20 , 2007 for the Wii . It was released in Japan and North America in 2008 and in Europe a year after .
Tales of Symphonia Chronicles was announced on June 1 , 2013 for the PlayStation 3 . It contains Tales of Symphonia and Tales of Symphonia : Dawn of the New World with remastered graphics and additional content . It was released in Japan on October 10 , 2013 , and it was released in North America and Europe on February 2014 as both a retail version and download release , with the option to purchase Tales of Symphonia as a standalone release .
= = Adaptations = =
= = = Manga = = =
Tales of Symphonia spawned seven manga adaptations after its release : six anthology collections and a traditional manga series .
The first anthology collection , Tales of Symphonia Comic Anthology , consists of five volumes which were released between November 25 , 2003 and February 25 , 2006 by Ichijinsha . The second anthology collection , Tales of Symphonia Yonkoma Kings , is a yonkoma . It consists of five volumes released between November 25 , 2003 and December 25 , 2006 by Ichijinsha . A third anthology collection entitled BC Anthology Collection Tales of Symphonia had two volumes published by Mag Garden on February 2005 and 2007 . The fourth anthology collection is BC Anthology Collection Tales of Symphonia Yonkoma Short Comic Collection and consisted of a single volume which was released by Mag Garden on October 10 , 2007 . The fifth anthology collection is Super Comic Theater : Tales of Symphonia . It consisted of two volumes which were released by Square Enix on May 27 , 2005 and September 16 , 2005 . The sixth anthology collection is Tales of Symphonia Comic Anthology : The Best is a single volume released on June 5 , 2010 by Ichijinsha .
The manga series by Hitoshi Ichimura was titled Tales of Symphonia and was an adaptation of the game 's storyline . The first four chapters were serialized between the April and July 2005 editions of Monthly Comic Blade . Future chapters were released in tankōbon volumes by Mag Garden thereafter . Six volumes were released : the first was released on August 10 , 2005 and the last two were released on July 10 , 2007 .
= = = Books = = =
Tales of Symphonia has spun off two novel series adaptions , four strategy guides , a character book , an official scenario book , and an art book . The first novel series is titled Tales of Symphonia and is written by Kiyoshi Yuki . It consisted of three novels released between November 21 and December 20 , 2003 by Shueisha . The second novel series is titled Tales of Symphonia : Radiance of Time ( テイルズ オブ シンフォニア 久遠 の輝き , Teiruzu Obu Shinfonia Toki no Kagayaki ) and is written by Sera Yajima . It consists of four volumes released between December 20 , 2003 and June 19 , 2004 by Enterbrain . An after story by the same author was released on September 18 , 2004 .
Two strategy guides under the V Jump Books brand were published by Shueisha : the Gamecube guide was released on August 29 , 2003 and the PS2 on September 22 , 2004 . Namco Bandai Games released two official strategy guides on October 1 , 2003 and October 27 , 2004 for the Gamecube and PS2 respectively . Tales of Symphonia Illustration : Kosuke Fujishima 's Character Work is a book by the game 's designer , Kōsuke Fujishima , and was released on January 26 , 2004 by Ichijinsha . It provides details on the characters ' back story and how their design came to be . Tales of Symphonia Official Scenario Book was released on June 26 , 2008 by Namco Bandai . The book details the history of the world and characters . Tales of Symphonia The Animation Visual Complete Picture Book is an art book for the anime released on March 28 , 2013 by ASCII Media Works .
= = = Audio CDs = = =
Seven drama CDs based on the game 's plot were produced by Frontier Works . Drama CD : Tales of Symphonia ( A Long Time Ago ) 1 , 2 , and 3 are stories preceding the game . They were released between July 23 , 2004 and September 24 , 2004 . Drama CD : Tales of Symphonia Anthology 1 ( Rodeo Ride Tour ) First Part and Second Part follow Sheena Fujibayashi and Zelos Wilder as they tour the world a year after the events of the main game . The two CDs were released on May 25 , 2005 and June 24 , 2005 . Tales of Symphonia Comic Market 78 and Tales of Symphonia Comic Market 79 are side stories with guest characters from Tales of Vesperia and Tales of Graces , respectively .
Tales of Symphonia Original Soundtrack was published by DigiCube on October 1 , 2003 and consists of 4 discs . It debuted at 98 on Oricon 's charts . The soundtrack was re @-@ released on October 27 , 2004 by King Records ( Japan ) for the PS2 port of Tales of Symphonia .
= = = = Original Soundtrack listing = = = =
= = = Anime = = =
Tales of Symphonia The Animation ( テイルズ オブ シンフォニア The Animation , Teiruzu Obu Shinfonia The Animation ) was an OVA series animated by Ufotable and produced by Geneon Universal Entertainment and Frontier Works . It consists of four episodes which were released direct @-@ to @-@ video on four separate DVDs on June 8 , August 10 , October 24 , and December 21 of 2007 . They were later released in a Blu @-@ ray Disc collection on September 26 , 2008 . The series later rereleased on Universal Media Disc between June 25 and July 23 , 2010 . On May 8 , 2010 , the series were aired on AT @-@ X as a promotion to the sequel of the series . The episodes used three pieces of theme music : The opening theme is " Almateria " by Eri Kawai and the two ending themes were " Negai " ( 願い ? , lit . " Wish " ) by Kaori Hikita and Uchi e Kaerou ( うちへ帰ろう ? , lit . " Let 's Go Home " ) by Nana Mizuki .
The sequel series , Tales of Symphonia the Animation : Tethe 'alla Episode ( テイルズ オブ シンフォニア The Animation テセアラ編 , Teiruzu Obu Shinfonia The Animation : Teseara hen ) , was announced during Tales of Festival 2008 . It consists of four episodes which were released on March 25 , May 26 , September 23 , 2010 and February 25 , 2011 . All four episodes received an early screening : The first was screened on March 13 , 2010 in Fukuoka and was hosted by Music Plaza Indo ; The second on May 4 , 2010 in Tokushima , Tokushima by Ufotable ; the third on September 17 , 2010 in Yokohama by Animate ; and the fourth on February 20 , 2011 in Roppongi by Toho . The first two episodes were later aired on September 12 , 2010 on AT @-@ X. The episodes used the opening theme " Tenkuu no Canaria " ( 天空のカナリア ? , lit . " Canary in the Sky " ) by Nana Mizuki and the ending theme " Inori no Kanata " ( 祈りの彼方 ? , lit . " Beyond the Prayers " ) by Akiko Shikata .
The second sequel , Tales of Symphonia the Animation : The United World Episode ( テイルズ オブ シンフォニア The Animation 世界統合編 , Teiruzu Obu Shinfonia The Animation : Sekai Tōgō @-@ hen ) , concludes the anime 's plot . It consists of three episodes released directly to DVD and Blu @-@ ray on November 23 , 2011 , June 20 , 2012 , and October 24 , 2012 . All three episodes had early screenings : the first was screened between September 23 and September 25 , 2011 by Cinema Sunshine in Ikebukuro ; the second on May 3 , 2012 in Tokushima by Ufotable ; and the third is on September 29 , 2012 by Cinema Sunshine in Ikebukuro . The episodes use four pieces of theme musics : an opening theme " Ho @-@ n @-@ to @-@ u @-@ so " ( ホ ・ ン ・ ト ・ ウ ・ ソ ? , lit . " Truth and Lies " ) by Misono and three ending themes , " Ta ga Tame no Sekai " ( 誰ガ為ノ世界 ? , lit . " A World for Someone Else " ) , " Ibitsu " ( 歪 ? , lit . " Distortion " ) , and " Hikari furu basho de ~ Promesse ~ " ( 光降る場所で ～ Promesse ～ ? , lit . " At the Place Where the Light Falls ~ Promise ~ " ) , all by Akiko Shikata .
A Blu @-@ ray box set containing all three series was announced on June 1 , 2013 and released on November 6 , 2013 .
= = Reception = =
Tales of Symphonia garnered generally positive reception from critics . Over 100 @,@ 000 copies were sold in the United States during the first two weeks after its release . In December 2007 , Namco announced that the GameCube version had sold 953 @,@ 000 copies worldwide , and the PlayStation 2 port had sold 486 @,@ 000 copies in Japan . The bargain reissue for the PlayStation 2 in 2005 sold almost 50 @,@ 000 copies in Japan by the end of 2006 . Its total worldwide sales across its original platforms have reached 1 @.@ 6 million as of 2008 , making it the best @-@ selling Tales title to date . The game has appeared on many top game rankings and received a Japan Game Awards in 2003 for excellence . The January 2009 issue of Game Informer listed it at # 24 in its " Top 25 GameCube Games " . Nintendo Power ranked Tales of Symphonia 107th in a list of " Top 200 Nintendo Games Ever " . IGN users placed it 75th in a Top 100 Games list , while GameFAQs users put it at 81st in a similar list .
Critics have praised the game for its cel @-@ shaded art style and real @-@ time battle system . 1UP , GameSpot , GameSpy , IGN , and X @-@ Play , applauded the amount of details in the scenes with GameSpy noting the steady 60 fps . GameSpy described the battle system as " wonderfully fast and to the point " while X @-@ Play noted its accessibility and potential to attract non @-@ RPG gamers . Meanwhile , the story and audio have received negative criticism . Eurogamer , GameSpot , GameSpy , IGN , and X @-@ Play criticized the plot for being cliché and un @-@ engaging . The reviewers agreed that the music and English voices met standards . GameSpy and X @-@ Play additionally praised the character interactions for being likeable .
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= CAC / PAC JF @-@ 17 Thunder =
The PAC JF @-@ 17 Thunder ( Urdu : جے ایف @-@ ١٧ گرج ) , or CAC FC @-@ 1 Xiaolong ( Fierce Dragon ; Chinese : 枭龙 ; pinyin : Xiāo Lóng ) , is a lightweight , single @-@ engine , multi @-@ role combat aircraft developed jointly by the Pakistan Aeronautical Complex ( PAC ) and the Chengdu Aircraft Corporation ( CAC ) of China . The JF @-@ 17 can be used for aerial reconnaissance , ground attack and aircraft interception . Its designation " JF @-@ 17 " by Pakistan is short for " Joint Fighter @-@ 17 " , while the designation and name " FC @-@ 1 Xiaolong " by China means " Fighter China @-@ 1 Fierce Dragon " .
The JF @-@ 17 can deploy diverse ordnance , including air @-@ to @-@ air and air @-@ to @-@ surface missiles , and a 23 mm GSh @-@ 23 @-@ 2 twin @-@ barrel autocannon . Powered by a Guizhou WS @-@ 13 or Klimov RD @-@ 93 afterburning turbofan it has a top speed of Mach 1 @.@ 6 . The JF @-@ 17 is to become the backbone of the Pakistan Air Force ( PAF ) , complementing the General Dynamics F @-@ 16 Fighting Falcon whose performance it roughly matches , at half the cost . The PAF inducted its first JF @-@ 17 squadron in February 2010 and as of December 2015 , 49 JF @-@ 17 Thunder Aircraft were in service with 50 additional airframes ordered , of which 17 have been delivered . The Pakistan Air Force plans to induct a twin @-@ seater version for training and enhanced operational capability , known as the JF @-@ 17B by 2017 .
= = Development = =
= = = Background = = =
The JF @-@ 17 was primarily developed to meet the PAF 's requirement for an affordable , modern , multi @-@ role combat aircraft as a replacement for its large fleet of Dassault Mirage III / 5 fighters , Nanchang A @-@ 5 bombers , and Chengdu F @-@ 7 interceptors , with a cost of US $ 500 million , divided equally between China and Pakistan . The aircraft was also intended to have export potential as a cost @-@ effective and competitive alternative to more expensive Western fighters . The development of this aircraft was headed by Yang Wei ( aircraft designer ) , who is considered China 's " ace designer " . Wei also designed the Chengdu J @-@ 20 .
By 1989 , because of economic sanctions by the US , Pakistan had abandoned Project Sabre II , a design study involving US aircraft manufacturer Grumman and China , and had decided to redesign and upgrade the Chengdu F @-@ 7 . In the same year , China and Grumman started a new design study to develop the Super 7 , another redesigned Chengdu F @-@ 7 . Grumman left the project when sanctions were placed on China following the political fallout from the 1989 Tiananmen Square protests . After Grumman left the Chengdu Super 7 project , the Fighter China project was launched in 1991 . In 1995 , Pakistan and China signed a memorandum of understanding ( MoU ) for joint design and development of a new fighter , and over the next few years worked out the project details . In June 1995 , Mikoyan had joined the project to provide " design support " , this also involved the secondment of several engineers by CAC .
= = = Launch of FC @-@ 1 project = = =
In October 1995 , Pakistan was reportedly to select a Western company by the end of the year to provide and integrate the FC @-@ 1 's avionics , which was expected to go into production by 1999 . The avionics were said to include radar , Inertial navigation system , Head @-@ up display , and Multi @-@ function displays . Competing bids came from Thomson @-@ CSF with a variant of the Radar Doppler Multitarget ( RDY ) , SAGEM with a similar avionics package to those used in the ROSE upgrade project , and Marconi Electronic Systems with its Blue Hawk radar . FIAR 's ( now SELEX Galileo ) Grifo S7 radar was expected to be selected due to the company 's ties with the PAF . In February 1998 , Pakistan and China signed a letter of intent covering airframe development . Russia 's Klimov offered a variant of the RD @-@ 33 turbofan engine to power the fighter . In April 1999 , South Africa 's Denel offered to arm the Super 7 with the T @-@ darter beyond @-@ visual @-@ range ( BVR ) air @-@ to @-@ air missile ( AAM ) , rather than the previously reported R @-@ Darter . Previously in 1987 , Pratt & Whitney offered the Super @-@ 7 project three engine options ; PW1212 , F404 , and PW1216 , with local manufacturing in either China or Pakistan . Rolls Royce offered its RB199 @-@ 127 / 128 turbofan engine ; this plan was scrapped in 1989 .
In June 1999 , the contract to jointly develop and produce the Chengdu FC @-@ 1 / Super 7 was signed . The project was to be a 50 : 50 partnership ; the air forces of both countries would be committed to ordering the fighter . After GEC @-@ Marconi had abandoned the bidding to supply an integrated avionics suite , FIAR and Thomson @-@ CSF proposed a number of avionics suites based on the Grifo S7 and RC400 radars respectively , despite previously hoping to use the PAF 's Super 7 to launch its new Blue Hawk radar . Because of sanctions placed on Pakistan after the country 's 1998 nuclear weapons tests , design work progressed very slowly over the next 18 months , preventing delivery of the Western avionics to the PAF . In early 2001 , the PAF decided to decouple the airframe from the avionics , enabling design work on the aircraft to continue . As the airframe was developed , any new avionics requirements by the PAF could be more easily integrated into the airframe .
Prototype production began in September 2002 ; a full @-@ size mock @-@ up of the FC @-@ 1 / Super 7 was displayed at Airshow China in November 2002 . The first batch of Klimov RD @-@ 93 turbofan engines that would power the prototypes was also delivered in 2002 . According to a China National Aero @-@ Technology Import & Export Corporation ( CATIC ) official , the JF @-@ 17 's low cost is due to some of the on @-@ board systems having been adapted from those of the Chengdu J @-@ 10 . The official said , " This transfer of technology — transposing the aircraft systems from the J @-@ 10 to the JF @-@ 17 — is what makes the JF @-@ 17 so cost @-@ effective " . The use of computer @-@ aided design software shortened the design phase of the JF @-@ 17 .
= = = Flight testing and redesigning = = =
The first prototype , PT @-@ 01 , was rolled out on 31 May 2003 and transferred to the Chengdu Flight Test Centre to be prepared for its maiden flight . This was initially planned to take place in June , but was delayed due to concerns about the SARS outbreak . The designation Super @-@ 7 was replaced by " JF @-@ 17 " ( Joint Fighter @-@ 17 ) around this point . Low speed taxiing trials began at Wenjiang Airport , Chengdu , on 27 June 2003 . The maiden flight was made in late August 2003 ; an official maiden flight of the prototype took place in early September . The prototype was marked with the new PAF designation JF @-@ 17 . By March 2004 , CAC had made around 20 test flights of the first prototype . On 7 April 2004 , PAF test pilots Rashid Habib and Mohammad Ehsan ul @-@ Haq flew PT @-@ 01 for the first time . The maiden flight of the third prototype , PT @-@ 03 , took place on 9 April 2004 . In March 2004 , Pakistan was planning to induct around 200 aircraft .
Following the third prototype , several design improvements were developed and incorporated into further aircraft . Because of excessive smoke emissions by the RD @-@ 93 engine , the air intakes were widened . Reported control problems found in testing resulted in alterations to the wing leading edge root extensions ( LERX ) . The vertical tail fin was enlarged to house an expanded electronic warfare equipment bay in the tip . The redesigned aircraft had a slightly increased maximum take @-@ off weight and incorporated an increased quantity of Chinese @-@ sourced avionics ; however PAF had selected Western avionics for their aircraft , postponing PAF deliveries from late 2005 until 2007 . Pakistan evaluated British , French , and Italian avionics suites , the winner of which was expected to be finalised in 2006 . PT @-@ 04 , the fourth prototype and the first to incorporate the design changes , was rolled out in April 2006 and made its first flight on 28 April 2006 .
The modified air intakes replaced conventional intake ramps — whose function is to divert turbulent boundary layer airflow away from the inlet and prevent it entering the engine — with a diverterless supersonic inlet ( DSI ) design . The DSI uses a combination of forward @-@ swept inlet cowls and a three @-@ dimensional compression surface to divert the boundary layer airflow at high sub @-@ sonic and supersonic speeds . According to Lockheed Martin , the DSI design prevents most of the boundary layer air from entering the engine at speeds up to two times the speed of sound , reduces weight by removing the need for complex mechanical intake mechanisms , and is stealthier than a conventional intake . In 1999 , developmental work on the DSI with the aim of improving aircraft performance commenced . The JF @-@ 17 design was finalised in 2001 . Multiple models underwent wind tunnel tests ; it was found that the DSI reduced weight , cost , and complexity while improving performance .
For the avionics and weapons qualification phase of the flight testing , PT @-@ 04 was fitted with a fourth @-@ generation avionics suite that incorporates sensor fusion , an electronic warfare suite , enhanced man @-@ machine interface , Digital Electronic Engine Control ( DEEC ) for the RD @-@ 93 turbofan engine , FBW flight controls , day / night precision surface attack capability , and multi @-@ mode , pulse @-@ Doppler radar for BVR air @-@ to @-@ air attack capability . The sixth prototype , PT @-@ 06 , made its maiden flight on 10 September 2006 . Following a competition in 2008 , Martin @-@ Baker was selected over a Chinese firm for the supply of fifty PK16LE ejection seats .
= = = Production = = =
On 2 March 2007 , the first consignment of two small @-@ batch @-@ production ( SBP ) aircraft arrived in a dismantled state in Pakistan . They flew for the first time on 10 March 2007 and took part in a public aerial demonstration during a Pakistan Day parade on 23 March 2007 . The PAF intended to induct 200 JF @-@ 17 by 2015 to replace all its Chengdu F @-@ 7 , Nanchang A @-@ 5 , and Dassault Mirage III / 5 aircraft . In preparation for the in @-@ flight refuelling of JF @-@ 17s , the PAF has upgraded several Mirage IIIs with IFR probes for training purposes . A dual @-@ seat , combat @-@ capable trainer was originally scheduled to begin flight testing in 2006 ; in 2009 Pakistan reportedly decided to develop the training model into a specialised attack variant .
In November 2007 , the PAF and PAC conducted flight evaluations of aircraft fitted with a variant of the NRIET KLJ @-@ 10 radar developed by China 's Nanjing Research Institute for Electronic Technology ( NRIET ) , and the LETRI SD @-@ 10 active radar homing AAM . In 2005 , PAC began manufacturing JF @-@ 17 components ; production of sub @-@ assemblies commenced on 22 January 2008 . The PAF was to receive a further six pre @-@ production aircraft in 2005 , for a total of 8 out of an initial production run of 16 aircraft . Initial operating capability was to be achieved by the end of 2008 . Final assembly of the JF @-@ 17 in Pakistan began on 30 June 2009 ; PAC expected to complete production of four to six aircraft that year . They planned to produce twelve aircraft in 2010 and fifteen to sixteen aircraft per year from 2011 ; this could increase to twenty @-@ five aircraft per year . On December 29 , 2015 , Pakistan Aeronautical Complex ( PAC ) announced the rollout of 16th JF @-@ 17 Thunder fighter manufactured in the calendar year 2015 , taking total number of manufactured aircraft to more than 66 . Later , a PAF spokesperson said that in light of the interest shown by various countries , it has been decided that production capacity of JF @-@ 17 Thunder at PAC Kamra will be expanded .
Russia signed an agreement in August 2007 for re @-@ export of 150 RD @-@ 93 engines from China to Pakistan for the JF @-@ 17 . In 2008 , the PAF was reportedly not fully satisfied with the RD @-@ 93 engine and that it would only power the first 50 aircraft ; it was alleged that arrangements for a new engine , reportedly the Snecma M53 @-@ P2 , may have been made . Mikhail Pogosyan , head of the MiG and Sukhoi design bureaus , recommended the Russian defence export agency Rosoboronexport block RD @-@ 92 engine sales to China to prevent export competition from the JF @-@ 17 against the MiG @-@ 29 . At the 2010 Farnborough Airshow , the JF @-@ 17 was displayed internationally for the first time ; aerial displays at the show were intended but were cancelled due to a late attendance decision as well as license and insurance costs . According to a Rosoboronexport official at the Airshow China 2010 , held on November 16 – 21 , 2005 in Zhuhai , China , Russia and China had signed a contract worth $ 238 million for 100 RD @-@ 93 engines with options for another 400 engines developed for the FC @-@ 1 .
According to media reports , Pakistan plans to increase production of JF @-@ 17s by 25 % in 2016
= = = Further development = = =
Pakistan negotiated with British and Italian defence firms regarding avionics and radars for the JF @-@ 17 development . Radar options include the Italian Galileo Avionica 's Grifo S7 , the French Thomson @-@ CSF 's RC400 ( a variant of the RDY @-@ 2 ) , and the British company SELEX Galileo 's Vixen 500E active electronically scanned array ( AESA ) radar . In 2010 , the PAF had reportedly selected ATE Aerospace Group to integrate French @-@ built avionics and weapons systems over rival bids from Astrac , Finmeccanica and a Thales @-@ Sagem joint venture . Fifty JF @-@ 17s were to be upgraded and an optional fifty from 2013 onwards , at a cost of up to US $ 1 @.@ 36 billion . The RC @-@ 400 radar , MICA AAMs , and several air @-@ to @-@ surface weapons are believed to be in the contract . The PAF also held talks with South Africa for the supply of Denel A @-@ darter AAMs .
In April 2010 , after eighteen months of negotiations , the deal was reportedly suspended ; reports cited French concerns about Pakistan 's financial situation , the protection of sensitive French technology , and lobbying by the Indian government , which operates many French @-@ built aircraft . France wanted the PAF to purchase several Mirage 2000 @-@ 9 fighters from the United Arab Emirates Air Force , which would overlap with the upgraded JF @-@ 17 . In July 2010 , the PAF 's Chief of Air Staff , Air Chief Marshal Rao Qamar Suleman , said these reports were false . He said , " I have had discussions with French Government officials who have assured me that this is not the position of their government " . Suleman also speculated that " someone was trying to cause mischief — to put pressure on France not to supply the avionics we want " .
On 18 December 2013 , production of Block 2 JF @-@ 17s began at PAC 's Kamra facility . These aircraft have air @-@ to @-@ air refuelling capability , improved avionics , enhanced load carrying capacity , data link , and electronic warfare capabilities . Block 2 construction activity is planned to run until 2016 , after which the manufacturing of further developed Block 3 aircraft is planned . In December 2015 , it was announced that the 16th Block II aircraft had been handed over resulting in standing up of the 4th squadron .
Usman Shabbir of the Pakistan Military Consortium has said that Block 3 aircraft might include AESA radar , HMD , avionics improvements , and perhaps some reworking of the airframe . Local media has indicated that a 2 @-@ seat version will also be part of Block III package Unconfirmed reports says that Block III will also have better flight management system / software On 17 June 2015 , Jane 's Defence Weekly confirmed this that Block 3 will have an AESA radar and will also include a helmet @-@ mounted display ( HMD ) and possibly an internal infrared search and tracking ( IRST ) system .
Selex ES next @-@ generation cockpit includes a new mission computer , an enhanced head @-@ up display and contemporary multi @-@ function displays , plus the capability for the pilot to instead use a single , large @-@ area display . Selex is positioning the cockpit as a possible upgrade of JF @-@ 17 Block III .
= = Design = =
= = = Airframe and cockpit = = =
The airframe is of semi @-@ monocoque structure constructed primarily of aluminium alloys . High strength steel and titanium alloys are partially adopted in some critical areas . The airframe is designed for a service life of 4 @,@ 000 flight hours or 25 years , the first overhaul being due at 1 @,@ 200 flight hours . Block 2 JF @-@ 17s incorporate greater use of composite materials in the airframe to reduce weight . The retractable undercarriage has a tricycle arrangement with a single steerable nose @-@ wheel and two main undercarriages . The hydraulic brakes have an automatic anti @-@ skid system . The position and shape of the inlets is designed to give the required airflow to the jet engine during manoeuvres involving high angles of attack .
The mid @-@ mounted wings are of cropped @-@ delta configuration . Near the wing root are the LERX , which generate a vortex that provides extra lift to the wing at high angles of attack encountered during combat manoeuvres . A conventional tri @-@ plane empennage arrangement is incorporated , with all @-@ moving stabilators , single vertical stabiliser , rudder , and twin ventral fins . The flight control surfaces are operated by a computerised flight control system ( FCS ) , which also adjusts the slats / flaps for improved manoeuvrability . Up to 3 @,@ 629 kg ( 8 @,@ 001 lb ) of ordnance , equipment , and fuel can be mounted under the hardpoints , two of which are on the wing @-@ tips , four are under the wings and one is under the fuselage .
The glass cockpit is covered by a transparent , acrylic canopy that provides the pilot with a good , all @-@ round field of view . A centre stick is used for pitch and roll control while rudder pedals control yaw . A throttle is located to the left of the pilot . The cockpit incorporates hands @-@ on @-@ throttle @-@ and @-@ stick ( HOTAS ) controls . The pilot sits on a Martin @-@ Baker Mk @-@ 16LE zero @-@ zero ejection seat . The cockpit incorporates an electronic flight instrument system ( EFIS ) and a wide @-@ angle , holographic head @-@ up display ( HUD ) , which has a minimum total field of view of 25 degrees . The EFIS comprises three colour multi @-@ function displays , providing basic flight information , tactical information , and information on the engine , fuel , electrical , hydraulics , flight control , and environment control systems . The HUD and MFD can be configured to show any available information . Each MFD is 20 @.@ 3 cm ( 8 @.@ 0 in ) and 30 @.@ 5 cm ( 12 @.@ 0 in ) tall and is arranged side @-@ by @-@ side in portrait orientation . The central MFD is placed lowest to accommodate a control panel between it and the HUD .
= = = Avionics = = =
The avionics software incorporates the concept of open architecture . Instead of the military @-@ optimised Ada programming language , the software is written using the popular C + + programming language , enabling the use of the numerous civilian programmers available . The aircraft also includes a health and usage monitoring system , and automatic test equipment . The flight control system ( FCS ) comprises conventional controls with stability augmentation in the yaw and roll axis and a digital fly @-@ by @-@ wire ( FBW ) system in the pitch axis . The leading edge slats / flaps and trailing edge flaps are automatically adjusted during manoeuvring to increase turning performance . The FCS of serial production aircraft reportedly have a digital quadruplex ( quad @-@ redundant ) FBW system in the pitch axis and a duplex ( dual @-@ redundant ) FBW system in the roll and yaw axis .
The JF @-@ 17 has a defensive aids system ( DAS ) composed of various integrated sub @-@ systems . A radar warning receiver ( RWR ) provides data such as direction and proximity of enemy radars , and an electronic warfare ( EW ) suite housed in a fairing at the tip of the tail fin interferes with enemy radars . The EW suite is also linked to a Missile Approach Warning ( MAW ) system to defend against radar @-@ guided missiles . The MAW system uses several optical sensors across the airframe to detect the rocket motors of missiles across a 360 @-@ degree coverage . Data from the MAW system , such as direction of inbound missiles and the time to impact , is shown on cockpit displays and the HUD . A countermeasures dispensing system releases decoy flares and chaff to help evade hostile radar and missiles . The DAS systems will also be enhanced by integration of a self @-@ protection radar @-@ jamming pod that will be carried externally on a hardpoint .
The first forty @-@ two PAF production aircraft are equipped with the NRIET KLJ @-@ 7 radar , a variant of the KLJ @-@ 10 radar developed by China 's Nanjing Research Institute of Electronic Technology ( NRIET ) and also used on the Chengdu J @-@ 10 . Multiple modes can manage the surveillance and engagement of up to forty air , ground , and sea targets ; the track @-@ while @-@ scan mode can track up to ten targets at BVR and can engage two simultaneously with radar @-@ homing AAMs . The operation range for targets with a radar cross @-@ section ( RCS ) of 5 m2 ( 54 sq ft ) is stated to be ≥ 105 km ( 65 mi ) in look @-@ up mode and ≥ 85 km ( 53 mi ) in look @-@ down mode . A forward looking infrared ( FLIR ) pod for low @-@ level navigation and infra @-@ red search and track ( IRST ) system for passive targeting can also be integrated ; the JF @-@ 17 Block 2 is believed to incorporate an IRST .
A helmet @-@ mounted sight ( HMS ) developed by Luoyang Electro @-@ Optics Technology Development Centre of AVIC was developed in parallel with the JF @-@ 17 ; it was first tested on Prototype 04 in 2006 . It was dubbed as EO HMS , ( Electro @-@ Optical Helmet Mounted Sight ) and was first revealed to the public in 2008 at the 7th Zhuhai Airshow , where a partial mock @-@ up was on display . The HMS tracks the pilot 's head and eye movements to guide missiles towards the pilot 's visual target . An externally carried day / night laser designator targeting pod may be integrated with the avionics to guide laser @-@ guided bombs ( LGBs ) . An extra hardpoint may be added under the starboard air intake , opposite the cannon , for such pods . To reduce the numbers of targeting pods required , the aircraft 's tactical data link can transmit target data to other aircraft not equipped with targeting pods . The communication systems comprise two VHF / UHF radios ; the VHF radio has the capacity for data linking for communication with ground control centres , airborne early warning and control aircraft and combat aircraft with compatible data links for network @-@ centric warfare , and improved situation awareness .
In April 2016 , Air Marshal Muhammad Ashfaque Arain said that , " JF @-@ 17 needs a targeting pod , as the jets ’ usefulness in current operations was limited due to lack of precision targeting . To fulfill this gap the Air Force was interested in buying the Thales @-@ made Damocles , a third @-@ generation targeting pod ; which was a priority .
= = = Propulsion and fuel system = = =
The first two blocks of JF @-@ 17 is powered by a single Russian RD @-@ 93 turbofan engine , which is a variant of the RD @-@ 33 engine used on the MiG @-@ 29 fighter . The engine gives more thrust and significantly lower specific fuel consumption than turbojet engines fitted to older combat aircraft being replaced by the JF @-@ 17 . The advantages of using a single engine are a reduction in maintenance time and cost when compared to twin @-@ engined fighters . A thrust @-@ to @-@ weight ratio of 0 @.@ 99 can be achieved with full internal fuel tanks and no external payload . The engine 's air supply is provided by two bifurcated air inlets ( see airframe section ) .
The RD @-@ 93 is known to produce smoke trails . The Guizhou Aero Engine Group has been developing a new turbofan engine , the WS @-@ 13 Taishan , since 2000 to replace the RD @-@ 93 . It is based on the Klimov RD @-@ 33 and incorporates new technologies to boost performance and reliability . A thrust output of 80 to 86 @.@ 36 kN ( 17 @,@ 980 to 19 @,@ 410 lbf ) , a lifespan of 2 @,@ 200 hours , and a thrust @-@ to @-@ weight ratio of 8 @.@ 7 are expected . An improved version of the WS @-@ 13 , developing a thrust of around 100 kN ( 22 @,@ 000 lbf ) ( 22 @,@ 450 lb ) , is also reportedly under development . During the 2015 Paris Air Show , it was announced that flight testing of a JF @-@ 17 equipped with the WS @-@ 13 engine had begun . In 2015 , a representative of Pakistan Aeronautical Complex said that Pakistan would continue to use the RD @-@ 93 engine on their fighters . Local media reports in Jan 2016 say that , Russia is planning to sell engines for JF @-@ 17 directly to Pakistan . According to a PAC representative , Pakistan is looking to collaborate with Russia in developing and repairing engines
The fuel system comprises internal fuel tanks located in the wings and fuselage with a capacity of 2 @,@ 330 kg ( 5 @,@ 140 lb ) ; they are refuelled through a single point pressure refuelling system ( see turbine fuel systems ) . Internal fuel storage can be supplemented by external fuel tanks . One 800 @-@ litre ( 180 imp gal ) drop tank can be mounted on the aircraft 's centerline hardpoint under the fuselage and two 800 @-@ litre or 1 @,@ 110 @-@ litre ( 240 imp gal ) drop tanks can be mounted on the two inboard under @-@ wing hardpoints . The fuel system is compatible with in @-@ flight refuelling ( IFR ) , allowing tanker aircraft to refuel inflight , and increasing its range and loitering time significantly . All production aircraft for the PAF are to be fitted with IFR probes . In June 2013 , PAF Air Chief Marshal Tahir Rafique Butt said ground tests on the JF @-@ 17 's refuelling probes had been successfully completed and the first mid @-@ air refuelling operations would commence that summer .
= = = Weaponry = = =
The JF @-@ 17 can be armed with up to 3 @,@ 629 kg ( 8 @,@ 001 lb ) of air @-@ to @-@ air and air @-@ to @-@ ground weaponry , and other equipment mounted externally on the aircraft 's seven hardpoints . One hardpoint is located under the fuselage between the main landing gear , two are underneath each wing , and one is at each wing @-@ tip . All seven hardpoints communicate via a MIL @-@ STD @-@ 1760 data @-@ bus architecture with the Stores Management System , which is stated to be capable of integration with weaponry of any origin . Internal armament comprises one 23 mm ( 0 @.@ 91 in ) GSh @-@ 23 @-@ 2 twin @-@ barrel cannon mounted under the port side air intake , which can be replaced with a 30 mm ( 1 @.@ 2 in ) GSh @-@ 30 @-@ 2 twin @-@ barrel cannon .
The wing @-@ tip hardpoints are typically occupied by short range infra @-@ red homing AAMs . Many combinations of ordnance and equipment such as targeting pods can be carried on the under @-@ wing and under @-@ fuselage hardpoints . Underwing hardpoints can be fitted with multiple ejector racks , allowing each hardpoint to carry two 500 lb ( 230 kg ) unguided bombs or LGBs — Mk.82 or GBU @-@ 12 . It is unknown whether multiple ejector racks can be used for ordnance such as beyond visual range ( BVR ) AAMs . Active radar homing BVR AAMs can be integrated with the radar and data @-@ link for mid @-@ course updates . The Chinese PL @-@ 12 / SD @-@ 10 is expected to be the aircraft 's primary BVR air @-@ to @-@ air weapon , although this may change if radars of other origin are fitted . Short range , infra @-@ red homing missiles include the Chinese PL @-@ 5E and PL @-@ 9C , and the AIM @-@ 9L . The PAF is also seeking to arm the JF @-@ 17 with a fifth generation close @-@ combat missile such as the IRIS @-@ T or A @-@ darter . These will be integrated with the HMS / D and the radar for targeting .
Unguided air @-@ to @-@ ground weaponry includes rocket pods , gravity bombs and Matra Durandal anti @-@ runway munitions . Precision @-@ guided munitions such as LGBs and satellite @-@ guided bombs are also compatible with the JF @-@ 17 , as are other guided weapons such as anti @-@ ship missiles and anti @-@ radiation missiles . Pakistan planned to bring the Brazilian MAR @-@ 1 anti @-@ radiation missile into service on its JF @-@ 17 fleet in 2014 .
= = Operational history = =
= = = Initial delivery , evaluation , and induction = = =
Small batch production of the single @-@ seat , single @-@ engine JF @-@ 17s began in China in June 2006 . The first two small @-@ batch @-@ produced aircraft were delivered on 2 March 2007 and first flew in Pakistan on 10 March . They took part in an aerial display on 23 March 2007 as part of the Pakistan Day Joint Services Parade in Islamabad . Another six small @-@ batch @-@ produced aircraft were delivered by March 2008 . These were extensively flight @-@ tested and evaluated by the PAF . Two serial production aircraft were delivered from China in 2009 and the first Pakistani @-@ manufactured aircraft was delivered to the PAF in a ceremony on 23 November 2009 .
On 18 February 2010 , the first JF @-@ 17 squadron , No. 26 Black Spiders , was officially inducted into the PAF with an initial strength of 14 fighter planes . These aircraft first saw service in the anti @-@ terrorist operation in South Waziristan , during which various types of weapons were evaluated . They took part in the PAF 's High Mark 2010 exercise from 29 April , where they were used by the Blue Force to attack Red Land surface targets with precision air @-@ to @-@ surface weapons . A re @-@ equipment ceremony for No. 26 Black Spiders Squadron took place on 11 April 2011 , during which it was stated that the JF @-@ 17 had " revolutionised the PAF 's operational concepts " . The then Chief of the Air Staff , Air Chief Marshal Rao Qamar Suleman said : " Today as we re @-@ equip No 26 squadron , we have also raised No. 16 Squadron with the JF @-@ 17 Thunder aircraft . I would like to mention and appreciate the contribution and support of the Chinese in helping us acquire a technological breakthrough in the shape of this aircraft . " According to Pakistani forums , No 27 Squadron " Zarrars " replaced its Mirage 5EF with JF @-@ 17 in 2013 . No 2 Squadron currently tasked with sea strikes reequipped with JF @-@ 17s in Sept 2015 replacing the F7s . No 16 Squadron " Black Panthers " has already stood up . The next squadron is supposed to be No 7 Squadron .
= = = Potential operators = = =
Various countries including Algeria , Argentina , Bangladesh , Myanmar , Egypt , Iran , Lebanon , Malaysia , Morocco , Nigeria , Sri Lanka , and Uruguay have shown interest in the JF @-@ 17 .
The Azerbaijani Air Forces has negotiated with China for several dozen JF @-@ 17s worth approximately US $ 16 to 18 million each . The Sudanese Air Force was reportedly negotiating to buy twelve aircraft . The Air Force of Zimbabwe reportedly had plans to purchase twelve JF @-@ 17s in 2004 , as part of the $ 240 million deal with China . But none of the aircraft sales have been materialized . In 2010 , China was reportedly in talks about the JF @-@ 17 with five or six countries , some of which had sent pilots to China to undergo test flights .
Argentine officials at the 2013 Paris Air Show said they had discussed JF @-@ 17 co @-@ production with Chinese officials , calling it the first formal effort potentially leading to the co @-@ production of a modern Chinese fighter in Latin America . Fábrica Argentina de Aviones ( FAdeA ) officials said the co @-@ produced FC @-@ 1 could be called the " Pulqui @-@ III " , recalling FAdeA 's Pulqui @-@ II , Latin America 's first swept wing jet fighter . On 15 February 2015 , after a three @-@ day visit to Beijing by Argentine president Cristina Fernández de Kirchner , Argentina completed negotiations to purchase twenty FC @-@ 1s from Chengdu Aircraft Corporation . In January 2014 , the Royal Saudi Air Force was reportedly examining potential technology transfer and co @-@ production opportunities for the JF @-@ 17 . Saudi Defence Minister Prince Salman bin Sultan toured the JF @-@ 17 project during a visit to Pakistan .
The Burma Times reported on 15 June 2014 that Myanmar was considering local production of the JF @-@ 17 with China and Pakistan assistance .
In December 2014 , during the International Defence Exhibition and Seminar in Karachi , Nigeria was reportedly buying between 25 and 40 JF @-@ 17s from Pakistan . Nigerian Air Force chief Air Marshal Adesola Nunayon Amosu had visited Pakistan earlier in October 2014 . Nigeria became the second customer in 2016 by placing an order for 3 planes . However , as the news reports value the deal at US $ 25 million , so it is not clear if the item is miseported . June 2016 article in Jane 's re @-@ affirmed NAF budget for 3 JF @-@ 17 , 10 Super Mushshak , and 2 Mi @-@ 35M aircraft in 2016 .
In June 2015 , Pakistani media reports suggested that export orders have also been confirmed and signed with the Sri Lanka Air Force , according to Pakistan @-@ based 92 News while some other sources claim that Myanmar is the first buyer of Pakistani JF @-@ 17 Thunder jets . The article goes on to say that deliveries are likely to begin in 2017 . According to the report , the order will be for around 18 @-@ 24 aircraft , potentially confirming claims made at the 51st Paris Air Show that the first contract for the sale of the JF @-@ 17 had been signed with the Sri Lanka Air Force .
Though there are reports that Sri Lanka signed an agreement to buy eight JF @-@ 17 Thunders from Pakistan during a state visit by Nawaz Sharif in January 2016 , but Sri Lankan government denies that any such deal happened . The deal was cancelled after Indian pressure . The deal would have been for 10 @-@ 12 planes , valuing each plane at US $ 35 million for a total of US $ 400 million
Moroccan media has revealed that the country is interested in buying JF @-@ 17 and has invited the sales team to showcase the aircraft in the Marrakech Air Show 2016 According to a local analyst , the deal might be difficult to come to fruition , as the JF @-@ 17 Block I and Block II do not match the on @-@ board electronics suites and air @-@ to @-@ air / air @-@ to @-@ surface munitions inventories of Morocco 's current western avionics equipped Mirage F @-@ 1 ( MF2000 ) , F @-@ 5E / F Tiger II and Alpha Jets
Egypt in 2015 reportedly expressed an interest again in the JF @-@ 17 despite buying French and Russian planes earlier that year . This has come as a surprise to analysts who had considered the possibility of Egypt acquiring the JF @-@ 17 to be lost .
= = Notable accidents and incidents = =
A JF @-@ 17 Thunder crashed in Attock , Pakistan on 14 November 2011 killing its pilot .
= = Variants = =
= = = Prototypes = = =
Two airframe configurations were tested during the prototype stage . The first configuration was tested on the first three prototype aircraft ; PT @-@ 01 , PT @-@ 02 , and PT @-@ 03 . The next three prototypes PT @-@ 04 , PT @-@ 05 , and PT @-@ 06 were of the second configuration , incorporating modifications such as DSI , wider LERX , extended ventral fins , and a taller , less swept vertical stabiliser with a rectangular fairing at the tip containing electronic warfare equipment and small blister fairings at the base containing Missile Approach Warning sensors . The PT @-@ 04 prototype was primarily used for avionics and weapon qualification tests . Prototype @-@ 01 first flew in August 2003 ; Prototype @-@ 03 followed in April 2004 . On 10 May 2006 , Prototype 04 made its maiden flight .
In 2007 , a dual @-@ seat version for training and strike roles was proposed and due to the customer interests the development started in 2015 .
According to local media , the newly launched JF @-@ 17B dual seat fighter jet will be inducted in the Air Force by April 2017 with the maiden flight by the end of the year .
= = = Production versions = = =
JF @-@ 17 Block 1 — Production in China began in June 2006 . The first three Chinese weapons to be integrated are the PL @-@ 5E II AAM , the SD @-@ 10 AAM , and the C @-@ 802A anti @-@ shipping missile . Block 1 aircraft had performed " better than expected " according to PAF Air Commodore Junaid . Production of Block 1 was completed on 18 December when the fiftieth aircraft — 58 % of which was produced in Pakistan — was delivered . A Block 1 JF @-@ 17 had cost approximately US $ 15 million per unit .
JF @-@ 17 Block 2 — Production began on 18 December 2013 and initial testing began on 9 February 2015 . These aircraft have air @-@ to @-@ air refuelling capability , improved avionics , enhanced load carrying capacity , data link , and electronic warfare capabilities . The construction will continue until 2016 , after which the manufacture of Block 3 is planned . A Block 2 JF @-@ 17 costs approximately US $ 25 million per unit . Chairman of PAC , Air Marshal Javaid Ahmed said : " We will hand over 16 Block @-@ II JF @-@ 17s to the PAF every year " , and that the manufacturing plant has the capacity to produce 25 units in a year . According to local media , PAC rolled out the 16th Block 2 aircraft in December 2015 enabling the 4th JF17 squadron to be stood up . The JF @-@ 17B two seat version would start testing in September 2016 .
JF @-@ 17 Block 3 — Projected to feature further avionics advancements such as an AESA radar , more use of composites , a new engine , helmet mounted display , and a two @-@ seater cockpit option , with a top speed of 2 @.@ 0 + Mach . Pakistani Air Force officials have described it as a " fourth generation plus " fighter jet . According to unconfirmed media reports the induction is expected to start around 2019 . As of January 2016 , the design of the JF @-@ 17 Block III has not been finalized .
JF @-@ 17B - is a twin seater variant and is to be inducted into the Pakistan Air Force by 2017 , it 's multi @-@ roles include use for training and for enhanced surveillance and support capability
= = Operators = =
Pakistan
Pakistan Air Force : 66 units in servicePAF Base Minhas
JF @-@ 17 TEF ( Test and Evaluation Flight ) ( 2007 – 2010 )
PAF Base PeshawarNo . 26 Squadron Black Spiders ( 2010 )
No. 16 Squadron Black Panthers ( 2011 )
PAF Base Masroor
No. 2 Squadron Minhas ( 2015 )
PAF Base Mushaf
Combat Commanders School ( 2015 )
= = Specifications ( Block 1 ) = =
Data from Pakistan Aeronautical Complex
General characteristics
Crew : 1
Length : 14 @.@ 93 m ( 49 ft )
Wingspan : 9 @.@ 45 m ( 31 ft , including 2 wingtip missiles )
Height : 4 @.@ 72 m ( 15 ft 6 in )
Wing area : 24 @.@ 4 m ² ( 263 ft ² )
Empty weight : 6 @,@ 586 kg ( 14 @,@ 520 lb )
Loaded weight : 9 @,@ 100 kg ( 20 @,@ 062 lb )
Useful load : 3600kg ( Block 1 ) ( )
Max. takeoff weight : 12 @,@ 500 kg ( 28 @,@ 000 lb )
Powerplant : 1 × Klimov RD @-@ 93 or Guizhou WS @-@ 13Dry thrust : 49 @.@ 7 kN / 51 @.@ 2 kN ( 11 @,@ 106 lbf / 11 @,@ 510 lbf )
Thrust with afterburner : 84 @.@ 6 kN ( 19 @,@ 000 lbf )
G @-@ limit : + 8 g / -3 g
Internal Fuel Capacity : 2 @,@ 350 kg ( 5 @,@ 130 lb )
Performance
Maximum speed : Mach 1 @.@ 6 ( 1 @,@ 217 @.@ 9 mph ; 1 @,@ 960 @.@ 1 km / h )
Combat radius : 1 @,@ 352 km ( 840 mi )
Ferry range : 3 @,@ 482 km ( 1 @,@ 880 NM )
Service ceiling : 16 @,@ 920 m ( 55 @,@ 500 ft )
Thrust / weight : 0 @.@ 95
Armament
Guns : 1 × 23 mm GSh @-@ 23 @-@ 2 twin @-@ barrel cannon or 1x 30 mm GSh @-@ 30 @-@ 2
Hardpoints : 7 in total ( 4 × under @-@ wing , 2 × wing @-@ tip , 1 × under @-@ fuselage ( Joint Hardpoint ) ; pylon stations number 3 , 4 and 5 are wet @-@ plumb capable ) with a capacity of 8 @,@ 001 lb ( 3 @,@ 629 kg ) for external fuel and ordnance
Missiles : Air @-@ to @-@ air missiles :
MAA @-@ 1 Piranha ( Short @-@ range )
AIM @-@ 9L / M ( Short @-@ range )
PL @-@ 5EII ( Short @-@ range )
PL @-@ 9C ( Short @-@ range )
PL @-@ 12 / SD @-@ 10 ( Beyond visual range )
Air @-@ to @-@ surface missiles :
MAR @-@ 1 ( Anti @-@ radiation missile )
Ra 'ad ALCM ( Nuclear @-@ capable Subsonic Cruise missile )
CM @-@ 400AKG supersonic anti @-@ shipping missile , export version of YJ @-@ 12
C @-@ 802A Anti @-@ ship missile
CM 102 supersonic Anti radiation missile
GB @-@ 6 Air @-@ Launched Standoff Submunition Dispenser Precision Guided Weapon
Bombs :
Unguided bombs :
Mk @-@ 82 ( general purpose bomb )
Mk @-@ 84 ( general purpose bomb )
Matra Durandal ( anti @-@ runway bomb )
CBU @-@ 100 / Mk @-@ 20 Rockeye ( anti @-@ armour cluster bomb )
Precision guided munitions ( PGM ) :
GBU @-@ 10 ( Laser @-@ guided )
GBU @-@ 12 ( Laser @-@ guided )
LT @-@ 2 ( Laser @-@ guided )
H @-@ 2 ( electro @-@ optically guided )
H @-@ 4 ( electro @-@ optically guided )
LS @-@ 6 ( satellite @-@ guided glide bombs )
Satellite @-@ guided bombs
Others :
Rocket Pods
Countermeasures ( Flares , Chaff )
Up to 3 external drop tanks ( 2 × under @-@ wing 1 @,@ 100 litres ( 240 imp gal ; 290 US gal ) , 1 × under @-@ fuselage 800 litres ( 180 imp gal ; 210 US gal ) ) for extended range / loitering time
Avionics
DEEC electronic warfare suite
NRIET KLJ @-@ 7 multi @-@ mode fire @-@ control radar
Night vision goggles ( NVG ) compatible glass cockpit
Externally mounted avionics pods :
KG @-@ 300G self @-@ protection radar jamming pod
WMD @-@ 7 day / night targeting pod
|
= Carbon =
Carbon ( from Latin : carbo " coal " ) is a chemical element with symbol C and atomic number 6 . On the periodic table , it is the first ( row 2 ) of six elements in column ( group ) 14 , which have in common the composition of their outer electron shell . It is nonmetallic and tetravalent — making four electrons available to form covalent chemical bonds . Three isotopes occur naturally , 12C and 13C being stable while 14C is radioactive , decaying with a half @-@ life of about 5 @,@ 730 years . Carbon is one of the few elements known since antiquity .
Carbon is the 15th most abundant element in the Earth 's crust , and the fourth most abundant element in the universe by mass after hydrogen , helium , and oxygen . Carbon 's abundance , its unique diversity of organic compounds , and its unusual ability to form polymers at the temperatures commonly encountered on Earth enables this element to serve as a common element of all known life . It is the second most abundant element in the human body by mass ( about 18 @.@ 5 % ) after oxygen .
The atoms of carbon can be bonded together in different ways , termed allotropes of carbon . The best known are graphite , diamond , and amorphous carbon . The physical properties of carbon vary widely with the allotropic form . For example , graphite is opaque and black while diamond is highly transparent . Graphite is soft enough to form a streak on paper ( hence its name , from the Greek verb " γράφειν " which means " to write " ) , while diamond is the hardest naturally @-@ occurring material known . Graphite is a good electrical conductor while diamond has a low electrical conductivity . Under normal conditions , diamond , carbon nanotubes , and graphene have the highest thermal conductivities of all known materials . All carbon allotropes are solids under normal conditions , with graphite being the most thermodynamically stable form . They are chemically resistant and require high temperature to react even with oxygen .
The most common oxidation state of carbon in inorganic compounds is + 4 , while + 2 is found in carbon monoxide and transition metal carbonyl complexes . The largest sources of inorganic carbon are limestones , dolomites and carbon dioxide , but significant quantities occur in organic deposits of coal , peat , oil , and methane clathrates . Carbon forms a vast number of compounds , more than any other element , with almost ten million compounds described to date , and yet that number is but a fraction of the number of theoretically possible compounds under standard conditions .
= = Characteristics = =
The allotropes of carbon ( see below ) includes graphite , one of the softest known substances , and diamond , the hardest naturally occurring substance . It bonds readily with other small atoms including other carbon atoms , and is capable of forming multiple stable covalent bonds with such atoms . Carbon is known to form almost ten million different compounds , a large majority of all chemical compounds . Carbon also has the highest sublimation point of all elements . At atmospheric pressure it has no melting point as its triple point is at 10 @.@ 8 ± 0 @.@ 2 MPa and 4 @,@ 600 ± 300 K ( ~ 4 @,@ 330 ° C or 7 @,@ 820 ° F ) , so it sublimes at about 3 @,@ 900 K.
Carbon sublimes in a carbon arc which has a temperature of about 5 @,@ 800 K ( 5 @,@ 530 ° C ; 9 @,@ 980 ° F ) . Thus , irrespective of its allotropic form , carbon remains solid at higher temperatures than the highest melting point metals such as tungsten or rhenium . Although thermodynamically prone to oxidation , carbon resists oxidation more effectively than elements such as iron and copper that are weaker reducing agents at room temperature .
Carbon compounds form the basis of all known life on Earth , and the carbon @-@ nitrogen cycle provides some of the energy produced by the Sun and other stars . Although it forms an extraordinary variety of compounds , most forms of carbon are comparatively unreactive under normal conditions . At standard temperature and pressure , it resists all but the strongest oxidizers . It does not react with sulfuric acid , hydrochloric acid , chlorine or any alkalis . At elevated temperatures , carbon reacts with oxygen to form carbon oxides , and will rob oxygen from metal oxides to leave the elemental metal . This exothermic reaction is used in the iron and steel industry to smelt iron and to control the carbon content of steel :
Fe
3O
4 + 4 C ( s ) → 3 Fe ( s ) + 4 CO ( g )
with sulfur to form carbon disulfide and with steam in the coal @-@ gas reaction :
C ( s ) + H2O ( g ) → CO ( g ) + H2 ( g ) .
Carbon combines with some metals at high temperatures to form metallic carbides , such as the iron carbide cementite in steel , and tungsten carbide , widely used as an abrasive and for making hard tips for cutting tools .
As of 2009 , graphene appears to be the strongest material ever tested . The process of separating it from graphite will require some further technological development before it is economical for industrial processes .
The system of carbon allotropes spans a range of extremes :
= = = Allotropes = = =
Atomic carbon is a very short @-@ lived species and , therefore , carbon is stabilized in various multi @-@ atomic structures with different molecular configurations called allotropes . The three relatively well @-@ known allotropes of carbon are amorphous carbon , graphite , and diamond . Once considered exotic , fullerenes are nowadays commonly synthesized and used in research ; they include buckyballs , carbon nanotubes , carbon nanobuds and nanofibers . Several other exotic allotropes have also been discovered , such as lonsdaleite ( questionable ) , glassy carbon , carbon nanofoam and linear acetylenic carbon ( carbyne ) .
The amorphous form is an assortment of carbon atoms in a non @-@ crystalline , irregular , glassy state , which is essentially graphite but not held in a crystalline macrostructure . It is present as a powder , and is the main constituent of substances such as charcoal , lampblack ( soot ) and activated carbon . At normal pressures , carbon takes the form of graphite , in which each atom is bonded trigonally to three others in a plane composed of fused hexagonal rings , just like those in aromatic hydrocarbons . The resulting network is 2 @-@ dimensional , and the resulting flat sheets are stacked and loosely bonded through weak van der Waals forces . This gives graphite its softness and its cleaving properties ( the sheets slip easily past one another ) . Because of the delocalization of one of the outer electrons of each atom to form a π @-@ cloud , graphite conducts electricity , but only in the plane of each covalently bonded sheet . This results in a lower bulk electrical conductivity for carbon than for most metals . The delocalization also accounts for the energetic stability of graphite over diamond at room temperature .
At very high pressures , carbon forms the more compact allotrope , diamond , having nearly twice the density of graphite . Here , each atom is bonded tetrahedrally to four others , forming a 3 @-@ dimensional network of puckered six @-@ membered rings of atoms . Diamond has the same cubic structure as silicon and germanium , and because of the strength of the carbon @-@ carbon bonds , it is the hardest naturally occurring substance measured by resistance to scratching . Contrary to the popular belief that " diamonds are forever " , they are thermodynamically unstable under normal conditions and transform into graphite . Due to a high activation energy barrier , the transition into graphite is so slow at normal temperature that it is unnoticeable . Under some conditions , carbon crystallizes as lonsdaleite , a hexagonal crystal lattice with all atoms covalently bonded and properties similar to those of diamond .
Fullerenes are a synthetic crystalline formation with a graphite @-@ like structure , but in place of hexagons , fullerenes are formed of pentagons ( or even heptagons ) of carbon atoms . The missing ( or additional ) atoms warp the sheets into spheres , ellipses , or cylinders . The properties of fullerenes ( split into buckyballs , buckytubes , and nanobuds ) have not yet been fully analyzed and represent an intense area of research in nanomaterials . The names " fullerene " and " buckyball " are given after Richard Buckminster Fuller , popularizer of geodesic domes , which resemble the structure of fullerenes . The buckyballs are fairly large molecules formed completely of carbon bonded trigonally , forming spheroids ( the best @-@ known and simplest is the soccerball @-@ shaped C60 buckminsterfullerene ) . Carbon nanotubes are structurally similar to buckyballs , except that each atom is bonded trigonally in a curved sheet that forms a hollow cylinder . Nanobuds were first reported in 2007 and are hybrid bucky tube / buckyball materials ( buckyballs are covalently bonded to the outer wall of a nanotube ) that combine the properties of both in a single structure .
Of the other discovered allotropes , carbon nanofoam is a ferromagnetic allotrope discovered in 1997 . It consists of a low @-@ density cluster @-@ assembly of carbon atoms strung together in a loose three @-@ dimensional web , in which the atoms are bonded trigonally in six- and seven @-@ membered rings . It is among the lightest known solids , with a density of about 2 kg / m3 . Similarly , glassy carbon contains a high proportion of closed porosity , but contrary to normal graphite , the graphitic layers are not stacked like pages in a book , but have a more random arrangement . Linear acetylenic carbon has the chemical structure - ( C : : : C ) n- . Carbon in this modification is linear with sp orbital hybridization , and is a polymer with alternating single and triple bonds . This carbyne is of considerable interest to nanotechnology as its Young 's modulus is forty times that of the hardest known material – diamond .
In 2015 , a team at the North Carolina State University announced the development of another allotrope they have dubbed Q @-@ carbon , created by a high energy low duration laser pulse on amorphous carbon dust . Q @-@ carbon is reported to exhibit ferromagetism , fluorescence , and a hardness superior to diamonds .
= = = Occurrence = = =
Carbon is the fourth most abundant chemical element in the universe by mass after hydrogen , helium , and oxygen . Carbon is abundant in the Sun , stars , comets , and in the atmospheres of most planets . Some meteorites contain microscopic diamonds that were formed when the solar system was still a protoplanetary disk . Microscopic diamonds may also be formed by the intense pressure and high temperature at the sites of meteorite impacts .
In 2014 NASA announced a greatly upgraded database for tracking polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons ( PAHs ) in the universe . More than 20 % of the carbon in the universe may be associated with PAHs , complex compounds of carbon and hydrogen without oxygen . These compounds figure in the PAH world hypothesis where they are hypothesized to have a role in abiogenesis and formation of life . PAHs seem to have been formed " a couple of billion years " after the Big Bang , are widespread throughout the universe , and are associated with new stars and exoplanets .
It has been estimated that the solid earth as a whole contains 730 ppm of carbon , with 2000 ppm in the core and 120 ppm in the combined mantle and crust . Since the mass of the earth is 5 @.@ 972 × 1024 kg , this would imply 4360 million gigatonnes of carbon . This is much more than the amount of carbon in the oceans or atmosphere ( below ) .
In combination with oxygen in carbon dioxide , carbon is found in the Earth 's atmosphere ( approximately 810 gigatonnes of carbon ) and dissolved in all water bodies ( approximately 36 @,@ 000 gigatonnes of carbon ) . Around 1 @,@ 900 gigatonnes of carbon are present in the biosphere . Hydrocarbons ( such as coal , petroleum , and natural gas ) contain carbon as well . Coal " reserves " ( not " resources " ) amount to around 900 gigatonnes with perhaps 18 000 Gt of resources . Oil reserves are around 150 gigatonnes . Proven sources of natural gas are about 175 1012 cubic metres ( containing about 105 gigatonnes of carbon ) , but studies estimate another 900 1012 cubic metres of " unconventional " deposits such as shale gas , representing about 540 gigatonnes of carbon .
Carbon is also found in methane hydrates in polar regions and under the seas . Various estimates put this carbon between 500 , 2500 Gt , or 3000 Gt .
In the past , quantities of hydrocarbons were greater . According to one source , in the period from 1751 to 2008 about 347 gigatonnes of carbon were released as carbon dioxide to the atmosphere from burning of fossil fuels . Another source puts the amount added to the atmosphere for the period since 1750 at 879 Gt , and the total going to the atmosphere , sea , and land ( such as peat bogs ) at almost 2000 Gt .
Carbon is a constituent ( about 12 % by mass ) of the very large masses of carbonate rock ( limestone , dolomite , marble and so on ) . Coal is very rich in carbon ( anthracite contains 92 – 98 % ) and is the largest commercial source of mineral carbon , accounting for 4 @,@ 000 gigatonnes or 80 % of fossil fuel .
As for individual carbon allotropes , graphite is found in large quantities in the United States ( mostly in New York and Texas ) , Russia , Mexico , Greenland , and India . Natural diamonds occur in the rock kimberlite , found in ancient volcanic " necks " , or " pipes " . Most diamond deposits are in Africa , notably in South Africa , Namibia , Botswana , the Republic of the Congo , and Sierra Leone . Diamond deposits have also been found in Arkansas , Canada , the Russian Arctic , Brazil , and in Northern and Western Australia . Diamonds are now also being recovered from the ocean floor off the Cape of Good Hope . Diamonds are found naturally , but about 30 % of all industrial diamonds used in the U.S. are now manufactured .
Carbon @-@ 14 is formed in upper layers of the troposphere and the stratosphere at altitudes of 9 – 15 km by a reaction that is precipitated by cosmic rays . Thermal neutrons are produced that collide with the nuclei of nitrogen @-@ 14 , forming carbon @-@ 14 and a proton .
Carbon @-@ rich asteroids are relatively preponderant in the outer parts of the asteroid belt in our solar system . These asteroids have not yet been directly sampled by scientists . The asteroids can be used in hypothetical space @-@ based carbon mining , which may be possible in the future , but is currently technologically impossible .
= = = Isotopes = = =
Isotopes of carbon are atomic nuclei that contain six protons plus a number of neutrons ( varying from 2 to 16 ) . Carbon has two stable , naturally occurring isotopes . The isotope carbon @-@ 12 ( 12C ) forms 98 @.@ 93 % of the carbon on Earth , while carbon @-@ 13 ( 13C ) forms the remaining 1 @.@ 07 % . The concentration of 12C is further increased in biological materials because biochemical reactions discriminate against 13C . In 1961 , the International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry ( IUPAC ) adopted the isotope carbon @-@ 12 as the basis for atomic weights . Identification of carbon in nuclear magnetic resonance ( NMR ) experiments is done with the isotope 13C .
Carbon @-@ 14 ( 14C ) is a naturally occurring radioisotope , created in the upper atmosphere ( lower stratosphere and upper troposphere ) by interaction of nitrogen with cosmic rays . It is found in trace amounts on Earth of up to 1 part per trillion ( 0 @.@ 0000000001 % ) , mostly confined to the atmosphere and superficial deposits , particularly of peat and other organic materials . This isotope decays by 0 @.@ 158 MeV β − emission . Because of its relatively short half @-@ life of 5730 years , 14C is virtually absent in ancient rocks . The amount of 14C in the atmosphere and in living organisms is almost constant , but decreases predictably in their bodies after death . This principle is used in radiocarbon dating , invented in 1949 , which has been used extensively to determine the age of carbonaceous materials with ages up to about 40 @,@ 000 years .
There are 15 known isotopes of carbon and the shortest @-@ lived of these is 8C which decays through proton emission and alpha decay and has a half @-@ life of 1.98739x10 − 21 s . The exotic 19C exhibits a nuclear halo , which means its radius is appreciably larger than would be expected if the nucleus were a sphere of constant density .
= = = Formation in stars = = =
Formation of the carbon atomic nucleus requires a nearly simultaneous triple collision of alpha particles ( helium nuclei ) within the core of a giant or supergiant star which is known as the triple @-@ alpha process , as the products of further nuclear fusion reactions of helium with hydrogen or another helium nucleus produce lithium @-@ 5 and beryllium @-@ 8 respectively , both of which are highly unstable and decay almost instantly back into smaller nuclei . This happens in conditions of temperatures over 100 megakelvin and helium concentration that the rapid expansion and cooling of the early universe prohibited , and therefore no significant carbon was created during the Big Bang .
According to current physical cosmology theory , carbon is formed in the interiors of stars in the horizontal branch by the collision and transformation of three helium nuclei . When those stars die as supernova , the carbon is scattered into space as dust . This dust becomes component material for the formation of second or third @-@ generation star systems with accreted planets . The Solar System is one such star system with an abundance of carbon , enabling the existence of life as we know it .
The CNO cycle is an additional fusion mechanisms that powers stars , wherein carbon operates as a catalyst .
Rotational transitions of various isotopic forms of carbon monoxide ( for example , 12CO , 13CO , and 18CO ) are detectable in the submillimeter wavelength range , and are used in the study of newly forming stars in molecular clouds .
= = = Carbon cycle = = =
Under terrestrial conditions , conversion of one element to another is very rare . Therefore , the amount of carbon on Earth is effectively constant . Thus , processes that use carbon must obtain it from somewhere and dispose of it somewhere else . The paths of carbon in the environment form the carbon cycle . For example , photosynthetic plants draw carbon dioxide from the atmosphere ( or seawater ) and build it into biomass , as in the Calvin cycle , a process of carbon fixation . Some of this biomass is eaten by animals , while some carbon is exhaled by animals as carbon dioxide . The carbon cycle is considerably more complicated than this short loop ; for example , some carbon dioxide is dissolved in the oceans ; if bacteria do not consume it , dead plant or animal matter may become petroleum or coal , which releases carbon when burned .
= = Compounds = =
= = = Organic compounds = = =
Carbon can form very long chains of interconnecting C @-@ C bonds , a property that is called catenation . Carbon @-@ carbon bonds are strong and stable . Through catenation , carbon forms a countless number of compounds . A tally of unique compounds shows that more contain carbon that those that do not . A similar claim can be made for hydrogen because most organic compounds also contain hydrogen .
The simplest form of an organic molecule is the hydrocarbon — a large family of organic molecules that are composed of hydrogen atoms bonded to a chain of carbon atoms . Chain length , side chains and functional groups all affect the properties of organic molecules .
Carbon occurs in all known organic life and is the basis of organic chemistry . When united with hydrogen , it forms various hydrocarbons that are important to industry as refrigerants , lubricants , solvents , as chemical feedstock for the manufacture of plastics and petrochemicals , and as fossil fuels .
When combined with oxygen and hydrogen , carbon can form many groups of important biological compounds including sugars , lignans , chitins , alcohols , fats , and aromatic esters , carotenoids and terpenes . With nitrogen it forms alkaloids , and with the addition of sulfur also it forms antibiotics , amino acids , and rubber products . With the addition of phosphorus to these other elements , it forms DNA and RNA , the chemical @-@ code carriers of life , and adenosine triphosphate ( ATP ) , the most important energy @-@ transfer molecule in all living cells .
= = = Inorganic compounds = = =
Commonly carbon @-@ containing compounds which are associated with minerals or which do not contain hydrogen or fluorine , are treated separately from classical organic compounds ; the definition is not rigid ( see reference articles above ) . Among these are the simple oxides of carbon . The most prominent oxide is carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) . This was once the principal constituent of the paleoatmosphere , but is a minor component of the Earth 's atmosphere today . Dissolved in water , it forms carbonic acid ( H
2CO
3 ) , but as most compounds with multiple single @-@ bonded oxygens on a single carbon it is unstable . Through this intermediate , though , resonance @-@ stabilized carbonate ions are produced . Some important minerals are carbonates , notably calcite . Carbon disulfide ( CS
2 ) is similar .
The other common oxide is carbon monoxide ( CO ) . It is formed by incomplete combustion , and is a colorless , odorless gas . The molecules each contain a triple bond and are fairly polar , resulting in a tendency to bind permanently to hemoglobin molecules , displacing oxygen , which has a lower binding affinity . Cyanide ( CN − ) , has a similar structure , but behaves much like a halide ion ( pseudohalogen ) . For example , it can form the nitride cyanogen molecule ( ( CN ) 2 ) , similar to diatomic halides . Other uncommon oxides are carbon suboxide ( C
3O
2 ) , the unstable dicarbon monoxide ( C2O ) , carbon trioxide ( CO3 ) , cyclopentanepentone ( C5O5 ) cyclohexanehexone ( C6O6 ) , and mellitic anhydride ( C12O9 ) .
With reactive metals , such as tungsten , carbon forms either carbides ( C4 − ) , or acetylides ( C2 −
2 ) to form alloys with high melting points . These anions are also associated with methane and acetylene , both very weak acids . With an electronegativity of 2 @.@ 5 , carbon prefers to form covalent bonds . A few carbides are covalent lattices , like carborundum ( SiC ) , which resembles diamond .
= = = Organometallic compounds = = =
Organometallic compounds by definition contain at least one carbon @-@ metal bond . A wide range of such compounds exist ; major classes include simple alkyl @-@ metal compounds ( for example , tetraethyllead ) , η2 @-@ alkene compounds ( for example , Zeise 's salt ) , and η3 @-@ allyl compounds ( for example , allylpalladium chloride dimer ) ; metallocenes containing cyclopentadienyl ligands ( for example , ferrocene ) ; and transition metal carbene complexes . Many metal carbonyls exist ( for example , tetracarbonylnickel ) ; some workers consider the carbon monoxide ligand to be purely inorganic , and not organometallic .
While carbon is understood to exclusively form four bonds , an interesting compound containing an octahedral hexacoordinated carbon atom has been reported . The cation of the compound is [ ( Ph3PAu ) 6C ] 2 + . This phenomenon has been attributed to the aurophilicity of the gold ligands .
= = History and etymology = =
The English name carbon comes from the Latin carbo for coal and charcoal , whence also comes the French charbon , meaning charcoal . In German , Dutch and Danish , the names for carbon are Kohlenstoff , koolstof and kulstof respectively , all literally meaning coal @-@ substance .
Carbon was discovered in prehistory and was known in the forms of soot and charcoal to the earliest human civilizations . Diamonds were known probably as early as 2500 BCE in China , while carbon in the form of charcoal was made around Roman times by the same chemistry as it is today , by heating wood in a pyramid covered with clay to exclude air .
In 1722 , René Antoine Ferchault de Réaumur demonstrated that iron was transformed into steel through the absorption of some substance , now known to be carbon . In 1772 , Antoine Lavoisier showed that diamonds are a form of carbon ; when he burned samples of charcoal and diamond and found that neither produced any water and that both released the same amount of carbon dioxide per gram . In 1779 , Carl Wilhelm Scheele showed that graphite , which had been thought of as a form of lead , was instead identical with charcoal but with a small admixture of iron , and that it gave " aerial acid " ( his name for carbon dioxide ) when oxidized with nitric acid . In 1786 , the French scientists Claude Louis Berthollet , Gaspard Monge and C. A. Vandermonde confirmed that graphite was mostly carbon by oxidizing it in oxygen in much the same way Lavoisier had done with diamond . Some iron again was left , which the French scientists thought was necessary to the graphite structure . In their publication they proposed the name carbone ( Latin carbonum ) for the element in graphite which was given off as a gas upon burning graphite . Antoine Lavoisier then listed carbon as an element in his 1789 textbook .
A new allotrope of carbon , fullerene , that was discovered in 1985 includes nanostructured forms such as buckyballs and nanotubes . Their discoverers – Robert Curl , Harold Kroto and Richard Smalley – received the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 1996 . The resulting renewed interest in new forms lead to the discovery of further exotic allotropes , including glassy carbon , and the realization that " amorphous carbon " is not strictly amorphous .
= = Production = =
= = = Graphite = = =
Commercially viable natural deposits of graphite occur in many parts of the world , but the most important sources economically are in China , India , Brazil and North Korea . Graphite deposits are of metamorphic origin , found in association with quartz , mica and feldspars in schists , gneisses and metamorphosed sandstones and limestone as lenses or veins , sometimes of a metre or more in thickness . Deposits of graphite in Borrowdale , Cumberland , England were at first of sufficient size and purity that , until the 19th century , pencils were made simply by sawing blocks of natural graphite into strips before encasing the strips in wood . Today , smaller deposits of graphite are obtained by crushing the parent rock and floating the lighter graphite out on water .
There are three types of natural graphite — amorphous , flake or crystalline flake , and vein or lump . Amorphous graphite is the lowest quality and most abundant . Contrary to science , in industry " amorphous " refers to very small crystal size rather than complete lack of crystal structure . Amorphous is used for lower value graphite products and is the lowest priced graphite . Large amorphous graphite deposits are found in China , Europe , Mexico and the United States . Flake graphite is less common and of higher quality than amorphous ; it occurs as separate plates that crystallized in metamorphic rock . Flake graphite can be four times the price of amorphous . Good quality flakes can be processed into expandable graphite for many uses , such as flame retardants . The foremost deposits are found in Austria , Brazil , Canada , China , Germany and Madagascar . Vein or lump graphite is the rarest , most valuable , and highest quality type of natural graphite . It occurs in veins along intrusive contacts in solid lumps , and it is only commercially mined in Sri Lanka .
According to the USGS , world production of natural graphite was 1 @.@ 1 million tonnes in 2010 , to which China contributed 800 @,@ 000 t , India 130 @,@ 000 t , Brazil 76 @,@ 000 t , North Korea 30 @,@ 000 t and Canada 25 @,@ 000 t . No natural graphite was reported mined in the United States , but 118 @,@ 000 t of synthetic graphite with an estimated value of $ 998 million was produced in 2009 .
= = = Diamond = = =
The diamond supply chain is controlled by a limited number of powerful businesses , and is also highly concentrated in a small number of locations around the world ( see figure ) .
Only a very small fraction of the diamond ore consists of actual diamonds . The ore is crushed , during which care has to be taken in order to prevent larger diamonds from being destroyed in this process and subsequently the particles are sorted by density . Today , diamonds are located in the diamond @-@ rich density fraction with the help of X @-@ ray fluorescence , after which the final sorting steps are done by hand . Before the use of X @-@ rays became commonplace , the separation was done with grease belts ; diamonds have a stronger tendency to stick to grease than the other minerals in the ore .
Historically diamonds were known to be found only in alluvial deposits in southern India . India led the world in diamond production from the time of their discovery in approximately the 9th century BCE to the mid @-@ 18th century AD , but the commercial potential of these sources had been exhausted by the late 18th century and at that time India was eclipsed by Brazil where the first non @-@ Indian diamonds were found in 1725 .
Diamond production of primary deposits ( kimberlites and lamproites ) only started in the 1870s after the discovery of the Diamond fields in South Africa . Production has increased over time and now an accumulated total of 4 @.@ 5 billion carats have been mined since that date . About 20 % of that amount has been mined in the last 5 years alone , and during the last ten years 9 new mines have started production while 4 more are waiting to be opened soon . Most of these mines are located in Canada , Zimbabwe , Angola , and one in Russia .
In the United States , diamonds have been found in Arkansas , Colorado and Montana . In 2004 , a startling discovery of a microscopic diamond in the United States led to the January 2008 bulk @-@ sampling of kimberlite pipes in a remote part of Montana .
Today , most commercially viable diamond deposits are in Russia , Botswana , Australia and the Democratic Republic of Congo . In 2005 , Russia produced almost one @-@ fifth of the global diamond output , reports the British Geological Survey . Australia has the richest diamantiferous pipe with production reaching peak levels of 42 metric tons ( 41 long tons ; 46 short tons ) per year in the 1990s . There are also commercial deposits being actively mined in the Northwest Territories of Canada , Siberia ( mostly in Yakutia territory ; for example , Mir pipe and Udachnaya pipe ) , Brazil , and in Northern and Western Australia .
= = Applications = =
Carbon is essential to all known living systems , and without it life as we know it could not exist ( see alternative biochemistry ) . The major economic use of carbon other than food and wood is in the form of hydrocarbons , most notably the fossil fuel methane gas and crude oil ( petroleum ) . Crude oil is distilled in refineries by the petrochemical industry to produce gasoline , kerosene , and other products . Cellulose is a natural , carbon @-@ containing polymer produced by plants in the form of wood , cotton , linen , and hemp . Cellulose is used primarily for maintaining structure in plants . Commercially valuable carbon polymers of animal origin include wool , cashmere and silk . Plastics are made from synthetic carbon polymers , often with oxygen and nitrogen atoms included at regular intervals in the main polymer chain . The raw materials for many of these synthetic substances come from crude oil .
The uses of carbon and its compounds are extremely varied . It can form alloys with iron , of which the most common is carbon steel . Graphite is combined with clays to form the ' lead ' used in pencils used for writing and drawing . It is also used as a lubricant and a pigment , as a molding material in glass manufacture , in electrodes for dry batteries and in electroplating and electroforming , in brushes for electric motors and as a neutron moderator in nuclear reactors .
Charcoal is used as a drawing material in artwork , barbecue grilling , iron smelting , and in many other applications . Wood , coal and oil are used as fuel for production of energy and heating . Gem quality diamond is used in jewelry , and industrial diamonds are used in drilling , cutting and polishing tools for machining metals and stone . Plastics are made from fossil hydrocarbons , and carbon fiber , made by pyrolysis of synthetic polyester fibers is used to reinforce plastics to form advanced , lightweight composite materials .
Carbon fiber is made by pyrolysis of extruded and stretched filaments of polyacrylonitrile ( PAN ) and other organic substances . The crystallographic structure and mechanical properties of the fiber depend on the type of starting material , and on the subsequent processing . Carbon fibers made from PAN have structure resembling narrow filaments of graphite , but thermal processing may re @-@ order the structure into a continuous rolled sheet . The result is fibers with higher specific tensile strength than steel .
Carbon black is used as the black pigment in printing ink , artist 's oil paint and water colours , carbon paper , automotive finishes , India ink and laser printer toner . Carbon black is also used as a filler in rubber products such as tyres and in plastic compounds . Activated charcoal is used as an absorbent and adsorbent in filter material in applications as diverse as gas masks , water purification , and kitchen extractor hoods , and in medicine to absorb toxins , poisons , or gases from the digestive system . Carbon is used in chemical reduction at high temperatures . Coke is used to reduce iron ore into iron ( smelting ) . Case hardening of steel is achieved by heating finished steel components in carbon powder . Carbides of silicon , tungsten , boron and titanium , are among the hardest known materials , and are used as abrasives in cutting and grinding tools . Carbon compounds make up most of the materials used in clothing , such as natural and synthetic textiles and leather , and almost all of the interior surfaces in the built environment other than glass , stone and metal .
= = = Diamonds = = =
The diamond industry falls into two categories : one dealing with gem @-@ grade diamonds and the other , with industrial @-@ grade diamonds . While a large trade in both types of diamonds exists , the two markets act in dramatically different ways .
Unlike precious metals such as gold or platinum , gem diamonds do not trade as a commodity : there is a substantial mark @-@ up in the sale of diamonds , and there is not a very active market for resale of diamonds .
Industrial diamonds are valued mostly for their hardness and heat conductivity , with the gemological qualities of clarity and color being mostly irrelevant . About 80 % of mined diamonds ( equal to about 100 million carats or 20 tonnes annually ) are unsuitable for use as gemstones are relegated for industrial use ( known as bort ) . synthetic diamonds , invented in the 1950s , found almost immediate industrial applications ; 3 billion carats ( 600 tonnes ) of synthetic diamond is produced annually .
The dominant industrial use of diamond is in cutting , drilling , grinding , and polishing . Most of these applications do not require large diamonds ; in fact , most diamonds of gem @-@ quality except for their small size can be used industrially . Diamonds are embedded in drill tips or saw blades , or ground into a powder for use in grinding and polishing applications . Specialized applications include use in laboratories as containment for high pressure experiments ( see diamond anvil cell ) , high @-@ performance bearings , and limited use in specialized windows . With the continuing advances in the production of synthetic diamonds , new applications are becoming feasible . Garnering much excitement is the possible use of diamond as a semiconductor suitable for microchips , and because of its exceptional heat conductance property , as a heat sink in electronics .
= = Precautions = =
Pure carbon has extremely low toxicity to humans and can be handled and even ingested safely in the form of graphite or charcoal . It is resistant to dissolution or chemical attack , even in the acidic contents of the digestive tract . Consequently , once it enters into the body 's tissues it is likely to remain there indefinitely . Carbon black was probably one of the first pigments to be used for tattooing , and Ötzi the Iceman was found to have carbon tattoos that survived during his life and for 5200 years after his death . Inhalation of coal dust or soot ( carbon black ) in large quantities can be dangerous , irritating lung tissues and causing the congestive lung disease , coalworker 's pneumoconiosis . Diamond dust used as an abrasive can harmful if ingested or inhaled . Microparticles of carbon are produced in diesel engine exhaust fumes , and may accumulate in the lungs . In these examples , the harm may result from contaminants ( e.g. , organic chemicals , heavy metals ) rather than from the carbon itself .
Carbon generally has low toxicity to life on Earth ; but carbon nanoparticles are deadly to Drosophila .
Carbon may burn vigorously and brightly in the presence of air at high temperatures . Large accumulations of coal , which have remained inert for hundreds of millions of years in the absence of oxygen , may spontaneously combust when exposed to air in coal mine waste tips , ship cargo holds and coal bunkers , and storage dumps .
In nuclear applications where graphite is used as a neutron moderator , accumulation of Wigner energy followed by a sudden , spontaneous release may occur . Annealing to at least 250 ° C can release the energy safely , although in the Windscale fire the procedure went wrong , causing other reactor materials to combust .
The great variety of carbon compounds include such lethal poisons as tetrodotoxin , the lectin ricin from seeds of the castor oil plant Ricinus communis , cyanide ( CN − ) , and carbon monoxide ; and such essentials to life as glucose and protein .
= = Bonding to carbon = =
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= Hurricane Ekeka =
Hurricane Ekeka was an unusual Pacific tropical cyclone that attained major hurricane status during the month of February . The first storm of the 1992 Pacific hurricane season , Ekeka developed on January 28 well to the south of Hawaii . It gradually intensified to reach major hurricane status on February 2 , although it subsequently began to weaken due to unfavorable wind shear . It crossed the International Date Line as a weakened tropical storm , and shortly thereafter degraded to tropical depression status . Ekeka continued westward , passing through the Marshall Islands and later over Chuuk State , before dissipating on February 9 about 310 miles ( 500 km ) off the north coast of Papua New Guinea . The storm did not cause any significant damage or deaths .
= = Meteorological history = =
During the El Niño of 1991 – 92 , as typical with other such events , the monsoon trough extended into the central north Pacific Ocean , which is the body of water between the International Date Line and 140 ° W. At the same time , sea surface temperatures near the equator were anomalously warm , and wind shear values were low . At the end of January , a large area of convection persisted for several days near the north side of the equator . By January 23 , several ships reported squalls and strong southwesterly winds in the region . The Central Pacific Hurricane Center ( CPHC ) began monitoring the system on January 26 , while it was located about 950 miles ( 1530 km ) south of Ka Lae , the southernmost point in Hawaii . The disturbance organized further as it tracked westward , and on January 28 it developed into Tropical Depression One @-@ C , located a short distance north of Kiritimati and east of Tabuaeran .
With favorable conditions , the depression quickly intensified into a tropical storm ; upon doing so , it was named Ekeka by the CPHC , which is Hawaiian for Edgar . Ekeka continued gradually intensifying while moving slowly west @-@ northwestward , and it attain hurricane status on January 30 about 100 miles ( 160 km ) northwest of Palmyra Atoll . On February 2 , the hurricane attained peak winds of 115 mph ( 185 km / h ) , making Ekeka a major hurricane , or Category 3 hurricane on the Saffir @-@ Simpson scale . Subsequently , it began to weaken due to increased wind shear , and concurrently its forward motion increased as the subtropical ridge strengthened to the north of the hurricane . A large trough in the Westerlies increased the wind shear , which weakened Ekeka to a tropical storm early on February 3 . Later that day , it crossed the International Date Line into the western Pacific Ocean ; both of the Joint Typhoon Warning Center ( JTWC ) and the Japan Meteorological Agency ( JMA ) assessed the storm 's winds at 50 mph ( 85 km / h ) . Shortly before that , the JMA assessed the pressure as 985 mbar , which is the lowest known minimum central pressure associated with the storm ; the CPHC did not include pressure in their year @-@ end report .
Tropical Storm Ekeka continued weakening , degrading to tropical depression status by February 4 . The depression moved quickly through the Marshall Islands , and on February 6 turned to the west @-@ southwest . On February 8 , the JMA declared Ekeka dissipated ; however , the JTWC continued monitoring the system , with Ekeka passing over Chuuk as a weak depression . Early on February 9 , the JTWC declared Ekeka dissipated about 800 miles ( 1300 km ) east @-@ southeast of Palau , or about 310 miles ( 500 km ) off the north coast of Papua New Guinea .
= = Impact and records = =
No deaths were reported in association with Ekeka . The storm passed through the Marshall Islands without causing significant impact . When Ekeka hit the island of Chuuk , winds of 20 mph ( 32 km / h ) were reported . While in the central Pacific Ocean , Ekeka became one of only three tropical cyclones on record to be located within the Palmyra Atoll Exclusive Economic Zone ; Ekeka was the only hurricane within the area .
Ekeka is most unusual for its formation in January . Tropical cyclones rarely form east of the International Date Line outside of the tropical cyclone season , which starts May 15 in the eastern Pacific and June 1 in the central Pacific , and ends on November 30 in both regions . In the official Pacific hurricane database , Ekeka was the second tropical cyclone on record to occur in January or February within the Pacific Ocean east of the International Date Line , after Tropical Storm Winona of 1989 . It is third earliest cyclone on record within the basin , behind Hurricane Pali of 2016 , and the aforementioned Winona .
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= Knicks – Nuggets brawl =
The Knicks – Nuggets brawl was an on @-@ court altercation at a National Basketball Association ( NBA ) game between the New York Knicks and Denver Nuggets at Madison Square Garden in New York City , New York , U.S. on December 16 , 2006 . This altercation was the most penalized on @-@ court fight in the NBA since the Pacers – Pistons brawl two years before .
The fight began with a flagrant foul by Knicks guard Mardy Collins on Nuggets guard J. R. Smith in the closing seconds of the game . Several players joined in the confrontation , and began to make physical contact . The fight briefly spilled into the stands , and also stretched to the other end of the court . All ten players on the floor at the time were ejected after the altercation was finished . When suspensions were announced , seven players were suspended without pay for a combined total of 47 games .
Although they were not penalized , Nuggets coach George Karl and Knicks coach Isiah Thomas were both scrutinized for their part in the brawl . Carmelo Anthony was also criticized for harming his image as a star , and several writers said the league had penalized the players excessively because it wanted to keep its image free from violence .
= = Game recap = =
Entering the game , the New York Knicks had a record of 9 – 17 while the Denver Nuggets sported a 13 – 9 record . Despite trailing the entire game , the Knicks came as close as 2 points in the first half but the Nuggets regrouped and closed the half with a 13 @-@ point advantage and continued to lead in the second half by as much as 26 points in the third quarter . The Knicks briefly came within 10 points with ten minutes left in the game , but the Nuggets went on a 12 – 2 run and were never threatened again . Carmelo Anthony scored 24 points to lead the Nuggets , and Marcus Camby added 24 points and 9 rebounds ; Stephon Marbury scored a season @-@ high 31 points for the Knicks .
= = = Altercation = = =
The incident occurred with 1 : 15 remaining in the Knicks ' home game at Madison Square Garden , where the Nuggets were leading 119 – 100 . The Knicks ' Mardy Collins fouled the Nuggets ' J. R. Smith on a fast break by slapping his arms around Smith 's neck , knocking him to the ground . As Smith stood up to confront Collins , Nate Robinson pulled Smith away , and then began pushing and shouting at him . David Lee tried to hold Smith back , but Smith broke free and charged into Robinson , causing both players to fall into the photographers and front row courtside seats , before they were quickly separated by teammates .
As the fighting was seemingly coming to an end , Carmelo Anthony confronted Collins and punched him in the face , knocking him to the ground . Jared Jeffries immediately tried to attack Anthony but tripped over Marcus Camby , before being restrained by coaches and teammates , while Anthony backed up towards the Nuggets ' bench . Collins also ran down the court to get at Anthony but was blocked by Nenê and Smith . All ten players on the court at the time of the incident were ejected by the officiating crew that consisted of Dick Bavetta , Violet Palmer , and Robbie Robinson .
= = Reactions = =
= = = Suspensions = = =
NBA commissioner David Stern reacted with strict penalties for the players involved , stating , " It is our obligation to take the strongest possible steps to avoid such failures in the future . " Seven players were suspended for a total of 47 games , and the players lost in excess of $ 1 @.@ 2 million in salary . Each team was also fined $ 500 @,@ 000 .
Because Anthony 's suspension was longer than 12 games , he was eligible to appeal to an arbitrator ; however , Anthony eventually announced he would not attempt one , saying he did not " want to be a further distraction " .
= = = Public reaction = = =
Several sportswriters said the brawl was not as violent as the Pacers – Pistons brawl two years before , and 81 % of respondents in a SportsNation poll said the biggest difference between the two brawls was that it " didn 't involve players going into the stands and fighting fans " . However , Michael Ventre said that the Knicks and Nuggets brawl was worse because " it was touched off by the actions of players , and it escalated because of them . " Several writers said that the penalties were more severe because of the Pacers – Pistons brawl , because the league was on a " very serious image @-@ cleanup campaign . "
Steve Francis claimed that the media reaction to the fight and the suspensions itself were " racially motivated . " He argued that Major League Baseball and the National Hockey League had " incidents that are way worse than basketball , " but did not face the scrutiny that the NBA received " because there are more black players in the NBA . " This was echoed by several writers , and sportswriter @-@ television personality Michael Wilbon said that " NBA players have endured more scrutiny , pertaining to image , than any other professional athletes in America . " Martin Luther King III called for a meeting to end the violence in the NBA , stating , " Individuals who play a game should be able to conduct themselves appropriately . " However , the NBA said through a spokesman that they " don 't think that meeting is necessary . "
= = = Coaches ' role in the brawl = = =
Minutes before the brawl started , Knicks coach Isiah Thomas asked Carmelo Anthony not to go into the painted area around the basket , despite the fact that they were not members of the same team . Thomas later said that because Denver head coach George Karl kept his team 's starting players on the court for the closing minutes of the game , which Thomas thought showed a lack of sportsmanship , his orders to Anthony were to " show some class . " However , Karl responded by saying the brawl " was directed by Isiah " .
Thomas was not penalized after the brawl , as an NBA investigation ruled that they did not have " adequate evidence upon which to make a determination , " but several writers criticized the NBA for not including Thomas in the suspensions . ESPN analyst Marc Stein called Thomas ' explanations of his comments " laughable , " and commentator Greg Anthony , a former Knicks player , said he " never had a coach say that to an opponent . " It was also suggested that Thomas was attempting to resurrect the physical tactics of his former team , the " Bad Boy " Pistons .
In response to Thomas saying that keeping the Nuggets starters on the floor in the final minutes of the game was unsportsmanlike , Karl said that he " never thought about running up the score , " and only wanted to " get a big win on the road . " However , several sportswriters criticized his decision , and some said that he should also have been penalized . It was also suggested that Karl was trying to humiliate Thomas due to the perception that Thomas had mistreated Larry Brown , a friend of Karl 's . Karl was also blamed for putting his players in a position to start a fight .
= = = Carmelo Anthony = = =
The day following the brawl , Anthony issued a statement and apology to his family , the league , and fans . He also specifically apologized to Mardy Collins , whom he directly struck during the incident . At the time of the brawl , Anthony was the league 's leading scorer ; his suspension was also the longest of the players suspended , and the sixth @-@ longest in NBA history . According to former NBA player Steve Kerr , Anthony had " tarnished " his image , and Ric Bucher said that Anthony had " torched his own career " . Sports Illustrated writer Marty Burns said that Anthony faced becoming known by sports fans across America as the player who punched Collins in the face and then ran away . An example of the backlash was Northwest Airlines pulling Anthony from its in @-@ flight magazine cover , as it said it did not want " to condone the behavior of Anthony " .
= = Events after the brawl = =
A day after Anthony was suspended , Denver acquired Allen Iverson , who was then second in the league in scoring behind Anthony . After Anthony and Smith returned from their suspensions , the trio led the Nuggets to 45 wins and the sixth seed in the Western Conference for the playoffs . However , they were eliminated in the first round by the San Antonio Spurs . The Knicks finished 33 – 49 , 12th in the Eastern Conference , and did not make the playoffs .
The two teams faced each other for the first time since the altercation on November 17 , 2007 , which the Nuggets won 115 – 83 . Opposing players Renaldo Balkman and Linas Kleiza began arguing with each other after Balkman was called for a hard foul on Kleiza , but the incident was defused after Balkman was given a technical foul . Iverson , Anthony , and Marcus Camby were all removed early in the fourth quarter . Balkman and Kleiza later became teammates after Balkman was traded to the Nuggets in the 2008 off @-@ season .
As of the 2010 – 11 season , of the seven suspended players , three were still with their respective teams . Mardy Collins was traded to the Los Angeles Clippers in 2008 . Jerome James was traded to the Chicago Bulls a year later , but never played for the Bulls as he suffered a torn Achilles tendon . Jeffries and Robinson were traded at the 2010 trade deadline to the Houston Rockets and Boston Celtics , respectively . Robinson then signed a multi @-@ year deal with the Denver Nuggets on July 26 , 2013 . Carmelo Anthony was traded to the Knicks before the 2011 trade deadline . Meanwhile , Jeffries ' contract was bought out by the Rockets and he rejoined the Knicks . In addition , J.R. Smith was signed by the Knicks in February of the 2012 season , which will make him the second former Nugget involved in the brawl to join the Knicks . Though not directly involved in the brawl , 2006 Nuggets C / PF Marcus Camby also joined the Knicks during the 2012 off @-@ season , making him the third 2006 Nugget to join the Knicks for the 2012 @-@ 2013 season . Also not directly involved in the brawl , PF Kenyon Martin joined the Knicks on February 21 , 2013 ( initially on a 10 @-@ day contract ) , making him the 4th member of the 2012 @-@ 2013 Knicks to have been on the ' 06 Nuggets team .
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= Tropical Storm Linda ( 1997 ) =
Severe Tropical Storm Linda , known in the Philippines as Tropical Depression Openg , was the worst typhoon in southern Vietnam in at least 100 years , killing thousands of people and leaving extensive damage . It formed on October 31 , 1997 in the South China Sea , between Indochina and the Philippines . Strengthening as it moved westward , Linda struck extreme southern Vietnam on November 2 with winds of 65 mph ( 100 km / h ) , dropping heavy rainfall . Once in the Gulf of Thailand it strengthened further to minimal typhoon status , but weakened to tropical storm strength before crossing the Malay Peninsula into the Bay of Bengal , the first storm to do so in five years . It restrengthened in the Indian Ocean to typhoon status , but increasing wind shear and weakened steering currents caused Linda to dissipate on November 9 .
The worst of Linda 's impact was in Vietnam , where 3 @,@ 111 people were killed , and damage totaled $ 385 million ( USD ) . Heavy rainfall caused flooding , which damaged or destroyed about 200 @,@ 000 houses and left about 383 @,@ 000 people homeless . Widespread crop and transportation damage also occurred , the latter which impeded relief efforts . Several countries around the world sent relief aid , including medical teams , food , and clothing . However , the food supply and health status of the storm victims proved not as bad as originally feared . Linda later struck Thailand , causing flash flooding and at least 164 deaths . The storm also affected Burma ( Myanmar ) , Indonesia , Malaysia , and Cambodia to a lesser degree .
= = Meteorological history = =
The origins of Typhoon Linda were from an area of convection that were first noted east of the Philippines on October 26 . A subtropical ridge persisted to the north , which caused the disturbance to move generally westward . On October 29 , the system crossed the Philippines and entered the South China Sea . It subsequently began to organize , and late on October 31 , the Joint Typhoon Warning Center ( JTWC ) initiated advisories on Tropical Depression 30W . At that time , the system was located off the northwest coast of Borneo . The PAGASA organization named it " Openg " .
Shortly after developing , the depression intensified into a tropical storm , and was named " Linda " by the JTWC . It continued to intensify , reaching winds of 65 mph ( 100 km / h ) as it approached southern Vietnam . At 0900 UTC on November 2 , Linda made landfall in the Vietnamese province of Cà Mau . It maintained its strength over land , and the storm quickly reached typhoon status after entering the Gulf of Thailand ; a typhoon is a tropical cyclone with winds of at least 75 mph ( 120 km / h ) , although Linda did not intensify beyond minimal typhoon status . Turning northwestward , Linda deteriorated to tropical storm strength , and struck Thailand late on November 3 with winds of 65 mph ( 100 km / h ) .
Linda weakened further over the mountainous terrain of the Malay Peninsula , and the storm emerged into the Andaman Sea with winds of 50 mph ( 85 km / h ) . This made Linda the first tropical cyclone since Tropical Storm Forrest in 1992 to cross from the western Pacific Ocean into the Indian Ocean . Additionally , upon reaching the Indian Ocean , the India Meteorological Department ( IMD ) classified the storm as Cyclonic Storm BOB 08 , with winds of 40 mph ( 70 km / h ) . With warm waters , Tropical Storm Linda gradually re @-@ intensified as it slowed down , due to a weakness in the subtropical ridge . On November 6 , it again attained typhoon status while located off the southwest coast of Burma ( Myanmar ) . Initially , it was expected to cross the Bay of Bengal and make landfall near the India / Bangladesh border . The cyclone only maintained peak strength for 18 hours , due to an increase in wind shear from a mid @-@ latitude trough . Linda 's motion became nearly stationary , and it gradually weakened for several days . On November 9 , Linda dissipated about 375 miles ( 600 km ) southwest of Yangon , Burma . That day , the IMD also terminated advisories .
= = Impact and aftermath = =
Prior to the arrival of the storm , officials in Vietnam issued warnings to the residents , although its approach was faster than expected , and the region rarely experiences tropical cyclones . Tropical Storm Linda dropped heavy rainfall across southern Vietnam , peaking at 9 @.@ 17 inches ( 23 @.@ 3 cm ) in Cần Thơ . The storm caused heavy damage in the country , particularly in the southernmost province of Cà Mau where it struck , but also in Bạc Liêu , Sóc Trăng , and Kiên Giang . The most severely affected regions were poor fishing communities . Overall , the storm damaged 139 @,@ 445 houses and wrecked 76 @,@ 609 more , which left 383 @,@ 045 people homeless . Thousands of schools were damaged , and 130 @,@ 815 dykes were breached . Additionally , the storm destroyed at least 3 @,@ 122 boats . The rainfall also flooded 1 @,@ 750 square miles ( 4 @,@ 500 km2 ) of rice paddy crop , about half of which in Cà Mau . A preliminary damage total was estimated at 7 @.@ 18 trillion dongs ( $ 385 million USD ) .
Typhoon Linda caused considerable deaths in Vietnam . Many fishermen and sailors were caught at sea in the path of the storm , unable to escape its path . Within three days , the death toll in Vietnam was set at over 150 , with thousands missing , many of them fishermen . By the fourth day after the storm , the toll reached 390 , and on November 14 , eight days after the storm , the death toll reached 464 . Ultimately , the death toll was set at 3 @,@ 111 . Eight days after Linda 's passage , a United Nations Department of Humanitarian Affairs ( DHA ) report indicated 857 people were injured by the storm . The government quickly established search and rescue teams , particularly for missing fishermen , and a total of 3 @,@ 513 people were rescued after the storm . In the weeks after the storm , hundreds of dead bodies washed ashore in Vietnam and Thailand .
The Vietnamese government identified basic supplies that it needed in response to the storm ; those included various foods , clothing , medicine , shelter supplies , and sanitation equipment . The country made a formal request for international assistance , noting that the storm was the worst in 100 years , and officials had limited resources due to the unexpected destruction . Prior to the request , the government of Switzerland sent about 500 @,@ 000 Swiss francs ( $ 360 @,@ 000 USD ) for immediate relief assistance . Subsequently , ten other countries sent cash or relief supplies worth $ 2 @.@ 6 million , including medical shelters from the United States , clothing from the United Kingdom , tents from Russia , and transport goods from Japan . Red Cross workers had to travel by riverboat to bring aid to the most affected communities , due to the poor state of the roads . After two months , the Red Cross distributed 65 @,@ 401 roofing sheets , 390 metric tons of rice , 11 @,@ 990 mosquito nets , 6 @,@ 871 blankets , 3 @,@ 664 medical kits , and abundant clothing supplies to about 150 @,@ 000 affected people ; the supplies were purchased in Ho Chi Minh City . Eventually , the food supply and health status of the storm victims proved not as bad as originally feared . After the assistance was distributed , the Red Cross shifted focus toward reconstruction . Reconstruction was slow , partly due to a slowdown in economic activity from the Vietnamese New Year . Additionally , the two primary factories responsible for making iron and construction frames were only intermittently open , due to machines failing .
Elsewhere , moderate damage was also reported in Thailand , where at least 12 casualties were reported on land , and at least 152 fishermen were killed at sea . Flash flooding occurred in six districts , which damaged about 88 square miles ( 230 km2 ) of croplands and destroyed 12 houses . Land transportation was affected , with 184 roads and 14 bridges damaged . The government of Thailand sent 20 medical teams to the most affected areas . Following the storm , about 10 @,@ 600 people became sick from flood related diseases . Heavy rains fell in Tanintharyi Division in southeastern Burma ( Myanmar ) , although because the winds were not strong , there was little damage . The typhoon increased smog and haze in Indonesia and Malaysia , which had been occurring for weeks . In Indonesia , the typhoon also removed atmospheric moisture , which lowered the chance for rain in areas affected by wildfires . Cambodia was also affected by the outskirts of the storm .
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= Cape Moreton Light =
Cape Moreton Light , also listed as North Point Range Rear Light , is an heritage @-@ listed active lighthouse located on Cape Moreton , a rocky headland located at the north eastern tip of Moreton Island , a large sand island on the eastern side of Moreton Bay , on the coast of South East Queensland , Australia . It marks the northern entrance to Moreton Bay and Brisbane and also serves as the rear light for the North Point Range . With its two distinctive red bands , it also serves as a daymark . It is the oldest lighthouse in Queensland , and the only one to be built by the New South Wales Government before the separation of Queensland , which took place in 1859 . It is also the only lighthouse in Queensland to be built of stone .
The lighthouse was established following an increase in traffic through the northern entrance to Moreton Bay in the 1840s . It was designed by Edmund Blacket in 1854 and established in 1857 . Over the years the light source went through several changes , from oil wick , to kerosene , to acetylene gas , to electricity , and finally to solar power . The structures also went through various modifications , the major one being an increase in the lighthouse height and rebuilding of several structures , in 1928 – 1930 .
The station includes the lighthouse , three lighthouse keeper residences , and various buildings . The lighthouse is made of sandstone and topped by a concrete gallery and a cast iron lantern . The residences and most other structures are timber framed and fibro clad .
= = Establishment = =
In 1825 , Brisbane was established as a penal settlement . In spite of the hazards , the preferred access to Moreton Bay and Brisbane was through the southern entrance , between Moreton Island and North Stradbroke Island , mainly due to shorter shipping route and better shipping conditions . The southern entrance was therefore marked in 1825 and a pilot station was established at Amity Point on North Stradbroke Island in 1827 . Although the northern entrance was considered in the 1830s , it was only with the increased shipping activity due to proclamation of Moreton Bay as a free settlement in 1842 that vessels began to use the northern entrance . Buoys marking the entrance were laid in 1846 – 1847 , and in 1848 the Pilot Station was moved to Bulwer on Moreton island . By then the northern entry was regarded as the main entry .
In 1850 , Brisbane residents petitioned the New South Wales Government , which controlled the Queensland area until Queensland 's separation in 1859 , to establish a lighthouse on Cape Moreton . The government also wanted to encourage ships to use the broader and safer northern passage . Planning for the structure therefore commenced in 1852 . The site was selected and surveyed in 1853 , and the lighthouse was designed in 1854 by Edmund Blacket the New South Wales Colonial Architect of the time . However , Blacket resigned on 10 June 1854 , for the private market , and left the office on 25 August . The office remained vacant until 1 October 1854 , when Blacket was succeeded by William Weaver . Drawings for the tower which were completed in September 1854 were signed by Alexander Beazeley , Foreman of Works in the Colonial Architect 's office . The tower was finally built during the office of Alexander Dawson who succeeded Weaver in 1856 , and signed further drawings made in April 1856 .
The tower was constructed by a contractor , Mark Farrell , for the cost of £ 15 @,@ 232 , using prison labor , and supervised by Beazeley . Both the lighthouse and three sandstone lighthouse keeper cottages were constructed from locally quarried sandstone . The lighthouse was first displayed in February 1857 , though tenders for painting the tower were called for only in December 1858 .
The original optical apparatus was a catoptric system consisting of 21 oil wick lamps with parabolic reflectors . The lighthouse was 67 @-@ foot @-@ high ( 20 m ) , visible for 26 @.@ 5 nautical miles ( 49 @.@ 1 km ; 30 @.@ 5 mi ) .
= = = Development = = =
In 1859 , control of the lightstation passed to the Government of Queensland , but it continued to be managed by the New South Wales Marine Board until the formation of the Queensland Department of Ports and Harbours in 1862 . In 1864 a telegraph office was opened at the Cape . In 1873 , the oil wick lamps were replaced with kerosene . During the 1860s and 1870s some further structures were constructed in the station including a schoolhouse ( opened in 1879 ) , a stable , and other storage buildings . A telegraph line was constructed during the 1890s , and a Morse lamp visible for 20 miles ( 32 km ) was installed in the 1910s . In 1913 the timber parts of the structures , which were damaged by ants , were replaced . A 1911 – 1913 survey found the light in good shape , though the apparatus was found out of date and needing replacement . This replacement was to be delayed for a long time due to the transfer of all coastal lights to the Commonwealth , occurring officially October 1913 , though practically in July 1915 . A post office was operated by the light keepers between 1915 and the early 1920s .
In 1928 , the tower was extended and the lighthouse reached its current height of 75 feet ( 23 m ) to increase its range . In 1928 – 1930 , the keepers ' cottages were replaced with timber framed fibro clad structures . In 1930 , the lantern underwent major modification . The lantern house was replaced with 7 feet 1 inch ( 2 @.@ 16 m ) diameter Chance Brothers lantern room . The optical apparatus was replaced with either a third order Chance Bros dioptric lens or a four panel 375 millimetres ( 14 @.@ 8 in ) AGA catadioptric lens on an AGA pedestal . The light source was replaced by an AGA incandescent gas mantle operated by acetylene gas , and a sun valve was also installed .
= = = Electricity = = =
In 1937 , the light was converted to 110 V DC electricity . The two distinctive red bands were painted in 1942 . In 1967 the power source was replaced with 240 V AC power , being supplied by two diesel alternators , and a new lens , pedestal , bearing and optic drive may have been installed . The range of the 1967 light was 27 nautical miles ( 50 km ; 31 mi ) . The light was modernised in July 1988 , with the installation of a 120 V 1 Kw tungsten halogen lamp . In 1990 , the handrails and stanchions of the balcony and external staircase were replaced and an access ladder to the dome was installed . On 8 December 1993 , the light was converted to solar powered operation and a VRB @-@ 25 apparatus was installed .
= = Current display = =
The light characteristic shown is four white flashes , separated by 3 @.@ 3 seconds , every 20 seconds ( Fl . ( 4 ) W. 20s ) , visible for 15 nautical miles ( 28 km ; 17 mi ) . The light source is a 12 V 35 W Halogen lamp producing an intensity of 14 @,@ 000 cd . The light revolves three times per minute .
= = = Front light = = =
Cape Moreton Light is located 0 @.@ 86 nautical miles ( 1 @.@ 59 km ; 0 @.@ 99 mi ) at 132 ° 30 ′ from North Point Range Front Light . The front light is a square 22 @-@ foot @-@ high ( 6 @.@ 7 m ) concrete house with a white lantern . It displays a quickly flashing white or red light , depending on the direction ( Q.W.R. ) . The white light , shown at 04 ° -192 ° and 244 ° -258 ° , is visible for 9 nautical miles ( 17 km ; 10 mi ) . The red light , shown at 192 ° -244 ° and 258 ° -294 ° , is visible for 8 nautical miles ( 15 km ; 9 @.@ 2 mi ) .
= = Structures = =
The structures of the station are built in three levels . On the highest level is the lighthouse , surrounded by the workshop , former powerhouse and fuel store , the head keeper cottage to the north and an office further north . On the second level is the first assistant keeper residence and two sheds , a garage and a powerhouse . On the bottom level is the second assistant keeper residence , some distance to the south , and a fuel store to the north .
= = = Lighthouse = = =
The circular tower , 18 @.@ 5 metres ( 61 ft ) high from the ground to the lantern , is made of sandstone blocks laid in regular courses . The ground level has thicker walls , topped by a timber floor . The tower shaft tapers slightly toward the top , where the cast iron lantern sits . Entrance to the tower is either through a timber door on the ground level , or through a timber door on the top of the original 1857 external masonry staircase ( with a modern 1990 handrail ) that circles the first floor , leading to the first floor . Two horizontal bands are painted close to the top , and the tower is otherwise unpainted , showing the sandstone color . Both the ground floor and the lantern floor are made of concrete . Access from the ground floor to the lantern is first via a ladder leading to a trapdoor in the first floor , then via the original internal cast iron spiral stair , ending in a landing below the lantern , and finally another short ladder leading to a trapdoor in the lantern floor . The internal is painted , and lit by small square glass panels in timber frames .
The tower is topped by the 1930 7 feet 1 inch ( 2 @.@ 16 m ) diameter Chance Brothers lantern , painted white . The lantern cylindrical wall is made of six bolted cast iron panels . These support a continuous band of curved glass with cast iron glazing bars , and a small catwalk between the wall and the glazing . The cupola on top of the lantern is made of sheet copper , painted red , and it is topped by ball vent and a wind vane . An access ladder and safety rails , installed in 1990 , provide access to the cupola . In the center of the lantern is the VRB @-@ 25 apparatus , mounted on steel box .
Surrounding the lantern is a concrete gallery , accessible through a door in the lantern wall , with a white painted balustrade , and a 1990 railing . The solar panels are mounted on the gallery .
= = = Other structures = = =
The three keepers ' cottages were constructed in 1928 – 1930 . The head keeper 's house is located close to the lighthouse , and on the tallest ground , and also includes a small fenced garden . The assistant keeper residence is located right to the west , but geographically lower . The second assistant residence is located at some distance from the main cluster of buildings , to the south , and even lower . The residences are square one storey structures , timber framed and fibro clad , with central rooms , no corridors , enclosed verandahs and hipped roofs . The head keeper 's house and the second assistant 's house have corrugated fibrous cement rood while the first assistant house has a newer corrugated zinc / aluminium alloy ( ZINCALUME ) metal roof . A museum was set in the second assistant 's quarters in 1988 . Two spherical steel rainwater tanks are set next to each of the houses .
The three sheds surrounding the lighthouse are the workshop to the south , the former powerhouse to the west and the fuel store to the north . They are all rectangular structures , timber framed and fibro clad with corrugated fibrous cement gable roofs . The workshop appears to be built on the remains of one of the early stone buildings , lying on a plinth with sandstone steps . It consists of two rooms with pivoting sash windows and timber framed doors and no internal lining . The former powerhouse and the fuel store have reinforced concrete floors , fibro lining , double @-@ hung sash windows and double timber framed doors .
The office to the north of the head keeper house is a small square room raised on short concrete pillars , constructed of timber framed fibro clad walls and corrugated fibrous cement roof . It has a continuous band of windows . The last three buildings , the garage , powerhouse and fuel store , are small brick buildings with metal roofs and reinforced concrete floors .
= = Site operation and visiting = =
The site and the light are operated by the Australian Maritime Safety Authority . The island can be reached by ferry service from Scarborough , though visiting requires a permit and a four @-@ wheel drive is mandatory . The station is accessible , but the lighthouse is closed to the public .
= = Heritage listing = =
The lighthouse was added to the Queensland Heritage Register in 2004 .
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= History of American football =
The history of American football can be traced to early versions of rugby football and association football . Both games have their origin in varieties of football played in Britain in the mid @-@ 19th century , in which a football is kicked at a goal or kicked over a line , which in turn were based on the varieties of English public school football games .
American football resulted from several major divergences from association football and rugby football , most notably the rule changes instituted by Walter Camp , a Yale University and Hopkins School graduate considered to be the " Father of American Football " . Among these important changes were the introduction of the line of scrimmage , of down @-@ and @-@ distance rules and of the legalization of interference . In the late 19th and early 20th centuries , gameplay developments by college coaches such as Eddie Cochems , Amos Alonzo Stagg , Parke H. Davis , Knute Rockne , and Glenn " Pop " Warner helped take advantage of the newly introduced forward pass . The popularity of college football grew as it became the dominant version of the sport in the United States for the first half of the 20th century . Bowl games , a college football tradition , attracted a national audience for college teams . Boosted by fierce rivalries and colorful traditions , college football still holds widespread appeal in the United States .
The origin of professional football can be traced back to 1892 , with William " Pudge " Heffelfinger 's $ 500 contract to play in a game for the Allegheny Athletic Association against the Pittsburgh Athletic Club . In 1920 the American Professional Football Association was formed . This league changed its name to the National Football League ( NFL ) two years later , and eventually became the major league of American football . Primarily a sport of Midwestern industrial towns in the United States , professional football eventually became a national phenomenon .
The modern era of American football can be considered to have begun after the 1932 NFL Playoff game , which was the first American football game to feature hash marks , the legalization of the forward pass anywhere behind the line of scrimmage , the first indoor game since 1902 , and the movement of the goal posts back to goal line . Other innovations to occur immediately after 1932 , were the introduction of the AP Poll in 1934 , the tapering of the ends of the football in 1934 , the awarding of the first Heisman Trophy in 1935 , the first NFL draft in 1936 and the first televised game in 1939 . Another important event was the American football game at the 1932 Summer Olympics , which combined with a similar demonstration game at 1933 World 's Fair , led to the first College All @-@ Star Game in 1934 , which in turn was an important factor in the growth of professional football in the United States . American football 's explosion in popularity during the second half of the 20th century can be traced to the 1958 NFL Championship Game , a contest that has been dubbed the " Greatest Game Ever Played " . A rival league to the NFL , the American Football League ( AFL ) , began play in 1960 ; the pressure it put on the senior league led to a merger between the two leagues and the creation of the Super Bowl , which has become the most watched television event in the United States on an annual basis .
= = History of American football before 1869 = =
= = = Prehistory of American football = = =
Forms of traditional football have been played throughout Europe and beyond since antiquity . Many of these involved handling of the ball , and scrummage @-@ like formations . Several of the oldest examples of football @-@ like games include the Greek game of Episkyros and the Roman game of Harpastum . Over time many countries across the world have also developed their own national football @-@ like games . For example , New Zealand had Ki @-@ o @-@ rahi , Australia marn grook , Japan kemari , China cuju , Georgia lelo burti , the Scottish Borders Jeddart Ba ' and Cornwall Cornish hurling , Central Italy Calcio Fiorentino , South Wales cnapan , East Anglia Campball and Ireland had caid , which was an ancestor of Gaelic football .
These archaic forms of football , typically classified as mob football , would be played between neighboring towns and villages , involving an unlimited number of players on opposing teams , who would clash in a heaving mass of people struggling to drag an inflated pig 's bladder by any means possible to markers at each end of a town . By some accounts , in some such events any means could be used to move the ball towards the goal , as long as it did not lead to manslaughter or murder . Sometimes instead of markers , the teams would attempt to kick the bladder into the balcony of the opponents ' church . A legend that these games in England evolved from a more ancient and bloody ritual of kicking the " Dane 's head " is unlikely to be true .
These antiquated games went into sharp decline in the 19th century when the Highway Act 1835 was passed banning the playing of football on public highways .
= = = Football in America = = =
Although there are some mentions of Native Americans playing football @-@ like games , modern American football has its origins in the traditional football games played in the cities , villages and schools of Europe for many centuries before America was settled by Europeans . Early games appear to have had much in common with the traditional " mob football " played in England . The games remained largely unorganized until the 19th century , when intramural games of football began to be played on college campuses . Each school played its own variety of football . Princeton University students played a game called " ballown " as early as 1820 . A Harvard tradition known as " Bloody Monday " began in 1827 , which consisted of a mass ballgame between the freshman and sophomore classes . In 1860 , both the town police and the college authorities agreed the Bloody Monday had to go . The Harvard students responded by going into mourning for a mock figure called " Football Fightum " , for whom they conducted funeral rites . The authorities held firm and it was a dozen years before football was once again played at Harvard . Dartmouth played its own version called " Old division football " , the rules of which were first published in 1871 , though the game dates to at least the 1830s . All of these games , and others , shared certain commonalities . They remained largely " mob " style games , with huge numbers of players attempting to advance the ball into a goal area , often by any means necessary . Rules were simple , violence and injury were common . The violence of these mob @-@ style games led to widespread protests and a decision to abandon them . Yale , under pressure from the city of New Haven , banned the play of all forms of football in 1860 .
The game began to return to college campuses by the late 1860s . Yale , Princeton , Rutgers University , and Brown University began playing the popular " kicking " game during this time . In 1867 , Princeton used rules based on those of the London Football Association . A " running game " , resembling rugby football , was taken up by the Montreal Football Club in Canada in 1868 .
= = Intercollegiate football ( 1869 – present ) = =
= = = Pioneer period ( 1869 – 1875 ) = = =
On November 6 , 1869 , Rutgers University faced Princeton University ( then known as the College of New Jersey ) in a game that was played with a round ball and , used a set of rules suggested by Rutgers captain William J. Leggett , based on the Football Association 's first set of rules , which were an early attempt by the former pupils of England 's public schools , to unify the rules of their public schools games and create a universal and standardized set of rules for the game of football and bore little resemblance to the American game which would be developed in the following decades . It is still usually regarded as the first game of intercollegiate American football . The game was played at a Rutgers field . Two teams of 25 players attempted to score by kicking the ball into the opposing team 's goal . Throwing or carrying the ball was not allowed , but there was plenty of physical contact between players . The first team to reach six goals was declared the winner . Rutgers won by a score of six to four . A rematch was played at Princeton a week later under Princeton 's own set of rules ( one notable difference was the awarding of a " free kick " to any player that caught the ball on the fly , which was a feature adopted from the Football Association 's rules ; the fair catch kick rule has survived through to modern American game ) . Princeton won that game by a score of 8 – 0 . Columbia joined the series in 1870 , and by 1872 several schools were fielding intercollegiate teams , including Yale and Stevens Institute of Technology .
Rutgers was first to extend the reach of the game . An intercollegiate game was first played in the state of New York when Rutgers played Columbia on November 2 , 1872 . It was also the first scoreless tie in the history of the fledgling sport . Yale football starts the same year and has its first match against Columbia , the nearest college to play football . It took place at Hamilton Park in New Haven and was the first game in New England . The game used a set of rules based on association football with 20 @-@ man sides , played on a field 400 by 250 feet . Yale wins 3 @-@ 0 , Tommy Sherman scoring the first goal and Lew Irwin the other two .
By 1873 , the college students playing football had made significant efforts to standardize their fledgling game . Teams had been scaled down from 25 players to 20 . The only way to score was still to bat or kick the ball through the opposing team 's goal , and the game was played in two 45 minute halves on fields 140 yards long and 70 yards wide . On October 20 , 1873 , representatives from Yale , Columbia , Princeton , and Rutgers met at the Fifth Avenue Hotel in New York City to codify the first set of intercollegiate football rules . Before this meeting , each school had its own set of rules and games were usually played using the home team 's own particular code . At this meeting , a list of rules , based more on the Football Association 's rules than the rules of the recently founded Rugby Football Union , was drawn up for intercollegiate football games .
Harvard refused to attend the rules conference organized by the other schools and continued to play under its own code . While Harvard 's voluntary absence from the meeting made it hard for them to schedule games against other American universities , it agreed to a challenge to play McGill University , from Montreal , in a two @-@ game series . Inasmuch as Rugby football had been transplanted to Canada from England , the McGill team played under a set of rules which allowed a player to pick up the ball and run with it whenever he wished . Another rule , unique to McGill , was to count tries ( the act of grounding the football past the opposing team 's goal line ; it is important to note that there was no end zone during this time ) , as well as goals , in the scoring . In the Rugby rules of the time , a touchdown only provided the chance to kick a free goal from the field . If the kick was missed , the touchdown did not count .
Harvard quickly took a liking to the rugby game , and its use of the try which , until that time , was not used in American football . The try would later evolve into the score known as the touchdown . On June 4 , 1875 , Harvard faced Tufts University in the first game between two American colleges played under rules similar to the McGill / Harvard contest , which was won by Tufts . The rules included each side fielding 11 men at any given time , the ball was advanced by kicking or carrying it , and tackles of the ball carrier stopped play . Further elated by the excitement of McGill 's version of football , Harvard challenged its closest rival , Yale , to which the Bulldogs accepted . The two teams agreed to play under a set of rules called the " Concessionary Rules " , which involved Harvard conceding something to Yale 's soccer and Yale conceding a great deal to Harvard 's rugby . They decided to play with 15 players on each team . On November 13 , 1875 , Yale and Harvard played each other for the first time ever , where Harvard won 4 @-@ 0 . At the first The Game — the annual contest between Harvard and Yale , among the 2000 spectators attending the game that day , was the future " father of American football " Walter Camp . Walter , who would enroll at Yale the next year , was torn between an admiration for Harvard 's style of play and the misery of the Yale defeat , and became determined to avenge Yale 's defeat . Spectators from Princeton , also carried the game back home , where it quickly became the most popular version of football .
= = = = Walter Camp : Father of American football = = = =
Walter Camp is widely considered to be the most important figure in the development of American football . As a youth , he excelled in sports like track , baseball , and association football , and after enrolling at Yale in 1876 , he earned varsity honors in every sport the school offered .
Following the introduction of rugby @-@ syle rules to American football , Camp became a fixture at the Massasoit House conventions where rules were debated and changed . Dissatisfied with what seemed to him to be a disorganized mob , he proposed his first rule change at the first meeting he attended in 1878 : a reduction from fifteen players to eleven . The motion was rejected at that time but passed in 1880 . The effect was to open up the game and emphasize speed over strength . Camp 's most famous change , the establishment of the line of scrimmage and the snap from center to quarterback , was also passed in 1880 . Originally , the snap was executed with the foot of the center . Later changes made it possible to snap the ball with the hands , either through the air or by a direct hand @-@ to @-@ hand pass . Rugby league followed Camp 's example , and in 1906 introduced the play @-@ the @-@ ball rule , which greatly resembled Camp 's early scrimmage and center @-@ snap rules . In 1966 , Rugby league introduced a four @-@ tackle rule based on Camp 's early down @-@ and @-@ distance rules .
Camp 's new scrimmage rules revolutionized the game , though not always as intended . Princeton , in particular , used scrimmage play to slow the game , making incremental progress towards the end zone during each down . Rather than increase scoring , which had been Camp 's original intent , the rule was exploited to maintain control of the ball for the entire game , resulting in slow , unexciting contests . At the 1882 rules meeting , Camp proposed that a team be required to advance the ball a minimum of five yards within three downs . These down @-@ and @-@ distance rules , combined with the establishment of the line of scrimmage , transformed the game from a variation of rugby football into the distinct sport of American football .
Camp was central to several more significant rule changes that came to define American football . In 1881 , the field was reduced in size to its modern dimensions of 120 by 531 ⁄ 3 yards ( 109 @.@ 7 by 48 @.@ 8 meters ) . Several times in 1883 , Camp tinkered with the scoring rules , finally arriving at four points for a touchdown , two points for kicks after touchdowns , two points for safeties , and five for field goals . Camp 's innovations in the area of point scoring influenced rugby union 's move to point scoring in 1890 . In 1887 , game time was set at two halves of 45 minutes each . Also in 1887 , two paid officials — a referee and an umpire — were mandated for each game . A year later , the rules were changed to allow tackling below the waist , and in 1889 , the officials were given whistles and stopwatches .
The last , and arguably most important innovation , which would at last make American football uniquely " American " , was the legalization of interference , or blocking , a tactic which was highly illegal under the rugby @-@ style rules . Interference remains strictly illegal in both rugby codes to this day . The prohibition of interference in the rugby game stems from the game 's strict enforcement of its offsides rule , which prohibited any player on the team with possession of the ball to loiter between the ball and the goal . At first , American players would find creative ways of aiding the runner by pretending to accidentally knock into defenders trying to tackle the runner . When Walter Camp witnessed this tactic being employed against his Yale team , he was at first appalled , but the next year had adopted the blocking tactics for his own team . During the 1880s and 1890s , teams developed increasignly complex blocking tactics including the interlocking interference technique known as the Flying wedge or " V @-@ trick formation " , which was developed by Lorin F. Deland and first introduced by Harvard in a collegiate game against Yale in 1892 . Despite its effectiveness , it was outlawed two seasons later in 1894 through the efforts of the rule committee lead by Parke H. Davis , because of its contribution to serious injury . Non @-@ interlocking interference remains a basic element of modern American football , with many complex schemes being developed and implemented over the years , including zone blocking and pass blocking .
After his playing career at Yale ended in 1882 , Camp was employed by the New Haven Clock Company until his death in 1925 . Though no longer a player , he remained a fixture at annual rules meetings for most of his life , and he personally selected an annual All @-@ American team every year from 1889 through 1924 . The Walter Camp Football Foundation continues to select All @-@ American teams in his honor .
= = = = Scoring table = = = =
= = = Period of the American Intercollegiate Football Association ( 1876 – 1893 ) = = =
On November 23 , 1876 , representatives from Harvard , Yale , Princeton , and Columbia met at the Massasoit House in Springfield , Massachusetts to standardize a new code of rules based on the rugby game first introduced to Harvard by McGill University in 1874 . The rules were based largely on the Rugby Football Union 's code from England , though one important difference was the replacement of a kicked goal with a touchdown as the primary means of scoring ( a change that would later occur in rugby itself , favoring the try as the main scoring event ) . Three of the schools — Harvard , Columbia , and Princeton — formed the Intercollegiate Football Association , as a result of the meeting . Yale did not join the group until 1879 , because of an early disagreement about the number of players per team .
The first game where one team scored over 100 points happened on October 25 , 1884 when Yale routed Dartmouth 113 – 0 . It was also the first time one team scored over 100 points and the opposing team was shut out . The next week , Princeton outscored Lafayette by 140 to 0 .
In 1879 , the University of Michigan became the first school west of Pennsylvania to establish a college football team . On May 30 , 1879 Michigan beat Racine College 1 – 0 in a game played in Chicago . The Chicago Daily Tribune called it " the first rugby @-@ football game to be played west of the Alleghenies . " Other Midwestern schools soon followed suit , including the University of Chicago , Northwestern University , and the University of Minnesota . The first western team to travel east was the 1881 Michigan team , which played at Harvard , Yale and Princeton . The nation 's first college football league , the Intercollegiate Conference of Faculty Representatives ( also known as the Western Conference ) , a precursor to the Big Ten Conference , was founded in 1895 .
Organized intercollegiate football was first played in the state of Virginia and the south on November 2 , 1873 in Lexington between Washington and Lee and VMI . Washington and Lee won 4 – 2 . Some industrious students of the two schools organized a game for October 23 , 1869 – but it was rained out . Students of the University of Virginia were playing pickup games of the kicking @-@ style of football as early as 1870 , and some accounts even claim it organized a game against Washington and Lee College in 1871 ; but no record has been found of the score of this contest . Due to scantness of records of the prior matches some will claim Virginia v. Pantops Academy November 13 , 1887 as the first game in Virginia .
On April 9 , 1880 at Stoll Field , Transylvania University ( then called Kentucky University ) beat Centre College by the score of 13 ¾ – 0 in what is often considered the first recorded game played in the South . The first game of " scientific football " in the South was the first instance of the Victory Bell rivalry between North Carolina and Duke ( then known as Trinity College ) held on Thanksgiving Day , 1888 , at the North Carolina State Fairgrounds in Raleigh , North Carolina .
On November 13 , 1887 the Virginia Cavaliers and Pantops Academy fought to a scoreless tie in the first organized football game in the state of Virginia . Students at UVA were playing pickup games of the kicking @-@ style of football as early as 1870 , and some accounts even claim that some industrious ones organized a game against Washington and Lee College in 1871 , just two years after Rutgers and Princeton 's historic first game in 1869 . But no record has been found of the score of this contest . Washington and Lee also claims a 4 to 2 win over VMI in 1873 .
College football expanded greatly during the last two decades of the 19th century . Several major rivalries date from this time period .
November 1890 was an active time in the sport . In Baldwin City , Kansas , on November 22 , 1890 , college football was first played in the state of Kansas . Baker beat Kansas 22 – 9 . On the 27th , Vanderbilt played Nashville ( Peabody ) at Athletic Park and won 40 – 0 . It was the first time organized football played in the state of Tennessee . The 29th also saw the first instance of the Army – Navy Game . Navy won 24 – 0 .
The first nighttime football game was played in Mansfield , Pennsylvania on September 28 , 1892 between Mansfield State Normal and Wyoming Seminary and ended at halftime in a 0 – 0 tie . The Army @-@ Navy game of 1893 saw the first documented use of a football helmet by a player in a game . Joseph M. Reeves had a crude leather helmet made by a shoemaker in Annapolis and wore it in the game after being warned by his doctor that he risked death if he continued to play football after suffering an earlier kick to the head .
= = = Period of Rules Committees and Conference ( 1894 – 1932 ) = = =
The beginnings of the contemporary Southeastern Conference and Atlantic Coast Conference start in 1894 . The Southern Intercollegiate Athletic Association ( SIAA ) was founded on December 21 , 1894 , by Dr. William Dudley , a chemistry professor at Vanderbilt . The original members were Alabama , Auburn , Georgia , Georgia Tech , North Carolina , Sewanee , and Vanderbilt . Clemson , Cumberland , Kentucky , LSU , Mercer , Mississippi , Mississippi A & M ( Mississippi State ) , Southwestern Presbyterian University , Tennessee , Texas , Tulane , and the University of Nashville joined the following year in 1895 as invited charter members . The conference was originally formed for " the development and purification of college athletics throughout the South " .
It is thought that the first forward pass in football occurred on October 26 , 1895 in a game between Georgia and North Carolina when , out of desperation , the ball was thrown by the North Carolina back Joel Whitaker instead of punted and George Stephens caught the ball . On November 9 , 1895 John Heisman executed a hidden ball trick utilizing quarterback Reynolds Tichenor to get Auburn 's only touchdown in a 6 to 9 loss to Vanderbilt . It was the first game in the south decided by a field goal . Heisman later used the trick against Pop Warner 's Georgia team . Warner picked up the trick and later used it at Cornell against Penn State in 1897 . He then used it in 1903 at Carlisle against Harvard and garnered national attention .
The 1899 Sewanee Tigers are one of the all @-@ time great teams of the early sport . The team went 12 – 0 , outscoring opponents 322 to 10 . Known as the " Iron Men " , with just 13 men they had a six @-@ day road trip with five shutout wins over Texas A & M ; Texas ; Tulane ; LSU ; and Ole Miss . It is recalled memorably with the phrase " ... and on the seventh day they rested . " Grantland Rice called them " the most durable football team I ever saw . "
The first college football game in Oklahoma Territory occurred on November 7 , 1895 when the ' Oklahoma City Terrors ' defeated the Oklahoma Sooners 34 to 0 . The Terrors were a mix of Methodist college students and high schoolers . The Sooners did not manage a single first down . By next season , Oklahoma coach John A. Harts had left to prospect for gold in the Arctic . Organized football was first played in the territory on November 29 , 1894 between the Oklahoma City Terrors and Oklahoma City High School . The high school won 24 to 0 .
In 1891 , the first Stanford football team was hastily organized and played a four @-@ game season beginning in January 1892 with no official head coach . Following the season , Stanford captain John Whittemore wrote to Yale coach Walter Camp asking him to recommend a coach for Stanford . To Whittemore 's surprise , Camp agreed to coach the team himself , on the condition that he finish the season at Yale first . As a result of Camp 's late arrival , Stanford played just three official games , against San Francisco 's Olympic Club and rival California . The team also played exhibition games against two Los Angeles area teams that Stanford does not include in official results . Camp returned to the East Coast following the season , then returned to coach Stanford in 1894 and 1895 .
USC first fielded an American football team in 1888 . Playing its first game on November 14 of that year against the Alliance Athletic Club , in which USC gained a 16 – 0 victory . Frank Suffel and Henry H. Goddard were playing coaches for the first team which was put together by quarterback Arthur Carroll ; who in turn volunteered to make the pants for the team and later became a tailor . USC faced its first collegiate opponent the following year in fall 1889 , playing St. Vincent 's College to a 40 – 0 victory . In 1893 , USC joined the Intercollegiate Football Association of Southern California ( the forerunner of the SCIAC ) , which was composed of USC , Occidental College , Throop Polytechnic Institute ( Cal Tech ) , and Chaffey College . Pomona College was invited to enter , but declined to do so . An invitation was also extended to Los Angeles High School .
The Big Game between Stanford and California is the oldest college football rivalry in the West . The first game was played on San Francisco 's Haight Street Grounds on March 19 , 1892 with Stanford winning 14 – 10 . The term " Big Game " was first used in 1900 , when it was played on Thanksgiving Day in San Francisco . During that game , a large group of men and boys , who were observing from the roof of the nearby S.F. and Pacific Glass Works , fell into the fiery interior of the building when the roof collapsed , resulting in 13 dead and 78 injured . On December 4 , 1900 , the last victim of the disaster ( Fred Lilly ) died , bringing the death toll to 22 ; and , to this day , the " Thanksgiving Day Disaster " remains the deadliest accident to kill spectators at a U.S. sporting event .
In May 1900 , Yost was hired as the football coach at Stanford University , and , after traveling home to West Virginia , he arrived in Palo Alto , California , on August 21 , 1900 . Yost led the 1900 Stanford team to a 7 – 2 – 1 , outscoring opponents 154 to 20 . The next year in 1901 , Yost was hired by Charles A. Baird as the head football coach for the Michigan Wolverines football team . On 1 January 1902 , Yost 's dominating 1901 Michigan Wolverines football team agreed to play a 3 – 1 – 2 team from Stanford University in the inaugural " Tournament East @-@ West football game what is now known as the Rose Bowl Game by a score of 49 – 0 after Stanford captain Ralph Fisher requested to quit with eight minutes remaining .
Led by coach Fielding H. Yost , Michigan became the first " western " national power . From 1901 to 1905 , Michigan had a 56 @-@ game undefeated streak that included a 1902 trip to play in the first college football bowl game , which later became the Rose Bowl Game . During this streak , Michigan scored 2 @,@ 831 points while allowing only 40 .
In 1906 , citing concerns about the violence in American Football , universities on the West Coast , led by California and Stanford , replaced the sport with rugby union . At the time , the future of American football was very much in doubt and these schools believed that rugby union would eventually be adopted nationwide . Other schools fllowed suit and also made the switch included Nevada , St. Mary 's , Santa Clara , and USC ( in 1911 ) . However , due to the perception that West Coast football was inferior to the game played on the East Coast anyway , East Coast and Midwest teams shrugged off the loss of the teams and continued playing American football . With no nationwide movement , the available pool of rugby teams to play remained small . The schools scheduled games against local club teams and reached out to rugby union powers in Australia , New Zealand , and especially , due to its proximity , Canada . The annual Big Game between Stanford and California continued as rugby , with the winner invited by the British Columbia Rugby Union to a tournament in Vancouver over the Christmas holidays , with the winner of that tournament receiving the Cooper Keith Trophy .
The University of Colorado Boulder began playing American football in 1890 . Colorado found much success in its early years , winning eight Colorado Football Association Championships ( 1894 – 97 , 1901 – 08 ) .
= = = = Violence and controversy ( 1905 ) = = = =
From its earliest days as a mob game , football was a violent sport . The 1894 Harvard @-@ Yale game , known as the " Hampden Park Blood Bath " , resulted in crippling injuries for four players ; the contest was suspended until 1897 . The annual Army @-@ Navy game was suspended from 1894 to 1898 for similar reasons . One of the major problems was the popularity of mass @-@ formations like the flying wedge , in which a large number of offensive players charged as a unit against a similarly arranged defense . The resultant collisions often led to serious injuries and sometimes even death . Georgia fullback Richard Von Albade Gammon notably died on the field from concussions received against Virginia in 1897 , causing Georgia , Georgia Tech , and Mercer to temporarily stop its football programs .
The situation came to a head in 1905 when there were 19 fatalities nationwide . President Theodore Roosevelt reportedly threatened to shut down the game if drastic changes were not made . However , the threat by Roosevelt to eliminate football is disputed by sports historians . What is absolutely certain is that on October 9 , 1905 , Roosevelt held a meeting of football representatives from Harvard , Yale , and Princeton . Though he lectured on eliminating and reducing injuries , he never threatened to ban football . He also lacked the authority to abolish football and was , in fact , actually a fan of the sport and wanted to preserve it . The President 's sons were also playing football at the college and secondary levels at the time .
Meanwhile , John H. Outland held an experimental game in Wichita , Kansas that reduced the number of scrimmage plays to earn a first down from four to three in an attempt to reduce injuries . The Los Angeles Times reported an increase in punts and considered the game much safer than regular play but that the new rule was not " conducive to the sport . " Finally , on December 28 , 1905 , 62 schools met in New York City to discuss rule changes to make the game safer . As a result of this meeting , the Intercollegiate Athletic Association of the United States , later named the National Collegiate Athletic Association ( NCAA ) , was formed . One rule change introduced in 1906 , devised to open up the game and reduce injury , was the introduction of the legal forward pass . Though it was underutilized for years , this proved to be one of the most important rule changes in the establishment of the modern game .
As a result of the 1905 – 1906 reforms , mass formation plays became illegal and forward passes legal . Bradbury Robinson , playing for visionary coach Eddie Cochems at St. Louis University , threw the first legal pass in a September 5 , 1906 , game against Carroll College at Waukesha . Other important changes , formally adopted in 1910 , were the requirements that at least seven offensive players be on the line of scrimmage at the time of the snap , that there be no pushing or pulling , and that interlocking interference ( arms linked or hands on belts and uniforms ) was not allowed . These changes greatly reduced the potential for collision injuries . Several coaches emerged who took advantage of these sweeping changes . Amos Alonzo Stagg introduced such innovations as the huddle , the tackling dummy , and the pre @-@ snap shift . Other coaches , such as Pop Warner and Knute Rockne , introduced new strategies that still remain part of the game .
Besides these coaching innovations , several rules changes during the first third of the 20th century had a profound impact on the game , mostly in opening up the passing game . In 1914 , the first roughing @-@ the @-@ passer penalty was implemented . In 1918 , the rules on eligible receivers were loosened to allow eligible players to catch the ball anywhere on the field — previously strict rules were in place only allowing passes to certain areas of the field . Scoring rules also changed during this time : field goals were lowered to three points in 1909 and touchdowns raised to six points in 1912 .
Star players that emerged in the early 20th century include Jim Thorpe , Red Grange , and Bronko Nagurski ; these three made the transition to the fledgling NFL and helped turn it into a successful league . Sportswriter Grantland Rice helped popularize the sport with his poetic descriptions of games and colorful nicknames for the game 's biggest players , including Notre Dame 's " Four Horsemen " backfield and Fordham University 's linemen , known as the " Seven Blocks of Granite " .
In 1907 at Champaign , Illinois Chicago and Illinois played in the first game to have a halftime show featuring a marching band . Chicago won 42 – 6 . On November 25 , 1911 Kansas and Missouri played the first homecoming football game . The game was " broadcast " play @-@ by @-@ play over telegraph to at least 1 @,@ 000 fans in Lawrence , Kansas . It ended in a 3 – 3 tie . The game between West Virginia and Pittsburgh on October 8 , 1921 , saw the first live radio broadcast of a college football game when Harold W. Arlin announced that year 's Backyard Brawl played at Forbes Field on KDKA . Pitt won 21 – 13 . On October 28 , 1922 , Princeton and Chicago played the first game to be nationally broadcast on radio . Princeton won 21 – 18 in a hotly contested game which had Princeton dubbed the " Team of Destiny . "
= = = = Notable intersectional games = = = =
In 1906 Vanderbilt defeated Carlisle 4 to 0 , the result of a Bob Blake field goal . In 1907 Vanderbilt fought Navy to a 6 to 6 tie . In 1910 Vanderbilt held defending national champion Yale to a scoreless tie .
Helping Georgia Tech 's claim to a title in 1917 , the Auburn Tigers held undefeated , Chic Harley led Big Ten champion Ohio State to a scoreless tie the week before Georgia Tech beat the Tigers 68 to 7 . The next season , with many players gone due to World War I , a game was finally scheduled at Forbes Field with Pittsburgh . The Panthers , led by freshman Tom Davies , defeated Georgia Tech 32 to 0 . Tech center Bum Day was the first player on a Southern team ever selected first @-@ team All @-@ American by Walter Camp .
1917 saw the rise of another Southern team in Centre of Danville , Kentucky . In 1921 Bo McMillin led Centre upset defending national champion Harvard 6 to 0 in what is widely considered one of the greatest upsets in college football history . The next year Vanderbilt fought Michigan to a scoreless tie at the inaugural game on Dudley Field , the first stadium in the South made exclusively for college football . Michigan coach Fielding Yost and Vanderbilt coach Dan McGugin were brothers @-@ in @-@ law , and the latter the protege of the former . The game featured the season 's two best defenses and included a goal line stand by Vanderbilt to preserve the tie . Its result was " a great surprise to the sporting world . " Commodore fans celebrated by throwing some 3 @,@ 000 seat cushions onto the field . The game features prominently in Vanderbilt 's history . That same year , Alabama upset Penn 9 to 7 .
Vanderbilt 's line coach then was Wallace Wade , who in 1925 coached Alabama to the south 's first Rose Bowl victory . This game is commonly referred to as " the game that changed the south . " Wade followed up the next season with an undefeated record and Rose Bowl tie . Georgia 's 1927 " dream and wonder team " defeated Yale for the first time . Georgia Tech , led by Heisman protege William Alexander , gave the dream and wonder team its only loss , and the next year were national and Rose Bowl champions . The Rose Bowl included Roy Riegels ' wrong @-@ way run . On October 12 , 1929 , Yale lost to Georgia in Sanford Stadium in its first trip to the south . Wade 's Alabama again won a national championship and Rose Bowl in 1930 .
= = = Modernization of intercollegiate American football ( 1933 – 1969 ) = = =
In the early 1930s , the college game continued to grow , particularly in the South , bolstered by fierce rivalries such as the " South 's Oldest Rivalry " , between Virginia and North Carolina and the " Deep South 's Oldest Rivalry " , between Georgia and Auburn . Although before the mid @-@ 1920s most national powers came from the Northeast or the Midwest , the trend changed when several teams from the South and the West Coast achieved national success . Wallace William Wade 's 1925 Alabama team won the 1926 Rose Bowl after receiving its first national title and William Alexander 's 1928 Georgia Tech team defeated California in the 1929 Rose Bowl . College football quickly became the most popular spectator sport in the South .
Several major modern college football conferences rose to prominence during this time period . The Southwest Athletic Conference had been founded in 1915 . Consisting mostly of schools from Texas , the conference saw back @-@ to @-@ back national champions with Texas Christian University ( TCU ) in 1938 and Texas A & M in 1939 . The Pacific Coast Conference ( PCC ) , a precursor to the Pac @-@ 12 Conference ( Pac @-@ 12 ) , had its own back @-@ to @-@ back champion in the University of Southern California which was awarded the title in 1931 and 1932 . The Southeastern Conference ( SEC ) formed in 1932 and consisted mostly of schools in the Deep South . As in previous decades , the Big Ten continued to dominate in the 1930s and 1940s , with Minnesota winning 5 titles between 1934 and 1941 , and Michigan ( 1933 , 1947 , and 1948 ) and Ohio State ( 1942 ) also winning titles .
As it grew beyond its regional affiliations in the 1930s , college football garnered increased national attention . Four new bowl games were created : the Orange Bowl , Sugar Bowl , the Sun Bowl in 1935 , and the Cotton Bowl in 1937 . In lieu of an actual national championship , these bowl games , along with the earlier Rose Bowl , provided a way to match up teams from distant regions of the country that did not otherwise play . In 1936 , the Associated Press began its weekly poll of prominent sports writers , ranking all of the nation 's college football teams . Since there was no national championship game , the final version of the AP poll was used to determine who was crowned the National Champion of college football .
The 1930s saw growth in the passing game . Though some coaches , such as General Robert Neyland at Tennessee , continued to eschew its use , several rules changes to the game had a profound effect on teams ' ability to throw the ball . In 1934 , the rules committee removed two major penalties — a loss of five yards for a second incomplete pass in any series of downs and a loss of possession for an incomplete pass in the end zone — and shrunk the circumference of the ball , making it easier to grip and throw . Players who became famous for taking advantage of the easier passing game included Alabama end Don Hutson and TCU passer " Slingin " Sammy Baugh .
In 1935 , New York City 's Downtown Athletic Club awarded the first Heisman Trophy to University of Chicago halfback Jay Berwanger , who was also the first ever NFL Draft pick in 1936 . The trophy was designed by sculptor Frank Eliscu and modeled after New York University player Ed Smith . The trophy recognizes the nation 's " most outstanding " college football player and has become one of the most coveted awards in all of American sports .
During World War II , college football players enlisted in the armed forces , some playing in Europe during the war . As most of these players had eligibility left on their college careers , some of them returned to college at West Point , bringing Army back @-@ to @-@ back national titles in 1944 and 1945 under coach Red Blaik . Doc Blanchard ( known as " Mr. Inside " ) and Glenn Davis ( known as " Mr. Outside " ) both won the Heisman Trophy , in 1945 and 1946 respectively . On the coaching staff of those 1944 – 1946 Army teams was future Pro Football Hall of Fame coach Vince Lombardi .
The 1950s saw the rise of yet more dynasties and power programs . Oklahoma , under coach Bud Wilkinson , won three national titles ( 1950 , 1955 , 1956 ) and all ten Big Eight Conference championships in the decade while building a record 47 @-@ game winning streak . Woody Hayes led Ohio State to two national titles , in 1954 and 1957 , and dominated the Big Ten conference , winning three Big Ten titles — more than any other school . Wilkinson and Hayes , along with Robert Neyland of Tennessee , oversaw a revival of the running game in the 1950s . Passing numbers dropped from an average of 18 @.@ 9 attempts in 1951 to 13 @.@ 6 attempts in 1955 , while teams averaged just shy of 50 running plays per game . Nine out of ten Heisman trophy winners in the 1950s were runners . Notre Dame , one of the biggest passing teams of the decade , saw a substantial decline in success ; the 1950s were the only decade between 1920 and 1990 when the team did not win at least a share of the national title . Paul Hornung , Notre Dame quarterback , did , however , win the Heisman in 1956 , becoming the only player from a losing team ever to do so .
= = = Modern intercollegiate football ( 1970 – present ) = = =
Following the enormous success of the National Football League 's 1958 championship game , college football no longer enjoyed the same popularity as the NFL , at least on a national level . While both games benefited from the advent of television , since the late 1950s , the NFL has become a nationally popular sport while college football has maintained strong regional ties .
As professional football became a national television phenomenon , college football did as well . In the 1950s , Notre Dame , which had a large national following , formed its own network to broadcast its games , but by and large the sport still retained a mostly regional following . In 1952 , the NCAA claimed all television broadcasting rights for the games of its member institutions , and it alone negotiated television rights . This situation continued until 1984 , when several schools brought a suit under the Sherman Antitrust Act ; the Supreme Court ruled against the NCAA and schools are now free to negotiate their own television deals . ABC Sports began broadcasting a national Game of the Week in 1966 , bringing key matchups and rivalries to a national audience for the first time .
New formations and play sets continued to be developed . Emory Bellard , an assistant coach under Darrell Royal at the University of Texas , developed a three @-@ back option style offense known as the wishbone . The wishbone is a run @-@ heavy offense that depends on the quarterback making last second decisions on when and to whom to hand or pitch the ball to . Royal went on to teach the offense to other coaches , including Bear Bryant at Alabama , Chuck Fairbanks at Oklahoma and Pepper Rodgers at UCLA ; who all adapted and developed it to their own tastes . The strategic opposite of the wishbone is the spread offense , developed by professional and college coaches throughout the 1960s and 1970s . Though some schools play a run @-@ based version of the spread , its most common use is as a passing offense designed to " spread " the field both horizontally and vertically . Some teams have managed to adapt with the times to keep winning consistently . In the rankings of the most victorious programs , Michigan , Texas , and Notre Dame are ranked first , second , and third in total wins .
= = = = Growth of bowl games = = = =
In 1940 , for the highest level of college football , there were only five bowl games ( Rose , Orange , Sugar , Sun , and Cotton ) . By 1950 , three more had joined that number and in 1970 , there were still only eight major college bowl games . The number grew to eleven in 1976 . At the birth of cable television and cable sports networks like ESPN , there were fifteen bowls in 1980 . With more national venues and increased available revenue , the bowls saw an explosive growth throughout the 1980s and 1990s . In the thirty years from 1950 to 1980 , seven bowl games were added to the schedule . From 1980 to 2008 , an additional 20 bowl games were added to the schedule . Some have criticized this growth , claiming that the increased number of games has diluted the significance of playing in a bowl game . Yet others have countered that the increased number of games has increased exposure and revenue for a greater number of schools , and see it as a positive development .
With the growth of bowl games , it became difficult to determine a national champion in a fair and equitable manner . As conferences became contractually bound to certain bowl games ( a situation known as a tie @-@ in ) , match @-@ ups that guaranteed a consensus national champion became increasingly rare . In 1992 , seven conferences and independent Notre Dame formed the Bowl Coalition , which attempted to arrange an annual No.1 versus No.2 matchup based on the final AP poll standings . The Coalition lasted for three years ; however , several scheduling issues prevented much success ; tie @-@ ins still took precedence in several cases . For example , the Big Eight and SEC champions could never meet , since they were contractually bound to different bowl games . The coalition also excluded the Rose Bowl , arguably the most prestigious game in the nation , and two major conferences — the Pac @-@ 10 and Big Ten — meaning that it had limited success . In 1995 , the Coalition was replaced by the Bowl Alliance , which reduced the number of bowl games to host a national championship game to three — the Fiesta , Sugar , and Orange Bowls — and the participating conferences to five — the ACC , SEC , Southwest , Big Eight , and Big East . It was agreed that the No.1 and No.2 ranked teams gave up their prior bowl tie @-@ ins and were guaranteed to meet in the national championship game , which rotated between the three participating bowls . The system still did not include the Big Ten , Pac @-@ 10 , or the Rose Bowl , and thus still lacked the legitimacy of a true national championship .
= = = = Bowl Championship Series = = = =
In 1998 , a new system was put into place called the Bowl Championship Series . For the first time , it included all major conferences ( ACC , Big East , Big 12 , Big Ten , Pac @-@ 10 , and SEC ) and all four major bowl games ( Rose , Orange , Sugar and Fiesta ) . The champions of these six conferences , along with two " at @-@ large " selections , were invited to play in the four bowl games . Each year , one of the four bowl games served as a national championship game . Also , a complex system of human polls , computer rankings , and strength of schedule calculations was instituted to rank schools . Based on this ranking system , the No.1 and No.2 teams met each year in the national championship game . Traditional tie @-@ ins were maintained for schools and bowls not part of the national championship . For example , in years when not a part of the national championship , the Rose Bowl still hosted the Big Ten and Pac @-@ 10 champions .
The system continued to change , as the formula for ranking teams was tweaked from year to year . At @-@ large teams could be chosen from any of the Division I conferences , though only one selection — Utah in 2005 — came from a non @-@ BCS affiliated conference . Starting with the 2006 season , a fifth game — simply called the BCS National Championship Game — was added to the schedule , to be played at the site of one of the four BCS bowl games on a rotating basis , one week after the regular bowl game . This opened up the BCS to two additional at @-@ large teams . Also , rules were changed to add the champions of five additional conferences ( Conference USA , the Mid @-@ American Conference , the Mountain West Conference , the Sun Belt Conference and the Western Athletic Conference ) , provided that said champion ranked in the top twelve in the final BCS rankings , or was within the top 16 of the BCS rankings and ranked higher than the champion of at least one of the " BCS conferences " ( also known as " AQ " conferences , for Automatic Qualifying ) . Several times since this rule change was implemented , schools from non @-@ AQ conferences have played in BCS bowl games . In 2009 , Boise State played TCU in the Fiesta Bowl , the first time two schools from non @-@ BCS conferences played each other in a BCS bowl game . The most recent team from the non @-@ AQ ranks to reach a BCS bowl game was Northern Illinois in 2012 , which played in ( and lost ) the 2013 Orange Bowl .
= = = = College Football Playoff = = = =
Due to the intesification of the College football playoff debate after nearly a decade of the sometimes disputable results of the BCS , the conference commissioners and Notre Dame 's president voted to implement a Plus @-@ One system which was to be called the ' College Football Playoff ' . The College Football Playoff is the annual postseason tournament for the NCAA Division I Football Bowl Subdivision ( FBS ) and just as its predecessors , has failed to receive sanctioning from the NCAA . The playoff began with the 2014 NCAA Division I FBS football season . Four teams play in two semifinal games , and the winners advance to the College Football Playoff National Championship game . The first season of the new system was not without controversy , however , after TCU and Baylor ( both with only one loss ) both failed to receive the support of the College Football Playoff selection committee .
= = Professional football ( 1892 – present ) = =
= = = Early players , teams , and leagues ( 1892 – 1919 ) = = =
In the early 20th century , football began to catch on in the general population of the United States and was the subject of intense competition and rivalry , albeit of a localized nature . Although payments to players were considered unsporting and dishonorable at the time , a Pittsburgh area club , the Allegheny Athletic Association , of the unofficial western Pennsylvania football circuit , surreptitiously hired former Yale All @-@ American guard William " Pudge " Heffelfinger . On November 12 , 1892 , Heffelfinger became the first known professional football player . He was paid $ 500 to play in a game against the Pittsburgh Athletic Club . Heffelfinger picked up a Pittsburgh fumble and ran 35 yards for a touchdown , winning the game 4 – 0 for Allegheny . Although observers held suspicions , the payment remained a secret for years .
On September 3 , 1895 the first wholly professional game was played , in Latrobe , Pennsylvania , between the Latrobe Athletic Association and the Jeannette Athletic Club . Latrobe won the contest 12 – 0 . During this game , Latrobe 's quarterback , John Brallier became the first player to openly admit to being paid to play football . He was paid $ 10 plus expenses to play . In 1897 , the Latrobe Athletic Association paid all of its players for the whole season , becoming the first fully professional football team . In 1898 , William Chase Temple took over the team payments for the Duquesne Country and Athletic Club , a professional football team based in Pittsburgh from 1895 until 1900 , becoming the first known individual football club owner . Later that year , the Morgan Athletic Club , on the South Side of Chicago , was founded . This team later became the Chicago Cardinals , then the St. Louis Cardinals and now is known as the Arizona Cardinals , making them the oldest continuously operating professional football team .
The first known professional football league , known as the National Football League ( not the same as the modern league ) began play in 1902 when several baseball clubs formed football teams to play in the league , including the Philadelphia Athletics , Pittsburgh Pirates and the Philadelphia Phillies . The Pirates ' team the Pittsburgh Stars were awarded the league championship . However , the Philadelphia Football Athletics and Philadelphia Football Phillies also claimed the title . A five @-@ team tournament , known as the World Series of Football was organized by Tom O 'Rouke , the manager of Madison Square Garden . The event featured the first @-@ ever indoor pro football games . The first professional indoor game came on December 29 , 1902 , when the Syracuse Athletic Club defeated the " New York team " 5 – 0 . Syracuse would go on to win the 1902 Series , while the Franklin Athletic Club won the Series in 1903 . The World Series only lasted two seasons .
Charles Follis is believed to be the first black professional football player , having played for the Shelby Steamfitters from 1902 to 1906 . Follis , a two sport athlete , was paid for his work beginning in 1904 .
The game moved west into Ohio , which became the center of professional football during the early decades of the 20th century . Small towns such as Massillon , Akron , Portsmouth , and Canton all supported professional teams in a loose coalition known as the " Ohio League " , the direct predecessor to today 's National Football League . In 1906 the Canton Bulldogs – Massillon Tigers betting scandal became the first major scandal in professional football in the United States . It was the first known case of professional gamblers attempting to fix a professional sport . Although the Massillon Tigers could not prove that the Canton Bulldogs had thrown the second game , the scandal tarnished the Bulldogs ' name and helped ruin professional football in Ohio until the mid @-@ 1910s .
In 1915 , the reformed Canton Bulldogs signed former Olympian and Carlisle Indian School standout Jim Thorpe to a contract . Thorpe became the face of professional football for the next several years and was present at the founding of the National Football League five years later . A disruption in play in 1918 ( due to World War I and flu pandemic ) allowed the New York Pro Football League to pick up some of the Ohio League 's talent ; the NYPFL had coalesced around 1916 , but efforts to challenge the Ohio teams were largely unsuccessful until after the suspension . By 1919 , the Ohio League and the New York league were on relatively equal footing with both each other and with teams clustered around major cities such as Philadelphia , Chicago and Detroit .
= = = Early years of the NFL ( 1920 – 1932 ) = = =
= = = = Formation = = = =
The 1919 expansion of top @-@ level professional football threatened to drastically increase the cost of the game by sparking bidding wars . The various regional circuits determined that forming a league , with enforceable rules , would mitigate these problems .
In 1920 , the American Professional Football Association , was founded , in a meeting at a Hupmobile car dealership in Canton , Ohio . Jim Thorpe was elected the league 's first president . After several more meetings , the league 's membership was formalized . The original teams were :
In its early years the league was little more than a formal agreement between teams to play each other and to declare a champion at season 's end . Teams were still permitted to play non @-@ league members . The 1920 season saw several teams drop out and fail to play through their schedule . Only four teams : Akron , Buffalo , Canton , and Decatur , finished the schedule . Akron claimed the first league champion , with the only undefeated record among the remaining teams .
From its inception in 1920 as a loose coalition of various regional teams , the American Professional Football Association had comparatively few African @-@ American players ; a total of nine black people suited up for NFL teams between 1920 and 1926 , including future attorney , black activist , and internationally acclaimed artist Paul Robeson . Fritz Pollard and Bobby Marshall were the first black players in what is now the NFL in 1920 . Pollard became the first black coach in 1921 .
= = = = Expansion = = = =
In 1921 , several more teams joined the league , increasing the membership to 22 teams . Among the new additions were the Green Bay Packers , which now has the record for longest use of an unchanged team name . Also in 1921 , A. E. Staley , the owner of the Decatur Staleys , sold the team to player @-@ coach George Halas , who went on to become one of the most important figures in the first half century of the NFL . In 1921 , Halas moved the team to Chicago , but retained the Staleys nickname . In 1922 the team was renamed the Chicago Bears . The Staleys won the 1921 AFPA Championship , over the Buffalo All @-@ Americans in an event later referred to as the " Staley Swindle " .
By the mid @-@ 1920s , NFL membership had grown to 25 teams , and a rival league known as the American Football League was formed . The rival AFL folded after a single season , but it symbolized a growing interest in the professional game . Several college stars joined the NFL , most notably Red Grange from the University of Illinois , who was taken on a famous barnstorming tour in 1925 by the Chicago Bears . Another scandal that season centered on a 1925 game between the Chicago Cardinals and the Milwaukee Badgers . The scandal involved a Chicago player , Art Folz , hiring a group of high school football players to play for the Milwaukee Badgers , against the Cardinals . This would ensure an inferior opponent for Chicago . The game was used to help prop up their win @-@ loss percentage and as a chance of wrestling away the 1925 Championship away from the first place Pottsville Maroons . All parties were severely punished initially ; however , a few months later the punishments were rescinded . Also that year a controversial dispute stripped the NFL title from the Maroons and awarded it to the Cardinals .
= = = = 1932 NFL playoff game = = = =
At the end of the 1932 season , the Chicago Bears and the Portsmouth Spartans were tied with the best regular @-@ season records . To determine the champion , the league voted to hold its first playoff game . Because of cold weather , the game was held indoors at Chicago Stadium , which forced some temporary rule changes . Chicago won , 9 – 0 . The playoff proved so popular that the league reorganized into two divisions for the 1933 season , with the winners advancing to a scheduled championship game . A number of new rule changes were also instituted : the goal posts were moved forward to the goal line , every play started from between the hash marks , and forward passes could originate from anywhere behind the line of scrimmage ( instead of the previous five yards behind ) . In 1936 , the NFL instituted the first draft of college players . With the first ever draft selection , the Philadelphia Eagles picked Heisman Trophy winner Jay Berwanger , but he declined to play professionally . Also in that year , another AFL formed , but it also lasted only two seasons .
= = = Stability and growth of the NFL ( 1933 – 1969 ) = = =
The 1930s represented an important time of transition for the NFL . League membership was fluid prior to the mid @-@ 1930s . 1936 was the first year where there were no franchise moves , prior to that year 51 teams had gone defunct . In 1941 , the NFL named its first Commissioner , Elmer Layden . The new office replaced that of President . Layden held the job for five years , before being replaced by Pittsburgh Steelers co @-@ owner Bert Bell in 1946 .
During World War II , a player shortage led to a shrinking of the league as several teams folded and others merged . Among the short @-@ lived merged teams were the Steagles ( Pittsburgh and Philadelphia ) in 1943 , the Card @-@ Pitts ( Chicago Cardinals and Pittsburgh ) in 1944 , and a team formed from the merger of the Brooklyn Dodgers and the Boston Yanks in 1945 .
1946 was an important year in the history of professional football , as that was the year when the league reintegrated . The Los Angeles Rams signed two African American players , Kenny Washington and Woody Strode . Also that year , a competing league , the All @-@ America Football Conference ( AAFC ) , began operation .
During the 1950s , additional teams entered the league . In 1950 , the AAFC folded , and three teams from that league were absorbed into the NFL : the Cleveland Browns ( who had won the AAFC Championship every year of the league 's existence ) , the San Francisco 49ers , and the Baltimore Colts ( not the same as the modern franchise , this version folded after one year ) . The remaining players were chosen by the now 13 NFL teams in a dispersal draft . Also in 1950 , the Los Angeles Rams became the first team to televise its entire schedule , marking the beginning of an important relationship between television and professional football . In 1952 , the Dallas Texans went defunct , becoming the last NFL franchise to do so . The following year a new Baltimore Colts franchise formed to take over the assets of the Texans . The players ' union , known as the NFL Players Association , formed in 1956 .
= = = = The Greatest Game Ever Played = = = =
At the conclusion of the 1958 NFL season , the Baltimore Colts and the New York Giants met at Yankee Stadium to determine the league champion . Tied after 60 minutes of play , it became the first NFL game to go into sudden death overtime . The final score was Baltimore Colts 23 , New York Giants 17 . The game has since become widely known as " the Greatest Game Ever Played " . It was carried live on the NBC television network , and the national exposure it provided the league has been cited as a watershed moment in professional football history , helping propel the NFL to become one of the most popular sports leagues in the United States . Journalist Tex Maule said of the contest , " This , for the first time , was a truly epic game which inflamed the imagination of a national audience . "
= = = = American Football League and merger = = = =
In 1959 , longtime NFL commissioner Bert Bell died of a heart attack while attending an Eagles / Steelers game at Franklin Field . That same year , Dallas , Texas businessman Lamar Hunt led the formation of the rival American Football League , the fourth such league to bear that name , with war hero and former South Dakota Governor Joe Foss as its Commissioner . Unlike the earlier rival leagues , and bolstered by television exposure , the AFL posed a significant threat to NFL dominance of the professional football world . With the exception of Los Angeles and New York , the AFL avoided placing teams in markets where they directly competed with established NFL franchises . In 1960 , the AFL began play with eight teams and a double round @-@ robin schedule of fourteen games . New NFL commissioner Pete Rozelle took office the same year .
The AFL became a viable alternative to the NFL as it made a concerted effort to attract established talent away from the NFL , signing half of the NFL 's first @-@ round draft choices in 1960 . The AFL worked hard to secure top college players , many from sources virtually untapped by the established league : small colleges and predominantly black colleges . Two of the eight coaches of the Original Eight AFL franchises , Hank Stram ( Texans / Chiefs ) and Sid Gillman ( Chargers ) eventually were inducted to the Hall of Fame . Led by Oakland Raiders owner and AFL commissioner Al Davis , the AFL established a " war chest " to entice top talent with higher pay than they got from the NFL . Former Green Bay Packers quarterback Babe Parilli became a star for the Boston Patriots during the early years of the AFL , and University of Alabama passer Joe Namath rejected the NFL to play for the New York Jets . Namath became the face of the league as it reached its height of popularity in the mid @-@ 1960s . Davis 's methods worked , and in 1966 , the junior league forced a partial merger with the NFL . The two leagues agreed to have a common draft and play in a common season @-@ ending championship game , known as the AFL @-@ NFL World Championship . Two years later , the game 's name was changed to the Super Bowl . AFL teams won the next two Super Bowls , and in 1970 , the two leagues merged to form a new 26 @-@ team league . The resulting newly expanded NFL eventually incorporated some of the innovations that led to the AFL 's success , such as including names on player 's jerseys , official scoreboard clocks , national television contracts ( the addition of Monday Night Football gave the NFL broadcast rights on all of the Big Three television networks ) , and sharing of gate and broadcasting revenues between home and visiting teams .
= = = Post @-@ merger NFL ( 1970 – present ) = = =
The NFL continued to grow , eventually adopting some innovations of the AFL , including the two @-@ point conversion . It has expanded several times to its current 32 @-@ team membership , and the Super Bowl has become a cultural phenomena across the United States . One of the most popular televised events annually in the United States , it has become a major source of advertising revenue for the television networks that have carried it and it serves as a means for advertisers to debut elaborate and expensive commercials for their products . The NFL has grown to become the most popular spectator sports league in the United States .
One of the things that have marked the modern NFL as different from other major professional sports leagues is the apparent parity between its 32 teams . While from time to time , dominant teams have arisen , the league has been cited as one of the few where every team has a realistic chance of winning the championship from year to year . The league 's complex labor agreement with its players ' union , which mandates a hard salary cap and revenue sharing between its clubs , prevents the richest teams from stockpiling the best players and gives even teams in smaller cities such as Green Bay and New Orleans the opportunity to compete for the Super Bowl . One of the chief architects of this labor agreement was former NFL commissioner Paul Tagliabue , who presided over the league from 1989 to 2006 . In addition to providing parity between the clubs , the current labor contract , established in 1993 and renewed in 1998 and 2006 , has kept player salaries low — the lowest among the four major league sports in the United States — and has helped make the NFL the only major American professional sports league since 1993 not to suffer any player strike or work stoppage .
Since taking over as commissioner before the 2006 season , Roger Goodell has made player conduct a priority of his office . Since taking office , several high @-@ profile players have experienced trouble with the law , from Adam " Pacman " Jones to Michael Vick . In these and other cases , Commissioner Goodell has mandated lengthy suspensions for players who fall outside of acceptable conduct limits . Goodell , however , has remained a largely unpopular figure to many of the league 's fans , who perceive him attempting to change the NFL 's identity and haphazardly damage the sport .
= = = = Other professional leagues = = = =
Minor professional leagues such as the original United Football League , Atlantic Coast Football League , Seaboard Football League and Continental Football League existed in abundance in the 1960s and early 1970s , to varying degrees of success .
Several other professional football leagues have been formed since the AFL @-@ NFL merger , though none have had the success of the AFL . In 1974 , the World Football League formed and was able to attract such stars as Larry Csonka away from the NFL with lucrative contracts . However , most of the WFL franchises were insolvent and the league folded in 1975 ; the Memphis Southmen , the team that had signed Csonka and the most financially stable of the teams , unsuccessfully sued to join the NFL .
In 1970 , Patricia Barzi Palinkas became the first woman to ever play on a men 's semipro football team when she joined the Orlando Panthers of the Atlantic Coast league . In 1974 , the National Women 's Football League was founded , starting play with 7 teams .
In 1982 , the United States Football League formed as a spring league , and enjoyed moderate success during its first two seasons behind such stars as Jim Kelly and Herschel Walker . After its spring 1985 season , the league , which lost a considerable amount of money due to overspending on players , opted to gamble on moving its schedule to fall in 1986 and filing a billion @-@ dollar antitrust lawsuit against the NFL and its television partners in an effort to stay afloat . When the lawsuit only drew a three @-@ dollar judgment days before the fall 1986 season was to begin , the USFL folded .
The NFL founded a developmental league known as the World League of American Football with teams based in the United States , Canada , and Europe . The WLAF ran for two years , from 1991 to 1992 . Its successor , the all @-@ European NFL Europe League , ran from 1995 to 2007 .
In 2001 , the XFL was formed as a joint venture between the World Wrestling Federation and the NBC television network . It folded after one season in the face of rapidly declining fan interest and a poor reputation . However , XFL stars such as Tommy Maddox and Rod " He Hate Me " Smart later saw success in the NFL .
The United Football League was a four @-@ team fully professional league which played its first season in October – November 2009 . The UFL was beset with numerous financial problems , some of which stemmed from the inability to sell television rights , insufficient ticket revenue and insurmountable expenses . Midway through its fourth season , the league abruptly shut down , after which several dozen former players and coaches sued to recover unpaid salaries ; all remaining teams had folded and shut down their offices by March , 2013 . The Fall Experimental Football League , which played two abbreviated seasons as an explicitly minor professional league in 2014 and 2015 .
= = Youth and high school football ( 1863 – present ) = =
Football is a popular participatory sport among youth . One of the earliest youth football organizations was founded in Philadelphia , in 1929 , as the Junior Football Conference . Organizer Joe Tomlin started the league to provide activities and guidance for teenage boys who were vandalizing the factory he owned . The original four @-@ team league expanded to sixteen teams in 1933 when Pop Warner , who had just been hired as the new coach of the Temple University football team , agreed to give a lecture to the boys in the league . In his honor , the league was renamed the Pop Warner Conference .
Today , Pop Warner Little Scholars — as the program is now known — enrolls over 300 @,@ 000 young boys and girls ages 5 – 16 in over 5000 football and cheerleading squads , and has affiliate programs in Mexico and Japan . Other organizations , such as the Police Athletic League , Upward , and the National Football League 's NFL Youth Football Program also manage various youth football leagues .
Football is a popular sport for high schools in the United States . The National Federation of State High School Associations ( NFHS ) was founded in 1920 as an umbrella organization for state @-@ level organizations that manage high school sports , including high school football . The NFHS publishes the rules followed by most local high school football associations . More than 13 @,@ 000 high schools participate in football , and in some places high school teams play in stadiums that rival college @-@ level facilities . In Denton , Texas , for example , a 12 @,@ 000 seat , $ 21 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 stadium hosts two local high school football teams . The growth of high school football and its impact on small town communities has been documented by landmark non @-@ fiction works such as the 1990 book Friday Night Lights and the subsequent fictionalized film and television series .
= = American football outside the United States ( 1874 – present ) = =
American football has been played outside the US since the 1920s and accelerated in popularity after World War II , especially in countries with large numbers of U.S. military personnel , who often formed a substantial proportion of the players and spectators .
In 1998 , the International Federation of American Football , was formed to coordinate international amateur competition . At present , 45 associations from the Americas , Europe , Asia and Oceania are organized within the IFAF , which claims to represent 23 million amateur athletes . The IFAF , which is based in Paris , France , organizes the quadrennial American Football World Cup .
A long @-@ term goal of the IFAF is for American football to be accepted by the International Olympic Committee as an Olympic sport . The only time that the sport was played was at the 1932 Summer Olympics in Los Angeles , but as a demonstration sport . Among the various problems the IFAF has to solve in order to be accepted by the IOC are building a competitive women 's division , expanding the sport into Africa , and overcoming the current worldwide competitive imbalance that is in favor of American teams .
= = Similar codes of football = =
Other codes of football share a common history with American football . Canadian football is a form of the game that evolved parallel to American football . While both games share a common history , there are some important differences between the two . A more modern sport that derives from American football is Arena football , designed to be played indoors inside of hockey or basketball arenas . The game was invented in 1981 by Jim Foster and the Arena Football League was founded in 1987 as the first major professional league to play the sport . Several other indoor football leagues have since been founded and continue to play today .
American football 's parent sport of rugby continued to evolve . Today , two distinct codes known as rugby union and rugby league are played throughout the world . Since the two codes split following a schism on how the sport should be managed in 1895 , the history of rugby league and the history of rugby union have evolved separately . Both codes have adopted innovations parallel to the American game ; the rugby union scoring system is almost identical to the American game , while rugby league uses a gridiron @-@ style field and a six @-@ tackle rule similar to the system of downs in American Football .
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= Thomas de Buittle =
Thomas de Buittle [ Butil , Butill , Butyll , Butyl , Bucyl ] ( died c . 1420 – 1422 ) was a Scottish prelate , clerk and papal auditor active in the late 14th and early 15th centuries . Probably originating in Galloway , Scotland , Thomas took a university career in canon law in England and France , before taking up service at the court of Avignon Pope Benedict XIII . He obtained a number of benefices in the meantime , including the position of Archdeacon of Galloway , and is the earliest known and probably first provost of the collegiate church of Maybole . The height of his career came however when the Pope provided him to the bishopric of Galloway , a position he held from 1415 until his death sometime between 1420 and 1422 .
= = Background and education = =
Thomas ' name suggests a strong likelihood that he came from Buittle in Kirkcudbrightshire , Galloway , lands in the control of the Douglas family . In 1388 , it was claimed that he had been a scholar of Decrees ( i.e. Canon law ) at the University of Oxford for five years , a claim to some extent confirmed by the grant of safe @-@ conduct from the English crown on 18 February 1380 , to travel and study at Oxford for a year .
By 18 April 1390 , he had obtained a Bachelor 's degree ( in Decrees ) from the University of Avignon ; he appears in the Avignon university student rolls on 9 August 1393 and again on 21 October 1394 . Thomas had obtained a doctorate ( in Decrees ) sometime between 15 July 1401 and 9 June 1410 . He witnessed Bishop Henry de Wardlaw 's foundation charter of the University of St Andrews on 28 February 1412 and was named in the grant of privileges made to the new university by Pope Benedict XIII on 28 August 1413 .
= = First provost of Maybole = =
On 1 February 1388 , a letter from Avignon Pope Clement VII to the official of the diocese of Glasgow says that Thomas " holds the provostship of the chapel of St Mary de Mayboyl , Glasgow diocese , which is a simple benefice without cure " . The collegiate church of Maybole was founded under the patronage of John Kennedy , Lord of Dunure , a short time before 2 February 1382 , when a mandate was issued by the papacy confirming its erection . A year previously the Lord of Dunure had founded a chapel to St Mary beside the parish church of Maybole , and the erection established a provost , two chaplains and a clerk . Thomas de Buittle held the vicarage there . It is possible that Thomas was the senior priest there when it was erected into a collegiate church ; Thomas is certainly the earliest known provost , and neither the appointment nor the death of any predecessor are noted anywhere .
He held the vicarage of Lochrutton in Kirkcudbrightshire in 1388 , when a papal letter indicated that he was expected to resign Lochrutton after obtaining the benefice of Maybole in the gift of the Prioress of the nunnery of North Berwick . He still held Lochrutton on 18 April 1390 , when the letter was repeated . Thomas remained provost of Maybole until at least 1401 , and perhaps until his consecration as Bishop of Galloway in 1415 . No @-@ one else is known to have held the position of provost there until 1439 , although this proves nothing as the evidence for such things in the south @-@ west of Scotland in this period is always scarce .
= = Archdeacon of Galloway = =
On 2 March 1391 , Thomas was provided by the papacy to be Archdeacon of Galloway . On 23 May a mandate was sent to the senior clergy of the bishopric of Glasgow authorising them to collate Thomas to the archdeaconry of Galloway , at that point occupied " unlawfully " by Patrick Smerles ; the mandate gave dispensation for Thomas to retain control of both the provostship of Maybole and the vicarage of Lochrutton . He was still litigating with Smerles on 9 August 1393 , by which point in time he had resigned Lochrutton ; he was in firm possession of the archdeaconry by 21 October 1394 . During his time as Archdeacon of Galloway , the church of Penninghame was annexed as a prebend of the office .
= = Papal career and other benefices = =
He resigned the vicarage of Maybole through a proxy ( Patrick de Houston ) at the papal court on 16 February 1398 , in exchange with Gilbert Adounane for the church of Kirkcolm in Wigtownshire . Sweetheart Abbey , overlords of Kirkholm parish , dispossessed him briefly of this benefice , but Thomas obtained papal restitution in a papal mandate dated 13 October 1410 . He got papal provision on 5 December 1412 , to the politically important vicarage of Dundonald in Kyle , but this was unfruitful as the previous vicar turned out still to be alive . Presumably in its place he obtained the vicarage of Abernyte in the diocese of Dunkeld on 30 January 1413 , but despite promising annates , failed to obtain possession .
He did however successfully obtain provision to the church of Kinkell in the diocese of Aberdeen , and the prebend of Inverkeithny in the diocese of Moray with its associated canonry in Elgin Cathedral . As Thomas seems to have spent most of the early 15th century outside Scotland in the employment of the papacy , these positions were probably given to supplement Thomas ' income . When he was in Scotland in February 1412 witnessing the foundation charter of St Andrews University , he was said to hold to elevated post of " auditor of the sacred apostolic palace " . He had returned to Pope Benedict 's court in Spain later in the same year , and can be found conducting various business there over the next few years , both for the papacy and as a proctor for people in Scotland .
= = Bishop of Galloway = =
As a reward for his service to the " Avignon Pope " , now only recognised in Scotland , Sicily , Aragon and Castile , Thomas was provided to the bishopric of Galloway following the death of Elisaeus Adougan , the previous bishop . This occurred on 14 June 1415 . Although the local chapter had elected one Gilbert Cavan , a clerk of the Earl of Douglas , to fill this position , Benedict overturned this election and put Thomas there instead . This probably occurred against the will of the Douglas family , to whom Cavan was a senior clerk . Thomas resigned the archdeaconry of Galloway , with Gilbert Cavan succeeding him there . Presumably in compensation , Gilbert also received Thomas ' previous holdings in the dioceses of Moray and Aberdeen . It had been supposed by some authorities that Thomas supported the capitulation of Narbonne , renounced his allegiance to Pope Benedict and supported the adherence to the Council of Constance in December 1415 , but this is based on a misreading of the evidence .
It is not clear that , with possible Douglas opposition , Thomas obtained possession of the bishopric smoothly . There is a mandate , dated 5 September 1415 , to the subdean of Glasgow Cathedral , ordering the latter to protect " Thomas and his successors in possession of the lands and heredities of Innermasan , Dyrmor , Innysmocrinyl , Kykkenot , Mirtum and Nicoltum in Candida Casa [ i.e. Whithorn ] diocese ... which are being molested " . No more of such problems are heard . Thomas is next found testifying to an inspeximus at Perth on 17 March 1416 . This was made by Bishop Henry de Wardlaw of St Andrews on the request of the Council of Constance , a sign of the waning loyalty in Scotland and perhaps in Thomas to the Avignon papacy . Bishop Thomas appears to have been suffering ailing health by 1420 . In this year he failed to attend a provincial council of the Scottish church at Perth , although he did sent a proctor . He died at some point between 16 July 1420 ( date of the council ) and 4 December 1422 , when Alexander Vaus , Bishop of Caithness , was translated to be Thomas ' successor as Bishop of Galloway . Professor Donald Watt believes that his death probably occurred sometime in 1422 .
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= Anna Maria Rückerschöld =
Anna Maria Rückerschöld ( 5 February 1725 – 25 May 1805 ) , born Rücker , was a Swedish author who wrote several popular books on housekeeping and cooking in the late 18th and early 19th century . She was an advocate of women 's right to a good education in household matters and propagated this view in public debate through an anonymous letter in 1770 . Along with Cajsa Warg and other female cookbook authors , she was an influential figure in culinary matters in early modern Sweden .
= = Biography = =
Rückerschöld was born in 1725 . She was the daughter of Emerentia Polhem and Reinhold Rücker , a judge of the local hundred who was employed at the high court in Stockholm . She grew up in Stjärnsund and Hedemora , being one of ten children in the family , seven girls and three boys . The family was not part of the nobility , but belonged to the upper echelons of society and the father was eventually knighted in 1751 , the same year as he died . Reinhold Rücker spent much time away from the home while working in Stockholm , leaving his wife to run the household . Rückerschöld was the granddaughter of inventor and industrialist Christopher Polhem and spent part of her childhood with her grandfather at his estate at Stjernsund . When Rückerschöld was twelve , her three brothers were sent to be educated at the prestigious Uppsala University . The seven sisters remained in Hedemora without receiving any formal education , which was the customary upbringing of girls at the time .
In 1750 Rückerschöld married Jonas Jakobsson Dahl , an accountant employed by the high court in Stockholm . Dahl was educated at Uppsala University and was the son of a factory owner . Rückerschöld kept her maiden name throughout her life , changing it only after her father was knighted in 1751 and -schöld ( " shield " ) was added to his last name . Rückerschöld was 25 years old when she married and Dahl 33 , eight years her senior . The couple had their first child , Emerentia , in 1751 , and moved to Sätra gård in modern @-@ day Upplands Väsby , north of Stockholm in 1760 . Rückerschöld gave birth to three more children between 1759 and 1765 , Maria , Fredrica and Christopher . A fourth child , Chierstin , died only seven hours after her birth . The other three children reached adulthood . Emerentia married a lawspeaker in Småland while her sister Maria Fredrica remained a spinster . Christopher went to sea , but was never heard from after that . The family moved from Sätra gård to Stockholm . The earliest record of their residence in Stockholm is from 1775 , and the couple remained there the rest of their lives . Both parents survived their children ; Dahl died in 1796 and Rückerschöld nine years later , in 1805 , at the age of 80 .
= = Public debate = =
Rückerschöld is best known for her books on cooking and household work , but it has also been established that she wrote an article advocating household education for women . In February 1770 a letter with the title " Det Olyckliga Swenska Fruentimrets Böneskrift till Allmänheten " ( " The unhappy Swedish woman 's entreaty to the general public " ) appeared in the periodical Almänna Magazinet written by Fru D * * , " Mrs D * * " ( likely " Mrs Dahl " ) . The letter has been attributed to Rückerschiöld since it is known that she wrote a letter to Carl Christopher Gjörwell , publisher of Almänna Magazinet and other papers , only a few weeks later . In the letter she is grateful to Gjörwell for having one of her writings published , and expresses her wish that she would " live to see even the smallest amendment to the suggestions that I have ventured to adhort for the benefit of my sex " .
The article was published during a period of intense public debate . Freedom of press had been established in 1766 and encouraged people to give their suggestions on how to improve Swedish society . Economy , emigration , agriculture and education were hotly debated issues , as well as the problematic situation for unmarried middle class women . Without a spouse a woman in 18th century Sweden could have great difficulty supporting herself , especially as lower ranking servants were often promoted to maids and thereby lowering the number of employment opportunities for unmarried women .
Rückerschöld defended the " natural " division between male and female spheres of work , but also advocated schools for women where they could be taught household duties , such as cooking , sowing and basic household economics . She believed the need for practical household knowledge should have priority over social skills intended to please , such as knowledge of music , embroidery and art . Through allegories , the letter expressed Rückerschöld 's view on the relationship between the sexes , and her passionate concern for the well @-@ being of her fellow women . She attempted to illustrate the gravity of the situation by comparing the plight of women with that of Philomela , a character in Greek mythology who was raped by her sister 's husband and then had her tongue cut out to prevent her from speaking about the deed . She eventually managed to expose the husband by painstakingly explaining her story through embroidery .
Her passionate advocacy for the right of contemporary middle @-@ class women to a solid education in housekeeping has led journalist and writer Ingrid Ärlemalm to describe Rückerschöld as a " cautious feminist " . In the letter in Allmänna Magazinet , she also shows signs of being well @-@ read and familiar with contemporary literature on pedagogy with quotes from François Fénelon 's Traité de l 'education des filles ( " Treatise on the Education of Girls " ) , which had been published in Swedish translation 1762 . Like Rückerschöld , Fénelon strongly advocated household education to for young women .
= = Housekeeping and cooking = =
In 1785 , fifteen years after she wrote her plea for female household education , Rückerschöld published En Liten Hushålls @-@ Bok ( " A Small Household Book " ) . It was published in her own name , and contains various practical advice on efficient household management ; cooking , cleaning , washing , brewing , butchering , etc . Rückerschöld was influenced by the mercantilistic economic ideas of her time , and advised readers to take better advantage of local produce , such as berries and mushrooms and using locally available products in favor of imports , such as substitution of wine with juice or vinegar made from homegrown fruit . There are few actual recipes for cooking , and all of them describe more everyday dishes such as simpler porridge and soup . For more refined cooking , Rückerschöld recommended other contemporary cookbooks , of which Cajsa Warg 's is described as the foremost .
The book proved to be popular enough to be printed in two more editions and in 1796 Rückerschöld 's first genuine cookbook was published , Den Nya och Fullständiga Kok @-@ Boken ( " The New and Complete Cookbook " ) . It was far larger than her previous work , over 300 pages , and included recipes for more refined dishes . Nevertheless , Rückerschöld tried to hold fast to her frugal ideals . In the foreword to the book , she described Cajsa Wargs cookbook as being too extravagant , though this is partially excused because it was written in a time of more abundance and by an author used to the lavish resources of a wealthy kitchen . In the book Rückerschöld continued to promote her goal that all women should be skilled homemakers and cooks ; without such knowledge , they would not be able to fulfill their duties as women . Other than recommendations in the foreword , the book also contained a short chapter with descriptions of fictitious housewives that served as warning examples about neglecting housework in favor of beautification , reading , religion , or doing the chores of the servants . The ideal housewife is embodied only by the final example , Beningnia . By being humble , studious and knowledgeable , and being first to rise and last to go to bed , she becomes " the pride of her husband , pinnacle of the household , joy of servants , delight of friends , assuager of the poor , solace of the inconsolable , haven of the oppressed , and , finally , the envy of mean @-@ spirited neighbors " .
Before her death , Rückerschöld would write two more books on the topic of housekeeping and cooking : Fattig Mans Wisthus och Kök , ( " Poor Man 's Larder and Kitchen " ) and En Liten Hushålls @-@ Cateches ( " A Small Household Catechism " ) . The first book was published in 1796 , and aimed for a broader readership than the previous books . This included not just modest urban households , but also peasant wives who made up the majority of the population in Sweden at the time . Again Rückerschöld stressed the importance that women know proper housekeeping skills , and urged them to take good care of the household economy to keep incompetent husbands from wrecking the family budget . Other than directions for simple dishes , there was money @-@ saving strategies like baking one 's own bread or cooperating with neighbors to buy larger quantities of food at lower prices . In the book Rückerschöld portrays herself as going on inspection in a peasant household , being shown the barn , larder , vegetable garden , etc . , and having suggestions for improvements everywhere . Fattig Mans Wisthus och Kök was awarded a silver medal by Patriotiska Sällskapet ( " The Patriotic Society " ) for being the first cookbook written for poorer households . Twenty years earlier , the society had issued a challenge with this aim , but no one before Rückerschöld had managed to write such a book . In 1797 , one year after the book was first published , a second edition came out .
En Liten Hushålls @-@ Cateches came out in 1800 and was only 43 pages long . In her last book Rückerschöld repeated her previous stances about the importance of knowing household skills , and that girls should be allowed to partake in household work from an early age rather than being pampered and taught impractical skills . While stressing that a woman 's God @-@ given station was in the home and that she should be accustomed to humility and obedience , she also encouraged women to take matters in their own hands ; the lack of household education could only be alleviated by sharing information and passing on knowledge from one generation to the other .
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= Imagination ( magazine ) =
Imagination was an American fantasy and science fiction magazine first published in October 1950 by Raymond Palmer 's Clark Publishing Company . The magazine was sold almost immediately to Greenleaf Publishing Company , owned by William Hamling , who published and edited it from the third issue , February 1951 , for the rest of the magazine 's life . Hamling launched a sister magazine , Imaginative Tales , in 1954 ; both ceased publication at the end of 1958 in the aftermath of major changes in US magazine distribution due to the liquidation of American News Company .
The magazine was more successful than most of the numerous science fiction titles launched in the late 1940s and early 1950s , lasting a total of 63 issues . Despite this success , the magazine had a reputation for low @-@ quality space opera and adventure fiction , and modern literary historians refer to it in dismissive terms . Hamling consciously adopted an editorial policy oriented toward entertainment , asserting in an early issue that " science fiction was never meant to be an educational tour de force " . Few of the stories from Imagination have received recognition , but it did publish Robert Sheckley 's first professional sale , " Final Examination " , in the May 1952 issue , and also printed fiction by Philip K. Dick , Robert A. Heinlein and John Wyndham .
= = History = =
American science fiction magazines first appeared in the 1920s with the appearance of Amazing Stories , a pulp magazine published by Hugo Gernsback . The beginnings of science fiction as a separately marketed genre can be traced to this time , and by the end of the 1930s the field was undergoing its first boom , but World War II and its attendant paper shortages led to the demise of several titles . By the late 1940s the market began to recover again . From a low of eight active magazines in 1946 , the field expanded to 20 in 1950 , and a further 22 had commenced publication by 1954 . Imagination was launched in the middle of this publishing boom .
The groundwork was laid in 1947 , when Clark Publishing , the company that would publish the first issue of Imagination , was incorporated in Evanston , Illinois , by Raymond Palmer . He worked for Ziff @-@ Davis as the editor of Amazing Stories and did not leave until the end of 1949 , but he launched two magazines under the Clark name before that date : Fate , in the spring of 1948 , and Other Worlds , the first issue of which was dated November 1949 . Both of these magazines listed their editor as " Robert N. Webster " , a pseudonym Palmer adopted while he was still at Ziff @-@ Davis because of the conflict of interest . The second issue of Other Worlds reported that Webster and Palmer were going to edit together ; by the third issue , dated March 1950 , the pretense had been dropped and although there was no masthead listing the editor , the editorial was simply signed " Rap " ( for " Raymond A. Palmer " ) . At the 1949 World Science Fiction Convention in Cincinnati , held over the weekend of 3 – 5 September , Palmer announced that he had left Ziff @-@ Davis and described his plans for Clark Publishing . He also met and hired Bea Mahaffey , a 21 @-@ year @-@ old science fiction fan attending her first convention , as his assistant editor .
With Fate and Other Worlds launched , Palmer began to plan for a new magazine , to be called Imagination . Material for the first two issues had been assembled by mid @-@ 1950 , but in the early summer Palmer fell down his basement stairs and was left paralyzed from the waist down . While he was hospitalized , much of the work of editing both Other Worlds and Imagination was done by Mahaffey , who coped well , despite her inexperience . An assistant , Marge Budwig Saunder , was hired to read the slush pile and help out . The magazine 's first issue , dated October 1950 on a planned bi @-@ monthly schedule , appeared on news stands 1 August 1950 . However , in September that year , Ziff @-@ Davis made the decision to move to New York from Chicago ; Palmer promptly contacted William Hamling , who did not want to relocate and suggested that Hamling take over Imagination . Like Palmer , Hamling had made preparations to leave Ziff @-@ Davis by establishing a separate publishing company , Greenleaf Publishing , and in November 1950 Hamling left Ziff @-@ Davis and became Imagination 's editor and publisher .
In 1954 Hamling started a companion magazine , Imaginative Tales ; in addition , his company Greenleaf Publishing was the publisher of Rogue , a men 's magazine modelled after Playboy . In 1957 the liquidation of American News Company , a major distributor , meant that many magazines had to scramble to find new distributors . Independent distributors often required that the magazines be monthly , and that they be in a larger format than the digest @-@ size common in science fiction magazines . The larger format required higher revenue to be profitable , but in many cases it proved impossible to attract the additional advertising income that would have kept the magazines afloat . By the end of 1958 , many titles had disappeared as a result , with Imagination one of the victims ; Hamling closed down both Imagination and its sister magazine to invest the money in Rogue instead . The last issue of Imagination was October 1958 , the 63rd issue , while Imaginative Tales , retitled Space Travel , ceased with the November 1958 issue . There was no indication in either magazine that the end had come , though the last issue of Imagination omitted its letter , book review and pen @-@ pal columns , all of which had appeared regularly in prior issues .
Circulation figures were not required to be published annually until the 1960s , so the actual circulation figures are not known . For comparison , the more successful Magazine of Fantasy and Science Fiction , which had been launched the previous year , is known to have had a circulation of just under 60 @,@ 000 copies for its first issue , dated Fall 1949 .
= = Contents and reception = =
The cover story for the first issue was " The Soul Stealers " by Chester S. Geier , a regular in the Ziff @-@ Davis magazines Amazing Stories and Fantastic Adventures . The story was a science fantasy tale of Leeta , a beautiful woman from another dimension stealing the souls of men to try to save her father . The cover illustration , by Hannes Bok , showed Leeta on her flying steed . Other contributors included Rog Phillips , another prolific magazine author , and Kris Neville , whose first story had been published only the year before . Neville 's work appeared regularly in the first few years of the magazine ; other prolific contributors included Dwight V. Swain , Daniel F. Galouye and Milton Lesser . Edmond Hamilton 's work also appeared frequently towards the end of the magazine 's life . The magazine often contained a long novel as the lead attraction .
In addition to less well @-@ known regulars , some more prominent writers occasionally appeared . Ray Bradbury 's " The Fire Balloons " was published in the April 1951 issue , under the title " ' … In This Sign ' " ; the story was later incorporated into Bradbury 's fixups , The Martian Chronicles and The Illustrated Man . Robert Sheckley 's first story , " Final Examination " , appeared in the May 1952 issue . Other well @-@ known authors who were published in Imagination include Poul Anderson , John Wyndham ( as " John Beynon " ) , James Blish , Philip K. Dick , Harlan Ellison , Robert A. Heinlein , Frederik Pohl and Robert Silverberg .
Imagination is generally thought of by historians of science fiction as one of the weaker magazines of the 1950s , despite its relative longevity . Donald Tuck , in his Encyclopedia of Science Fiction and Fantasy , dismissed the novels it published , saying , " not many were noteworthy , most being in the interplanetary / space opera / adventure field " , and Brian Stableford , a science fiction writer and critic , described it as dealing " primarily in routine space opera . " James Blish , writing under the pseudonym " William Atheling , Jr . " , which he used for some of his critical writing , remarked that it was a " widely unread " magazine . Hamling 's editorial policy was consciously slanted against intellectualism . In the November 1951 issue he commented that " science fiction was never meant to be an educational tour de force . The so @-@ called adult story is nothing more than an attempt to show the reader how dumb he is and how smart the editor is . " Imagination 's approach , he said , was to publish entertainment : " What we need is a little relaxation . And entertaining reading is one way to get it . " Some readers agreed with Hamling ; a 1952 issue of Rhodomagnetic Digest , a fanzine , contains approving commentary on Hamling 's editorial by Gregg Calkins , a fan of the period .
Starting with the April 1951 issue , a regular column on science fiction fandom began , titled " Fandora 's Box " . It was written by Mari Wolf , an active fan , for five years , and was taken over by Robert Bloch from June 1956 through the end . The column had an excellent reputation , and was one of the few such columns in the professional magazines . Every issue carried an editorial , and a letter column appeared in every issue but the very last . A book review column began in June 1953 , and appeared in every issue except the last one . It was initially by Mark Reinsberg , and was taken over by Henry Bott in May 1954 after two months in which both reviewers contributed to the column . A " Cosmic Pen Club " column , where fans could post requests for pen @-@ pals , began in February 1957 ; as with the book reviews it appeared regularly , excepting only the last issue . Beginning in September 1951 , the inside front cover was often used for an " Introducing the Author " feature , with short pieces by and about a writer or artist who appeared in the issue . These included photographs of the authors in question , a feature not typically found in other magazines . Among the better @-@ known authors featured were Heinlein , Evan Hunter and Philip K. Dick . " Introducing the Author " skipped four issues from October 1954 to January 1955 , and ceased altogether with the April 1956 issue . One issue , May 1953 , included pictures from that year 's World Science Fiction in Chicago , rather than a feature about an author . The most frequently appearing cover artists were Harold W. McCauley , Lloyd Rognan , Malcolm Smith and William Terry .
= = Bibliographic details = =
Imagination was digest size ( 7 @.@ 5 × 5 @.@ 5 inches or 19 @.@ 1 × 14 @.@ 0 cm ) for its first 17 issues , and then shrank slightly to a short digest size ( 7 @.@ 25 × 5 @.@ 5 inches or 18 @.@ 4 × 14 @.@ 0 cm ) for the rest of its run , a further 46 issues . The volume number rose by one at the start of each calendar year , regardless of the number of issues . Volume 1 , 1950 , contained only two issues ; subsequent volumes contained five to twelve issues , depending on frequency of publication . The overall issue number was printed on the spine ( an unusual practice ) along with the volume number . The first issue had a publication date of October 1950 , and the schedule was bimonthly through the September 1952 issue except that June 1951 was followed by September 1951 . The next four issues were dated October 1952 , December 1952 , January 1953 and February 1953 , and then a monthly run began with April 1953 that lasted without a break until the July 1955 issue . The next issue was October 1955 , which inaugurated another bimonthly period that ran with perfect regularity until the last issue , October 1958 . The price remained at 35 cents throughout .
The title of the magazine was initially " Imagination : Stories of Science and Fantasy " ; it changed with the October 1955 issue to " Imagination : Science Fiction " , though this change was only on the cover and spine and was never reflected on the masthead .
The first 28 issues were 166 pages long . The page count dropped to 134 with the April 1954 issue and stayed at that length for the remainder of the run . The cover layout initially strongly resembled that of Other Worlds but was changed with the fifth issue , June 1951 , to have a white background banner for the title . This format was retained for the rest of the magazine 's life , with occasional slight variations such as using a different color for the banner background . The spine also changed from a colored spine with pale lettering , which was similar to the spine style used by Other Worlds , to a white spine with red or blue lettering .
The publisher was Clark Publishing Company for the first two issues . The editor for those issues was Raymond Palmer , but as he was hospitalized much of the work was done by Bea Mahaffey . As a result , these two issues are sometimes indexed with Mahaffey as editor . With the third issue , Greenleaf Publishing Company became the publisher and William Hamling took over as editor , a position he retained throughout the magazine 's life .
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= Adventure ( Atari 2600 ) =
Adventure is a video game for the Atari 2600 video game console , released in ca. late 1979 – 1980 . In the game , the player controls a square avatar whose quest is to explore an open world environment to find a magical chalice and return it to the golden castle . The game world is populated by roaming enemies : three dragons that can eat the avatar and a bat that randomly steals and hides items around the game world . Adventure introduced a number of innovative game elements to console games , including a playing area that spanned several different screens and enemies that continued to move even when not displayed on the screen .
Adventure was conceived as a graphical version of the 1977 text adventure Colossal Cave Adventure . It took developer Warren Robinett approximately one year to design and code the game , during which time he had to overcome a variety of technical limitations in the Atari 2600 console hardware , as well as difficulties with management within Atari . In this game , he introduced the first widely known video game Easter egg , a secret room containing text crediting himself for the game 's creation . Robinett 's Easter egg became a tradition for future Atari 2600 titles .
Adventure received mostly positive reviews at the time of its release and has continued to be viewed positively in the decades since , often named as one of the industry 's influential titles . It is considered the first action @-@ adventure and console fantasy game , and inspired other titles in the genres . More than one million cartridges of Adventure were sold , and the game has been included in numerous Atari 2600 game collections for modern computer hardware . The game 's prototype code was used as the basis for the 1979 Superman game , and a planned sequel eventually formed the basis for the Swordquest games . The Easter egg concept pioneered by the game has transcended video games and entered popular culture .
= = Gameplay = =
In Adventure , the player 's goal is to recover the Enchanted Chalice that an evil magician has stolen and hidden in the kingdom and return it to the Golden Castle . The kingdom includes two other castles ( White and Black ) and various obstacles and mazes within them . Further , the kingdom is guarded by three dragons : Yorgle ( yellow dragon ) , Grundle ( green dragon ) , and Rhindle ( red dragon who moves much faster than the other two ) , that protect various items in the game and will try to chase and eat the player 's avatar . There is also a bat that can roam across the kingdom freely , carrying a single item ( which can include the player 's avatar or a dragon ) around ; the bat was to be named Knubberrub but the name did not make it into the manual . The bat has two states , agitated and non @-@ agitated ; when in the agitated state , the bat will either pick up or swap what it currently carries with an object in the present room , eventually returning to the non @-@ agitated state where it will not pick up an object . The bat continues to fly around even if not present on the player 's current screen and may continue moving or swapping around objects .
The player 's avatar is represented by a simple square shape that can move within and between rooms , each represented by a single screen . While Robinett originally intended for all rooms to be bidirectionally connected , a few such connections ( including one inside the White Castle ) were unidirectional , which he considered to be bugs . Such problems were explained away as " bad magic " in the game 's manual . The player 's goal is to find objects to help defeat the dragons and recover the Chalice . These include various keys that open the castles , a magnet that pulls items towards the player , a magic bridge that the player can use to cross certain obstacles , and a sword which can be used to defeat the dragons . Only one object can be carried at a time . The player can be eaten by a dragon if it is caught in its " bite " cycle , at which point the avatar is stuck in the dragon 's stomach . At this point , the player can opt to restore their avatar 's life instead of completely restarting the game , reappearing at the Golden Castle while leaving all objects where they were last left , but this will also regenerate any dragon previously killed as well . The ability to reset the player 's avatar without resetting the entire game is considered the first known " continue game " option in video games .
The game offers three different skill levels . Level 1 is the easiest , as it uses a simplified room layout missing one of the castles and one of the mazes , and doesn 't include the bat and one of the dragons . Level 2 is the full version of the game , with the various objects appearing in set positions at the start of the game . Level 3 is similar to Level 2 , but the location of the objects is randomized to provide a more challenging game . In addition , the player can use the difficulty switches on the Atari 2600 to further control the game 's difficulty by affecting the behavior of the dragons : one switch controls the dragons ' bite speed , and one causes them to flee when the player is wielding the sword .
= = Development = =
Adventure was published by the developer of the 2600 console , Atari , Inc , and programmed by Atari employee Warren Robinett . At the time , Atari programmers were generally given full control on the creative direction and development cycle for their games , but this required them to plan for their next game as they neared completion of their current one to stay productive . Robinett was finishing his work on Slot Racers when he was given an opportunity to visit the Stanford Artificial Intelligence Laboratory by Julius Smith , one of several friends he was sharing a house with . There , he was introduced to the 1977 version of the computer text game Colossal Cave Adventure , created by Will Crowther and modified by Don Woods . After playing the game for several hours , he was inspired to create a graphical version of the game . Adventure was named after Colossal Cave Adventure .
Robinett began designing the graphics @-@ based game , loosely based on the text game , on a Hewlett @-@ Packard 1611A microprocessor computer around May to June 1978 . Robinett was aware early on that memory use was going to be critical : Atari 2600 cartridges had room for only 4096 bytes ( 4 KB ) on the cartridge ROM , and 128 bytes for program variables in the 2600 's RAM ; in contrast , Colossal Cave Adventure took over hundreds of kilobytes of memory . The final game used nearly all of the available memory ( including 5 % of the cartridge storage for Robinett 's Easter egg ) , with 15 unused bytes from the ROM capacity . Robinett credits Ken Thompson , his professor at University of California Berkeley , with teaching him the skills needed to use the limited memory efficiently . Thompson had required his students to learn the C programming language ; Robinett carried techniques from that language into his programming of Adventure .
Robinett first identified ways to translate the elements of Colossal Cave Adventure into simple , easy @-@ to @-@ recognize graphics that the player could interact with directly , replacing text @-@ based commands with joystick controls . Due to the limitations of the system 's graphical hardware , Robinett noted the dragons ended up looking more like ducks . Robinett developed workarounds for various technical limitations of the Atari 2600 . The system has only one playfield and five memory @-@ mapped registers available to represent moving objects . Only two of these registers are capable of representing more complex sprites . Robinett used those for objects and creatures within the game . He used the register originally designated for the ball in games such as Pong to represent the player 's avatar . Finally , he used the registers assigned for missiles , such as the bullets in Combat , for additional walls in the playing field to be able to represent different rooms within the game with the same playfield . Another hardware limitation forces the left and right sides of nearly every screen to be mirror images of each other ; this fostered the creation of the game 's confusing mazes . The notable exceptions are two screens in the black castle catacombs and two in the main hallway beneath the Yellow Castle . These two hallway screens are mirrored , but contain a vertical " wall " object in the room in order to achieve a non @-@ symmetrical shape , as well as act as a secret door for an Easter egg .
Despite the limitations , Robinett was able to introduce concepts that at the time were unfamiliar to players . He had been able to construct different rooms in the games ( thirty in the final version ) , in days where most games took place only on a single screen . Further , off @-@ screen objects such as the bat would continue to move according to their programming behavior .
In additional to the technical limitations , Robinett had struggled with Atari 's management over the game . Around the time of Adventure 's development , Atari , now owned by Warner Communications , had hired Ray Kassar as general manager of their Consumer Division , and he was later promoted to president and CEO of Atari in December 1978 . Kassar interacted with the programmers rarely and generally treated their contributions with indifference . Robinett was initially discouraged from working on Adventure by his supervisor , George Simcock , who said the ambitious game could not be done based on knowing how much memory Colossal Cave Adventure used . When Robinett developed a working prototype within a month , the management at Atari were impressed , encouraging him to continue the game despite his supervisor 's initial response . The management later tried to convince Robinett to make it a tie @-@ in work for the upcoming Superman movie , which was owned by Warner Communication . Robinett remained committed to his initial idea . Instead , Atari had developer John Dunn offered to take Robinett 's prototype source code to make the 1979 Superman game .
A second prototype , completed near the end of 1978 , had only about eight rooms , a single dragon , and two objects , and Robinett recognized that the game , though demonstrating what he had set out to do , was boring . He put the game aside for a few months and came back with additional ideas to improve the game , finishing it by June 1979 . Two changes that Robinett added were the possibility of being eaten by the dragon , as well as the means to reset the avatar if this should happen , and the addition of the sword object , which could kill the dragon . Robinett found the various possibilities that arose from this combination of elements improved the excitement of the game , and subsequently made three dragons , reusing the same code for the behavior of all three . The magnet was created to work around a potential situation where the player could drop an object into a wall space and make it irretrievable .
Robinett worked with Steve Harding , the author for nearly all Atari 2600 game manuals at that point in time , to develop the plot for the game . Harding developed most of the plot after playing the game himself , with Robinett revising elements where he saw fit . Robinett states that he had come up with the names for the three dragons as well as offering a friend 's suggestion for " Knubberrub " for the bat .
Robinett submitted the source code for Adventure to Atari management in June 1979 ; he left Atari soon afterward . The game was released by Atari some time later , though the exact date is unclear . In a 2003 interview , Robinett recalled the release date as being Christmas 1979 though noted he had left the company by this point and was traveling in Europe at that time , but knew the game had been released worldwide by early 1980 . A 1979 date is also listed in various other sources . Atari began advertising the game as " coming soon " in its 1980 catalog , and several sources indicate the game was released that year , after the Atari 2600 version of Space Invaders was released in early 1980 .
= = = Easter egg = = =
Generally defined as a " message , trick , or unusual behavior hidden inside a computer program by its creator " , the Easter egg concept was popularized by Adventure , influenced by the corporate culture at Atari . Atari removed the names of game developers from their products , seeing it as a means to prevent competitors from identifying and luring away Atari 's programmers . Atari 's decisions led to several programmers leaving the company ; notably , David Crane , Larry Kaplan , Alan Miller , and Bob Whitehead all left Atari due to lack of recognition and royalties from the company , and formed Activision .
Robinett , as a means to maintain his name on his game , included a hidden message in Adventure identifying himself as the creator , inspired by the supposedly hidden messages left on various songs recorded by The Beatles . In discussing the game in 2015 , Robinett considered the message as a means of self @-@ promotion , noting that he had only been paid around $ 22 @,@ 000 a year from Atari without any royalties , while Atari would sell a million units of a game at $ 25 a piece . This secret is one of the earliest known Easter eggs in a video game .
Within Adventure , the Easter egg is located inside the black castle catacombs ( on difficulty level 2 or 3 ) , embedded in the south wall of a sealed chamber ( accessible only with the bridge ) , where there is an invisible 1 @-@ pixel object referred to as the Gray Dot . The player must bounce the avatar along the bottom wall to pick up the dot . The dot is not actually invisible , but is simply the same color as the wall and is easily seen when placed in a catacombs passage or over a normal wall . The dot is not attracted to the magnet , unlike most other objects in Adventure . Bringing this dot to the east end of the corridor below the Yellow Castle while other differently colored objects are present causes the wall object to similarly become effectively invisible , allowing the player to pass into a room displaying the words " Created by Warren Robinett " .
Robinett kept the Gray Dot a secret for over a year , and did not mention it to anyone at Atari prior to his departure . He was unsure of whether or not it would be discovered by other Atari personnel prior to publishing ; the dot was not mentioned in the game 's manual , as the manual 's author was unaware of the dot 's existence . After the game was released , Adam Clayon , a fifteen @-@ year @-@ old from Salt Lake City , discovered the Dot and sent a letter to Atari explaining how to retrieve it . Robinett had already quit the company by this point , so Atari tasked designers with finding the responsible code . The one who found it said that if he were to fix it , he would change the message in the game to say " Fixed by Brad Stewart " . Further , the cost of creating a new read @-@ only memory ( ROM ) mask , or memory chip , was around $ 10 @,@ 000 US at the time of the game 's release , making this change a costly endeavor . Steve Wright , the director of software development of the Atari Consumer Division , argued for retaining the message , believing it gave players additional incentive to find it and play their games more , and suggested these were like Easter eggs for players to find . Atari eventually decided to leave the Dot in @-@ game , and dubbed such hidden features Easter eggs , saying they would be adding more such secrets to later games . Wright made it an official policy at Atari that all future games should include Easter eggs , often limited to being the initials of the game developer .
The Easter egg text with Warren Robinett 's name was removed from the version on the Atari Classics 10 @-@ in @-@ 1 TV Games standalone gaming unit , replaced with " TEXT ? " .
= = Reception = =
Adventure received mostly positive reviews in the years immediately after its release and has generally been viewed positively in subsequent decades .
Bill Kunkel and Frank Laney in the January 1981 issue of Video magazine called Adventure a " major design breakthrough " and said that it " shatters several video @-@ game conventions " such as scoring and time limits . They added that it was " much more ambitious " than average home video games , but noted that the graphics were underwhelming , such as the hero being a simple square . The 1982 book How to Win at Home Video Games called it too unpredictable with an " illogical mission " , concluding that " even devoted strategists may soon tire of Adventure 's excessive trial and error . " Electronic Games in 1983 stated that the game 's " graphics are tame stuff " , but it " still has the power to fascinate " and that " the action adventure concepts introduced in Adventure are still viable today " .
Atari Headquarters scored the game 8 of 10 , and noted its historical importance while panning the graphics and sound , concluding that Adventure was " very enjoyable " regardless of its technological shortcomings .
Jeremy Parish of 1UP.com wrote in 2010 that Adventure is " a work of interpretive brilliance " that " cleverly extracted the basic elements of exploration , combat and treasure hunting from the text games and converted them into icons " , but also conceded that it " seems almost unplayably basic these days " .
= = Legacy = =
Atari 's Adventure yielded sales of one million copies . As the first action @-@ adventure video game and first console fantasy game , Adventure established its namesake genres on video game consoles . In addition to being the first graphical adventure game on the Atari 2600 console , it is the first video game to contain a widely known Easter egg , and the first to allow a player to use multiple , portable , on @-@ screen items . The game is also the first to use a fog of war effect in its catacombs , which obscures most of the playing area except for the player 's immediate surroundings . The game has been voted the best Atari 2600 cartridge in numerous polls , and has been noted as a significant step in the advancement of home video games . GamePro ranked it as the 28th most important video game of all time in 2007 . In 2010 , 1UP.com listed it as one of the most important games ever made in its " The Essential 50 " feature . Entertainment Weekly named Adventure as one of the top 10 games for the Atari 2600 .
A sequel to Adventure was first announced in early 1982 . The planned sequel eventually evolved into the Swordquest series of games . In 2005 , a sequel written by Curt Vendel was released by Atari on the Atari Flashback 2 system . In 2007 , AtariAge released a self @-@ published sequel called Adventure II for the Atari 5200 , which is heavily inspired by the original ; its name is used with permission from Atari Interactive . Robinett himself took the idea of using items from Adventure into his next game , Rocky 's Boots , but added the ability to combine them to form new items .
The Adventure Easter egg became a cornerstone of the hunt for the Easter egg hidden in the fictional virtual reality game OASIS in the novel Ready Player One .
= = = Ports and re @-@ releases = = =
Adventure has been ported to or re @-@ released on several platforms :
Atari Classics 10 @-@ in @-@ 1 TV Games ( Standalone hardware unit , 2003 )
Atari : 80 Classic Games in One ( PC , 2003 )
Atari Flashback ( Standalone hardware unit , 2004 )
Atari Anthology ( PlayStation 2 , Xbox , 2004 )
Atari Flashback 2 ( Standalone hardware unit , 2005 )
Game Room ( Xbox 360 , PC , 2010 )
Atari Greatest Hits ( Nintendo DS , iOS , 2010 )
Atari Flashback 3 ( Standalone hardware unit , 2011 )
Atari Flashback 4 ( Standalone hardware unit , 2012 )
Atari Vault ( PC , 2016 )
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= Joshua Prawer =
Joshua Prawer ( Hebrew : יהושע פרַאוֶור ; November 22 , 1917 – April 30 , 1990 ) was a notable Israeli historian and a scholar of the Crusades and Kingdom of Jerusalem .
His work often attempted to portray Crusader society as a forerunner to later European colonialist expansion . He was also an important figure in Israeli higher education , was one of the founders of the University of Haifa and Ben @-@ Gurion University , and was a major reformer of the Israeli education system .
= = Life = =
Prawer was born on November 10 , 1917 to a prosperous Jewish merchant family in Będzin , a small city in the Polish part of Silesia . He grew up speaking Polish and German , learned Hebrew , French , and Latin at school , and after joining a Zionist group , learned Yiddish as well . He immigrated to Palestine in 1936 , where he learned English , and became a student of mathematics at the Hebrew University of Jerusalem . An invitation to study at the university was one of the few legal ways for Jews to enter the British Mandate of Palestine at the time . His mother died at the outbreak of World War II , and most of his family died in the Holocaust .
Prawer found that he was unhappy with mathematics , and his father suggested he study history instead since he had always enjoyed history in high school . His professor , Richard Koebner , an Anglophile historian of imperialism , set him on the course of studying the crusader colonies in the Holy Land . The close ties to Koebner were likely to have instilled in Prawer his interest in the history of settlements and colonialization . Prawer began his teaching career at the Hebrew University in 1947 and ( after fighting in the 1948 siege of Jerusalem ) soon rose through the faculty ranks . He became deputy dean of the Faculty of Humanities from 1953 – 55 , was made professor and chair of medieval history in 1958 , was dean of the Faculty of Humanities from 1962 – 66 , and served as prorector at the university in the years 1975 @-@ 78 . In the process , he succeeded in making the university into a " global center " for Crusade Studies , and trained many future Israeli historians in that specialty . Prawer has been described as an outstanding teacher and lecturer who combined thorough preparation with a charismatic style . He was often invited to lecture abroad .
= = = Other roles = = =
In addition to his work at the Hebrew University , Joshua Prawer was involved in the creation of other Israeli institutions of higher learning , namely Ben Gurion University of the Negev and especially the University of Haifa , where he was the first dean and academic chairman in the years 1966 @-@ 8 .
Prawer was a key contributor to Israeli government policy as well . Between 1957 and 1959 , at the request of David Ben @-@ Gurion , he chaired the Pedagogic Secretariat of the Education Ministry which was responsible for setting up new norms for Israeli secondary education . He fought against graded fees and for wider free compulsory education , and gave high priority to social integration and the rights of Sephardi students . During that time and as advisor to education minister Zalman Aranne afterwards , he helped draft the principles for teaching " Jewish awareness " that were incorporated into the primary and secondary school curricula . In 1963 @-@ 65 , he chaired a committee of experts bearing his name that recommended a radical reform of the entire Israeli education system . Its suggestions included making preschool enrollment universal for disadvantaged children , shortening elementary school to grades 1 @-@ 6 ; admitting all pupils without tests into integrated junior high schools ( grades 7 @-@ 9 ) , raising the age of free compulsory education to fifteen ( later raised to eighteen ) , establishing two @-@ year and three @-@ year comprehensive schools that provided a choice of tracks towards either a vocational diploma or a matriculation certificate , further integrating students of different skills and social classes , and establishing a new curriculum division in the Ministry of Education and Culture . The plan was approved by the Knesset and government , which allocated substantial resources to it , and the program began to be implemented in the summer of 1968 .
Together with Professor H. Hanani , Prawer initiated the mechina university preparatory programs in 1963 , which were originally intended to provide an additional year of study for Sephardic students after discharge from the defense forces , but were later expanded to include foreign educated students and immigrants .
Prawer served as chief editor of the Encyclopaedia Hebraica from 1967 onwards , with volume 21 the first to be published under his tenure . He advised and helped shape the Tower of David Museum of the History of Jerusalem , and was asked to advise the government on cultural agreements with other countries .
= = = Honors and later life = = =
In 1967 , Prawer served as chairman of the Humanities Section of the Israel Academy of Sciences and Humanities , and was elected as Corresponding Fellow of the Medieval Academy of America .
In 1969 , he received the Israel Prize in the humanities .
In 1969 , he also received an honorary doctorate from the University of Montpellier .
In 1974 , Prawer was honored as Visiting Fellow of All Souls College , Oxford ,
In 1974 , he was also awarded the Rothschild Prize and the Order of the Chevalier de L 'Ordre Nationale du Mérite .
In 1982 , he was presented with a festschrift containing papers by twenty @-@ two historians during a special conference in Jerusalem .
In 1987 , Prawer and his colleagues hosted the Second International Conference of the Society for the Study of the Crusades and the Latin East .
In 1989 , he was honored as a Yakir Yerushalayim ( Distinguished Citizen of Jerusalem ) .
In an interview a year before his death , Joshua Prawer said his message for the Jerusalem of today is " that it is a universal city , belonging to all cultures and conquering time . " Prawer died in Jerusalem on April 30 , 1990 .
= = Research = =
Prawer was part of a cadre of historians , including Claude Cahen and Jean Richard , who freed crusader studies from the old conception of crusader society as an exemplar of pure , unchanging feudalism that spontaneously emerged from the conquest . This view , which originated with feudal jurists in the thirteenth century , was held to by modern historians since the early thirties . Through the work of Prawer , particularly his two papers from the fifties , and his colleagues , crusader society began to be seen as dynamic , with the nobility gradually putting checks on the monarchy . The combined efforts of these historians led to a surge of new research into crusader society . Prawer 's research extended to a wide variety of other aspects of the crusader states . Among the topics he addressed were land development projects and urban settlement , agriculture , the Italian quarters of port cities , the types of landed property , and legal issues in the Assises des Bourgeois .
One of Prawer 's best known works is the Histoire du Royaume Latin de Jérusalem , which won him the Prix Gustave Schlumberger of the Académie des Inscriptions et Belles @-@ Lettres . The two @-@ volume work presents the crusader states as a working immigrant society , and shows the importance of immigration and labor shortages . Another book by Prawer , The Latin Kingdom of Jerusalem : European Colonialism in the Middle Ages , which was intended for a larger audience , was more controversial . In it , he portrays the crusaders as a society of Frankish immigrants living in complete political and social segregation from the local Muslim and Syro @-@ Christian population , and terms this phenomenon " Apartheid " . To Prawer , it is the settlers ' refusal to assimilate and their reconstruction of a European @-@ type society on foreign soil , as well as the persistence of indigenous institutions without any interference , that mark the Crusader settlement as colonialist . His thesis is that the economy , society , and institutions of the Latin states are best understood in the light of their colonial status . The 1980 book Crusader Institutions collected a number of his earlier publications and expanded upon them with revisions and new chapters . The book continues his treatment of the Kingdom of Jerusalem as a European colonial product but focuses attention on five topical areas , while throughout employing the tools of textual criticism and commentary on sources . Especially prominent is his coverage of the status and administrative role of burgesses , which had not received such attention before . In his last years , he published a book on a topic of especial interest to him , The History of the Jews in the Latin Kingdom of Jerusalem , which examined the tightly @-@ knit isolated Jewish communities of the Levant , the Jewish philosophical feuds they engaged in , and their dreams of restoring Israel .
= = Comparison of Zionism to the Crusades = =
An analogy has frequently been drawn between the European Crusades of the Middle Ages and the modern day Zionist movement . This view , which has been espoused by Arab media and political leaders , has also been discussed in Israeli academia . Prawer was often asked to comment on this analogy , and claimed that a major difference was that the Jews settled the land and worked it , whereas the Crusaders lorded over a conquered land worked by the natives . Ronnie Ellenblum , a lecturer at Hebrew University , identifies a subliminal objective in Prawer 's work to draw a distinction between the two : " He 's always writing about the Crusaders ' manpower shortage and about their not settling the land ... He claims that their presence here was principally urban , consisting of nobility and merchants . This is why they lost in the end . The implications are obvious : If we bring enough immigrants , and if we settle the land , we are bound to succeed . " ( Ellenblum himself has shown that Crusader settlement in the Holy Land was much more widespread than previously thought and has found evidence of hundreds of Crusader farms . ) But he also notes that " if Joshua Prawer were alive today he would no doubt deny any linkage between his Zionist political beliefs and the model of segregation that he developed . "
Ziad J. Asali , who considers Zionism " the heir — albeit illegitimate — of the Crusader movement , " goes further and writes that Prawer " recognized the extent of the similarity in the individual and social experience of Crusaders and Zionists . Rather than studying the comparison and denying its validity , he chose to study the Crusader 's experience as if it were a historical model which could be completely analyzed and dissected in order to benefit from its experience and avoid its mistakes . " To Zionist author Yoram Hazony , however , it is exactly because of Prawer 's readiness to draw the analogy that he considers him a subverter of Zionism and a progenitor of post @-@ Zionist thought . David Ohana , a professor of history at Ben Gurion University who rejects the Zionist @-@ Crusader analogy , writes that the subject has now become a litmus test for clarifying one 's views on Zionism , with post @-@ Zionists freely making the analogy and sympathizers with the Zionist viewpoint rejecting it .
= = Selected publications = =
( 1969 – 70 ) . Histoire du royaume Latin de Jérusalem . Le Monde byzantin . Paris : Éditions du Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique .
( 1972 ) . The Latin kingdom of Jerusalem : European colonialism in the Middle Ages . London : Weidenfeld and Nicolson .
( 1972 ) . The world of the Crusaders . London : Weidenfeld and Nicolson .
( 1980 ) . Crusader institutions . Oxford : Clarendon Press .
( 1988 ) . The History of the Jews in the Latin Kingdom of Jerusalem . Oxford : Clarendon Press .
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= Malpuech facial clefting syndrome =
Malpuech facial clefting syndrome , also called Malpuech syndrome or Gypsy type facial clefting syndrome , is a rare congenital syndrome . It is characterized by facial clefting ( any type of cleft in the bones and tissues of the face , including a cleft lip and palate ) , a caudal appendage ( a " human tail " ) , growth deficiency , intellectual and developmental disability , and abnormalities of the renal system ( kidneys ) and the male genitalia . Abnormalities of the heart , and other skeletal malformations may also be present . The syndrome was initially described by Guilliaume Malpuech and associates in 1983 . It is thought to be genetically related to Juberg @-@ Hayward syndrome . Malpuech syndrome has also been considered as part of a spectrum of congenital genetic disorders associated with similar facial , urogenital and skeletal anomalies . Termed " 3MC syndrome " , this proposed spectrum includes Malpuech , Michels and Mingarelli @-@ Carnevale ( OSA ) syndromes . Mutations in the COLLEC11 and MASP1 genes are believed to be a cause of these syndromes . The incidence of Malpuech syndrome is unknown . The pattern of inheritance is autosomal recessive , which means a defective ( mutated ) gene associated with the syndrome is located on an autosome , and the syndrome occurs when two copies of this defective gene are inherited .
= = Characteristics = =
Malpuech syndrome is congenital , being apparent at birth . It is characterized by a feature known as facial clefting . Observed and noted in the initial description of the syndrome as a cleft lip and palate , facial clefting is identified by clefts in the bones , muscles and tissues of the face , including the lips and palate . The forms of cleft lip and palate typically seen with Malpuech syndrome are midline ( down the middle of the lip and palate ) or bilateral ( affecting both sides of the mouth and palate ) . Facial clefting generally encompasses a wide range of severity , ranging from minor anomalies such as a bifid ( split ) uvula , to a cleft lip and palate , to major developmental and structural defects of the facial bones and soft tissues . Clefting of the lip and palate occurs during embryogenesis . Additional facial and ortho @-@ dental anomalies that have been described with the syndrome include : hypertelorism ( unusually wide @-@ set eyes , sometimes reported as telecanthus ) , narrow palpebral fissures ( the separation between the upper and lower eyelids ) and ptosis ( drooping ) of the eyelids , frontal bossing ( prominent eyebrow ridge ) with synophris , highly arched eyebrows , wide nasal root and a flattened nasal tip , malar hypoplasia ( underdeveloped upper cheek bone ) , micrognathia ( an undersized lower jaw ) , and prominent incisors . Auditory anomalies include an enlarged ear ridge , and hearing impairment associated with congenital otitis media ( or " glue ear " , inflammation of the middle ear ) and sensorineural hearing loss .
Another feature identified with Malpuech syndrome is a caudal appendage . A caudal appendage is a congenital outgrowth stemming from the coccyx ( tailbone ) . Present in many non @-@ human animal species as a typical tail , this feature when seen in an infant has been described as a " human tail " . This was observed by Guion @-@ Almeida ( 1995 ) in three individuals from Brazil . The appendage on X @-@ rays variously appeared as a prominent protrusion of the coccyx . On a physical examination , the appendage resembles a nodule @-@ like stub of an animal tail .
Deficiencies such as mental retardation , learning disability , growth retardation and developmental delay are common . Psychiatric manifestations that have been reported with the syndrome include psychotic behavior , obsessive – compulsive disorder , loss of inhibition , hyperactivity , aggression , fear of physical contact , and compulsive actions like echolalia ( repeating the words spoken by another person ) . Neuromuscular tics have also been noted .
Urogenital abnormalities , or those affecting the urinary and reproductive systems , are common with the syndrome . Malpuech et al . ( 1983 ) and Kerstjens @-@ Frederikse et al . ( 2005 ) reported variously in affected males a micropenis , hypospadias ( a congenital mislocation of the urinary meatus ) , cryptorchidism ( ectopic or undescended testes ) , bifid ( split ) and underdeveloped scrotum , and an obstructive urethral valve . An affected boy was also reported by Reardon et al . ( 2001 ) with left renal agenesis , an enlarged and downwardly displaced right kidney , cryptorchidism and a shawl scrotum . Other malformations that have been noted with the syndrome are omphalocele and an umbilical hernia .
Congenital abnormalities of the heart have also been observed with Malpuech syndrome . From a healthy Japanese couple , Chinen and Naritomi ( 1995 ) described the sixth child who had features consistent with the disorder . This two @-@ month @-@ old male infant was also affected by cardiac anomalies including patent ductus arteriosus ( PDA ) and ventricular septal defect . The opening in the ductus arteriosus associated with PDA had been surgically repaired in the infant at 38 days of age . A number of minor skeletal aberrations were also reported in the infant , including wormian bones at the lambdoid sutures .
= = Classification = =
Malpuech syndrome has been shown to have physical , or phenotypical similarities with several other genetic disorders . A report by Reardon et al . ( 2001 ) of a nine @-@ year @-@ old boy exhibiting facial , caudal and urogenital anomalies consistent with Malpuech syndrome , who also had skeletal malformites indicative of Juberg @-@ Hayward syndrome , suggests that the two disorders may be allelic ( caused by different mutations of the same gene ) .
Along with several other disorders that have similar , or overlapping features and autosomal recessive inheritance , Malpuech syndrome has been considered to belong under the designation " 3MC syndrome " . Titomanlio et al . ( 2005 ) described a three @-@ year @-@ old female known to have Michels syndrome . In their review of the physical similarities between Michels , Malpuech and Mingarelli @-@ Carnevale syndromes — particularly the facial appearance including instances of cleft lip and palate , and ptosis , and a similarity of congenital abdominal and urogenital anomalies — they believed the syndromes may represent a spectrum of genetic disorders rather than three individual disorders . They initially suggested this spectrum could be named 3MC ( Michels @-@ Malpuech @-@ Mingarelli @-@ Carnevale ) syndrome . This conclusion and the name 3MC syndrome was supported by Leal et al . ( 2008 ) , who reported a brother and sister with an array of symptoms that overlapped the various syndromes . Further assertion of 3MC syndrome was by Rooryck et al . ( 2011 ) in an elaboration of its cause .
= = Cause and genetics = =
Malpuech syndrome , as with the other disorders within the 3MC syndrome consideration , is caused by mutations in the COLLEC11 and MASP1 genes . In an investigation by Rooryck et al . ( 2011 ) , eleven families affected by 3MC syndrome were studied , which resulted in the identification of these two mutations . Both genes encode proteins of the lectin complement pathway , which plays a role in the complement system of innate , or non @-@ specific immunity in humans and other species .
The COLLEC11 , or CL @-@ K1 gene is located on the short arm of chromosome 2 ( 2p25.3 ) in humans . The CL @-@ K1 protein is a C @-@ type lectin , and belongs to the collectin family of these proteins . Other than its role in innate immunity , the protein is thought to be involved in the development of tissues including craniofacial cartilage , the heart and kidney during embryogenesis . This function in facial development was corroborated through study of the zebrafish , where mutations in its version of CL @-@ K1 contributed to craniofacial abnormalities possibly associated with errors in neural crest cell migration .
The MASP1 , or Mannan @-@ binding Serine Protease I gene is located on the long arm of human chromosome 3 at 3q27 @-@ q28 . The protein is a type of connectin called a mannan @-@ binding lectin , which plays a role in innate immunity by binding to pathogens such as viruses including HIV .
As described by Sirmaci et al . ( 2010 ) , three Turkish individuals from two consanguineous families ( the children of relatives such as cousins are said to be in a consanguineous family ) with various characteristics of 3MC syndrome , including facial dysmorphism and a caudal appendage , were evaluated . Investigation of homologous chromosomes through gene mapping revealed an autozygous region ( a location on a chromosome where both alleles of a gene originate from a common ancestor ) at chromosome 3q27 in both families . In one family , a missense mutation in MASP1 at this location resulted in the replacement of the amino acid glycine by arginine at position 687 in the gene sequence . The mutation cosegregated with the observed phenotype . In individuals from the second family , DNA sequencing of MASP1 showed a nonsense mutation that resulted in a deactivation of tryptophan at position 290 in the gene , that also cosegregated with the phenotype . Both mutations occur in a form of MASP1 known to process IGFBP5 ; loss of this function associated with mutation of MASP1 causes disruptions in the availability of insulin @-@ like growth factor during craniofacial and musculoskeletal development during the embryonic period . These results indicate that mutations in MASP1 are responsible for an array of features found with malformation disorders including Malpuech syndrome .
The syndrome is inherited in an autosomal recessive manner . This means the defective gene ( s ) responsible for the disorder ( COLLEC11 , MASP1 ) is located on an autosome ( chromosomes 2 and 3 are autosomes ) , and two copies of the defective gene ( one inherited from each parent ) are required in order to be born with the disorder . The parents of an individual with an autosomal recessive disorder both carry one copy of the defective gene , but usually do not experience any signs or symptoms of the disorder .
= = Diagnosis = =
It is suggested that the diagnostic criteria for Malpuech syndrome should include cleft lip and / or palate , typical associated facial features , and at least two of the following : urogenital anomalies , caudal appendage , and growth or developmental delay . Due to the relatively high rate of hearing impairment found with the disorder , it too may be considered in the diagnosis . Another congenital disorder , Wolf @-@ Hirschhorn ( Pitt @-@ Rogers @-@ Danks ) syndrome , shares Malpuech features in its diagnostic criteria . Because of this lacking differentiation , karyotyping ( microscopic analysis of the chromosomes of an individual ) can be employed to distinguish the two . Whereas deletions in the short arm of chromosome 4 would be revealed with Wolf @-@ Hirschhorn , a karyotype without this aberration present would favor a Malpuech syndrome diagnosis . Also , the karyotype of an individual with Malpuech syndrome alone will be normal .
= = Management = =
Many of the congenital malformations found with Malpuech syndrome can be corrected surgically . These include cleft lip and palate , omphalocele , urogenital and craniofacial abnormalities , skeletal deformities such as a caudal appendage or scoliosis , and hernias of the umbillicus . The primary area of concern for these procedures applied to a neonate with congenital disorders including Malpuech syndrome regards the logistics of anesthesia . Methods like tracheal intubation for management of the airway during general anesthesia can be hampered by the even smaller , or maldeveloped mouth of the infant . For regional anesthesia , methods like spinal blocking are more difficult where scoliosis is present . In a 2010 report by Kiernan et al . , a four @-@ year @-@ old girl with Malpuech syndrome was being prepared for an unrelated tonsillectomy and adenoidectomy . While undergoing intubation , insertion of a laryngoscope , needed to identify the airway for the placement of the endotracheal tube , was made troublesome by the presence of micrognathia attributed to the syndrome . After replacement with a laryngoscope of adjusted size , intubation proceeded normally . Successful general anesthesia followed .
A rare follow @-@ up of a male with Malpuech syndrome was presented by Priolo et al . ( 2007 ) . Born at term from an uneventful pregnancy and delivery , the infant underwent a surgical repair of a cleft lip and palate . No problems were reported with the procedure . A heart abnormality , atrial septal defect , was also apparent but required no intervention . At age three years , mental retardation , hyperactivity and obsessive compulsive disorder were diagnosed ; hearing impairment was diagnosed at age six , managed with the use of hearing aids . Over the course of the decade that followed , a number of psychiatric evaluations were performed . At age 14 , he exhibited a fear of physical contact ; at age 15 , he experienced a severe psychotic episode , characterized by agitation and a loss of sociosexual inhibition . This array of symptoms were treated pharmocologically ( with prescription medications ) . He maintained a low level of mental deficiency by age 17 , with moments of compulsive echolalia .
= = Epidemiology and history = =
The incidence of Malpuech syndrome has not been determined . A 1999 report by Crisponi et al. suggested that only about 12 individuals worldwide were affected by the disorder at that time . The syndrome was first reported by Guilliaume Malpuech and colleagues in 1983 , observed in four children of unspecified gender in what was described as a gypsy family . The children included three siblings and their first cousin ; the family was known to be highly consanguineous .
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= Battle of Ceresole =
The Battle of Ceresole ( or Cérisoles ) was an encounter between a French army and the combined forces of the Holy Roman Empire and Spain during the Italian War of 1542 – 46 . The lengthy engagement took place on 11 April 1544 , outside the village of Ceresole d 'Alba in the Piedmont region of Italy ; the French , under François de Bourbon , Count of Enghien , defeated the Imperial @-@ Spanish army of Alfonso d 'Avalos d 'Aquino , Marquis del Vasto . Despite having inflicted substantial casualties on the Imperial troops , the French subsequently failed to exploit their victory by taking Milan .
Enghien and d 'Avalos had arranged their armies along two parallel ridges ; because of the topography of the battlefield , many of the individual actions of the battle were uncoordinated with one another . The battle opened with several hours of skirmishing between opposing bands of arquebusiers and an ineffectual artillery exchange , after which d 'Avalos ordered a general advance . In the center , Imperial landsknechts clashed with French and Swiss infantry , with both sides suffering terrific casualties . In the southern part of the battlefield , Italian infantry in Imperial service were harried by French cavalry attacks and withdrew after learning that the Imperial troops of the center had been defeated . In the north , meanwhile , the French infantry line crumbled , and Enghien led a series of ineffectual and costly cavalry charges against Spanish and German infantry before the latter were forced to surrender by the arrival of the victorious Swiss and French infantry from the center .
Ceresole was one of the few pitched battles during the latter half of the Italian Wars . Known among military historians chiefly for the " great slaughter " that occurred when columns of intermingled arquebusiers and pikemen met in the center , it also demonstrates the continuing role of traditional heavy cavalry on a battlefield largely dominated by the emerging pike and shot infantry .
= = Prelude = =
The opening of the war in northern Italy had been marked by the fall of Nice to a combined Franco @-@ Ottoman army in August 1543 ; meanwhile , Imperial @-@ Spanish forces had advanced from Lombardy towards Turin , which had been left in French hands at the end of the previous war in 1538 . By the winter of 1543 – 44 , a stalemate had developed in the Piedmont between the French , under the Sieur de Boutières , and the Imperial army , under d 'Avalos . The French position , centered on Turin , reached outward to a series of fortified towns : Pinerolo , Carmagnola , Savigliano , Susa , Moncalieri , Villanova , Chivasso , and a number of others ; d 'Avalos , meanwhile , controlled a group of fortresses on the periphery of the French territory : Mondovì , Asti , Casale Monferrato , Vercelli , and Ivrea . The two armies occupied themselves primarily with attacking each other 's outlying strongholds . Boutières seized San Germano Vercellese , near Vercelli , and laid siege to Ivrea ; d 'Avalos , meanwhile , captured Carignano , only fifteen miles south of Turin , and proceeded to garrison and fortify it .
As the two armies returned to winter quarters , Francis I of France replaced Boutières with François de Vendôme , Count of Enghien , a prince with no experience commanding an army . Francis also sent additional troops to the Piedmont , including several hundred heavy cavalry , some companies of French infantry from Dauphiné and Languedoc , and a force of quasi @-@ Swiss from Gruyères . In January 1544 , Enghien laid siege to Carignano , which was defended by Imperial troops under the command of Pirro Colonna . The French were of the opinion that d 'Avalos would be forced to attempt a relief of the besieged city , at which point he could be forced into a battle ; but as such pitched battles were viewed as very risky undertakings , Enghien sent Blaise de Lasseran @-@ Massencôme , seigneur de Montluc , to Paris to ask Francis for permission to fight one . Montluc apparently convinced Francis to give his assent — contingent on the agreement of Enghien 's captains — over the objections of the Comte de St. Pol , who complained that a defeat would leave France exposed to an invasion by d 'Avalos 's troops at a time when Charles V and Henry VIII of England were expected to attack Picardy . Montluc , returning to Italy , brought with him nearly a hundred volunteers from among the young noblemen of the court , including the young Gaspard de Coligny .
D 'Avalos , having waited for the arrival a large body of landsknechts dispatched by Holy Roman Emperor Charles V , set off from Asti towards Carignano . His total force included 12 @,@ 500 – 18 @,@ 000 infantry , of which perhaps 4 @,@ 000 were arquebusiers or musketeers ; he was only able to gather about 800 – 1 @,@ 000 cavalry , of which less than 200 were gendarmes . D 'Avalos recognized the relative weakness of his cavalry , but considered it to be compensated by the experience of his infantry and the large number of arquebusiers in its ranks .
Enghien , having learned of the Imperial advance , left a blocking force at Carignano and assembled the remainder of his army at Carmagnola , blocking d 'Avalos 's route to the besieged city . The French cavalry , shadowing d 'Avalos 's movements , discovered that the Imperial forces were headed directly for the French position ; on 10 April , d 'Avalos occupied the village of Ceresole d 'Alba , about five miles ( 8 km ) southeast of the French . Enghien 's officers urged him to attack immediately , but he was determined to fight on ground of his own choosing ; on the morning of 11 April 1544 , the French marched from Carmagnola to a position some three miles ( 5 km ) to the southeast and awaited d 'Avalos 's arrival . Enghien and Montluc felt that the open ground would give the French cavalry a significant tactical advantage . By this point , the French army consisted of around 11 @,@ 000 – 13 @,@ 000 infantry , 600 light cavalry , and 900 – 1 @,@ 250 heavy cavalry ; Enghien and d 'Avalos each had about twenty pieces of artillery . The battle came at a fortunate time for Enghien , as his Swiss troops were — as they had before the Battle of Bicocca — threatening to march home if they were not paid ; the news of the impending battle restored some calm to their ranks .
= = Battle = =
= = = Dispositions = = =
Enghien 's troops were positioned along the crest of a ridge that was higher in the center than on either side , preventing the wings of the French army from seeing each other . The French army was divided into the traditional " battle " , " vanward " , and " rearward " corps , corresponding to the center and right and left wings of the French line . On the far right of the French position was a body of light cavalry , consisting of three companies under Des Thermes , Bernadino , and Mauré , with a total strength of around 450 – 500 men . To their left was the French infantry under De Tais , numbering around 4 @,@ 000 , and , farther to the left , a squadron of 80 gendarmes under Boutières , who was nominally the commander of the entire French right wing . The center of the French line was formed by thirteen companies of veteran Swiss , numbering about 4 @,@ 000 , under the joint command of William Frülich of Soleure and a captain named St. Julian . To their left was Enghien himself with three companies of heavy cavalry , a company of light horse , and the volunteers from Paris — in total , around 450 troopers . The left wing was composed of two columns of infantry , consisting of 3 @,@ 000 of the recruits from Gruyères and 2 @,@ 000 Italians , all under the command of Sieur Descroz . On the extreme left of the line were about 400 mounted archers deployed as light cavalry ; they were commanded by Dampierre , who was also given command of the entire French left wing .
The Imperial line formed up on a similar ridge facing the French position . On the far left , facing Des Thermes , were 300 Florentine light cavalry under Rodolfo Baglioni ; flanking them to the right were 6 @,@ 000 Italian infantry under Ferrante Sanseverino , Prince of Salerno . In the center were the 7 @,@ 000 landsknechts under the command of Eriprando Madruzzo . To their right was d 'Avalos himself , together with the small force of about 200 heavy cavalry under Carlo Gonzaga . The Imperial right wing was composed of around 5 @,@ 000 German and Spanish infantry under Ramón de Cardona ; they were flanked , on the far right , by 300 Italian light cavalry under Philip de Lannoy , Prince of Sulmona .
= = = Initial moves = = =
As d 'Avalos 's troops , marching from Ceresole , began to arrive on the battlefield , both armies attempted to conceal their numbers and position from the other ; Enghien had ordered the Swiss to lie on the ground behind the crest of the ridge , while only the left wing of the Imperial army was initially visible to the French . D 'Avalos sent out parties of arquebusiers in an attempt to locate the French flanks ; Enghien , in turn , detached about 800 arquebusiers under Montluc to delay the Imperial advance . The skirmishing between the arquebusiers continued for almost four hours ; Martin Du Bellay , observing the engagement , described it as " a pretty sight for anyone who was in a safe place and unemployed , for they played off on each other all the ruses and stratagems of petty war . " As the extent of each army 's position was revealed , Enghien and d 'Avalos both brought up their artillery . The ensuing cannonade continued for several hours , but had little effect because of the distance and the considerable cover available to the troops on both sides .
The skirmishing finally came to an end when it seemed that Imperial cavalry would attack the French arquebusiers in the flank ; Montluc then requested assistance from Des Thermes , who advanced with his entire force of light cavalry . D 'Avalos , observing the French movement , ordered a general advance along the entire Imperial line . At the southern end of the battlefield , the French light cavalry drove Baglioni 's Florentines back into Sanseverino 's advancing infantry , and then proceeded to charge directly into the infantry column . The Italian formation held , and Des Thermes himself was wounded and captured ; but by the time Sanseverino had dealt with the resulting disorder and was ready to advance again , the fight in the center had already been decided .
= = = " A wholesale slaughter " = = =
The French infantry — mostly Gascons — had meanwhile started down the slope towards Sanseverino . Montluc , noting that the disorder of the Italians had forced them to a standstill , suggested that De Tais attack Madruzzo 's advancing column of landsknechts instead ; this advice was accepted , and the French formation turned left in an attempt to strike the landsknechts in the flank . Madruzzo responded by splitting his column into two separate portions , one of which moved to intercept the French while the other continued up the slope towards the Swiss waiting at the crest .
The pike and shot infantry had by this time adopted a system in which arquebusiers and pikemen were intermingled in combined units ; both the French and the Imperial infantry contained men with firearms interspersed in the larger columns of pikemen . This combination of pikes and small arms made close @-@ quarters fighting extremely bloody . The mixed infantry was normally placed in separate clusters , with the arquebusiers on the flanks of a central column of pikemen ; at Ceresole , however , the French infantry had been arranged with the first rank of pikemen followed immediately by a rank of arquebusiers , who were ordered to hold their fire until the two columns met . Montluc , who claimed to have devised the scheme , wrote that :
In this way we should kill all their captains in the front rank . But we found that they were as ingenious as ourselves , for behind their first line of pikes they had put pistoleers . Neither side fired till we were touching — and then there was a wholesale slaughter : every shot told : the whole front rank on each side went down .
The Swiss , seeing the French engage one of the two columns of landsknechts , finally descended to meet the other , which had been slowly moving up the hillside . Both masses of infantry remained locked in a push of pike until the squadron of heavy cavalry under Boutières charged into the landsknechts ' flank , shattering their formation and driving them down the slope . The Imperial heavy cavalry , which had been on the landsknechts ' right , and which had been ordered by d 'Avalos to attack the Swiss , recoiled from the pikes and fled to the rear , leaving Carlo Gonzaga to be taken prisoner .
The Swiss and Gascon infantry proceeded to slaughter the remaining landsknechts — whose tight order precluded a rapid retreat — as they attempted to withdraw from the battlefield . The road to Ceresole was littered with corpses ; the Swiss , in particular , showed no mercy , as they wished to avenge the mistreatment of the Swiss garrison of Mondovì the previous November . Most of the landsknechts ' officers were killed ; and while contemporary accounts probably exaggerate the numbers of the dead , it is clear that the German infantry had ceased to exist as a fighting force . Seeing this , Sanseverino decided that the battle was lost and marched away to Asti with the bulk of the Italian infantry and the remnants of Baglioni 's Florentine cavalry ; the French light cavalry , meanwhile , joined in the pursuit of the landsknechts .
= = = Engagements in the north = = =
On the northern end of the battlefield , events had unfolded quite differently . Dampierre 's cavalry routed Lannoy 's company of light horse ; the Italians and the contingent from Gruyères , meanwhile , broke and fled — leaving their officers to be killed — without offering any real resistance to the advancing Imperial infantry . As Cardona 's infantry moved past the original French line , Enghien descended on it with the entire body of heavy cavalry under his command ; the subsequent engagement took place on the reverse slope of the ridge , out of sight of the rest of the battlefield .
On the first charge , Enghien 's cavalry penetrated a corner of the Imperial formation , pushing through to the rear and losing some of the volunteers from Paris . As Cardona 's ranks closed again , the French cavalry turned and made a second charge under heavy arquebus fire ; this was far more costly , and again failed to break the Imperial column . Enghien , now joined by Dampierre 's light cavalry , made a third charge , which again failed to achieve a decisive result ; fewer than a hundred of the French gendarmes remained afterwards . Enghien believed the battle to be lost — according to Montluc , he intended to stab himself , " which ancient Romans might do , but not good Christians " — when St. Julian , the Swiss commander , arrived from the center of the battlefield and reported that the Imperial forces there had been routed .
The news of the landsknechts ' defeat reached Cardona 's troops at about the same time that it had reached Enghien ; the Imperial column turned and retreated back towards its original position . Enghien followed closely with the remainder of his cavalry ; he was soon reinforced by a company of Italian mounted arquebusiers , which had been stationed at Racconigi and had started towards the battlefield after hearing the initial artillery exchange . These arquebusiers , dismounting to fire and then remounting , were able to harass the Imperial column sufficiently to slow its retreat . Meanwhile , the French and Swiss infantry of the center , having reached Ceresole , had turned about and returned to the battlefield ; Montluc , who was with them , writes :
When we heard at Ceresole that M. d 'Enghien wanted us , both the Swiss and we Gascons turned toward him — I never saw two battalions form up so quick — we got into rank again actually as we ran along , side by side . The enemy was going off at quick march , firing salvos of arquebuses , and keeping off our horse , when we saw them . And when they descried us only 400 paces away , and our cavalry making ready to charge , they threw down their pikes and surrendered to the horsemen . You might see fifteen or twenty of them round a man @-@ at @-@ arms , pressing about him and asking for quarter , for fear of us of the infantry , who were wanting to cut all their throats .
Perhaps as many as half of the Imperial infantry were killed as they were attempting to surrender ; the remainder , about 3 @,@ 150 men , were taken prisoner . A few , including the Baron of Seisneck , who had commanded the German infantry contingents , managed to escape .
= = Aftermath = =
The casualties of the battle were unusually high , even by the standards of the time , and are estimated at 28 percent of the total number of troops engaged . The smallest numbers given for the Imperial dead in contemporary accounts are between 5 @,@ 000 and 6 @,@ 000 , although some French sources give figures as high as 12 @,@ 000 . A large number of officers were killed , particularly among the landsknechts ; many of those who survived were taken prisoner , including Ramón de Cardona , Carlo Gonzaga , and Eriprando Madruzzo . The French casualties were smaller , but numbered at least 1 @,@ 500 to 2 @,@ 000 killed . These included many of the officers of the Gascon and Gruyères infantry contingents , as well as a large portion of the gendarmerie that had followed Enghien . The only French prisoner of note was Des Thermes , who had been carried along with Sanseverino 's retreating Italians .
Despite the collapse of the Imperial army , the battle proved to be of little strategic significance . At the insistence of Francis I , the French army resumed the siege of Carignano , where Colonna held out for several weeks . Soon after the city 's surrender , Enghien was forced to send twenty @-@ three companies of Italian and Gascon infantry — and nearly half his heavy cavalry — to Picardy , which had been invaded by Charles V. Left without a real army , Enghien was unable to capture Milan . D 'Avalos , meanwhile , routed a fresh force of Italian infantry under Pietro Strozzi and the Count of Pitigliano at the Battle of Serravalle . The end of the war saw a return to the status quo in northern Italy .
= = Historiography = =
A number of detailed contemporary accounts of the battle have survived . Among the French chronicles are the narratives of Martin Du Bellay and Blaise de Montluc , both of whom were present at the scene . The Sieur de Tavannes , who accompanied Enghien , also makes some mention of the events in his memoirs . The most extensive account from the Imperial side is that of Paolo Giovio . Despite a number of inconsistencies with other accounts , it provides , according to historian Charles Oman , " valuable notes on points neglected by all the French narrators " .
The interest of modern military historians in the battle has centered primarily on the role of small arms and the resulting carnage among the infantry in the center . The arrangement of pikemen and arquebusiers used was regarded as too costly , and was not tried again ; in subsequent battles , arquebuses were used primarily for skirmishing and from the flanks of larger formations of pikemen . Ceresole is also of interest as a demonstration of the continuing role of traditional heavy cavalry on the battlefield . Despite the failure of Enghien 's charges — the French , according to Bert Hall , held to their belief in " the effectiveness of unaided heavy cavalry to break disciplined formations " — a small body of gendarmes had been sufficient , in the center , to rout infantry columns that were already engaged with other infantry . Beyond this tactical utility , another reason for cavalry 's continued importance is evident from the final episode of the battle : the French gendarmes were the only troops who could reasonably be expected to accept an opponent 's surrender , as the Swiss and French infantry had no inclination towards taking prisoners . The cavalry was , according to Hall , " almost intuitively expected to heed these entreaties without question " .
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= Surface weather observation =
Surface weather observations are the fundamental data used for safety as well as climatological reasons to forecast weather and issue warnings worldwide . They can be taken manually , by a weather observer , by computer through the use of automated weather stations , or in a hybrid scheme using weather observers to augment the otherwise automated weather station . The ICAO defines the International Standard Atmosphere ( ISA ) , which is the model of the standard variation of pressure , temperature , density , and viscosity with altitude in the Earth 's atmosphere , and is used to reduce a station pressure to sea level pressure . Airport observations can be transmitted worldwide through the use of the METAR observing code . Personal weather stations taking automated observations can transmit their data to the United States mesonet through the Citizen Weather Observer Program ( CWOP ) , the UK Met Office through their Weather Observations Website ( WOW ) , or internationally through the Weather Underground Internet site . A thirty @-@ year average of a location 's weather observations is traditionally used to determine the station 's climate .
= = Airports = =
Surface weather observations have traditionally been taken at airports due to safety concerns during takeoffs and landings . The ICAO defines the International Standard Atmosphere ( also known as ICAO Standard Atmosphere ) , which is the model of the standard variation of pressure , temperature , density , and viscosity with elevation / altitude in the Earth 's atmosphere . This is useful in calibrating instruments and designing aircraft , and is used to reduce a station 's pressure to sea level pressure ( SLP ) where it can then be used on weather maps .
In the United States , the FAA mandates the taking of weather observations at larger airports for safety reasons . To help facilitate the purchase of an automated airport weather station , such as ASOS , the FAA allows federal dollars to be used for the installation of certified weather stations at airports . The airport observations are then transmitted worldwide using the METAR observing code . METAR reports typically come from airports or permanent weather observation stations . Reports are generated once an hour ; however , if conditions change significantly , they may be updated in special reports called SPECIEs .
= = Data Reported = =
Surface weather observations can include the following elements :
The Station Identifier , or Location identifier , consists of four characters for METAR observations , with the first representing the region of the world the station lies within . For example , the first letter for areas in and around the Pacific ocean is P , and for Europe is E. The second character may represent the country / state the location lies within . For Hawaii , the first two letters are " PH " while for Great Britain , the first two letters of the station identifier are " EG " . Canada and the contiguous United States are an exception , with the first letters C and K representing the regions , respectively . The final two or three letters normally represent the name of the location or airport .
Visibility , measured in meters for most sites worldwide , except in the United States where statute miles are reported .
Runway visibility , measured in meters in many locations worldwide , or feet within the United States .
Temperature is a measure of the kinetic energy of a sample of matter . Temperature is the unique physical property that determines the direction of heat flow between two objects placed in thermal contact . If no heat flow occurs , the two objects have the same temperature ; otherwise heat flows from the hotter object to the colder object . Temperature , within meteorology , is measured with thermometers exposed to the air but sheltered from direct solar exposure . In most of the world , the degree Celsius scale is used for most temperature measuring purposes . However , the United States is the last major country in which the degree Fahrenheit temperature scale is used by most lay people , industry , popular meteorology , and government . Despite this , METAR reports from the United States also report the temperature ( and dewpoint , see below ) in degrees Celsius .
Dew point is the temperature to which a given parcel of air must be cooled , at constant atmospheric pressure , for water vapor to condense into water . The condensed water is called dew . The dew point is a saturation point . When the dew point temperature falls below freezing it is called the frost point , as the water vapor no longer creates dew but instead creates frost or hoarfrost by deposition . The dew point is associated with relative humidity . A high relative humidity indicates that the dew point is closer to the current air temperature . If the relative humidity is 100 % , the dew point is equal to the current temperature . Given a constant dew point , an increase in temperature will lead to a decrease in relative humidity . At a given barometric pressure , independent of temperature , the dew point determines the specific humidity of the air . The dew point is an important statistic for general aviation pilots , as it is used to calculate the likelihood of carburetor icing and fog . When used with the air temperature , a formula can be used to estimate the height of cumuliform , or convective , clouds .
Wind is determined using anemometers and wind vanes , or aerovanes , located a standard 10 metres ( 33 ft ) above ground level ( AGL ) . Average wind speed is measured using a two @-@ minute average in the United States , and a 10 @-@ minute average elsewhere . Wind direction is measured using degrees , with north representing 0 or 360 degrees , with values increasing from 0 clockwise from north . Wind gusts are reported when there is variation of the wind speed of more than 10 knots ( 5 @.@ 1 m / s ) between peaks and lulls during the sampling period .
Sea level pressure ( SLP ) is the pressure at sea level or ( when measured at a given elevation on land ) the station pressure reduced to sea level assuming an isothermal layer at the station temperature . This is the pressure normally given in weather reports on radio , television , and newspapers or on the Internet . When barometers in the home are set to match the local weather reports , they measure pressure reduced to sea level , not the actual local atmospheric pressure . The reduction to sea level means that the normal range of fluctuations in pressure is the same for everyone . The pressures which are considered high pressure or low pressure do not depend on geographical location . This makes isobars on a weather map meaningful and useful tools .
Altimeter setting is a term and quantity used in aviation . The regional or local air pressure at mean sea level is called the altimeter setting , and the pressure which will calibrate the altimeter to show the height above ground at a given QNH airfield .
Present weather , which present restrictions to visibility or presence of thunder or squalls , are reported in observations to indicate to aviation any possible threats during landings and takeoffs from airports . Types included in surface weather observations include precipitation , obscurations , other weather phenomena such as , well @-@ developed dust / sand whirls , squalls , tornadic activity , sandstorms , volcanic ash , and dust storms .
Intensity of precipitation is primarily measured for meteorological concerns . However , it can be of concern to aviation as heavy precipitation can limit visibility . Also , intensity of freezing rain can determine how hazardous it is for pilots to fly nearby certain locations since it can be an in @-@ flight hazard by depositing ice on the wings of aircraft , which can be detrimental to flight .
Precipitation amount over the past 1 , 3 , 6 or 24 hours is of particular interest to meteorologists in verifying forecast amounts of precipitation and determining station climatologies .
Snowfall amount during the past 6 hours is taken for meteorological and climatological concerns . However , it may also be reported hourly using " SNOINCR " remarks to provide air field technicians information on how frequently snow must be plowed from runways and taxiways .
Snow depth is measured for meteorological and climatological concerns once a day . However , during periods of snowfall , it is measured each six hours to determine amount of recent snowfall .
= = = Example of a METAR surface weather observation = = =
METAR LBBG 041600Z 12003MPS 310V290 1400 R04 / P1500N R22 / P1500U + SN BKN022 OVC050 M04 / M07 Q1020 NOSIG 9949 / / 91 =
Personal weather stations , maintained by citizens rather than government officials , do not use METAR code . Software allows information to be transmitted to various sites , such as the Weather Underground globally , or the CWOP within the United States , which can then be used by the appropriate meteorological organizations either to diagnose real @-@ time conditions , or be used within weather forecast models .
= = Use of weather maps = =
Data collected by land locations coding in METAR are conveyed worldwide via phone lines or wireless technology . Within many nations ' meteorological organizations , this data is then plotted onto a weather map using the station model . A station model is a symbolic illustration showing the weather occurring at a given reporting station . Meteorologists created the station model to plot a number of weather elements in a small space on weather maps . Maps filled with dense station @-@ model plots can be difficult to read , but they allow meteorologists , pilots , and mariners to see important weather patterns .
Weather maps are used to display information quickly showing the analysis of various meteorological quantities at various levels of the atmosphere , in this case the surface layer . Maps containing station models aid in the drawing of isotherms , which more readily identifies temperature gradients , and can help in the location of weather fronts . Two @-@ dimensional streamlines based on wind speeds show areas of convergence and divergence in the wind field , which are helpful in determining the location of features within the wind pattern . A popular type of surface weather map is the surface weather analysis , which plots isobars to depict areas of high pressure and low pressure .
= = Ship and buoy reports = =
For over a century , reports from the world 's oceans have been received real @-@ time for safety reasons and to help with general weather forecasting . The reports are coded using the synoptic code , and relayed via radio or satellite to weather organizations worldwide . Buoy reports are automated , and maintained by the country that moored the buoy in that location . Larger moored buoys are used near shore , while smaller drifting buoys are used farther out at sea .
Due to the importance of reports from the surface of the ocean , the voluntary observing ship program , known as VOS , was set up to train crews how to take weather observations while at sea and also to calibrate weather sensors used aboard ships when they arrive in port , such as barometers and thermometers . The Beaufort scale is still generally used to determine wind speed from manual observers out at sea . Ships with anemometers have issues with determining wind speeds at higher wind speeds due to blockage of the instruments by increasing high seas .
= = Use in establishing climate of a location = =
Climate , ( from Ancient Greek klima ) is commonly defined as the weather averaged over a long period of time . The standard averaging period is 30 years for an individual location , but other periods may be used . Climate includes statistics other than the average , such as the magnitudes of day @-@ to @-@ day or year @-@ to @-@ year variations . The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) glossary definition is :
Climate in a narrow sense is usually defined as the “ average weather ” , or more rigorously , as the statistical description in terms of the mean and variability of relevant quantities over a period of time ranging from months to thousands or millions of years . The classical period is 30 years , as defined by the World Meteorological Organization ( WMO ) . These quantities are most often surface variables such as temperature , precipitation , and wind . Climate in a wider sense is the state , including a statistical description , of the climate system .
The main difference between climate and everyday weather is best summarized by the popular phrase " Climate is what you expect , weather is what you get . " Over historic time spans there are a number of static variables that determine climate , including : latitude , altitude , proportion of land to water , and proximity to oceans and mountains . Degree of vegetation coverage affects solar heat absorption , water retention , and rainfall on a regional level .
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= Steve Irwin =
Stephen Robert " Steve " Irwin ( 22 February 1962 – 4 September 2006 ) , nicknamed " The Crocodile Hunter " , was an Australian wildlife expert , television personality , and conservationist . Irwin achieved worldwide fame from the television series The Crocodile Hunter , an internationally broadcast wildlife documentary series which he co @-@ hosted with his wife Terri . Together , the couple also owned and operated Australia Zoo , founded by Irwin 's parents in Beerwah , about 80 kilometres ( 50 mi ) north of the Queensland state capital city of Brisbane .
Irwin died on 4 September 2006 after being pierced in the chest by a stingray barb while filming an underwater documentary film titled Ocean 's Deadliest . The Sea Shepherd Conservation Society ship MY Steve Irwin was named in his honour .
= = Early life = =
Irwin was born on his mother 's birthday to Lyn and Bob Irwin in Essendon , a suburb of Melbourne , Victoria . He is of Irish descent on his father 's side . He moved with his parents as a child to Queensland in 1970 , where he attended Landsborough State School and Caloundra State High School . Irwin described his father as a wildlife expert interested in herpetology , while his mother Lyn was a wildlife rehabilitator . After moving to Queensland , Bob and Lyn Irwin started the small Queensland Reptile and Fauna Park , where Steve grew up around crocodiles and other reptiles .
Irwin became involved with the park in a number of ways , including taking part in daily animal feeding , as well as care and maintenance activities . On his sixth birthday , he was given a 12 @-@ foot ( 4 m ) scrub python . He began handling crocodiles at the age of nine after his father had educated him on reptiles from an early age . Also at age nine , he wrestled his first crocodile , again under his father 's supervision . He worked as a volunteer for Queensland 's East Coast Crocodile Management program and captured over 100 crocodiles , some of which were relocated , while others were housed at the family park . Irwin took over the management of the park in 1991 and renamed it Australia Zoo in 1992 .
= = Career = =
= = = Marriage and family = = =
In 1991 , Irwin met Terri Raines , an American naturalist from Eugene , Oregon , who was visiting wildlife rehabilitation facilities in Australia and had decided to visit the zoo . According to the couple , it was love at first sight . Terri said at the time , " I thought there was no one like this anywhere in the world . He sounded like an environmental Tarzan , a larger @-@ than @-@ life superhero guy . " They were engaged four months later and were married in Eugene on 4 June 1992 . Together they had two children : a daughter , Bindi Sue Irwin ( born 24 July 1998 ) , and a son , Robert Clarence " Bob " ( named after Irwin 's father ) Irwin ( born 1 December 2003 ) . Bindi Sue is jointly named after two of Steve Irwin 's favourite animals : Bindi , a saltwater crocodile , and Sui , a Staffordshire Bull Terrier who died on 23 June 2004 . Irwin was as enthusiastic about his family as he was about his work . He once described his daughter Bindi as " the reason [ he ] was put on the Earth . " His wife once said , " The only thing that could ever keep him away from the animals he loves are the people he loves even more . " Although the Irwins were happily married , they did not wear wedding rings ; they believed that in their line of work , wearing jewellery could pose a hazard to them and / or the animals .
= = = The Crocodile Hunter and related work = = =
Steve and Terri spent their honeymoon trapping crocodiles together . Film footage of their honeymoon , taken by John Stainton , became the first episode of The Crocodile Hunter . The series debuted on Australian TV screens in 1996 , and made its way onto North American television the following year . The Crocodile Hunter became successful in the United States , the UK , and over 130 other countries , reaching 500 million people . Irwin 's exuberant and enthusiastic presenting style , broad Australian accent , signature khaki shorts , and catchphrase " Crikey ! " became known worldwide . Sir David Attenborough praised Irwin for introducing many to the natural world , saying " He taught them how wonderful and exciting it was , he was a born communicator . "
American satellite and cable television channel Animal Planet ended The Crocodile Hunter with a series finale titled " Steve 's Last Adventure . " The last Crocodile Hunter documentary spanned three hours with footage of Irwin 's across @-@ the @-@ world adventure in locations including the Himalayas , the Yangtze River , Borneo , and the Kruger National Park . Irwin went on to star in other Animal Planet documentaries , including Croc Files , The Crocodile Hunter Diaries , and New Breed Vets . During a January 2006 interview on The Tonight Show with Jay Leno , Irwin announced that Discovery Kids would be developing a show for his daughter , Bindi Sue Irwin – a plan realised after his death as the series Bindi the Jungle Girl .
= = = Other television and film work = = =
In 1998 , Irwin continued , working with director Mark Strickson , to present The Ten Deadliest Snakes in the World . He appeared on several episodes of The Tonight Show with Jay Leno . A 2000 FedEx commercial with Irwin lightheartedly dealt with the possibility of occupational death from snakebite and the fanciful notion that FedEx would have saved him , if only FedEx were used .
Under Irwin 's leadership , the operations grew to include the zoo , the television series , the Steve Irwin Conservation Foundation ( later renamed Wildlife Warriors ) , and the International Crocodile Rescue . Improvements to the Australia Zoo include the Animal Planet Crocoseum , the rainforest aviary and Tiger Temple . Irwin mentioned that he was considering opening an Australia Zoo in Las Vegas , Nevada , and possibly at other sites around the world .
In 2001 , Irwin appeared in a cameo role in the Eddie Murphy film Dr. Dolittle 2 , in which an alligator warns Dolittle that he knows Irwin is going to grab him and is prepared to attack when he does , but Dolittle fails to warn Irwin in time . Irwin 's only starring feature film role was in 2002 's The Crocodile Hunter : Collision Course , which was released to mixed reviews . In the film Irwin ( who portrayed himself and performed numerous stunts ) mistakes some CIA agents for poachers . He sets out to stop them from capturing a crocodile , which , unknown to him , has actually swallowed a tracking transmitter . The film won the Best Family Feature Film award for a comedy film at the Young Artist Awards . The film was produced on a budget of about US $ 12 million , and has grossed $ 33 million . To promote the film , Irwin was featured in an animated short produced by Animax Entertainment for Intermix .
In 2002 , Irwin and his family appeared in the Wiggles video / DVD release Wiggly Safari , which was set in Australia Zoo and featured singing and dancing inspired by Australian wildlife .
In 2003 , Irwin fronted an advertising campaign for The Ghan , a passenger train operating between Adelaide , Alice Springs , and Darwin . A Pacific National NR class locomotive was named Steve Irwin as part of the campaign .
In 2005 , Irwin provided his voice for the 2006 animated film Happy Feet , as an elephant seal named Trev . The film was dedicated to Irwin , as he died during post @-@ production . Another , previously incomplete scene , featuring Irwin providing the voice of an albatross and essentially playing himself , was restored to the DVD release .
= = = Media campaigns = = =
Irwin was also involved in several media campaigns . He enthusiastically joined with the Australian Quarantine and Inspection Service to promote Australia 's strict quarantine / customs requirements , with advertisements and posters featuring slogans such as , " Quarantine Matters ! Don 't muck with it " . His payments for these advertising campaigns were directed into his wildlife fund .
In 2004 , Irwin was appointed ambassador for The Ghan , the passenger train running from Adelaide to Alice Springs in the central Australian outback , when the line was extended all the way to Darwin on the northern coast that year . For some time he was sponsored by Toyota .
Irwin was a keen promoter for Australian tourism in general and Queensland tourism in particular . In 2002 , the Australia Zoo was voted Queensland 's top tourist attraction . His immense popularity in the United States meant he often promoted Australia as a tourist destination there . As a part of the United States ' " Australia Week " celebrations in January 2006 , Irwin appeared at UCLA 's Pauley Pavilion in Los Angeles , California .
= = = Search and rescue in Mexico = = =
In November 2003 , Irwin was filming a documentary on sea lions off the coast of Baja California Peninsula in Mexico when he heard via his boat 's radio that two scuba divers were reported missing in the area . Irwin and his entire crew suspended operations to aid in the search . His team 's divers searched with the rescue divers , and Irwin used his vessel to patrol the waters around the island where the incident occurred , as well as using his satellite communications system to call in a rescue plane . On the second day of the search , kayakers found one of the divers , Scott Jones , perched on a narrow rock ledge jutting out from the side of a cliff . Irwin and a crew member escorted him to Irwin 's boat . Jones did not recognise Irwin . The other lost diver , Katie Vrooman , was found dead by a search plane later the same day not far from Jones ' location .
= = Honours = =
In 1997 , while on a fishing trip on the coast of Queensland with his father , Irwin discovered a new species of turtle . Later given the honour of naming the newly discovered species , he named it Irwin 's turtle ( Elseya irwini ) after his family . Another newly discovered Australian animal – a species of air @-@ breathing land snail , Crikey steveirwini , was named after Irwin in 2009 .
In 2001 , Irwin was awarded the Centenary Medal by the Australian government for his " service to global conservation and to Australian tourism " . In 2004 , he was recognised as Tourism Export of the Year . He was also nominated in 2004 for Australian of the Year – an honour which was won that year by Australian cricket captain Steve Waugh . Shortly before his death , Irwin was to be named an adjunct professor at the University of Queensland 's School of Integrative Biology . On 14 November 2007 , Irwin was awarded the adjunct professorship posthumously .
In May 2007 , the government of Rwanda announced that it would name a baby gorilla after Irwin as a tribute to his work in wildlife conservation . Also in 2007 , the state government of Kerala , India named the Crocodile Rehabilitation and Research Centre at Neyyar Wildlife Sanctuary in his honour ; however , Terri objected that this action had been taken without her permission and asked the Kerala government in 2009 to stop using Irwin 's name and images – a request which the state government complied with in mid @-@ 2009 .
= = Environmentalism = =
Irwin was a passionate conservationist and believed in promoting environmentalism by sharing his excitement about the natural world rather than preaching to people . He was concerned with conservation of endangered animals and land clearing leading to loss of habitat . He considered conservation to be the most important part of his work : " I consider myself a wildlife warrior . My mission is to save the world 's endangered species . " Irwin bought " large tracts of land " in Australia , Vanuatu , Fiji and the United States , which he described as " like national parks " and stressed the importance of people realising that they could each make a difference .
Irwin founded the Steve Irwin Conservation Foundation , which became an independent charity and was later renamed " Wildlife Warriors Worldwide " . He also helped found International Crocodile Rescue , the Lyn Irwin Memorial Fund ( named in memory of his mother , who died in an automobile crash in 2000 ) , and the Iron Bark Station Wildlife Rehabilitation Facility .
Irwin urged people to take part in considerate tourism and not support illegal poaching through the purchase of items such as turtle shells or shark @-@ fin soup .
Sir David Attenborough was an inspiration to Irwin , according to his widow . When presenting a Lifetime Achievement Award to Attenborough after Irwin 's death at the British National Television Awards on 31 October 2006 , Terri Irwin said , " If there 's one person who directly inspired my husband it 's the person being honoured tonight .... [ Steve 's ] real , true love was conservation – and the influence of tonight 's recipient in preserving the natural world has been immense . " Attenborough reciprocated by praising Irwin for introducing many to the natural world , saying , " He taught them how wonderful and exciting it was , he was a born communicator . "
Irwin , after his death , was described by Mark Townend , CEO of RSPCA Queensland , as a " modern @-@ day Noah . " British naturalist David Bellamy lauded his skills as a natural historian and media performer . Canadian environmentalist David Suzuki paid tribute to Irwin , noting that " [ h ] umanity will not protect that which we fear or do not understand . Steve Irwin helped us understand those things that many people thought were a nuisance at best , a horror at worst . That made him a great educator and conservationist . "
After his death , the vessel MV Robert Hunter owned by the environmental action group Sea Shepherd Conservation Society was renamed MY Steve Irwin . Shortly before his death , Irwin had been investigating joining Sea Shepherd 's 2007 – 2008 voyage to Antarctica to disrupt Japanese whaling activity . Following his death , the organisation suggested renaming their vessel , and this idea was endorsed by Terri Irwin . Regarding the ship and its new name , Terri said , " If Steve were alive , he 'd be aboard with them ! "
= = Sporting activities = =
Irwin loved mixed martial arts competitions and trained with Greg Jackson in the fighting / grappling system of Gaidojutsu .
Like many Australians , he was an avid cricket fan . This was seen during his visit to Sri Lanka where he played cricket with some local children and said " I love cricket " and " It 's a shame we have to go catch some snakes now " . This was seen during the Crocodile Hunter episode " Island of the Snakes " .
Having grown up in Essendon , Irwin was a fan of the Essendon Bombers , an Australian rules football club in the Australian Football League . Irwin took part in an Australian Rules football promotion in Los Angeles as part of " Australia Week " in early 2006 . After his death , a picture of Irwin wearing a Bombers Guernsey was shown by ESPN.com in their Bottom 10 ranking of the worst Division I FBS college football teams after Week 1 of the season in tribute to him .
Having lived in Queensland most of his life , Irwin was also a fan of rugby league . As a teenager , he played for the Caloundra Sharks as a second @-@ rower , and as an adult he was known to be a passionate Brisbane Broncos fan and was involved with the club on several occasions . On one occasion after turning up to training he asked if he could tackle the largest player , Shane Webcke . Despite being thrown to the ground and looking like he 'd been crushed he was jovial about the experience . Irwin laughingly shared the experience with the Queensland State of Origin squad before the 2006 series . Irwin also supported rugby union , being a fan of the national team , the Wallabies . He once wore a Wallaby jersey during a demonstration at the zoo . A behind @-@ the @-@ scenes episode of The Crocodile Hunter showed Irwin and the crew finding a petrol station in a remote part of Namibia to watch the Wallabies defeat France in the 1999 Rugby World Cup Final . Irwin was also a talented surfer .
= = Controversies = =
A controversial incident occurred during a public show on 2 January 2004 , when Irwin carried his one @-@ month @-@ old son , Bob , in his arm while hand @-@ feeding a chicken carcass to Murray , a 3 @.@ 8 @-@ metre ( 12 ft 6 in ) saltwater crocodile . The infant was close to the crocodile , and comparisons were made in the press to Michael Jackson 's dangling his son outside a German hotel window . In addition , some child welfare groups , animal rights groups , and some of Irwin 's television viewers criticised his actions as irresponsible and tantamount to child abuse . Irwin apologised on the US NBC show Today . Both he and his wife publicly stated that Irwin was in complete control of the situation , as he had dealt with crocodiles since he was a small child , and based on his lifetime of experience neither he nor his son was in any danger . He also showed footage of the event shot from a different angle , demonstrating that they were much farther from the crocodile than they had appeared in the publicised clip . Terri Irwin said their child was in no more danger than one being taught to swim . No charges were filed ; according to one journalist , Irwin told officials he would not repeat the action . The incident prompted the Queensland government to change its crocodile @-@ handling laws , banning children and untrained adults from entering crocodile enclosures .
In June 2004 , allegations were made that he disturbed wildlife ( namely whales , seals and penguins ) while filming a documentary , Ice Breaker , in Antarctica . The matter was subsequently closed without charges being laid .
After questions arose in 2003 about Irwin being paid $ 175 @,@ 000 worth of taxpayers ' money to appear in a television advertisement and his possible political ties , Irwin told the Australian Broadcasting Corporation ( ABC ) that he was a conservationist and did not choose sides in politics . His comments describing Australian Prime Minister John Howard as the " greatest leader in the world " earned him scorn in the media .
Irwin was criticised for having an unsophisticated view of conservation in Australia that seemed more linked to tourism than to the problems Australia faces as a continent . In response to questions of Australia 's problems with overgrazing , salinity , and erosion , Irwin responded , " Cows have been on our land for so long that Australia has evolved to handle those big animals . " The Sydney Morning Herald concluded with the opinion that his message was confusing and amounted to " eating roos and crocs is bad for tourism , and therefore more cruel than eating other animals " .
Criticism of Irwin 's career following his death came from Dan Mathews , vice @-@ president of the animal rights group People for the Ethical Treatment of Animals . Comparing Irwin to a " cheap reality TV star " , Mathews accused him of " antagonising frightened wild animals ... a very dangerous message to send to children " , contrasted his methods with the behaviour of " a responsible conservationist like Jacques Cousteau " , and said it was " no shock at all that Steve Irwin should die provoking a dangerous animal . " The son of Jacques Cousteau , Jean @-@ Michel Cousteau — also a producer of wildlife documentaries — took issue with Irwin 's " very , very spectacular , dramatic way of presenting things " and suggested instead that " You don 't touch nature , you just look at it . " Jacques Cousteau 's grandson and Jean @-@ Michel 's nephew , Philippe Cousteau , Jr . , on the other hand , called Irwin " a remarkable individual " ; describing the Ocean 's Deadliest project ( on which he worked along with Irwin ) , Philippe said , " I think why Steve was so excited about it that we were looking at these animals that people think of as , you know , dangerous and deadly monsters , and they 're not . They all have an important place in the environment and in the world . And that was what his whole message was about . "
= = Death = =
On 4 September 2006 Irwin was on location at Batt Reef , near Port Douglas , Queensland , taking part in the production of the documentary series Ocean 's Deadliest . During a lull in filming caused by inclement weather , Irwin decided to snorkel in shallow waters while being filmed in an effort to provide footage for his daughter 's television programme .
While swimming in chest @-@ deep water , Irwin approached a stingray with an approximate span of two metres ( 6 @.@ 5 ft ) from the rear , in order to film it swimming away .
According to the incident 's only witness , “ All of a sudden [ the stingray ] propped on its front and started stabbing wildly with its tail . Hundreds of strikes in a few seconds ” . Irwin initially believed he only had a punctured lung ; the stingray 's barb pierced his heart , causing him to bleed to death . The stingray 's behaviour appeared to have been a defensive response to being boxed in . Crew members aboard Irwin 's boat administered CPR and rushed him to shore . Medical staff pronounced him dead at the scene .
Irwin 's death is believed to be the only fatality from a stingray ever captured on video .
Footage of the incident was viewed by Queensland state police as part their mandatory investigations . All copies of the footage were then destroyed at the behest of Irwin 's family . Production was completed on Ocean 's Deadliest , which was broadcast in the US on the Discovery Channel on 21 January 2007 . The documentary was completed with footage shot in the weeks following the accident , but without including any mention of Irwin 's accidental death .
= = = Reactions = = =
News of Irwin 's death prompted reactions around the world . Then @-@ Prime Minister John Howard expressed " shock and distress " at the death , saying that " Australia has lost a wonderful and colourful son . " Queensland 's then @-@ Premier Peter Beattie remarked that Irwin would " be remembered as not just a great Queenslander , but a great Australian " . The Australian federal parliament opened on 5 September 2006 with condolence speeches by both Howard and the Leader of the Opposition , Kim Beazley . Flags at the Sydney Harbour Bridge were lowered to half mast in honour of Irwin . In the days following Irwin 's death , reactions dominated Australian online news sources , talk @-@ back radio programmes , and television networks . In the United States , where Irwin had appeared in over 200 Discovery Network television programmes , special tributes appeared on the Animal Planet channel , as well as on CNN and major TV talk shows . Thousands of Irwin 's fans visited Australia Zoo after his death , paying their respects and bringing flowers , candles , stuffed animals and messages of support .
In the weeks following Irwin 's death , at least ten stingrays were found dead and mutilated on the beaches of Queensland , with their tails cut off , prompting speculation as to whether they might have been killed by fans of Irwin as an act of revenge , although , according to the chairman of the Queensland fishing information service , anglers regularly cut the tails off accidentally caught stingrays to avoid being stung . Michael Hornby , a friend of Irwin and executive director of his Wildlife Warrior fund , condemned any revenge killings , saying that " We just want to make it very clear that we will not accept and not stand for anyone who 's taken a form of retribution . That 's the last thing Steve would want . "
= = = Funeral and memorial services = = =
Family and friends of Irwin held a private funeral service in Caloundra on 9 September 2006 . Irwin was buried in a private ceremony at Australia Zoo later that same day ; the grave site is inaccessible to the zoo 's visitors . Prime Minister Howard and Queensland Premier Beattie had offered to hold a state funeral , but Irwin 's family decided this would not be appropriate and — in the words of his father — he would have preferred to be remembered as an " ordinary bloke " .
On 20 September , a public memorial service , introduced by Russell Crowe , was held in Australia Zoo 's 5 @,@ 500 @-@ seat Crocoseum ; this service was broadcast live throughout Australia , the United States , the UK , Germany , and Asia , and it is estimated to have been seen by over 300 million viewers worldwide . The memorial included remarks by Prime Minister Howard ; Irwin 's father Bob and daughter Bindi ; his associates Wes Mannion and John Stainton ; and celebrities from Australia and around the world . Anthony Field of The Wiggles partly hosted the service , often sharing the screen with various animals , from koalas to elephants . Australian music star John Williamson sang " True Blue " , which was Irwin 's favourite song . In a symbolic finish to the service , Irwin 's truck was loaded up with gear and driven out of the arena for the last time as Williamson sang . As a final tribute , Australia Zoo staff spelled out Irwin 's catchphrase " Crikey " in yellow flowers as Irwin 's truck was driven from the Crocoseum for the last time to end the service .
= = Related events = =
On 1 January 2007 , Glass House Mountains Road , the road that runs by the Australia Zoo , was officially renamed Steve Irwin Way .
The Australian government announced in July 2007 that a 135 @,@ 000 @-@ hectare ( 334 @,@ 000 @-@ acre ) national park was being created in northern Queensland and would be named the Steve Irwin Wildlife Reserve .
An asteroid discovered in 2001 has been named 57567 Crikey in honour of Irwin and his " signature phrase " .
= = Filmography = =
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= See You Again ( Miley Cyrus song ) =
" See You Again " is the debut single by American recording artist Miley Cyrus . It was recorded for Hannah Montana 2 : Meet Miley Cyrus ( 2007 ) , the second soundtrack album from the Disney Channel original series Hannah Montana and the debut studio album of Cyrus . It was written by Cyrus ( credited as Destiny Hope Cyrus ) with the song 's producers Antonina Armato and Tim James . It was released as the lead single from the album by Hollywood Records . Later , it was remixed by Rock Mafia and released on August 25 , 2008 by Hollywood Records , as the second single from Cyrus ' second studio album , Breakout ( 2008 ) . Musically , the track is a dance @-@ pop number that contains influences from various musical genres , including electronic music . Lyrically , the track speaks of teenage romance .
" See You Again " was a critical success , with contemporary critics praising its musical composition and vocal delivery . To follow , it also became Cyrus ' first commercially successful single . The song introduced her to new audiences and new countries , paving the way for future hits . " See You Again " became Cyrus ' best @-@ charting single at the time by peaking at number ten on the Billboard Hot 100 . Its highest peak internationally was at number four on the Canadian Hot 100 . Although an official music video for the song was never filmed , it was given a promotional music video , taken from a performance at the 2007 Disney Channel Games . The song was promoted through a multitude of live television performances . It was included on the set list of Cyrus ' headlining tours , the Best of Both Worlds Tour ( 2007 – 08 ) , the Wonder World Tour ( 2009 ) and the Gypsy Heart Tour ( 2011 ) . " See You Again " has been covered by various notable artists , including Little Boots and Breathe Carolina . Even without a music video , the song managed to peak at 10 in the US and sold 2 @.@ 5 million copies .
= = Background = =
When Cyrus starred as Miley Stewart , a girl with a secret double life as the popstar Hannah Montana , on the Disney Channel television series Hannah Montana , she developed fame as a teen idol and released the series ' first soundtrack while being credited to Hannah Montana . In late 2006 , Cyrus began execution for her debut album . Cyrus ' debut studio album Meet Miley Cyrus was attached to the series ' second soundtrack , Hannah Montana 2 , and released as the second disc of the Hannah Montana 2 : Meet Miley Cyrus ( 2007 ) double @-@ disc album . " See You Again " was written by Cyrus , who was credited to her birth name Destiny Hope Cyrus , Antonina Armato , and Tim James . The writing group has executed numerous songs recorded by Cyrus , contributing to a large part of three of her five studio albums .
When composing tracks for Meet Miley Cyrus , Cyrus was originally very apprehensive in regards to adding " See You Again " to the album . " I 'm not sure about this song . I don 't think I want to put it on the album . I don 't really like it that much . It 's just O.K. " , she said . However , she was convinced to record it and , once she listened to the finished product , she changed her mind . She thought it was odd , but in a positive light , and decided to include it on her debut album . Cyrus says " See You Again " is a dance song with a special meaning to her . The song was remixed by Rock Mafia for the release of Cyrus ' second studio album Breakout ( 2008 ) .
= = Composition = =
" See You Again " is a pop rock song with a length of three minutes and ten seconds . The songs contains numerous influences from electronic , new wave , and techno music . The song is set in the time signature of common time and has a fast tempo of 138 beats per minute . It is written in the key of A minor and Cyrus ' vocals span one octave , from G3 to A4 . Throughout the song , Cyrus ' edgy and sultry vocal performance maintains in the contralto range . The lyrics of " See You Again " are about a teenage romance . In verses , Cyrus discusses her sentiments and perceptions about her love interest , such as believing the couple had previously encountered in a previous incarnation . " See You Again " ' s refrains detail previous scenes of an encounter between the couple : " The last time I freaked out / I just kept looking down / I st @-@ st @-@ stuttered when you asked me what I ’ m thinking ‘ bout . " Towards the conclusion of the refrains , Cyrus vows to redeem herself .
= = Critical reception = =
Chuck Taylor of Billboard felt that , by offering meaningful airplay to " See You Again " , mainstream radio stations were getting with the program . Taylor described the song " a sassy , uptempo stinger that adds appealing youthful buzz to the airwaves " and complimented Cyrus ' vocals with comparisons with Hilary Duff and Avril Lavigne . " Cyrus [ ... ] at last adds the missing link to TV and movie acclaim . Alas , FM , better late than never " , he concluded . Sal Cinquemani of Slant Magazine said , " The Hannah Montana star 's 2007 single ' See You Again ' managed to click with non @-@ tween listeners thanks [ to being ] gustier than anything her fellow Disney Channel superstar Hilary Duff has ever put to digital .
Mikael Wood of The Los Angeles Times believed the song was " no shortage of crafty tween @-@ rock gems " . Ash Dosanjh of Yahoo ! Music believed the Rock Mafia remix of the song was a so " glorious " that it signaled Breakout would do exactly that . Josh Timmermann of PopMatters referred to the remix as the best song on Breakout , describing it as a " marvelous slice of teenaged life set to club rock beats . " Timmermann continued to praise the track , saying it felt " infinitely more genuine and thoughtful than " any other track on Breakout and that the small @-@ time teen drama fit Cyrus ' voice . " It sounds far less ludicrously melodramatic than it might have delivered by less forceful pipes " , he concluded . George Lang of The Oklahoman thought the inclusion of the song 's remix on Breakout was used to cover more musical genres in order to appeal to a wider fanbase . In 2008 , the track was listed as a " Winning Song " by Broadcast Music Incorporated ( BMI ) .
= = Commercial performance = =
On the week ending December 22 , 2007 , " See You Again " debuted at number 94 on the Billboard Hot 100 . In the succeeding week , the song ascended to number 78 and , on the week ending February 16 , 2008 , it charted at its newfound peak of number 17 , therefore becoming Cyrus ' best @-@ charting effort on the Billboard Hot 100 , surpassing the Hannah Montana @-@ credited " Life 's What You Make It " , which peaked at number 25 in August 2007 . On the week ending May 3 , 2008 , " See You Again " became Cyrus ' first top ten single by reaching its peak at number ten on the Billboard Hot 100 . " See You Again " spent a total of 27 weeks upon the chart . It also peaked at number four on Mainstream Top 40 ( Pop Songs ) and number twenty @-@ one on Adult Pop Songs in the United States . The song entered at number 86 and peaked at number four on the Canadian Hot 100 , its highest peak internationally . As of August 2013 , " See You Again " has sold 2 @,@ 456 @,@ 000 copies in the United States .
In Australia , " See You Again " debuted at number 25 on the week ending June 22 , 2008 . The following week , it ascended to number ten and , after five weeks of ascending the top ten , reached its peak at number six , where it remained for three consecutive weeks . The single was certified platinum by the Australian Recording Industry Association ( ARIA ) for the sale of over 70 @,@ 000 copies . On the week ending August 4 , 2008 , " See You Again " debuted at number 32 on the New Zealand Singles Chart . It eventually peaked at number 11 and was certified gold by the Recording Industry Association of New Zealand ( RIANZ ) for the shipment of 7 @,@ 500 copies . In the United Kingdom , the track peaked at number 11 . The song is tied with " The Climb " and " Party in the U.S.A. " , which charted in March and November 2009 , respectively , for Cyrus ' best @-@ charting effort in the United Kingdom . Elsewhere in Europe , " See You Again " peaked at number 38 on the Eurochart Hot 100 Singles , number 14 on the Irish Singles Chart and number seven on the Hungarian Singles Chart .
= = Live performances = =
Cyrus performed " See You Again " live on the 2007 Disney Channel Games held on April 27 at Walt Disney World in Orlando , Florida , as part of Disney Channel 's summer @-@ season activities . She wore a yellow and black @-@ striped tank top , black and white @-@ plaid skirt , high knee socks , and black sneakers in the performance . Cyrus also performed the song on Idol Gives Back , as she continued to promote the single in the United States . " See You Again " was also a part of the set list for Cyrus ' first headlining concert tour , the Best of Both Worlds Tour ( 2007 – 08 ) . Cyrus was costumed in a white tank top , studded jeans , and metallic accessories . Cyrus and several backup dancers began the performance on the upper level of the stage , where they proceeded down a ramp as they perform dance routines . Cyrus and the backup dancers roamed throughout the stage for the remainder of the performance . Jane Stevenson of the Canadian Online Explorer listed " See You Again " as one of the highlights at the concert at Air Canada Centre on December 15 , 2007 , in Toronto , Canada . She said that Cyrus ' wardrobe indicated that " Miley , it turns out , is the marginally tougher cookie of the two singers . "
Cyrus performed " See You Again " at the opening of the 2008 Disney Channel Games , held on May 4 , 2008 . During the performance , which a recording of was used as a promotional music video for the Rock Mafia release , Cyrus was dressed in a white vest and white pants . In 2008 , Cyrus performed the song at the 2008 Zootopia , Good Morning America , The Today Show , and BBC Switch in the United Kingdom . Cyrus performed " See You Again " , dressed in casual clothing , on the Kids ' Inaugural : " We Are the Future " event . The event was held on January 19 , 2009 , in Washington D.C. at the Verizon Center to celebrate the inauguration of Barack Obama as President of the United States . Cyrus performed the song along with several other songs on April 24 , 2009 in a London Apple Store . These performances were recorded and sold exclusively by the United Kingdom iTunes Store as a live extended play titled iTunes Live from London . The song has been performed at the twentieth annual A Time for Heroes Celebrity Carnival , Rock in Rio concerts in Lisbon , Portugal , and Madrid , Spain , the 1515 Club in Paris , France , Heaven and G @-@ A @-@ Y in London , England .
The song was also used as the penultimate number of Cyrus ' Wonder World Tour ( 2009 ) , her first world tour . The performances began with backup dancers in bodysuits marching as they emerged from the bottom of the stage . The banging of a gong announced Cyrus ' arrival . She dressed in a white tank top and shorts , boots , and a metallic vest . Cyrus and the multiple backup dancers performed elaborate dance routines as images on overhead screens depicted geometric patterns . The dancers exited the stage by throwing themselves inside the stage as Cyrus prepared for the next performance . Mikael Wood of The Los Angeles Times , who attended the September 22 , 2009 , concert at the Staples Center in Los Angeles , California , referred to the performance of " See You Again " as an uptempo highlight that was , however , unable " to give her fans a deeper idea of who she is and what her music means " .
= = Cover versions = =
English electropop singer Little Boots recorded a cover version of " See You Again " that surfaced the Internet in December 2008 . In an interview with Digital Spy , Little Boots said , " That 's a wicked song ! The line ' My best friend Lesley said , " Oh she 's just being Miley " ' is awesome . Me and my friend have been obsessing over that lyrics for ages now , it 's getting ridiculous ! " Breathe Carolina 's act consisted of a balance of pop punk and rock music , which stood out to their record label , Fearless Records . Because of it , Fearless Records decided to reserve a spot for them on their upcoming compilation Punk Goes Pop 2 ( 2009 ) , where they performed a cover version of " See You Again " , produced by Mike Green . Breathe Carolina included their version of " See You Again " in their set list for the Warped Tour 2009 . The cover later appeared on the deluxe edition of the band 's second studio album Hello Fascination ( 2010 ) .
= = Release history = =
= = Charts = =
= = Certifications = =
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= 2 / 31st Battalion ( Australia ) =
The 2 / 31st Battalion was an infantry battalion of the Australian Army that served during World War II . It was raised in June 1940 and was assigned to the 25th Brigade , 7th Division . It initially served in the United Kingdom where it undertook defensive duties before being moved to the Middle East in 1941 . After taking part in the fighting in Syria and Lebanon , the battalion undertook garrison duties around Tripoli before being transferred back to Australia in 1942 . In late 1942 the battalion was sent to New Guinea to fight against the Japanese along the Kokoda Track . They subsequently fought a number of battles throughout 1942 , 1943 and early 1944 . Their last campaign came in mid @-@ 1945 when they landed on Borneo . After the war the battalion was disbanded in March 1946 .
= = History = =
= = = Formation = = =
The battalion was formed in the United Kingdom on 27 June 1940 from Second Australian Imperial Force ( 2nd AIF ) personnel that had originally been designated for service in non @-@ infantry roles who were grouped together to form an infantry battalion . Initially designated as the " 70th Battalion " , due to manpower shortages at first it was composed of only three rifle companies instead of the normal establishment of four . Under the command of Lieutenant Colonel Horace Strutt the battalion was initially based at Tidworth . In August 1940 , Strutt was replaced with Lieutenant Colonel Ragnar Garrett as commanding officer . In October 1940 , the battalion 's designation was changed to the " 2 / 31st Battalion " in order to bring it in line with the designations of the rest of the 2nd AIF , and it moved to Colchester . In November , the battalion was assigned to the 25th Brigade . It was during this time the battalion suffered its first casualty , when one of its members was killed in a German air raid . While in England the battalion undertook training and was employed on defensive duties , guarding against a possible invasion by German forces .
The circumstances of the battalion 's establishment overseas resulted in the situation of the battalion 's personnel being issued two different Unit Colour Patches ( UCP ) . Personnel who were in the United Kingdom at the end of 1940 were issued with a circular UCP consisting of black over red , with a border of grey . However , this UCP was issued without reference to Army Headquarters in Australia , who issued battalion reinforcements in Australia with a UCP consisting of an upright brown and yellow rectangle inside a grey circle : this was intended to link the battalion to the 31st Battalion , which had served during World War I. Upon arrival in the Middle East , though , these patches were replaced with the black and red patches .
= = = Middle East = = =
In January 1941 , with the threat of invasion of England reduced , it was decided to send the 2nd AIF units there to the Middle East and the battalion arrived in Egypt in March 1941 . Following this the battalion moved to Palestine where it undertook further training and received a draft of reinforcements which enabled it to raise a fourth company in order to bring it up to establishment . Having been transferred to the 7th Division , the battalion took up defensive positions around Mersa Matruh before taking part in the Syria @-@ Lebanon campaign , during which it took part in several battles .
The first of these came in early June , when the battalion captured the town of Khirbe in Lebanon , before advancing towards Jezzine . On 13 June , the 2 / 31st , supported by a troop from the 7th Division Cavalry Regiment , crossed the Litani River bridge and led the advance . Coming under fire from Vichy French troops on the hills overlooking the town , the battalion suffered a number of casualties , including its commanding officer , Lieutenant Colonel Selwyn Porter . After clearing the French from the main position around Green Hill , Jezzine was finally secured . Between 15 and 29 June , the French brought up reinforcements and subsequently launched a series of counterattacks against the Australians . On 17 June , a French attack at Jezzine was repulsed . The 2 / 31st then launched an unsuccessful attack on " Hill 1332 " , a key feature in the area , during which they lost seven killed and 22 wounded . The following day a further 17 men were killed when French aircraft attacked the battalion 's positions around the Hotel Egypt . Throughout the rest of the month , fighting continued around Jezzine until on 29 June the Vichy French began to withdraw .
In early July the 2 / 31st commenced operations to the north of Jezzine with the aim of securing the high ground around Amatour and Badarane . On the night of 9 / 10 July they advanced up steep terrain under the cover of a heavy artillery barrage . During the fighting that followed , one of the battalion 's members , Private James Gordon , performed the deeds for which he subsequently received the Victoria Cross , crawling forward and single @-@ handedly attacking a French post that was holding up his company 's advance .
On 12 July an armistice was signed between the Allies and the Vichy French . Following this , the battalion established itself at Amchite where they undertook occupation duties until mid @-@ September when the 25th Brigade received orders to move to Tripoli . The 2 / 31st Battalion was assigned the task of fortifying Jebel Tourbel , about 10 miles ( 16 km ) north of Tripoli . Upon completion of this task , the battalion undertook defensive duties there until February 1942 .
= = = New Guinea campaigns 1942 – 44 = = =
Due to concerns about the entry of Japan into the war in the Pacific , the battalion was brought back to Australia in early 1942 . Departing Port Tewfik on 9 February on the MV Vernon , the battalion arrived at Port Adelaide , South Australia , on 9 March and moved to Camp Woodside . In early April they conducted a road and rail move to Casino , New South Wales , where a weeks ' leave was granted before moving on to Caboolture , Queensland . During this time the battalion undertook defensive duties securing the northern approach to Brisbane during the Battle of the Coral Sea . From June they began jungle training in preparation for deployment to New Guinea in September where the units of the Militia had been fighting a delaying campaign against the Japanese along the Kokoda Track .
On 31 August , under the command of Lieutenant Colonel Colin Dunbar , the battalion was moved to Brisbane where they embarked upon the Cremer bound for Port Moresby . Arriving there on 9 September , the battalion received orders to proceed towards the Owen Stanley Range . They arrived at Ioribaiwa on 15 September , however , almost as soon as they arrived they were forced to pull back to Imita Ridge . The Japanese , however , had exhausted their supply lines and were unable to follow and thus the Australian force was able to begin its own advance . On 1 November , the 2 / 31st was in the vanguard as it entered the village of Kokoda . Following this , Dunbar handed over command of the battalion to Lieutenant Colonel James Miller , and under his command the battalion took part in significant battles at Gorari and Gona . In December , however , Miller died from scrub typhus , and has the casualties from combat and disease mounted the battalion was eventually withdrawn from the fighting to Port Moresby from where it embarked to return to Australia in January 1943 . By the end of the battalion 's involvement in the campaign , only 55 men were fit for duty .
Following six months of training and re @-@ organisation in Australia , the 2 / 31st returned to New Guinea in July 1943 where , under the command of Lieutenant Colonel Murray Robson who had previously served as second in command , they took part in the Salamaua @-@ Lae campaign , before carrying out patrolling operations through the Markham Valley and into the Finisterre Range as part of the Finisterre Range campaign . After having been relieved by the 24th Battalion in January 1944 , the 2 / 31st was once again withdrawn to Australia , arriving there in February to reconstitute and train for the next phase of the war .
= = = Borneo 1945 = = =
After this the battalion spent over a year training on the Atherton Tablelands in Queensland before moving to Morotai and then later taking part in the landing at Balikpapan along with the rest of the 7th Division in one of the last Australian campaigns of the war . Landing at Green Beach on 2 July 1945 , the second day of the operation , the 2 / 31st went ashore unopposed and moved inland , taking up positions in the centre of the Australian line around a location called " Ration " . After establishing themselves on the hill , later in the day they were struck by airburst artillery before commencing clearing patrols and occupying a smaller feature known as " Resort " . The following day the battalion commenced operations along the Milford Highway , as the Japanese began to withdraw towards Batuchampar . Attacking Japanese positions around the " Nobody " and " Nurse " features , the 2 / 31st encountered heavy opposition from the Japanese defenders . Having lost 50 men killed or wounded , the battalion occupied the positions on 4 July , after the Japanese withdrew , having lost 63 killed .
Following this , the Australians advanced along the open country along the Milford Highway . Relying heavily upon direct and indirect fire support to suppress the Japanese positions along the numerous ridges that lay astride the axis of advance , the going was slow . By 9 July the open country of the coast turned to thick bush and the Australians began to encounter improvised explosive devices and booby traps in the scrub . Early on 10 July , a company from the 2 / 31st Battalion launched a successful attack which saw them capture 12 3 @-@ inch naval guns that were being used as part of the Japanese defensive system for the loss of five wounded . Late in the afternoon , while fighting around the " Coke " feature , the battalion suffered a serious setback when a company was ambushed , resulting in 18 killed and 23 wounded .
A brief period of inactivity followed before the advance continued . On 26 July , as a result of the casualties that they had suffered earlier in the month , the battalion was withdrawn from the fighting and moved to the rear . Although they undertook security duties , they did not see action again before the war ended on 15 August 1945 . During the fighting around Balikpapan the 2 / 31st Battalion suffered the highest number of casualties of any Allied unit deployed in the Borneo campaign , losing 44 men killed and 134 wounded .
= = = Disbandment = = =
Following the end of the war , the battalion remained in Borneo . Initially they were stationed around Bandjermasin where they undertook garrison duties , but in October 1945 they were moved to Balikpapan . At this time , the demobilisation process began and some of the battalion 's long serving personnel were offered the opportunity to return to Australia . Others were transferred to the 65th Battalion , which was being raised as part of the Australian contribution to the British Commonwealth Occupation Force . On 31 January 1946 , the remaining personnel embarked upon HMAS Kanimbla , for the return to Australia . They landed in Brisbane in February 1946 , where the battalion was disbanded early the following month .
During the course of the war a total of 2 @,@ 660 men served in the 2 / 31st Battalion of whom 251 were killed or died and 479 wounded . Members of the battalion received the following decorations : one Victoria Cross , three Distinguished Service Orders , four Military Crosses , one Distinguished Conduct Medal , 20 Military Medals and 25 Mentions in Despatches .
= = Battle honours = =
The 2 / 31st Battalion received 22 battle honours for its service during World War II . These honours are :
Syria 1941 , Syrian Frontier , Merjayun , Jezzine , Damour , Hill 1069 , Baradene , South @-@ West Pacific 1942 – 1945 , Kokoda Trail , Ioribaiwa , Eora Creek – Templeton 's Crossing II , Oivi – Gorari , Buna – Gona , Gona , Lae – Nadzab , Lae Road , Liberation of Australian New Guinea , Ramu Valley , Shaggy Ridge , Borneo 1945 , Balikpapan , Milford Highway .
= = Commanding officers = =
The following officers served as commanding officer of the 2 / 31st Battalion :
Lieutenant Colonel Horace Strutt ( 1940 ) ;
Lieutenant Colonel Ragnar Garrett ( 1940 – 41 ) ;
Lieutenant Colonel Selwyn Porter ( 1941 ) ;
Lieutenant Colonel Reg Pollard ( 1941 ) ;
Lieutenant Colonel Selwyn Porter ( 1941 – 42 ) ;
Lieutenant Colonel Colin Dunbar ( 1942 ) ;
Lieutenant Colonel James Miller ( 1942 ) ;
Lieutenant Colonel Murray Robson ( 1942 – 46 ) .
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= Fritz the Cat ( film ) =
Fritz the Cat is a 1972 American animated comedy film written and directed by Ralph Bakshi . It was Bakshi 's feature film debut and is loosely based on the Fritz the Cat comic strips by Robert Crumb . It was the first animated feature film to receive an X rating in the United States .
The film stars Fritz ( voiced by Skip Hinnant ) , an anthropomorphic cat in mid @-@ 1960s New York City who explores the ideals of hedonism and sociopolitical consciousness . The film is a satire focusing on American college life of the era , race relations , the free love movement , and left- and right @-@ wing politics .
The film had a troubled production history and controversial release . Crumb had disagreements with the filmmakers over the film 's political content . Fritz the Cat was controversial for its rating and content , which many viewers at the time found to be offensive . It was produced on a budget of $ 850 @,@ 000 and grossed over $ 90 million worldwide . Its success led to a slew of other X @-@ rated animated films and a sequel , The Nine Lives of Fritz the Cat ( 1974 ) , made without Crumb 's or Bakshi 's involvement .
= = Plot = =
In a New York City park , hippies have gathered with guitars to sing protest songs . Fritz and his buddies show up in an attempt to meet girls . When a trio of attractive females walk by , Fritz and his friends exhaust themselves trying to get their attention , but find that the girls are more interested in the crow standing a few feet away . The girls attempt to flirt with the crow , making unintentionally condescending remarks about blacks , while Fritz looks on in annoyance . Suddenly , the crow rebukes the girls with a snide remark and walks away . Fritz invites the girls to " seek the truth " , bringing them up to his friend 's apartment , where a wild party is taking place . Since the other rooms are crowded , Fritz drags the girls into the bathroom and the four of them have group sex in the bathtub . Meanwhile , the police ( portrayed as pigs ) arrive to raid the party . As the two officers walk up the stairs , one of the partygoers finds Fritz and the girls in the bath tub . Several others jump in , pushing Fritz to the side where he takes solace in marijuana . The two officers break into the apartment , but find that it is empty because everyone has moved into the bathroom . Fritz takes refuge in the toilet when one of the pigs enters the bathroom and begins to beat up the partygoers . As the pig becomes exhausted , a very stoned Fritz jumps out , grabs the pig 's gun , and shoots the toilet , causing the water main to break and flooding everybody out of the apartment . The pigs chase Fritz down the street into a synagogue . Fritz manages to escape when the congregation gets up to celebrate the United States ' decision to send more weapons into Israel .
Fritz makes it back to his dormitory , where his roommates ignore him . He decides to ditch his bore of a life and sets all of his notes and books on fire . The fire spreads throughout the dorm , finally setting the entire building ablaze . In a bar in Harlem , Fritz meets Duke the Crow at a billiard table . After narrowly avoiding getting into a fight with the bartender , Duke invites Fritz to " bug out " , and they steal a car , which Fritz drives off a bridge , leading Duke to save his life by grabbing onto a railing . The two arrive at the apartment of a drug dealer named Bertha , whose cannabis joints increase Fritz 's libido . While having sex with Bertha , he comes to a realization that he " must tell the people about the revolution ! " He runs off into the city street and incites a riot , during which Duke is shot and killed .
Fritz hides in an alley where his older fox girlfriend , Winston Schwartz , finds him and drags him on a road trip to San Francisco . When the car runs out of gas in the middle of the desert , he decides to abandon her . He later meets up with Blue , a heroin @-@ addicted rabbit biker . Along with Blue 's horse girlfriend , Harriet , they take a ride to an underground hide @-@ out where several other revolutionaries tell Fritz of their plan to blow up a power station . When Harriet tries to get Blue to leave , he hits her several times and ties her down with a chain . When Fritz objects to their treatment of her , he is hit in the face with a candle by a member of the group . After setting the dynamite at the power plant , Fritz suddenly has a change of heart , and unsuccessfully attempts to remove it before being caught in the explosion . At a Los Angeles hospital , Harriet ( disguised as a nun ) and the girls from the New York park come to comfort him in what they believe to be his last moments . Fritz , after reciting the speech he used to pick up the girls from New York , becomes revitalized and has sex with the trio of girls while Harriet watches in astonishment .
= = Cast = =
Skip Hinnant as Fritz the Cat
Rosetta LeNoire as Big Bertha / Additional voices
John McCurry as Duke / Additional voices
Judy Engles as Winston Schwartz / Lizard Leader
Phil Seuling as Pig Cop # 2 / Additional voices
Ralph Bakshi ( uncredited ) as Pig Cop # 1 / Narrator
Mary Dean ( uncredited ) as Girl # 1 / Girl # 2 / Girl # 3 / Harriet
Charles Spidar ( uncredited ) as Bar Patron / Duke the Crow
= = Background = =
Robert Crumb ( b . 1943 ) was still a teenager when he created the character Fritz the Cat for self @-@ published comics magazines he made with his older brother Charles . The character first appeared to a wider public in Harvey Kurtzman 's humor magazine Help ! in 1965 . The strips place anthropomorphic characters — normally associated with children 's comics — in stories with drugs , sex , and other adult @-@ oriented content . Crumb left his wife in 1967 and moved to San Francisco , where he took part in the counterculture and indulged in drugs such as LSD . He had countercultural strips published in underground periodicals and in 1968 published the first issue of Zap Comix . Crumb 's cartoons became progressively more transgressive , sexually explicit , and violent , and Crumb became the center of the burgeoning underground comix movement . Fritz became one of Crumb 's best @-@ known creations , particularly outside the counterculture .
Ralph Bakshi majored in cartooning at the High School of Art and Design . He learned his trade at the Terrytoons studio in New York City , where he spent ten years animating characters such as Mighty Mouse , Heckle and Jeckle , and Deputy Dawg . At the age of 29 , Bakshi was hired to head the animation division of Paramount Pictures as both writer and director , where he produced four experimental short films before the studio closed in 1967 . With producer Steve Krantz , Bakshi founded his own studio , Bakshi Productions . In 1969 , Ralph 's Spot was founded as a division of Bakshi Productions to produce commercials for Coca @-@ Cola and Max , the 2000 @-@ Year @-@ Old Mouse , a series of educational shorts paid for by Encyclopædia Britannica . However , Bakshi was uninterested in the kind of animation he was producing , and wanted to produce something personal . Bakshi was quoted in a 1971 article for the Los Angeles Times as saying that the idea of " grown men sitting in cubicles drawing butterflies floating over a field of flowers , while American planes are dropping bombs in Vietnam and kids are marching in the streets , is ludicrous . " Bakshi soon developed Heavy Traffic , a tale of inner @-@ city street life . However , Krantz told Bakshi that studio executives would be unwilling to fund the film because of its content and Bakshi 's lack of film experience .
While browsing the East Side Book Store on St. Mark 's Place , Bakshi came across a copy of R. Crumb 's Fritz the Cat ( 1969 ) . Impressed by Crumb 's sharp satire , Bakshi purchased the book and suggested to Krantz that it would work as a film . Bakshi was interested in directing the film because he felt that Crumb 's work was the closest to his own . Krantz arranged a meeting with Crumb , during which Bakshi showed Crumb drawings that had been created as the result of Bakshi attempting to learn Crumb 's style to prove that he could translate the look of Crumb 's artwork to animation . Impressed by Bakshi 's tenacity , Crumb lent him one of his sketchbooks as a reference .
As Krantz began to prepare the paperwork , preparation began on a pitch presentation for potential studios , including a poster @-@ sized painted cel setup featuring the strip 's cast against a traced photo background , as Bakshi intended the film to appear . In spite of Crumb 's enthusiasm , he was unsure about the film 's production , and refused to sign the contract . Cartoonist Vaughn Bodé warned Bakshi against working with Crumb , describing him as " slick " . Bakshi later agreed with Bodé 's assessment , calling Crumb " one of the slickest hustlers you 'll ever see in your life " . Krantz sent Bakshi to San Francisco , where Bakshi stayed with Crumb and his wife Dana in an attempt to persuade Crumb to sign the contract . After a week , Crumb left , leaving the film 's production status uncertain , but Dana had power of attorney and signed the contract . Crumb received US $ 50 @,@ 000 , which was delivered throughout different phases of the production , in addition to ten percent of Krantz 's take .
= = Production = =
= = = Funding and distribution = = =
With the rights to the character , Krantz and Bakshi set out to find a distributor . " When I say that every major distributor turned it down , this is not an exaggeration " , remembers Krantz . " There has never been a project that was received with less enthusiasm . Animation is essentially a dirty word for distributors , who think that only Disney can paint a tree , and in addition to that , Fritz was so far out that there was a failure to understand that we were onto something very important . "
In the spring of 1970 , Warner Bros. agreed to fund and distribute the film . The Harlem sequences were the first completed . Krantz intended to release these scenes as a 15 @-@ minute short in case the film 's funding was pulled ; Bakshi was nevertheless determined to complete the film as a feature . Late in November , Bakshi and Krantz screened a presentation reel for the studio with this sequence , pencil tests , and shots of Bakshi 's storyboards . Bakshi stated , " You should have seen their faces in the screening room when I first screened a bit of Fritz . I 'll remember their faces until I die . One of them left the room . Holy hell , you should have seen his face . ' Shut up , Frank ! This is not the movie you 're allowed to make ! ' And I said , Bullshit , I just made it . "
Warner executives wanted the sexual content toned down celebrities cast for the voices . Bakshi refused , and Warner pulled their funding from the film , leading Krantz to seek funds elsewhere . This led to a deal with Jerry Gross , the owner of Cinemation Industries , a distributor specializing in exploitation films . Although Bakshi did not have enough time to pitch the film , Gross agreed to fund its production and distribute it , believing that it would fit in with his grindhouse slate . Further financing came from Saul Zaentz , who agreed to distribute the soundtrack album on his Fantasy Records label .
= = = Direction = = =
Bakshi was initially reluctant to direct Fritz the Cat because he had spent years working on animated productions featuring animal characters and wanted to make films focusing on human characters . He became interested in working on the film because he loved Crumb 's work and considered him a " total genius " . During the development of the film , Bakshi says that he " started to get giddy " when he " suddenly was able to get a pig that was a cop , and this particular other pig was Jewish , and I thought , ' Oh my God — a Jewish pig ? ' These were major steps forward , because in the initial Heckle and Jeckle for Terrytoons , they were two black guys running around . Which was hysterically funny and , I think , great — like Uncle Remus stuff . But they didn 't play down south , and they had to change two black crows to two Englishmen . And I always told him that the black crows were funnier . So it was a slow awakening . "
In his notes to animator Cosmo Anzilotti , Bakshi is precise , and even specifies that the crows smoked marijuana rather than tobacco . Bakshi states that " The weed had to read on screen . It 's an important character detail . " The film 's opening sequence sets the satirical tone of the film . The setting of the story 's period is not only established by a title , but also by a voiceover by Bakshi playing a character giving his account of the 1960s : " happy times , heavy times " . The film 's opening dialogue , by three construction workers on their lunch break , establishes many of the themes discussed in the film , including drug use , promiscuity , and the social and political climate of the era . When one of the workers urinates off of the scaffold , the film 's credits play over a shot of the liquid falling against a black screen . When the credits end , it is shown that the construction worker has urinated on a long @-@ haired hippie with a guitar . Karl F. Cohen writes that the film " is a product of the radical politics of the period . Bakshi 's depiction of Fritz 's life is colorful , funny , sexist , raw , violent , and outrageous . "
Of his direction of the film , Bakshi stated , " My approach to animation as a director is live action . I don 't approach it in the traditional animation ways . None of our characters get up and sing , because that 's not the type of picture I 'm trying to do . I want people to believe my characters are real , and it 's hard to believe they 're real if they start walking down the street singing . " Bakshi wanted the film to be the antithesis of any animated film produced by the Walt Disney Company . Accordingly , Fritz the Cat includes two satirical references to Disney . In one scene , silhouettes of Mickey Mouse , Daisy Duck , and Donald Duck are shown cheering on the United States Air Force as it drops napalm on a black neighborhood during a riot . Another scene features a reference to the " Pink Elephants on Parade " sequence from Dumbo . A sequence of the camera panning across a garbage heap in an abandoned lot in Harlem sets up a visual device which recurs in Hey Good Lookin ' .
= = = Writing = = =
The original screenplay consisted mostly of dialog and featured only a few changes from Crumb 's stories . The script and storyboards went largely unused in favor of more experimental storytelling techniques . Bakshi said , " I don 't like to jump ahead on my films . The way you feel about a film on Day One , you may not feel the same way forty weeks down the road . Characters grow , so I wanted to have the option to change things , and strengthen my characters ... It was sort of a stream of consciousness , and a learning process for myself . " Bakshi wrote the characters without feral animal behavior to lend the material greater realism .
The first part of the film 's plot was adapted from a self @-@ titled story published in a 1968 issue of R. Crumb 's Head Comix , while the second part is derived from " Fritz Bugs Out " , which was serialized in the February to October 1968 issues of Cavalier , and the final part of the story contains elements of " Fritz the No @-@ Good " , first published in the September / October 1968 issue of Cavalier . The last half of the film makes a major departure from Crumb 's work . Animation historian Michael Barrier describes this section of the film as being " much grimmer than Crumb 's stories past that point , and far more violent . " Bakshi stated that he deviated from the comics because he felt that the strips lacked depth :
" It was cute , it was sweet , but there was nowhere to put it . That 's why Crumb hates the picture , because I slipped a couple of things in there that he despises , like the rabbis — the pure Jewish stuff . Fritz can 't hold that kind of commentary . Winston is ' just a typical Jewish broad from Brooklyn ' . ... [ The strip ] was cute and well @-@ done , but there was nothing that had that much depth . "
Bakshi 's unwillingness to use anthropomorphic characters that behaved like feral animals led him to rewrite a scene in " Fritz Bugs Out " where Duke saves Fritz 's life by flying while holding Fritz ; in the film , Duke grabs a railing before the car crashes into the river , a solution that Bakshi wasn 't entirely satisfied with , but prevented him from having to use any feral animal behavior in that scene .
In the film , there are two characters named " Winston " – one appears at the beginning and end of the film , the other is Fritz 's girlfriend Winston Schwartz . Michael Barrier notes that Winston Schwartz ( who appears prominently in " Fritz Bugs Out " and " Fritz the No @-@ Good " ) never has a proper introduction in Bakshi 's film , and interprets the naming of a separate character as Bakshi 's attempt to reconcile this ; however , the two characters look and sound nothing alike . Bakshi intended to end the film with Fritz 's death , but Krantz objected to this ending , and Bakshi eventually changed it to the final ending .
= = = Casting = = =
The film 's voice cast includes Skip Hinnant , Rosetta LeNoire , John McCurry , Phil Seuling , and Judy Engles . Hinnant , who would become known as a featured performer on The Electric Company , was cast because he " had such a naturally phony voice " , according to Bakshi . Bakshi and Seuling improvised their dialogue as comically inept pig officers ; Bakshi enjoyed working as a voice actor and later went on to provide voice roles for some of his other films . Bakshi re @-@ created the voice he did in this film for the part of a storm trooper in his 1977 animated science fiction film Wizards .
= = = Audio design = = =
Some scenes used documentary recordings which were made by Bakshi and edited to fit the scene ; these were used because Bakshi wanted the film to " feel real " . According to Bakshi , " I made tons and tons of tapes . ... When I went to have the film mixed , the sound engineers gave me all kinds of crap about the tracks not being professionally recorded ; they didn 't even want to mix the noise of bottles breaking in the background , street noise , tape hiss , all kinds of shit . They said it was unprofessional , but I didn 't care . " Although the sound designers insisted that Bakshi needed to re @-@ record the dialogue in the studio , Bakshi persisted on their inclusion .
Almost all of the film 's dialogue , except for that of a few of the main characters , was recorded entirely on the streets of New York City . For the film 's opening sequence , Bakshi paid two construction workers US $ 50 each , and drank Scotch with them , recording the conversation . In the Washington Square Park sequence , only Skip Hinnant was a professional actor ; Fritz 's friends were voiced by young males Bakshi found in the park . One of the sequences that was not based upon Crumb 's comics involved a comic chase through a synagogue full of praying rabbis . For the voices of the rabbis , Bakshi used a documentary recording of his father and uncles . This scene continued to have a personal significance on Bakshi after his father and uncle died . Bakshi states , " Thank God I have their voices . I have my dad and family praying . It 's so nice to hear now . " Bakshi also went to a Harlem bar with a tape recorder and spent hours talking to black patrons , getting drunk with them as he asked them questions .
= = = Music = = =
The film 's score was composed by Ed Bogas and Ray Shanklin . The soundtrack was released by Fantasy Records and Ampex Tapes , along with the single , " You 're the Only Girl " b / w " Winston " . The film also featured songs by Charles Earland , Cal Tjader , Bo Diddley , and Billie Holiday . Bakshi bought the rights to use Holiday 's performance of the song " Yesterdays " for $ 35 .
= = = Animation = = =
Many of the animators who worked on the film were professionals that Bakshi had previously worked with at Terrytoons , including Jim Tyer , John Gentilella , Nick Tafuri , Martin Taras , Larry Riley , and Cliff Augustine . According to Bakshi , it took quite a long time to assemble the right staff . Those who entered with a smirk , " wanting to be very dirty and draw filthy pictures " , did not stay very long , and neither did those with a low tolerance for vulgarity . One cartoonist refused to draw a black crow shooting a pig policeman . Two female animators quit ; one because she could not bring herself to tell her children what she did for a living , the other because she refused to draw exposed breasts .
In order to save money by eliminating the need for model sheets , Bakshi let animator John Sparey draw some of the first sequences of Fritz . Bakshi states that he knew that " Sparey would execute them beautifully . " Poses from his sequences were photocopied and handed out to the rest of the crew . The film was produced almost entirely without pencil tests . According to Bakshi , " We pencil tested I 'd say a thousand feet [ of footage ] , tops . [ ... ] We do a major feature without pencil tests — that 's tough . The timing falls off . I can always tell an animator to draw it better , and I know if the attitude of the characters is right , but the timing you really can 't see . " Bakshi had to judge the timing of the animation simply by flipping an animator 's drawings in his hand , until he could see the completed animation on the screen . Veteran Warner Bros. animator Ted Bonnicksen was incredibly dedicated to his work on the film , to the point where he completed his animation for the synagogue sequence while suffering from leukemia , and would take the scenes home at night to work on them .
In May 1971 , Bakshi moved his studio to Los Angeles to hire additional animators there . Some animators , including Rod Scribner , Dick Lundy , Virgil Walter Ross , Norman McCabe , and John Sparey , welcomed Bakshi 's presence , and felt that Fritz the Cat would bring diversity to the animation industry . Other animators disliked Bakshi 's presence , and placed an advertisement in The Hollywood Reporter , stating that Bakshi 's " filth " was unwelcome in California . According to Bakshi , " I didn 't know who these guys were because I was from New York , so I threw the ad away . " However , Bakshi found the negative reaction to the film from his peers to be disheartening .
= = = Cinematography = = =
Because it was cheaper for Ira Turek to trace photographs to create the backgrounds , Bakshi and Johnnie Vita walked around the streets of the Lower East Side , Washington Square Park , Chinatown and Harlem to take moody snapshots . Turek inked the outlines of these photographs onto cels with a Rapidograph , the technical pen preferred by Crumb , giving the film 's backgrounds stylized realism that had never been portrayed in animation before . After Turek completed a background drawing in ink on an animation cel , the drawing would be photocopied onto watercolor paper for Vita and onto animation paper for use in matching the characters to the backgrounds . When Vita finished his painting , Turek 's original drawing , on the cel , would be placed over the watercolor , obscuring the photocopy lines on the painting . However , not every background was taken from live @-@ action sources . The tones of the watercolor backgrounds were influenced by the " Ash Can style " of painters , which includes George Luks and John French Sloan . The film also used bent and fisheye camera perspectives in order to replicate the way the film 's hippies and hoodlums viewed the city .
= = Rating = =
By the time production finished , Cinemation had released Melvin Van Peebles ' Sweet Sweetback 's Baadasssss Song to considerable success , and the distributor hoped that Fritz the Cat would be even more profitable . Fritz received an X rating from the Motion Picture Association of America , the first animated film to receive such rating . Producer Krantz stated that the film lost playdates due to the rating , and 30 American newspapers rejected display advertisements for it or refused to give it editorial publicity . The film 's limited screenings led Cinemation to exploit the film 's content in its promotion of the film , advertising it as containing " 90 minutes of violence , excitement , and SEX ... he 's X @-@ rated and animated ! " According to Ralph Bakshi , " We almost didn 't deliver the picture , because of the exploitation of it . "
Cinemation 's advertising style and the film 's rating led many to believe that Fritz the Cat was a pornographic film . When it was introduced as such at a showing at the University of Southern California , Bakshi stated firmly , " Fritz the Cat is not pornographic . " In May 1972 , Variety reported that Krantz had appealed the X rating , saying " Animals having sex isn 't pornography . " The MPAA refused to hear the appeal . The misconceptions about the film 's content were eventually cleared up when it received praise from Rolling Stone and The New York Times , and the film was accepted into the 1972 Cannes Film Festival . Bakshi later stated , " Now they do as much on The Simpsons as I got an X rating for Fritz the Cat . "
Before the film 's release , American distributors attempted to cash in on the publicity garnered from the rating by rushing out dubbed versions of two other adult animated films from Japan , both of which featured an X rating in their advertising material : Senya ichiya monogatari and Kureopatora , re @-@ titled One Thousand and One Arabian Nights and Cleopatra : Queen of Sex . However , neither film was actually submitted to the MPAA , and it is not likely that either feature would have received an X rating . The film Down and Dirty Duck was promoted with an X rating , but had not been submitted to the MPAA . The French @-@ Belgian animated film Tarzoon : Shame of the Jungle was initially released with an X rating in a subtitled version , but a dubbed version released in 1979 received an R rating .
For the DVD release , MGM / UA Home Entertainment has surrendered the X rating for an unrated video release , although the tagline " He 's X @-@ Rated and Animated ! " is still used on the cover . Also , the MPAA " This film has been rated X " screen is seen just before the MGM logo at the end of the film on the DVD .
= = Reception = =
Fritz the Cat opened on April 12 , 1972 , in Hollywood and Washington , D.C. Although the film only had a limited release , it went on to become a worldwide hit . Against its $ 850 @,@ 000 budget , it grossed $ 25 million in the United States and over $ 90 million worldwide , and was the most successful independent animated feature of all time . The film earned $ 4 @.@ 7 million in video rentals in North America . )
In Michael Barrier 's 1972 article on its production , Bakshi gives accounts of two screenings of the film . Of the reactions to the film by audiences at a preview screening in Los Angeles , Bakshi stated , " They forget it 's animation . They treat it like a film . ... This is the real thing , to get people to take animation seriously . " Bakshi was also present at a showing of the film at the Museum of Modern Art and remembers , " Some guy asked me why I was against the revolution . The point is , animation was making people get up off their asses and get mad . "
The film also sparked negative reactions because of its content . " A lot of people got freaked out " , says Bakshi . " The people in charge of the power structure , the people in charge of magazines and the people going to work in the morning who loved Disney and Norman Rockwell , thought I was a pornographer , and they made things very difficult for me . The younger people , the people who could take new ideas , were the people I was addressing . I wasn 't addressing the whole world . To those people who loved it , it was a huge hit , and everyone else wanted to kill me . "
= = = Critical reception = = =
Critical reaction was mixed , but generally positive . Vincent Canby of The New York Times wrote that the film is " constantly funny ... [ There 's ] something to offend just about everyone . " New York magazine film critic Judith Crist reviewed the film as " a gloriously funny , brilliantly pointed , and superbly executed entertainment ... [ whose ] target is ... the muddle @-@ headed radical chicks and slicks of the sixties " , and that it " should change the face of the animated cartoon forever " . Paul Sargent Clark in The Hollywood Reporter called the film " powerful and audacious " , while Newsweek called it " a harmless , mindless , pro @-@ youth saga calculated to shake up only the box office " . The Wall Street Journal and Cue both gave the film mixed reviews . Thomas Albright of Rolling Stone wrote an enthusiastic preview in the December 9 , 1971 issue based on seeing thirty minutes of the film , declaring that it was " sure to mark the most important breakthrough in animation since Yellow Submarine " . But in a review published after its release , Albright recanted his earlier statement and wrote that the visuals were not enough to save the finished product from being a " qualified disaster " due to a " leaden plot " and a " juvenile " script that relied too heavily on tired gags and tasteless ethnic humor . On Rotten Tomatoes , the film has a score of 56 % positive reviews based on 18 critic reviews , with an average rating of 5 @.@ 4 / 10 .
Film critic Andrew Osmond wrote that the epilogue hurt the film 's integrity for " giving Fritz cartoon powers of survival that the film had rejected until then " .
Patricia Evans found scenes with Jewish stereotypes " vicious and offensive " , and stated , " Only the jaundiced eye of director Ralph Bakshi , which denigrates all of the characters , the hero included , makes one reflect on the nature of the attack . "
= = = Crumb 's response = = =
Crumb first saw the film in February 1972 , during a visit to Los Angeles with fellow underground cartoonists Spain Rodriguez , S. Clay Wilson , Robert Williams , and Rick Griffin . According to Bakshi , Crumb was dissatisfied with the film . Among his criticisms , he said that he felt that Skip Hinnant was wrong for the voice of Fritz , and said that Bakshi should have voiced the character instead . Crumb later said in an interview that he felt that the film was " really a reflection of Ralph Bakshi 's confusion , you know . There 's something real repressed about it . In a way , it 's more twisted than my stuff . It 's really twisted in some kind of weird , unfunny way . ... I didn 't like that sex attitude in it very much . It 's like real repressed horniness ; he 's kind of letting it out compulsively . " Crumb also criticized the film 's condemnation of the radical left , denouncing Fritz 's dialogue in the final sequences of the film , which includes a quote from The Beatles song " The End " , as " red @-@ neck and fascistic " and stated , " They put words into his mouth that I never would have had him say . "
Reportedly , Crumb filed a lawsuit to have his name removed from the film 's credits . San Francisco copyright attorney Albert L. Morse said that no suit was filed , but an agreement was reached to remove Crumb 's name from the credits . However , Crumb 's name has remained in the final film since its original theatrical release . In response to his distaste for the film , Crumb had " Fritz the Cat — Superstar " published in People 's Comics later in 1972 , in which a jealous girlfriend kills Fritz with an icepick ; he has refused to use the character again. and wrote the filmmakers a letter saying not to use his characters in their films . Crumb later cited the film as " one of those experiences I sort of block out . The last time I saw it was when I was making an appearance at a German art school in the mid @-@ 1980s , and I was forced to watch it with the students . It was an excruciating ordeal , a humiliating embarrassment . I recall Victor Moscoso was the only one who warned me , ' if you don 't stop this film from being made , you are going to regret it for the rest of your life ' — and he was right . "
In a 2008 interview , Bakshi referred to Crumb as a " hustler " and stated , " He goes in so many directions that he 's hard to pin down . I spoke to him on the phone . We both had the same deal , five percent . They finally sent Crumb the money and not me . Crumb always gets what he wants , including that château of his in France . ... I have no respect for Crumb . Is he a good artist ? Yes , if you want to do the same thing over and over . He should have been my best friend for what I did with Fritz the Cat . I drew a good picture , and we both made out fine . " Bakshi also stated that Crumb threatened to disassociate himself from any cartoonist that worked with Bakshi , which would have hurt their chances at getting work published .
= = Legacy = =
In addition to other animated films aimed at adult audiences , the film 's success led to the production of a sequel , The Nine Lives of Fritz the Cat . Although producer Krantz and voice actor Hinnant returned for the follow @-@ up , Bakshi did not . Instead , Nine Lives was directed by animator Robert Taylor , who co @-@ wrote the film with Fred Halliday and Eric Monte . Nine Lives was distributed by American International Pictures , and was considered to be inferior to its predecessor . Both films have been released on DVD in the United States , Canada and the UK . Bakshi states that he felt constricted using anthropomorphic characters in Fritz , and focused solely on non @-@ anthropomorphic characters in Heavy Traffic and Hey Good Lookin ' , but later used anthropomorphic characters in Coonskin .
While review aggregate Rotten Tomatoes , which compiles contemporary reviews from a wide range of critics , gives the film a score of 56 % , the film is widely noted in its innovation for featuring content that had not been portrayed in animation before , such as sexuality and violence , and was also , as John Grant writes in his book Masters of Animation , " the breakthrough movie that opened brand new vistas to the commercial animator in the United States " , presenting an " almost disturbingly accurate " portrayal " of a particular stratum of Western society during a particular era , ... as such it has dated very well . " The film 's subject matter and its satirical approach offered an alternative to the kinds of films that had previously been presented by major animation studios . Michael Barrier described Fritz the Cat and Heavy Traffic as " not merely provocative , but highly ambitious " . Barrier described the films as an effort " to push beyond what was done in the old cartoons , even while building on their strengths " .
As a result of these innovations , Fritz was selected by Time Out magazine as the 42nd greatest animated film , ranked at number 51 on the Online Film Critics Society 's list of the top 100 greatest animated films of all time , and was placed at number 56 on Channel 4 's list of the 100 Greatest Cartoons . Footage from the film was edited into the music video for Guru 's 2007 song " State of Clarity " .
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= Nea Salamis Famagusta FC =
Nea Salamis Famagusta FC or Nea Salamina Famagusta FC ( Greek : Νέα Σαλαμίνα Αμμοχώστου ) is a professional football club based in Ammochostos ( also known by its romanized name , Famagusta ) , Cyprus . It has been a refugee club since the 1974 Turkish invasion of Cyprus , when Turkey occupied the northern part of the island . The club is temporarily based in Larnaca .
Nea Salamina 's most notable achievements were its victories in the Cypriot Cup and the Cypriot Super Cup in 1990 . Its highest finish in the Cypriot First Division is third place . During its first five years ( 1948 – 1953 ) , the team participated in the Cyprus Amateur Football Federation championships . In 1953 the club joined the Cyprus Football Association ( CFA ) , participating regularly in association championships and cup competitions . It has played in more than 50 Cypriot First Division seasons , ranking seventh in that category .
The team participated for the first time in European competition in 1990 at the European Cup Winners ' Cup , and played in the 1995 , 1997 and 2000 UEFA Intertoto Cups . The team is part of the Nea Salamina Famagusta sports club , which was founded in 1948 ; the parent club also fields a men 's volleyball team . The club is named after the ancient city of Cyprus , Salamis or Salamina , which is located nearby modern Famagusta ( " Nea " means " new " in Greek language ) .
= = History = =
= = = Early years = = =
When Nea Salamina Famagusta was founded , Greece was entering a period of civil war between leftists and rightists . The situation in Greece affected Cyprus , both politically and socially ; most athletes were also involved in politics . At this time , Famagusta had two sports clubs : the Evagoras Gymnastic Association , or GSE ( Greek : Γυμναστικός Σύλλογος Ευαγόρας ) and the Anorthosis Famagusta FC . The GSE had many talented leftist athletes on its rosters . At Anorthosis , many players were also leftists . Under the influence of the contemporary right @-@ wing political climate , the GSE and Anorthosis began to restrict leftist athletes . In early 1947 a group from Famagusta ( including leftists , members and non @-@ members of GSE and Anorthosis ) concluded there was room for another sports club in the city . Due to the existing restrictions , they envisioned a club which would appeal to everyone in Famagusta regardless of political affiliation .
On 14 February 1948 the decision was made to establish the club , and the Nea Salamina sports club was formed on 7 March 1948 as the first leftist athletic club in Cyprus . After the club 's founding , many citizens expressed a desire to join ; however , the football side was weak .
= = = GSE Stadium banning and the CAFF = = =
Before the Pancyprian Games in May 1948 , the Hellenic Amateur Athletic Association ( SEGAS ) asked all gymnastics associations in Cyprus , their members and athletes , to sign a public declaration that would express their support to the rightists in Greek Civil War , to declare that they espoused " nationalist beliefs " and to repudiate the leftists . The right @-@ wing athletic clubs and athletes signed the statements ; the only club refusing to sign the statement was the Kinyras Paphos gymnastic association , which was excluded from the games . The left @-@ wing athletes were opposed to the declaration , and refused to sign the statement . Among the first athletes who refused were GSE champions Antonis Totsis ( Greek : Αντώνης Τότσης ) and Nikis Georgiou ( Greek : Νικής Γεωργίου ) . The GSE invited both athletes to apologize , but they insisted on their position that sports should be separate from politics . The left @-@ wing athletes decided to support the Kinyras Paphos association if the decision to exclude it from the Pancyprian Games stood . The GSE was favored to win the competition , but finished third . As a reaction to the fact that athletes of Nea Salamina were not involved in the Pancyprian Games , the GSE president informed the club it was not welcome at the GSE Stadium . Persecution of GSE and Anorthosis athletes who supported their teammates followed . The stadium @-@ use prohibition meant that Nea Salamina had nowhere to play .
Negative attitudes toward left @-@ wing athletes prevailed in other Cypriot cities . In Larnaca , the Alki Larnaca F.C. was founded in April 1948 . A month later , the Gymnastics Club Zeno ( GSZ ) banned Alki from using its GSZ Stadium ; a similar proposal to exclude Turks and Catholics was rejected . The GSZ amended its constitution , prohibiting enrollment of new members unless they signed a declaration that " they espouse the Hellenic nationalistic ideals " . This excluded left @-@ wing athletes from becoming members or using its stadium . In May , Orfeas Nicosia was founded in Nicosia ; that month , APOEL F.C. sent a greeting by telegram to SEGAS ( " cordial brotherly greetings to the entire Greek youth athletes " ) , on the occasion of national games , and wished for the cessation of inner @-@ nation mutiny . APOEL asked all members and athletes of the club to sign a declaration , supporting the content of the telegram . Leftist members and athletes of APOEL considered " inner @-@ nation mutiny " as a challenge and political statement of the club , thus they distanced themselves from that statement . The Cypriot press encouraged a hostile climate with articles and commentary . This was followed by the indefinite suspension of five APOEL athletes ( Lympouris , Tsialis , Gogakis , Xatzivasileiou and Christodoulou ) , who founded AC Omonia in June 1948 with former members of the APOEL . AS Kyrenia was later founded .
Due to their left @-@ wing political beliefs , members of the new clubs were not accepted into the Cyprus Football Association ( CFA ) and they established a new football federation ( the Cyprus Amateur Football Federation , or CAFF ) in December 1948 . The new federation organized leagues and cups , which attracted thousands of fans . The CAFF matches became more popular than those of the CFA . Six teams belonged to the CAFF : Nea Salamina in Famagusta , Omonia and Orfeas in Nicosia , Alki at Larnaca , AMOL at Limassol ( renamed Antaeus in 1951 ) and Neos Asteras in Morphou .
= = = Unification of Cypriot football = = =
CAFF members favored the unification of football in Cyprus . They tried for three years to persuade the CFA to accept them as members , without success . The existence of two football federations ( with two separate championships ) in a country such as Cyprus was unprecedented . The situation created economic hardship , and hampered the development and improvement of Cypriot football . The clubs felt that sports should reflect fraternity and friendship rather than discrimination . In December 1952 , the first issue of the sports newspaper Athlitiki supported the unification of Cypriot football . Foreign coaches of CFA clubs also supported unification , leading the CFA to respond that " their statements opposed the spirit of the Federation " . Coaches of CFA 's teams were initially hostile towards consolidation supporters . In summer 1953 , the majority of Cypriot sportspeople expressed support for football unification . In August of that year Nea Salamina , Omonia , Alki and Antaeus submitted a joint application to the CFA to join the Cypriot First Division . On 19 September , the CFA accepted Nea Salamina and Omonia for membership . However , the organization 's negative attitude towards those clubs continued . The league rejected applications from Alki , Orfeas and Neos Asteras ( although the former two joined a year later ) , arguing that according to its constitution one team must participate in the Cypriot First Division and two teams in the second division . The CAFF clubs accepted these conditions in the interest of unification . In an ad hoc meeting of CAFF , members agreed that Omonia would join the first division and Nea Salamina and Antaeus the second division . Following these decisions , CAFF disbanded . The first game between teams from the two federations ( a friendly ) was played by Nea Salamina and Anorthosis at GSE Stadium on 27 September 1953 . 5 @,@ 200 fans were present at the game between the two Famagustian clubs . The final result was 3 – 1 in favor of Anorthosis , and the match was described as an evidence of superior sportsmanship and brotherhood of fans by Athlitiki .
= = = Famagusta municipal stadium = = =
After being denied access to the GSE stadium , the club did not have a venue for training . They initially practiced at the Saint Lukas pitch ( Proodou ) in Famagusta and began efforts to build a privately owned stadium . In December 1948 Israel made a CYP £ 3 @,@ 000 donation to the city of Famagusta , in gratitude for aid by its inhabitants to Jewish refugees , for a community @-@ service project . Gabriel Makris , a Famagusta alderman and Nea Salamina footballer , supported the association 's recommendation to build the stadium . The city council recognized the " financial assistance granted to the Jews to create Municipal Sports Stadium , which is available to Famagustans for the promotion and spread of mass popular sport " . The stadium was available to Nea Salamina and other sports clubs .
In early 1949 , volunteer construction work began on a municipal stadium in Saint John Famagusta parish . The stadium — the first in Cyprus with a roof over the stands — was built by supporters of the club and footballers and completed in 1952 . It served as Nea Salamina 's headquarters from 1952 to 1953 .
In 1953 , after the unification of football federations , Nea Salamina used GSE Stadium . The city 's Municipal Stadium was used by the team for training . This period lasted until 1974 , when Famagusta was occupied by the Turkish Army after the Turkish invasion in Cyprus and the club was forced to move its headquarters .
= = = Ammochostos Stadium = = =
From 1974 to 1991 Nea Salamina used GSZ Stadium in Larnaca , Dasaki Stadium in Dasaki Achnas , Municipal Stadium in Deryneia and Antonis Papadopoulos Stadium in Larnaca . In 1991 the team built its own stadium , Ammochostos Stadium .
Ammochostos Stadium , owned by Nea Salamina in Larnaca , has a 5 @,@ 000 @-@ seat capacity and is primarily used for football . The club offices are in the same area . The stadium is named for the town of Famagusta ( Greek : Αμμόχωστος ; Ammochostos ) , the original home of Nea Salamina before the Turkish occupation , and was built in 1991 near the refugee camps . The decision to build the stadium was made in 1989 ; construction began in December of that year , and thanks to club supporters in Cyprus and abroad , the Cyprus Sports Organisation and volunteer labor , the stadium was completed on schedule . The first Nea Salamina Famagusta game in the new stadium was played on Saturday , 12 October 1991 , against Evagoras Paphos . Nea Salamina won , 4 – 1 . The stadium hosted the 1992 UEFA European Under @-@ 16 Championship final on 17 May 1992 between Germany and Spain , which Germany won 2 – 1 .
= = = Emblem and colors = = =
Nea Salamina 's emblem incorporates the Olympic flame , the color red and the five rings of the Olympic Games . The club 's colors during its first two years were yellow and crimson , when it was part of the Cyprus Amateur Football Federation . After 1950 , the governing council changed its colors to red and white : red symbolizing power , and white symbolizing peace . Red @-@ and @-@ white striped jerseys were chosen because they resembled those worn by Olympiakos Piraeus .
= = = Αnthem = = =
The anthem of Nea Salamina is ( translated from Greek ) :
= = Competitions = =
= = = CAFF = = =
In five leagues of the Cyprus Amateur Football Federation , Nea Salamina failed to win a title ; during its last two years , it finished second . The 1952 – 53 season saw the cup finalists losing 2 – 0 to AC Omonia at Gkooul stadium ( Omonia 's home pitch ) .
For 1948 – 49 , no statistics are available . Nea Salamina played ten games , winning three ( two at Neos Asteras and one against Alki ) , losing six and drawing once ( against Alki ) .
= = = Cypriot championships = = =
= = = = 1953 – 1959 = = = =
After the 1953 unification of Cypriot football , Nea Salamina played in the Cypriot Second Division ; its goal during the first season was winning promotion to the first division . Games were played in GSE Stadium , and the Famagusta Municipal Stadium was used for training . The second division had two groups ; Nea Salamina was in the Nicosia @-@ Larnaca @-@ Famagusta group . The group winner faced the winner of the Limassol @-@ Paphos group for promotion to first division . Nea Salamina finished second in its group , losing the chance at promotion . In the 1953 – 54 Cypriot Cup , the team reached the semifinals . Nea Salamina was the first team , although struggling in the second division , qualified to the semi @-@ finals of the Cypriot Cup
The next season the team led the second division , ensured its promotion . The league now had three groups , with Nea Salamina playing in the Larnaca @-@ Famagusta group . With the conquest of the first position in the group , fought for the promotion with the first teams of the other two groups : the champion of the Limassol @-@ Paphos group , Antaeus Lemesos , and the champion of the Nicosia group , Orfeas , in a new three teams championships . Nea Salamina finished in first place . During the same period , in the 1954 – 55 Cypriot Cup , excluded from subsequent phases one of the strongest teams of the season , APOEL with 3 – 2 win in GSE stadium . After 57 years , in the 2001 – 02 Cypriot Cup the team repeated this success ; after struggling in the second division , it defeated future champion APOEL F.C. 1 – 0 , winning away at GSP Stadium .
The 1955 – 56 Cypriot First Division saw the team participating for the first time as a newly promoted side . It finished third , four points behind champion AEL Limassol . Third position has been the team 's highest finish , a position it has reached four times . Nea Salamina 's first first @-@ division game was against rival Anorthosis at their common ground , GSE Stadium . Nea Salamina won 3 – 2 , its first victory against Anorthosis . The team 's first years in first division saw victories over traditional league powerhouses APOEL FC , EPA Larnaca FC , Anorthosis Famagusta FC , Pezoporikos Larnaca and AC Omonia , at home and away .
= = = = 1960s = = = =
During the early years of the decade , Nea Salamina was strong in home games but weak away . Noteworthy is the conquest of the amateur championship from farm team the period 1960 – 61 , The games of the farm team gathered the same interest with the main team among fans , who enthusiastically celebrated winning the title . During this period the nucleus for a successful team was created , including Kyriakos Koureas ( who later played for Olympiakos Piraeus ) . In December 1963 , the league disbanded ; at that time , Nea Salamina was in a tight three @-@ way race with Omonia and APOEL . With the creation of Cypriot National Guard , many Nea Salamina 's players joined the army ; players would often come straight from camps throughout Cyprus to play league games with no training .
The 1965 – 66 season was one of the best ( but painful ) periods for Nea Salamina ; the team arguably played the best football in Cyprus . The team contended for the championship until the last game of the season and lose its first cup final . In a game against APOEL at the old GSP stadium , Nea Salamina was leading 3 – 0 . In the 62nd minute , an APOEL player hit a Nea Salamina 's player ; an APOEL grabbed and hid a linesman 's flag . The game was halted , and the CFA ordered a rematch . The dispute lasted more than three weeks ; in the meantime Nea Salamina was defeated by the bottommost team , Aris Limassol F.C .. In the penultimate match of the tournament Omonia and Salamina were tied for first place on points , and Olympiacos was one point behind . In the game against Olympiakos Nicosia Nea Salamina was leading 2 – 1 , but Olympiakos tied the game in allegedly excessive extra time . After clashes in the last few seconds , the game was halted and ordered replayed . Omonia was in first place with 50 points ; Nea Salamina was second with 47 and Olympiakos third with 46 . With a victory over Olympiakos Nea Salamina would won the championship , since it had more goals than Omonia . On 31 May 1966 many buses and cars drove from Famagusta to Nicosia , where Nea Salamina was defeated 6 – 3 . The best defense in the league , which had allowed fifteen goals in nineteen games , allowed six in one game . For a second time , Nea Salamina finished third . This defeat affected team morale in the cup final with rival Apollon Limassol ; although it was favored , the team lost 4 – 2 . During this period Salamina had the best defense in the league , with 21 goals in 20 games ( a team record ) .
Near the end of the 1966 – 67 season the board of Olympiakos reported rumors of future match @-@ fixing between Nea Salamina and Anorthosis to the team , which its president denied . Nea Salamina defeated Anorthosis ; Olympiacos won the league championship , despite its defeat by Omonia . The Olympiakos board apologized , congratulating Nea Salamina on its victory . By the end of the decade Nea Salamina was finishing mid @-@ table , despite an outflow of players to other teams or the army .
= = = = 1970s = = = =
During the first two seasons of the 1970s , Nea Salamina finished in the middle of the table ; the next two seasons threatened relegation , which was avoided . The club 's low point was 14 August 1974 , when the occupation of Famagusta by Turkish troops led to Nea Salamina becoming a refugee club . Fans and players scattered to unoccupied areas of Cyprus and abroad . In October , board members met at the offices of Aris Limassol , deciding to revive the club . Since most players were in Larnaca , it was decided to make Larnaca the club 's temporary home . Its offices were housed temporarily at the offices of Alki Larnaca F.C. and in January 1975 acquired a rented building . Expenses were paid with contributions from members and friends of the club . Two youth academies were founded , in Larnaca and Limassol .
In late 1974 , the CFA decided to schedule a special championship . Although board members were uncertain whether Nea Salamina should play ( due to the refugee problem ) , they decided to participate so the team could remain in the Cypriot First Division and stay alive . Since there was no permanent stadium , the team used GSZ Stadium in 1974 – 75 , the Deryneia municipal stadium in 1975 – 76 , the GSZ Stadium again in 1976 – 77 , Dasaki Stadium in Dasaki Achnas in 1977 – 78 and GSZ Stadium from 1978 to 1980 .
By 1979 , Nea Salamina was established in the first division . Despite a good start to the 1978 – 79 season , the team was demoted in the decisive last game to the second division after a quarter @-@ century in the first division . The team 's hopes rested both on defeating Enosis Neon Paralimni FC and Evagoras Paphos not to beat AC Omonia or Olympiakos Nicosia FC to lose by Alki Larnaca F.C .. Nea Salamina won over Enosis Neon Paralimni FC ( 3 @-@ 2 ) , but none of the others happened as Evagoras won and Olympiakos tied with Alki .
In the summer of 1974 , before the Turkish occupation , Nea Salamina signed Bulgarian coach Iancho Arsov , who went on to win titles with Omonia decades later . The agreement was canceled when financial problems caused by the team 's refugee status made it impossible to pay for a foreign coach .
= = = = 1980s = = = =
During the 1979 – 80 season , Nea Salamina played in the second division . Many times fans at its matches outnumbered those of teams competing in the first division . The team easily won the league and returned to the first division for the 1980 – 81 season . At the first game they beat the later champion Omonia , 2 – 1 , in an away game at Makario Stadium in Nicosia . This defeat was the first Omonia suffered at the stadium since they began competing in it . Nea Salamina finished seventh for the season .
For the 1981 – 82 season , Nea Salamina acquired foreign footballers for the first time , Bulgarians Nazca Michailiof and Stefan Pavlov . An unprecedented incident occurred during the 1982 – 83 season when , in a game against Enosis Neon Paralimni FC in GSZ Stadium , three Nea Salamina 's players were expelled and the remaining players surrounded the linesman to protest . The linesman , claiming to have received blows , was transported to the hospital where radiographs failed to show injuries caused by the players . After the linesman made a formal complaint , a court imposed a sentence of 45 days . This was unprecedented for Cypriot football . The players remained in jail for five days and were released after public outcry , but then CFA authorities imposed crippling sanctions on them , ordering them to stay off the court for several months .
The next football seasons was not accompanied by discrimination . Until 1985 , the team played at GSZ Stadium . In the 1985 – 86 season , they played seven games at Municipal Stadium in Deryneia and six in GSZ Stadium . They used GSZ Stadium exclusively for the 1986 – 87 season . From 1987 to 1988 , the team used Antonis Papadopoulos Stadium in Larnaca for home games . The team finished fourth in the 1988 – 89 season , denied participation in the final by the subsequent winners AEL Limassol . During this period , Nea Salamina 's player Nigel Maknil was named the league 's top scorer , with 19 goals .
= = = = 1990s = = = =
Cup winner
The 1989 – 90 season was the most successful in the history of the team when Nea Salamina won its first football title , the Cypriot Cup . The week before the final , many fans traveled to Cyprus from abroad to attend the game . Nea Salamina was the second refugee team to win a title since the 1974 occupation . In the final , on 8 June 1990 , Nea Salamina defeated Omonia 3 – 2 at Tsirion Stadium in Limassol . Players competing in the final included Christakis Christofi , Artemis Andreou , Kipros Tsigkelis , Elissaios Psaras , Floros Nicholaou ( captain ) , Kenny Dyer , Vangelis Adamou , Takis David , Christakis Mavros , Elias Elia , Charalambos Andreou ( Pambis Andreou ) and S. Anastasiou . Elias Elia , Christakis Mavros and Pambis Andreou scored the goals , and the coach was former Nea Salamina 's player Andreas Mouskallis .
Shield winner
Salamina went on to take its second title in only a few months , the LTV Super Cup Shield , against rival APOEL , 1 – 0 , at Makario Stadium , the opponents ' home ground . Nigel Maknil scored the lone goal . That year , the shield was dedicated to 30 years of Cypriot independence .
European participation
As cup winner , Nea Salamina played for the first time in a European cup ( 1990 – 91 European Cup Winners ' Cup ) and was eliminated in the first round by Aberdeen F.C. Aberdeen , who had won the 1982 – 83 European Cup Winners ' Cup by defeating Real Madrid in the final , was a strong team . The first game was at Tsirion Stadium on 19 September 1990 before 8 @,@ 000 fans . Nea Salamina was defeated , 2 – 0 , after a scoreless tie at halftime . A rematch , played at Pittodrie Stadium in Aberdeen on 3 October , resulted in a 3 – 0 loss . Lineups for the two games were Christakis Christofi , Artemis Andreou , Kipros Tsigkelis , Elissaios Psaras , Floros Nikolaou , Kenny Dyer , Pambis Andreou , Takis David ( replaced by Stavros Efthymiou in the 68th minute ) , Nigel Maknil ( replaced by Christakis Mavros in the 85th minute ) , Elias Elias and Vangelis Adamou ( home ) , and Yiannakis Ioannou , Andreas Artemis , Kipros Tsigkelis , Elissaios Psaras , Floros Nicholaou , Kenny Dyer , Vangelis Adamou , Mavros Christakis , Nigel Maknil ( replaced by Pambis Andreou in the 47th minute ) , Elias Elias and Vassos Mavros ( away ) .
The 1990s were the most successful decade for Nea Salamina . Apart from winning the cup , shield , and the right to play in the Cup Winners Cup , the team claimed the championship . In addition , the team acquired Ammochostos Stadium in Larnaca , built by volunteer supporters .
Nea Salamina claimed the 1992 – 93 Cypriot First Division championship . At the end of the first round they were in first place , ultimately finishing third . During the 1994 – 95 season , they were the first Cypriot team to participate in the Intertoto Cup . Pambis Andreou was the league 's top scorer , with 25 goals . The team also played in the 1997 UEFA Intertoto Cup .
= = = = 2000s = = = =
During the first decade of the 21st century , Nea Salamina was relegated four times . The 1999 – 2000 season saw the team finish in fourth place , winning a spot in the 2000 UEFA Intertoto Cup . During the 2000 – 01 season , Nea Salamina finished twelfth and was relegated to the second division for the second time in its history . By the season 's last game , the team 's hopes rested both on defeating Digenis Akritas Morphou and Doxa Katokopias F.C. not to beat Apollo Limassol or Enosis Neon Paralimni FC to beat Ethnikos Achna FC . Nea Salamina easily won over Digenis , but Doxa also defeated Apollo and Ethnikos Achna 's match with Enosis Neon Paralimni FC resulted in a draw . After defeating APOEL in the semifinals , the team lost the 2000 – 01 Cypriot Cup final on 12 May 2012 to Apollo , 1 – 0 , at GSP Stadium , becoming the first Cypriot football team to play in a cup final despite being relegated .
Nea Salamina became 2001 @-@ 02 second @-@ division champions , winning promotion to first division . The team eliminated future champion APOEL away in the 2001 – 02 Cypriot Cup , its second defeat of APOEL in several months , and made the quarterfinals .
In the 2002 – 03 season , the team was relegated again to second division , winning the championship of that division the following year and promoted again to first division . The 2004 – 05 season saw the squad finish sixth . With its stadium closed for repairs , the team played at Antonis Papadopoulos Stadium ( except for two games at Makario Stadium ) . Nea Salamina returned to Ammochostos Stadium for the 2005 – 06 season , again finishing sixth . It finished 10th in the 2006 – 07 season and 13th in 2007 – 08 , again relegated to the second division . After a difficult season in 2008 – 09 , the team returned to first division , winning in the final game and leaving opponents Olympiacos , who only needed a draw to win the promotion , in the second division .
= = = = Since 2010 = = = =
Nea Salamina was again relegated to the second division during the 2009 – 10 season but was promoted to first division the following year . In the 2011 – 12 season , the team finished in seventh place . Due to finishing eleventh in the 2012 – 13 season , the team faced the 2012 – 13 Cypriot Second Division side Anagennisi Deryneia in a single @-@ legged playoff for one spot in the 2013 – 14 Cypriot First Division . Nea Salamina won by 3 – 0 , retaining its first division spot for the 2013 – 14 season . The next season , the team finished in seventh place .
1 : Nea Salamina won 54 points , but because on 17 May 2013 the team were deducted three points by CFA because they failed to meet the financial criteria of UEFA , they finished the season with 51 points .
= = = European participation = = =
Playing in European competition for the first time in 1990 , Nea Salamina was defeated in the first round by Aberdeen FC . The team played in the Intertoto Cup in 1995 and 1997 . In the 2000 UEFA Intertoto Cup , the team qualified for the second round , with two victories against the Albanian KS Vllaznia Shkodër , but were eliminated in Vienna by Austria Wien , 3 – 0 .
= = CFA competition = =
= = = Class A statistics = = =
The table below shows the overall record of Nea Salamina in the Cypriot First Division from 1955 to 2013 . The score is the sum of the actual score of each period , regardless of the scoring system . Using the modern scoring system ( win , three points ; draw , one point ; loss , no points ) , the score is 1631 points . The interrupted 1963 – 64 season is not included .
Club records include :
Wins ( 17 ) in 1994 – 95 ( 33 games ) and 2013 – 14 ( 36 games ) . Next is 1992 – 93 , with 15 victories . The fewest wins ( two ) were during the 2009 – 10 season .
Draws ( 12 ) in 1977 – 78 and 1984 – 85 . The 1997 – 98 season had one draw .
Defeats : Fewest defeats ( four ) in 1955 – 56 and 1965 – 66 ( excluding the 1963 – 64 season , when the team had one ) . The most defeats ( 17 ) were in 2012 @-@ 2013 and 2015 @-@ 2016 .
Most goals ( 59 ) : 1994 – 95 , with a three @-@ round championship . Next is 1999 – 2000 ( 58 ) . The fewest goals ( 14 ) were scored in 1973 – 74 .
The fewest goals against ( 21 ) were scored in 1965 – 66 ( when the team had the best defense in the league ) and 1966 – 67 ( second @-@ best defense in the league ) , excluding the shortened 1963 – 64 season when Nea Salamina had 10 goals against . The team 's most goals against ( 72 ) came in 2015 – 16 .
The best goal difference ( 24 ) was in 1999 – 2000 ; the worst ( -28 ) came in 2015 – 16 .
The most points earned ( 57 ) came in 1994 – 95 season ( 33 games ) , followed by 2013 – 14 ( 36 games ) with 54 points and 1961 – 62 with 52 points ( 22 games , scoring 3 @-@ 2 @-@ 1 ) . The fewest points ( 14 ) came in 1956 – 57 and 2009 – 10 .
Source : Stilianou ( 1998 ) , Gavreilides ; Papamoiseos ( 2001 ) , RSSSF [ 1 ] , [ 2 ] , [ 3 ] , [ 4 ] , [ 5 ] , [ 6 ] , [ 7 ] , [ 8 ] , [ 9 ] , [ 10 ] , [ 11 ] , [ 12 ] , CFA [ 13 ] , [ 14 ] , [ 15 ] , [ 16 ] , [ 17 ]
= = = = Statistics by opponent = = = =
The table below has statistics for Nea Salamina for all Cypriot First Division matches from 1955 / 56 to 2015 / 16 by opponent .
Points calculated under the contemporary scoring system : 2 – 1 – 0 , 3 – 2 – 1 or the current 3 – 1 – 0 system.1963 – 64 season not included . Source :
From 1948 – 1998 : Stilianou ( 1998 )
From 1953 @-@ 2001 : Gavreilides ; Papamoiseos ( 2001 ) .
From 2001 @-@ 2013 : RSSSF [ 18 ] , [ 19 ] , [ 20 ] , [ 21 ] , [ 22 ] , [ 23 ] , [ 24 ] , [ 25 ] , [ 26 ] , [ 27 ] , [ 28 ] , [ 29 ] , [ 30 ]
From 2008 @-@ 2014 : CFA [ 31 ] , [ 32 ] , [ 33 ] , [ 34 ] , [ 35 ] , [ 36 ] , [ 37 ]
= = = Nea Salamina in Cypriot Cup = = =
Nea Salamina has 60 entries in the Cypriot Cup , having one win , three appearances in the final , semi @-@ final appearances in 12 and 32 appearances in the quarter @-@ finals . The table below shows the statistics of Nea Salamina for all cup matches in Cyprus ( 1953 / 1954 @-@ 2015 / 2016 ) per opponent .
Source :
From 1948 – 1998 : Stilianou ( 1998 )
From 1953 @-@ 2001 : Gavreilides ; Papamoiseos ( 2001 ) .
From 2001 @-@ 2010 : RSSSF [ 38 ] , [ 39 ] , [ 40 ] , [ 41 ] , [ 42 ] , [ 43 ] , [ 44 ] , [ 45 ] , [ 46 ]
From 2008 @-@ 2014 : CFA [ 47 ] , [ 48 ] , [ 49 ] , [ 50 ] , [ 51 ] , [ 52 ] , [ 53 ] , [ 54 ] , [ 55 ] , [ 56 ]
= = = Cypriot Second Division = = =
= = Current squad = =
As of July 8 , 2016
Note : Flags indicate national team as defined under FIFA eligibility rules . Players may hold more than one non @-@ FIFA nationality .
= = = Out on loan = = =
Note : Flags indicate national team as defined under FIFA eligibility rules . Players may hold more than one non @-@ FIFA nationality .
For recent transfers , see List of Cypriot football transfers summer 2016 .
= = Managers = =
Source : 1948 – 98 : Stilianou , 1988 , p . 126 και Stilianou , 1998 , p . 150
= = Former players = =
Players with more than 100 appearances with the team :
For more former players , see Nea Salamina FC players .
1Less than 100 appearances , but he started his career at Nea Salamina FC and later became the player with more appearances for Cyprus national football team than any other player in history.Main source : Stilianou , 1998
= = Relations with Turkish Cypriots = =
Since its founding Nea Salamina sought to develop friendly relations with the Turkish Cypriots in Famagusta , and Turkish Cypriots ( including Siekkeris , Nita and Moustafa ) played during the early 1950s . When the team joined the CFA , it played against Turkish teams ( including Demir Sports , Gençlik Gücü and the Mağusa Türk Gücü ) in the second division . When Turkish Cypriot clubs began withdrawing from CFA tournaments of CFA in late 1955 , the club tried to convince them to continue and Turkish players remained welcome in Nea Salamina . In 1962 Kallikas was transferred to the club , and in 1970 Neziak ( of Turkish origin ) was also transferred . In 2004 Turkish Cypriots Imam and Oulousoi were transferred to Nea Salamina , the first Turkish Cypriot footballers in the CAF in thirty years .
On 26 March 2005 Nea Salamina played a friendly against the Turkish Cypriot Yenicami at Ammochostos Stadium , defeating them 6 – 0 ; it was the first match between Greek and Turkish Cypriot clubs in 50 years . About 2 @,@ 500 fans sat together in the stands , and the match was attended by political leaders , local sports authorities and representatives of the Church of Cyprus .
= = Women 's football = =
In 2006 , Nea Salamina organized a women 's football team . In its first season ( 2006 – 07 ) in the Cypriot First Division , the team finished third and qualified for the Cypriot Women 's Cup ( losing 3 – 1 to AEK Kokkinochorion at GSP Stadium ) . That year it won the Super Cup , beating AEK Kokkinochorion 2 – 1 at Ammochostos Stadium in Larnaca .
In 2007 – 08 , the team finished second . In 2008 – 09 ( when it also finished second ) , it forfeited the championship game ( at home , against Apollon Limassol ) when the referee stopped the match due spectator overcrowding .
In 2008 – 09 , Skevi Antoniou was leading scorer in the Cypriot First Division with 64 goals . The women 's team disbanded in 2010 for economic reasons .
= = Honours = =
Cypriot Cup
Winners ( 1 ) : 1989 – 90
Cypriot Super Cup
Winners ( 1 ) : 1990
Cypriot Second Division
Winners ( 4 ) : 1954 – 55 , 1979 – 80 , 2001 – 02 , 2003 – 04
= = Gallery = =
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= Arnold Bax =
Sir Arnold Edward Trevor Bax , KCVO ( 8 November 1883 – 3 October 1953 ) was an English composer , poet , and author . His prolific output includes songs , choral music , chamber pieces , and solo piano works , but he is best known for his orchestral music . In addition to a series of symphonic poems he wrote seven symphonies and was for a time widely regarded as the leading British symphonist .
Bax was born in the London suburb of Streatham to a prosperous family . He was encouraged by his parents to pursue a career in music , and his private income enabled him to follow his own path as a composer without regard for fashion or orthodoxy . Consequently , he came to be regarded in musical circles as an important but isolated figure . While still a student at the Royal Academy of Music Bax became fascinated with Ireland and Celtic culture , which became a strong influence on his early development . In the years before the First World War he lived in Ireland and became a member of Dublin literary circles , writing fiction and verse under the pseudonym Dermot O 'Byrne . Later , he developed an affinity with Nordic culture , which for a time superseded his Celtic influences in the years after the First World War .
Between 1910 and 1920 Bax wrote a large amount of music , including the symphonic poem Tintagel , his best @-@ known work . During this period he formed a lifelong association with the pianist Harriet Cohen – at first an affair , then a friendship , and always a close professional relationship . In the 1920s he began the series of seven symphonies which form the heart of his orchestral output . In 1942 Bax was appointed Master of the King 's Music , but composed little in that capacity . In his last years he found his music regarded as old @-@ fashioned , and after his death it was generally neglected . From the 1960s onwards , mainly through a growing number of commercial recordings , his music was gradually rediscovered , although little of it is regularly heard in the concert hall .
= = Life and career = =
= = = Early years = = =
Bax was born in the London suburb of Streatham , Surrey , to a prosperous Victorian family . He was the eldest son of Alfred Ridley Bax ( 1844 – 1918 ) and his wife , Charlotte Ellen , née Lea ( 1860 – 1940 ) . The couple 's youngest son , Clifford Lea Bax , became a playwright and essayist . Alfred Bax was a barrister of the Middle Temple , but having a private income he did not practise . In 1896 the family moved to a mansion in Hampstead . Bax later wrote that although it would have been good to be raised in the country , the large gardens of the family house were the next best thing . He was a musical child : " I cannot remember the long @-@ lost day when I was unable to play the piano – inaccurately " .
After a preparatory school in Balham , Bax attended the Hampstead Conservatoire during the 1890s . The establishment was run – " with considerable personal pomp " , according to Bax – by Cecil Sharp , whose passion for English folk @-@ song and folk @-@ dance excited no response in his pupil . An enthusiasm for folk music was widespread among British composers of the late 19th and early 20th centuries , including Parry , Stanford , Vaughan Williams and Holst ; Sullivan and Elgar stood aloof , as did Bax , who later put into general circulation the saying , " You should make a point of trying every experience once , excepting incest and folk @-@ dancing . "
In 1900 Bax moved on to the Royal Academy of Music , where he remained until 1905 , studying composition with Frederick Corder and piano with Tobias Matthay . Corder was a devotee of the works of Wagner , whose music was Bax 's principal inspiration in his early years . He later observed , " For a dozen years of my youth I wallowed in Wagner 's music to the almost total exclusion – until I became aware of Richard Strauss – of any other " . Bax also discovered and privately studied the works of Debussy , whose music , like that of Strauss , was frowned on by the largely conservative faculty of the Academy .
Although Bax won a Macfarren Scholarship for composition and other important prizes , and was known for his exceptional ability to read complex modern scores on sight , he attracted less recognition than his contemporaries Benjamin Dale and York Bowen . His keyboard technique was formidable , but he had no desire for a career as a soloist . Unlike most of his contemporaries , he had private means that made him free to pursue his musical career as he chose , without the necessity of earning an income . The Times considered that Bax 's independence and disinclination to heed his teachers ultimately damaged his art , because he did not develop the discipline to express his imagination to the greatest effect .
After leaving the Academy Bax visited Dresden , where he saw the original production of Strauss 's Salome , and first heard the music of Mahler , which he found " eccentric , long @-@ winded , muddle @-@ headed , and yet always interesting " . Among the influences on the young Bax was the Irish poet W. B. Yeats ; Bax 's brother Clifford introduced him to Yeats 's poetry and to Ireland . Influenced by Yeats 's The Wanderings of Oisin , Bax visited the west coast of Ireland in 1902 , and found that " in a moment the Celt within me stood revealed " . His first composition to be performed – at an Academy concert in 1902 – was an Irish dialect song called " The Grand Match " .
= = = Early career = = =
Musically , Bax veered away from the influence of Wagner and Strauss , and deliberately adopted what he conceived of as a Celtic idiom . In 1908 he began a cycle of tone poems called Eire , described by his biographer Lewis Foreman as the beginning of the composer 's truly mature style . The first of these pieces , Into the Twilight , was premiered by Thomas Beecham and the New Symphony Orchestra in April 1909 , and the following year , at Elgar 's instigation , Henry Wood , commissioned the second in the cycle , In the Faëry Hills . The work received mixed notices . The Manchester Guardian 's reviewer wrote , " Mr Bax has happily suggested the appropriate atmosphere of mystery " ; The Observer found the piece " very undeterminate and unsatisfying , but not difficult to follow " . The Times commented on the " rather second @-@ hand language " at some points , derivative of Wagner and Debussy , although " there is still a great deal which is wholly individual " . The Musical Times praised " a mystic glamour that could not fail to be felt by the listener " although the coherence of the piece " was not instantly discernible " . A third work in the cycle , Roscatha , was not performed in the composer 's lifetime .
Bax 's private means enabled him to travel to the Russian Empire in 1910 . He was in pursuit of Natalia Skarginska , a young Ukrainian whom he had met in London – one of several women with whom he fell in love over the years . The visit eventually proved a failure from the romantic point of view but musically enriched him . In Saint Petersburg he discovered and immediately loved ballet ; he absorbed Russian musical influences that inspired material for the First Piano Sonata , the piano pieces , " May Night in the Ukraine " and " Gopak " , and the First Violin Sonata , dedicated to Skarginska . Foreman describes him in this period as " a musical magpie , celebrating his latest discoveries in new compositions " ; Foreman adds that Bax 's own musical personality was strong enough for him to assimilate his influences and make them into his own . Russian music continued to influence him until the First World War . An unfinished ballet Tamara , " a little @-@ Russian fairy tale in action and dance " , provided material the composer reused in post @-@ war works .
Having given up his pursuit of Skarginska , Bax returned to England ; in January 1911 he married the pianist Elsita Luisa Sobrino ( b . 1885 or 1886 ) , daughter of the teacher and pianist , Carlos Sobrino , and his wife , Luise , née Schmitz , a singer . Bax and his wife lived first in Chester Terrace , Regent 's Park , London , and then moved to Ireland , taking a house in Rathgar , a well @-@ to @-@ do suburb of Dublin . They had two children , Dermot ( 1912 – 1976 ) and Maeve Astrid ( 1913 – 1987 ) . Bax became known in Dublin literary circles under the pseudonym " Dermot O 'Byrne " ; he mixed with the writer George William Russell and his associates , and published stories , verses and a play . Reviewing a selection of the prose and poetry reissued in 1980 , Stephen Banfield found most of Bax 's earlier poems " like his early music , over @-@ written , cluttered with the secondhand lumber of early Yeats , though the weakness is one of loosely chosen language rather than complexity . " Banfield had better things to say of the later poems , where Bax " focuses matters , whether laconically and colloquially upon the grim futility of the 1916 Easter Uprising ... or pungently upon his recurrent disillusionment about love . " Some of Bax 's writings as O 'Byrne were regarded as subversively sympathetic to the Irish republican cause , and the government censor prohibited their publication .
= = = First World War = = =
At the beginning of the war Bax returned to England . A heart complaint , from which he suffered intermittently throughout his life , made him unfit for military service ; he acted as a special constable for a period . At a time when fellow composers including Vaughan Williams , Arthur Bliss , George Butterworth and Ivor Gurney were serving overseas , Bax was able to produce a large body of music , finding , in Foreman 's phrase , " his technical and artistic maturity " in his early thirties . Among his better @-@ known works from the period are the orchestral tone poems November Woods ( 1916 ) and Tintagel ( 1917 – 19 ) .
During his time in Dublin Bax had made many republican friends . The Easter rising in April 1916 and the subsequent execution of the ringleaders shocked him deeply . He expressed his feelings in some of his music such as the orchestral In Memoriam and the " Elegiac Trio " for flute , viola , and harp ( 1916 ) , as well as in his poetry .
In addition to his Irish influences , Bax also drew on a Nordic tradition , being inspired by the Norwegian poet Bjørnstjerne Bjørnson and Icelandic sagas . Bax 's Symphonic Variations for Piano and Orchestra ( 1917 ) is seen by the musicologist Julian Herbage as the turning @-@ point from the Celtic to the Nordic in Bax 's oeuvre ; Herbage views it as a further indication of the shift that Winter Legends , composed thirteen years later , has a Nordic rather than a Celtic setting .
During the war Bax began an affair with the pianist Harriet Cohen , for whom he left his wife and children . Musically , she was his muse for the rest of his life ; he wrote numerous pieces for her , and she was the dedicatee of eighteen of his works . He took a flat in Swiss Cottage , London , where he lived until the start of the Second World War . He sketched many of his mature works there , often taking them in short score to his favoured rural retreats , Glencolmcille in Ireland and then from 1928 onwards Morar in Scotland , to work on the full score at leisure .
= = = Inter @-@ war years = = =
In a study of Bax in 1919 his friend and confidante , the critic Edwin Evans , commented on the waning of the Celtic influence in the composer 's music and the emergence of " a more austere , abstract art " . From the 1920s onwards Bax seldom turned to poetic legend for inspiration . In Foreman 's view , in the post @-@ war years Bax was recognised for the first time as an important , though isolated , figure in British music . The many substantial works he wrote during the war years were heard in public , and he started writing symphonies . Few English composers had so far written symphonies that occupied a secure place in the repertoire , the best known being Elgar ( A ♭ and E ♭ symphonies ) and Vaughan Williams ( Sea , London and Pastoral symphonies ) . During the 1920s and into the 1930s Bax was seen by many as the leading British symphonist .
Bax 's First Symphony was written in 1921 – 22 , and when first given it was a great success , despite its ferocity of tone . The critics found the work dark and severe . The Daily News commented , " It is full of arrogant , almost blatant , virility . Its prevailing tone colour is dark , very dark – thick clouds with only here and there a ray of sunlight . " The Daily Telegraph suggested that if there was any humour in the piece , it was sardonic . The Manchester Guardian noted the severity of the work , but declared it " a truly great English symphony " . The work was a box @-@ office attraction at the Proms for several years after the premiere . In Foreman 's view , Bax was at his musical peak for a fairly short time , and his reputation was overtaken by those of Vaughan Williams and William Walton . The Third Symphony was completed in 1929 and , championed by Wood , remained for some time among the composer 's most popular works .
In the mid @-@ 1920s , while his affair with Cohen continued , Bax met the twenty @-@ three @-@ year @-@ old Mary Gleaves , and for more than two decades he maintained relationships with both women . His affair with Cohen ripened into warm friendship and continuing musical partnership . Gleaves became his companion from the later 1920s until his death .
In the 1930s , Bax composed the last four of his seven symphonies . Other works from the decade include the popular Overture to a Picaresque Comedy ( 1930 ) , several works for chamber groups , including a nonet ( 1930 ) , a string quintet ( 1933 ) , an octet for horn , piano , and strings ( 1934 ) and his third and last string quartet ( 1936 ) . The Cello Concerto ( 1932 ) was commissioned by and dedicated to Gaspar Cassadó , who quickly dropped the work from his repertoire . Although Beatrice Harrison championed the concerto in the 1930s and 1940s , Bax said , " The fact that nobody has ever taken up this work has been one of the major disappointments of my musical life " .
Bax was knighted in 1937 ; he had neither expected nor sought the honour , and was more surprised than delighted to receive it . As the decade progressed , he became less prolific ; he commented that he wanted to " retire , like a grocer " . Among his compositions from the period was the Violin Concerto ( 1938 ) . Although not written to commission , he had composed it with the violin virtuoso Jascha Heifetz in mind . Heifetz never played it , and it was premiered in 1942 by Eda Kersey with the BBC Symphony Orchestra and Wood .
= = = 1940s and 50s = = =
After the death of the Master of the King 's Music , Sir Walford Davies , in 1941 , Bax was appointed to succeed him . The choice surprised many . Bax , despite his knighthood , was not an Establishment figure ; he himself had expressed a disinclination to " shuffle around in knee @-@ breeches " . In the opinion of The Times the appointment was not a good one : " Bax was not cut out for official duties and found their performance irksome " . Nonetheless , Bax wrote a handful of occasional pieces for royal events , including a march for the Coronation in 1953 .
After the Second World War began , Bax moved to Sussex , taking up residence at the White Horse Hotel , Storrington , where he lived for the rest of his life . He abandoned composition and completed a book of memoirs about his early years , Farewell , My Youth . The Times found it at times waspish , at times reticent , surprising in parts , and regrettably short . Later in the war Bax was persuaded to contribute incidental music for a short film , Malta G. C. ; he subsequently wrote music for David Lean 's Oliver Twist ( 1948 ) and a second short film , Journey into History ( 1952 ) . His other works from the period include the short Morning Song for piano and orchestra , and the Left @-@ Hand Concertante ( 1949 ) , both written for Cohen . Bax and the Poet Laureate , John Masefield , worked on a pageant , The Play of Saint George in 1947 , but the project was not completed .
In his last years , Bax maintained a contented retirement for much of the time . Walton commented , " an important cricket match at Lord 's would bring him hurrying up to town from his pub at Storrington with much greater excitement than a performance of one of his works " . In 1950 , after hearing his Third Symphony played at Bournemouth , he said , " I ought perhaps to be thinking of an eighth " , but by this time he had begun to drink quite heavily , which aged him rapidly and impaired his ability to concentrate on a large @-@ scale composition . He wrote in 1952 , " I doubt whether I shall write anything else … I have said all I have to say and it is of no use to repeat myself . " Celebrations were planned by the Hallé Orchestra and others to celebrate Bax 's seventieth birthday in November 1953 . The celebrations became memorials : while visiting Cork in October 1953 Bax died suddenly of heart failure . He was interred in St. Finbarr 's Cemetery , Cork .
= = Music = =
Bax 's fellow composer Arthur Benjamin wrote that Bax was " a fount of music " , whose " spontaneous and inexhaustible outpourings " , unique among his contemporaries , were comparable to those of Schubert and Dvořák . Evans has suggested that Bax 's music paradoxically combines robustness and wistfulness , a view that later commentators including Herbage have endorsed . The early music is often instrumentally difficult or orchestrally and harmonically complex ; from about 1913 onwards he moved towards a simpler , sparer style . The composer and musicologist Anthony Payne considers that Bax 's best works date from the period between 1910 and 1925 : he instances The Garden of Fand , Tintagel , November Woods , the Second Piano Sonata , Viola Sonata , and first two symphonies . By the 1930s Bax 's music ceased to be regarded as new and difficult , and towards the end of that decade it was attracting less attention than before .
The conductor Vernon Handley , long associated with Bax 's music , commented that the composer 's influences include Rachmaninoff and Sibelius as well as Richard Strauss and Wagner : " He was aware of jazz and many more composers on the European scene than we are now . That finds its way into a person 's psyche and personality and into his technique as a musician . "
The critic Neville Cardus wrote of Bax 's music :
The paradox is that Bax 's methods , his idiom and tonal atmosphere are impersonal : that is to say , there is no direct unfolding of an individual state of mind or soul as we find in Elgar or Gustav Mahler . Yet there is no mistaking the Bax physiognomy or psychology : always through the gloom and thickets of the symphonies the warm rays of an approachable , lovable man and nature may be felt .
York Bowen thought it regrettable that Bax 's orchestral works frequently call for exceptionally large forces : " When the score demands such luxuries as triple or quadruple woodwind , six horns , three or four trumpets , extra percussion and perhaps organ , it is undoubtedly throwing extra difficulties in the way of performance . " The composer Eric Coates commented that Bax 's music appealed greatly to orchestral players : " whichever instrument he wrote for , it was as if he played that instrument himself , so well did he seem to write for it " .
= = = Symphonies = = =
While in Dresden in 1907 Bax began work on what he later called " a colossal symphony which would have occupied quite an hour in performance , were such a cloud @-@ cuckoo dream to become an actuality " . He added " Happily , it never has ! " , but he left a complete piano sketch , which was orchestrated in 2012 – 13 by Martin Yates , and recorded for the Dutton Vocalion label ; it lasts for 77 minutes . The four @-@ movement work , more conventional in structure than his completed symphonies , shows a strong Russian influence in its material .
Bax wrote his seven completed symphonies between 1921 and 1939 . In a study of the seven , David Cox wrote in 1967 that they were " often dismissed as amorphous by those who imagine that Bax consists only of Celtic mistiness and ' atmosphere ' . In fact they have considerable strength and frequent astringence ; and formally the thematic material is presented with consistency and purpose . " In Herbage 's view , the cycle can be seen to fall into two groups – the first three and the last three – with the Fourth Symphony as " an extrovert interlude between these largely introspective works " . Handley agreed that the first three could be grouped together ; Foreman sees a Celtic influence in all three , with Bax 's emotions about the Easter rising and its aftermath discernible . The Fourth is generally regarded as a more optimistic work than its predecessors and successors . Handley calls it " festive " , but comments that its ideas developed into darker mood in the Fifth and Sixth . The Fifth is , for Herbage , " the greatest tour @-@ de @-@ force " ; the Sixth stands out for its " magnificent final movement " , which the critic Peter Pirie said " tears the earth up by its roots " ; and the Seventh , in the view of the Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians , has an elegiac tone , its simplicity far removed from the discursive and complex music of Bax 's earlier years .
= = = Concertante works = = =
Bax 's first work for solo instrument and orchestra was the 50 @-@ minute Symphonic Variations in E ♭ ( 1919 ) , written for Harriet Cohen . The Times considered it " like one of those deeds of recklessness which in the Army may be followed either by a Court @-@ martial or a V.C. We incline to favour the Court @-@ martial , and to award the V.C. to Miss Harriet Cohen for her part in the enterprise . "
The Cello Concerto ( 1932 ) was Bax 's first attempt at a full @-@ scale conventional concerto . It calls for a smaller orchestra than he customarily employed , with no trombones or tuba , and no percussion apart from timpani . Foreman points to many subtleties of scoring , but notes that it has never ranked high among the composer 's mature works . The Violin Concerto ( 1937 – 38 ) is , like the last symphony , in a more relaxed vein than most of Bax 's earlier music . Cardus singled it out as " unusually fine " , although Heifetz may have felt it not virtuosic enough . The composer described it as in the romantic tradition of Joachim Raff .
Among the minor concertante works is Variations on the Name Gabriel Fauré ( 1949 ) for harp and strings , in a style more neoclassical than most of Bax 's music . Bax 's last concertante piece was a short work for piano and orchestra ( 1947 ) written in his capacity as Master of the King 's Music , marking Princess Elizabeth 's twenty @-@ first birthday .
= = = Other orchestral works = = =
Bax 's tone poems are in a variety of styles and have varied sharply in their popularity . His impressionistic tone poems In the Faëry Hills and the Debussy ' La Mer ' like Nympholept are described by Grove as " a succinct and attractive pieces " . The former was modestly successful , but Spring Fire and Nympholept ( 1913 ) instanced by Foreman as difficult works ; were not performed in Bax 's lifetime . During the First World War Bax wrote three tone poems , two of which – The Garden of Fand ( 1913 – 16 ) and November Woods ( 1917 ) – have remained on the fringes of the modern repertoire , and a third – Tintagel ( 1917 – 19 ) – which in the decade after his death was the only work by which Bax was known to the public . Grove characterises all three as musical evocations of nature , with little expression of subjective personal response . The orchestral piece that was neglected longest was In memoriam ( 1917 ) , a lament for Patrick Pearse , who was shot for his part in the Easter rising ; the work was not played until 1998 . Bax reused the main melody for his incidental music to Oliver Twist ( 1948 ) .
Oliver Twist was the second of Bax 's film scores . The first was for a short wartime propaganda film , Malta , G. C .. A four @-@ movement suite was published after the release of the latter , containing what The Penguin Guide to Recorded Classical Music calls " a notable March with a genuine nobilmente theme in the best Elgarian tradition " . Bax 's third and last cinema score was for a ten @-@ minute short film Journey into History in 1952 .
Other orchestral works include Overture , Elegy and Rondo ( 1927 ) – a lightweight piece , according to Grove . The Overture to a Picaresque Comedy ( 1930 ) , was for a time one of his most popular works . It was described by the composer as " Straussian pastiche " and by The Times as " gay and impudent , and with that tendency to vulgarity which so easily besets the instinctively refined composer determined to let himself go " , Cardus thought the work so appealing that to live up to the overture the putative comedy would have to be " written by Hofmannsthal and Shaw in collaboration . Not often is English music so free and audacious as this , so gay and winning . "
= = = Vocal music = = =
The critic Peter Latham remarked that he was surprised that Bax had never set any of Yeats 's poems to music . Bax replied , " What , I ? I should never dare ! " . Latham added that Bax 's sensitiveness to poetic values made him " painfully aware of the violence that even the best musical setting must do to a poem " . Eventually this feeling caused him to give up song @-@ writing completely .
At the start of his composing career , songs , together with piano music , formed the core of Bax 's work . Some of the songs , mainly the early ones , are conspicuous for the virtuosity of their piano parts , which tend to overwhelm the voice . Grove contrasts the virtuoso accompaniment of " The Fairies " ( 1905 ) with the simpler " The White Peace " ( 1907 ) , one of his most popular songs . The musical analyst Trevor Hold writes that the piano " goes berserk " in " Glamour " ( 1920 ) . Among the poets whose verses Bax set were his brother Clifford , Burns , Chaucer , Hardy , Housman , Joyce , Synge and Tennyson . The composer himself singled out for mention in his Who 's Who article " A Celtic Song @-@ Cycle " ( 1904 ) to words by " Fiona Macleod " ( a pen name of the poet William Sharp ) . Among the post @-@ war songs , Hold considers Bax 's " In the Morning " ( 1926 ) to be one of the best of all settings of Housman 's works , " and it makes you wish that Bax had made further explorations into the Shropshire landscape . " Hold classes that song , together with " Across the Door " ( 1921 ) , " Rann of Exile " ( 1922 ) and " Watching the Needleboats " ( 1932 ) , as " truly modern , 20th @-@ century masterpieces of song " .
Bax wrote a substantial number of choral works , mostly secular but some religious . He was a nominal member of the Church of England , but in the view of the critic Paul Spicer , " None of Bax 's choral music can be described as devotional or even suitable for church use … Here is a secular composer writing voluptuous music . " The choral works with religious texts include his largest @-@ scale unaccompanied vocal piece , Mater ora Filium ( 1921 ) , inspired by William Byrd 's Five Part Mass ; it is a setting of a medieval carol from a manuscript held by Balliol College , Oxford . The composer Patrick Hadley considered it " an unsurpassed example of modern unaccompanied vocal writing " . Bax 's other choral works include settings of words by Shelley ( Enchanted Summer , 1910 ) , Henry Vaughan ( The Morning Watch , 1935 ) , Masefield ( To Russia , 1944 ) , and Spenser ( Epithalamium , 1947 ) .
= = = Chamber and solo piano music = = =
In his overview of Bax 's earlier chamber works , Evans identifies as among the most successful the Phantasy for viola , the Trio for piano , violin , and viola and " a String Quintet of such difficulty that an adequate performance has seldom if ever been possible " . He rates the Second Violin Sonata ( 1915 ) as the composer 's most individual work to that date . For Evans , the culminating point of Bax 's early chamber music was the Piano Quintet , a work " of such richness of invention that it would be an ornament to the musical literature of any country or period " . Foreman makes particular mention of the First String Quartet ( 1918 – " a classical clarity of texture and form to its Celtic inspiration " , and the " grittier " Second Quartet ( 1925 ) , the Viola Sonata ( 1922 ) , the Phantasy Sonata for viola and harp ( 1927 ) and the Sonata for Flute and Harp ( 1928 ) .
The composer and musical scholar Christopher Palmer writes that Bax was unusual among British composers in composing a substantial oeuvre for solo piano . Bax published four piano sonatas ( 1910 – 32 ) , which are , in Palmer 's view , as central to the composer 's piano music as the symphonies are to the orchestral output . The first two sonatas are each in a single movement , of about twenty minutes ; the third and fourth are in conventional three @-@ movement form . The First Symphony was originally planned as a large @-@ scale piano sonata in E ♭ ( 1921 ) ; the manuscript score of the latter came to light in the early 1980s and was performed for the first time in 1983 . Bax 's own virtuosity as a pianist is reflected in the demands of many of his piano pieces . Palmer cites Chopin and Liszt as major influences on Bax 's piano style as well as Balakirev and the other Russians whose influence is seen throughout the composer 's work . For piano duo Bax composed two tone poems , Moy Mell ( 1917 ) and Red Autumn ( 1931 ) . His shorter piano pieces include picturesque miniatures such as In a Vodka Shop ( 1915 ) , A Hill Tune ( 1920 ) and Water Music ( 1929 ) .
= = Neglect and revival = =
In his later years Bax 's music fell into neglect . Sir John Barbirolli wrote , " I think he felt keenly that his richly wrought and masterly scores were no longer ' fashionable ' to @-@ day , but nothing could deter him from the path of complete honesty and sincerity in his musical thought . " The neglect became more complete after the composer 's death . He had always sustained a Romantic outlook , distancing himself from musical modernism and especially Arnold Schoenberg 's serialism , of which Bax wrote in 1951 :
I believe that there is little probability that the twelve @-@ note scale will ever produce anything more than morbid or entirely cerebral growths . It might deal successfully with neuroses of various kinds , but I cannot imagine it associated with any healthy and happy concept such as young love or the coming of spring .
Neither Bax 's views nor his works were fashionable in the two decades after his death . The critic Michael Kennedy writes that the mid @-@ 1950s were a time of " immense change and transition in influential musical circles . " The music favoured by the cultural establishment until then was regarded as having made Britain musically parochial and indifferent to the developments of the past half @-@ century . In Kennedy 's words , " Rubbra , Bax and Ireland found themselves out in the cold " .
Foreman comments that in the years after Bax 's death his reputation was kept alive by a single work – Tintagel . Kennedy estimates that it took " twenty painful years " before the music of the British romantics including Bax made headway against the dominance of modernism . Foreman dates the revival of Bax 's music to Handley 's performances of the Fourth Symphony and other works with the Guildford Philharmonic Orchestra in the 1960s , and the pioneering recordings by Lyrita Recorded Edition of five of the symphonies . Scholarly consideration of Bax 's life and music came with studies by Colin Scott @-@ Sutherland ( 1973 ) and Foreman ( 1983 ) . Bax 's centenary in 1983 was marked by twenty programmes on BBC Radio 3 , covering a wide range of the composer 's music . In 1985 the Sir Arnold Bax Trust was established to promote the composer 's work including the sponsoring of live performances and recording and publication of his music and writings . Since then a large number of Bax 's works , major and minor , have been recorded ( see below ) . The proliferation of Bax recordings has not been matched by a revival in his fortunes in the concert hall ; the critic Stephen Moss observed in The Guardian in 2007 , " Bax is considered the promotional kiss of death . " In 1999 the Oxford University Press published a complete catalogue of Bax 's works compiled and annotated by Graham Parlett ; Music & Letters called it " a benchmark for any future researchers seeking to compile a catalogue of a composer 's works " .
= = Recordings = =
Two recordings of Bax as a pianist were made in 1929 . With Lionel Tertis he recorded his own Viola Sonata for Columbia , and with May Harrison he recorded Delius 's Violin Sonata No 1 for the rival HMV label . Of the symphonies , only the Third was recorded in the composer 's lifetime ; it was played by the Hallé under Barbirolli and released in 1944 . The Viola Sonata , Nonet and Mater ora Filium were recorded under the auspices of the English Music Society in 1937 and 1938 . The Phantasy Sonata for Viola and Harp , the Sonata for Two Pianos and a handful of the songs were recorded on 78 rpm discs . Of the tone poems , Eugene Goossens conducted the first recording of Tintagel , in 1928 ; twenty years later a set of The Garden of Fand with Beecham and the Royal Philharmonic Orchestra was released by HMV . By 1955 Bax on record was so scarce that The Record Guide listed only Tintagel , the Coronation March , the unaccompanied choral work What is it Like to be Young and Fair ? and the solo piano piece Paean .
Parlett included an extensive discography in his 1999 A Catalogue of the Works of Sir Arnold Bax , later expanded and updated in a website . At 2015 the latter lists more than 250 works by Bax that have been recorded and published . The discography includes three complete cycles of Bax 's symphonies released on CD , two by Chandos Records , the first conducted by Bryden Thomson ( recorded 1983 – 88 ) and the second by Handley ( 2003 ) ; between them was a cycle issued by Naxos Records conducted by David Lloyd @-@ Jones ( recorded 1997 – 2001 ) . The major tone poems and other orchestral works have been recorded , many of them in several different versions . , however Nympolept arguably Bax greatest tone poem , was never performed during Bax life and was first recorded by Bryden Thomson in 1984 . Bax 's chamber music is well represented on disc , with recordings of most of the works , and multiple versions of many , including the Elegiac Trio , the Clarinet Sonata and the Fantasy Sonata . Much of the piano music has been recorded by pianists including Iris Loveridge , John McCabe , Ashley Wass and Michael Endres , though by 2015 no integral survey had yet been recorded . Of the vocal works , by far the most often recorded is Mater ora Filium , but other choral works , and a representative selection of the songs are on disc .
= = Honours and legacy = =
Bax received the gold medals of the Royal Philharmonic Society ( 1931 ) and the Worshipful Company of Musicians ( 1931 ) , and the Cobbett medal for chamber music ( 1931 ) . He was awarded honorary doctorates by the universities of Oxford ( 1934 ) and Durham ( 1935 ) and the National University of Ireland ( 1947 ) . A Bax Memorial Room at University College , Cork , was opened by Vaughan Williams in 1955 . After Bax 's knighthood in the 1937 Coronation Honours he was advanced to KCVO in 1953 . An English Heritage blue plaque , unveiled in 1993 , commemorates Bax at his birthplace , 13 Pendennis Road in Streatham .
In 1992 Ken Russell made a television film dramatising Bax 's later years , The Secret Life of Arnold Bax . Russell himself portrayed Bax and Glenda Jackson , in her final acting role , appeared as Harriet Cohen .
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= Nathaniel Backus House =
The Nathaniel Backus House is a two @-@ story Greek Revival clapboarded house with a gable roof in Norwich , Connecticut . The house was built around 1750 by Nathaniel Backus and served as his home , it was later moved to its current location in 1952 . The house originally began as a Colonial , but was greatly modified to Greek Revival around 1825 , reconfiguring the central door to the left of the facade and adding two chimneys . The house is a historic house museum operated by the Faith Trumbull Chapter of the Daughters of the American Revolution .
The Nathaniel Backus House was submitted to the National Register of Historic Places for its historical value in local history and as an example of Greek Revival domestic architecture . It was listed on the National Register of Historic Places ( NRHP ) in 1970 and was also included in the NRHP 's Chelsea Parade Historic District designation in 1989 .
= = Nathaniel Backus = =
The Nathaniel Backus House 's namesake is its builder Nathaniel Backus , a descendent of William Backus and William Backus , Jr . , two of the founders of Norwich , Connecticut . Nathaniel Backus was born on April 5 , 1704 and he married Hannah Baldwin in 1726 . Together they would have seven children . Nathaniel Backus was also recorded to be one of six men in Norwich to own their own carriages before the American Revolutionary War . Nathaniel Backus died in 1773 .
= = Design = =
The Nathaniel Backus House 's construction date is unknown , but it is believed to have been around 1750 . The History of Norwich , Connecticut places it around 1734 and makes mention of a highway being added in 1750 specifically by Nathaniel Backus ' house . In the 1970 National Historic Register of Places nomination , the Daughters of the American Revolution indicated it dates from 1750 .
The house originally stood on Broadway Street in the center of Norwich , Connecticut . It was originally Colonial at its time of construction , but has been modified to Greek Revival style . The renovation itself may date to around 1825 . The house is a white two @-@ story clapboarded structure with its gable end facing the street . The three @-@ bay facade faces south and the front entrance is located on the left bay . The eaves cornice is decorated with mutules that span the length of the gable ends and combines with the roof cornice to make a pediment that encloses an elliptical window in the center . The window is of the " rising sun pattern " with glass panes radiating out through two rings . The entrance on the left of the facade has a paneled door , stated to be original , that is enclosed in a rectangular frame , supported by Ionic columns and framed by fluted moldings . The frames of the 6 @-@ over @-@ 6 windows project slightly from the clapboard exterior . The foundation and steps to the house is of stone .
An alteration saw the addition of two chimneys and additional alterations to the window and door openings on the northeast and southwest sides of the house . It is believed that the central door and window alterations were done as part of the Greek Revival renovations . Luyster states , " [ f ] urther investigation would undoubtedly reveal additional changes in the interior , including changes in the position of the fireplaces and their chimney connections . "
= = Importance = =
The Nathaniel Backus House is a historic house museum operated by the Faith Trumbull Chapter of the Daughters of the American Revolution following its completed move in 1952 . The Nathaniel Backus House was submitted to the National Register of Historic Places for its historical value in local history and as an example of Greek Revival domestic architecture . Luyster writes , " The simplicity of the Backus house contrasts pleasantly with the verandahs and asymmetric forms of the surrounding buildings . " It was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1970 . The house was also included as part of the Chelsea Parade Historic District in 1989 .
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= Chris Traeger =
Christopher " Chris " Traeger is a fictional character played by Rob Lowe in the American comedy television series Parks and Recreation on NBC . He began on the show as an Indiana state auditor who visits the fictional city of Pawnee to help solve their crippling budget problems , and eventually becomes Pawnee 's acting city manager . Chris is an extremely positive person who is constantly upbeat and energetic . Extremely health @-@ conscious , he exercises constantly and eats only healthy foods , and hopes to be the first human being to live 150 years .
Chris first appeared in the second season episode " The Master Plan " . Originally expected to appear in eight episodes as a guest star , Lowe eventually signed on to remain on the show as a permanent cast member . Chris was a romantic interest for Ann Perkins ( Rashida Jones ) throughout the show 's run . Chris imposes a strict policy against workplace dating at city hall , but series protagonist Leslie Knope ( Amy Poehler ) and Ben Wyatt ( Adam Scott ) begin secretly dating anyway .
The idea of Chris as a state auditor was inspired by real @-@ life reports of government shutdowns amid the global financial crisis . The Chris Traeger character has received highly positive reviews from critics , and has been described as " one of the great comedic creations of the past couple years " and " one of the funniest performances of Rob Lowe 's career " .
= = Character biography = =
= = = Background and personality = = =
Portrayed by Rob Lowe , Chris Traeger begins the show as an auditor working for the Indiana state government in Indianapolis , but eventually becomes the acting city manager of Pawnee , the fictional Indiana city where Parks and Recreation is set . Originally from Wisconsin , he is an excessively positive and optimistic person , who is constantly upbeat and extremely energetic . As a baby , Chris was diagnosed with a rare blood disorder and was not expected to live longer than three weeks , but miraculously survived . As a result , he sees every day he is alive as a gift , which results in his intensely cheerful and enthusiastic personality . In " Lucky " , Chris mentions that he has a stepbrother who lives in London .
Chris is extremely health @-@ conscious and exercises constantly ; he runs 10 miles during his lunch break alone , and considers a 15 km run to be " light " exercise . He avoids eating red meat and fatty foods in favor of dishes like lean turkey burgers and vegetable loaf sweetened with fruit reduction , and takes a huge assortment of unusual vitamins . Chris always stays extremely well @-@ hydrated , and as a result of his extreme exercise regimen has only 2 @.@ 8 % body fat , which makes him very susceptible to illness due to a weakened immune system . His ambition is to become the first human being to live 150 years . Chris always greets people with a firm handshake and direct eye contact , and to remember their names often points directly at people and repeats their names upon first meeting them . His constant desire to make everyone around him happy means Chris hates having to deliver bad news , a task he often assigns to his subordinates , usually Ben Wyatt . He often declares things to be " literally " the best thing he 's ever seen or done , strongly emphasizing the word and pronouncing it " littrally " . He is very specific about his needs , giving long , drawn out requests , often making only one point per sentence , as can be seen in the episode " Ron & Tammy : Part Two " , his beer order is as follows : " I would like a local beer ... I 'd like it in a bottle ... And I 'd like that bottle to be cold . "
= = = Season two = = =
Starting in the penultimate second season episode " The Master Plan " , Chris Traeger and fellow state auditor Ben Wyatt ( Adam Scott ) are sent to Pawnee to help solve the city 's crippling budget deficit . Despite the seriousness of the problems , Chris presents the situation in an extremely positive light and tries to make all the city hall employees around him happy , leaving the hard decisions and delivery of bad news up to Ben . Due to the poorly managed Pawnee government , Chris and Ben need to slash every city budget by up to 50 percent , much to the disappointment of deputy parks and recreation director Leslie Knope ( Amy Poehler ) .
During an outing at a bar , Chris meets Leslie 's best friend Ann Perkins ( Rashida Jones ) , who is drunk and experiencing conflicting emotions following her recent breakup with Mark Brendanawicz ( Paul Schneider ) . Ann makes out with Chris and , although she was too drunk to even remember the incident the next day , he develops romantic feelings for her . Ann rebuffs his requests for dates , and finds him too intense , but the ever @-@ optimistic Chris does not become discouraged and insists he will continue courting her . Meanwhile , in " Freddy Spaghetti " , Chris and Ben reveal Pawnee 's budget problems are worse than anticipated , which would require the government to be temporarily shut down , much to the horror of Leslie , but the delight of parks and recreation director Ron Swanson ( Nick Offerman ) , an anti @-@ government libertarian . Chris and Ben even consider firing Leslie to save money , but Ron persuades them otherwise .
= = = Season three = = =
In " Go Big or Go Home " , after three months of closure , the Pawnee government reopens in a limited capacity , but Chris and Ben insist the parks and recreation department 's budget can only sustain existing park maintenance . Leslie , however , wants to offer better programs and services for the Pawnee citizens . She asks Ann to go on a date with Chris , then try to convince him to increase the budget . Ann reluctantly agrees to the plan , but as the date progresses , she finds she actually enjoys herself and develops feelings for Chris . When Leslie accidentally gives away her secret plan , Chris is hurt and disparaged by Ann 's ulterior motive . The next day , however , Ann apologizes and asks to continue dating Chris , who happily accepts .
Ann finds she likes Chris very much , but is intimidated because she cannot find a single flaw with him , which causes her to act socially awkwardly around him . However , when a flu outbreak strikes Pawnee in " Flu Season " , Chris becomes severely ill , as due to his extreme workout regimen , he has a poor immune system and low body fat . He suffers a complete physical breakdown and becomes delirious from fever , which causes Ann ( who works as a local nurse and treats his illness ) to feel less intimidated by him . Later , when he recovers , Chris and Ben are called back to Indianapolis for another assignment , but Chris requests an extension to stay in Pawnee , seemingly due to his feelings for Ann .
In " Ron & Tammy : Part Two " , Ann begins to question why Chris has not asked her to move with him to Indianapolis when he eventually returns there , especially after he offers for Ron 's assistant April Ludgate ( Aubrey Plaza ) to come there to work for him . After Ann insists they need to decide what their future holds , Chris breaks up with Ann . However , he does so in such a positive and upbeat way that she does not actually realize they have broken up . When Chris returns to Indianapolis , Ann becomes confused about why they have had such little contact and suspects he is cheating on her . In the episode " Indianapolis " , Ann confronts Chris about her suspicions , only to become humiliated to learn he had actually intended to break up with her .
In the episode " Camping " a few months later , Chris returns to Pawnee to work as acting city manager after former manager Paul Iaresco ( Phil Reeves ) suffers a major heart attack . A still devastated Ann meets with him to try and clear the air . However , Chris is once again so optimistic while discussing their break @-@ up that she falsely believes they have gotten back together and tries to kiss him , thus embarrassing herself further . Meanwhile , Chris offers Ben a full @-@ time job working at the Pawnee government , which Ben accepts .
Chris proves to be an energetic city manager , encouraging Leslie to pursue ambitious , grand @-@ scale projects like the harvest festival she organized before he returned to Pawnee . In " Soulmates " , he also attempts to combat Pawnee 's notorious obesity problem by enacting a government @-@ wide health initiative . In that same episode , when he sees Leslie kiss fellow employee Tom Haverford ( Aziz Ansari ) and falsely believes they are dating , Chris warns her he maintains a strict policy against workforce dating and insists she could be fired if she engages such a relationship . He is unaware , however , that Leslie and Ben actually have romantic feelings for each other , and eventually start dating without his knowledge .
During the season finale " Li 'l Sebastian " , Chris learns he has tendinitis . Although it is not particularly serious , it terrifies the health @-@ conscious Chris and makes him begin to ponder his own mortality . He is eventually comforted by Ann , who now works part @-@ time at city hall as the health department 's public relations director . Chris feels better and appears to begin developing feelings again for her .
= = = Season four = = =
In " Ron and Tammys " , Chris helps Ann shoot a health @-@ related PSA . His determination to make it perfect , filming take after take , reminds Ann of some of her reasons not to date him . In " Pawnee Rangers " , Chris meets Jerry 's daughter Millicent ( Sarah Wright ) . The two start dating and Chris makes sure that it is okay with Jerry . Jerry says that he is fine with the two of them dating , much to Chris ' delight . Chris and Millicent go together to April and Andy 's Halloween party , with Chris dressing as Sherlock Holmes , his favorite character . After Chris starts to lose contact with Millie , he enlists Jerry , Donna , and Ann to help him , against Jerry 's wishes . Ann tells him that he is too accessible and needs to back off a little bit so he can continue dating Millie . In " Bowling for Votes " , Millie dumps Chris , leaving him depressed . In " Operation Ann " , Leslie convinces Chris that he is still a likable person and that Millecent 's opinion does not mean anything . He immediately loses his depression . In " Dave Returns " , Chris discovers Tom 's relationship with Ann and confronts Tom about it , making Chris realize that he has to " ... adjust . " He then freezes and stares sadly into space . In the same episode , when Andy , asks Chris to sing for him ( since he is working as a backing vocalist on Andy 's song for the campaign ) , he sings " Take Me Out to the Ball Game " out of tune and with the wrong lyrics , causing everyone else there to wince . Chris helps Leslie 's campaign however he can , even taking on a large amount of busy work to distract him from his loneliness " Bus Tour " . He has a brief liaison with Bobby Newport 's campaign manager , which cheers him up .
= = = Season five = = =
In season five , Chris is still working as Pawnee 's City Manager . He is no longer depressed , but is continuously seeing a therapist . He is also asked to be the father of Ann Perkins ' child via in vitro fertilization . He is hesitant at first and turns to Ben and others to help him make a decision . After " Bailout " , he tells Ann that he will be the father and the two begin parenting compatibility testing to see how well they will work together with raising a child . During " Jerry 's Retirement " , they get back together but Ann is not sure if they should continue their relationship the way they are now .
= = = Season six = = =
With Ann pregnant at the beginning of season six , Chris is preparing to be a father . In addition , when Ann expresses interest in leaving Pawnee to be closer to her family in Michigan , Chris decides to go with her . Some time after the pair leaves , Ann gives birth to their son Oliver Perkins @-@ Traeger .
= = = Season seven = = =
Chris and Ann return for a guest appearance in the series finale in order to advise Leslie in 2025 . It is revealed that after Oliver , the couple had a second child , a daughter named Leslie .
= = Development = =
Shortly following his departure from the ABC drama series Brothers & Sisters , Rob Lowe accepted the role of Chris Traeger on Parks and Recreation . He made his first appearance on the show in " The Master Plan " , the penultimate episode of the second season . The character debuted the same episode that Adam Scott began his role as Ben Wyatt . Originally , Chris Traeger was only meant to be a guest role , with Lowe portraying him in the final two episodes of the second season and the first six episodes of the third season before departing the series . However , Lowe instead became a regular cast member starting with the third season , and signed a multi @-@ year contract to remain on the show . The idea of Chris as a state auditor visiting Pawnee , and the subsequent government shutdown , was inspired by news reports at the time of a number of states that were considering a shut down of schools , parks and other services due to the global financial crisis .
Parks and Recreation co @-@ creator Michael Schur said Chris ' habit of pointing directly into the faces of people he meets and repeating their names was one of the first elements of his character that the writing staff conceived . Chris ' desire to live 150 years was inspired by Schur 's wife , J. J. Philbin , who had read an article which stated that scientists believe the first human who will live 150 years has already been born , and felt it applied to the Chris Traeger character . Lowe 's first day of filming on the series was his birthday ( March 17 , 2010 ) , which was the day his kiss scene with Rashida Jones in " The Master Plan " was shot . Lowe said he loved his character 's " unrelenting enthusiasm " and the fact that he is not a romantic lead , but rather a " big , fat nerd " . Parks and Recreation star Amy Poehler said of Chris Traeger : " It 's a really fun character to play against because what you ’ ll see start to happen is Chris doesn ’ t want to deliver any bad news , but he ’ s actually like the Bad News Bear . " Like much of the rest of the cast , Lowe occasionally improvises lines and actions for his character that are not included in the script . The writers hoped to use Ann Perkins ' breakup with Chris , and the drastic changes in her behavior afterward , as a way of tapping into more comedic potential of her character rather than having her fill the role of straight man as she had in the past . Schur said : " Ann is a very intelligent and attractive woman , and it 's hard to knock someone like that off balance . And the way to knock that person off balance is to get Rob Lowe in a relationship with you . "
Once Lowe joined the permanent cast , Chris ' role changed into more of an authority figure concerned with integrity and efficiency , although he continued to maintain his positive attitude and personality . Schur said of this second role : " He doesn ’ t like frayed ends or controversies – he wants the body politic to be as clean @-@ running and organic as his own human body . Part of the design of the character was to give the other characters a true boss – an actual authority figure whose rules and regulations meant they had to toe certain lines , even while his endlessly cheery disposition made it hard to argue with him . " As a result , Chris Traeger changed in minor ways once he became a regular character . In his earlier episodes , Chris avoided associating himself with anything negative and constantly made Ben report bad news to people . As city manager in later episodes as a regular , however , Chris started imposing rules or changes around the office that were not popular and seemed less resistant about enforcing them . For example , Chris began to enforce his strict no @-@ dating policy around city hall . Additionally , in the episode " Jerry 's Painting " , Chris forcefully orders Leslie to destroy a painting when it proves to be controversial , and becomes angry with her when she tries to resist those orders .
= = Reception = =
The Chris Traeger character has received critical acclaim . Rick Porter of Zap2it described him as " one of the great comedic creations of the past couple years " , and Hitfix writer Alan Sepinwall called it " one of the funniest performances of [ Rob Lowe 's ] career " . David Hinckley of the New York Daily News said both Lowe and Adam Scott were excellent additions to the cast , and Eric Sundermann of Hollywood.com said Chris was " exactly what the show needed to push itself to another level of silliness " . Some reviewers believed Chris ' over @-@ the @-@ top personality would be funny in the short run , but that the character would not prove three @-@ dimensional enough to have long @-@ term sustainability . New York magazine writer Steve Kandell initially described him as " funny , but sorta one @-@ note " , and Eric Hochberger of TV Fanatic first found Chris funny , but likewise said he was " not sure how great he 'll be long term " . Matt Fowler of IGN expressed the same sentiments after earlier episodes , but by the third season said Chris proved to be a great addition to the show .
The relationship between Chris and Ann was described by Sundermann as " one of the most interesting parts of the show and the reason , specifically , is Chris " . Likewise , Porter said Lowe and Rashida Jones had developed a " fantastic dynamic " . Joel Keller of TV Squad said he found Chris " a little two @-@ dimensional " , and believed the relationship was poorly handled because it made Ann too passive . Lowe received particularly strong praise for his role in " Flu Season " , in which Chris became extremely ill and hallucinatory when infected with the flu . Tim Goodman of The Hollywood Reporter said Lowe 's character seemed well @-@ integrated into the cast by the episode " Flu Season " , and added " If you 've never believed Lowe can make you laugh out loud , pay attention to that episode . " Steve Kandell said Lowe stole the show from the usual Parks powerhouses of Nick Offerman and Chris Pratt , and called one scene , when Lowe tries to will away his flu by yelling to himself in the mirror " Stop ... pooping ! " , the " single greatest self @-@ effacingly comic moment of his long , handsome career " .
Parks and Recreation has traditionally experienced poor Nielsen ratings , and NBC officials hoped the addition of Lowe to the cast would help increase viewership . His premiere on the second season episode " The Master Plan " was heavily publicized in commercials with the hopes of drawing new viewers . However , ratings continued to be low after he joined the show , and his appearances only resulted in what HitFix writer Daniel Fienberg called " a statistically irrelevant bump " in the ratings .
Following actor Charlie Sheen 's departure from the CBS comedy series Two and a Half Men in March 2011 , rumors began to circulate that Rob Lowe might leave Parks and Recreation to take Sheen 's place on that show . People magazine reported that Two and a Half Men creator Chuck Lorre was " seriously discussing the possibility " of signing Lowe , and Sheen himself said he would be a " fabulous " successor . Those rumors proved unfounded , however , and were flatly denied by Michael Schur , who called it " complete gibberish " . Although widely considered a supporting role , Lowe 's performance as Chris Traeger was submitted for a 2011 Primetime Emmy Award in the Outstanding Lead Actor in a Comedy Series category .
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= Eyeshield 21 =
Eyeshield 21 ( Japanese : アイシールド21 , Hepburn : Aishīrudo Nijūichi ) is a Japanese manga series written by Riichiro Inagaki and illustrated by Yusuke Murata . The series tells the story of Sena Kobayakawa , an introverted boy who joins an American football club as a secretary , but after being coerced by Yoichi Hiruma , turns out to play wearing an eyeshield and the number 21 , under the pseudonym of " Eyeshield 21 " . Inagaki chose American football as a central subject of Eyeshield 21 after realizing that it fit perfectly with his idea for the series .
The manga was originally serialized in Shueisha 's Weekly Shōnen Jump from July 2002 to June 2009 . The series consists of 333 chapters collected in 37 tankōbon volumes . An anime adaptation consisting of 145 television episodes was co @-@ produced by TV Tokyo , NAS , and Gallop . The television series first aired on Japan 's TV Tokyo network from April 6 , 2005 to March 19 , 2008 . The Eyeshield 21 franchise has spawned two original video animations ( OVAs ) , audio albums , video games , and other merchandise .
In North America , the manga was released by Viz Media from April 2005 to October 2011 . The anime series was later licensed in North America by Toonami Jetstream as a joint effort with Viz Media , and aired on December 17 , 2007 on its site , but before its completion , the streaming service was shut down . The whole series was streamed in English by Crunchyroll , while Sentai Filmworks licensed the series , with distribution from Section23 Films on DVDs .
In Japan , the Eyeshield 21 manga has sold over 20 million volumes . The manga and anime have been featured at various times in weekly top ten lists of best @-@ selling in their respective media . The anime has been watched by a large number of television viewers in Japan , helping to raise American football 's popularity in the country . Publications for manga , anime and others have commented on Eyeshield 21 , which received positive comments for its artwork and characters , and negative responses to its non @-@ football scenes .
= = Plot = =
In Tokyo , a weak , unassertive boy named Sena Kobayakawa enters the high school of his choice — Deimon Private Senior High School . Sena 's only remarkable physical abilities are his running speed and agility , which are noted by the school 's American football team captain Yoichi Hiruma . Hiruma forces Sena to join the Deimon Devil Bats football team as its running back . To protect his identity from other teams who want to recruit him , Sena is forced to publicly assume the role of team secretary and enter the field under the pseudonym of " Eyeshield 21 " wearing a helmet with an eyeshield to hide his features . The makeshift team initially takes part in the spring football tournament hoping to win through the strength of their new " secret weapon " . However , the extremely weak team is eliminated early by the Ojo White Knights , one of the best football teams in Japan .
After Deimon 's defeat , the spring tournament is revealed as secondary in importance to the fall tournament , where the teams compete for the chance to play in the Christmas Bowl — the high school football league championship . Hiruma , Ryokan Kurita , and Sena regroup and slowly build a real team from misfits and students looking to define themselves , such as Tarō " Monta " Raimon — a baseball player who can only catch — and the Ha @-@ Ha Brothers . Other characters slowly join the team , and the series follows the building and growth of the Deimon Devil Bats and its members , and rival teams as they all strive to achieve their goal of playing in the Christmas Bowl .
Following the Christmas Bowl , Japan begins to gather the best football players to form a team to represent it at the American Football Youth World Championship , where a Most Valuable Player ( MVP ) will be awarded an NFL contract and $ 3 million . Team Japan reaches the final against Team America , in which the game ends as a tie , and both teams are declared winners . Both teams are unsatisfied with this and return to the field for their own , improvised " overtime " , causing chaos with officials . It is unclear which team wins the unofficial extra period , but Panther of Team America holds the MVP trophy aloft , winning the professional contract with the San Antonio Armadillos . The series concludes with Sena becoming the captain of the Devil Bats after Hiruma and Kurita leave school to attend college . In his final year of high school , Clifford invites Sena to Notre Dame High School . In the final chapter , the main characters are in college or playing amateur @-@ league football while employed .
= = Production = =
Before the series was published regularly , Inagaki and Murata published two one @-@ shots called Eyeshield Part 1 ( 前編 , Zenpen ) and Part 2 ( 後編 , Kōhen ) on March 5 and 12 , 2002 in Weekly Shōnen Jump . During Eyeshield 21 's original run in the magazine , Inagaki went several times to the United States to see college football matches , and visit a space center to collect reference materials to use as a basis for creating the NASA Aliens . He also visited a military base as he needed to draw one when Hiruma 's background is revealed , and watched an NFL game where he noted that the " players transmitted an intimidating and powerful feeling " , saying that they " were facing dinosaurs " . With this in mind he created Rikiya Gaoh , an American player of monstrous size .
Despite having never played American football , Inagaki chose this theme after deciding that he wanted to create " a protagonist that was wimpy at the beginning , yet could perform outstandingly in a sports game " , and with this premise in mind he decided that American football would be " a very suitable material . " When originally creating Eyeshield 21 Inagaki said he was wary because he did not want his manga becoming " a simulator of football " . The fact that football is not a popular sport in Japan also worried Inagaki . As last resort , he thought to turn the series into a " Kamen Rider @-@ style masked hero story " if it could not met the popularity required for the magazine .
Before being asked to work on Eyeshield 21 , Yusuke Murata had read some of Inagaki 's manga and noted that they " had many cool design concepts of uniforms and equipment " . He said , " it could be turned into a great manga story " and he would " be happy to take the challenge " ; eventually he was chosen . While illustrating chapters , Murata made many mistakes , and his pollen allergy hurt him because whenever he made a mistake he inhaled dust from his eraser . To draw the characters ' sketches , he used a mechanical pencil that he considered special because it was given to him by Masanori Morita .
= = Publication = =
The Eyeshield 21 manga series was written by Riichiro Inagaki , illustrated by Yusuke Murata , and originally serialized by Shueisha in the Japanese magazine Weekly Shōnen Jump from July 23 , 2002 to June 15 , 2009 . The manga consists of 333 chapters spanning 37 tankōbon ( collected volumes ) , the first of which was released on December 20 , 2002 and the last on October 2 , 2010 . Eyeshield 21 has also been published as part of the Shueisha Jump Remix series of magazine @-@ style books . Fourteen volumes were released between June 28 , 2010 and February 14 , 2011 . An English translation of the manga was published in North America by Viz Media under the Shonen Jump Advanced label between April 5 , 2005 and October 4 , 2011 . The manga has also been licensed in some countries such as in France by Glénat , in Hong Kong by Culturecom , in Indonesia by Elex Media Komputindo , in Italy by Panini Comics , in South Korea by Daewon Media , and in Taiwan by Tong Li Publishing .
= = Anime adaptations = =
= = = Original video animations = = =
Two original video animations ( OVA ) based on the Eyeshield 21 manga series were developed . The first one , named The Phantom Golden Bowl , was developed by Production I.G and shown as part of the Jump Festa Anime Tour on September 2003 and in Jump Festa 2004 . The second OVA , titled Eyeshield 21 : Christmas Bowl e no Michi – Minami no Shima de Tokkun da ! YA @-@ HA ! ! – , was shown at Jump Festa 2005 . The two OVAs were later released on DVD ; the first was released with the second OVA of Naruto in a compilation called Jump Festa 2004 Super DVD . The other was released by Bandai Visual as an extra track on the sixth DVD of the Eyeshield 21 anime series .
= = = Television series = = =
The Eyeshield 21 anime adaptation was co @-@ produced by TV Tokyo , NAS , and Gallop , and was directed by Masayoshi Nishida until episode 103 , and by Shin Katagai from 104 to 145 . The series of 145 television episodes aired in Japan from April 6 , 2005 to March 19 , 2008 on TV Tokyo . In Japan , Bandai Visual distributed the anime in DVD format ; thirty @-@ six volumes were released between July 26 , 2006 and June 26 , 2007 .
Initially , Viz Media and Cartoon Network planned to air a dubbed version of Eyeshield 21 on the internet video streaming service Toonami Jetstream , and on NFL Rush site as a joint effort with National Football League ( NFL ) , but the anime was eventually posted only on Toonami Jetstream , with the first episode being available on December 17 , 2007 . However , it was not completed due to Toonami Jetstream 's cancellation and shutdown . In December 2008 , the video streaming service Crunchyroll announced that it would begin to stream Eyeshield 21 subtitled on its site on January 2 , 2009 . The last episode was available on November 1 , 2009 for premium users , and on March 7 , 2010 for free users . On February 26 , 2010 , Section23 Films announced that Sentai Filmworks received the license to the anime . The first fifty @-@ two episodes were released on four subtitled @-@ only DVDs between May 18 , 2010 and February 8 , 2011 .
= = = = Audio = = = =
The music for the Eyeshield 21 anime adaptation was composed by Kō Ōtani . The series use twelve pieces of theme music , five opening and seven ending themes . The opening themes are " Breakthrough " and " Innocence " by V6 , " Dang Dang " by ZZ , " Blaze Line " by Back @-@ On , and " Honō no Running Back " by Short Leg Summer . The ending themes are " Be Free " by Ricken 's , " Blaze Away " by The Trax , " Goal " by Beni Arashiro , " Run to Win " by Aya Hirano , Miyu Irino , Koichi Nagano and Kappei Yamaguchi , " A day dreaming ... " by Back @-@ On , " Flower " by Back @-@ On , and " Song of Power " by Short Leg Summer .
A number of audio CDs linked to the anime series have been released in Japan . The original soundtrack was released on two discs by Avex Mode on March 5 , 2008 under the title Eyeshield 21 Complete Best Album . Three compilation albums , Eyeshield 21 Original Soundtrack Sound Field 1 , Eyeshield 21 Sound Field Especial , and Eyeshield 21 Song Best , featuring opening and ending themes , insertion songs , and character and team songs were released on August 31 , 2005 , December 21 , 2005 , and March 23 , 2006 respectively . Six maxi singles containing character songs have also been published . The first three , for Sena Kobayakawa , Mamori Anezaki , and Monta , were released on October 26 , 2005 . The other three , with the songs of Haruto Sakuraba , Seijurou Shin , and Suzuna Taki , were released on January 25 , 2006 . In addition to the musical CDs , Eyeshield 21 Drama Field 1 , an audio drama CD , was released by Avex on September 21 , 2005 .
= = Related media = =
Two art books based on Eyeshield 21 were released . The first , Eyeshield 21 Illustration Collection : Field of Colors , was published on November 2 , 2006 . The second , entitled Paint Jump : Art of Eyeshield 21 , was released on December 19 , 2008 . Eyeshield 21 Official Databook : Chou Senshu Retsuden Ballers High , a databook , was published on October 4 , 2005 . A pair of light novels were launched ; the first , written by Katsumi Hasegawa , based on and named for the first OVA , was published on March 24 , 2004 . The second , Eyeshield 21 : Netto no Hundred Game ! , written by Eijima Jun , was published on May 26 , 2006 . The only original creator of the series who worked on these light novels was Murata , who illustrated them . In Japan , jigsaw puzzles , action figures , plush dolls , calendars , key chains , and a medal game machine were sold as merchandise for the series . Konami also released a collectable card game series .
= = = Video games = = =
Konami produced Eyeshield 21 games for Sony video game systems ; it released Eyeshield 21 : Let 's Play American Football ! Ya ! Ha ! ! for the PlayStation 2 on December 22 , 2005 and Eyeshield 21 : Portable Edition for the PlayStation Portable on March 2 , 2006 . Nintendo secured the rights to the Eyeshield 21 video game license for its systems in December 2004 , releasing Eyeshield 21 : Max Devil Power for the Nintendo DS on February 2 , 2006 and Eyeshield 21 : Devilbats Devildays for the Game Boy Advance on April 6 , 2006 . Another game was scheduled for release on the Nintendo GameCube , but it was later canceled . Nintendo published an Eyeshield 21 game for the Wii , entitled Eyeshield 21 : The Field 's Greatest Warriors , which was released in Japan on March 8 , 2007 . Two non @-@ football games , Jump Super Stars and Jump Ultimate Stars , released for the Nintendo DS , have featured characters from the series . Various Devil Bats , Shin and Sakuraba from the White Knights appear in support cameos .
= = Reception = =
The manga had sold more than 20 million copies in Japan ; individual volumes frequently appeared on top ten lists of best @-@ selling manga there . Individual volumes have appeared in Diamond Comic Distributors 's lists of 300 best @-@ selling graphic novels in North America several times . In 2011 , the Japanese website Ameba conducted a " Top 10 " online web poll of the " Best Shōnen Jump Manga of the 21st Century " and Eyeshield 21 was placed seventh , although in another poll of the best Shōnen Jump titles that the readers nonetheless did not want to continue reading , Eyeshield 21 ranked twentieth . The anime adaptation was also featured several times in Japanese television rankings , with the first episode having a 7 @.@ 5 percent television viewership rating . In 2006 , Japanese television network TV Asahi conducted a poll for the top hundred anime , and Eyeshield 21 was placed 47th . Moreover , Eyeshield 21 's series is credited with increasing the number of Japanese teenagers playing American football .
Critics have generally given the Eyeshield 21 manga positive reviews . Deb Aoki from About.com wrote that tying with Bleach , Eyeshield 21 was the best continuing shōnen manga of 2007 , because it " has well @-@ written characters , dynamic artwork , nail @-@ biting cliffhangers , plus a winning mix of comedy , action and drama " . On the 2008 list , Aoki listed Eyeshield 21 as the best continuing shōnen , as it was able to " [ come ] into its own " from other shōnen series . In that same year , Pop Culture Shock 's Sam Kusek elected it the best continuing manga series . Jarred Pine from Mania Entertainment praised the humor and how the creators " bring out the energy and excitement of the game for the readers " . June Shimonishi reviewing for School Library Journal , wrote that it " delivers a fresh and entertaining take on all the standard sports clichés " . She also said that its art is " superb ... with every inch filled with details and no gag left unseen " . Zac Bertschy from Anime News Network ( ANN ) declared Eyeshield 21 " defies convention " by turning what most might consider " a really ridiculously bad idea " into " something most everyone would be able to enjoy " . Carlo Santos from ANN called it a " typical sports story " , writing that what make it an above average series are its characters and artwork . He also wrote that people who think American football is boring " may change their minds after seeing the action sequences in Eyeshield 21 . " Later , however , Santos said , " [ a ] lot of familiar clichés show themselves " in Eyeshield 21 , and that " [ t ] he storyline also does a sloppy job of keeping track of the game ... making it even less believable than it already is " .
The anime adaptation of Eyeshield 21 received positive and mixed responses . Bobby Cooper from DVD Talk praised how the rules of American football is " explained to a foreign audience that has no clue what it 's all about " , adding that instructions at the commercial breaks " were informative and similar to the Go lessons of Hikaru No Go . " He also said the explanations was " hilarious " , but that " Eyeshield 21 is an excellent introduction to football " . The on @-@ field action was also praised , with he saying the sports action is " where Eyeshield 21 truly shines " , although he criticized the scenes away from the football field , " the pacing slows to a crawl and the storyline gets a little boring " . In her review , Erin Finnegan from Anime News Network stated , " [ t ] he pace of Eyeshield 21 is its saving grace . It 's way less boring than all the time outs and commercial breaks in a regular NFL game . Football is hard to understand , but Eyeshield 21 explains the Byzantine rules ... in an entertaining way . We 're never left waiting for the ref 's decision for long minutes like in real life . A lot of dramatic tension carries the action between plays . " Finnegan also criticized the artwork , saying , " any episode [ of the show ] without a game is clearly farmed out to an inferior animation studio " . Chris Beveridge from Mania Entertainment wrote that Eyeshield 21 " has a good solid story idea , showing a young man finding his way through sports by finding friends and realizing he has potential , but it is so sidelined so often that it 's frustrating to see it deal with situations as it does . "
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= Silvia ( song ) =
" Silvia " is a song performed by Swedish indie pop band Miike Snow . Written and produced by the band , it is a six @-@ minute electronic piano ballad with drum , piano and synthesizer instrumentation and electro house beats . Lyrically , it speaks of longing and lead singer Andrew Wyatt 's vocals are edited with Auto @-@ Tune . " Silvia " served as the third and final single from the band 's 2009 self @-@ titled debut album . Columbia Records first digitally released it as a remix extended play ( EP ) on 22 January 2010 . Band members Christian Karlsson and Pontus Winnberg contributed their own remix to the release , using the alias Robotberget .
Critical reception of " Silvia " was generally positive ; many critics deemed it the album 's centerpiece and criticized its early placement as the third track on Miike Snow . The single achieved minor chart success in the United Kingdom ; it became the band 's second entry on the UK Dance Chart , peaking at number 16 . However , it missed the top 100 of the UK Singles Chart as it only reached number 154 . The accompanying music video was directed by Marcus Söderlund and plays out in a post @-@ apocalyptic setting .
= = Background = =
" Silvia " was written and produced by Miike Snow 's three members , Christian Karlsson , Pontus Winnberg and Andrew Wyatt . It was recorded at Robotberget , the band 's own studio in Stockholm , Sweden . The band mixed it with Anders Hvenare and mastering was handled by Ted Jensen . Wyatt explained during an interview for The Aquarian Weekly that " Silvia " is likely " the most autobiographical song " on the band 's 2009 self @-@ titled debut album as it was inspired by a real event of a stripper who " straightened out " and quit . According to Wyatt , the band especially liked the song because it shares names with Queen Silvia of Sweden . Music magazine Clash announced on 10 December 2009 that " Silvia " had been selected as the third single from the album . The announcement revealed it would coincide with a United Kingdom concert tour from January through February 2010 . Columbia Records released the single on 22 January 2010 , as a digital extended play ( EP ) containing remixes made by Emalkay , Felix da Housecat , Hugg & Pepp and Sinden . Karlsson and Winnberg also contributed their own remix to the release , using the alias Robotberget . Columbia issued a 12 " vinyl , featuring the aforementioned remixes , in the United Kingdom on 8 February 2010 .
= = Composition = =
" Silvia " is a six @-@ minute electronic piano ballad with electro house beats . Instrumentation is provided by drums , a piano and synthesizers . John Fortunato of The Aquarian Weekly likened it to works by German electronic band Kraftwerk , and Martin Turenne of The Georgia Straight felt it held a " blissful groove of ' 90s @-@ era piano @-@ led house " . According to sheet music published at Musicnotes.com by Alfred Publishing , the song is written in the time signature of common time with a moderate beat rate of 125 beats per minute . It is written in the key of G minor and Wyatt 's vocal range spans the notes of E ♭ 4 to E ♭ 6 . It follows a sequence of Gm – B ♭ – E ♭ as its chord progression . " Silvia " begins as a ballad and transforms into a " psychedelic , danceable " piece as the synth pads accelerate . Wyatt 's vocals are echoed and edited with Auto @-@ Tune . Elliott Townsend of URB deemed the singer 's vocals " emotionally transparent " . The piece lyrically speaks of longing , and Alex Young of Consequence of Sound described it as a " boy @-@ done @-@ wrong ode to the titular woman " .
= = Reception = =
" Silvia " received positive reviews from music critics ; a writer for Complex considered it a " standout " on Miike Snow . Staff reviewer Rudy Klapper of Sputnikmusic deemed it the " undeniable centerpiece " of Miike Snow , " It 's the kind of climactic tune that makes everything after it seem lesser . " He regarded its placement as the third track on the album as " odd " . Similarly , PopMatters critic John Bergstrom also described " Silvia " as the album 's centerpiece , referring it to as " stunning " . Naming it a " lost Duran Duran classic " , Bergstrom wrote , " It 's so thrilling , you 'll forgive the overzealous Auto @-@ Tune . " The single achieved minor commercial success on charts in the United Kingdom . It entered the UK Dance Chart at number 39 in the issue dated 23 January 2010 . The following week , it rose to number 32 , before acquiring its peak position of number 16 in its third week . " Silvia " spent four weeks on the chart ; its last appearance was in the issue dated 13 February 2010 at number 23 . The single missed the top 100 of the UK Singles Chart , peaking at number 154 in the issue dated 6 February 2010 .
= = Music video = =
Marcus Söderlund directed the accompanying music video for " Silvia " . It premiered exclusively on NME 's website in December 2009 . A writer for Complex commented , " The vid is kind of dramatic and hard to make sense of , but what do you expect from a band like this ? " The video plays out in a post @-@ apocalyptic world . It begins with the band 's three members waking up from sleeping in the middle of a street , appearing to be homeless . The men then walk way in the woods while shots of homeless people are interspersed . Several people are seen carrying torches in the woods and are soon joined by the band . They then set fire to a large wooden version of a jackalope and the video ends as it bursts into flames .
= = Formats and track listings = =
= = Credits and personnel = =
Songwriting – Christian Karlsson , Pontus Winnberg , Andrew Wyatt
Production – Miike Snow
Mixing – Anders Hvenare , Miike Snow
Mastering – Ted Jensen
Credits are adapted from the Miike Snow liner notes .
= = Charts = =
= = Release history = =
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= Upsilon Andromedae d =
Upsilon Andromedae d ( abbreviated υ Andromedae d , υ And d ) , also named Majriti , is an extrasolar planet orbiting the Sun @-@ like star Upsilon Andromedae A every 1276 @.@ 46 days . Its discovery in April 1999 by Geoffrey Marcy and R. Paul Butler made this the first multiple @-@ planet system to be discovered around a main @-@ sequence star , and the first multiple @-@ planet system known in a multiple star system . Upsilon Andromedae d is the third known planet in order of distance from its star .
In July 2014 the International Astronomical Union launched a process for giving proper names to certain exoplanets and their host stars . The process involved public nomination and voting for the new names . In December 2015 , the IAU announced the winning name was Majriti for this planet . The winning name was submitted by the Vega Astronomy Club of Morocco and honours the 10th and early 11th Century astronomer Maslama al @-@ Majriti of Muslim Spain .
= = Discovery = =
Like the majority of known extrasolar planets , Upsilon Andromedae d was detected by measuring variations in its star 's radial velocity as a result of the planet 's gravity . This was done by making precise measurements of the Doppler shift of the spectrum of Upsilon Andromedae A. At the time of discovery , Upsilon Andromedae A was already known to host one extrasolar planet , the hot Jupiter Upsilon Andromedae b ; however , by 1999 , it was clear that the inner planet could not explain the velocity curve .
In 1999 , astronomers at both San Francisco State University and the Harvard @-@ Smithsonian Center for Astrophysics independently concluded that a three @-@ planet model best fit the data . The two new planets were designated Upsilon Andromedae c and Upsilon Andromedae d .
= = Orbit and mass = =
Upsilon Andromedae d orbits its star in an eccentric orbit , more eccentric than that of any of the major planets in the Solar System ( including Pluto ) . The orbit 's semimajor axis puts the planet in the habitable zone of Upsilon Andromedae A.
To explain the planet 's orbital eccentricity , some have proposed a close encounter with a ( now lost ) outer planet of Upsilon Andromedae A. The encounter would have moved Upsilon Andromedae d into an eccentric orbit closer to the star and ejected the outer planet from the system . Subsequently , gravitational perturbations from Upsilon Andromedae d moved the inner planet Upsilon Andromedae c into its present eccentric orbit . If so , the rogue planet would have had to be ejected immediately ; it is unclear how likely this situation might be . Other models are possible .
A limitation of the radial velocity method used to detect Upsilon Andromedae d is that the orbital inclination is unknown , and only a lower limit on the planet 's mass can be obtained . However , by combining radial velocity measurements from ground @-@ based telescopes with astrometric data from the Hubble Space Telescope , astronomers have determined the orbital inclination as well as the actual mass of Upsilon Andromedae d , which is about 10 @.@ 25 times the mass of Jupiter .
Preliminary astrometric measurements suggest the orbit of Upsilon Andromedae d may be inclined at 155 @.@ 5 ° to the plane of the sky . However , these measurements were later proved useful only for upper limits ; worthless for HD 192263 b and probably 55 Cancri c , and contradict even the inner planet u And b 's inclination of > 30 ° . The mutual inclination between c and d meanwhile is 29 @.@ 9 degrees .
= = Characteristics = =
Given the planet 's high mass , it is likely that it is a gas giant with no solid surface and surface gravity of over 25 times that of Earth . Since the planet has only been detected indirectly through observations of its star , properties such as its radius , composition , and temperature are unknown .
Upsilon Andromedae d lies in the habitable zone of Upsilon Andromedae A as defined both by the ability for an Earthlike world to retain liquid water at its surface and based on the amount of ultraviolet radiation received from the star .
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= Bomber Mafia =
The Bomber Mafia were a close @-@ knit group of American military men who believed that long @-@ range heavy bomber aircraft in large numbers were able to win a war . The derogatory term ' Bomber Mafia ' was used before and after World War II by those in the military who did not share their belief , and who were frustrated by the insistence of the men that the heavy bomber should take a primary position in planning and funding .
After World War II , the 20 years of foundational work by the bomber mafia resulted in the separation of the United States Air Force from the Army to become an independent military arm . The bomber mafia 's strategic doctrine , changed by war and experience , helped shape the mission of the new Air Force and its Strategic Air Command .
Many years later a related term " Fighter Mafia " described those within the Air Force that favoured light weight fighters good at dog @-@ fighting instead of heavy missile @-@ firing fighters .
= = Origins = =
Developed over the years 1926 – 1929 at Air Corps Tactical School ( ACTS ) at Langley Field in Virginia , a forward @-@ looking doctrine of daylight precision bombing was promulgated by four instructors who argued that an enemy 's army and navy could be defeated intact due to the destruction of industrial and military targets deep within enemy @-@ held territory . This theory was first espoused by Italian General Giulio Douhet , though his ideas included the terror bombing of population centers that the American theorists eschewed . In contrast , American theorists devised a strategy of pin @-@ point bombing that targeted the enemy economy and the production of weapons . Though unproven , the major attraction of this sort of strategic bombing doctrine was that a war was expected to be won relatively quickly , with minimal casualties , and that grinding , static trench warfare as seen in World War I could be avoided . In November 1932 when British Lord President of the Council Stanley Baldwin said " the bomber will always get through " , he was talking about the terror bombing of cities . The US Bomber Mafia agreed with Baldwin only in that the bomber would prevail in its mission . They intended the mission to be against military and industrial targets , not populations .
To effect this doctrine , the United States Army Air Corps would be required to expend the majority of its resources in amassing a fleet of self @-@ defending heavy bombers , and in the training and maintenance of a great number of airmen to fill aircrew and ground crew positions . The ACTS officers who believed in the heavy bomber doctrine realized that any other Air Corps expenditures such as for tactical bombers and fighter aircraft would take away from the proposed large fleet of heavy bombers . Moreover , the men realized that the United States government would have to reduce funding to naval and ground forces in order to establish a great air fleet . To implement these changes , the ACTS instructors began to instill a sense in their students that a separate and independent air arm of the type described earlier by Brigadier General William " Billy " Mitchell , to be called the United States Air Force , was the way forward . As a compromise first step , the General Headquarters ( GHQ ) Air Force was established within the Army Air Corps in 1935 , commanded by General Frank M. Andrews , a strategic bombing advocate . Andrews staffed the command with like @-@ minded officers such as Henry H. " Hap " Arnold .
Although flawed and tested only under optimal conditions , the doctrine ( originally known as the " industrial web theory " ) became the primary airpower strategy of the United States in the planning for World War II . Four former instructors of the school , the core of the " Bomber Mafia " , produced the two airpower war plans ( AWPD @-@ 1 and AWPD @-@ 42 ) that guided the wartime expansion and deployment of the Army Air Forces .
= = Opposition = =
The term ' bomber mafia ' came from the sometimes bitter debates between United States Army staff and Air Corps men who observed , and argued with , the insistence by instructors and students of the ACTS that heavy bombers were the new primary weapon of war , and that a separate air arm was required to command them . For the first few years , the strongest voice at ACTS against the bomber doctrine was Captain ( later General ) George C. Kenney who called for the use of air power to attack enemy fighting units on the ground . He advocated the close coordination of air and ground forces , with an emphasis on medium bombers and fighter bombers . Kenney left ACTS in 1929 , and heavy bomber doctrinarians filled the vacancy . The doctrine also ran counter to the theories of Billy Mitchell himself , who espoused that pursuit support was essential for daylight bombing operations .
As an expert in the use of air units to aid artillery and infantry , Gordon P. Saville held to the concept of tactical air power through his time as ACTS instructor from 1934 to 1936 . Later , Saville successfully implemented his ideas in the Mediterranean Theater .
Captain Claire Lee Chennault , senior instructor in fighter tactics at ACTS , was a vocal Air Corps officer who challenged the bomber mafia for more than a decade ; he was forced into early retirement in 1937 , leaving the precision bombing advocates unopposed . The teaching of fighter ( " pursuit " ) tactics declined , though Earle E. Partridge and Hoyt S. Vandenberg continued to discuss the role of the fighter .
Other opposition was more subtle . USAAC Fighter Projects officer Lieutenant Benjamin S. Kelsey appreciated that a large bomber fleet would be able to perform many military tasks , not just strategic bombing , and felt that the force 's doctrine should remain flexible to meet any demand . Because of his lower rank , he was in no position to challenge the bomber mafia , and instead strove to work around their restrictions on pursuit aircraft . Kelsey formulated a new " interceptor " class of aircraft in order to sustain his idea that a well @-@ armed fighter aircraft could successfully attack enemy bombers , and that , given drop tanks for long range , it could defend friendly bombers all the way to the target and back .
The bomber mafia , through a " failure of imagination " in not expanding the doctrine to include establishing air superiority as a prerequisite for success , would not accept either of these concepts — they believed the heavy bomber fleet could protect itself , and thus they contributed to the delay in the development of a long @-@ range escort fighter until two years into the war . However , the doctrine nonetheless became the foundation for the separation of the Air Force from the Army , and the basis for modern airpower theory . ACTS graduate , instructor , and " Bomber Mafia " member Haywood S. Hansell concurred that both the theorists and the authors of the AWPD @-@ 1 war plan ( of which he was both ) made a serious mistake in neglecting long @-@ range fighter escort in their ideas . Hansell wrote :
It was recognized that fighter escort was inherently desirable , but no one could quite conceive how a small fighter could have the range of the bomber yet retain its combat maneuverability . Failure to see this issue through proved one of the Air Corps Tactical School 's major shortcomings .
= = Advocates = =
= = = Instructors = = =
Harold L. George , leading theorist
John F. Curry , ACTS commander 1931 – 1935
George Kenney
Thomas DeWitt Milling , first school Officer @-@ In @-@ Charge
Odas Moon
Robert Olds
Kenneth N. Walker
Robert M. Webster
Donald Wilson
= = = Graduates = = =
Frank M. Andrews
Henry H. " Hap " Arnold
Jimmy Doolittle
Ira C. Eaker
Oliver P. Echols
Muir S. Fairchild ( also an ACTS instructor )
Barney M. Giles
Haywood S. Hansell , Jr . ( also an ACTS instructor )
Laurence S. Kuter ( also an ACTS instructor )
Curtis LeMay
Emmett " Rosie " O 'Donnell , Jr .
Carl A. Spaatz
Hoyt S. Vandenberg
= = Legacy = =
In World War II , the bomber mafia 's theory of the primacy of unescorted daylight strategic bombing was proved wrong . Fleets of heavy bombers were not able to achieve victory without the cooperation of the Army and Navy , and required the protection of long @-@ range fighters for deep penetration missions . Overall casualties in the war were not minimal , and victory did not come significantly quicker . Precision in bombing was not achieved until long @-@ range fighter escorts became available and air superiority was achieved , as opponents had warned . The strategic bombing concept , however , was a major factor in the eventual victory and became the first core doctrine of the independent United States Air Force . Its proponents continued to promote the doctrine into the nuclear age , forming the Strategic Air Command to carry out a vision modified to fit the needs of the Cold War and the threat of nuclear warfare . The bomber mafia was gradually replaced in the 1950s and 1960s by advocates of intercontinental ballistic missile warfare .
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= M @-@ 71 ( Michigan highway ) =
M @-@ 71 is a state trunkline highway in the Lower Peninsula of the US state of Michigan . It serves as a connector between M @-@ 21 in Owosso to Interstate 69 ( I @-@ 69 ) southwest of Flint . The highway runs along a rail line in a northwest @-@ to @-@ southeast direction in rural Shiawassee County connecting a few small towns along its path .
The highway dates back to the start of the state highway system in 1919 . There were some changes made to the routing in the 1930s which increased its length . Two adjacent highways have been rerouted which affected the locations of M @-@ 71 's termini . The last such change was made in the 1960s when the M @-@ 78 freeway ( now I @-@ 69 ) was completed near Durand .
= = Route description = =
M @-@ 71 starts in downtown Owosso at the corner of Main Street ( M @-@ 21 ) and Water Street . It follows Water Street southeasterly until it reaches Washington Street . The highway follows Washington Street south and over the Shiawassee River and turns southeasterly on Corunna Avenue . M @-@ 71 runs parallel to , and in between , the river and a branch line of the Canadian National Railway . Corunna Avenue continues this way through the community of Middletown and into Corunna . M @-@ 71 turns south through downtown Corunna on Shiawassee Street to McNeil Street . It is along this stretch of the highway that the Michigan Department of Transportation ( MDOT ) measured the highest traffic volumes for M @-@ 71 . In their 2009 survey , MDOT calculated that 10 @,@ 577 vehicles used this section of roadway in a measurement called average annual daily traffic ( AADT ) . This value is a count for the average traffic in a day for any average day of the year .
From that junction , M @-@ 71 turns easterly and then southeasterly out of town . The highway continues to run alongside the rail line through farmland to the outskirts of Vernon . M @-@ 71 crosses the Shiawassee River for a second time . The rail line and the highway diverge and run on opposite sides of town ; the highway rounds the northeast side and the rail line runs along the southwest side . This section of trunkline through Vernon had the lowest AADT value in 2009 with 4 @,@ 371 vehicles . M @-@ 71 continues to the interchange with I @-@ 69 at exit 118 northwest of Durand , where the highway designation terminates . No part of M @-@ 71 has been listed on the National Highway System ( NHS ) . The NHS is a system of roads important to the nation 's economy , defense and mobility .
= = History = =
M @-@ 71 was formed by July 1 , 1919 as a spur route from M @-@ 21 , which ran along Lytle Road , southerly to Durand . Around 1925 , a realignment of M @-@ 21 produced changes in M @-@ 71 . M @-@ 21 was rerouted to its current alignment between Owosso and Lennon , and M @-@ 71 took over the roadway between Owosso and Corunna . At the same time , M @-@ 71 was shifted to run through Vernon . The section of M @-@ 71 between Durand and M @-@ 78 was transferred to M @-@ 78 and M @-@ 71 was shortened by 1934 . This transfer was reversed in 1935 when M @-@ 78 construction was completed . A new section of M @-@ 71 was built parallel to the Ann Arbor Railroad between Durand and Corunna in 1938 . This construction paved the last remaining unpaved segment of M @-@ 71 . The section of M @-@ 71 south of M @-@ 78 into Durand was turned back to local control in early 1939 , and M @-@ 71 was shortened one final time with the completion of the M @-@ 78 freeway ( now I @-@ 69 ) in the area in late 1960 or early 1961 . At that time , the eastern terminus was shifted to the freeway interchange instead of the old route of M @-@ 78 along Lansing Road .
= = Major intersections = =
The entire highway is in Shiawassee County .
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= Typhoon Forrest ( 1983 ) =
Super Typhoon Forrest was a powerful typhoon that affected Japan in September 1983 . Typhoon Forrest formed from a tropical disturbance far from land in the western Pacific Ocean . On September 20 , the system was classified as a tropical storm , and thereafter began to intensify . The next day , Forrest reached typhoon status , and the intensification process accelerated . The storm prudently strengthened on September 22 , and the following morning , attained peak intensity following a pressure drop of 100 mbar ( 3 @.@ 0 inHg ) in slightly less than 24 hours . Thereafter , Forrest began to weaken slowly as it moved northwest . Approaching Japan , Super Typhoon Forrest first hit Okinawa on September 27 . Nearby , a tornado hit Inza Island , destroying 26 homes and injuring 26 people . Forrest then moved north , impaling the elongated Japanese archipelago before transitioning into an extratropical cyclone on September 28 . The torrential rainfall caused by the typhoon triggered deadly landslides and flooding across Japan . In all , the cyclone killed at least 21 people , left 17 listed as missing , and injured 86 . Forrest flooded 46 @,@ 000 homes in muddy water , over 100 dwellings were destroyed , and 2 @,@ 560 people were rendered as homeless . Seven flights were called off and 27 @,@ 000 people were stranded . In addition , 67 bridges and 818 roads were damaged .
= = Meteorological history = =
Typhoon Forrest originated from an area of disturbed weather that was first noted by the Joint Typhoon Warning Center ( JTWC ) around 555 km ( 345 mi ) west of Pohnpei in mid @-@ September . Initially , the system was not well @-@ organized ; however , it had a sufficient amount of convection . Hurricane Hunters investigated the system four times from September 17 – 20 , though none of them were able to identify a closed atmospheric circulation . Despite this , a Tropical Cyclone Formation Alert ( TCFA ) was issued on September 18 . This alert was issued again on September 19 ; meanwhile , the Japan Meteorological Agency ( JMA ) started to monitor the system . By early on September 20 , the JMA upgraded the system into a tropical storm as it moved west @-@ northwest . During the evening hours of September 20 , the JTWC started issuing warnings on the system after the low developed a central dense overcast . At this time , the storm was located about 330 km ( 205 mi ) south of Guam . Initially , only gradually strengthening was expected by the JTWC , but this did not occur and by the morning hours of September 21 , Hurricane Hunters measured winds of 95 to 115 km / h ( 60 to 70 mph ) . Based on this , the JTWC classified the system as a tropical storm and named it Forrest . Around this time , JMA upgraded Forrest into a severe tropical storm .
By 1800 UTC that day , both the JTWC and the JMA upgraded Forrest to typhoon status as the storm developed an eye . After moving away from Guam , Forrest continued deepening , by the evening hours of September 21 , Hurricane Hunters estimated a minimum barometric pressure of 976 mbar ( 28 @.@ 8 inHg ) . Eleven hours later , however , the aircraft reported a pressure of 883 mbar ( 26 @.@ 1 inHg ) , according to the JTWC , this marked a pressure drop of 92 mbar ( 2 @.@ 7 inHg ) in a little under a day . Midday on September 22 , the JTWC assessed the intensity of the storm at 280 km / h ( 175 mph ) , equivalent to a Category 5 hurricane on the Saffir @-@ Simpson Hurricane Wind Scale , and placed the storm 's barometric pressure at 876 mbar ( 25 @.@ 9 inHg ) , which marked the fastest pressure drop ever recorded by a tropical cyclone — 100 mb ( 3 @.@ 0 inHg ) in just under 24 hours . By this time , the temperature within the eye had reached 27 ° C ( 80 ° F ) . Despite this , the JMA estimated that Forrest had winds of only 85 mph ( 135 km / h ) . Several hours later , the agency still estimated winds of 135 km / h ( 85 mph ) . After a brief turn towards the west @-@ northwest , the JMA reported that Forest attained peak intensity at 0000 UTC on September 23 , with winds of 205 km / h ( 125 mph ) and a minimum pressure of 885 mbar ( 26 @.@ 1 inHg ) .
After attaining peak intensity , the storm weakened slightly on September 24 according to the JMA , though the storm briefly restrengthened to its peak wind speed at noon on September 25 . By this time , Forrest was moving northwest , and the JTWC expected the storm to recurve due to a weak spot in the subtropical ridge . However , the re @-@ curvature took longer than expected . The JMA suggested that the storm maintained its intensity of 200 km / h ( 125 mph ) for several days . On September 27 , however , the JMA estimated that Forrest finally began to weaken . The storm quickly weakened thereafter , and by midday , the JMA downgraded the system into a severe tropical storm . During September 28 , the system completed its extratropical transition with the JTWC issuing their final advisory on the system early the next day . After becoming an extratropical cyclone the system recurved and started to accelerate towards the east @-@ northeast , before the JMA stopped monitoring the system during September 30 , as it moved into the East Pacific basin . Thereafter , several ships reported storm and gale force winds while the system moved towards the east @-@ northeast and along south @-@ west Alaska . The system was subsequently last noted on October 4 , as it stalled and gradually dissipated within the Gulf of Alaska , about 1 @,@ 415 km ( 880 mi ) to the northwest of Vancouver , Canada .
= = Preparations and impact = =
During its formative stages , the storm passed near Guam , resulting in winds of 32 km / h ( 20 mph ) . Rainfall was light , totaling 51 mm ( 2 @.@ 0 in ) , but was enough to result in slight flooding .
While weakening and passing 200 km ( 125 mi ) southwest of Okinawa , gusty winds and heavy rains were recorded . At the Kadena Air Base , winds of 95 km / h ( 59 mph ) and gusts of 80 mph ( 130 km / h ) were measured . Rainfall of 296 mm ( 11 @.@ 7 in ) was recorded , resulting in minor flooding . A few people were hurt due to high winds , but according to the JTWC , the residents of Okinwana weathered the storm " well " . Numerous funnel clouds were spotted , but no tornadoes were recorded . Northwest of Okinwana , on Inaka Island , a tornado was reported , which cleared a 91 m ( 299 ft ) wide swath . Throughout the island of Okinawa , 30 sustained minor injuries and 20 homes would either damaged , including seven homes that were destroyed . About 160 @,@ 000 customers lost power .
When the storm posed a threat to Kyushu , five ships were evacuated to an air force base that was considered " safe typhoon haven " by the JTWC . In Motoyama , 540 mm ( 21 in ) of rain fell , including 415 mm ( 16 @.@ 3 in ) in 24 hours and 102 mm ( 4 @.@ 0 in ) in one hour . In Nagoya , five children were washed away by rising floodwaters while they were walking home from school . Four of the children were confirmed dead , and one 5 @-@ year @-@ old child was reported missing . In Nishinomiya , near the western city of Kyoto , twelve construction workers were swept away by a downpour @-@ triggered mudslide . Four of the construction workers were rescued , but the remaining eight of the construction workers were missing . Elsewhere in the city , a landslide destroyed two homes , resulting in the deaths of a 71 @-@ year @-@ old and a 77 @-@ year @-@ old farmer . Around 60 mi ( 95 km ) south of Tokyo , in Shizuoka , three construction workers were swept along the Nishi River . In Hyogo , on Honshu , 12 people were buried alive when a hut collapsed due to a mudslide .
In all , Forest killed at least 21 people , left 17 missing , and injured 86 . Due to overflowing rivers and dikes , 46 @,@ 000 homes were flooded , including 141 " seriously " . Around 7 @,@ 700 homes were under water , and over 100 were destroyed . In addition , 67 bridges and 818 roads were damaged . A total of 2 @,@ 560 people were homeless . Seven flights were called off and 27 @,@ 000 air travelers were stranded . Train service was halted for hours and track lines were damaged in eight places .
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= Ico =
Ico ( イコ , Iko , / ˈiːkoʊ / ) is a puzzle @-@ platformer and action @-@ adventure video game developed by Team Ico and published by Sony Computer Entertainment , released for the PlayStation 2 video game console in 2001 and 2002 in various regions . It was designed and directed by Fumito Ueda , who wanted to create a minimalist game around a " boy meets girl " concept . Originally planned for the PlayStation , Ico took approximately four years to develop . The team employed a " subtracting design " approach to reduce elements of gameplay that interfered with the game 's setting and story in order to create a high level of immersion .
The protagonist is a young boy named Ico who was born with horns , which his village considers a bad omen . Warriors lock him away in an abandoned fortress . During his explorations of the fortress , Ico encounters Yorda , the daughter of the castle 's Queen . The Queen plans to use Yorda 's body to extend her own lifespan . Learning this , Ico seeks to escape the castle with Yorda , keeping her safe from the shadow @-@ like creatures that attempt to draw her back . Throughout the game , the player controls Ico as he explores the castle , solves puzzles and assists Yorda across obstacles .
Ico introduced several design and technical elements , including a story told with minimal dialogue , bloom lighting , and key frame animation , that have influenced subsequent games . Although not a commercial success , it was critically acclaimed for its art and story elements and received several awards , including " Game of the Year " nominations and three Game Developers Choice Awards . Ico is listed on several overall top game lists , and is often considered a work of art . It was re @-@ released in Europe in 2006 , in conjunction with the release of Shadow of the Colossus , the spiritual successor to Ico .
= = Gameplay = =
Ico is primarily a three @-@ dimensional platform game . The player controls Ico from a third @-@ person perspective as he explores the castle and attempts to escape it with Yorda . The camera is fixed in each room or area but swivels to follow Ico or Yorda as they move ; the player can also pan the view a small degree in other directions to observe more of the surroundings . The game includes many elements of platform games ; for example , the player must have Ico jump , climb , push and pull objects , and perform other tasks such as solving puzzles in order to progress within the castle . These actions are complicated by the fact that only Ico can carry out these actions ; Yorda can only jump short distances and cannot climb over tall barriers . The player must use Ico so that he helps Yorda cross obstacles , such as by lifting her to a higher ledge , or by arranging the environment to allow Yorda to cross a larger gap herself . The player can tell Yorda to follow Ico , or to wait at a spot . The player can also have Ico take Yorda 's hand and pull her along at a faster pace across the environment . Players are unable to progress in the game until they move Yorda to certain doors that only she can open .
Escaping the castle is made difficult by shadow creatures sent by the Queen . These creatures attempt to drag Yorda into black vortexes if Ico leaves her for any length of time , or if she is in certain areas of the castle . Ico can dispel these shadows using a stick or sword and pull Yorda free if she is drawn into a vortex . While the shadow creatures cannot harm Ico , the game is over if Yorda becomes fully engulfed in a vortex ; the player restarts from a save point . The player will also restart from a save point if Ico falls from a large height . Save points in the game are represented by stone benches that Ico and Yorda rest on as the player saves the game . In European and Japanese releases of the game , upon completion of the game , the player has the opportunity to restart the game in a local co @-@ operative two @-@ player mode , where the second player plays as Yorda , still under the same limitations as the computer @-@ controlled version of the character .
= = Plot = =
Ico ( イコ , pronounced " Ee @-@ ko " ) , a horned boy , is taken by a group of warriors to an abandoned castle and locked inside a stone coffin to be sacrificed . A tremor topples the coffin and Ico escapes . As he searches the castle , he comes across Yorda ( ヨルダ , Yoruda ) , a captive girl who speaks a different language . Ico helps Yorda escape and defends her from shadow @-@ like creatures . The pair makes their way through the castle and arrive at the bridge leading to land . As they cross , the Queen , ruler of the castle , appears and tells Yorda that as her daughter she cannot leave the castle . The Queen destroys part of the bridge ; although Yorda tries to save him , Ico falls off the bridge and loses consciousness .
Ico awakens below the castle and makes his way back to the upper levels , finding a magic sword that dispels the shadow creatures . After discovering that Yorda has been turned to stone by the Queen , he confronts the Queen in her throne room , who reveals that she plans to restart her life anew by taking possession of Yorda 's body . Ico slays the Queen with the magic sword , but with her death the castle begins to collapse around him ; he is hit by falling debris , breaking his horns , and he falls unconscious . The Queen 's spell on Yorda is broken , and a shadowy Yorda carries Ico safely out of the castle to a boat , sending him to drift to the shore alone . Ico awakens to find the distant castle in ruins , and Yorda , in her human form , washed up nearby . She stirs .
= = Development = =
Lead designer Fumito Ueda came up with the concept for Ico in 1997 , envisioning a " boy meets girl " story where the two main characters would hold hands during their adventure , forming a bond between them without communication . Ueda 's main inspiration for Ico was Eric Chahi 's game Another World ( Outer World in Japan ) , which used cinematic cutscenes and lacked any head @-@ up display elements as to play like a movie . It also featured an emotional connection between two characters , despite the use of minimal dialog . Ueda also cited Lemmings , Flashback and the original Prince of Persia games as influences , specifically regarding animation and gameplay style . With the help of an assistant , Ueda created an animation in Lightwave to get a feel for the final game and to better convey his vision . In the three @-@ minute demonstration reel , Yorda had the horns instead of Ico , and flying robotic creatures were seen firing weapons to destroy the castle . Ueda stated that having this movie that represented his vision helped to keep the team on track for the long development process , and he reused this technique for the development of Shadow of the Colossus , the team 's next effort .
Ueda began working with producer Kenji Kaido in 1998 to develop the idea and bring the game to the PlayStation . Ico 's design aesthetics were guided by three key notions : to make a game that would be different from others in the genre , feature an aesthetic style that would be consistently artistic , and play out in an imaginary yet realistic setting . This was achieved through the use of " subtracting design " ; they removed elements from the game which interfered with the game 's reality . This included removing any form of interface elements , keeping the gameplay focused only on the escape from the castle , and reducing the number of types of enemies in the game to a single foe . An interim design of the game shows Ico and Yorda facing horned warriors similar to those that take Ico to the castle . The game originally focused on Ico 's attempt to return Yorda to her room in the castle after she was kidnapped by these warriors . Ueda believed this version had too much detail for the graphics engine they had developed , and as part of the " subtracting design " , replaced the warriors with the shadow creatures . Ueda also brought in a number of people outside the video game industry to help with development . These consisted of two programmers , four artists , and one designer in addition to Ueda and Kaido , forming the base of what is now known as Team Ico . On reflection , Ueda noted that the subtracting design may have taken too much out of the game , and did not go to as great an extreme with Shadow of the Colossus .
After two years of development , the team ran into limitations on the PlayStation hardware and faced a critical choice : either terminate the project altogether , alter their vision to fit the constraints of the hardware , or continue to explore more options . The team decided to remain true to Ueda 's vision , and began to use the Emotion Engine of the PlayStation 2 , taking advantage of the improved abilities of the platform . Character animation was accomplished through key frame animation instead of the more common motion capture technique . Ico is recognized as one of the first games to incorporate bloom lighting into video games , a feature that is common in later seventh generation console video games . The game took about four years to create . Ueda purposely left the ending vague , not stating whether Yorda was alive , whether she would travel with Ico , or if it was simply the protagonist 's dream .
The cover used for releases in Japan and PAL regions was drawn by Ueda himself , and was inspired by the surrealist artist Giorgio de Chirico and his work , The Nostalgia of the Infinite . Ueda believed that " the surrealistic world of de Chirico matched the allegoric world of Ico " . The North American version lacks this cover as well as additional features that become available after the player completes the game once . The development team was unable to provide Ueda 's cover or the additional features such as the two @-@ player mode in time for Sony 's planned North American release date , but included them for the later releases in Japan and PAL regions . On reflection , Yasuhide Kobayashi , vice @-@ president of Sony 's Japan Studio , believed the North American box art and lack of an identifiable English title led to the game 's poor sales in the United States , and stated plans to correct that for the release of The Last Guardian . For its original release , a limited edition of the game was available in PAL regions that included a cardboard wrapping displaying artwork from the game and four art cards inside the box . The game was re @-@ released as a standard edition in 2006 across all PAL regions except France after the 2005 release of Shadow of the Colossus , Ico 's spiritual sequel , to allow players to " fill the gap in their collection " .
Ico uses minimal dialog in a fictional language to provide the story throughout the game . Voice actors included Kazuhiro Shindō as Ico , Rieko Takahashi as Yorda , and Misa Watanabe as the Queen . Ico and the Queen 's words are presented in either English or Japanese subtitles depending on the release region , but Yorda 's speech is presented in a symbolic language . Ueda opted not to provide the translation for Yorda 's words as it would have overcome the language barrier between Ico and Yorda , and detracted from the " holding hands " concept of the game . In the non @-@ North American releases , playing through the game again after completing the game replaces the symbolic text with appropriate language subtitles .
= = Other media = =
= = = Novelization = = =
A novelization of the game titled Ico : Kiri no Shiro ( ICO @-@ 霧の城- , Iko : Kiri no Shiro , lit . " Ico : Castle of Mist " ) was released in Japan in 2004 . Author Miyuki Miyabe wrote the novel because of her appreciation of the game . A Korean translation of the novel , entitled 이코 - 안개의 성 ( I @-@ ko : An @-@ gae @-@ eui Seong ) came out the following year , by Hwangmae Publishers , while an English translation was published by Viz Media on August 16 of 2011 .
= = = Cross title content = = =
Costumes ( including Ico and Yorda ) , stickers , and sound effects from Ico are part of an add @-@ on pack for the game LittleBigPlanet , alongside similar materials from Shadow of the Colossus , after being teased by the game 's developers Media Molecule about two weeks prior .
= = = Film = = =
A film adaption of Ico may come about based on the success of the adaptation of Shadow of the Colossus being created by Misher Films in conjunction with Sony and Fumito Ueda .
= = = Soundtrack = = =
Ico 's audio featured a limited amount of music and sound effects . The soundtrack , Ico : Kiri no Naka no Senritsu ( ICO ～ 霧の中の旋律 ～ , Iko Kiri no Naka no Senritsu , lit . " Ico : Melody in the mist " ) , was composed by Michiru Oshima and sound unit " pentagon " ( Koichi Yamazaki & Mitsukuni Murayama ) and released in Japan by Sony Music Entertainment on February 20 , 2002 . The album was distributed by Sony Music Entertainment Visual Works . The last song of the CD , " ICO -You Were There- " , includes vocals sung by former Libera member Steven Geraghty .
= = Reception = =
Ico received strong reviews , becoming a cult hit among gamers . The game has an aggregated review score of 90 out of 100 at Metacritic . In Japan , Famitsu magazine scored the PlayStation 2 version of the game a 30 out of 40 . The game is considered by some to be one of the greatest games of all time ; Edge ranked Ico as the 13th top game in a 2007 listing , while IGN ranked the game at number 18 in 2005 , and at number 57 in 2007 . Ico has been used as an example of a game that is a work of art . Ueda commented that he purposely tried to distance Ico from conventional video games due to the negative image that video games were receiving at that time , in order to draw more people to the title .
Some reviewers have likened Ico to older , simpler adventure games such as Prince of Persia or Tomb Raider , that seek to evoke an emotional experience from the player ; IGN 's David Smith commented that while simple , as an experience the game was " near indescribable . " The game 's graphics and sound contributed strongly to the positive reactions from critics ; Smith continues that " The visuals , sound , and original puzzle design come together to make something that is almost , if not quite , completely unlike anything else on the market , and feels wonderful because of it . " Many reviewers were impressed with the expansiveness and the details given to the environments , the animation used for the main characters despite their low polygon count , as well as the use of lighting effects . Ico 's ambiance , created by the simple music and the small attention to detail in the voice work of the main characters , were also called out as strong points for the game . Charles Herold of The New York Times summed up his review stating that " Ico is not a perfect game , but it is a game of perfect moments . " Herold later commented that Ico breaks the mold of games that usually involve companions . In most games these companions are invulnerable and players will generally not concern with the non @-@ playable characters ' fate , but Ico creates the sense of " trust and childish fragility " around Yorda , and that these leads to the character being " the game 's entire focus " .
The game is noted for its simple combat system that would " disappoint those craving sheer mechanical depth " , as stated by GameSpot 's Miguel Lopez . The game 's puzzle design has been praised for creating a rewarding experience for players who work through challenges on their own ; Kristen Reed of Eurogamer , for example , said that " you quietly , logically , willingly proceed , and the illusion is perfect : the game never tells you what to do , even though the game is always telling you what to do " . Ico is also considered a short game , taking between seven and ten hours for a single play through , which Game Revolution calls " painfully short " with " no replay outside of self @-@ imposed challenges " . G4TV 's Matthew Keil , however , felt that " the game is so strong , many will finish ' Ico ' in one or two sittings " . The lack of features in the North American release , which would become unlocked on subsequent playthroughs after completing the game , was said to reduce the replay value of the title . Electronic Gaming Monthly notes that " Yorda would probably be the worst companion -she 's scatterbrained and helpless ; if not for the fact that the player develops a bond with her , making the game 's ending all the more heartrending . "
Despite the positive praise , the original title did not sell well . By 2009 , only 700 @,@ 000 copies were sold worldwide , with 270 @,@ 000 in the United States. and the bulk in PAL regions , Ueda considered his design by subtraction approach may have hurt the marketing of the game , as at the time of the game 's release , promotion of video games were primarily done through screenshots , and as Ico lacked any heads @-@ up display , it appeared uninteresting to potential buyers .
= = = Awards = = =
Ico received several gaming acclamations from the video gaming press , and was considered to be one of the Games of the Year by many publications , despite competing with releases such as Halo , Metal Gear Solid 2 : Sons of Liberty , and Grand Theft Auto III . The game received three Game Developers Choice Awards in 2002 , including " Excellence in Level Design " , " Excellence in Visual Arts " , and " Game Innovation Spotlight " . The game won two Interactive Achievement Awards from the Academy of Interactive Arts & Sciences in 2002 for " Art Direction " and " Character or Story Development " , and was nominated for awards of " Game of the Year " , " Game Design " , " Level Design " and " Sound Design " .
= = Legacy = =
Ico is stated by Chris Kohler of Wired to have influenced numerous other video games , borrowing from its simple and visual design ideals . Several game designers , such as Eiji Aonuma , Hideo Kojima , and Jordan Mechner , have cited Ico as having influenced the visual appearance of their games , including The Legend of Zelda : Twilight Princess , Metal Gear Solid 3 : Snake Eater , and Prince of Persia : The Sands of Time , respectively . Marc Laidlaw , scriptwriter for the Half @-@ Life series , commented that , among several other more memorable moments in the game , the point where Yorda attempts to save Ico from falling off the damaged bridge was " a significant event not only for that game , but for the art of game design " . The Naughty Dog team used Ico as part of the inspiration for developing Uncharted 3 . Vander Caballero credits Ico for inspiring the gameplay of Papo & Yo . Phil Fish used the design by subtraction approach in developing the title Fez . The developers of both Brothers : A Tale of Two Sons and Rime have Ico as a core influence on their design . Hidetaka Miyazaki , creator and director of the Souls series and Bloodborne , cited Ico as a key influence to him becoming involved in developing video games , stating that Ico " awoke me to the possibilities of the medium " .
Film director Guillermo del Toro cited both Ico and Shadow of the Colossus as " masterpieces " and part of his directorial influence . Jonny Greenwood of Radiohead considers , of his top ten video games , " Ico might be the best one " .
= = = Other Team Ico games = = =
Shadow of the Colossus ( ワンダと巨像 , Wanda to Kyozō , Wander and the Colossus ) , released for the PlayStation 2 in October 2005 in Japan and North America , was developed by the same team that developed Ico . The game features similar graphics , gameplay , and storytelling elements as Ico . The game was referred by its working title " Nico " ( " Ni " being Japanese for the number 2 " ) until the final title was revealed . Ueda , when asked about the connection between the two games , stated that Shadow of the Colossus is a prequel to Ico , specifically citing the ending of Shadow where a child is born with two horns .
Team Ico 's third game , The Last Guardian was originally announced as a PlayStation 3 title at the Electronic Entertainment Expo 2009 ; the game centers on the connection between a young boy and a large griffon @-@ like creature that he befriends , requiring the player to get the creature to cooperate as to help complete the game 's puzzles . The game fell into several complications from both hardware limitations and the departure of Ueda and other Team Ico members from Sony around 2012 , though Ueda and other members continued to work on the game via consulting contracts . The game was subsequently switched to the PlayStation 4 in 2012 , and was formally reintroduced in 2015 , with plans for release in 2016 . Ueda has stated that " the essence of the game is rather close to Ico " .
= = = HD remaster = = =
Ico , along with Shadow of the Colossus , received a high @-@ definition remaster for the PlayStation 3 that was released worldwide in September 2011 . In addition to improved graphics , the games were updated to include support for stereoscopic 3D and PlayStation Trophies . The Ico port was also based on the European version , and includes features such as Yorda 's translation and the two @-@ player mode . In North America and Europe / PAL regions , the two games were released as a single retail collection , while in Japan , they were released as separate titles . Both games have since been released separately as downloadable titles on the PlayStation Network store . Patch 1 @.@ 01 for the digital high @-@ definition Ico version added the Remote Play feature , allowing the game to be played on the PlayStation Vita .
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= The Livestock Conservancy =
The Livestock Conservancy , formerly known as the American Livestock Breeds Conservancy ( ALBC ) and prior to that , the American Minor Breeds Conservancy , is a nonprofit organization focused on preserving and promoting rare breeds , also known as " heritage breeds " of livestock . Founded in 1977 , through the efforts of livestock breed enthusiasts concerned about the disappearance of many of the US 's heritage livestock breeds , the Conservancy was the pioneer livestock preservation organization in the United States , and remains a leading organization in that field . It has initiated programs that have saved multiple breeds from extinction , and works closely with similar organizations in other countries , including Rare Breeds Canada . With 3 @,@ 000 members , a staff of nine and a 19 @-@ member board of directors , the organization has an operating budget of almost half a million dollars .
The Livestock Conservancy maintains a conservation priority list that divides endangered breeds of horses , asses , sheep , goats , cattle , rabbits , pigs and poultry into five categories based on population numbers and historical interest . The organization has published several books , and works with breed registries and other groups on several aspects of breed preservation , including genetic testing , historical documentation , animal rescue and marketing . Preservation of genetic material is of special interest to the Conservancy , and for a period of time it maintained a gene bank that was later transferred to the United States Department of Agriculture . It has also developed and published several heritage definitions , including parameters for heritage breeds of cattle and poultry .
In large part due to the efforts of the organization , heritage turkey populations have increased more than tenfold in little over a decade , and several breeds that once stood on the brink of extinction now maintain healthy populations . The organization also sustains programs that deal with preserving and promoting endangered cattle and pig breeds , as well as breed @-@ specific programs relating to many of its livestock categories . Breeds that the Conservancy has assisted in saving include the Carolina Marsh Tacky horse , Randall cattle , Red Wattle hogs and the American rabbit .
= = History and organization = =
In the 1960s and 1970s , American livestock breed enthusiasts , including scientists , farmers , and historians , became increasingly aware of the disappearance of many traditional livestock breeds in the US . This awareness was partially due to difficulties encountered in obtaining heritage breeds for living history sites . This was particularly evident when historians were searching for historically authentic breeds to display at the Old Sturbridge Village in Massachusetts and were unable to find sheep of the Vermont strain of Merino , as they had gone extinct . As a result , these historians and others decided to attempt preservation of other rare breeds facing extinction . On March 16 , 1977 , the American Minor Breeds Conservancy was incorporated in Vermont . It was the first United States organization focused on preserving rare breeds of livestock and promoting genetic diversity among livestock breeds , and remains the preeminent organization in this field in the United States . A similar organization in Great Britain , the Rare Breeds Survival Trust , had been formed in 1973 . The organization conducted its first comprehensive survey of American livestock breeds in 1985 . Since then , the survey has been repeated every five years , with the status of endangered breeds being monitored in between . The initial survey was called " the most comprehensive assessment of livestock genetic resources ever conducted in the United States " . In 1986 , a fellow organization , Rare Breeds Canada , was formed , and the two bodies have worked together closely to preserve and promote breeds that have populations in the US and Canada . In 1993 , the organization changed its name to the American Livestock Breeds Conservancy ( ALBC ) . In 2013 , the organization again shortened its name to " The Livestock Conservancy " .
The Livestock Conservancy is headquartered in Pittsboro , North Carolina . Its mission is to protect " genetic diversity in livestock and poultry species through the conservation and promotion of endangered breeds . " It organizes and participates in programs to rescue threatened populations , educate the public about rare breeds and genetic diversity , support breeders and breed associations , perform research on endangered breeds and assist gene banks in preserving genetic material . The Conservancy includes among its partners and members the Oklahoma City Zoo , which maintains the Children 's Zoo , a petting zoo and children 's museum that holds members of eight rare livestock breeds ; and Colonial Williamsburg , a living @-@ history museum that maintains populations of ten rare breeds .
According to its literature , the Livestock Conservancy is funded by grants , sales of publications and promotional materials , membership dues and public donations . Publications sold include books on conservation and genetics , livestock husbandry , farming operations and breed guides . In the 1998 fiscal year , the organization claimed slightly over US $ 308 @,@ 000 in income , coming mainly from public donations and membership dues , but also including service revenue , investment income and sales of goods . By 2009 , this amount had jumped to slightly more than US $ 440 @,@ 000 , mainly from donations , grants and service revenue , but also including investment income . In 1998 , the organization claimed slightly over US $ 288 @,@ 000 in expenses , allocated mainly to program services , but with just under US $ 30 @,@ 000 stemming from management , fundraising and general expenses . By 2009 , expenses stood at almost US $ 490 @,@ 000 , spent mostly on employee salaries , benefits and other compensation ( which includes program service expenses ) , but with almost US $ 150 @,@ 000 stemming from management , fundraising and general expenses . The organization claims around 3 @,@ 000 members as of 2009 , a number up from 2 @,@ 300 in 1989 . It operates with a staff of nine , headed by an executive director , and a nineteen @-@ member board of directors .
= = General programs = =
The preservation of various pure breeds and strains , including some that are rare today , was once undertaken in North America in large part by large agriculture @-@ focused colleges and universities . However , many of these institutions have changed their focus to commercial or crossbred strains , with many herds being sent to slaughter . The Livestock Conservancy and Rare Breeds Canada intervened in some of these cases , leading to the survival and preservation of some gene stocks . The United States Department of Agriculture ( USDA ) participates in livestock preservation mainly through technology @-@ based approaches such as gene mapping and germplasm ( genetic material ) storage . However , although the storage of genetic material is a useful technique in the preservation of rare breeds , it cannot preserve the entire range of genetic diversity within even an individual breed , and stored material cannot react and adapt to environmental or biological changes as live animal populations can . The US federal government rarely supports rare breed live animal population conservation , and while agricultural subsidies were once seen more than they are in present times , they were never focused on individual breeds . The Livestock Conservancy has been instrumental in preserving live populations of many rare livestock breeds in the US .
In the 1980s , the Conservancy began a gene bank designed to preserve the genetic material of rare breeds . After collecting genetic material from over a dozen rare breeds , the bank was transferred to the USDA National Animal Germplasm Program ( NAGP ) . It maintains a close relationship with the NAGP , including assisting in the collection of genetic material from additional rare breeds . The conservation list published by the Conservancy is also used by the SVF Foundation , an organization that uses cryopreservation to preserve germplasm from rare breeds . In the early 1990s , the organization mounted displays of historic rare breed livestock illustrations at the National Agricultural Library and the Carnegie Museum of Natural History , designed to raise public awareness of the declining populations of rare livestock breeds .
In 2004 , the Livestock Conservancy entered a partnership with Slow Food USA , Chefs Collaborative , and four other organizations to found the Renewing America 's Food Traditions collaboration . The effort resulted in a book , Renewing America 's Food Traditions , describing more than 1000 varieties and species of food that are disappearing from the United States . The organization has written or published over a dozen books on heritage livestock breeds , including several on heritage poultry and waterfowl and more on general livestock conservation . Its conservation criteria and literature on livestock biodiversity are also widely used in independent publications on breeds . The Conservancy organizes an annual conference that focuses on the preservation and promotion of rare livestock breeds . For this conference , it partners with other organizations to teach members and other attendees about various aspects of rare breed livestock . For instance , in 2005 , the organization partnered with the NAGP and the American Grassfed Association for a discussion on the cryogenic preservation of rare breed genetic material , which included a tour of the USDA Livestock and Poultry Gene Bank . In 2009 , the Conservancy set up an online classified advertisement system to help users find and purchase rare breeds .
= = = Heritage breeds = = =
The Livestock Conservancy has released three definitions of heritage breeds , pertaining to turkeys , chickens and cattle . Heritage turkeys are defined by the organization as breeds that live longer , grow slower and can mate naturally , with the latter requirement being one of the most important as it is not met by many industrially grown , mass @-@ produced breeds . In 2009 , a definition for heritage chickens was released that is similar to the one for turkeys – breeds are required to be considered " standard " by the American Poultry Association , be long @-@ lived and slow @-@ growing , and able to mate naturally . The latter is less of a concern in chickens than in turkeys , as artificial insemination has not progressed as far in the development of industrial chicken farming . In late 2010 , the Conservancy released a definition of " heritage cattle " , to follow their earlier heritage turkey description . Requirements for heritage cattle breeds include having a long history in the US , being purebred , and being a true genetic breed . Specifications for heritage milk and beef , as well as products made from them , were also released with the definition .
As of 2010 , the Conservancy was undertaking several programs to help breeders and the public understand the need for and the way to preserve heritage breeds . As the number of expert livestock breeders continues to dwindle , the Master Breeders ' Apprentice Program aims to supplement their number by educating competent and interested members of the public . Through the Breed Rescue and Conservation Acquisition Program , the organization works with breeders and breed registries to begin and sustain conservation programs for rare livestock breeds . The Southeastern Livestock Breed Initiative aims to expand and reintroduce rare breeds from the American southeast , combining traditional breeds with low @-@ impact farming ( agriculture that has a lesser impact on the environment than high @-@ intensity commercial farming ) to assist in restarting the small , niche market farming that once existed in the area . In 2014 , the Conservancy published the book An Introduction to Heritage Breeds describing conserving and care of animals under the purview of the organization , detailing each breed 's specific needs and characteristics .
= = Conservation Priority List = =
The Conservation Priority List ( CPL ) is the Conservancy 's list of breeds for which conservation is a priority . Published annually , the list is used as the foundation for all conservation work done by the organization . Each year , it gathers population data on all breeds of livestock , including registration data and , for poultry , census numbers gathered from members , hatcheries and breeders . This data is then used to divide breeds into five categories : critical , threatened , watch , recovering and study . Breeds are placed in the first three categories based on annual registrations with breed registries in the United States and estimated global populations . Recovering breeds are those that have exceeded the numbers needed for the watch category but that the organization still wishes to monitor . Breeds in the study category lack genetic or historical documentation but are still considered to be of genetic interest . Population numbers may be lacking on these breeds , or proof that they are a true breed , instead of a type or non @-@ true @-@ breeding cross .
As of 2011 , there are 33 horse breeds on the equine CPL , comprising seventeen in the critical category , seven in the threatened , five in the watch , three in the recovering and one in study . There are also three breeds of asses , one in each of the critical , threatened and recovering categories . On the CPL for all other livestock species there are 10 pig breeds : seven in the critical category , one threatened , one watched , and one in the study . The 19 cattle breeds listed include eight in the critical category , two in the threatened , three in the watch , five recovering and one in the study . The list contains 23 sheep breeds : five in the critical category , six in the threatened , three in the watch , eight in the recovering and one in the study . Of seven goat breeds listed , two are in the critical category , two in the watch , two recovering and one in the study . Finally , there are 11 rabbit breeds listed on the CPL : three in the critical category , three threatened , and five in the watch .
The organization 's poultry conservation list includes chickens , ducks , geese and turkeys . As of 2011 there are 54 chicken breeds on the CPL : 12 in the critical category , 12 in the threatened , 18 in the watch , 7 in the recovering and 5 in the study . For ducks there were fourteen breeds , of which six were considered critical , two threatened , four watch and two study . There were 12 breeds of geese : six in the critical category , one in threatened , three in watch and two study . For turkeys there were 13 breeds , including five considered critical , two threatened , five watch and one study . Any naturally mating , non @-@ standard turkey breed is also of interest to the organization .
= = Breed programs = =
Equine breeds , such as the American Cream Draft , were among the reasons that the organization was formed , and were on the earliest conservation priority lists . The Conservancy has assisted in extensive genetic studies of rare horse breeds , focusing particularly on strains of the Colonial Spanish Horse . Rabbits , having only been added to the CPL in 2005 , have been among the least studied , although in 2010 , the organization named the American Rabbit as the most endangered breed of rabbit in the US . Work with cattle has also been limited , although in one case , a member rescued the last of the Randall Cattle herd from slaughter ; the breed has since been built up to more than 300 members . One major initiative with cattle is the Heritage Dairy Cattle Breed Recovery program , which assists heritage cattle breeders and breed organizations with funding , marketing and communications , with a focus on selling their product to other small operations , including cheese and dairy operations .
= = = Horses = = =
In 2006 , the Livestock Conservancy began investigating the Carolina Marsh Tacky to see if it was truly a descendant of colonial Spanish stock , and during the organization 's initial field investigations it was found that many surviving members of the breed fit the physical type for Spanish horses . In 2007 , the organization partnered with the Equus Survival Trust in a project to preserve the breed that included DNA sampling , the creation of a new studbook and mapping the genetics of the breed . The Conservancy participated in the rescue of the Wilbur Cruce strain of Colonial Spanish horse when the area in which it lived was to be turned over to a land conservation program that required domestic animals to be removed . After the rescue , a conservation plan was developed for the animals and small breeding groups of horses were placed with responsible parties . It also assisted in formulating a conservation and breeding strategy for a strain of Colonial Spanish horses from Santa Cruz Island in California . This support helped the horses to become recognized and registrable with the Colonial Spanish registry .
= = = Sheep and goats = = =
In December 1987 , the Conservancy performed one of its first breed rescues when it removed a viable population of Santa Cruz sheep from Santa Cruz Island . The sheep were in danger of being eradicated by The Nature Conservancy , which was working to save indigenous vegetation that the breed used as food . The first twelve lambs were removed from the island in 1988 , with further animals brought to the mainland in 1991 . The population now stands at 125 animals and is considered an important genetic resource due to its island heritage , which kept it isolated from other breeds and forced it to adapt to adverse conditions .
Beginning in the early 1990s , the Conservancy worked to preserve the San Clemente Island goat , a rare Spanish @-@ descended breed from California . In 1991 , it added genetic material from the San Clemente to their genetic database , later transferred to the National Animal Germplasm Program . As of June 2010 , the organization was working on the rescue of a group of feral Spanish goats from an island in South Carolina . There are less than 2 @,@ 500 members of the breed in the United States , and the island group is one of only two bloodlines known to exist in the southeastern US . Conservancy members first made trips to the island to document and photograph the herd of around 30 goats , then undertook action to remove some goats from the island to preserve the bloodlines from threatened extinction . A small flock was established in a nature preserve just south of Murrells Inlet , South Carolina , and as of June 2010 plans were in place for satellite herds to be established .
= = = Pigs = = =
In the course of its breed surveys and monitoring , the Conservancy has found significant changes in the populations of several swine breeds . The Berkshire breed has increased significantly in number , partially due to international demand for its meat , while other breeds have shown significant decreases , most likely due to increasing consolidation of the pork industry to large producers who use only a few specialized pork strains . Breeds such as the Chester White and Poland China have seen population numbers reduced by over 25 percent between 1998 and 2003 , while the Hampshire and Yorkshire breeds have decreased by more than 30 percent in the same time .
The Conservancy has been involved with the Red Wattle hog since the 1980s . At that time , the breed had a thriving population , stock was registered by three different breed registries , and breeders resisted suggestions from the organization to create a unified breed registry . However , between 1990 and 1999 , purebred stock diminished from 272 animals to just 42 pigs held by six breeders , and in 2000 , it was asked to create a unified breed registry for the Red Wattle Hog . Three hogs were registered in the first year , but the next year 90 hogs and three breeders were represented and a breed association was created . By 2008 , 111 breeding stock hogs had been registered and 56 breeders were part of the Red Wattle Hog Association .
In November 2008 , the Conservancy started the Rare Breed Swine Initiative , which , in cooperation with other organizations , assists in training breeders and cultivating the rare breed pig market . The three main foci of the initiative are marketing breeding stock and products , conserving bloodlines and supporting breed associations . As of 2010 , proposals were in place for the funding of a study of porcine genetics , including variability and relationships among breeds , with the aims of maintaining genetic variability among rare pig breeds and releasing a definition of heritage pork .
= = = Poultry = = =
A breeding program for Buckeye chickens was developed in 2005 by staff members , focusing on using selective breeding to improve the breed and expand its numbers . In 2011 , the Buckeye was able to be moved from " critical " status to " threatened " , based on a 2010 census that found almost 2 @,@ 500 birds . The program has since become the template for similar programs focusing on the preservation of other rare chicken breeds .
Heritage turkey breeds have been a focus for the organization since 1997 , when a survey showed only 1 @,@ 335 breeding stock birds of all breeds . A study conducted by the Conservancy and Virginia Tech concluded that heritage turkey breeds had stronger immune systems than those breeds typically used by industrial growers , and as such were more likely to survive disease epidemics . This study and other programs increased awareness of heritage turkey breeds and by 2003 the breeding population stood at 4 @,@ 275 turkeys of all breeds . By 2007 this had grown to more than 10 @,@ 000 birds and 17 breeds were no longer considered to be almost extinct . As of 2010 , the number is estimated to be close to 15 @,@ 000 .
In 2008 the Conservancy partnered with Slow Food USA and other organizations to conduct a blind taste test of nine breeds of turkeys – eight heritage breeds and one standard industrially grown breed . When the final scores were read , first place went to the Midget White Turkey , second to the Bourbon Red and last place to the Butterball – the single non @-@ heritage breed . This was the largest taste test among turkey breeds to date , and several of the heritage breeds were later added to the Slow Food USA Ark of Taste .
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= Nevada State Route 28 =
State Route 28 ( SR 28 ) is a 16 @.@ 2 @-@ mile ( 26 @.@ 1 km ) road that runs along the northeastern shore of Lake Tahoe . SR 28 starts at US 50 and ends at the California state line at Crystal Bay , continuing across the border as SR 28 . SR 28 is part of the National Scenic Byway system since September 1996 , and the state scenic byway system since June 1994 .
The highway serves Douglas County and Washoe County as well as a rural part of Carson City . SR 28 was designated in 1948 , and has not significantly changed since it was first paved .
= = Route description = =
SR 28 begins at U.S. Route 50 ( US 50 ) in Douglas County , Nevada . It heads north from there , forming part of the boundary of Lake Tahoe – Nevada State Park until crossing into Carson City . The highway then enters Washoe County , where the highway enters Humboldt @-@ Toiyabe National Forest . It then turns northwest , running through Incline Village . In western Incline Village , SR 28 junctions with SR 431 , which is a direct link to Reno to the northeast . Just short of the California state line , it turns south to run parallel to the line and finally crosses into California at Crystal Bay . The road continues west of the California border as California State Route 28 .
The route has been designated as the north piece of the Lake Tahoe – Eastshore Drive Scenic Byway , as part of the National Scenic Byway program . SR 28 was also designated as a state scenic byway . SR 28 is not part of the National Highway System . Around 11 @,@ 300 cars use SR 28 on average each day .
= = History = =
The road that became SR 28 was paved around 1932 , and has been used for flumes in the timber industry since 1880 . The route first appeared in 1948 , with the same general alignment as it has today . The highway gained fame for many years as the location of the Ponderosa Ranch , filming location of the television series Bonanza . On June 7 , 1994 , the Nevada Department of Transportation ( NDOT ) designated SR 28 as a scenic byway , named North Shore Road . Later in September 1996 , SR 28 and part of US 50 was designated as Lake Tahoe - Eastshore Drive , a National Scenic Byway .
= = Major intersections = =
Note : Mileposts in Nevada reset at county lines ; the start and end mileposts for each county are given in the county column .
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= Tower of London =
The Tower of London , officially Her Majesty 's Royal Palace and Fortress of the Tower of London , is a historic castle located on the north bank of the River Thames in central London . It lies within the London Borough of Tower Hamlets , separated from the eastern edge of the square mile of the City of London by the open space known as Tower Hill . It was founded towards the end of 1066 as part of the Norman Conquest of England . The White Tower , which gives the entire castle its name , was built by William the Conqueror in 1078 , and was a resented symbol of oppression , inflicted upon London by the new ruling elite . The castle was used as a prison from 1100 ( Ranulf Flambard ) until 1952 ( Kray twins ) , although that was not its primary purpose . A grand palace early in its history , it served as a royal residence . As a whole , the Tower is a complex of several buildings set within two concentric rings of defensive walls and a moat . There were several phases of expansion , mainly under Kings Richard the Lionheart , Henry III , and Edward I in the 12th and 13th centuries . The general layout established by the late 13th century remains despite later activity on the site .
The Tower of London has played a prominent role in English history . It was besieged several times , and controlling it has been important to controlling the country . The Tower has served variously as an armoury , a treasury , a menagerie , the home of the Royal Mint , a public records office , and the home of the Crown Jewels of England . From the early 14th century until the reign of Charles II , a procession would be led from the Tower to Westminster Abbey on the coronation of a monarch . In the absence of the monarch , the Constable of the Tower is in charge of the castle . This was a powerful and trusted position in the medieval period . In the late 15th century the castle was the prison of the Princes in the Tower . Under the Tudors , the Tower became used less as a royal residence , and despite attempts to refortify and repair the castle its defences lagged behind developments to deal with artillery .
The peak period of the castle 's use as a prison was the 16th and 17th centuries , when many figures who had fallen into disgrace , such as Elizabeth I before she became queen , Sir Walter Raleigh , and Elizabeth Throckmorton were held within its walls . This use has led to the phrase " sent to the Tower " . Despite its enduring reputation as a place of torture and death , popularised by 16th @-@ century religious propagandists and 19th @-@ century writers , only seven people were executed within the Tower before the World Wars of the 20th century . Executions were more commonly held on the notorious Tower Hill to the north of the castle , with 112 occurring there over a 400 @-@ year period . In the latter half of the 19th century , institutions such as the Royal Mint moved out of the castle to other locations , leaving many buildings empty . Anthony Salvin and John Taylor took the opportunity to restore the Tower to what was felt to be its medieval appearance , clearing out many of the vacant post @-@ medieval structures . In the First and Second World Wars , the Tower was again used as a prison , and witnessed the executions of 12 men for espionage . After the Second World War , damage caused during the Blitz was repaired , and the castle reopened to the public . Today the Tower of London is one of the country 's most popular tourist attractions . Under the ceremonial charge of the Constable of the Tower , it is cared for by the charity Historic Royal Palaces and is protected as a World Heritage Site .
= = Architecture = =
= = = Layout = = =
The Tower was oriented with its strongest and most impressive defences overlooking Saxon London , which archaeologist Alan Vince suggests was deliberate . It would have visually dominated the surrounding area and stood out to traffic on the River Thames . The castle is made up of three " wards " , or enclosures . The innermost ward contains the White Tower and is the earliest phase of the castle . Encircling it to the north , east , and west is the inner ward , built during the reign of Richard the Lionheart ( 1189 – 1199 ) . Finally , there is the outer ward which encompasses the castle and was built under Edward I. Although there were several phases of expansion after William the Conqueror founded the Tower of London , the general layout has remained the same since Edward I completed his rebuild in 1285 . The castle encloses an area of almost 12 acres ( 4 @.@ 9 hectares ) with a further 6 acres ( 2 @.@ 4 ha ) around the Tower of London constituting the Tower Liberties – land under the direct influence of the castle and cleared for military reasons . The precursor of the Liberties was laid out in the 13th century when Henry III ordered that a strip of land adjacent to the castle be kept clear . Despite popular fiction , the Tower of London never had a permanent torture chamber , although the basement of the White Tower housed a rack in later periods . Tower Wharf was built on the bank of the Thames under Edward I and was expanded to its current size during the reign of Richard II ( 1377 – 1399 ) .
= = = White Tower = = =
The White Tower is a keep ( also known as a donjon ) , which was often the strongest structure in a medieval castle , and contained lodgings suitable for the lord – in this case the king or his representative . According to military historian Allen Brown , " The great tower [ White Tower ] was also , by virtue of its strength , majesty and lordly accommodation , the donjon par excellence " . As one of the largest keeps in the Christian world , the White Tower has been described as " the most complete eleventh @-@ century palace in Europe " .
The White Tower , not including its projecting corner towers , measures 36 by 32 metres ( 118 by 105 ft ) at the base , and is 27 m ( 90 ft ) high at the southern battlements . The structure was originally three storeys high , comprising a basement floor , an entrance level , and an upper floor . The entrance , as is usual in Norman keeps , was above ground , in this case on the south face , and accessed via a wooden staircase which could be removed in the event of an attack . It was probably during Henry II 's reign ( 1154 – 1189 ) that a forebuilding was added to the south side of the tower to provide extra defences to the entrance , but it has not survived . Each floor was divided into three chambers , the largest in the west , a smaller room in the north @-@ east , and the chapel taking up the entrance and upper floors of the south @-@ east . At the western corners of the building are square towers , while to the north @-@ east a round tower houses a spiral staircase . At the south @-@ east corner there is a larger semi @-@ circular projection which accommodates the apse of the chapel . As the building was intended to be a comfortable residence as well as a stronghold , latrines were built into the walls , and four fireplaces provided warmth .
The main building material is Kentish rag @-@ stone , although some local mudstone was also used . Caen stone was imported from northern France to provide details in the Tower 's facing , although little of the original material survives as it was replaced with Portland stone in the 17th and 18th centuries . As most of the Tower 's windows were enlarged in the 18th century , only two original – albeit restored – examples remain , in the south wall at the gallery level .
The tower was terraced into the side of a mound , so the northern side of the basement is partially below ground level . As was typical of most keeps , the bottom floor was an undercroft used for storage . One of the rooms contained a well . Although the layout has remained the same since the tower 's construction , the interior of the basement dates mostly from the 18th century when the floor was lowered and the pre @-@ existing timber vaults were replaced with brick counterparts . The basement is lit through small slits .
The entrance floor was probably intended for the use of the Constable of the Tower , Lieutenant of the Tower of London and other important officials . The south entrance was blocked during the 17th century , and not reopened until 1973 . Those heading to the upper floor had to pass through a smaller chamber to the east , also connected to the entrance floor . The crypt of St John 's Chapel occupied the south @-@ east corner and was accessible only from the eastern chamber . There is a recess in the north wall of the crypt ; according to Geoffrey Parnell , Keeper of the Tower History at the Royal Armouries , " the windowless form and restricted access , suggest that it was designed as a strong @-@ room for safekeeping of royal treasures and important documents " .
The upper floor contained a grand hall in the west and residential chamber in the east – both originally open to the roof and surrounded by a gallery built into the wall – and St John 's Chapel in the south @-@ east . The top floor was added in the 15th century , along with the present roof . St John 's Chapel was not part of the White Tower 's original design , as the apsidal projection was built after the basement walls . Due to changes in function and design since the tower 's construction , except for the chapel little is left of the original interior . The chapel 's current bare and unadorned appearance is reminiscent of how it would have been in the Norman period . In the 13th century , during Henry III 's reign , the chapel was decorated with such ornamentation as a gold @-@ painted cross , and stained glass windows that depicted the Virgin Mary and the Holy Trinity .
= = = Innermost ward = = =
The innermost ward encloses an area immediately south of the White Tower , stretching to what was once the edge of the River Thames . As was the case at other castles , such as the 11th @-@ century Hen Domen , the innermost ward was probably filled with timber buildings from the Tower 's foundation . Exactly when the royal lodgings began to encroach from the White Tower into the innermost ward is uncertain , although it had happened by the 1170s . The lodgings were renovated and elaborated during the 1220s and 1230s , becoming comparable with other palatial residences such as Windsor Castle . Construction of Wakefield and Lanthorn Towers – located at the corners of the innermost ward 's wall along the river – began around 1220 . They probably served as private residences for the queen and king respectively . The earliest evidence for how the royal chambers were decorated comes from Henry III 's reign : the queen 's chamber was whitewashed , and painted with flowers and imitation stonework . A great hall existed in the south of the ward , between the two towers . It was similar to , although slightly smaller than , that also built by Henry III at Winchester Castle . Near Wakefield Tower was a postern gate which allowed private access to the king 's apartments . The innermost ward was originally surrounded by a protective ditch , which had been filled in by the 1220s . Around this time , a kitchen was built in the ward . Between 1666 and 1676 , the innermost ward was transformed and the palace buildings removed . The area around the White Tower was cleared so that anyone approaching would have to cross open ground . The Jewel House was demolished , and the Crown Jewels moved to Martin Tower .
= = = Inner ward = = =
The inner ward was created during Richard the Lionheart 's reign , when a moat was dug to the west of the innermost ward , effectively doubling the castle 's size . Henry III created the ward 's east and north walls , and the ward 's dimensions remain to this day . Most of Henry 's work survives , and only two of the nine towers he constructed have been completely rebuilt . Between the Wakefield and Lanthorn Towers , the innermost ward 's wall also serves as a curtain wall for the inner ward . The main entrance to the inner ward would have been through a gatehouse , most likely in the west wall on the site of what is now Beauchamp Tower . The inner ward 's western curtain wall was rebuilt by Edward I. The 13th @-@ century Beauchamp Tower marks the first large @-@ scale use of brick as a building material in Britain , since the 5th @-@ century departure of the Romans . The Beauchamp Tower is one of 13 towers that stud the curtain wall . Anti @-@ clockwise from the south @-@ west corner they are : Bell , Beauchamp , Devereux , Flint , Bowyer , Brick , Martin , Constable , Broad Arrow , Salt , Lanthorn , Wakefield , and the Bloody Tower . While these towers provided positions from which flanking fire could be deployed against a potential enemy , they also contained accommodation . As its name suggests , Bell Tower housed a belfry , its purpose to raise the alarm in the event of an attack . The royal bow @-@ maker , responsible for making longbows , crossbows , catapults , and other siege and hand weapons , had a workshop in the Bowyer Tower . A turret at the top of Lanthorn Tower was used as a beacon by traffic approaching the Tower at night .
As a result of Henry 's expansion , St Peter ad Vincula , a Norman chapel which had previously stood outside the Tower , was incorporated into the castle . Henry decorated the chapel by adding glazed windows , and stalls for himself and his queen . It was rebuilt by Edward I at a cost of over £ 300 and again by Henry VIII in 1519 ; the current building dates from this period , although the chapel was refurbished in the 19th century . Immediately west of Wakefield Tower , the Bloody Tower was built at the same time as the inner ward 's curtain wall , and as a water @-@ gate provided access to the castle from the River Thames . It was a simple structure , protected by a portcullis and gate . The Bloody Tower acquired its name in the 16th century , as it was believed to be the site of the murder of the Princes in the Tower . Between 1339 and 1341 , a gatehouse was built into the curtain wall between Bell and Salt Towers . During the Tudor period , a range of buildings for the storage of munitions was built along the inside of the north inner ward . The castle buildings were remodelled during the Stuart period , mostly under the auspices of the Office of Ordnance . In 1663 just over £ 4 @,@ 000 was spent building a new storehouse ( now known as the New Armouries ) in the inner ward . Construction of the Grand Storehouse north of the White Tower began in 1688 , on the same site as the dilapidated Tudor range of storehouses ; it was destroyed by fire in 1841 . The Waterloo Block , a former barracks in the castellated Gothic Revival style with Domestic Tudor details , was built on the site and remains to this day , housing the Crown Jewels on the ground floor .
= = = Outer ward = = =
A third ward was created during Edward I 's extension to the Tower , as the narrow enclosure completely surrounded the castle . At the same time a bastion known as Legge 's Mount was built at the castle 's north @-@ west corner . Brass Mount , the bastion in the north @-@ east corner , was a later addition . The three rectangular towers along the east wall 15 metres ( 49 ft ) apart were dismantled in 1843 . Although the bastions have often been ascribed to the Tudor period , there is no evidence to support this ; archaeological investigations suggest that Legge 's Mount dates from the reign of Edward I. Blocked battlements ( also known as crenellations ) in the south side of Legge 's Mount are the only surviving medieval battlements at the Tower of London ( the rest are Victorian replacements ) . A new 50 @-@ metre ( 160 ft ) moat was dug beyond the castle 's new limits ; it was originally 4 @.@ 5 metres ( 15 ft ) deeper in the middle than it is today . With the addition of a new curtain wall , the old main entrance to the Tower of London was obscured and made redundant ; a new entrance was created in the south @-@ west corner of the external wall circuit . The complex consisted of an inner and an outer gatehouse and a barbican , which became known as the Lion Tower as it was associated with the animals as part of the Royal Menagerie since at least the 1330s . The Lion Tower itself no longer survives . Edward extended the south side of the Tower of London onto land that had previously been submerged by the River Thames . In this wall , he built St Thomas 's Tower between 1275 and 1279 ; later known as Traitors ' Gate , it replaced the Bloody Tower as the castle 's water @-@ gate . The building is unique in England , and the closest parallel is the now demolished water @-@ gate at the Louvre in Paris . The dock was covered with arrowslits in case of an attack on the castle from the River ; there was also a portcullis at the entrance to control who entered . There were luxurious lodgings on the first floor . Edward also moved the Royal Mint into the Tower ; its exact location early on is unknown , although it was probably in either the outer ward or the Lion Tower . By 1560 , the Mint was located in a building in the outer ward near Salt Tower . Between 1348 and 1355 , a second water @-@ gate , Cradle Tower , was added east of St Thomas 's Tower for the king 's private use .
= = Foundation and early history = =
Victorious at the Battle of Hastings on 14 October 1066 , the invading Duke of Normandy , William the Conqueror , spent the rest of the year securing his holdings , by fortifying key positions . He founded several castles along the way , but took a circuitous route toward London ; only when he reached Canterbury did he turn towards England 's largest city . As the fortified bridge into London was held by Saxon troops , he decided instead to ravage Southwark before continuing his journey around southern England . A series of Norman victories along the route cut the city 's supply lines and in December 1066 , isolated and intimidated , its leaders yielded London without a fight . Between 1066 and 1087 , William established 36 castles , although references in the Domesday Book indicate that many more were founded by his subordinates . The new ruling elite undertook what has been described as " the most extensive and concentrated programme of castle @-@ building in the whole history of feudal Europe " . They were multi @-@ purpose buildings , serving as fortifications ( used as a base of operations in enemy territory ) , centres of administration , and residences .
William sent an advance party to prepare the city for his entrance , to celebrate his victory and found a castle ; in the words of William 's biographer , William of Poitiers , " certain fortifications were completed in the city against the restlessness of the huge and brutal populace . For he [ William ] realised that it was of the first importance to overawe the Londoners " . At the time , London was the largest town in England ; the foundation of Westminster Abbey and the old Palace of Westminster under Edward the Confessor had marked it as a centre of governance , and with a prosperous port it was important for the Normans to establish control over the settlement . The other two castles in London – Baynard 's Castle and Montfichet 's Castle – were established at the same time . The fortification that would later become known as the Tower of London was built onto the south @-@ east corner of the Roman town walls , using them as prefabricated defences , with the River Thames providing additional protection from the south . This earliest phase of the castle would have been enclosed by a ditch and defended by a timber palisade , and probably had accommodation suitable for William .
Most of the early Norman castles were built from timber , but by the end of the 11th century a few , including the Tower of London , had been renovated or replaced with stone . Work on the White Tower – which gives the whole castle its name – is usually considered to have begun in 1078 , however the exact date is uncertain . William made Gundulf , Bishop of Rochester , responsible for its construction , although it may not have been completed until after William 's death in 1087 . The White Tower is the earliest stone keep in England , and was the strongest point of the early castle . It also contained grand accommodation for the king . At the latest , it was probably finished by 1100 when Bishop Ranulf Flambard was imprisoned there . Flambard was loathed by the English for exacting harsh taxes . Although he is the first recorded prisoner held in the Tower , he was also the first person to escape from it , using a smuggled rope secreted in a butt of wine . He was held in luxury and permitted servants , but on 2 February 1101 he hosted a banquet for his captors . After plying them with drink , when no one was looking he lowered himself from a secluded chamber , and out of the Tower . The escape came as such a surprise that one contemporary chronicler accused the bishop of witchcraft .
The Anglo @-@ Saxon Chronicle records that in 1097 King William II ordered a wall to be built around the Tower of London ; it was probably built from stone and likely replaced the timber palisade that arced around the north and west sides of the castle , between the Roman wall and the Thames . The Norman Conquest of London manifested itself not only with a new ruling class , but in the way the city was structured . Land was confiscated and redistributed amongst the Normans , who also brought over hundreds of Jews , for financial reasons . The Jews arrived under the direct protection of the Crown , as a result of which Jewish communities were often found close to castles . The Jews used the Tower as a retreat , when threatened by anti @-@ Jewish violence .
The death in 1135 of Henry I left England with a disputed succession ; although the king had persuaded his most powerful barons to swear support for the Empress Matilda , just a few days after Henry 's death Stephen of Blois arrived from France to lay claim to the throne . The importance of the city and its Tower is marked by the speed at which he secured London . The castle , which had not been used as a royal residence for some time , was usually left in the charge of a Constable , a post held at this time by Geoffrey de Mandeville . As the Tower was considered an impregnable fortress in a strategically important position , possession was highly valued . Mandeville exploited this , selling his allegiance to Matilda after Stephen was captured in 1141 at the Battle of Lincoln . Once her support waned , the following year he resold his loyalty to Stephen . Through his role as Constable of the Tower , Mandeville became " the richest and most powerful man in England " . When he tried the same ploy again , this time holding secret talks with Matilda , Stephen had him arrested , forced him to cede control of his castles , and replaced him with one of his most loyal supporters . Until then the position had been hereditary , originally held by Geoffrey de Mandeville ( a friend of William the Conqueror 's and ancestor of the Geoffrey that Stephen and Matilda dealt with ) , but the position 's authority was such that from then on it remained in the hands of an appointee of the monarch . The position was usually given to someone of great importance , who might not always be at the castle due to other duties . Although the Constable was still responsible for maintaining the castle and its garrison , from an early stage he had a subordinate to help with this duty : the Lieutenant of the Tower . Constables also had civic duties relating to the city . Usually they were given control of the city and were responsible for levying taxes , enforcing the law and maintaining order . The creation in 1191 of the position of Lord Mayor of London removed many of the Constable 's civic powers , and at times led to friction between the two .
= = Expansion = =
The castle probably retained its form as established by 1100 until the reign of Richard the Lionheart ( 1189 – 1199 ) . The castle was extended under William Longchamp , Richard 's Lord Chancellor and the man in charge of England while he was on crusade . The Pipe Rolls record £ 2 @,@ 881 1s 10d spent at the Tower of London between 3 December 1189 and 11 November 1190 , from an estimated £ 7 @,@ 000 spent by Richard on castle building in England . According to the contemporary chronicler Roger of Howden , Longchamp dug a moat around the castle and tried in vain to fill it from the Thames . Longchamp was also Constable of the Tower , and undertook its expansion while preparing for war with Richard 's younger brother , Prince John , who in Richard 's absence arrived in England to try to seize power . As Longchamp 's main fortress , he made the Tower as strong as possible . The new fortifications were first tested in October 1191 , when the Tower was besieged for the first time in its history . Longchamp capitulated to John after just three days , deciding he had more to gain from surrender than prolonging the siege .
John succeeded Richard as king in 1199 , but his rule proved unpopular with many of his barons , who in response moved against him . In 1214 , while the king was at Windsor Castle , Robert Fitzwalter led an army into London and laid siege to the Tower . Although under @-@ garrisoned , the Tower resisted and the siege was lifted once John signed the Magna Carta . The king reneged on his promises of reform , leading to the outbreak of the First Barons ' War . Even after the Magna Carta was signed , Fitzwalter maintained his control of London . During the war , the Tower 's garrison joined forces with the barons . John was deposed in 1216 and the barons offered the English throne to Prince Louis , the eldest son of the French king . However , after John 's death in October 1216 , many began to support the claim of his eldest son , Prince Henry . War continued between the factions supporting Louis and Henry , with Fitzwalter supporting Louis . Fitzwalter was still in control of London and the Tower , both of which held out until it was clear that Henry 's supporters would prevail .
In the 13th century , Kings Henry III ( 1216 – 1272 ) and Edward I ( 1272 – 1307 ) extended the castle , essentially creating it as it stands today . Henry was disconnected from his barons , and a mutual lack of understanding led to unrest and resentment towards his rule . As a result , he was eager to ensure the Tower of London was a formidable fortification ; at the same time Henry was an aesthete and wished to make the castle a comfortable place to live . From 1216 to 1227 nearly £ 10 @,@ 000 was spent on the Tower of London ; in this period , only the work at Windsor Castle cost more ( £ 15 @,@ 000 ) . Most of the work was focused on the palatial buildings of the innermost ward . The tradition of whitewashing the White Tower ( from which it derives its name ) began in 1240 .
Beginning around 1238 , the castle was expanded to the east , north , and north @-@ west . The work lasted through the reign of Henry III and into that of Edward I , interrupted occasionally by civil unrest . New creations included a new defensive perimeter , studded with towers , while on the west , north , and east sides , where the wall was not defended by the river , a defensive ditch was dug . The eastern extension took the castle beyond the bounds of the old Roman settlement , marked by the city wall which had been incorporated into the castle 's defences . The Tower had long been a symbol of oppression , despised by Londoners , and Henry 's building programme was unpopular . So when the gatehouse collapsed in 1240 , the locals celebrated the setback . The expansion caused disruption locally and £ 166 was paid to St Katherine 's Hospital and the prior of Holy Trinity in compensation .
Henry III often held court at the Tower of London , and held parliament there on at least two occasions ( 1236 and 1261 ) when he felt that the barons were becoming dangerously unruly . In 1258 , the discontented barons , led by Simon de Montfort , forced the King to agree to reforms including the holding of regular parliaments . Relinquishing the Tower of London was among the conditions . Henry III resented losing power and sought permission from the pope to break his oath . With the backing of mercenaries , Henry installed himself in the Tower in 1261 . While negotiations continued with the barons , the King ensconced himself in the castle , although no army moved to take it . A truce was agreed with the condition that the King hand over control of the Tower once again . Henry won a significant victory at the Battle of Evesham in 1265 , allowing him to regain control of the country and the Tower of London . Cardinal Ottobuon came to England to excommunicate those who were still rebellious ; the act was deeply unpopular and the situation was exacerbated when the cardinal was granted custody of the Tower . Gilbert de Clare , 6th Earl of Hertford , marched on London in April 1267 and laid siege to the castle , declaring that custody of the Tower was " not a post to be trusted in the hands of a foreigner , much less of an ecclesiastic " . Despite a large army and siege engines , Gilbert de Clare was unable to take the castle . The Earl retreated , allowing the King control of the capital , and the Tower experienced peace for the rest of Henry 's reign .
Although he was rarely in London , Edward I undertook an expensive remodelling of the Tower , costing £ 21 @,@ 000 between 1275 and 1285 , over double that spent on the castle during the whole of Henry III 's reign . Edward I was a seasoned castle builder , and used his experience of siege warfare during the crusades to bring innovations to castle building . His programme of castle building in Wales heralded the introduction of the widespread use of arrowslits in castle walls across Europe , drawing on Eastern influences . At the Tower of London , Edward filled in the moat dug by Henry III and built a new curtain wall along its line , creating a new enclosure . A new moat was created in front of the new curtain wall . The western part of Henry III 's curtain wall was rebuilt , with Beauchamp Tower replacing the castle 's old gatehouse . A new entrance was created , with elaborate defences including two gatehouses and a barbican . In an effort to make the castle self @-@ sufficient , Edward I also added two watermills . Six hundred Jews were imprisoned in the Tower of London in 1278 , charged with coin clipping . Persecution of the country 's Jewish population under Edward began in 1276 and culminated in 1290 when he issued the Edict of Expulsion , forcing the Jews out of the country .
= = Later medieval period = =
During Edward II 's reign ( 1307 – 1327 ) there was relatively little activity at the Tower of London . However , it was during this period that the Privy Wardrobe was founded . The institution was based at the Tower and responsible for organising the state 's arms . In 1321 , Margaret de Clare , Baroness Badlesmere became the first woman imprisoned in the Tower of London after she refused Queen Isabella admittance to Leeds Castle and ordered her archers to fire upon Isabella , killing six of the royal escort . Generally reserved for high @-@ ranking inmates , the Tower was the most important royal prison in the country . However it was not necessarily very secure , and throughout its history people bribed the guards to help them escape . In 1322 Roger Mortimer , 1st Earl of March , was aided in his escape from the Tower by the Sub @-@ Lieutenant of the Tower who let Mortimer 's men inside . They hacked a hole in his cell wall and Mortimer escaped to a waiting boat . He fled to France where he encountered Edward 's Queen . They began an affair and plotted to overthrow the King . One of Mortimer 's first acts on entering England was to capture the Tower and release the prisoners held there . For three years he ruled while Edward III was too young to do so himself ; in 1330 , Edward and his supporters captured Mortimer and threw him in the Tower . Under Edward III 's rule ( 1312 – 1377 ) England experienced renewed success in warfare after his father 's reign had put the realm on the backfoot against the Scots and French . Amongst Edward 's successes were the battles of Crécy and Poitiers where King John II of France was taken prisoner , and the capture of the King David II of Scotland at Neville 's Cross . During this period , the Tower of London held many noble prisoners of war . Edward II had allowed the Tower of London to fall into a state of disrepair , and by the reign of Edward III the castle was an uncomfortable place . The nobility held captive within its walls were unable to engage in activities such as hunting which were permissible at other royal castles used as prisons , for instance Windsor . Edward III ordered that the castle should be renovated .
When Richard II was crowned in 1377 , he led a procession from the Tower to Westminster Abbey . This tradition began in at least the early 14th century and lasted until 1660 . During the Peasants ' Revolt of 1381 the Tower of London was besieged with the King inside . When Richard rode out to meet with Wat Tyler , the rebel leader , a crowd broke into the castle without meeting resistance and looted the Jewel House . The Archbishop of Canterbury , Simon Sudbury , took refuge in St John 's Chapel , hoping the mob would respect the sanctuary . However , he was taken away and beheaded on Tower Hill . Six years later there was again civil unrest , and Richard spent Christmas in the security of the Tower rather than Windsor as was more usual . When Henry Bolingbroke returned from exile in 1399 , Richard was imprisoned in the White Tower . He abdicated and was replaced on the throne by Bolingbroke , who became King Henry IV . In the 15th century , there was little building work at the Tower of London , yet the castle still remained important as a place of refuge . When supporters of the late Richard II attempted a coup , Henry IV found safety in the Tower of London . During this period , the castle also held many distinguished prisoners . The heir to the Scottish throne , later King James I of Scotland , was kidnapped while journeying to France in 1406 and held in the Tower . The reign of Henry V ( 1413 – 1422 ) renewed England 's fortune in the Hundred Years ' War against France . As a result of Henry 's victories , such as the Battle of Agincourt , many high @-@ status prisoners were held in the Tower of London until they were ransomed .
Much of the latter half of the 15th century was occupied by the Wars of the Roses between the claimants to the throne , the houses of Lancaster and York . The castle was once again besieged in 1460 , this time by a Yorkist force . The Tower was damaged by artillery fire but only surrendered when Henry VI was captured at the Battle of Northampton . With the help of Richard Neville , 16th Earl of Warwick ( nicknamed " the Kingmaker " ) Henry recaptured the throne for a short time in 1470 . However , Edward IV soon regained control and Henry VI was imprisoned in the Tower of London , where he was probably murdered . During the wars , the Tower was fortified to withstand gunfire , and provided with loopholes for cannons and handguns : an enclosure was created for this purpose to the south of Tower Hill , although it no longer survives .
Shortly after the death of Edward IV in 1483 , the notorious murder of the Princes in the Tower is traditionally believed to have taken place . The incident is one of the most infamous events associated with the Tower of London . Edward V 's uncle Richard Duke of Gloucester was declared Lord Protector while the prince was too young to rule . Traditional accounts have held that the 12 @-@ year @-@ old Edward was confined to the Tower of London along with his younger brother Richard . The Duke of Gloucester was proclaimed King Richard III in July . The princes were last seen in public in June 1483 ; it has traditionally been thought that the most likely reason for their disappearance is that they were murdered late in the summer of 1483 . Bones thought to belong to them were discovered in 1674 when the 12th @-@ century forebuilding at the entrance to the White Tower was demolished ; however , the reputed level at which the bones were found ( 10 ft or 3 m ) would put the bones at a depth similar to that of the recently discovered Roman graveyard found 12 ft ( 4 m ) underneath the Minories a few hundred yards to the north . Opposition to Richard escalated until he was defeated at the Battle of Bosworth Field in 1485 by the Lancastrian Henry Tudor , who ascended to the throne as Henry VII .
= = Changing use = =
The beginning of the Tudor period marked the start of the decline of the Tower of London 's use as a royal residence . As 16th @-@ century chronicler Raphael Holinshed said the Tower became used more as " an armouries and house of munition , and thereunto a place for the safekeeping of offenders than a palace roiall for a king or queen to sojourne in " . The Yeoman Warders have been the Royal Bodyguard since at least 1509 . During the reign of Henry VIII , the Tower was assessed as needing considerable work on its defences . In 1532 , Thomas Cromwell spent £ 3 @,@ 593 on repairs and imported nearly 3 @,@ 000 tons of Caen stone for the work . Even so , this was not sufficient to bring the castle up to the standard of contemporary military fortifications which were designed to withstand powerful artillery . Although the defences were repaired , the palace buildings were left in a state of neglect after Henry 's death . Their condition was so poor that they were virtually uninhabitable . From 1547 onwards , the Tower of London was only used as a royal residence when its political and historic symbolism was considered useful , for instance each of Edward VI , Mary I , and Elizabeth I briefly stayed at the Tower before their coronations .
In the 16th century , the Tower acquired an enduring reputation as a grim , forbidding prison . This had not always been the case . As a royal castle , it was used by the monarch to imprison people for various reasons , however these were usually high @-@ status individuals for short periods rather than common citizenry as there were plenty of prisons elsewhere for such people . Contrary to the popular image of the Tower , prisoners were able to make their life easier by purchasing amenities such as better food or tapestries through the Lieutenant of the Tower . As holding prisoners was originally an incidental role of the Tower – as would have been the case for any castle – there was no purpose @-@ built accommodation for prisoners until 1687 when a brick shed , a " Prison for Soldiers " , was built to the north @-@ west of the White Tower . The Tower 's reputation for torture and imprisonment derives largely from 16th @-@ century religious propagandists and 19th @-@ century romanticists . Although much of the Tower 's reputation is exaggerated , the 16th and 17th centuries marked the castle 's zenith as a prison , with many religious and political undesirables locked away . The Privy Council had to sanction the use of torture , so it was not often used ; between 1540 and 1640 , the peak of imprisonment at the Tower , there were 48 recorded cases of the use of torture . The three most common forms used were the infamous rack , the Scavenger 's daughter , and manacles . The rack was introduced to England in 1447 by the Duke of Exeter , the Constable of the Tower ; consequentially it was also known as the Duke of Exeter 's daughter . One of those tortured at the Tower was Guy Fawkes , who was brought there on 6 November 1605 ; after torture he signed a full confession to the Gunpowder Plot .
Among those held and executed at the Tower was Anne Boleyn . Although the Yeoman Warders were once the Royal Bodyguard , by the 16th and 17th centuries their main duty had become to look after the prisoners . The Tower was often a safer place than other prisons in London such as the Fleet , where disease was rife . High @-@ status prisoners could live in conditions comparable to those they might expect outside ; one such example was that while Walter Raleigh was held in the Tower his rooms were altered to accommodate his family , including his son who was born there in 1605 . Executions were usually carried out on Tower Hill rather than in the Tower of London itself , and 112 people were executed on the hill over 400 years . Before the 20th century , there had been seven executions within the castle on Tower Green ; as was the case with Lady Jane Grey , this was reserved for prisoners for whom public execution was considered dangerous . After Lady Jane Grey 's execution on 12 February 1554 , Queen Mary I imprisoned her sister Elizabeth , later Queen Elizabeth I , in the Tower under suspicion of causing rebellion as Sir Thomas Wyatt had led a revolt against Mary in Elizabeth 's name .
The Office of Ordnance and Armoury Office were founded in the 15th century , taking over the Privy Wardrobe 's duties of looking after the monarch 's arsenal and valuables . As there was no standing army before 1661 , the importance of the royal armoury at the Tower of London was that it provided a professional basis for procuring supplies and equipment in times of war . The two bodies were resident at the Tower from at least 1454 , and by 16th century they had moved to a position in the inner ward . Political tensions between Charles I and Parliament in the second quarter of the 17th century led to an attempt by forces loyal to the King to secure the Tower and its valuable contents , including money and munitions . London 's Trained Bands , a militia force , were moved into the castle in 1640 . Plans for defence were drawn up and gun platforms were built , readying the Tower for war . The preparations were never put to the test . In 1642 , Charles I attempted to arrest five members of parliament . When this failed he fled the city , and Parliament retaliated by removing Sir John Byron , the Lieutenant of the Tower . The Trained Bands had switched sides , and now supported Parliament ; together with the London citizenry , they blockaded the Tower . With permission from the King , Byron relinquished control of the Tower . Parliament replaced Byron with a man of their own choosing , Sir John Conyers . By the time the English Civil War broke out in November 1642 , the Tower of London was already in Parliament 's control .
The last monarch to uphold the tradition of taking a procession from the Tower to Westminster to be crowned was Charles II in 1660 . At the time , the castle 's accommodation was in such poor condition that he did not stay there the night before his coronation . Under the Stuart kings the Tower 's buildings were remodelled , mostly under the auspices of the Office of Ordnance . Just over £ 4 @,@ 000 was spent in 1663 on building a new storehouse , now known as the New Armouries in the inner ward . In the 17th century there were plans to enhance the Tower 's defences in the style of the trace italienne , however they were never acted on . Although the facilities for the garrison were improved with the addition of the first purpose @-@ built quarters for soldiers ( the " Irish Barracks " ) in 1670 , the general accommodations were still in poor condition .
When the Hanoverian dynasty ascended the throne , their situation was uncertain and with a possible Scottish rebellion in mind , the Tower of London was repaired . Gun platforms added under the Stuarts had decayed . The number of guns at the Tower was reduced from 118 to 45 , and one contemporary commentator noted that the castle " would not hold out four and twenty hours against an army prepared for a siege " . For the most part , the 18th @-@ century work on the defences was spasmodic and piecemeal , although a new gateway in the southern curtain wall permitting access from the wharf to the outer ward was added in 1774 . The moat surrounding the castle had become silted over the centuries since it was created despite attempts at clearing it . It was still an integral part of the castle 's defences , so in 1830 the Constable of the Tower , the Duke of Wellington , ordered a large @-@ scale clearance of several feet of silt . However this did not prevent an outbreak of disease in the garrison in 1841 caused by poor water supply , resulting in several deaths . To prevent the festering ditch posing further health problems , it was ordered that the moat should be drained and filled with earth . The work began in 1843 and was mostly complete two years later . The construction of the Waterloo Barracks in the inner ward began in 1845 , when the Duke of Wellington laid the foundation stone . The building could accommodate 1 @,@ 000 men ; at the same time , separate quarters for the officers were built to the north @-@ east of the White Tower . The building is now the headquarters of the Royal Regiment of Fusiliers . The popularity of the Chartist movement between 1828 and 1858 led to a desire to refortify the Tower of London in the event of civil unrest . It was the last major programme of fortification at the castle . Most of the surviving installations for the use of artillery and firearms date from this period .
During the First World War , eleven men were tried in private and shot by firing squad at the Tower for espionage . During the Second World War , the Tower was once again used to hold prisoners of war . One such person was Rudolf Hess , Adolf Hitler 's deputy , albeit just for four days in 1941 . He was the last state prisoner to be held at the castle . The last person to be executed at the Tower was German spy Josef Jakobs who was shot on 15 August 1941 . The executions for espionage during the wars took place in a prefabricated miniature rifle range which stood in the outer ward and was demolished in 1969 . The Second World War also saw the last use of the Tower as a fortification . In the event of a German invasion , the Tower , together with the Royal Mint and nearby warehouses , was to have formed one of three " keeps " or complexes of defended buildings which formed the last @-@ ditch defences of the capital .
= = Restoration and tourism = =
The Tower of London has become established as one of the most popular tourist attractions in the country . It has been a tourist attraction since at least the Elizabethan period , when it was one of the sights of London that foreign visitors wrote about . Its most popular attractions were the Royal Menagerie and displays of armour . The Crown Jewels also garner much interest , and have been on public display since 1669 . The Tower steadily gained popularity with tourists through the 19th century , despite the opposition of the Duke of Wellington to visitors . Numbers became so high that by 1851 a purpose @-@ built ticket office was erected . By the end of the century , over 500 @,@ 000 were visiting the castle every year .
Over the 18th and 19th centuries , the palatial buildings were slowly adapted for other uses and demolished . Only the Wakefield and St Thomas 's Towers survived . The 18th century marked an increasing interest in England 's medieval past . One of the effects was the emergence of Gothic Revival architecture . In the Tower 's architecture , this was manifest when the New Horse Armoury was built in 1825 against the south face of the White Tower . It featured elements of Gothic Revival architecture such as battlements . Other buildings were remodelled to match the style and the Waterloo Barracks were described as " castellated Gothic of the 15th century " . Between 1845 and 1885 institutions such as the Mint which had inhabited the castle for centuries moved to other sites ; many of the post @-@ medieval structures left vacant were demolished . In 1855 , the War Office took over responsibility for manufacture and storage of weapons from the Ordnance Office , which was gradually phased out of the castle . At the same time , there was greater interest in the history of the Tower of London .
Public interest was partly fuelled by contemporary writers , of whom the work of William Harrison Ainsworth was particularly influential . In The Tower of London : A Historical Romance he created a vivid image of underground torture chambers and devices for extracting confessions that stuck in the public imagination . Harrison also played another role in the Tower 's history , as he suggested that Beauchamp Tower should be opened to the public so they could see the inscriptions of 16th- and 17th @-@ century prisoners . Working on the suggestion , Anthony Salvin refurbished the tower and led a further programme for a comprehensive restoration at the behest of Prince Albert . Salvin was succeeded in the work by John Taylor . When a feature did not meet his expectations of medieval architecture Taylor would ruthlessly remove it ; as a result , several important buildings within the castle were pulled down and in some cases post @-@ medieval internal decoration removed .
Although only one bomb fell on the Tower of London in the First World War ( it landed harmlessly in the moat ) , the Second World War left a greater mark . On 23 September 1940 , during the Blitz , high @-@ explosive bombs damaged the castle , destroying several buildings and narrowly missing the White Tower . After the war , the damage was repaired and the Tower of London was reopened to the public .
In 1974 , there was a bomb explosion in the Mortar Room in the White Tower , leaving one person dead and 35 injured . No one claimed responsibility for the blast , but the police investigated suspicions that the IRA was behind it .
In the 21st century , tourism is the Tower 's primary role , the remaining routine military activities , under the Royal Logistic Corps , having wound down in the latter half of the 20th century and moved out of the castle . However , the Tower is still home to the ceremonial regimental headquarters of the Royal Regiment of Fusiliers , and the museum dedicated to it and its predecessor , the Royal Fusiliers . Also , a detachment of the unit providing the Queen 's Guard at Buckingham Palace still mounts a guard at the Tower , and with the Yeomen Warders , takes part in the Ceremony of the Keys each day . On several occasions through the year gun salutes are fired from the Tower by the Honourable Artillery Company , these consist of 62 rounds for royal occasions , and 41 on other occasions .
Since 1990 , the Tower of London has been cared for by an independent charity , Historic Royal Palaces , which receives no funding from the Government or the Crown . In 1988 , the Tower of London was added to the UNESCO list of World Heritage Sites , in recognition of its global importance and to help conserve and protect the site . However , recent developments , such as the construction of skyscrapers nearby , have pushed the Tower towards being added to the United Nations ' Heritage in Danger List . The remains of the medieval palace have been open to the public since 2006 . Visitors can explore the chambers restored to their former glory , once used by past kings and queens . Although the position of Constable of the Tower remains the highest position held at the Tower , the responsibility of day @-@ to @-@ day administration is delegated to the Resident Governor . At least six ravens are kept at the Tower at all times , in accordance with the belief that if they are absent , the kingdom will fall . They are under the care of the Yeomen Warders . The earliest known reference to a Tower raven is a picture from 1883 . As well as having ceremonial duties , the Yeoman Warders provide guided tours around the Tower . Just over 2 @.@ 7 million people visited the Tower of London in 2015 .
= = Crown Jewels = =
The tradition of housing the Crown Jewels in the Tower of London probably dates from the reign of Henry III ( 1216 – 1272 ) . The Jewel House was built specifically to house the royal regalia , including jewels , plate , and symbols of royalty such as the crown , sceptre , and sword . When money needed to be raised , the treasure could be pawned by the monarch . The treasure allowed the monarch independence from the aristocracy , and consequently was closely guarded . A new position for " keeper of the jewels , armouries and other things " was created , which was well rewarded ; in the reign of Edward III ( 1312 – 1377 ) the holder was paid 12d a day . The position grew to include other duties including purchasing royal jewels , gold , and silver , and appointing royal goldsmiths and jewellers . In 1649 , during the English Civil War , the contents of the Jewel House were disposed of along with other royal properties . Metal items were sent to the Mint to be melted down and re @-@ used , and the crowns were " totallie broken and defaced " . When the monarchy was restored in 1660 , the only surviving items of the coronation regalia were a 12th @-@ century spoon and three ceremonial swords . The rest of the Crown Jewels had to be recreated . In 1669 , the Jewel House was demolished and the Crown Jewels moved into Martin Tower where they could be viewed by the paying public . This was exploited two years later when Colonel Thomas Blood attempted to steal them . Blood and his accomplices bound and gagged the Jewel House keeper . Although they laid their hands on the Imperial State Crown , Sceptre and Orb , they were foiled when the keeper 's son turned up unexpectedly and raised the alarm . The Crown Jewels are on display in the Jewel House in the Waterloo Block .
= = Menagerie = =
The Royal Menagerie is first referenced during the reign of Henry III . In 1251 , the sheriffs were ordered to pay fourpence a day towards the upkeep for the King 's polar bear , probably a gift from Haakon IV of Norway ; the bear attracted a great deal of attention from Londoners when it went fishing in the Thames . In 1254 , the sheriffs were ordered to subsidise the construction of an elephant house at the Tower . The exact location of the medieval menagerie is unknown , although the lions were kept in the barbican known as Lion Tower . The royal collection was swelled by diplomatic gifts including three leopards from Frederick III , the Holy Roman Emperor . By the 18th century , the menagerie was open to the public ; admission cost three half @-@ pence or the supply of a cat or dog to be fed to the lions . In 1828 there were over 280 animals representing at least 60 species The last of the animals left in 1835 , relocated to Regent 's Park , after one of the lions was accused of biting a soldier . The Keeper of the Royal Menagerie was entitled to use the Lion Tower as a house for life . Consequently , even though the animals had long since left the building , the Lion Tower was not demolished until the last keeper 's death in 1853 .
During 2011 an exhibition was hosted at the Tower with fine wire sculptures by Kendra Haste .
= = Ghosts = =
Anne Boleyn was beheaded in 1536 for treason against Henry VIII ; her ghost supposedly haunts the chapel of St Peter ad Vincula , where she is buried , and has been said to walk around the White Tower carrying her head under her arm . This haunting is commemorated in the 1934 comic song " With Her Head Tucked Underneath Her Arm " . Other reported ghosts include Henry VI , Lady Jane Grey , Margaret Pole , and the Princes in the Tower . In January 1816 , a sentry on guard outside the Jewel House claimed to have witnessed an apparition of a bear advancing towards him , and reportedly died of fright a few days later . In October 1817 , a tubular , glowing apparition was claimed to have been seen in the Jewel House by the Keeper of the Crown Jewels , Edmund Lenthal Swifte . He said that the apparition hovered over the shoulder of his wife , leading her to exclaim : " Oh , Christ ! It has seized me ! " Other nameless and formless terrors have been reported , more recently , by night staff at the Tower .
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= Melville Island ( Nova Scotia ) =
Melville Island is a small peninsula in Nova Scotia , Canada , located in the Northwest Arm of Halifax Harbour , west of Deadman 's Island . It is part of the Halifax Regional Municipality . The land is rocky , with thin , acidic soil , but supports a limited woodland habitat .
The site was discovered by Europeans in the 17th century , though it was likely earlier explored by aboriginals . It was initially used for storehouses before being purchased by the British , who built a prisoner @-@ of @-@ war camp to hold captives from the Napoleonic Wars and later the War of 1812 . The burial ground for prisoners was on the adjacent Deadman 's Island .
Later , Melville Island was used as a receiving depot for black refugees escaping slavery in the United States , then as a quarantine hospital for immigrants arriving from Europe ( particularly Ireland ) . It briefly served as a recruitment centre for the British Foreign Legion during the Crimean War , and was then sold to the British for use as a military prison . In 1907 the land was granted to the Canadian government , which used it to detain German and Austro @-@ Hungarian nationals during the First World War . During the Second World War , prisoners were sent to McNabs Island instead , and ammunition depots were kept on Melville Island .
The peninsula now houses the clubhouse and marina of the Armdale Yacht Club . Melville Island has been the subject of a number of cultural works , most of which concern its use as a prison .
= = Geography = =
Melville Island is part of the Halifax Regional Municipality , on the southeast coast of Nova Scotia . The peninsula lies on the eastern boundary of Melville Cove in the Northwest Arm , an inlet between the Halifax Peninsula and Mainland Halifax . It has a total area of approximately 2 @,@ 000 square metres ( 22 @,@ 000 sq ft ) . Melville Island is 200 metres ( 660 ft ) west of Deadman 's Island , and southeast of Regatta Point . The peninsula lies on a fracture zone trending northwest – southeast , and is located at the border between the Halifax Slate Formation and a granite @-@ based formation . There is evidence of glacial scouring in the area . The surrounding seabed ranges from gravel to muddy gravel , and the shore is rocky .
The water surrounding Melville Island is salty and ranges from 15 ° C ( 59 ° F ) in summer to partially or completely frozen in winter . The water is polluted by sewage discharges from Halifax and is considered heavily contaminated . Water colour ranges from olive brown to greenish black , with little current . The water depth around Melville Island is 4 @.@ 5 to 10 @.@ 5 metres ( 15 to 34 ft ) .
The peninsula features thin and acidic soil , and hosts plants like witherod , Indian pear , Labrador tea , wintergreen , and blueberry shrubs . It is a woodland area , with birch , tamarack , maple , oak , beech , and white pine trees . Given the development of the land by the Armdale Yacht Club , plant growth is now largely limited to the hill on which the main clubhouse sits ; most of the peninsula was paved in 1971 . Fish caught from Melville Island include cod and mackerel . Local birds include grebes , loons , and alcids .
There is no weather monitoring station on Melville Island ( the closest is the Halifax dockyards ) ; however , as with most of the surrounding area , Melville has a humid continental climate heavily influenced by the water temperature in Halifax Harbour . Average air temperatures range from − 4 @.@ 4 ° C ( 24 @.@ 1 ° F ) in January to 18 @.@ 9 ° C ( 66 @.@ 0 ° F ) in August . It receives about 1 @,@ 500 mm ( 59 in ) of precipitation per year , and may receive snow from October through April . Though the area is fairly sheltered , it is subject to damage from hurricanes and other storms , notably Hurricane Juan in 2003 .
= = Early use = =
Though the Halifax area was settled by aboriginals , particularly the Mi 'kmaq people , as early as 7000 BC , there is no archaeological evidence of native habitation on Melville Island prior to the arrival of the Europeans . The first Europeans to reach the land were likely French traders and missionaries in the 17th century . Halifax was founded by the British in 1749 . The first documented use of Melville Island was by Robert Cowie and John Aubony , who obtained a Crown grant in 1752 to allow them to build a storehouse . After Cowie 's death in 1781 , John Butler Kelly purchased what was then known as Cowie 's Island and quickly resold it in 1784 to James Kavanagh , the head of a prosperous family fishery , for £ 65 . Kavanagh used the land , known as Kavanagh 's Island according to the then @-@ prevalent tradition of place naming , to dry and store fish that he would then sell from his Halifax store .
= = French Revolutionary Wars = =
After the 1793 beheading of Louis XVI sparked a war between Britain and France ( see the French Revolutionary Wars ) , Nova Scotia Governor John Wentworth rented Kavanagh 's Island to house 600 French prisoners that had been captured on St. Pierre and Miquelon . The commander of the Halifax garrison , Brigadier General James Ogilvie , objected to the plan , and instead housed the prisoners at Cornwallis Barracks in Halifax . Several prisoners were able to escape from the makeshift prison , and the rest were sent to Guernsey in June 1794 .
In August 1794 , a French ship captured in St. Domingo arrived in Halifax . A plan to house these prisoners in Halifax met with opposition from the citizenry because of a fear of " fever " ; indeed , surgeon John Halliburton suggested that if the plan was carried out , " the popular would burn down [ the housing ] with the sick prisoners inside " . Halliburton rented Kavanagh 's Island , likely on the suggestion of Governor John Wentworth , and by June 1795 had sent 70 sick and wounded prisoners to its makeshift prison hospital . The other prisoners were kept on the La Felix prison ship . Sixteen soldiers of the Royal Nova Scotia Regiment acted as guards for the hospital beginning in 1796 . Because of overcrowding aboard La Felix , some of its prisoners were allowed to live in Halifax , where some created such a disturbance that they were sent to Kavanagh 's Island to be imprisoned . In 1801 , the Treaty of Amiens resulted in most of the prisoners being returned to France , and the site was abandoned .
= = Napoleonic Wars ( 1803 – 1811 ) = =
The site was formally leased for prisoner housing in 1803 after fifteen French fishermen , three surgeons , and 188 seamen were brought to Halifax as prisoners during the Napoleonic Wars . Though many of these prisoners were later sent to England or Bermuda , one of the surgeons ( Antoine Noel ) was hired to care for the prisoners , while at least sixteen other prisoners were able to escape . Melville was purchased for £ 1000 in 1804 ( £ 68 @,@ 634 as of 2010 ) by Robert Murray , appointed by the British Admiralty as prison agent ; he was replaced shortly thereafter by John MacKellar . At the time , the facility had a maximum capacity of 200 prisoners . The makeshift prison was noted for discipline problems .
The land was officially renamed Melville Island in late 1804 or early 1805 in honour of Henry Dundas , Viscount Melville ( who at the time had just been appointed First Lord of the Admiralty ) . A wooden barracks @-@ style military prison was constructed to house common prisoners , the cornerstone of which was laid in 1808 and is today preserved as a monument , while a multi @-@ storey building was designed to hold officers . As no exchange system was established with the French , the prison quickly became overcrowded . Some Spanish prisoners were also housed in the prison at this time .
Upon their arrival on Melville , prisoners had their name and other details recorded in an entry book . Inmates were given yellow clothing that clearly identified them as prisoners of war , and were supplied with provisions of beef , bread , potatoes and salt from a local contractor " reputed to own most of the livestock in the region " . Some officers were allowed to send trade goods to Halifax , or even work in the city as domestic servants or handymen . There were also prisoner @-@ run shops and a " small town fair " on Melville Island , frequented by British officers and residents of Halifax . Other prisoner pursuits included prison lotteries , model shipbuilding , beer @-@ brewing , fishing , and making molasses candy . Some prisoners were known to have pets or keep chickens .
In late 1805 , a group of officers broke parole and escaped ; this led the garrison captain to restrict the purchase of prisoner @-@ made goods as a means of punishment and enforcing discipline . More serious punishments included flogging or being confined to a barred hole in the prison cellar , known as the " Black Hole " , with only bread and water . One of the prisoners , Pierre Poulin , stabbed another to death in April 1805 , and was tried and hanged for murder in Halifax . The prisoners also maintained their own Grand Council ( Grand Conseil ) with which to impose discipline , though with a different focus than the British : anyone who disclosed a planned escape attempt to the guards was subject to being stoned to death ( though historian Brian Cuthbertson disputes the likelihood of this claim ) . Escapes and attempts were frequent , and attempted escapees were regarded " with high esteem " by the other prisoners . Before 1812 , approximately 130 prisoners , including 25 officers , escaped , of whom only 11 were recaptured despite advertised rewards in local newspapers . Many others were either sent to prisons in England or the West Indies , or were released after pledging allegiance to the British Crown . Approximately 1535 French prisoners were incarcerated at Melville between 1803 and 1813 , and an unknown number were held during Napoleon 's Hundred Days . Sixty @-@ six Frenchmen are known to have died in the prison , ten of whom were prisoners from the Hundred Days . Nine Spanish prisoners also died during this period .
= = War of 1812 = =
The War of 1812 brought an influx of American prisoners to Melville Island ; up to 1800 at a time were housed in its barracks or on a nearby 350 @-@ person prison ship , the Magnet . Most of the French prisoners were released or paroled to make room for the Americans , who were seen as more of a risk . David Stickney was the first recorded American prisoner , arriving on 4 July 1812 . Early in the war , many Americans were exchanged for British prisoners in Boston or Salem , Massachusetts , in an arrangement known as a " cartel " ; 1981 of the captives taken before October 1812 were thus exchanged , while another seventeen , accused of killing a Canadian farmer and raping his wife , were sent to England and imprisoned . African @-@ American captives were never considered for exchange , and were instead commonly released under the 1807 Abolition Act .
By the end of 1812 , maps of the peninsula showed a marked increase in buildings : a two @-@ story common prison , a small hospital , officers ' quarters , a gunner 's house , a turnkey store , fuel sheds , the agent 's office and guard house , a bell house , nine sentry boxes , and four oceanside outhouses . Despite this , the facility was severely overcrowded , a problem compounded by attempts at segregating the remaining French prisoners and the few African @-@ Americans from the majority white American population . 2078 prisoners were recorded by the end of 1812 , including 1412 privateers and 572 merchant seamen . More than 3000 arrived over the next two years , including nearly 1000 soldiers captured in the Niagara area .
Accounts of prison life vary : Cuthbertson says that the prisoners were " reportedly well treated " , but prisoner complaints suggested they were " wretched indeed " . Because of the crowded conditions , " the authorities did everything they could to keep the prisoners quiet , " including lying to them . Captured privateers were sent to England in large numbers " to harass and distress that description of prisoners " . All letters sent to and by prisoners were read . Residents of the Melville prison barracks were lice @-@ infested and slept in tier @-@ hung hammocks ( first three , and later four tiers ) , and their activities were more restricted than those of earlier French prisoners . A strict cleaning regimen was observed in an attempt to promote sanitary conditions , and prisoners could be sent to solitary confinement for uncleanliness . Rations were considered " robust " : prisoners were given 0 @.@ 45 kilograms ( 1 lb ) each of bread and beef and a gill ( 0 @.@ 1421 litres ) of peas daily .
In October 1812 , John Mitchell was appointed as an " American agent " to oversee the treatment of the American prisoners at Melville and to arrange prisoner exchanges . He gave the Americans coffee , sugar , potatoes , tobacco , newspapers , and soap , and also provided money for other purchases . Mitchell was responsible for buying clothing , but lacked the funds to meet demand : in late 1813 , almost 1000 of the prisoners were shoeless , and many more had no jackets . Staff at the prison hospital attributed a tuberculosis outbreak to " want of comfortable clothing " . Though Mitchell visited Melville Island regularly , he was primarily concerned with speaking to the officers , not the common prisoners . Mitchell was removed in October 1814 in retaliation for the treatment of the British prisoner agent , Thomas Barclay , by the United States government .
Despite the conditions in the prison , the Americans continued the French tradition of establishing shops within the prison . Goods sold included cigars and smuggled rum . Gambling was a popular pastime , particularly backgammon and other dice games , as well as dancing , singing , and storytelling . One prisoner was able to counterfeit Spanish coins , which found their way into the Halifax economy . On Sundays , church services were conducted and visitors were allowed , though many visiting Haligonians were United Empire Loyalists who came " to gratify their eyes ... with sight of what they called ' rebels ' " .
The 320 American survivors of the Battle of Boston Harbor were interned on Melville Island in 1813 , and their ship , renamed the HMS Chesapeake , was used to ferry prisoners from Melville to England 's Dartmoor Prison . Many officers were paroled to Halifax , but some began a riot at a performance of a patriotic song about the Chesapeake 's defeat . Parole restrictions were tightened : beginning in 1814 , paroled officers were required to attend a monthly muster on Melville Island , and those who violated their parole were confined to the prison . After foiled escape plots in 1813 and 1814 , fears of a mass escape led to increased security and a 600 @-@ prisoner transport to England . Around this time , Lieutenant William Miller , who had been in charge of the prisoners , was replaced by Captain J. Crochet ; Miller had been noted for his rudeness , including one occasion when he told the prisoners to " die and be damned , as there is one hundred and fifty acres of land to bury you in , God damn you . " He had also been accused of cruelty by American newspapers , though some prisoners defended him and the veracity of the media claims is questionable .
The crowded and insanitary prison led to frequent outbreaks of infectious diseases , including smallpox , typhoid , pneumonia , and dysentery , and a corresponding increase in mortality rates . 195 American prisoners died on Melville Island of various causes , most of whom were buried on Deadman 's Island ; James Brooke suggests a death rate of one per week . The war ended in December 1814 , but news of this did not reach Melville until March 1815 , during which time about fifty prisoners died . The prisoners were released to " quit Halifax at their own expense " , though some were able to find berths on trade ships . All but 120 had left by mid @-@ April ; most of those remaining were hospital patients , who were sent to the Naval Hospital in Halifax in early May . Melville Island was decommissioned in May 1815 , and its goods , including 1170 hammocks , were sold at auction in Halifax .
By the decommissioning , over 10 @,@ 000 French , Spanish and American prisoners had been held at the prison . The vast majority had been Americans : there were 8148 recorded US prisoners , 3542 of whom were privateers from the 92 such ships brought to Halifax .
= = Receiving depot = =
After the decommissioning of the military prison , Melville Island was used as a receiving depot for some of the black refugees , the estimated 1600 – 2000 escaped slaves who arrived in Halifax between 1815 and 1818 . In April 1815 , seventy @-@ six refugees were moved to Melville from the Halifax Poor House , many ill with smallpox . The refugees were given blankets , " colourful " clothing ( often the uniforms of captured or demobilized soldiers ) , and children 's shoes . Rations included pork or beef , potatoes , rice , cornmeal , molasses , spruce beer ( to prevent scurvy ) , and sometimes coffee . To discourage men from leaving their families at the depot as they worked in Halifax , rations were only given to heads of families . Thomas Jeffery was granted a salary of £ 1500 ( £ 86 @,@ 655 as of 2010 ) for administering the depot . Eighty @-@ two refugees died during the smallpox outbreak , and 500 were vaccinated to prevent the further spread of the disease . An increasing number passed through Melville Island on their way to Canadian settlements : between 727 and 798 are recorded from April to July 1815 . Most of these found work in Halifax or moved to land grants , but some returned the following winter " when in distress " . At least 107 of these refugees died on Melville Island . The province 's lieutenant @-@ governor ordered that the refugees be moved to Preston or Halifax in May 1816 , and put the land up for lease to " a person of unexceptionable character " , but no lease is recorded during this period . The hospital was officially closed in June 1816 .
Beginning in 1818 , Melville Island was used as a quarantine hospital for ill immigrants arriving in Nova Scotia . The hospital was operational for short periods in 1818 , 1831 , and 1846 . By 1829 , ten buildings were left on Melville Island , all " in a state of neglect and decay " . In 1831 , three doctors ( Matthias Hoffman , Samuel Head and John Stirling ) were paid £ 30 each ( £ 2125 as of 2010 ) to care for patients at the quarantine hospital ; a nurse later arrived as Matron , bringing with her two teenaged children . In 1847 , over 1200 Irish immigrants fleeing the Irish Potato Famine were ordered quarantined on Melville Island by the Board of Health ; of these , 203 were held in the " fever hospital " , and 30 died . Typhus victims were also held at Melville , during which time the medical staff were not allowed to leave for fear of spreading the infection .
Diseases encountered among the immigrants included smallpox , typhus , and yellow fever . There were 37 recorded deaths .
= = British Army = =
In 1855 , Nova Scotia politician Joseph Howe developed a plan to use Melville Island as a recruitment and training centre for American soldiers to fight for the British in the Crimean War . US neutrality laws prevented Americans from participating in overseas wars , so recruiters sent to the US advertised for men to work on the Nova Scotia Railway , and faced arrest if their true purpose was discovered . Upon arrival in Halifax , the men were sent to Melville Island for enlistment and basic training . The first group of 66 men arrived on 6 April 1855 , but all refused to join the British Foreign Legion . However , by the end of May there were 71 newly recruited soldiers on the peninsula , and up to 158 total had enlisted . American discontent with the project forced its abandonment in June ; the Melville Island depot closed , and the recruits were sent first to Halifax and then to England . Overall the recruitment project enlisted between 500 and 700 men , mostly German and Irish nationals .
After the recruitment project ended , the Admiralty sold the land to the British army for £ 2800 ( £ 204 @,@ 081 as of 2010 ) for use as a military prison . The first 70 prisoners arrived in 1856 . At this time , flogging was gradually being phased out as a punishment for military members , who were instead imprisoned under the Mutiny Act of 1844 ; the purchase of Melville Island allowed these prisoners to be removed from the overcrowded Halifax Citadel . A 22 @-@ man military guard supervised the prisoners , who were subjected to hard labour : the chief warder imported 500 tonnes ( 492 long tons ; 551 short tons ) of granite from Purcell 's Cove for them to break . Punishments included solitary confinement or " shot drill " , where an inmate was made to carry 11 @-@ kilogram ( 24 lb ) cannonballs from one end of the yard to the other . A new 34 @-@ cell prison building was constructed in 1884 to alleviate overcrowding . There were some escape attempts during this period , the most violent of which involved the stone hammers used to break stone being repurposed as projectiles and weapons .
British officers from the Halifax garrison conducted inspections of the prison four times per year , and maintenance was carried out either by the prisoners themselves or by soldiers from the Halifax garrison . The prison also housed a schoolroom and chapel , both staffed by army personnel . A new stone prison was built before 1905 next to the older wooden barracks , as well as housing for warders and their families . The new building alleviated reported problems with lack of lighting and ventilation in the previous structure . In December of that year , the Canadian Permanent Force took over wardenship of the prison , at which time there were three remaining prisoners . The land was granted to the Canadian Government as the British left Nova Scotia in 1907 . The name was changed in 1909 from " military prison " to " detention barracks " , reflecting a shift in attitude towards incarcerated military personnel : inmates were known as detainees , not prisoners , and after their discharge from the military they maintained no permanent criminal record .
= = First and Second World Wars = =
When the First World War began in 1914 , Canadian police were given the ability to detain German and Austro @-@ Hungarian nationals , and incarcerate any who refused to agree not to support their homelands in the war . In September , a Spanish ship carrying a large number of men en route to Germany to report for military service was intercepted by the HMS Glory , which brought the ship to Halifax Harbour . Once there , the Germans aboard were taken to Melville Island with a garrison guard , interrogated , and imprisoned under the supervision of the detention barracks staff . Over the next several months , more German nationals were brought to Melville , detained either by British ships or by Canadian police forces . Escape attempts began in October , and a procedure to count prisoners twice daily was instituted in an attempt to prevent them . The anglophone guards often could not communicate with the prisoners or even pronounce their names , resorting to nicknames and complicating efforts in prisoner management . Repairs were made to the prison buildings after several inmates escaped by sawing a hole through the floor of the wooden barracks .
Initially there was no system in place to allow prisoners to send letters ; censorship arrangements were made through the Dominion Police in Ottawa , and the American Consul was designated a representative for prisoner welfare . As the war progressed , groups of detainees were transferred to and from other prisons according to their behaviour or level of risk and the number of inmates per institution . After the 1917 Halifax Explosion , prisoners were transferred to the 800 @-@ man Amherst Internment Camp at Amherst , Nova Scotia . One of the prisoners transferred may have been Leon Trotsky , although this is disputed .
On 10 April 1935 , a fire completely destroyed the old wooden prison barracks , so when the Second World War began in 1939 , the remaining prisoners and guards were sent to McNab 's Island . Melville Island was used first to confine deserters from the army , then from 1941 as a temporary storage facility for Canadian Army ammunition depots . When VE Day caused riots in downtown Halifax , there were rumours of a plan to break into the depots and deploy hand grenades ; a trooper squad was sent to guard against this possibility , but no " invasion " occurred .
= = 1945 – present = =
After the end of the Second World War , military activities on Melville ended ; the land was initially awarded to the Naval Sailors Association , a decision that prompted some disagreement among members of Parliament . Haligonians pushed for the area to be repurposed for recreation , partially due to anxieties about its use as a storage facility for potentially toxic chemicals . In 1947 , the Canadian Army leased Melville Island to the Armdale Yacht Club for C $ 1 per year . The club demolished some of the buildings , renovated and expanded others , widened the road , and filled in a new embankment for boating . Further renovations were done in 1952 and the 1960s , adding verandahs to the two clubhouses ( one of which dates to 1808 and was used as a warden 's house ) and remodelling their interiors . Though the club 's lease was initially year @-@ to @-@ year , in 1956 it began a 99 @-@ year lease from the Department of National Defence . The club dredged Melville Cove , added a " marine railway " , and created a large marina , at which dozens of boats are now docked .
= = Culture = =
During certain periods , Melville Island was a social destination for Halifax residents . Haligonians visited the " town fair " run by French inmates during the Napoleonic period . The peninsula was called a " great resort of the ladies of Halifax " by an 1855 newspaper . However , from the beginning of the First World War to 1947 , visitors to Melville were restricted . Though it was re @-@ opened with the arrival of the Armdale Yacht Club , the area 's history was largely forgotten until the 2000 establishment of Deadman 's Island Park on the adjacent peninsula . Since then , the site has become a tourist attraction , though its historicity is limited by the land 's current use as a marina . A model made from beef and pork bones by French prisoners and a cell key to Melville Island are preserved at the Maritime Museum of the Atlantic in Halifax .
The peninsula has also been the subject of artistic and literary treatments . A number of writings by Melville prisoners have been preserved , including a diary by François @-@ Lambert Bourneuf and an account credited to Benjamin Waterhouse ( though historians are unsure of its true authorship ) . Politician Joseph Howe wrote a poem describing its use as a military prison ( See Poem ) . The site 's history has been the subject of a book by Brian Cuthbertson , and another by Iris Shea and Heather Watts . The prison is the subject of a painting held by the UK National Trust and a Nova Scotian folk song , among other cultural works .
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= Saskatchewan Highway 7 =
Saskatchewan Highway 7 is a major paved undivided provincial highway in the Canadian province of Saskatchewan , running from the Alberta border to Saskatoon . Highway 7 continues west into Alberta where it becomes Alberta Highway 9 .
Highway 7 is an important trade and travel route linking Saskatoon with several of its bedroom communities such as Delisle and Vanscoy , as well as larger centres farther afield such as Rosetown and Kindersley . Its primary use , however , is by travelers heading for Calgary , Alberta and the Canadian west coast .
Despite being one of the most heavily used roads in the province , as of 2015 only short stretches of the highway between Saskatoon and Rosetown have been divided to add passing lanes . The only passing lanes west of Rosetown 's eastern elevator access interchange , is a small section East and West of Flaxcombe . Extensive oil exploration and development has been occurring since 2010 , primarily in the Kindersley Region , from Brock to the Alberta Border . Heavy traffic , agriculture , grain transport , and oilfield service , as well as oil and fuel transports , are common on this highway . Agriculture , and oilfield services are the main industries of the area . The only District hospital on Hwy 7 is located at Kindersley .
Agrium Vanscoy Potash Operations is Canada 's third largest producer of potash fertilizer . In the 1930s early homesteaders would maintain Highway 7 as a means to supplement their income . Provincial Highway 7 followed the Canadian Northern railway grade for direction of travel with the actual road way being on the square on the Dominion survey township lines . Highway 7 was widened in 1944 and rebuilt between 1960 and 1961 .
Highway 7 currently terminates at its junction with 22nd Street West ( Highway 14 ) in west Saskatoon , although it is marked to run concurrently to Highway 11 ( Idylwyld Drive ) . In 2005 , work began on realigning Highway 7 in order to make way for the Blairmore Suburban Centre development including the Bethlehem High School , Tommy Douglas Collegiate and the Shaw Centre located where Highway 7 linked with 22nd Street prior to 2006 . Realignment is being conducted in two phases .
= = Route description = =
The entirety of Highway 7 is a primary weight asphalt concrete ( AS ) national highway within the Ministry of Highways and Infrastructure ( SHS ) West Central Municipal Government Committee planning jurisdiction . Travel on Highway 7 begins east at the Alberta - Saskatchewan provincial border through the Missouri Coteau which features mixed prairie vegetation . Entering Alberta , the highway continues west as Alberta Highway 9 . Alsask is a village of about 150 people on the border and Highway 44 . The Military Dome site radar station is a heritage site and has been acquired by Alsask along with the 1960s airforce base . At Alsask , Highway 7 turns north east until km 3 @.@ 9 when again the highway is routed east . Again at km 6 @.@ 1 the highway turns north east until km 19 @.@ 8 just past the intersection with Highway 317 . Marengo , a small village of about 50 residents is 0 @.@ 8 kilometres ( 0 @.@ 50 mi ) north of the junction . Highway 7 continues for several kilometres east reaching the village of Flaxcombe , which has a population of just over 100 . Highway 307 north provides access to the villages of Coleville and Smiley . This area belongs to the West Central Regional Economic Development Authority ( REDA ) . The town of Kindersley is the largest center featuring both oil and agricultural industries along Highway 7 and with a population of about 4 @,@ 500 is almost at city status of 5 @,@ 000 residents . As of 2009 , the Average Annual Daily Traffic ( AADT ) ranges from approximately 1 @,@ 600 to 2 @,@ 000 vehicles per day ( vpd ) near the Alberta @-@ Saskatchewan border to over 3 @,@ 000 vpd near Kindersley , updated statistics , and vehicle types in 2013 show evidence that the 2009 vehicle count is out of date and severely understates actual traffic flow . Due to its being a key route between Calgary , the fast @-@ growing city of Saskatoon , and economic drivers such as regional oil activity , inland grain terminal locations adjacent to Hwy 7 , and Saskatchewan 's strong economy , this highway 's capacity is under pressure .
Continuing east , Highway 7 comes to a short 1 @.@ 6 kilometres ( 0 @.@ 99 mi ) concurrency between Highway 658 south and Highway 658 north . The village of Netherhill is also located between the Highway 658 junction and Highway 30 junction .
Highway 30 south provides access to the hamlet of McMorran . The highway takes a few gentle curves north east at km 106 @.@ 1 through the unincorporated areas of Fiske and McGee to the junction with Highway 4 . Rosetown is a town about half the size of Kindersley located at this junction . The Goose Lake Plain landscape area of the Moist Mixed Prairie ecoregion is the main feature between Rosetown and Saskatoon . The bearing of the highway continues north east until the town of Zealandia whose population is hovering around 100 people . After Zealandia , the highway continues in a north @-@ northeast direction coming to junction with Highway 768 north and the junction with Highway 655 west and with Highway 655 south . The village of Tessier is next along this north east section of highway , and then Delisle . Delisle , a town , with a population of about 800 residents is located at the intersection of Highway 7 , Highway 45 south , and Saskatchewan Highway 673 east on the south west side of town . The AADT along the route fluctuates between 2 @,@ 000 and 3 @,@ 000 vpd until Delisle . The intersection with Highway 766 is to the north east of Delisle . The corner of Highway 672 ( South and east ) is at the intersection with Highway 7 at the village of Vanscoy . Agrium Vanscoy Potash Mine is located 32 kilometres ( 20 mi ) south west of Saskatoon , just to the north west of Vanscoy . The potash mine was established in 1931 as Cominco Fertilizers Ltd. changing names in 1995 to Agrium Inc . , the nation 's third largest producer of potash The AADT on Highway 7 near Vanscoy increases to over 5 @,@ 600 vpd . Both Highway 672 east and Highway 766 east provide access to Pike Lake Provincial Park . Highway 7 continues north westerly arriving at the first interchange at km 249 @.@ 7 with Highway 60 south .
The twinned overpass is 1 @.@ 5 kilometres ( 0 @.@ 93 mi ) in length continuing on as a 10 kilometres ( 6 @.@ 2 mi ) length of twinned highway . This twinned section of the highway
handles between 7 @,@ 000 and 12 @,@ 000 vpd on average throughout the year . The 11th Street West intersection provides access from the south end of the City of Saskatoon to Highway 7 . Highway 7 becomes concurrent with Highway 14 at the west end of Saskatoon . This is the new Blairmore Suburban Development Area ( SDA ) hosting seven new neighbourhoods and a future interchange at the intersection of Highway 14 west , Dalmeny Road north , and 22nd Street West . Highway 7 continues east along 22nd Street West , concurrent with Highway 14 .
= = History = =
The Old Bone Trail was the name of the red river cart trail between Saskatoon and Rosetown . The Saskatchewan Highway Act was established in 1922 , in compliance with the 1919 Canadian highway act . At the initial stages of the Saskatchewan Highway Act , 10 miles ( 16 km ) of provincial highways were gravel and the rest were earth roads . The road allowances were laid out as a part of the Dominion Land survey system for homesteading . Travel along the Provincial Highway 7 before the 1940s would have been traveling on the square following the township road allowances , barbed wire fencing and the Canadian Northern rail line . As the surveyed township roads were the easiest to travel , the first highway was designed on 90 @-@ degree , right @-@ angle corners as the distance traversed the prairie along range roads and township roads .
Mr. Ralph Glen Chapman an early 20th century settler in Pleasant Valley maintained 10 miles ( 16 km ) of Highway 7 . Mr. Block of the German Mennonite settlement at Fiske maintained a stretch of Highway 7 as a means of supplementing his income in the 1930s . In 1939 , Andy Anderson in the same fashion , kept a 10 miles ( 16 km ) stretch of Highway 7 clear .
In 1944 the widening of Highway 7 was undertaken . The Elma rural municipality ( R.M. ) requested that an automatic warning system should be established at the level crossing of the Canadian National Railway and Highway 7 . At this same time , the rural municipality requested that the hills be gravelled which are situated on either side of Flaxcombe . The third concern in 1948 was to construct an all @-@ weather highway between Kindersley and Alsask , and this too was requested of the Department of Highways ( DOH ) . In 1950 , the rates of pay for roadwork were 60 cents an hour for a single labourer , 80 cents an hour for man and two horses , a labourer with four horses would earn C $ 1 @.@ 00 per hour and for man with six horses $ 1 @.@ 20 per hour In the 1950s the R.M. provided grants to the local snow plough club to keep the highway clear after storms . The 1951 oil strike at Coleville resulted in a Husky service station and bulk plant opening at Flaxcombe on Highway 7 in 1955 . It was located on the railroad to facilitate loading crude oil into rail cars . Highway 7 was rebuilt between 1960 and 1961 . Highway 7 currently terminates at its junction with 22nd Street West ( Highway 14 ) in west Saskatoon . In 2005 , work began on realigning Highway 7 in order to make way for the Blairmore Suburban Centre development including the Bethlehem High School , Tommy Douglas Collegiate and the Shaw Centre located where Highway 7 linked with 22nd Street prior to 2006 . Realignment is being conducted in two phases . Starting in 2006 , Highway 7 was linked with Betts Avenue , a new city street , which in turn intersected 22nd Street at a traffic signal . The city and province have begun to build an interchange farther west ( but still with the city limits ) at the junction of Highway 14 and Highway 684 ( Dalmeny Road ) , at which point the new Highway 7 alignment links with this interchange . Long @-@ term plans call for a link to be created from Highway 684 to the Yellowhead Highway in Saskatoon 's north side , though it has not yet been announced whether the Highway 7 designation will be applied north of Highway 14 . There are plans for a major construction in 2008 @-@ 2009 west of Saskatoon on Highway 7 .
= = Intersections from west to east = =
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= Edward Millen =
Edward Davis Millen ( 7 November 1860 – 14 September 1923 ) was an Australian journalist and politician who served as the first Minister for Repatriation .
Millen emigrated to Australia from England around 1880 and established himself as a journalist , subsequently serving in the New South Wales Legislative Assembly from 1894 to 1898 , during which time he fiercely opposed the proposed Federation despite supporting the principle . He was a member of the New South Wales Legislative Council from 1899 until his election to the Australian Senate as a Free Trader from New South Wales at the first federal election in 1901 . Millen led the conservative parties in the Senate from 1907 until shortly before his death in 1923 .
He served as Vice @-@ President of the Executive Council ( 1909 – 10 ) and Minister for Defence ( 1913 – 14 ) in two short @-@ lived Liberal governments before his appointment as the first Minister for Repatriation in 1917 . He organised the new department and co @-@ ordinated Australia 's repatriation effort , and was briefly acting Prime Minister in 1919 , when he settled a seamen 's strike . Millen resigned from the ministry in February 1923 and died later that year , his illness attributed to his heavy workload in the post @-@ war years .
= = Early life = =
Millen was born in Deal , Kent in 1860 to John Bullock Millen , who was a pilot of the Cinque Ports , and Charlotte ( née Davis ) . He migrated to New South Wales in 1880 , having been educated in England and employed in the marine insurance business . On 19 February 1883 he married Constance Evelyn Flanagan at Bourke ; they settled as graziers in Brewarrina . Millen , who had worked as a journalist in Bourke and Walgett and wrote for the Central Australian and Bourke Telegraph ( of which he reputedly became part @-@ owner ) , became editor of the Western Herald and Darling River Advocate around 1889 , part @-@ owning the business together with Philip Chapman until 1901 . During this period he also worked as a land agent , acquiring an office in O 'Connell Street in Sydney and a house in Burwood by 1902 .
Millen stood for the New South Wales Legislative Assembly as the Free Trade candidate for Bourke in 1891 , but was defeated ; he contested the seat again in 1894 and won . He became known as a strong advocate for land reform , urging changed pastoral conditions and suggesting additional government assistance to deal with Australia 's dry climate , particularly during the 1890s drought .
= = State politics = =
Millen was a foundation member of the New South Wales Australasian Federation League in 1893 , formed to campaign for the unification of the six Australian colonies into a single Commonwealth , and in 1896 was active at the Bathurst People 's Federation Council . His distrust of Edmund Barton 's leadership led to his defeat as a candidate for the Australian Federal Convention in 1897 . In the Legislative Assembly , he objected strenuously to the proposed nature of the Senate , calling equal representation for all states " objectionable and dangerous " , and claimed that the New South Wales conventional delegates were elected because of their proficiency at " political business " , absolving New South Wales of the obligation of endorsing their decisions . As a result , Millen opposed the 1898 Federation referendum , becoming a founding member of the Anti @-@ Convention Bill League in April .
At the 1898 election , Millen was defeated by nine votes by a National Federal candidate . Having overcome his opposition to Federation , he was appointed to the New South Wales Legislative Council on 8 April 1899 as one of Premier George Reid 's twelve appointments to guarantee the passage of legislation for the 1899 referendum . At the first federal election in March 1901 , Millen stood for the Senate as a Free Trade candidate and was elected as the second of six senators for New South Wales . He resigned his Legislative Council seat in May of that year .
= = Early Senate career = =
Millen was an early leader in the Senate , serving as deputy to Josiah Symon 's unofficial leadership of the Free Trade Senators in 1901 . He advocated against high tariffs and bounties , claiming that industries that could not withstand free trade were " not entitled to much consideration at [ the Senate 's ] hands " . He was also a vigorous supporter of the White Australia policy , advocating the cessation of Kanaka immigration and the gradual deportation of those who had already arrived in Queensland ; his opposition was based on a concern that " inferior labour would ... tend to degrade labour throughout the Commonwealth " , as well as concerns about racial purity .
Millen succeeded Symon as leader of the Free Traders in the Senate in 1907 , and following the Fusion with the Protectionists in 1909 became Leader of the Government in the Senate and Vice @-@ President of the Executive Council under Prime Minister Alfred Deakin ; he would lead the various conservative parties in the Senate continuously until his death . In 1913 , following Joseph Cook 's one @-@ seat victory in the election , Millen became Minister for Defence , a position he held at the outbreak of World War I. In April 1914 he refused Winston Churchill 's suggestion that Australia need not maintain a fleet in its own territorial waters , and expressed " the sharpest criticism of the British " in a memorandum tabled in the Senate . He continued to privately criticise Britain 's management of the war , but the Cook Government ultimately placed the navy under the control of the British Admiralty in August 1914 . He oversaw the initial recruitment of 20 @,@ 000 men for the Australian Imperial Force and initialised the defence proposals for the war , but following the Labor Party 's victory at the 1914 election he returned to leading the Opposition in the Senate , although he did become a member of the parliamentary war committee .
= = Minister for Repatriation = =
Following the 1916 Labor split over conscription , Millen was included in Billy Hughes 's Nationalist ministry in February 1917 , initially as Vice @-@ President of the Executive Council but by September as Australia 's first Minister for Repatriation , dealing largely with veterans ' affairs . Together with Major Nicholas Lockyer , the controller of repatriation , Millen had responsibility for the creation of a new governmental department . The many returned servicemen in the department 's staff , most of whom had little administrative experience , caused problems ; Charles Bean wrote in 1918 that soldiers had " a dread of Millen as a politician first , last and all the time " . Millen organised the passage of the War Service Homes Act 1918 – 19 , which established the War Service Homes Commission , but the administration of the scheme by Commissioner J. T. Walker led to a series of parliamentary inquiries by the joint committee of public accounts . Walker 's appointment by Millen came into question , and the resulting investigation into the Commissioner 's accountability to the Minister and to Parliament has been described as " one of the fullest examinations of ... ministerial responsibility for the actions of an autonomous public corporation in the history of the Commonwealth Parliament " .
Millen introduced the Australian Soldiers Repatriation Bill , which provided for a paid repatriation commission and higher pensions for servicemen , into the Senate in March 1920 . In response to the bill , and vigorous lobbying of Hughes by the veterans ' movement , the bill faced difficulty in its passage and Senator Josiah Thomas successfully moved a resolution that a minister in one house might appear on the floor of the other . This bill would have allowed Millen to address the House of Representatives , where he was facing fierce criticism from the Country Party , although ultimately neither house acted on the resolution .
During Hughes 's absence in Europe in mid @-@ 1919 , the acting Prime Minister was the Treasurer , William Watt ; Millen served as acting Prime Minister when Watt fell ill during July . Millen and Watt brought a successful resolution to the seamen 's strike . In 1920 he was sent to Geneva as Australia 's delegate to the first meeting of the General Assembly of the League of Nations , where he secured mandated Pacific protectorates for Australia despite opposition from Japan . He returned to Australia in 1921 , having arranged for the funding of Australia 's debts and reorganised Australia House .
Millen 's heavy workload had begun to affect his health and he considered retirement , but he ultimately decided to continue and was re @-@ elected to the Senate at the 1922 election . He retired from the ministry in February 1923 , and in March was granted leave of absence because of his deteriorating health . He died aged 63 from chronic nephritis on 14 September 1923 at Caulfield in Melbourne , survived by his wife and two daughters . Presbyterian services were held at Parliament House in Melbourne and St Stephen 's Church in Sydney , and Millen was given a state funeral . He is buried at Rookwood Cemetery .
= = Legacy = =
Millen experienced fierce criticism from both the press and parliament during his time as Minister for Repatriation , but he is remembered as an important figure in Australia 's war effort and subsequent recovery . He has been described as the " most significant " contributor to the development of repatriation in Australia , which he as inaugural minister largely defined . After his death , Billy Hughes described him as unequalled in Senate leadership , and George Pearce remembered him as " one of the ablest and most destructive critics the Federal Parliament ever had " .
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= 1941 Florida hurricane =
The 1941 Florida hurricane was a compact but strong tropical cyclone that affected the Bahamas , Florida , and the southeastern United States in October 1941 . The fifth known storm of the 1941 Atlantic hurricane season , it was first observed to the north of the Virgin Islands on October 3 . The storm tracked generally westward , reaching peak winds of 120 miles per hour ( 193 km / h ) before passing through the Bahamas . After weakening somewhat , the storm later passed across southern Florida with winds of 100 mph ( 161 km / h ) . The hurricane then emerged into the Gulf of Mexico as a tropical storm , but regained hurricane intensity and made another landfall along the Florida Panhandle . Turning northeast , it crossed Georgia and South Carolina , and entered the Atlantic Ocean on October 8 .
In advance of the storm , preparations were extensive ; residents boarded up homes and businesses , while evacuations were recommended in some coastal areas . In the Bahamas , where winds reached 104 mph ( 167 km / h ) , the storm killed three people . The city of Nassau was struck particularly hard . In Florida , damage was relatively severe , and included the deaths of several people . High winds brought down trees and power lines , though the storm was characterized by highly unusual rainfall patterns . In the Everglades region , a storm surge flooded local streets . As the storm progressed northward , the city of Tallahassee suffered widespread power outages and damage to numerous vehicles . Throughout the state , the hurricane inflicted $ 675 @,@ 000 USD ( $ 10 @.@ 9 million 2011 USD ) in damage . The cyclone later killed one person in Georgia .
= = Meteorological history = =
On October 3 , the first indications of a tropical system were observed 300 miles ( 483 km ) to the north of the Virgin Islands . A tropical storm is estimated to have been present late that day , though observations were very sparse near the cyclone . The next day , morning observations confirmed the presence of a circulation center , and soon afterward the cyclone underwent rapid intensification : it became a hurricane late that day , and 24 hours later , on October 5 , the storm reached a peak of 120 mph ( 193 km / h ) — equivalent to a modern @-@ day Category 3 hurricane on the Saffir @-@ Simpson hurricane wind scale . Shortly afterward , the smaller @-@ than @-@ average , fast @-@ moving cyclone tracked over Cat Island in the Bahamas , where a weather station indicated a pressure of 28 @.@ 48 inches of mercury ( 964 mb ) inside the eye . The measurement coincided with light winds of 20 mph ( 32 km / h ) , meaning it was not in the exact center of the eye , so a recent reanalysis found the central pressure to be somewhat lower , at 962 mb ( 28 @.@ 41 inHg ) . After striking Cat Island , the cyclone began a weakening trend and passed south of New Providence , seat of the Bahamian capital Nassau , early on October 6 . At the time , the storm was still found to be a compact , well @-@ developed hurricane .
Later that day , it made landfall 13 mi ( 21 km ) south of Miami in South Florida ; observers reported that the small eye produced calm conditions at Goulds , near Homestead . The storm contained peak winds of 100 mph ( 161 km / h ) — equivalent to low @-@ end Category 2 status — and a radius of maximum wind just 10 mi ( 16 km ) from the center . Originally , the Atlantic hurricane database ( HURDAT ) listed winds of 120 mph ( 193 km / h ) at landfall in South Florida , but reanalysis determined that these winds occurred somewhat earlier , over the eastern Bahamas . Maintaining a small size , the hurricane moved through the Everglades , passing between Everglades City and Fort Myers . The storm entered the Gulf of Mexico as a strong tropical storm and broadly curved toward the northwest , tracking offshore along the west coast of Florida . It remained over open waters and recovered its intensity until the following day , when it made landfall at Carrabelle with winds of 90 mph ( 145 km / h ) , equivalent to a high @-@ end Category 1 hurricane , and a measured central pressure of 29 inHg ( 982 mb ) . The cyclone still exhibited a small radius of outermost closed isobar but had reduced its forward speed .
Turning north and then northeast , the storm moved beyond Tallahassee and entered Georgia . It weakened as it progressed inland , and after passing through South Carolina , the storm re @-@ emerged into the Atlantic Ocean on October 8 with winds of 40 mph ( 64 km / h ) . While over water , the storm re @-@ intensified , reaching peak winds of 60 mph ( 97 km / h ) on October 9 . The cyclone kept its intensity for two more days as it moved toward the southeast , executed a small loop , and turned generally toward the east @-@ northeast , passing south of Bermuda on the night of October 11 . The storm became extratropical on October 12 , fully dissipating the next day .
= = Preparations = =
During the days before the storm 's arrival in Florida , the Weather Bureau issued 40 tropical cyclone @-@ related advisories . Extensive preparations that resulted in a low loss of life and property were attributed to the warnings . In southern Florida , residents boarded up homes and businesses , and sought shelter in large structures . Hurricane parties took place in bars and hotel rooms , while some residents sat in hotel lobbies , listening to radio broadcasts . In Miami , stores sold out of various essentials — including bread and butter — as people prepared for the storm . Evacuations were recommended from Homestead to Key West , and three Coast Guard planes dropped warnings to boats near the Florida coast . The Civilian Conservation Corps also evacuated 150 of its workers from West Summerland Key to Key West .
Local chapters of the American Red Cross organized first @-@ aid stations and shelters ; transportation was provided to those who were unable to reach the shelters . In advance of the storm , Pan American World Airways suspended flights departing from and arriving at Miami and redirected them to Havana , Cuba . The United States Navy also prepared its bases in the Florida Keys for the arrival of the storm by securing boats to piers and canceling all shore leaves , while the United States Army Air Corps moved its planes from Morrison Field to a safer location inland . The state of Florida stockpiled food for those affected by the storm , establishing depots in West Palm Beach , Miami , and Fort Myers , and the Governor of Florida , Spessard Holland , ordered state agencies to prepare for relief work . A detachment of officers from the Florida Highway Patrol was sent to Miami and patrolled along highways to provide gasoline to motorists evacuating the storm . The state also opened all of the school buildings in Dade County as emergency shelters .
= = Impact = =
= = = Bahamas = = =
In the Bahamas , where considerable property damage was reported , the storm killed three people . Winds in Nassau reached 104 mph ( 167 km / h ) . City streets were filled with debris , including a schooner , four sloops , and numerous other boats deposited by the winds on Nassau 's Bay Street . The winds knocked down trees and power lines , resulting in fires and extensive power outages . Along the coast , boats were ripped from their moorings and smashed against seawalls . No casualties occurred in the city . A schooner , the Goodwill II , sank during the storm . Properties and gardens received significant damage . On Cat Island , the storm produced 1 @.@ 62 inches ( 40 mm ) of rainfall .
Two men , Christopher Whymss and Salathiel Johnson drowned near Andros Island after trying to reach shore from a drowning schooner . One man , Samuel Seymour , was killed on Cat Island after his home was toppled by the wind , and several other injuries were reported on the island . " Most homes , all churches , and most public buildings " on Cat Island were also destroyed by the storm . The storm also downed telephone lines and destroyed crops . As a result , the Duke of Windsor , governor @-@ general of the Bahamas , cabled to the Red Cross for assistance , and a ship carrying " food , clothing , building materials and seeds " was quickly dispatched to Cat Island . According to a survey conducted a few days after the hurricane , 300 families on Cat Island were left homeless as were 120 families on Watlings Island . To aid these families , the Duke of Windsor announced on October 7 that he would establish a relief fund for those affected by the storm .
= = = United States = = =
On making landfall , the storm generated high winds at the Fowey Rocks Light , although they were below hurricane force . A peak wind gust of 123 mph ( 198 km / h ) was reported at Dinner Key with sustained winds up to 90 mph ( 145 km / h ) . Unusually little rain fell in association with the storm ; 0 @.@ 35 inches ( 8 @.@ 9 mm ) of precipitation was reported in Miami , while locations closer to the center of the cyclone received less than 1 inch ( 25 mm ) . The light rainfall was evident throughout southeastern Florida , except for the Florida Keys , where thunderstorms enhanced the precipitation . This aspect of the storm was considered highly unusual , as most tropical cyclones are characterized by heavy rainfall . According to one study , the unusual precipitation patterns can be attributed to one of two possible conditions : " the air might have been too dry " , or " the horizontal convergence of air might have been insufficient to produce a large enough transport of moisture upwards " . The intense winds blew salt water several miles inland ; due to the lack of rainfall , the salt burned vegetation throughout the region . The high winds brought down trees and utility poles and shattered some windows in Dade County .
No deaths were reported in the region , although minor damage was inflicted on communication lines and homes and several injuries were reported . Several communities lost electricity . Some hospitals were left without power , forcing the delivery of six babies by candlelight . The storm injured seven people in the Miami area , including five firefighters who were injured " as they fought a blaze fanned by the high winds " of the hurricane . As the hurricane tracked inland , it passed over the Everglades , producing winds of 65 mph ( 105 km / h ) at Everglades City . Along the southern shore of Lake Okeechobee , winds gusted to 60 mph ( 97 km / h ) ; barometric pressure there fell to 995 mb ( 29 @.@ 38 inHg ) . Storm surge in the region triggered foot @-@ deep flooding of some streets in local towns . Docks and fishing equipment suffered extensive damage in the region . As the hurricane passed offshore , winds reached 60 mph ( 97 km / h ) near Tampa Bay . The storm also grounded a fishing schooner from Cuba off the coast of Collier County , Florida . Although no one was injured , members of the schooner crew were detained by immigration authorities .
After emerging into the Gulf of Mexico , the hurricane made another landfall at Carrabelle on the Florida Panhandle . Winds in the region were estimated at 75 mph ( 121 km / h ) , and tides ran at up to 8 feet ( 2 @.@ 4 m ) above normal . In Tallahassee , the winds downed trees and power lines and scattered debris , rendering roads impassable . The Tallahassee Democrat reported that " at the height of the wind several hundred Tallahasseeans were seen rushing into their yard to gather pecans which were knocked down by the swaying trees " . The storm destroyed vehicles throughout the region ; replacement automobiles were sparse , as assembly plants were producing cars for the Army . Despite a lack of electricity due to the winds , the Tallahassee Democrat managed to publish 6 @,@ 000 copies of a special storm edition . Initial fears of severe damage along the coast prompted rescue crews to push toward St. Marks ; however , upon arrival a group of local residents convinced the crew that their assistance was unnecessary . Considerable crop and property damage was reported ; total losses in the state were estimated at $ 675 @,@ 000 USD ( $ 10 @.@ 9 million in today 's terms ) . Seven injuries were reported , and five men drowned in the storm tide at a fishing net drying yard in Panacea , Florida . Initially , there were reports of 20 missing fishermen . Thirty @-@ four Cuban fishermen were also trapped off the coast near Carrabelle , Florida , when ten boats ran aground and were damaged after the storm surge subsided . The fishermen 's supply of food was destroyed by salt water , but they were rescued by the Coast Guard cutter Nemesis without any injuries . After their rescue , they reported that five men had drowned in a small boat nearby .
The storm was still producing high wind gusts as it tracked into Georgia , killing one person and leaving a trail of considerable damage as far north as Albany . The single death in Georgia was a 16 @-@ year @-@ old girl , Frances Hester , of Pavo , Georgia , who died after tripping over an electrical wire downed by the storm . Up to 6 inches ( 150 mm ) of rain fell within the state . The storm passed through South Carolina with little damage . Throughout parts of the southeastern United States , rainfall associated with the hurricane was unusually light and unevenly distributed along its track .
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= Helvellyn =
Helvellyn ( pronunciation : / hɛlˈvɛ.lɪn / ) ( possible meaning : pale yellow moorland ) is a mountain in the English Lake District , the highest point of the Helvellyn range , a north @-@ south line of mountains to the north of Ambleside , between the lakes of Thirlmere and Ullswater .
Helvellyn is the third @-@ highest point both in England and in the Lake District , and access to Helvellyn is easier than to the two higher peaks of Scafell Pike and Sca Fell . The scenery includes three deep glacial coves and two sharp @-@ topped ridges on the eastern side ( Striding Edge and Swirral Edge ) .
The volcanic rocks of which the mountain is made were formed in the caldera of an ancient volcano , many of them in violently explosive eruptions , about 450 million years ago during the Ordovician period . During the last ice age these rocks were carved by glaciers to create the landforms seen today .
Since the end of the last ice age , small populations of arctic @-@ alpine plants have survived in favourable spots on rock ledges high in the eastern coves . Rare to Britain species of alpine butterfly , the Mountain Ringlet , also live on and around Helvellyn .
Mineral veins , some with deposits of the lead ore galena , do exist within Helvellyn ’ s rocks , but attempts to find sufficient quantities of lead to be worth mining have not been successful .
Tourism has been a more successful industry in the area . For over two hundred years visitors have been drawn by the lake and mountain scenery of the Lake District , and many have made their way to the top of Helvellyn . Among the early visitors to Helvellyn were the poets Samuel Taylor Coleridge and William Wordsworth , both of whom lived nearby at one period . Many routes up the mountain are possible so that it may be approached from all directions . The view from the top is one of the most extensive over the Lake District , and on a clear day the view can also stretch from Scotland to Wales .
However , traversing the mountain is not without dangers ; over the last two hundred years there have been a number of fatalities . The artist Charles Gough is more famous for his death on Striding Edge in 1805 than for what he achieved in his life .
Among many human feats upon the mountain , one of the strangest was the landing and take @-@ off of a small aeroplane on the summit in 1926 .
= = Topography = =
The top of Helvellyn is a broad plateau , trending roughly from north @-@ west to south @-@ east for about a kilometre between Lower Man and the start of Striding Edge . Throughout this distance it remains more than 900 m ( 3 @,@ 000 ft ) high . To the west the ground drops gently at first but then more steeply down to Thirlmere , while on the eastern side three deep glacial coves , each backed by high cliffs , are separated by two spectacular sharp ridges or arêtes . The middle of these coves contains Red Tarn .
Like much of the main ridge of the range , Helvellyn stands on the watershed between Thirlmere and the Derwent river system to the west , and Ullswater and the Eden river system to the east .
Streams on the west side drain directly into Thirlmere , apart from Helvellyn Gill which flows into a parallel valley to the east of Great How and empties into St John 's Beck . However , when Thirlmere reservoir was built , a leat was constructed to capture the water of Helvellyn Gill , so that it is now directed into the reservoir .
A never @-@ failing spring called Brownrigg Well exists 90 m ( 300 ft ) below the summit of Helvellyn , about 500 m ( 550 yd ) due west of the highest point , at the head of Whelpside Gill . In the nineteenth century a leat was constructed to direct the water of this spring into the gill to its north to serve the needs of the Helvellyn Mine further down . This leat has now fallen into disuse . The gill it led to is not named on any map , but some authors have referred to it as Mines Gill .
Whelp Side , between Whelpside Gill and Mines Gill , appears as a distinct shoulder of the mountain when seen from the west , largely grassy though with a few crags and boulders in places , and with coniferous plantations on its lower slopes which were planted to stabilise the land around the reservoir . North of Mines Gill are the Helvellyn Screes , a more craggy stretch of hillside , beneath the north @-@ west ridge , with a loose scree covering in places .
The deep coves on the rocky eastern side of Helvellyn drain into Ullswater . Water from Brown Cove and Red Tarn unite below Catstye Cam to form Glenridding Beck , which flows through Glenridding village to the lake , while Nethermost Cove drains into the same lake via Grisedale Beck and Patterdale village .
Red Tarn , enclosed between Striding Edge and Swirral Edge , is about 25 m ( 82 ft ) deep , but in the mid @-@ nineteenth century a dam was built to increase its capacity and supply the needs of the Greenside Mine near Glenridding . That dam has now gone and the tarn has returned to its natural size . It contains brown trout and schelly , a species of whitefish found in only four bodies of water in the Lake District .
A second reservoir was built around 1860 in Brown Cove , between Swirral Edge and Lower Man , along with one further down the valley in Keppel Cove . These provided water to generate hydroelectric power for the lead mine . The dam in Keppel Cove is still in place , but water now leaks through its base . The remains of the dam in Brown Cove can be seen , but again water leaks freely through it . It is unclear whether there ever was a natural tarn in Brown Cove . Guidebook writers before 1860 refer only to Keppel Cove Tarn to the north of Swirral Edge .
= = = Ridges = = =
A total of five ridges diverge from the summit ridge of Helvellyn at different points .
The north @-@ west ridge continues from Lower Man over Browncove Crags , becoming almost insignificant when it reaches the shore of Thirlmere , yet still separating the valley of Helvellyn Gill from the reservoir , before finally rising again to the wooded height of Great How at its terminus .
The north ridge , the main ridge of the range , also descends from Lower Man , passing over White Side and Raise to Sticks Pass , then over Stybarrow Dodd and Great Dodd to terminate at Clough Head .
The north @-@ east ridge is known as Swirral Edge , a sharp arête which joins the summit ridge at a point half @-@ way along , and which terminates in the shapely pyramid of Catstye Cam .
The east ridge is another sharp arête known as Striding Edge . This joins the summit ridge at its southern end , not far from Helvellyn 's summit . It passes over the subsidiary top of High Spying How and leads to Birkhouse Moor before descending to its final top , Keldas , beside the south end of Ullswater .
The south ridge continues the main ridge of the Helvellyn range over Nethermost Pike , High Crag and Dollywagon Pike to terminate at Grisedale Tarn .
The former county boundary between Cumberland and Westmorland lay along the Helvellyn Ridge ; this meant that the summit of Helvellyn was the highest point in Westmorland , making it a Historic County Top .
= = = Subsidiary tops = = =
= = Routes = =
The whole of Helvellyn , above the conifer plantations to the west and the intake walls surrounding the valleys of Glenridding and Grisedale to the east , is Open Access land .
Routes up Helvellyn can begin from the villages of Glenridding or Patterdale to the east , Grasmere to the south , or from a number of places along the A591 road to the west , and can follow any of the mountain 's five ridges , or the ridges of its neighbours , as well as some of the gills and shoulders on the west side of the range . Walkers can choose between many routes .
= = = The eastern ridges = = =
Striding Edge is a popular route which involves some scrambling , linking the summit ridge of Birkhouse Moor to Helvellyn 's summit by what becomes a sharp arête .
Striding Edge begins at Hole @-@ in @-@ the @-@ Wall and then stretches for over 1 @.@ 5 km ( 0 @.@ 9 mi ) to the Helvellyn summit plateau . This starting point is accessible from both Glenridding and Patterdale . Hole @-@ in @-@ the @-@ Wall used to be a prominent gap in the stone wall on the top of the ridge where a gate was missing . Today the gap has been filled in and a ladder stile crosses the wall . From here the initial part of the ridge is relatively rounded and has a solid path running along the right @-@ hand side . This changes upon reaching High Spying How , the highest point on the ridge - 863 m ( 2 @,@ 831 ft ) . At this point a narrow path continues close to the top of the ridge , which becomes increasingly narrow , and scramblers will often follow the very top of the arête .
The path on the right @-@ hand side continues until near the end of the ridge where it switches over to the left @-@ hand side . Scramblers who continue on the top of the ridge are forced to descend an awkward short gully down from the final rock tower to rejoin the path . At this point the ridge connects with the main Helvellyn massif . Reaching the summit plateau involves a steep walk or scramble up about 80 m ( 260 ft ) of rough rocky terrain , known as The Abyss by W. A. Poucher , author of a popular series of mountain guide books between 1940 and the late 1960s . From the top of this climb the summit is only 200 m ( 220 yd ) away .
Striding Edge is a notorious accident spot among hikers and scramblers . In winter conditions the climb from Striding Edge up to the summit plateau can involve crossing steep icy ground and a snow cornice , and can be the most dangerous part of the walk . Without an ice axe or crampons this presents a serious obstacle . In January 2008 two walkers died after falling from the ridge in separate incidents . Another walker died after falling from Striding Edge in May 2008 .
Swirral Edge offers a shorter but equally exciting scramble along a similar sharp arête . The main path to it comes up from Red Tarn , which is linked by a surprisingly level path to Hole @-@ in @-@ the @-@ Wall , making this ridge equally accessible from Patterdale as from Glenridding . The ridge walk can be extended to include the summit of Catstye Cam .
The climb up or down from the summit plateau onto Swirral Edge is another well known accident spot . In winter it involves climbing down another snow cornice onto steep icy ground . There have been a number of accidents at this spot in recent years , making it as dangerous as Striding Edge .
Nethermost Pike also has an east ridge which gives an alternative route to Helvellyn from Grisedale , which many walkers overlook . It can be combined with a scramble on Eagle Crag , or this part can be bypassed by taking the path to Nethermost Cove before joining the ridge .
= = = Other approaches from the east = = =
From Patterdale a long but safe and easy walk ( 11 @.@ 5 km ( 7 @.@ 1 mi ) ) on a good path follows the track up Grisedale to the tarn , and then takes the old pony track up the south ridge of Helvellyn . The second part of this walk takes a safe route well away from crags on the side of the ridge ( see The south ridge below . )
From Glenridding a similar long but safe and easy walk ( 11 @.@ 5 km ( 7 @.@ 1 mi ) ) follows Greenside Road , past the old lead mine and towards Keppel Cove . This track , another old pony track , then zig @-@ zags up the fellside to join the main ridge path at the col between Raise and White Side .
= = = The south ridge = = =
Grisedale Tarn is the starting point for the south ridge of Helvellyn , and may be reached from Grasmere or Patterdale , or from Dunmail Raise by a path alongside Raise Beck . Above the tarn the old pony track zig @-@ zags up the fellside , and takes a safe but unexciting route well away from crags on the side of the ridge , and avoiding all the intermediate tops . In suitable weather a more interesting and scenic route is to follow the edge of the crags as closely as possible , over the tops of Dollywagon Pike , High Crag and Nethermost Pike .
= = = The western approaches = = =
Shorter and quicker routes to the top of Helvellyn , though with less attractive scenery , begin from several points along the A591 road along the west side of the mountain . Two of these may be combined to create a circular walk . Incorporating the south ridge in the route can restore much of the scenic interest .
Stannah at Legburthwaite is the starting point for the bridleway to Sticks Pass , from which Helvellyn can be approached along the main ridge track from the north .
From Thirlspot two routes lead up Helvellyn . The old pony route took a very safe and steady route for the benefit of early visitors , who took horses and a guide from the inn . The route traverses the flank of White Side to join the ridge at the col just below Lower Man . The other route , known as the White Stones Route , originally marked by stones painted white , crosses the fellside at a lower level and fords Helvellyn Gill to join the path from Swirls .
Swirls is the start of the most direct route to the top of Helvellyn , " the modern pedestrian highway " which has been paved where necessary . It zig @-@ zags up the fellside above Helvellyn Gill , over Browncove Crags and joins the main ridge at Lower Man .
Several possible routes begin at Wythburn church . A bridleway winds up the fellside , over Comb Crags and traverses the slopes of Nethermost Pike to arrive on the ridge at Swallow Scarth , the col just below Helvellyn . Other routes from Wythburn follow Comb Gill or Whelpside Gill , or Middle Tongue between these two gills . The shortest route of all follows the gill past the old lead mine , perhaps better used as a descent . Wainwright warned walkers with weak ankles to avoid it .
= = = Longer routes = = =
Helvellyn may be included in a traverse of the full length of the Helvellyn range in either direction , but with a greater sense of climax when starting from the north . Most of the ridge track is a bridleway and so the route can be completed by mountain bike in a challenging six @-@ hour circular route of 16 miles off @-@ road and 10 miles on @-@ road riding . This may begin ( and finish ) at Mill Bridge near Grasmere .
Helvellyn can also be included in a circular walk from Patterdale : up Striding Edge , down to Grisedale Tarn and back over St Sunday Crag .
= = = Climbing routes = = =
Helvellyn is a popular area for winter climbing in the Lake District . The steep headwall above Red Tarn contains several graded routes , clustered around the prow @-@ shaped buttress on the right hand side of the face , known to climbers as Viking Buttress , and in a couple of gullies which lead to the summit .
Nethermost Cove also has some routes , including a large gully between Striding Edge and the back of the cove .
Browncove Crags on the western side of the mountain has some north @-@ facing routes . These are easier to access from a car park , and they can be linked with the Red Tarn routes .
= = Fell top assessors = =
The Lake District National Park Authority employs two " Fell top assessors " during the winter months , usually between December and March . Working alternate weeks , one of these walks up Helvellyn each day during that period to check the weather , snow and walking conditions . Their report and daily photograph appear on Weatherline , the Lake District weather forecast website and phone line service , which also includes a local weather forecast from the Met Office . The fell top assessors also put their assessments and photos on Twitter . This information is important for people who go out hillwalking and climbing in winter , helping them to plan their routes and get an idea of the mountain conditions .
= = Wild camping = =
Many people do camp on Helvellyn throughout the year , often near Red Tarn which gives good views of Striding Edge , Swirral Edge , and the summit of Helvellyn itself . Although camping in England is illegal without the permission of the landowner , there is a tradition of wild camping in the Lake District . This has often been tolerated so long as people have camped unobtrusively , for no more than one night , and have left no trace of their campsite behind .
= = Summit = =
The summit of Helvellyn takes the form of a broad plateau , sloping gently to the south @-@ west , but dropping abruptly to the north @-@ east into Red Tarn cove . So smooth and large is this summit that a small aeroplane was able to land on it in 1926 ( see History below ) . The highest point , 950 m ( 3 @,@ 120 ft ) above sea level , is the top of a small rocky knoll , marked by a loose cairn . In former times this knoll used to be known as Helvellyn High Man ( or Higher Man . ) Nearby there is a cross @-@ shaped stone shelter ; to the north is an Ordnance Survey trig point , slightly lower than the summit at 949 m ( 3 @,@ 114 ft ) .
The view from the top on a clear day extends across the whole of the Lake District to the Solway Firth and hills of south @-@ west Scotland to the north @-@ west , Cheviot and the Pennine Hills to the north @-@ east , Morecambe Bay , Blackpool and the coast of North Wales to the south , and the Irish Sea to the west . Snowdon is hidden by the Coniston Fells , and the Isle of Man is largely hidden behind the Great Gable and Pillar group of fells .
The subsidiary top , Helvellyn Lower Man , is about 700 m ( 770 yd ) to the north @-@ west . Its summit is small compared to the plateau of Helvellyn , but it offers better views to the north @-@ west , as the ground falls steeply away from it on that side .
= = History = =
= = = Tourism = = =
For centuries shepherds have walked over all parts of Helvellyn in the course of their work . It is only since the late eighteenth century that people have visited the mountain for pleasure or recreation .
One of the earliest accounts of an ascent of Helvellyn for the pleasure of doing so is contained in James Clarke 's guidebook of 1787 . He quotes the account of an unnamed gentleman from Penrith who wanted to eat his dinner on Midsummer Day while sitting in a snowdrift on top of Helvellyn . The man left home at two in the morning , rode to Glencoyne and left his horse at a house in the valley there . He started to walk up the mountain at between four and five in the morning and after five hours hot and hard work he reached the snow and the summit . The snow was covered with dust so he had to dig for clean snow to eat with his dinner . He returned by a different route , reaching Glencoyne ten hours after leaving it . This story seems to reflect the colder climatic conditions of the eighteenth century , during the so @-@ called " Little Ice Age . "
Poets and artists were among the early visitors to Helvellyn at the beginning of the nineteenth century . Samuel Taylor Coleridge did a lot of fellwalking during the years when he lived near Keswick . In August 1800 , barely a month after moving there , he went to visit his friends William and Dorothy Wordsworth in Grasmere , taking a route over Helvellyn and arriving at ten in the evening .
A few days later William Wordsworth with his brother John and their friend Mr Simpson made a trip up Helvellyn , setting out after breakfast and returning home at ten that evening . A year later , in October 1801 , William and his sister Dorothy rode to Legburthwaite ( to the inn at Thirlspot ) and then to the top of Helvellyn before returning the same way . Dorothy recorded that it had been a glorious day . They had mists both above and below them , but the sun shone through and their views extended from the Scottish mountains to the sea at Cartmel . Wordsworth ’ s poem , Inmate of a mountain dwelling ( 1816 ) , celebrating the captivating power of the old mountain , was dedicated " To ... on her first ascent to the summit of Helvellyn . "
John Keats speaks of Wordsworth " on Helvellyn 's summit , wide awake ... " in a sonnet that celebrates the poet and other artists . A portrait of Wordsworth , deep in thought among the clouds on the summit of Helvellyn , was painted by Benjamin Robert Haydon in 1842 , an example of romanticism in portraiture .
An early casualty of the mountain was the artist Charles Gough , who slipped and fell from Striding Edge in April 1805 . Three months later a shepherd heard a dog barking near Red Tarn and went to investigate . He found Gough 's skeleton , his hat split in two , and his dog still in attendance . Initial newspaper reports that the dog had survived by eating the remains of her dead master were quickly forgotten . Gough became regarded as a martyr to the romantic ideal , and his dog Foxie was celebrated for her attachment and fidelity to her long @-@ dead master . William Wordsworth and Sir Walter Scott both wrote poems about the scene ; Francis Danby and Edwin Landseer both painted it . A memorial stone to Gough was erected on Helvellyn in 1890 and quotes part of Wordsworth 's poem " Fidelity . "
A small tourist industry began to grow up around the mountain , with inns providing ponies and guides as well as accommodation for the visitors , and guidebooks being published for visitors . Jonathan Otley ’ s guidebook of 1823 described the view from the summit and claimed it gave a more complete view of the Lake District than any other point . William Ford , in his guidebook of 1839 recommended the Horse Head Inn at Wythburn as a good place to stay and where a guide could be hired " at a moderate charge " ; he went on to describe the climb up Whelp Side and the view from the top . Harriet Martineau in 1855 described the ascent from Patterdale . Ponies could be taken as far as Red Tarn , where there were stakes to tether them while undertaking the final part on foot via Swirral Edge . " Though trying to unnaccustomed nerves , " she said , " there is no real danger " ; the other ridge " is always fool @-@ hardy to do " , and " every one knows " the story of Charles Gough . She also mentioned three routes from the west : one by Grisedale Tarn , one from the Nag ’ s Head at Wythburn , " the shortest , but by far the steepest , " and a third from Legburthwaite ( that is , from the inn at Thirlspot . ) An advertisement in her book , placed by the King 's Head Inn at Legburthwaite , claimed " A guide always in readiness at this inn . "
A further fatality on Striding Edge in 1858 is commemorated by the Dixon Memorial . Robert Dixon from Patterdale was killed while following foxhounds on the ridge .
= = = Aeroplane landing = = =
In 1926 a small aeroplane landed on the summit plateau of Helvellyn and took off again . The plane was an Avro 585 Gosport , a two @-@ seater biplane flown by Bert Hinkler , a test pilot who worked for A V Roe , the plane 's manufacturers , at Woodford Aerodrome near Manchester .
A ground party had cleared and marked a landing strip . Attempts on 15 December and on 21 December were abandoned .
On 22 December Hinkler , accompanied by John F. Leeming , president of the Lancashire Aero Club , made another attempt . The landing was no problem . On the steep slope and with a strong headwind the plane stopped quickly . Professor E. R. Dodds witnessed the landing . The uphill take @-@ off was more difficult and the plane dived off the edge of the summit with insufficient airspeed , but picked up speed as it dived , narrowly missing Striding Edge , to return to Manchester .
A stone tablet on Helvellyn , 40 yards ( 37 m ) south of the shelter , commemorates this landing .
= = Ecology = =
Mountain birds around Helvellyn include the raven ( Corvus corax ) , which has now become common . Peregrine falcons ( Falco peregrinus ) , buzzards ( Buteo buteo ) and ring ouzels ( Turdus torquatus ) have all bred in the immediate area . Skylarks ( Alauda arvensis ) and wheatears ( Oenanthe oenanthe ) are frequently encountered . At one time eagles ( probably Aquila chrysaetos ) soared over the mountain and bred on the steep cliffs above Red Tarn , but even in Wordsworth ’ s day they had gone , having been persecuted to extinction .
The three coves to the east of Helvellyn are all important sites for remnant populations of arctic @-@ alpine plants . Species such as Downy Willow ( Salix lapponum ) , Mountain Avens ( Dryas octopetala ) , Alpine Mouse @-@ ear ( Cerastium alpinum ) , Alpine Meadowgrass ( Poa alpina ) and others have been able to survive in these coves since the last glaciation through a combination of rocks rich in basic minerals , a harsh micro @-@ climate , and inaccessibility to grazing sheep on cliff ledges . However , these populations are small and are not reproducing well . Natural England has introduced a recovery plan for them .
Red Tarn , a classic corrie tarn , is a high altitude tarn with low nutrient levels and poor in the number of species it supports . Characteristic vegetation zones include a water @-@ starwort ( Callitriche ) in shallower areas and the alga Nitella flexilis in deeper water and around the inlet . Other species include a pondweed ( Potamogeton ) which grows in 2 – 3 m ( 6 @.@ 6 – 9 @.@ 8 ft ) of water and the rush Juncus bulbosus . Brown trout and schelly , a species of whitefish , are found in the tarn .
Grassland on the Helvellyn range has been heavily overgrazed for many years , yet it supports a diversity of acid grassland species including Sheep ’ s fescue ( Festuca ovina ) on the summit ridge , Matgrass ( Nardus stricta ) on the middle slopes , and fescue @-@ bent swards on the lower slopes . The Nardus grasslands are the haunt of the scarce Mountain Ringlet butterfly ( Erebia epiphron ) , the only alpine species of butterfly found in Britain . Acidic flushes ( areas of water seepage ) with their carpets of sphagnum mosses are common . Less common are basic flushes , which support a greater diversity of species .
The summit and the eastern side of the mountain are part of the Helvellyn & Fairfield Site of Special Scientific Interest ( SSSI ) . This covers an area of 2 @,@ 418 @.@ 8 hectares ( 5 @,@ 977 acres ) and was designated in 1975 because of the area 's geological and biological features . Natural England , which is responsible for choosing SSSIs , tries to ensure that the management and use of the area is sustainable .
= = Geology = =
All the rocks of Helvellyn are part of the Borrowdale Volcanic Group , formed on the margin of an ancient continent during a period of intense volcanic activity during the Ordovician period , roughly 450 million years ago .
Helvellyn lies within a geological structure which is interpreted as evidence of a volcanic caldera . This is a semi @-@ circular series of faults which sweep eastwards to encompass Helvellyn , Patterdale , Deepdale and Fairfield , and which abut against a major north @-@ south fault to the west ( along the line of the A591 road ) .
This caldera was formed by an eruption of exceptional magnitude which produced a series of pyroclastic flows , fast moving currents of hot gas and rock , which buried the whole district of roughly 500 km2 ( 190 sq mi ) beneath at least 150 m ( 490 ft ) ( in places up to 800 m ( 2 @,@ 600 ft ) of ignimbrite ) . This succession of ignimbrites is known as the Lincomb Tarns Tuff Formation , the most widespread volcanic formation in the Lake District . The eruption of such a huge quantity of magma emptied the magma chamber beneath the volcano and led to the collapse of the overlying rocks to form the caldera .
The lowest and oldest rocks on Helvellyn are those of this Lincomb Tarns Tuff Formation , which outcrop along the western side , up to roughly the 550 m ( 1 @,@ 800 ft ) contour on Whelp Side . The lowest part of the formation here is the densely welded lapilli @-@ tuff of the Thirlmere Member , in which the individual pieces of semi @-@ molten lava were flattened under the weight of deposits above them . Contemporaneous movement on the caldera 's boundary fault has produced a thick deposit of breccia above the Helvellyn Screes and on Browncove Crags . The Thirlmere Member is overlain by a deposit of volcaniclastic sandstone , the Raise Beck Member , deposited in water during a break in the volcanism , but succeeded by further thick ignimbrite deposits .
Above these ignimbrites are found sedimentary rocks of the Esk Pike Sandstone Formation . These were deposited in water , probably in a caldera lake , as the volcanic rocks weathered and were eroded . Structures in these rocks suggest the faults were still active and the caldera was still subsiding . Layers of tuff and lapilli @-@ tuff indicate some ongoing volcanism .
Higher still on Helvellyn , as well as in the coves to the east and covering Swirral Edge and Catstye Cam , are rocks of the Helvellyn Tuff Formation . This consists of up to 400 m ( 1 @,@ 300 ft ) of ignimbrite , representing another series of pyroclastic flows . This Helvellyn Tuff is found only within the boundary faults of the caldera , and mainly in its western half .
The highest surviving rocks on Helvellyn , found on the summit plateaux of Helvellyn itself and of Nethermost Pike , and along the crest of Striding Edge , are the volcaniclastic sandstones of the Deepdale Sandstone Formation . Again , this formation is confined to the limits of the caldera , and represents another return to erosion and sedimentary deposition within a caldera lake , though with layers of pyroclastic rock showing that the volcanism had not entirely finished .
= = = Glaciation = = =
During the Late Devensian glaciation , which occurred 28 @,@ 000 to 14 @,@ 700 years Before Present ( BP ) , the whole of northern England was covered by an ice sheet . Helvellyn was one of a small number of nunataks which protruded above the ice .
A short period of glacial conditions returned between 12 @,@ 650 and 11 @,@ 550 years BP , known in Britain as the Loch Lomond Stadial ( and elsewhere as the Younger Dryas stadial ) , when the Gulf Stream current ceased to flow past the British Isles . Small cirque and valley glaciers formed in north and east facing valleys , including Grisedale and the coves on the east side of Helvellyn . The results are seen in moraines of unsorted boulder gravel in the valleys , the spectacular coves with steep headwalls , and the sharp arêtes formed where the rock was eroded on both sides between adjacent glaciers .
Glacial conditions ended suddenly , 11 @,@ 550 years BP , when the Gulf Stream current was re @-@ established . Periglacial processes in seasonal freeze @-@ thaw conditions , both present and past , have produced sorted stone stripes and solifluction lobes and sheets on the summit ridge of Helvellyn . These are one reason why the area was included in the Helvellyn & Fairfield SSSI .
= = Mining = =
Two unsuccessful attempts to find lead ore on Helvellyn have been made .
Brown Cove Mine was high up at the head of Brown Cove , where some disused spoil heaps remain , with a couple of levels , one of which ran about 70 m ( 80 yd ) into the mountainside .
Helvellyn Mine or Wythburn Mine opened in 1839 by the gill between Whelpside and Helvellyn Screes . It was operated by a succession of different owners , driving five levels through mostly barren rock to explore three mineral veins . It finally closed in 1880 when Manchester Corporation acquired the land for the Thirlmere reservoir . Only a few hundred tons of galena came out of the mine ; probably insufficient to cover its costs .
Little can be seen of the levels now for the entrances were destroyed when the mine closed , but several spoil heaps remain , one covering the gill , along with the old miners ’ path which zig @-@ zags up the hillside , a self @-@ acting incline to lower ore to the dressing floor , and the old winding drum house . The narrow leat which once diverted water from Brownrigg Well into the gill beside the mine may also be seen , much higher up the fellside .
= = Names = =
Helvellyn . The earliest known record of the name dates from 1577 , but early records are spelling variations of the modern name ( such as Helvillon , Helvelon or Hell Belyn ) rather than any help with the etymology . Various attempts to interpret the name have been made in the past . Some , misled by the present spelling , thought the final syllable was the Welsh word llyn , " lake " . Richard Coates in 1988 proposed a Celtic derivation from the deduced Cumbric word hal , " moorland " , and velin , the Cumbric equivalent of the Welsh word melyn meaning " yellow . "
Recent place @-@ name studies have accepted the " yellow moorland " derivation , but have struggled to understand how Helvellyn can be regarded as a yellow mountain . Colour , in the Celtic languages , is perceived differently from the way it is seen and described in modern English . For example , in Scottish Gaelic the spectrum of colours was " pastel rather than primary , gentle rather than bold . " Colours were related to a landscape context in which blues , greens , greys and whites in particular were both more diverse and more differentiated than in English . People who relied on the system of transhumance for their livelihood gained the ability to assess the nutritional value of upland grasses from a distance before moving their stock to a summer shieling , and used appropriate colour terms for grasses which would become progressively more green as the spring advanced . Yellow , at least in Gaelic hill names , is not a bright colour . It describes hills which are distinguished by grasses such as Nardus stricta and Deschampsia flexuosa , both of which appear pale and bleached in winter . These grasses are common on the Helvellyn range , in an area where transhumance also used to be practiced . Nardus stricta in particular is an unpalatable and unproductive grass , and the Flora of Cumbria specifically notes a possible connection between areas of late snow cover and Nardus grassland at high altitudes in the Helvellyn range . A name describing the mountain as " pale yellow moorland " is therefore meaningful in a Celtic context .
Lower Man . The mountain has two tops , which used to be distinguished as Helvellyn Low Man ( or Lower Man ) and Helvellyn High Man ( or Higher Man ) . Both are drawn and labelled on a panoramic view of the range found in Jonathan Otley 's guidebook of 1823 .
Striding Edge . An edge in mountain place @-@ names is a steep escarpment , on either one side or ( as here ) on both sides . The first reference to Striding Edge was by Walter Scott in 1805 as Striden @-@ edge . A map of 1823 called it Strathon Edge . It is possible that " Striding Edge " has replaced an earlier name , now lost .
Swirral Edge may be either " The precipitous ridge that causes giddiness " or " The precipitous ridge where the wind or snow swirls around . " An edge is a steep escarpment , as above . Swirrel , a dialect variation of " swirl " has two possible explanations . It can be used to mean " giddiness , vertigo " , but it can also be used of a place in the mountains where wind or snow swirls around .
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= Toni Preckwinkle =
Toni Preckwinkle ( née Reed ; March 17 , 1947 ) is the current Cook County Board President and a former alderman in the Chicago City Council representing Chicago 's 4th ward in Cook County , Illinois , United States . She was elected on November 2 , 2010 , as President of the Cook County Board , the Executive Branch of Cook County government . Preckwinkle first sought office in 1983 and was defeated twice before securing election in 1991 and subsequently being re @-@ elected as alderman four times .
Preckwinkle had been an occasional critic of Chicago Mayor Richard M. Daley . In her first four terms in office she emerged as the council 's prominent defender of affordable housing . Among other issues , she is known for her sponsorship of living wage ordinances , her expressed concerns regarding the costs and benefits of the city 's Olympic bid , and her strong stance against police brutality and excessive force .
= = Early life , family , and career = =
Preckwinkle was born in St. Paul , Minnesota , moving to Chicago to study at the University of Chicago in the Hyde Park community area , where she earned her bachelor 's and master 's degrees . From 1969 to 2013 , she was married to Zeus Preckwinkle , a retired seventh- and eighth @-@ grade teacher at Ancona Montessori School . They have two children . Her former husband is Caucasian , which at times was a campaign issue .
After college , Preckwinkle spent ten years teaching history in several high schools in the Chicago metropolitan area , including Calumet High School , the Visitation School , and Aquinas . In 1985 and 1986 Preckwinkle was President of the Disabled Adult Residential Enterprises ( DARE ) . Preckwinkle has been a member of the Board of Directors of the Illinois Council Against Handgun Violence , Political Action Director of the Near South Chapter of the Independent Voters of Illinois ( IVI @-@ IPO ) . During and after her 1987 aldermanic election campaign , she worked as a planner for the Chicago Department of Economic Development . By 1990 , she had become executive director of the Chicago Jobs Council , and become allied with civil rights attorney R. Eugene Pincham .
= = The 4th Ward = =
Chicago 's fourth ward is on the South Side of Chicago , adjacent to the Lake Michigan lakefront . It includes all of the Kenwood and Oakland community areas , the northern portion of Hyde Park and the eastern portions of the Washington Park , Grand Boulevard and Douglas community areas . The northern part of the ward ( North of 45th Street ) is predominantly poor and African American , while the more racially diverse southern half is predominantly middle and upper middle @-@ class .
= = Unsuccessful campaigns for alderman = =
In her first two aldermanic election attempts for the 4th ward , in 1983 and 1987 , Preckwinkle lost to the incumbent , Timothy C. Evans . Evans was Chicago Mayor Harold Washington 's City Council floor leader and lieutenant . In 1983 , she gained enough support to force a runoff election . ( Chicago Aldermen are elected without regard to political party affiliation , but must earn a majority of votes or the top two candidates have a runoff election . ) In the runoff , Preckwinkle carried traditionally " independent " precincts in Hyde @-@ Park , but Evans was able to win by carrying the precincts in the north of the Ward .
In the 1987 elections , Evans defeated Preckwinkle by a 77 % to 21 % margin . In 1987 , although both the Chicago Tribune and Chicago Sun @-@ Times endorsed Evans , they praised Preckwinkle for her numerous qualities , including intelligence and independence , and expressed hopes she would continue in politics . Preckwinkle was endorsed by state Rep. Carol Moseley Braun and also by the Independent Voters of Illinois @-@ Independent Precinct Organization , but not by Harold Washington , who endorsed Evans .
= = Third campaign for alderman = =
In 1991 Preckwinkle and four others challenged Evans for the 4th ward alderman 's position . In the first round of voting on February 26 , 1991 , she won nearly one @-@ third popular vote in the ward by winning 20 of 58 precincts ( all in the Hyde Park @-@ Kenwood community ) . Evans and Preckwinkle again advanced to a runoff election , as they had in 1983 , but this time the majority of the eliminated candidates endorsed Preckwinkle . On April 2 , 1991 , Preckwinkle performed better in the northern part of the ward and was elected by a 109 @-@ vote margin , defeating the 17 @-@ year incumbent alderman Evans .
= = Alderman = =
On February 27 , 2007 , Preckwinkle was elected to her fifth four @-@ year term .
Preckwinkle has developed a reputation for progressiveness . On the City Council Preckwinkle was known as a progressive member , independent of then @-@ Mayor Richard M. Daley , with whom she dissented more often than any other alderman . Preckwinkle was one of the few aldermen on the City Council occasionally critical of the policies of former Chicago Mayor Richard M. Daley . In 2004 , she and Dorothy Tillman were the only aldermen to vote against the Mayor 's city budget , and in 2005 , Preckwinkle was the lone dissenter . Preckwinkle has supported the majority of legislation advanced by the mayor and his allies , including most of Daley ’ s annual budget proposals ; his controversial use of tax increment financing , an economic development program in which tax revenues are funneled into accounts controlled almost exclusively by the mayor ; and , ultimately , his quest to host the 2016 Summer Olympics .
Preckwinkle has championed set @-@ asides for affordable housing as her signature issue , and the municipal ordinances she sponsored in 1993 and 1999 for affordable housing increased city expenditures on low and moderate income housing by 50 percent . In 2007 , she pushed for increases in the existing Affordable Requirements Ordinance . This mandates housing developers using land bought at a discount from the city to make at least 10 percent of their housing units " affordable " , or to contribute money to an affordable @-@ housing fund by increasing the percentage to 15 percent . The issue is considered a key element in the debate about ending homelessness in Chicago . Her detailed knowledge of public housing has been recognised in the national press , which has cited her defense of the maligned Vince Lane when the federal government took over Chicago 's public housing projects .
Preckwinkle was a co @-@ sponsor of the living wage ordinances that passed the city council in 1998 and 2002 . On July 26 , 2006 , Preckwinkle was one of 35 aldermen who voted to approve the 2006 Chicago Big Box Ordinance sponsored by Alderman Joe Moore ( 49th ) which for 7 weeks made Chicago the largest United States city that required big @-@ box retailers to pay a " living wage . "
In October 2007 Preckwinkle opposed naming a landmark in the 4th ward for 1976 Nobel literature laureate Saul Bellow , reportedly on the grounds that Bellow had made remarks that Preckwinkle considered racist . She also opposed the renaming of a stretch of street near the original Playboy Club " Hugh Hefner Way . "
In 2006 , Preckwinkle decided to paint over two 36 @-@ year @-@ old , unmaintained and severely damaged public murals in the 47th Street Metra underpass . The murals had been created by graffiti artists , working with permission from the Chicago Department of Cultural Affairs , and had represented themes that included Latin @-@ American , African , Mayan , Indian , and Native American spiritual practices . The walls were later covered with newly commissioned murals : one is made up of a series of ceramic tiles and the other is a traditional painted mural featuring the city and important historical South Side figures , including former Alderman Dorothy Tillman .
Preckwinkle has been outspoken in support of the city settling the Jon Burge torture case , rather than continuing to spend money in the litigation process . Preckwinkle has also been proactive in the effort to pursue compensation for victims of police brutality in the Jon Burge cases and sought hearings on the initial special prosecutor 's report . She has been a critic of the decades @-@ long delay in settling the case , and she was a proponent of the settlement .
In 2007 , Preckwinkle pursued disclosure of Chicago Police Department officers who used excessive force . The United States District Court had ruled that the records be unsealed and made available to the public . However , on July 13 , 2007 , the city filed an emergency motion to stay the judge 's order . When the city argued in the 7th Circuit Court of Appeals to against disclosure , it made the point that aldermen would have access to the information . Preckwinkle 's August 23 , 2007 , request for disclosure was denied .
The unsuccessful Chicago 2016 Olympic bid placed the main site of the $ 1 @.@ 1 billion residential complex , which would have accommodated athletes in an Olympic Village in the 4th Ward . Preckwinkle expressed her reservations about the initial plan , and was involved in plan revisions . Since the planned construction was almost entirely in her ward , she expressed concern that her constituents were not offered a chance to voice their concerns with the plan . She was an early advocate of moving what would have been the Olympic Village from the McCormick Place truck yard to the Michael Reese Hospital site . On March 14 , 2007 , Preckwinkle joined four other South Side aldermen in voting against a $ 500 million public @-@ funded guarantee to back up Chicago 's Olympics bid . On September 9 , 2009 , Preckwinkle voted to authorize Mayor Richard Daley to sign the International Olympic Committee 's host city contract that included financial guarantees putting full responsibility for the Olympics and its proposed $ 4 @.@ 8 billion operating budget on taxpayers .
= = Democratic Party Committeeman = =
Preckwinkle is also the Democratic Committeeman for the 4th Ward , a position within the Cook County Democratic Party . Each of the 50 wards of the city and the 30 townships of Cook County elect a Democratic Committeeman to the Cook County Central Committee . These committeemen form the official governing body of the Cook County Democratic Party which , among other purposes , endeavors to attract , endorse , and support qualified Democratic candidates for office .
Preckwinkle succeeded Evans as 4th Ward Democratic committeeman in 1992 , defeating former Evans administrative assistant Johnnie E. Hill by 6 @,@ 227 to 2 @,@ 327 votes in the March 17 , 1992 primary election ; Evans had filed nominating petitions to run for re @-@ election as committeeman and run for judge , but withdrew his name from the ballot for committeeman so his name would only appear once on the ballot , for the judgeship ( to which he was elected ) . Preckwinkle was re @-@ elected as 4th Ward Democratic committeeman on March 19 , 1996 , running unopposed on the ballot after her successful challenges to the nominating petitions of Charles S. Williams and her 1995 and 1999 aldermanic challenger Kwame Raoul , who were both just a few dozen signatures short of the number required to earn a place on the ballot . Preckwinkle was re @-@ elected , again running unopposed on the ballot , as 4th Ward Democratic committeeman in March 2000 , March 2004 and February 2008 .
On November 6 , 2004 , the 10 Democratic ward committeemen whose wards make up parts of the 13th Illinois legislative district voted to appoint Kwame Raoul to the state senate seat vacated two days earlier by then U.S. Senator @-@ elect Barack Obama ; 4th Ward Democratic committeeman Preckwinkle and 5th Ward Democratic committeeman Leslie Hairston had the largest says in the appointment with 29 % and 27 % , respectively , of the weighted @-@ vote based on the percentage of votes cast in each ward in the 13th legislative district for Obama in the November 5 , 2002 general election .
Preckwinkle chairs the ward organization , the Fourth Ward Democratic Organization , which was one of sixteen Chicago Democratic ward organizations named in a complaint filed on August 31 , 2005 with the Illinois State Board of Elections by the Cook County Republican Party charging that Democratic Party ward organizations are illegally housed in City @-@ funded neighborhood ward offices . Taxpayers fund aldermanic service centers , which are open to the public . State law prohibits the use of public funds by any candidate for political or campaign purposes . The complaint against Preckwinkle 's ward organization was one of nine that a Hearing Officer appointed by the Board recommended proceed to the next step of the hearing process , an Open Preliminary Hearing . On October 17 , 2005 , at a regularly scheduled meeting of the Board of Elections , the Board entered an executive session and voted , in a 4 – 4 tie , along strict party lines , failing to adopt the recommendation of the Hearing Officer , and ordered the complaints dismissed . The complaint against Preckwinkle 's ward organization was one of eight that the Cook County Republican Party appealed all the way to the Supreme Court of Illinois . On January 23 , 2009 , the Illinois Supreme Court unanimously ordered the Illinois appellate court to conduct a judicial review of the Board 's dismissals of the complaints .
Preckwinkle nominated Joseph Berrios for re @-@ election as Chairman of the Democratic Party of Cook County at a meeting of the Cook County Democratic Central Committee on March 3 , 2010 . At the time Berrios was the incumbent chairman as well as a commissioner with the Cook County Board of Review and the Democratic candidate for Cook County Assessor . Berrios was re @-@ elected .
= = Relationship with Barack Obama = =
Preckwinkle 's views on Obama were prominently featured in a July 2008 New Yorker cover story on Barack Obama 's political origins . The article begins by recounting a 1995 meeting between Preckwinkle and Obama in which he discussed a possible run for the Illinois Senate seat then held by Alice Palmer . According to the New Yorker 's account , Preckwinkle " soon became an Obama loyalist , and she stuck with him in a State Senate campaign that strained or ruptured many friendships but was ultimately successful . " In 1995 , she successfully challenged the signatures of Obama 's opponents in the Democratic Primary for the Illinois Senate , allowing Obama to run unopposed .
Preckwinkle supported Barack Obama early in his political career , endorsing him in his campaigns for Illinois Senate in 1995 – 6 , U.S. House in 1999 – 2000 , and U.S. Senate in 2003 – 4 . She was among those who encouraged Barack Obama to make his first run for the United States Congress in 2000 , and she was an early supporter when he ran in 2004 . When Obama later became a United States Senator following the 2004 United States Senate election in Illinois , Preckwinkle had a large say in his Illinois State Senate replacement . She became Obama 's Alderman when he moved from Hyde Park to South Kenwood in June , 2005 .
According to the New Yorker article , Preckwinkle had since become " disenchanted " with Obama . The article ’ s author suggested that Preckwinkle 's " grievances " against Obama were motivated by Preckwinkle 's perception that Obama was disloyal . Notwithstanding any such concerns , Preckwinkle was an Obama delegate at the 2008 Democratic National Convention .
= = Cook County Board President = =
Preckwinkle announced that she would run for President of the Cook County Board in January 2009 . She launched her campaign website on June 18 , 2009 . On February 2 , 2010 she won the Democratic Primary , defeating the incumbent Board President Todd Stroger , among others . Preckwinkle faced Roger Keats , the Republican nominee , in the November general election . On November 2 , Preckwinkle became the first woman elected as Cook County President by capturing over two @-@ thirds of the vote . Her Republican opponent received only 26 % of the vote , and then moved out of Illinois . She recommended that Chicago Mayor Richard M. Daley appoint Will Burns to succeed her as Fourth Ward Alderman , but Burns preferred to run in an open primary . Mayor Daley appointed Shirley Newsome as a " caretaker " alderman on January 12 , 2011 . Burns handily won the special election for the seat a month later .
In August 2012 , Dr. Nancy Jones , former head of the Cook County Morgue , declared " This woman is evil " regarding Preckwinkle 's handling of the management and budgeting of the Morgue , which had led to alleged bodies piling up and filthy conditions . Also in August 2012 , Preckwinkle stated at a conference hosted by former Governor Jim Edgar that former President Ronald Reagan deserved a " special place in hell " for his involvement in " making drug use political " . Preckwinkle was defending Chicago 's move to decriminalize possession of small amounts of cannabis by allowing police to write tickets , asserting that drug laws unfairly lead to more minorities behind bars . She later stated her regret for her " inflammatory " remark .
On March 22 , 2016 , Preckwinkle announced that Brian Hamer , who served as the state 's revenue director under Gov. Rod Blagojevich and then Quinn , would replace Tasha Green Cruzat as chief of staff .
Some political observers considered Preckwinkle a potentially viable candidate in the 2015 Chicago mayoral election .
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= Kill the Alligator and Run =
" Kill the Alligator and Run " is the nineteenth episode of the eleventh season of the American animated television sitcom The Simpsons . It originally aired on the Fox network in the United States on April 30 , 2000 . In the episode , Homer suffers from a nervous breakdown after taking a quiz that reveals he only has three years left to live . To calm himself down , he and the rest of the Simpson family go to Florida for vacation . There , they end up in the middle of a raucous spring break . Homer joins in on the party and ends up getting himself and his family in trouble for killing the state 's beloved mascot – an alligator named Captain Jack . The Simpsons run from the law and take jobs at a small restaurant while hiding from the police .
Diedrich Bader guest starred in " Kill the Alligator and Run " as a sheriff that tries to arrest the Simpson family , while Robert Evans and Charlie Rose guest starred in a scene in which Homer watches the two in an interview on television . Kid Rock and Joe C. also made guest appearances as themselves in the episode , performing at a concert in Florida that Homer attends . The episode was written by John Swartzwelder and directed by Jen Kamerman . According to The Simpsons showrunner Mike Scully , it is despised by many fans of the show particularly for having an outlandish plotline . The reception of " Kill the Alligator and Run " by critics has been negative . Around 7 @.@ 46 million American homes tuned in to watch the episode during its original airing . In 2008 , it was released on DVD along with the rest of the episodes of the eleventh season .
= = Plot = =
Homer gets a magazine loaded with personality tests and quizzes his friends and family with them . Later on , he takes his own test which reveals that has only three years left to live . Terrified of his supposedly impending death , he develops insomnia and goes insane . Homer visits the Springfield Nuclear Power Plant 's psychiatrist , who suggests that he take a long vacation . The Simpsons go on a trip to Florida and find themselves in the middle of a raucous spring break when they get there . Marge wants Homer to stay in his hotel room , but he escapes to party and attends a concert featuring Joe C. and Kid Rock . Homer becomes the life of spring break until it ends and the wild college students return to their studies .
Homer , who still wants to party , rents an airboat and forces his family to come with him . He races through a swamp , accidentally killing the state 's most famous resident and reptile – an alligator named Captain Jack , whom Marge , Maggie , Lisa , and Bart saw on a tour earlier while Homer made a fool of himself at the concert . A sheriff quickly arrives on the scene and despite the fact that Homer is the sole guilty culprit , the entire family is charged for killing the alligator . The family members flee from the sheriff and during a car chase they are hit by a train that pushes their car on the rail for several miles . When the Simpsons get off of the rail , they escape to a restaurant where they are given employment . They live in a nearby trailer and progressively turn into hillbillies . The sheriff eventually tracks them down and kidnaps them while they are sleeping . For their crimes ( and Homer 's foolish attempt at defending himself in court ) , the family is put into forced labor . One night when they are working at a party held by a judge in front of the capitol , tending to the guests ( and failing to escape ) , Captain Jack strolls out of the capitol 's doors . It turns out that he was never dead but rather knocked out . The family is acquitted , though they are banned from entering the state of Florida again ( and several other states , excluding Arizona and North Dakota ) .
= = Production = =
" Kill the Alligator and Run " was written by John Swartzwelder and directed by Jen Kamerman as part of the eleventh season of The Simpsons ( 1999 – 2000 ) . When the animation department finished its work on the episode , it had ended up being about four minutes too long and the staff of the show was forced to make some difficult cuts . One scene that was cut saw Captain Jack lying in state at the capitol in Florida , with Kid Rock being one of the people present to pay their respects to the alligator . The Simpsons showrunner Mike Scully has expressed regret for cutting this scene out because it " hurts the logic " later in the episode when Captain Jack crawls out of the capitol and reveals himself to everyone , without any explanation to how he got there .
Actor Diedrich Bader guest starred in the episode as the sheriff . The Simpsons producer Ian Maxtone @-@ Graham directed Bader during his recording session , telling the guest star to do a Southern accent . The episode also features guest appearances from talk show host Charlie Rose and film producer Robert Evans as themselves . Evans and Rose appear in a scene at the beginning of the episode , when Homer stays up late and watches television because of his fear that he might die in his sleep . Rose is seen interviewing Evans on the television , and as they are talking about Evan 's film Love Story , Rose says : " And the critics loved it , too . I remember Vincent Canby said , [ turns to the camera ] ' I 'm going to kill you , Homer . You are so dead . ' " The last part is imagined by Homer , who has become incredibly sleepy . Later in the interview , when talking about his unsuccessful film The Two Jakes , Evans says : " I said to myself , ' Evans , you forgot Hollywood Rule No. 1 : [ turns to the camera ] Kill Homer Simpson . ' "
Musicians Kid Rock and Joe C. guest starred in the episode as themselves , performing at the annual spring break concert that Homer sneaks out to attend . When Joe C. makes his first appearance on stage in the episode , Homer mistakes him for a child that has lost his parents . After performing his song " Bawitdaba " , Kid Rock tells the audience that he is going to pour out forty gallons of malt liquor on the curb as a way of showing respect to his homies that could not make it to the concert . When Homer hears this he starts to drink the malt liquor . Just as Kid Rock and Joe C. are about to stop him by hurling Joe C. ( now wearing a spiked helmet ) at him with a slingshot , the sheriff arrives and settles the situation . Scully said in an interview with the Detroit Free Press that the staff of the show chose Kid Rock and Joe C. for the episode because the two " have a lot of stage presence " and visually are " a funny combination , " and because the staff thought " they would be funny playing off Homer . " According to Scully , the two musicians " had a great sense of humor [ ... ] about themselves , " with Kid Rock asking if " he could add a couple of his own lines . He wanted to introduce himself as ' the pimp of the nation . ' We kept that in the show . It 's quite a title . " Kid Rock recorded some of his dialog over the phone , but also paid a 45 @-@ minute visit to the Simpsons studio in Los Angeles to record lines . Scully thought it looked like the singer enjoyed the experience and was surprised to see that he arrived on time . " My first reaction to that was , ' What kind of rock star is this ? ' , " Scully jokingly told the Detroit Free Press . All of Joe C. ' s lines were recorded over the phone .
= = Release = =
The episode originally aired on the Fox network in the United States on April 30 , 2000 . It was viewed in approximately 7 @.@ 46 million households that night . With a Nielsen rating of 7 @.@ 4 , the episode finished 46th in the ratings for the week of April 23 – 30 , 2000 . It was the third highest @-@ rated broadcast on Fox that week , following an episode of Malcolm in the Middle ( which received an 8 @.@ 2 rating ) and an episode of The X @-@ Files ( which received a 7 @.@ 7 rating ) . On October 7 , 2008 , " Kill the Alligator and Run " was released on DVD as part of the box set The Simpsons – The Complete Eleventh Season . Staff members Mike Scully , Ian Maxtone @-@ Graham , George Meyer , Matt Selman , Julie Thacker , and Steven Dean Moore , as well as cast member Dan Castellaneta and guest star Diedrich Bader , participated in the DVD audio commentary for the episode . Deleted scenes from the episode were also included in the box set .
According to Scully , " Kill the Alligator and Run " is often cited by fans of The Simpsons as one of the worst episodes ever because of its structure and outlandish nature . Scully has said that the episode is " kind of three stories in one . " Meyer , a writer and producer on the show , said in the DVD audio commentary that the fans thought it was " kind of a frenetic and crazy , chaotic episode , " adding : " I can 't disagree . But we had a lot of fun writing it , and we stand by it . " While reviewing the eleventh season of The Simpsons , DVD Movie Guide 's Colin Jacobson commented on the episode , writing : " Wow – this may be the most jumbled Simpsons to date ! The episode seems to suffer from ADD as it can ’ t focus on any topic for very long . It flits from one gag to another with abandon and rarely makes much sense – or produces many laughs . Yeah , it has a few amusing moments , but it ’ s too scattershot to succeed . " Annie Alleman of The Herald News , on the other hand , named " Kill the Alligator and Run " her eighth favorite Simpsons episode . Nancy Basile of About.com thought the best scene of the episode is the one where the Simpsons have become hillbillies and are sitting on their porch , and Bart says " I 'm getting used to this country life . Teacher says I 'm whittling at a tenth @-@ grade level . " Corey Deiterman of the Houston Press listed Kid Rock at number one in his list of the top five worst musical guests in Simpsons history .
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= Noel Gallagher =
Noel Thomas David Gallagher ( born 29 May 1967 ) is an English musician , singer , guitarist , and songwriter . He served as the lead guitarist , co @-@ lead vocalist and principal songwriter of the rock band Oasis . Raised in Burnage , Manchester , Gallagher began learning guitar at the age of thirteen . After a series of odd jobs in construction , he worked for local Manchester band Inspiral Carpets as a roadie and technician in 1988 . Whilst touring with them , he learned that his brother Liam Gallagher had formed a band of his own , known as The Rain , which eventually took on the name Oasis . After Gallagher returned to England , he was invited by his brother to join Oasis as songwriter and guitarist .
Oasis ' debut album , Definitely Maybe ( 1994 ) , marked the beginning of the band 's rise to fame as part of the Britpop movement . Oasis ' second album , ( What 's the Story ) Morning Glory ? ( 1995 ) , reached the top of the album charts in many countries and their third studio album , Be Here Now ( 1997 ) , became the fastest @-@ selling album in UK chart history . Britpop eventually declined in popularity and Oasis ' next two albums failed to revive it . However , the band 's final two albums , Don 't Believe the Truth ( 2005 ) and Dig Out Your Soul ( 2008 ) , were hailed as its best efforts in over a decade and found renewed success . On 28 August 2009 , following an altercation with Liam prior to a gig in Paris , Noel Gallagher announced his departure from Oasis and on 23 October 2009 , he confirmed he would embark on a solo career . Gallagher would go on to form Noel Gallagher 's High Flying Birds .
Gallagher 's run with Oasis was marked by turbulence , especially during the peak of Britpop , during which he was involved in several disputes with Liam , and the brothers ' fights and wild lifestyles regularly made headlines in British tabloid newspapers . Gallagher ( along with Oasis ) also shared a personal rivalry with fellow Britpop band Blur . However , he was often regarded as the spear @-@ head of the Britpop movement , and at one point of time , NME termed a number of Britpop bands ( including Kula Shaker , Ocean Colour Scene and Cast ) as " Noelrock " , citing Gallagher 's influence on their success . Many have praised Gallagher 's songwriting , with George Martin claiming him to be ' the finest songwriter of his generation ' .
= = Early life = =
Gallagher was born in Longsight , Manchester , the son of Irish parents Peggy and Thomas Gallagher . He was the couple 's second child , after the birth of Paul Anthony Gallagher . Soon after the birth of younger brother Liam in 1972 , the Gallaghers moved to Ashburn Avenue in the Manchester suburb of Burnage . Gallagher had an unhappy childhood . He and his brothers were often beaten by their father , who was an alcoholic , and he was often reclusive . Liam described him as " the weirdo in the family " . Due to their unease around their father , he and Paul both developed stammers . As the oldest child , Paul was given a room to himself , and Noel was forced to share with Liam .
Peggy Gallagher acquired a legal notice of separation from her husband in 1976 . Six years later , she finally left him , taking the three boys with her . As teenagers , the Gallagher brothers ( especially Noel ) were regular truants , often getting into trouble with the police . When his mother took a job working in the school canteen , Gallagher ensured that he stopped by to visit her during lunch before skipping the rest of the day . He was expelled from school at the age of 15 for throwing a bag of flour over a teacher . He used to hang around with the football hooligan firms Maine Line Crew , Under @-@ 5s , and Young Guvnors in the 1980s , and at the age of 13 , he received six months ' probation for robbing a corner shop . It was during this period of probation , with little else to do , that he first began to teach himself to play a guitar his father had left him , imitating his favourite songs from the radio . Gallagher was particularly inspired by the debut of The Smiths on Top of the Pops in 1983 , performing their single " This Charming Man " . He later reflected that " from that day on ... [ he ] wanted to be Johnny Marr " . He also appeared ( and scored ) for Manchester Gaelic football outfit CLG Oisín at Croke Park , Dublin in 1983 .
As teenagers , the Gallagher brothers maintained limited contact with their father in order to secure jobs in construction . However , the relationship between father and sons continued to be tempestuous ; Gallagher said that " because we were always arguing we 'd still be working at nine o 'clock every night " . Having left his father 's building company , he took a job at another building firm sub @-@ contracted to British Gas . There he sustained an injury when a heavy cap from a steel gas pipe landed on his right foot . Following a period of recuperation , Gallagher was offered a less physically demanding role in the company 's storehouse , freeing up time for him to practise guitar and write songs . He claimed to have written at least three of the songs on Definitely Maybe in this storehouse ( including " Live Forever " and " Columbia " ) . He later called the storehouse " The Hit Hut " and claimed the walls were painted gold . Much of the late 1980s found Gallagher unemployed and living in a bedsit , occupying his time with recreational drug use , songwriting , and guitar playing . He is left @-@ handed , but plays right @-@ handed .
In May 1988 , Gallagher met guitarist Graham Lambert of Inspiral Carpets during a Stone Roses show . The two struck up an acquaintanceship and he became a regular at Inspiral Carpets shows . When he heard singer Steve Holt was leaving the band , Gallagher auditioned to be the new vocalist . He was rejected , but became part of their road crew for two years . Singer Tom Hingley said Gallagher owes his own career to the band , since " his business sense , work ethic , message , and humour are Inspiral down to the core " . He struck up a friendship with monitor engineer Mark Coyle over their love of The Beatles , and the pair spent soundchecks dissecting the group 's songs .
= = Career with Oasis = =
= = = Joining the band = = =
In 1991 , Gallagher returned from an American tour with the Inspiral Carpets to find that his brother Liam had become a singer with a local band called The Rain . He attended one of their concerts at Manchester 's Boardwalk , but was unimpressed by the group 's act . After rejecting an offer from Liam to be the band 's manager , Gallagher agreed to join the band , on the condition that he take creative control of the group and become its sole songwriter . According to another source , Gallagher told Liam and the rest of the group after having heard them play for the first time : " Let me write your songs and I 'll take you to superstardom , or else you 'll rot here in Manchester " . His control over the band in its early years earned him the nickname " The Chief " .
In May 1993 , the band heard that a record executive from Creation Records would be scouting for talent at King Tut 's in Glasgow . Together , they found the money to hire a van and make the six @-@ hour journey . When they arrived , they were refused entry to the club because no one notified the venue that Oasis had been added to the bill . The band eventually secured the opening slot and played a four @-@ song set that impressed Creation founder Alan McGee .
McGee then took the Live Demonstration tape to Sony America and invited Oasis to meet with him a week later in London , at which point they were signed to a six @-@ album contract . Gallagher has since claimed that he only had six songs written at the time , and has put his success in the interview down to " bullshitting " . However , McGee believes that when they met , Gallagher had fifty or so songs written , and merely lied about how prolific he had been following the contract . Richard Ashcroft was so impressed with Oasis during the time , that he invited them to tour with his band The Verve as an opening act .
Gallagher claimed to have written Oasis ' first single , " Supersonic " , in " the time it takes to play the song . " " Supersonic " was released in early 1994 and peaked at No.31 on the official UK charts . The single was later followed by Oasis ' debut album Definitely Maybe , which was released in August 1994 and was a critical and commercial success .
It became the fastest @-@ selling debut album in British history at the time , and entered the UK charts at number one . Despite their rapidly growing popularity , Gallagher briefly left Oasis in 1994 during their first American tour . The conditions were poor , and he felt the American audience — still preoccupied with grunge and metal — did not understand the band . Gallagher stated that his early songs , especially " Live Forever " , were written to refute grunge 's pessimism . Tensions mounted between him and Liam , culminating in a fight after a disastrous L.A. gig . Having effectively decided to quit the music industry , he flew to San Francisco without telling the band , management or the crew . It was during this time that Gallagher wrote " Talk Tonight " as a " thank you " for the girl he stayed with , who " talked him from off the ledge " . He was tracked down by Creation 's Tim Abbot and during a trip by the pair to Las Vegas , Gallagher decided to continue with the band . He reconciled with his brother and the tour resumed in Minneapolis .
= = = Britpop and the height of fame = = =
Gallagher followed up the debut in 1995 with Oasis ' first UK number one single in " Some Might Say " . This preceded their second album , ( What 's the Story ) Morning Glory ? , released later that year . Though it suffered initial critical apathy , the album became the second fastest @-@ selling album ever in the UK , entering the UK album charts at number one and peaking at number four on the US Billboard 200 chart .
The success of Oasis and his newfound fame and fortune were not lost on Gallagher , and both he and his brother became famous for their " rock and roll lifestyle " . They drank heavily , abused drugs , fought fans , critics , peers , and each other , and made celebrity friends such as Ian Brown , Paul Weller , Mani , Mick Jagger , Craig Cash , Kate Moss and Johnny Depp . Gallagher spent extravagantly , buying various cars and a swimming pool , despite the fact he can neither drive , nor swim . He named his house in Belsize Park in London " Supernova Heights " ( after the song " Champagne Supernova " ) , and his two cats " Benson " and " Hedges " after his favourite brand of cigarettes .
Oasis went on to have greater success with their next two singles , " Wonderwall " and " Don 't Look Back in Anger " charting at number two and number one respectively ; the former becoming their sole top 10 hit in the US . Originally , Noel had wanted to take lead vocals on " Wonderwall " , but Liam insisted on singing it . As compensation , he decided he would sing lead vocals on " Don 't Look Back in Anger " . 1995 also saw Gallagher play two songs for the charity album Help ! : " Fade Away " , accompanied by friend and Oasis fan Johnny Depp and Depp 's then @-@ girlfriend Kate Moss ; and the Beatles ' 1969 hit " Come Together " , along with Paul Weller , Paul McCartney and others in a supergroup called Smokin ' Mojo Filters . He began collaborating with the Chemical Brothers , Ian Brown , the Stands , the Prodigy and Weller , amongst others . Gallagher became so influential that a June 1996 NME article argued that " If Noel Gallagher , the most successful songwriter of his generation , champions a group , then said group are guaranteed more mainstream kudos and , quite possibly , more sales . And since Noel has taken to championing only five or six groups , then it 's a powerful cabal he 's promoting . " The NME article grouped the bands Gallagher praised , including The Boo Radleys , Ocean Colour Scene , and Cast , under the banner of " Noelrock " . John Harris typified these bands , and Gallagher , of sharing " a dewy @-@ eyed love of the 1960s , a spurning of much beyond rock 's most basic ingredients , and a belief in the supremacy of ' real music ' " .
In March 1996 , Gallagher and his brother Liam met their father again when the News of the World paid him to go to their hotel during a tour . He left for his room , later commenting " as far as I 'm concerned , I haven 't got a father . He 's not a father to me , y 'know ? I don 't respect him in any way whatsoever " . In August 1996 , Oasis sold out two nights at Knebworth , playing to over 250 @,@ 000 fans . Following the worldwide success of Morning Glory ? , Be Here Now ( 1997 ) became Oasis ' most eagerly anticipated album to date . As with the previous two albums , all the tracks were written by Gallagher . After an initial blaze of publicity , positive critical reviews , and commercial success , the album failed to live up to long @-@ term expectations , and public goodwill towards Be Here Now was short @-@ lived . The album was ultimately regarded by many as a bloated , over @-@ indulgent version of Oasis , which Gallagher has since blamed on the drug @-@ addicted state and indifference of the band at the time .
Gallagher began to suffer drug @-@ induced panic attacks during this period . His depression and paranoid well @-@ being inspired the song " Gas Panic ! " , subsequently included on the 2000 album Standing on the Shoulder of Giants . He claimed to have quit using illicit drugs on 5 June 1998 . Gallagher stated in 2001 , " I liked drugs , I was good at them . But I 'd had panic attacks for about a year and I stopped because I wanted to . After you make the decision , it is quite easy . " Between 1993 and 1998 , Gallagher claims , " I can hardly remember a thing . "
= = = Post @-@ Britpop years = = =
After the hype surrounding the release of Be Here Now had started to wane , critical response to the band became calmer and more considered , leading to a media backlash . In 1997 , Gallagher was criticised for attending a high @-@ profile and well @-@ publicised media party at 10 Downing Street , hosted by the newly appointed Prime Minister , Tony Blair , along with other celebrities and industry figures who had supported New Labour in the run @-@ up to the general election . Both brother Liam and Blur 's Damon Albarn declined their invitations , with Albarn commenting " Enjoy the schmooze , comrade . " The perception of Gallagher as someone now mixing with politicians — or , in particular , a famous photograph of him sipping champagne with Blair — conflicted with the " working class hero " status championed through songs such as " Up in the Sky " .
In 1999 , rhythm guitarist Paul " Bonehead " Arthurs quit the band , with bassist Paul McGuigan following soon afterwards . As a result , the fourth studio album , Standing on the Shoulder of Giants , was recorded by just the Gallaghers and drummer Alan White , with Gallagher playing all guitar parts . He later commented on Bonehead 's departure , " It 's hardly Paul McCartney leaving the Beatles , is it ? " . After the recording sessions were completed , Gallagher selected Gem Archer to join in place of Bonehead .
Later that year Alan McGee decided to leave Creation and sold the rest of his 51 % stake in the label to Sony . Gallagher took this opportunity to set up Big Brother Recordings , which took over Oasis ' distribution in the UK , but Sony imprint Epic Records continued to handle the band 's international distribution . Around the time of the album 's release , Andy Bell , formerly of Ride , joined the band as bassist . In 2001 , Gallagher formed his own label , Sour Mash Records , which released records by the likes of Shack and Proud Mary . The incorporation of the label followed Gallagher 's debut as a producer , working with Proud Mary on their debut , The Same Old Blues .
In late 2006 , Gallagher toured the UK , Europe , Japan , America and Australia in a series of acclaimed intimate semi @-@ acoustic gigs accompanied by Gem Archer and Terry Kirkbride on percussion . The show proved successful and a further series of sets took place in 2007 . March 2007 saw Gallagher perform in Moscow — the first time an Oasis member has performed in Russia . Yet Gallagher dismissed claims that he was planning to embark on a solo career . In early 2007 , Gallagher joined the rest of Oasis to collect the " Outstanding Contribution to Music " Award at the Brit Awards 2007 .
Gallagher , along with the band recorded their seventh studio album between 2007 and the next year at Abbey Road Studios and in Los Angeles , and started at the end of the summer of 2008 a tour that will last at least 12 months .
In March 2009 , The Times in conjunction with iTunes released a selection of live recordings by Noel Gallagher taken from his semi @-@ acoustic performance at the Royal Albert Hall on 27 March 2007 in aid of Teenage Cancer Trust . The Dreams We Have as Children features classic and rare tracks from the Oasis canon along with several cover versions of some of Gallagher 's favourite artists .
= = = Departure from the band = = =
On 28 August 2009 , he quit Oasis after a fight with his brother , Liam . A little before midnight on Friday Gallagher posted a statement on his message board called " Tales from the Middle of Nowhere " on the band 's website announcing his departure .
= = Post @-@ Oasis = =
= = = Solo performances = = =
Gallagher 's first concerts without Oasis were announced on 1 February 2010 to be at London 's Royal Albert Hall on 25 and 26 March 2010 for Teenage Cancer Trust . He was supported by the Courteeners and Plan B respectively . Terry Kirkbride and Gem Archer joined him on @-@ stage , as did Jay Darlington , all of whom Gallagher had previously worked with while he was still a member of Oasis . He played a mostly acoustic set , and played a variety of Oasis album tracks and B @-@ sides . It was almost the same set he played at the Royal Albert Hall in 2007 . Gallagher also joined friend Paul Weller onstage in London on 21 April 2010 , and played the Oasis song " Mucky Fingers " and a song he co @-@ wrote with Weller , " Echoes Round the Sun " .
= = = Returning to the studio = = =
Gallagher confirmed that he would be returning to the studio in August 2010 to record drums for an unnamed artist , later confirmed to be Paul Weller . He also denied rumours that he would be the Best Man for Russell Brand 's marriage to Katy Perry . In August , it was mentioned on a UK Music blog , Sourmash Music , that Gallagher had been working with Liverpool group the Sand Band . Lead singer David McDonnell has been co @-@ writing with Gallagher and are looking to collaborate on future solo projects together .
On 24 November 2010 , Miles Kane revealed that Gallagher sang on a track from his debut solo album entitled My Fantasy . Kane also revealed that he will appear on Gallagher 's forthcoming album , playing guitar .
On 10 February 2011 , Gallagher stated he has " not even started " his first solo record , despite Liam rumouring that he ' swiped ' material from the Dig Out Your Soul sessions . " I am not recording new stuff , not just yet , " he said to Talksport . " It 'll be out when it 's finished I guess . Well I 've not even started it , so I don 't know . "
= = = Noel Gallagher 's High Flying Birds = = =
Noel Gallagher 's High Flying Birds released a self @-@ titled album on 17 October 2011 ; a collaboration album with Amorphous Androgynous was to be released in 2012 but has now been shelved indefinitely . He began touring in Dublin on 23 October 2011 . The touring band announced for Noel Gallagher 's High Flying Birds included David McDonnell ( guitar ) , Russell Pritchard ( bass ) , Mikey Rowe ( keyboards ) and Jeremy Stacey ( drums ) ; McDonnell left during rehearsals and was replaced before the tour with Tim Smith who had played with Rowe and Stacey previously . On 20 July 2011 , Gallagher released a 47 @-@ second trailer of his first single " The Death of You and Me " . The video for the debut single was released on 25 July at 8 : 21 am ( GMT ) .
Following the self @-@ titled debut , Noel Gallagher 's High Flying Birds released their second album Chasing Yesterday March 2 , 2015 .
Noel Gallagher has confirmed he is working on High Flying Birds ' third album .
= = = Future projects = = =
When promoting his debut album Everyday Robots , in an interview with NME , Damon Albarn hinted at a collaborative project with Gallagher . Despite the years of animosity during Blur and Oasis ' respective heyday , Albarn said : " We ’ re talking . It ’ s not anything to get excited about yet . I mean , he ’ s doing his thing . He ’ s finishing a new record . I ’ ve got my record coming out , but the principle of us making music together is something , you know . It would be fair to say , we have discussed it at least once . "
In March 2015 , Gallagher revealed that he was considering retirement from live shows within the following 10 years . He stated : " It 's not fun being on a bus for six weeks in America . It 's fine when you 're young , but I 'm almost 50 "
= = Personal life = =
= = = Relationships = = =
At the age of 18 , Gallagher became engaged to his then @-@ girlfriend Diane , but they never married and eventually separated . In 1988 , he moved out of his family home to live with Louise Jones , whom he described as his " soulmate " and for whom he wrote " Slide Away " . They had an on @-@ again , off @-@ again relationship before finally separating in June 1994 , with Gallagher stating , " I don 't think I 'll ever get over it . "
In June 1997 , Gallagher married Meg Mathews in Las Vegas , Nevada . He had met her in 1994 through her roommate , MTV presenter Rebecca de Ruvo , whom he was dating at the time and whom he left for Mathews . Mathews gave birth to a daughter , Anaïs Gallagher , on 27 January 2000 . Gallagher and Mathews divorced in January 2001 on grounds of his adultery with Scottish publicist Sara MacDonald . After the divorce was finalised , Gallagher admitted he had only claimed to have cheated in order to speed up the divorce process and that he had never actually been unfaithful .
Since his separation from Mathews , Gallagher has been in a relationship with MacDonald , whom he met at club Space on Ibiza in June 2000 . He wrote " Waiting for the Rapture " about their meeting . They have two sons , Donovan Rory MacDonald Gallagher ( born 22 September 2007 ) and Sonny Patrick MacDonald Gallagher ( born 1 October 2010 ) . Gallagher and MacDonald were married on 18 June 2011 in a private ceremony at the Lime Wood Hotel in the New Forest National Park . Gallagher 's best friend Russell Brand was best man at the wedding .
= = = Other = = =
He was a frequent guest on The Russell Brand Show on BBC Radio 2 , appearing on almost every show , leading Brand to dub him an unofficial " Co presenter " . He is also a regular on the digital radio sports show , " TalkSPORT " Other notable friends of his are , Mani of the Stone Roses , Richard Ashcroft of the Verve – for whom he dedicated a song , " Cast No Shadow " , the band members of the Chemical Brothers , - Sex Pistols members John Lydon and Steve Jones the members of the rock band Kasabian , Andy Nicholson , boxer Ricky Hatton , Paul McCartney , former Liverpool F.C. footballer Jamie Carragher , Chris Martin and Jonny Buckland of Coldplay , Johnny Marr , Morrissey , Bono , Paul Weller , Ian Brown , John Squire , Lee Mavers , Craig Cash , Kelly Jones and Johnny Depp ( who played slide guitar on the Oasis song Fade In @-@ Out ) . He was also good friends with Kate Moss who used to stay with him when she was visiting London . In 2001 he was reported to have an estimated personal fortune of £ 25 million . In 2009 , The Sunday Times Rich List estimated he and Liam 's combined personal fortune at £ 52 million .
Gallagher is a fan of football , being a lifelong Manchester City F.C. supporter ( Gallagher admitting he " cried like a baby " when City won the Premier League title ) . He is a friend of former City midfielder Joey Barton , as well as Italian striker Alessandro Del Piero , who described Gallagher as Italy 's " lucky mascot " during the 2006 FIFA World Cup , and appears in the Oasis video " Lord Don 't Slow Me Down " . Gallagher along with Kasabian lead guitarist Sergio Pizzorno took part in drawing teams for the FA Cup third round in 2011 . Coincidentally Pizzorno drew his hometown team Leicester City with Gallagher 's Manchester City for the Third round tie in which both teams drew 2 @-@ 2 and Manchester City preceded to win 4 @-@ 2 in the replay . He participated in the unveiling of Umbro sponsored football kits with captain Vincent Kompany . In the advertising campaign , the two men are pictured wearing the new Manchester City home and away shirts for the 2012 – 13 season . Formerly , the footballer introduced Gallagher to 80 @,@ 000 fans during Rock Werchter music festival in Belgium . Gallagher also supports the Republic of Ireland national football team and has said " I don ’ t consider myself to be English at all " . Nevertheless , he did serve as an official ambassador for England 's bid to host the 2018 FIFA World Cup .
Gallagher stated in a 2006 radio interview with Russell Brand that he does not believe in God or " an all @-@ guiding force " . Despite this assertion , throughout his career , many of his songs have mentioned God ( " Carry Us All " , " Gas Panic ! , " " The Hindu Times " and " Little by Little " ) , and all the tracks he had contributed to Dig Out Your Soul , as well as the other bandmates ' songs , have lyrics and references to God and other biblical terms . Dig Out Your Soul has been described by Gallagher as a " religious Armageddon " . But in recent interviews for Dig Out Your Soul regarding religion , he stated " See , I don 't know what I am . If I was an atheist I 'd just write songs about not believing in God – but I don 't know what I am . "
In 2008 , it was announced that Gallagher would sell his home in Ibiza located near fellow musician James Blunt 's , saying while in Los Angeles on the Russell Brand BBC Radio 2 show that he " can 't stand living there in the knowledge that Blunt is nearby making terrible music " .
He was reportedly asked by Simon Cowell to be a judge on The X Factor after Dannii Minogue , Cheryl Cole and Cowell himself declined to participate in series 8 , which Gallagher subsequently declined as well .
= = Songwriting and musicianship = =
Gallagher was the primary songwriter in Oasis , and on the group 's first few albums he was the sole songwriting contributor . He is often criticised for the praise he gives to his own songs . He points out " If you 'd written ' Live Forever ' , you 'd be walking to a different tune the next day too . " Gallagher has often been accused by critics of plagiarising the music of his heroes , but he has maintained outright homages in his music are his intention . In a 1996 Guitar World interview , he described himself as " a fan who writes songs " and stated , " I 'm not saying , ' I 'm the greatest songwriter in the world . Listen to me . ' Usually , I 'm saying , ' These are the greatest songwriters in the world . And I 'm gonna put them all in this song " ' . His response to critics about the topic of " blatantly pinching riffs " was , " No , I don 't feel guilty . But you feel pissed off because you didn 't do it first . "
Though naturally left @-@ handed , Gallagher plays guitar right @-@ handed , which he claims is the only thing he can do with his non @-@ dominant hand . Gallagher has said he sometimes does not understand his own lyrics , commenting in 2005 that " when I 'm halfway through ' Don 't Look Back in Anger ' I say to myself . ' I still don 't know what these words mean ! ' " Gallagher has declared to be dyslexic , which slows down the process of his songwriting , nor can he read or write music .
= = = Changing band dynamic = = =
Gallagher 's role as chief songwriter for Oasis changed over time as he allowed a greater level of lyrical input from the other band members . Standing on the Shoulder of Giants included Oasis ' first ever album track written by his brother Liam . Heathen Chemistry included a further three tracks by Liam ( including the single " Songbird " ) , one by Archer and one by Andy Bell . Don 't Believe the Truth featured another three tracks by Liam ( though one of them , " Love Like a Bomb " was co @-@ written with Archer ) , one from Archer , and two from Bell . The latter two albums have been greeted with increasing critical and commercial success in the UK , particularly Don 't Believe the Truth . Yet the second single from Don 't Believe the Truth , " The Importance of Being Idle " became the second Oasis track sung by Gallagher to top the UK charts and was named 2005 's finest track by Q magazine , as well as being nominated for the NME 's " Best Song of 2005 " award .
However , on the last Oasis albums , his increasing role as lead singer , apparently to compensate for his diminished role as songwriter , caused some tension with Liam .
Zak Starkey , son of former Beatles drummer Ringo Starr and previous drummer for Gallagher 's heroes The Who and Johnny Marr , replaced long @-@ time drummer Alan White during the recording sessions for Don 't Believe the Truth . The loss of White prompted Gallagher to comment in a 2005 interview , that he puts Oasis ' trouble with drummers , in part , to the fact that he is himself a talented drummer , saying " I get a lot of stick for it , but I 'm the best drummer in the group . "
= = Controversy = =
Gallagher is well known for his controversial , outspoken statements in the press ; he acknowledged his tendency for faux pas in the song " My Big Mouth " on the album Be Here Now . Yet Gallagher has defended himself , saying " people think [ I 'm ] controversial for the answers [ I ] give to silly questions in interviews , but ... I 'm not thinking about insulting ... people ; I say what I genuinely feel is in my heart . My conscience is clean , d 'you know what I mean ? Y 'know , I 'm true to myself — fuck everybody else . "
= = = Damon Albarn and Blur = = =
The most infamous of Gallagher 's controversial statements was in a 1995 interview with The Observer , where he expressed a wish for Damon Albarn and Alex James of rivals Blur to " catch AIDS and die " , a comment which he quickly apologised publicly for , and stated that " AIDS is no laughing matter " . This statement was preceded by the success of ( What 's the Story ) Morning Glory ? , which led to a well @-@ documented feud with fellow Britpop band Blur . The differing styles of the bands , coupled with their prominence within the Britpop movement , led the British media to seize upon the rivalry between the bands . Both factions played along , with the Gallaghers taunting Blur at the 1996 BRIT Awards by singing a rendition of " Parklife " when they collected their " Best British Band " award ( with Liam changing the lyrics to " Shite @-@ life " ) .
Gallagher maintains that the rivalry was conceived by the magazine NME and members of Blur 's entourage as a ploy to raise their respective profiles , and that since this point he has had no respect for either party . However , Albarn has suggested the roots of the feud were much more personal . By 2007 , the tension between the two had cooled , and in an NME interview , Gallagher said " I 've got a lot of respect for Damon , I really do mean it . Because I 'm indifferent to Damon he thinks that I think he 's a cunt . Our Liam will talk to him , I won 't because he 's just another singer in a band to me , but I don 't think he 's a cunt . Good luck to him ! " On 23 March 2013 , Gallagher , Damon , Graham Coxon and Paul Weller performed the Blur hit " Tender " at the Teenage Cancer Trust .
= = = Liam Gallagher = = =
The Gallagher brothers famously share a turbulent relationship ; one of their arguments was even released on a 1995 bootleg single entitled Wibbling Rivalry . Although in recent years their relationship had stabilised , during the band 's early career there were a handful of incidents where the two have actually come to blows . In an L.A. show during their first American tour in 1994 , Liam took to changing the words of the songs so that they were offensive to both Americans and Gallagher . A confrontation after the show which led to a chair being thrown and a brawl caused him to leave the tour and head for Las Vegas ; Gallagher later claimed he had " visions of Fear and Loathing flashing in [ his ] eyes " . During recording sessions for the second Oasis album , ( What 's the Story ) Morning Glory ? , the brothers had a violent fight involving a cricket bat , when Liam invited everyone from a local pub back into the studio while he was trying to work . In 1995 , Noel was obliged to sing " Wonderwall " on Later ... with Jools Holland when Liam failed to turn up .
In 1996 , he provided lead vocals at a performance for MTV Unplugged when Liam backed out minutes before the set was due to start . Liam claimed to have been struck down with a " sore throat " ; the band later found out that Liam did not like performing acoustically . Gallagher was further angered when Liam proceeded to heckle him from the balcony and nurse his " sore throat " with beer and cigarettes while the band performed . Just before the band were about to board a plane to the United States for their important make @-@ or @-@ break US tour , Liam left the airport , claiming he had to find a house for his then @-@ wife Patsy Kensit . He later joined the band for their last few gigs and the infamous MTV Awards performance ; the remaining dates were scrapped . The band 's future was daily tabloid news .
While on tour in Barcelona in 2000 , Oasis were forced to cancel a gig when Alan White 's arm seized up , and the band spent the night drinking instead . Liam made a derogatory comment about Gallagher 's then @-@ wife Meg Mathews , and attempted to cast doubt over the legitimacy of his daughter Anais , causing Gallagher to head @-@ butt Liam . Following this , he declared he was quitting overseas touring , but returned for an Oasis gig in Dublin on 8 July 2000 . During the performance , the two brothers shook hands at the end of " Acquiesce " .
However , the relationship between the two brothers had become strained throughout 2009 , leading eventually to a last @-@ minute cancellation of an Oasis concert scheduled to take place on 28 August 2009 in Paris , due to an " altercation within the group . " Later that evening , Gallagher confirmed he had left Oasis as he " simply could not go on working with Liam a day longer . " Through the Oasis website , he said " It 's with some sadness and great relief to tell you that I quit Oasis tonight " . On 29 August , Gallagher expanded further on his blog , stating " the level of verbal and violent intimidation towards me , my family , friends and comrades has become intolerable . And the lack of support and understanding from my management and band mates has left me with no other option than to get me cape and seek pastures new . "
When asked in 2012 about his brother and an Oasis reunion Gallagher said " I last texted Liam at Christmas after the City match . I don 't think it 's gonna happen . It would be great for everyone else except me . It 'd be mega for the millions and millions and everybody else it would be brilliant but I wouldn 't be very happy about it . I guess you don 't know what you 're gonna feel like in 20 @-@ odd years but right now , I mean I was in Oasis for nearly 20 years . I 've been doing this what I 'm doing now for one year and I 'd like to see what it 's like to do it for longer . I don 't think anyone is pushing for a reunion either . Nobody ever brings it up in any seriousness – I mean Liam does publicly but he says a lot of things publicly . I wouldn 't take anything he says seriously " . After their performance of Wonderwall at the London Olympics Closing Ceremony ( which Gallagher had originally turned down ) , he referred to Liam 's band Beady Eye as ' Stratford 's finest Oasis tribute band ' .
= = = Jay @-@ Z and Glastonbury = = =
Gallagher reportedly blasted the organisers of the 2008 Glastonbury Festival for scheduling US hip @-@ hop artist Jay @-@ Z as a headliner for the traditionally guitar @-@ driven festival : " If it ain 't broke don 't fix it . If you start to break it then people aren 't going to go . I 'm sorry , but Jay @-@ Z ? No chance . Glastonbury has a tradition of guitar music and even when they throw the odd curve ball in on a Sunday night you go ' Kylie Minogue ? ' I don 't know about it . But I 'm not having hip @-@ hop at Glastonbury . It 's wrong . "
Emily Eavis , the organiser of the festival , said she was honoured Jay @-@ Z was headlining the event saying : " He is absolutely the right act for our festival , " she said . " There is no reason why we should not have the greatest living hip @-@ hop artist on at Glastonbury . " Eavis also cited that Jay @-@ Z was far from the first hip @-@ hop artist to appear at Glastonbury. the Roots , Cypress Hill , and De La Soul had all previously performed at the Glastonbury Festival .
In response , Jay @-@ Z said , " We don 't play guitars , Noel , but hip @-@ hop has put in its work like any other form of music . This headline show is just a natural progression . Rap music is still evolving . From Afrika Bambaataa DJ @-@ ing in the Bronx and Run DMC going platinum , to Jazzy Jeff and the Fresh Prince winning the first rap Grammy , I 'm just next in the line . We have to respect each other 's genre of music and move forward . "
Jay @-@ Z opened his set at Glastonbury 2008 with a cover of Oasis ' song " Wonderwall " . When Gallagher was asked about the incident he replied , " The way it 's played itself out is that I said Jay @-@ Z had no right to play Glastonbury , which is a crock of horseshit . I got off a plane and someone asked me about the fact that Glastonbury hadn 't sold out for the first time in years , and if it was because of Jay @-@ Z. From there it grew into this crap that I was standing on an orange crate at Speakers ' Corner saying , ' Gather round , brothers and sisters . Have you heard what 's happening at Glastonbury this year ? ' I have a certain turn of phrase . So if I say , " Chicken sandwiches in McDonald 's are just plain fucking wrong , " it doesn 't mean I 'm attacking all chickens or all sandwiches . I 've hung out with Jay @-@ Z in Tokyo . I 've seen his show . It 's not my bag , but it 's all right . We have a mutual friend in Chris Martin . So I am a guy who doesn 't like hip @-@ hop — shock , horror . I don 't dislike rappers or hip @-@ hop or people who like it . I went to the Def Jam tour in Manchester in the ' 80s when rap was inspirational . Public Enemy were awesome . But it 's all about status and bling now , and it doesn 't say anything to me . " When Jay @-@ Z was asked about Gallagher 's comments he said " I haven 't spoken to him [ Gallagher ] , I heard he was reaching out . I don 't bear any grudge , it 's all good . I just believe in good music and bad music , I 've always said that . You look at any interview from the beginning of time , I 've always stated that I don 't believe in the lines and classifications that people put music in so they can easily define it " . When asked who he would be interested in collaborating with in the future , the rapper said , " Anyone . Oasis as well – it doesn 't matter to me . "
= = = Political views = = =
Gallagher has spoken about his political views on several occasions , most notably when he visited Tony Blair at No. 10 Downing Street in 1997 . In an interview in 1997 when he was asked about why he visited Blair he replied , " I 've taken a lot of flack for going to No. 10 Downing Street but the thing about that is , I never considered myself a rebel anyway . I wasn 't going there representing the ' Indie community ' . I wasn 't representing anyone . I was going there for me . You have to understand that from when I went to school and from when I was born all we ever knew was conservative , Tory , right @-@ wing government . What people don 't mention is , they say ' He went to meet Tony Blair . ' No . I went to meet the Labour prime minister . Our parents always drummed into us that the Labour Party was for the people and the Tory Party was not . I went to meet the Labour prime minister . "
Gallagher has been quoted : " Politics is like football for me . Labour is my team and even if you don ’ t like a striker you don ’ t give up supporting the team . " Prior to the 2005 general election , Gallagher stated that he was still supporting the Labour government partly because of his concern that " Phil Collins is threatening to come back and live here . And let 's face it , none of us want that " .
In an interview in 2007 when asked about politics he said , " I 'd been unemployed all my life . It was a big deal for me when they ( Labour ) got in . Now David Cameron is no different from Tony Blair and Gordon Brown is no different from David Cameron . They 're all cut from the same cloth and it annoys me that the biggest political icon in the last 30 years has been Margaret Thatcher . Someone who tried to destroy the working class . It freaks me out . So I don 't really think there 's anything left to vote for . I believe that I , as a person , can only change things once every 5 years and that 's by voting , and my point is that even casting that vote means that the same guy gets in , the only difference is one has a red tie and the other has a blue one . "
Gallagher was passionate in his support for Barack Obama 's successful bid for US President , calling his acceptance speech to the 2008 Democratic National Convention " spellbinding " .
In 1997 , he played a 5 song set at the Tibetan Freedom Concert in New York City . As a result , Oasis were deemed " unsuitable " by the Chinese government , forcing a planned tour of the country in 2009 to be cancelled .
Gallagher has also been very vocal about knife crime . In 2008 he was quoted : " The scumbags are taking over the streets . I don 't know what David Cameron and Gordon Brown are going to do about it . It all goes back to the Thatcher years . It sounds like a cliché but that 's when the rot set in . " When the interviewer suggested it was for status he replied , " In my day status was about trying to be somebody , not trying to kill somebody , so how 's that all changed ? "
In October 2011 , Gallagher told Newsnight he believed the then Labour leader Ed Miliband was " utterly uninspiring and dull " , and said he had no idea what he stood for .
Speaking out about the August 2011 riots that took place in England , Gallagher stated , " Last August I was on tour in Europe and people were asking me about the riots . All over the world , Syria and Egypt , people were rioting for freedom . And these kids in England are rioting for tracksuits . It 's embarrassing . " Gallagher claimed that violent video games and violent television shows which children were being exposed to were partially to blame for social problems .
In February 2012 , he implied that the UK under the Premiership of Margaret Thatcher was a more fertile ground for dissent in the arts : " Under Thatcher , who ruled us with an iron rod , great art was made . Amazing designers and musicians . Acid house was born . Very colourful and progressive . Now , no one 's got anything to say . ' Write a song ? No thanks , I 'll say it on Twitter ' . It 's a sad state when more people retweet than buy records . "
In a February 2015 interview with The Quietus , Gallagher elaborated on his disillusion with current politicians and how they 'll do anything to say they 're just regular people :
And now the Conservatives are just ... I mean [ ... ] David Cameron , he 's trying to be your mate . " Oh , I really like The Jam . "
Gallagher then went on to say that Thatcher was brutal but more direct , and " You can kind of respect that "
In 2016 , Gallagher stated that while he remained left @-@ wing , he opposed Labour leader Jeremy Corbyn , deeming him to be a communist . He said that " The Tories don 't care about the vulnerable , and the communists don 't care about the aspirational " .
= = Musical equipment = =
Throughout his career , Gallagher has used a wide range of different guitars , effect pedals and amplifiers from his large collection . Most of it emerged from the Standing on the Shoulder of Giants sessions , where he decided to drop the equipment used in the three previous albums and instead buy " loads of really weird pedals , old guitars , and small amps " , as the lack of deadline to deliver the album allowed Gallagher to " take quite a few days just messing around . "
= = = Guitars = = =
Electric guitars
Epiphone Les Paul – Gallagher played a cherry sunburst model in the early years of Oasis .
Gibson Les Paul
Fender Telecaster – Gallagher uses several , one of which , a ' 60s model , was given to Noel by Johnny Depp as a birthday present .
Epiphone Casino
Gibson ES @-@ 355 Vintage Model – Since 2001 , this has become Gallagher 's main stage guitar .
= = = Effect pedals = = =
In the early days of Oasis , Gallagher did not use pedals : " I used to just turn up the amps as full as I could get them " . Since then , he has begun using a large number of effects , but singled out the Ibanez Tube Screamer .
= = = Amplification = = =
Gallagher has said that he used only 100 @-@ watt Marshalls early in his career . After Definitely Maybe , he began using smaller amps , singling out Fenders ( Princeton and Bandmaster ) , and also a combo made by Clark Amplification , which builds amplifiers based on vintage Fender and Marshall amps .
= = Discography = =
= = = Albums = = =
2009 : The Dreams We Have as Children – Live at the Royal Albert Hall
2011 : Noel Gallagher 's High Flying Birds
2015 : Chasing Yesterday
Also featured on :
1995 : Stanley Road by Paul Weller , acoustic guitar on " I Walk on Gilded Splinters "
1997 : Dig Your Own Hole by the Chemical Brothers , vocals on " Setting Sun "
1998 : Saturnz Return by Goldie , guitar on " Temper Temper "
1998 : The X @-@ Files : The Album , the track " Teotihuacan "
1998 : More Than Us E.P. by Travis , the track " All I Want To Do Is Rock ( Live Version ) "
1999 : Surrender by the Chemical Brothers , vocals on " Let Forever Be "
2000 : Tailgunner by Tailgunner , drums
2000 : The Same Old Blues by Proud Mary , production , plus additional vocals , guitars , bass and percussion
2002 : Illumination by Paul Weller , drums , percussion & bass on " One X One "
2003 : Live at the Royal Albert Hall by the Who , guitar , backing vocals on " Won 't Get Fooled Again "
2004 : Solarized by Ian Brown : collaboration on the song " Keep What Ya Got " .
2004 : All Years Leaving by the Stands , guitar on " Some Weekend Night "
2008 : 22 Dreams by Paul Weller , bass , piano , mellotron and wurlitzer on " Echoes Round The Sun "
2011 : Colour of the Trap by Miles Kane , backing vocals on " My Fantasy "
2015 : A Head Full Of Dreams by Coldplay , guitar on " Up & Up "
= = = High Flying Birds = = =
= = = Other charted songs = = =
= = = As featured artist = = =
= = = Other = = =
2004 : " Free Love , Freeway " – Ricky Gervais ft . Noel Gallagher ; credited as ' a special guest ' on backing vocals for the ' Office Christmas Special DVD ' , on which the video of the recording session featuring Noel & Ricky is available
2011 : Well ... All Right ! – compilation album compiled by Gallagher , released covermount into Mojo magazine
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= Michael Novogratz =
Michael Edward " Mike " Novogratz ( sometimes Novo , born November 26 , 1964 ) is an ex @-@ hedge fund manager , formerly of the investment firm Fortress Investment Group . He was ranked a billionaire by Forbes in 2007 and 2008 .
Prior to joining Fortress , he was a partner at Goldman Sachs where he spent lots of time working abroad including leadership roles in Asia and Latin America . Novogratz is a 1987 graduate of Princeton University , where he was a member of the wrestling team . He was a Virginia state runner @-@ up in high school wrestling . He served in the U.S. Army National Guard after college . His siblings include Jacqueline Novogratz and Robert Novogratz .
= = Early life and family = =
Raised in Alexandria , Virginia , Novogratz is the son of West Point football lineman and 1958 Knute Rockne Award ( best lineman ) winner Robert , Sr. He attended Fort Hunt High School . Novogratz was state of Virginia high school wrestling runner @-@ up before serving as Princeton Wrestling captain . Novogratz was first team All @-@ Ivy League in both 1986 ( 150 @-@ pound ( 68 @.@ 0 kg ) ) and 1987 ( 158 @-@ pound ( 71 @.@ 7 kg ) ) . He qualified for the National Collegiate Athletic Association ( NCAA ) wrestling championships in both 1986 and 1987 ( both at 150 @-@ pound ( 68 @.@ 0 kg ) ) . Novogratz earned his A.B. in economics . At the NCAA wrestling championships , he made it to the round of 12 .
His sister Jacqueline Novogratz is founder and CEO of Acumen Fund , while his brother Robert Novogratz is a designer who has been profiled in the Bravo television series 9 by Design . Another brother John Novogratz is a senior managing partner at Millenium Partners .
= = Career = =
After a stint in the New Jersey National Guard that included service as a helicopter pilot , Novogratz began his career with Goldman Sachs in 1989 . On April 1 , 1989 , he joined the firm as a short @-@ term bond ( money market ) salesman . Novogratz lived in Asia from 1992 to 1999 . He took a salesman position for Goldman in Tokyo in 1992 , and eventually Jon Corzine sent him to Hong Kong to run a trading desk for the firm . He was elected partner at Goldman in 1998 . Among the positions that he held at Goldman were president of Goldman Sachs Latin America and the head of fixed income , currencies and commodities risk in Asia .
In March 2002 , Novogratz joined Fortress Investments in time to join Wesley Edens , Robert Kauffman , Randal Nardone and Peter Briger , Jr. in taking the company public through its February 9 , 2007 , initial public offering . During the IPO , the company sold an 8 % share to the public for $ 600 million . Before assuming his current roles at Fortress as principal and director of Fortress Credit Corporation in 2006 , he served as Co @-@ Chief Information Officer of Macro Funds at Fortress Investment Group LLC . Although Fortress ' domain includes both hedge funds and makes private @-@ equity investments , Novogratz and his fellow Princetonian Briger run the hedge funds . Although the stock price had escalated to $ 35 at its IPO , by December 3 , 2008 , it dipped to as low as $ 1 @.@ 87 after withdrawals from Novogratz ' Drawbridge Global Macro fund were shut off .
New York Governor David Paterson appointed Novogratz to sit on the Hudson River Park Trust 's board of directors in 2010 . He serves as a member of the Federal Reserve Bank of New York 's Investment Advisory Committee on Financial Markets . Novogratz is the chairman and founder of Beat the Streets , a non @-@ profit organization which fosters the sport of wrestling in New York City public schools . He also serves on the board of the Acumen Fund , NYU Langone Medical Center , Princeton Varsity Club , Boards of Creative Alternatives of New York , PAX , the School for Strings , and The Jazz Foundation of America . He founded and serves as the chairman of the board of the School for Strings . He is also the honorary chairman of USA Wrestling Foundation and the chairman of The Friends of the Hudson River Park . In October 2015 , Novogratz retired from Fortress Investments .
= = Personal = =
In 2006 , he bought Robert De Niro 's $ 12 @.@ 25 million duplex in Manhattan 's Tribeca neighborhood . When he moved into De Niro 's former residence , Mickey Rourke moved into Novogratz ' former Meatpacking district residence . He was college roommates with Richard Tavoso , head of global arbitrage and trading at RBC Capital Markets . He and his wife Dora " Sukey " Caceres have four children . They also own a home in Amagansett .
He has been a booster for the U.S. National Wrestling Team and an official spokesman for USA Wrestling . He was named the 2010 USA Wrestling Man of the Year and an Outstanding American by the National Wrestling Hall of Fame in 2007 . When the International Olympic Committee cut Olympic Wrestling from the 2020 Summer Games , he campaigned for the sport 's return .
Following the February IPO , which also brought Edens , Kauffman , Nardone and Briger billionaire status , Novogratz ranked # 407 in the March 2007 Forbes list of world billionaires with a net worth of $ 2 @.@ 3 billion , including his 66 @.@ 6 million shares of Fortress Investments . In September 2007 , Novogratz was listed at # 317 on the Forbes 400 with a net worth of 1 @.@ 5 billion dollars . He was ranked 962 on the March 2008 Forbes list of world billionaires with a net worth of $ 1 @.@ 2 billion . The same year , he became a member of Kappa Beta Phi . By 2012 , after the decline of Fortress ' stock price , his net worth had shrunk to $ 500 million . He supports Democratic political interests .
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= Louis Nolan =
Louis Edward Nolan ( 4 January 1818 – 25 October 1854 ) was a British Army officer and cavalry tactician best known for his role and death in the Charge of the Light Brigade during the Crimean War . Born to a minor diplomatic official and his wife , Nolan was educated at the Austrian Inhaber Pioneer School at Tulln , where he was noted as an enthusiastic horseman and military theorist . After early graduation he was commissioned as a subaltern in the 10th Austrian Hussar regiment , serving in Austria , Hungary and on the Polish frontier , where he again became known for his horsemanship and was promoted to senior lieutenant . Due to the nepotism inherent in the Austro @-@ Hungarian armed forces , Nolan succeeded in transferring to the British Army as a Cornet in the 15th Light Dragoons .
Deployed in India , Nolan was eventually made the regimental riding master and an aide @-@ de @-@ camp to General George Berkeley , commander @-@ in @-@ chief in Madras , accompanying him on horse trials to evaluate the use of geldings as cavalry mounts rather than stallions , and was made a Captain in 1850 . Returning to Great Britain in 1851 , he toured continental Europe and wrote two books on horsemanship and cavalry theory , the second of which , Cavalry : Its History and Tactics , was universally acclaimed and led to the adoption of a Nolan @-@ designed saddle by the British Army . A trusted voice on cavalry matters , Nolan was dispatched to the Middle East in the early days of the Crimean War to hunt for appropriate mounts . After returning he was attached to the staff of General Richard Airey , and in this role delivered the order that led to the Charge of the Light Brigade .
40 percent of the Light Brigade 's soldiers were killed , wounded , captured or rendered unfit for service , including Nolan , who was the first casualty of the Charge . Contemporary accounts blamed Nolan for failing to properly communicate the order , either accidentally or deliberately , while some modern historians apportion the blame to not only Nolan but also Lord Raglan , commander of the British forces in the Crimea , and the cavalry commander Lord Lucan .
= = Early life and education = =
Nolan was born on 4 January 1818 to Babington and Elizabeth Nolan , in York County , Upper Canada . Following his father 's dismissal from his minor diplomatic post at the British consulate in Milan , Nolan was accepted into the Austrian Inhaber Pioneer School at Tulln , where he was known as Ludwig by his fellow cadets . His father 's desire to see him given a chance to enter a prestigious branch of the armed forces meant that Nolan was regularly transferred to other cadet schools to learn more about the military . Enthusiastic about the cavalry , he was noted as an excellent horseman and student of military theory , as well as history . With the multi @-@ lingual nature of Austro @-@ Hungary , he also studied languages , including Hungarian . Other subjects studied there included fortification , water engineering , mathematics , fencing , swimming and bridge @-@ building . Nolan graduated from the Pioneer School a year early in May 1835 , probably following a recommendation from Prince Liechtenstein , and was made a subaltern in the 10th Austrian Hussar regiment .
Nolan served in Austria , Hungary and on the Polish frontier , and was again noted for his horsemanship and language skills . His confidential report from 1838 commended his " great zeal and application " , and he was highly popular within the regiment , rising to become the senior lieutenant . Despite this , his status as a foreigner and a commoner limited his opportunities for promotion . Although promotions in the Austrian Army theoretically were merit @-@ based , in practise the gentry exchanged favours and money unofficially to secure them . Nolan 's father attempted to get him a commission with the British Army , with little success until Nolan 's return to the United Kingdom for the coronation of Queen Victoria in July 1838 . While there , he secured an interview with Lord Fitzroy Somerset while his father negotiated with the Austrian General Clam @-@ Gallas to permit Nolan to leave the Austrian armed forces . Eventually , following the payment of £ 450 , Nolan was granted a commission as a Cornet in the 15th Light Dragoons of the British Army on 23 April 1839 . His resignation from the Austrian army was never formally accepted , and he was struck off the rolls on 31 October 1899 , 45 years after his death .
= = 15th Light Dragoons = =
= = = India = = =
Despite the negative associations with service there , Nolan had deliberately transferred to a regiment operating in India . He initially travelled to Maidstone , where the 15th maintained a troop to train new recruits , under the command of Captain George Key . He then caught a troopship to Bombay , the Malabar , which arrived on 9 November . Soon after arrival he fell ill and was granted two years of sick leave , starting from 26 March 1840 , and returned to Britain . He returned to active service in June 1841 , again to the Maidstone depot , and became a Lieutenant on the 19th . He went on leave again in August to take the riding master 's course and exam , and returned on 8 March 1842 , newly qualified .
His attachment to the Maidstone depot gave Nolan the opportunity to further study and practice cavalry theory ; he met several other officers with a similar interest , including Captain Key , with whom he became close friends . By 1842 his time at Maidstone had ended , and he departed for India in October , arriving at Madras on 9 May 1843 . The 15th Light Dragoons were stationed in Bangalore , a relatively peaceful area , and Nolan did not see action during his time there . He was appointed regimental riding master on 13 August 1844 , in recognition of his expertise at horsemanship . In his spare time , Nolan raced his horse Arab Beauty . At the Bangalore Cantonment Races in October 1846 , he placed second in two races , and won both the Galloway Stakes and Ladies ' Purse . A year later he entered Sahagun , without success .
As regimental riding master he introduced substantial changes to the cavalry training programme , reintroducing the use of leaping bars , training individual soldiers before teaching formation riding to entire squads , and appointing a dedicated soldier in each troop who was trained to break in new horses . Over the next few years the regiment 's standard of horsemanship rose , increasing Nolan 's reputation . When the regiment was inspected by Major General John Aitchison , a man known for his high standards , he wrote that :
Nolan 's system of training horses and teaching riding is worthy of being more generally known . The seat of the men is more uniform and the hand light and firm , and as the hand and heel work together the horses in the ranks are steady to a degree I did not expect to see on a regiment mounted on entire horses .
Nolan then became a staff officer , joining the staff of General George Berkeley , commander @-@ in @-@ chief in Madras , as an aide @-@ de @-@ camp in January 1849 . He quickly became close friends with Berkeley 's two sons , Charles and George , who were also enthusiastic about horse @-@ racing . In 1850 Nolan accompanied Berkeley on a tour of the region , conducting horse trials to evaluate the use of geldings as cavalry mounts rather than stallions , and was also promoted , purchasing a Captaincy on 8 March . Despite these successes , Nolan recognised that his prospects were far more limited in India than in England , and he could not afford the increased costs of serving in the colonies . At the same time , service in India was not taken seriously by many of the officers in high command , and would not be sufficient on its own to advance him . Accordingly , he obtained two years sick leave on 16 January 1851 and returned to England , intending to tour Europe and write a book on cavalry theory .
= = = Grand tour and cavalry theory = = =
After a brief period in England , Nolan and Colonel George Key toured the continent , visiting countries including France , Russia , Sweden and the German states . The Swedish Horse Guards under Curt von Stedingk left a particular impression , with Nolan later writing that they were " one of the best regiments of foreign cavalry I have ever seen " , and he was also impressed by François Baucher , initially considering simply translating Baucher 's Méthode d 'équitation into English . In Russia , he attended a military review of Cossack and Circassian cavalry , and passing through Germany , observed the Saxon dragoons . Eventually , following his return to Maidstone in October 1852 ( and promotion to commander of the regiment 's troop there ) , he published his first book , The Training of Cavalry Remount Horses : A New System , through Parker , Furnivall & Parker . Dedicated to Berkeley , the book was highly specialised and intended for practical use , aimed specifically at cavalry officers rather than equestrians generally .
The reaction to the book was limited , at least in part due to the specialised nature of the work . His second book , Cavalry : Its History and Tactics , covered cavalry theory more widely and made a series of recommendations , including the use of carbines on foot rather than from the saddle , and substantial improvements to the cavalry saddle itself . The existing saddle , in use since 1796 , was considered too high , restricting the use of a rider 's lower legs , leading to instability . Accordingly , he designed a new saddle , with the assistance of the saddler sergeant at Maidstone depot , which focused on reducing rubbing against the horse , improved comfort and weighed less than the existing design . The resulting saddle was tested in April 1853 , with attendance by the Duke of Cambridge , inspector general of cavalry . The reaction was positive , and the army commissioned it as a new model for the cavalry , known as the Universal Wood Arch Pattern design , but informally referred to as " Nolan 's saddle " .
Cavalry : Its History and Tactics received a much warmer reception than Training , with the Illustrated London News praising his knowledge and enthusiasm while recommending it for civilians as well as the military . Another review in The Times was also approving . Over the next few decades it continued to be well received , and was seen as " an important , even ground @-@ breaking , work " . The book gave him substantial prominence , both in Britain and the United States . It was also discussed in India , where it was praised as " the manual for a cavalry officer who would understand his profession and reflect honour upon it " . A copy was sent to Bonneau du Martray of the French Imperial Staff by Major @-@ General Wetherall of the British staff ; Du Martray , having read the book , translated the entire work as Histoire et Tactique de la Cavalerie .
= = Crimean War = =
= = = Remount mission = = =
With the Crimean War fast approaching , the British Army needed some way of obtaining cavalry horses in Turkey . One method was simply to ship horses from Britain , but this was time @-@ consuming and expensive , and would result in a large number dying . Alternately , horses could be bought in the Middle East , if suitable ones could be identified . The Duke of Newcastle , Secretary of State for War , needed an experienced cavalry officer to undertake such a search . With Nolan 's new @-@ found reputation he was a logical choice , and Newcastle had him struck off from the 15th Hussars and made aide @-@ de @-@ camp to General Richard Airey , backdated to 17 March 1854 . Issued with a " special service " passport , he departed to Constantinople , meeting the steamship Thabor at Marseilles .
After arriving in Turkey he met with Skene , the British Vice @-@ Consul , who had him introduced to Omar Pasha and invited to view the Turkish regiments . Nolan was not particularly impressed by them , judging the irregulars incapable of withstanding a Russian cavalry charge and finding the horses too small . He ordered 250 of them anyway , finding them appropriate for the British artillery if not for the cavalry . His report to Somerset ( now Baron Raglan , and commander of the British forces in Turkey ) included a proposal for a trip to Syria , where he claimed the horses were more appropriate . This proposal was eventually agreed to , and he went to İskenderun on 9 May . When they arrived they discovered that Turkish officials had already bought most of the army horses in northern Syria , and so they continued on to Beirut and then Damascus . Even there , they failed to find horses of sufficient quality , and so they left the city on 21 May in hopes of making contact with the Bedouin . They left with a train of 292 horses , mostly bought from the ' Anizzah , and were met at Beirut by the steamship Trent and transported back to Turkey .
= = = Staff officer = = =
Nolan returned to the British forces to join the Light Division at Devna as aide @-@ de @-@ camp to Airey . The Royal Navy had control over the Black Sea , and with a Russian treaty with Turkey and Austria , the enemy forces were withdrawing from Eastern Europe . Despite this favourable outcome , the British government wished to negotiate with the Russians from a strong position . The decision was taken to invade the Crimea itself , with the objective of destroying or capturing the Russian naval base at Sevastopol . Raglan personally considered this unrealistic - British forces knew little about the region , the port 's defences , or the strength of the Russian military , with estimates of troop numbers varying between 45 @,@ 000 and 140 @,@ 000 . It was also quite a distance away , causing logistical difficulties .
With the Crimea identified as the target , Nolan and his fellow staff officers had to plan the assault , which eventually included 30 @,@ 000 infantry , 1 @,@ 240 cavalry and 54 guns , along with 24 @,@ 000 French soldiers and 70 of their guns . The cavalry alone required 3 @,@ 379 horses , and with such a small number of ships available the Heavy Brigade would be part of a second wave - until it arrived , the Light Brigade would be relied on as the sole unit of cavalry . The force departed for the Crimea on 2 September 1854 , and began landing at Kalamita Bay , 35 miles north of Sevastopol itself . Airey had the light cavalry engage in reconnaissance and screening while the rest of the force moved off the transports , and they were fully ashore by the 18th . On the 19th , they began marching to Sevastopol - still without the Heavy Brigade .
The force reached the Bulganak River that day , where skirmishers found a force of Cossacks and Russian infantry , with a light battery of artillery . The infantry and artillery had been hidden in a dip in the terrain while the British formed up , and their placement put the British cavalry in heavy danger . Raglan decided to withdraw , and sent a troop forward to cover the retreat ; this body 's confidence deceived the Russians into thinking that there was a larger British force than there was , and they failed to pursue the retreating cavalry . A day later , the British force , together with the French under General St Arnaud , defeated the Russians at the Battle of Alma . Nolan spent the battle as a liaison due to his fluent French , and was often galloping between the two allied armies . They resumed marching on 26 September and entered the plains of Balaclava , near Sevastopol .
= = = Balaclava = = =
The British camp in Balaclava was on a plateau , with two approaches - the South and North valleys - and a small hill , known as the Causeway Heights , between them . At Balaclava , the force waited for supplies while the allied ships bombarded the forts surrounding Sevastopol , starting on 17 October . The forts proved to be particularly strong , but some damage was caused and Admiral Kornilov killed . From then on , time and time again , the allied navy would bombard the forts , causing damage , which the Russians would then repair each night . While the allied armies waited to strengthen their positions and increase their resources , Prince Menshikov , commander of the Russian forces , had a desire to provide a victory to the Tsar following his defeat at Alma . He formed a plan to cut the British army off from the harbour at Balaclava , with a secondary objective of capturing the harbour itself . The Russian forces assembled on 24 October , and attacked at around 7am on the 25th . General Gribbe covered the Russian left flank , with Semiakin , Levoutsky and Scudery on his right : General Ryzhov waited behind them , prepared to support any individual force that came under trouble . The Turkish forces in the first redoubts were quickly overwhelmed and forced to flee .
At 8am Raglan ordered the Heavy and Light cavalry brigades , under Lord Lucan , to move into line with the second set of Turkish @-@ occupied redoubts . The order confused and infuriated Lucan - there was only one set of redoubts that had been occupied by the Turks , and it was now abandoned . Doing so also meant leaving the Turks and 550 British infantry to meet the Russian charge alone , without any cavalry support . Despite Raglan 's " lackadaisical wording " , Lucan interpreted the order ( correctly ) to require him to place the Light Brigade at the mouth of the North Valley to Balaclava , a position that left the cavalry dangerously exposed : because of the terrain , they would not be able to see advancing Russian troops until they were less than 50 feet away . As Raglan watched the cavalry form up at the mouth of the North Valley , 30 minutes after giving the order , he changed his mind and had them returned to their original position .
At the same time , Raglan wished to reinforce the Turks and British infantry , and ordered Lucan to detach four of the five Heavy Brigade cavalry regiments and send them to the defensive line . This further angered Lucan , since splitting the force in half merely reduced the cavalry 's overall effectiveness , but he again complied . The result was that the first fork of the Russian cavalry attack encountered The Thin Red Line and were driven off , while the second fork , crossing the heights above the plain , encountered four regiments of the Heavy Brigade . The Russians - with between 1 @,@ 500 and 2 @,@ 000 men - were initially surprised to see the 800 British cavalry approaching , allowing Scarlett , the commander of the Heavy Brigades , to charge the Russians uphill . By this point Lucan had left Lord Cardigan in charge of the Light Brigade and raced over to the Heavies , later claiming that his duty trumpeter had ordered the British charge , which eventually forced the Russians to flee .
= = = Charge of the Light Brigade = = =
When Lucan left the Light Brigade idling on the plateau , he instructed Cardigan to defend the position against attack . Cardigan interpreted this to mean that he should not leave the plateau , and the Brigade remained mostly immobile while the Heavy Brigade engaged the Russian cavalry ( over the objection of some of the Light Brigade 's officers ) . This prevented the British cavalry from adequately pursuing the Russians , and no attacks were mounted down the North Valley through which they had retreated . Due to the failure of their attack , the Russians chose not to advance further , leading to Raglan deciding to attempt to retake the captured Turkish fortifications using the Light and Heavy brigades with two divisions of infantry . Although the 1st Division advanced swiftly , the 4th Division was deliberately tardy , making Raglan increasingly impatient . He dispatched an aide to Lucan ordering that " Cavalry to advance and take advantage of any opportunity to recover the heights . They will be supported by the infantry which have been ordered to advance on two fronts " . Lucan interpreted this to mean he should await the infantry support before attacking .
About 40 minutes later , with the infantry still having not arrived , Raglan 's staff officers spotted Russian artillery teams approaching the fortifications with equipment to remove captured guns . To avoid the guns being taken , Raglan dispatched Nolan to carry a message to Lucan that read :
Lord Raglan wishes the cavalry to advance rapidly to the front , and try to prevent the enemy carrying away the guns . Troop of horse @-@ artillery may accompany . French cavalry is on your left . Immediate .
As Nolan rode towards Lucan 's position , Raglan shouted that he should " Tell Lord Lucan the cavalry is to attack immediately " ; his fourth order . The Russian forces included the Don Cossack field artillery battery , containing between eight and twelve guns , drawn up at the bottom of the North Valley , with regiments of cavalry waiting behind it . Nolan carried the message to Lucan ; when Lucan asked what guns were referred to , Nolan is said to have indicated , by a wide sweep of his arm , not the Causeway redoubts but the Don Cossack battery in the North Valley , around a mile away . After a brief debate , Lucan ordered the Light Brigade forward . Cardigan claimed that Lucan had ordered him to attack without quarter given , despite him pointing out the Russian artillery ; Lucan , on the other hand , claimed he told Cardigan to retire from battle " if no opportunity to take his objective presented itself " . Regardless , the Brigade drew swords and was ordered by Cardigan to advance down the valley . Nolan had explicitly asked to join the Brigade for the fight , and was allowed to . As the Light Brigade advanced , the Russian guns opened fire , and a shell splinter hit Nolan in the chest . His horse carried him almost back to the Brigade 's starting point before Nolan fell from the saddle , dead .
Russian artillery continued to fire on the Light Brigade . As Lucan advanced after them with the Heavy Brigade , he saw the Light Brigade being overwhelmed by the Russian artillery and ordered the Heavies back , saying that " They have sacrificed the Light Brigade ; they shall not the Heavy , if I can help it " . The remainder of the Light Brigade eventually reached the Russian artillery , wreaking havoc on the fleeing gunners , before pursuing the Russian cavalry behind the artillery down the remainder of the valley . Despite being outnumbered five to one , the British cavalry who pursued the Russians managed to disrupt the enemy for some time before being killed or captured . Of the cavalry who had stayed with the abandoned artillery guns , 60 or 70 were collected by George Paget , who retired back to the British lines despite Russian cavalry harrying them . The result was 110 dead , 130 wounded , and 58 missing or captured - 40 percent losses in an action that lasted 20 minutes .
= = Legacy = =
At the time of his death , Nolan was the last male member of his family , and the line died with him . Some friends had a plaque erected in his memory at Holy Trinity Church in Maidstone , although his body remained in the Crimea . Most of his possessions were given to Colonel Key , including the copyright on Cavalry : Its History and Tactics , his house in London and his interests in the Adelphi Estate in Tobago .
The Charge itself and the tragedy that resulted was blamed on both Lucan and Nolan by William Howard Russell — Nolan , for misunderstanding the order and issuing a confusing message , and Lucan , for not properly keeping an eye on the terrain . Raglan himself primarily blamed Lucan , who was infuriated by this and wrote a letter to Horse Guards Parade disputing Raglan 's claim . This was too much for Viscount Hardinge , the Commander @-@ in @-@ Chief of the Forces , who had Lucan resign his command and return to Britain . With Hardinge unwilling to give him a court martial , Lucan wrote a pamphlet titled A Vindication of the Earl of Lucan from Lord Raglan 's Reflections and a series of letters to The Times that revealed Raglan 's order to have been highly ambiguous and " not the kind of dispatch required by an officer on the battlefield " . At the same time , Nolan 's method of delivery had been imperious , and he had insisted the urgency of the attack - something clear in Raglan 's verbal order to him , but not in the written order . Public opinion became divided ; people both attacked Nolan and rallied to his defence . The major newspapers , at least , maintained that with Nolan 's status as a mere messenger it was inconceivable that he alone could have destroyed the Light Brigade without failings by Lucan . Lord Cardigan defended Nolan by saying the Captain " did not have the least idea of the mistake which was about to be perpetrated . " Within the Crimea , however , the majority " roundly damned " Nolan . The Charge was soon overshadowed by other scandalous and bloody military failures such as the continued failure of the Siege of Sevastopol .
Terry Brighton writes in Hell Riders that " in the 150 years since the charge historians have generally agreed that the blunder was indeed Nolan 's . Most argue that he misunderstood the order , and when asked by Lord Lucan what Raglan intended by it pointed towards the wrong enemy guns and sent the Light Brigade to its destruction . In recent years it has even been suggested that he deliberately misled Lucan about which guns were to be attacked " . Brighton himself distributes the blame more widely , holding that Raglan , Lucan and Nolan were at fault , but that the vast majority of the blame lies with Lucan . David Buttery , in Messenger of Death , agrees that the blame was at least partially Lucan 's for failing to conduct adequate reconnaissance .
Nolan was played by David Hemmings in the 1968 film The Charge of the Light Brigade . In the film Nolan is portrayed as a haughty , glory @-@ hungry officer , but also a " symbol of youth , energy and professionalism ... desperate ... to reform the army " .
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= 2010 New Year 's Eve tornado outbreak =
The 2010 New Year 's Eve tornado outbreak was a three @-@ day @-@ long tornado outbreak that impacted the central and lower Mississippi Valley from December 30 , 2010 to January 1 , 2011 . Associated with a low pressure system and a strong cold front , 37 tornadoes tracked across five states over the length of the severe event , killing nine and injuring several others . Activity was centered in the states of Missouri and later Mississippi on December 31 . Seven tornadoes were rated EF3 on the Enhanced Fujita Scale ; these were the strongest during the outbreak . Non @-@ tornadic winds were recorded to have reached as high as 80 mph ( 130 km / h ) at eight locations on December 31 , while hail as large as 2 @.@ 75 in ( 7 @.@ 0 cm ) was documented north @-@ northeast of Mansfield , Missouri . Overall , damage from the outbreak totaled US $ 123 @.@ 3 million , most of which was related to tornadoes .
The United States Storm Prediction Center first noted a possible New Year 's Eve severe weather event as early as December 25 , 2010 . These forecasts gained confidence as the event approached , with a focus on the Ozarks and adjacent areas . Supercells developed in this area during the night of December 30 and tracked across central Missouri , producing several tornadoes and large hail . However , the bulk of activity during the outbreak was a result of a long line of supercells that tracked from Oklahoma to Illinois , producing five EF3 tornadoes . One of these tracked through northwestern Arkansas , killing four . Another tore through eastern sections of Fort Leonard Wood in Missouri , destroying 159 homes and causing US $ 90 million in damage , making it the costliest tornado of the outbreak . A separate cluster of storms later developed in Louisiana before tracking into Mississippi , producing several tornadoes across southern and central regions of the state on January 1 .
= = Meteorological synopsis = =
The Storm Prediction Center ( SPC ) began to note the possibility that a severe weather event could develop on December 30 as early as December 25 , 2010 . Nonetheless , the predictability of the event was too low as the event was several days out . As the anticipated event grew closer , confidence in the forecast slowly increased , though uncertainties in the timing and extent of the tornado outbreak still existed . These uncertainties remained through December 29 with forecasts calling for only marginal hail and possibly damaging gusts . However , the SPC indicated that supercells and more severe weather could result from atmospheric conditions deviating slightly from the forecast . In contrast , forecasts were more confident in a widespread outbreak of severe weather for New Year 's Eve ; the SPC issued a slight risk outlook for much of the Lower Mississippi Valley and the Ozarks as a result .
Atmospheric conditions remained only marginally conducive for the development of thunderstorms on the morning of December 30 . Throughout the day , moisture was drawn from the Gulf of Mexico northward into the Ozarks region . However , the presence of a capping inversion prevented thunderstorms from developing . During the evening of December 30 , an area of strong wind shear developed near the Ark @-@ La @-@ Tex and southeastern Oklahoma area well ahead of a nearing cold front , providing a focal point for potential storm development . Late that day , scattered thunderstorms developed over eastern Oklahoma and northern Arkansas , producing significant hail . Over the next few hours and into December 31 , these storms would intensify as they moved into southwestern Missouri , producing four tornadoes . The first tornado watch issued in association with the severe event was issued at 07 : 06 UTC on December 31 as these storms tracked across the Ozarks . After a few hours , these supercell thunderstorms lessened in strength as they neared the Greater St. Louis metropolitan area .
While the cluster of thunderstorms was tracking through Missouri , a new line of thunderstorms with embedded supercells developed across eastern Oklahoma and Kansas , demarcating a dry line boundary . Although linear storm systems tend to indicate strong wind events and not tornadoes , these storms tracked eastward into southwestern Missouri . A long @-@ tracked EF3 developed from one of these supercells and struck Cincinnati , Arkansas . At 13 : 31 UTC on December 31 , a tornado watch was issued for much of Missouri and portions of Arkansas and Illinois . Most of the tornadoes during the outbreak stemmed from this line of storms as they moved through Missouri and Illinois throughout the day . At around noon , a new cluster of disorganized showers formed over eastern Louisiana and southern Mississippi . Although these storms were initially weak , they gradually intensified into supercells as the day went on . Additional supercells quickly developed over Louisiana and eventually spread in coverage over Mississippi , resulting in the development of several tornadoes . Reaching their peak strength over Mississippi , the storms gradually lost their intensity as they tracked eastward late on December 31 and into January 1 , 2011 . By the morning hours of January 1 , severe activity had become restricted to the Florida Panhandle and southern Alabama ; the last tornado watch issued in association with the 2010 New Year 's Eve tornado outbreak was issued for those regions at 15 : 56 UTC that day .
= = Tornadoes = =
= = = December 30 event = = =
= = = December 31 event = = =
= = = January 1 event = = =
= = Notable tornadoes = =
= = = Cincinnati , Arkansas = = =
The deadliest tornado of the 2010 New Year 's Eve tornado outbreak moved across extreme eastern Oklahoma and northwestern Arkansas , tracking 21 @.@ 1 mi ( 34 @.@ 0 km ) and damaging the unincorporated community of Cincinnati , Arkansas . The first tornado warning associated was issued at 12 : 00 UTC for portions of Adair County in Oklahoma and Benton and Washington counties in Arkansas by the National Weather Service Tulsa , Oklahoma . At around the same time , damaging winds estimated at around 70 mph ( 110 km / h ) tore the roof off of a barn southwest of Westville , Oklahoma ; these winds were likely a result of inflow caused by the developing tornado . Post @-@ tornado survey teams concluded that the tornado touched down five minutes later northeast of Westville . Quickly tracking northeast , the tornado snapped 13 large wooden utility poles . Four cars were displaced by 20 – 50 yd ( 18 – 46 m ) and a nearby home sustained significant roof damage and broken windows ; this resulted in an EF2 rating for the tornado within Adair County . Damage in Adair County totaled $ 60 @,@ 000 . At 12 : 08 UTC , the tornado crossed the Oklahoma @-@ Arkansas border and moved into Benton County , Arkansas .
At 12 : 10 UTC , the tornado tracked into Cincinnati , Arkansas , where it reached its peak intensity . Winds were estimated as high as 142 mph ( 229 km / h ) and the tornado widened to a width of 300 yd ( 270 m ) , making the tornado an EF3 at this location . Several homes were destroyed or heavily damaged in the southwestern areas of the town . Numerous trees and power poles were knocked down or uprooted . Two people were killed when a mobile home was destroyed , while another person died as he was tending cattle when the barn he occupied collapsed . Seven others were injured in Cincinnati . The tornado continued to widen as it trekked northeastward , reaching a maximum width of 500 yd ( 460 m ) . Several permanent homes were heavily damaged northeast of Cincinnati , and a number of chicken houses , mobile homes , outbuildings , and power poles were destroyed . One woman was critically injured after her mobile home was destroyed ; she died of her injuries at a hospital four days later . Damage in Cincinnati and surrounding areas within Benton County reached $ 1 @.@ 5 million .
After 12 : 17 UTC , the tornado 's position fluctuated between Benton and Washington counties in northwestern Arkansas . Permanent houses were damaged and mobile homes were destroyed . Numerous trees were uprooted or snapped while many other power poles were snapped . Two people were injured following the destruction of a mobile home within the Ozark National Forest in Benton County , while another person was injured west of Tontitown , Arkansas in Washington County . The tornado finally dissipated northwest of Tontitown at 12 : 27 UTC after causing four deaths and ten injuries . Overall , the tornado caused $ 1 @.@ 835 million in damage , which was the sixth costliest total during the tornado outbreak .
= = = Fenton – Sunset Hills , Missouri tornado = = =
At 17 : 22 UTC on December 31 , the National Weather Service St. Louis , Missouri issued a tornado warning for a severe squall line capable of producing rain @-@ wrapped tornadoes and wind damage . The warning covered ten counties in Missouri and Illinois straddling the Mississippi River and included St. Louis . Shortly after the warning 's issuance , two EF1 tornadoes tracked across Jefferson and St. Louis counties , causing extensive tree damage and minor property damage . However , the most destructive tornado from the passing squall line touched down at 17 : 48 UTC east @-@ northeast of Murphy , Missouri in northern Jefferson County . Initially , the tornado was an EF0 with a path width of 40 yd ( 37 m ) and lifted before touching down again just north of Missouri Route 30 near the Jefferson @-@ St. Louis county line . Small trees and minor roof damage occurred at the point of this second touch down before the tornado moved northeastward into St. Louis County , where the tornado caused a bulk of its damage and was at its strongest .
A large subdivision near Route 30 sustained minor roof and tree damage , which was rated as EF0 intensity . However , as the tornado was intensifying through the neighborhood , three homes to the subdivision 's east suffered more considerable roof and siding damage and was assigned an EF1 damage intensity rating . The tornado then crossed Missouri Route 141 , where it blew a Honda CR @-@ V into a highway barrier ; the driver of the vehicle suffered critical injuries and died eleven days later from those injuries . After crossing the highway , a number of buildings were damaged including a church , elementary school , and parsonage . Damage in this area was rated as EF2 due to the partial debarking of a nearby tree . Minor tree damage occurred as the tornado moved through Fenton Park and tracked over the Meramec River .
After crossing the river , the tornado weakened to EF1 strength , damaging several homes while also leaving behind an interrupted damage path . The tornado crossed Interstate 270 before rapidly intensifying at around 17 : 56 UTC . Numerous trees were uprooted while many homes sustained considerable damage . Six homes were unroofed and one was destroyed and shifted from its foundation ; this damage was rated high @-@ end EF3 . At the time , the tornado was 0 @.@ 25 mi ( 0 @.@ 40 km ) wide . The tornado weakened to EF1 intensity afterwards , causing more minor damage to a strip mall and several homes . Six power poles were knocked down shortly before the tornado lifted at 18 : 00 UTC in western Crestwood , Missouri .
= = Non @-@ tornadic impacts = =
Beginning on December 29 and continuing for three days , the storm system associated with the tornado outbreak caused strong winds across the Texas Panhandle and eastern New Mexico . The winds were further enhanced by isolated showers , and gusts peaked at 79 mph ( 127 km / h ) in Tatum , New Mexico . Approximately 7 mi ( 11 km ) west of Levelland , Texas , the winds downed four power poles , sparking a fire that burned nearly 2 @,@ 000 acres ( 800 hectares ) of grassland before it was finally contained ; the fire caused US $ 20 @,@ 000 in damage . In Allen , Oklahoma , strong winds associated with one supercell caused an estimated US $ 20 @,@ 000 in damage after damaging the carport , chimney , and roof of a house . Hail and strong winds were also reported elsewhere in eastern Oklahoma and southeastern Kansas . Widespread and damaging wind gusts and hail later crossed into northwestern Arkansas , causing US $ 175 @,@ 000 in damage . Several buildings and homes were destroyed by the strong winds ; similar impacts were seen in Missouri and Illinois .
In Mississippi , rainfall totals between 1 – 4 in ( 25 – 102 mm ) were widespread . The highest precipitation total was 5 @.@ 58 in ( 142 mm ) south of Grace , Mississippi . In Scott County , residents were forced to evacuate out of Forest and Morton due to flash floods that caused $ 470 @,@ 000 in damage . Similarly , the inundation washed out roads and flooded cars in Winona . Overall , flood damage in Mississippi amounted to US $ 1 @.@ 135 million .
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= Marvel vs. Capcom 3 : Fate of Two Worlds =
Marvel vs. Capcom 3 : Fate of Two Worlds ( Japanese : マーヴル VS . カプコン 3 フェイト オブ トゥー ワールド , Hepburn : Māvuru bāsasu Kapukon Surī : Feito obu Tū Wārudo ) is a crossover fighting game developed by Capcom in collaboration with Eighting . The game features characters from both Capcom 's video game franchises and comic book series published by Marvel Comics . It was released for the PlayStation 3 and Xbox 360 consoles in February 2011 . It is the fifth installment of the Marvel vs. Capcom franchise and the first to use three @-@ dimensional character models instead of sprites .
In Marvel vs. Capcom 3 , players select a team of three characters to engage in combat and attempt to knock out their opponents . It features similar tag team game mechanics to earlier games in the series , along with new methods of play designed to make the game more accessible to new players . The game was produced by Ryota Niitsuma , who had previously worked on Tatsunoko vs. Capcom : Ultimate All @-@ Stars , which utilizes the same simplified three @-@ button attack system .
The game received generally positive reviews from critics , who praised its gameplay and character roster , while criticizing its online component and lack of features and game modes . More than 2 million units were shipped worldwide a month after its debut , rendering it a commercial success . Less than a year after its release , Capcom announced an updated version of the game , titled Ultimate Marvel vs. Capcom 3 . The standalone update was released in November 2011 , and featured additional characters , stages , and gameplay tweaks .
= = Gameplay = =
Marvel vs. Capcom 3 : Fate of Two Worlds is a fighting game in which players compete in battle using characters with different fighting styles and special attacks . The game features tag team @-@ based gameplay similar to previous installments of the series . Players select teams of three characters to engage in one @-@ on @-@ one combat , and can choose to switch between them at any point during the match . During combat , players can call in one of their off @-@ screen characters to perform a single special move , known as an " assist " . As characters deal or receive damage , their team 's " Hyper Combo Gauge " will gradually fill with energy , which can be expended by players to execute certain techniques , such as hyper combos , which are stronger versions of special moves ; " snapbacks " , which force the current opponent off the screen and replaces them with one of their other teammates ; and " crossover combinations " , which summon the player 's entire team to use their hyper combos all at once . Players must use the various attacks in their arsenal to exhaust their opponent 's life gauge and defeat the entire enemy team , or have the most cumulative health when time runs out . Marvel vs. Capcom 3 is the first entry in the franchise to feature three @-@ dimensional character models as opposed to two @-@ dimensional sprites . However , gameplay remains restricted to two dimensions , resulting in a 2.5D graphical design .
Unlike Marvel vs. Capcom 2 : New Age of Heroes , which featured four attack buttons separated as two pairs of low and high @-@ strength punches and kicks , Marvel vs. Capcom 3 uses a simplified , three @-@ button control scheme of undefined light , medium , and hard attacks modeled after Tatsunoko vs. Capcom : Ultimate All @-@ Stars , which aims to " knock down the wall of complicated controls and open up the field of strategic fighting to all comers " . The game includes a new " exchange button " , which is used to launch opponents into the air , swap characters while performing combos , and slam the opponent into the ground . Players can use each button to string together attacks and form combos , as well as perform special moves using a combination of button presses and joystick movements . Marvel vs. Capcom 3 also features an alternate control scheme designed for players unfamiliar to fighting games called " Simple Mode " . Simple Mode allows players to perform special moves and hyper combos with single button presses at the expense of limiting a character 's available moveset .
Marvel vs. Capcom 3 introduces a new game mechanic known as " X @-@ Factor " , which offers increased damage , speed , and health regeneration for a short period of time . It can be activated by players once per match , and can also be used to extend combos . The duration and intensity of X @-@ Factor is dependent on the number of active characters in the player 's team ; as a player loses fighters , X @-@ Factor lasts longer and grants higher damage boosts .
= = = Modes = = =
Marvel vs. Capcom 3 features various offline game modes , such as Arcade Mode , where the player fights against AI @-@ controlled opponents to reach the final boss character , Galactus , a supervillain from Marvel Comics ' Fantastic Four series . Each character has their own unique ending sequence , which is earned upon completion of Arcade Mode . Other offline modes include Versus Mode , where two players can fight against each other locally ; Training Mode , which features several customization options for training purposes , such as the ability to adjust the Hyper Combo gauge , set AI difficulty , record and playback moves , and even simulate input lag ; and Mission Mode , which features character @-@ specific challenges designed to test players on their ability to execute complex combos .
Marvel vs. Capcom 3 includes online play using Microsoft 's Xbox Live and Sony 's PlayStation Network services . Online multiplayer includes ranked matches , where players battle to increase their rank and ascend the game 's leaderboards ; player matches , which do not bestow rank and offer options for quick rematches ; and player lobbies , which allow up to eight players in a single room to compete in a king of the hill @-@ style format . When an online match begins , both players can view their opponent 's License Card . License Cards keep track of players ' tendencies based on fighting style , record player points and total number of wins and losses , and allow players to see the positive and negative points of their play styles . Included among the online features is Shadow Battle , a series of downloadable content packs that allow the player to fight against a team of AI @-@ controlled opponents programmed after the techniques and preferences of Capcom 's development staff and famous players from the fighting game community .
= = = Playable characters = = =
Marvel vs. Capcom 3 : Fate of Two Worlds contains a base roster of 36 characters , featuring both new and returning characters to the Marvel vs. Capcom franchise . Two additional characters , Jill Valentine and Shuma @-@ Gorath , are also available as downloadable content . According to producer Niitsuma , character selection was a collaborative process between Capcom and Marvel Comics . Marvel gave Niitsuma and his team precise directions regarding the Marvel characters ' designs , but was willing to leave game balancing to Capcom . In regards to characters who did not originate from fighting games , such as Deadpool and Arthur , Niitsuma 's team tried to " preserve their essence " from their source material and see how they could siphon it into an interesting fighting game character .
Marvel worked closely with Capcom to include dialogue quips and mid @-@ match events between the companies ' characters . Comic book writer Frank Tieri was assigned to write the character dialogue and endings for the game . Marvel also gave Tieri full use of their library of characters for storyline purposes . As a result , several unplayable characters from the Marvel and Capcom universes , such as the Fantastic Four , Ghost Rider , Daredevil , MegaMan Volnutt , Nemesis , and Phoenix Wright , make cameo appearances in the campaign stages and Arcade Mode endings .
^ § : Available as downloadable content .
= = Development = =
Marvel vs. Capcom 3 : Fate of Two Worlds is the fifth installment in the Marvel vs. Capcom series . The game was first publicly announced at Capcom 's Captivate press show in Hawaii on April 20 , 2010 . It was revealed to have been in development since 2008 , when Capcom reacquired the Marvel license after a period of legal issues placed the series on hiatus for nearly a decade . Ryota Niitsuma , who had previously headed production on Tatsunoko vs. Capcom : Ultimate All @-@ Stars , signed on as the producer for the new project , which was green @-@ lit after " years and years of unrelenting fan demand " . Niitsuma stated that the game was built using the same MT Framework game engine seen in Resident Evil 5 and Lost Planet 2 .
Capcom 's design philosophy for Marvel vs. Capcom 3 was to maximize gameplay depth and minimize complexity . According to Niitsuma , the development team sought to create a game that would reach out to longtime fans of the series , while simultaneously expanding their user base to those familiar with the characters , but perhaps not with fighting games in general . The urge to reach out to new players also stemmed from Marvel 's recent success in the Hollywood film industry . Capcom 's global head of production , Keiji Inafune , expressed interest in appealing to a worldwide audience . These ideas drove the decision to retool the fighting system , which was criticized in past iterations for being too complicated for casual players . These changes include the implementation of the three @-@ button attack system from Tatsunoko vs. Capcom and the addition of Simple Mode . Unlike previous titles in the series , Capcom had no plans for an arcade release , and focused only on console versions for the PlayStation 3 and Xbox 360 . When asked if Capcom was planning to release the game on other consoles , Niitsuma did not dismiss the possibility for a Nintendo Wii version ; however , this ultimately did not come to fruition .
Employees from Marvel Comics worked closely with Capcom 's art design team to ensure that each character from their company was properly represented . As a result , several Marvel characters were modeled after their more recent comic book appearances . For example , Iron Man sports his Extremis Armor , while Wolverine wears his costume from Astonishing X @-@ Men . The development team originally planned to have English and Japanese voice actors for all characters . Niitsuma eventually decided against it , stating that having the Marvel roster speaking Japanese did not mesh well with the characters ' image .
= = Release = =
Marvel vs. Capcom 3 : Fate of Two Worlds was released on February 15 , 2011 in North America , February 17 in Japan , and February 18 in Europe for the PlayStation 3 and Xbox 360 . A special edition of the game included a steelbook case , a twelve @-@ page prologue comic written by Frank Tieri , a one @-@ month subscription to Marvel Digital Comics , and codes redeemable for free downloads of the Jill Valentine and Shuma @-@ Gorath downloadable content .
DLC costumes for characters were later announced by Capcom and Marvel , which were released on the PlayStation Network and Xbox Live Marketplace on March 1 , 2011 . The costume pack contained new outfits for Ryu , Thor , Dante , Iron Man , Chris Redfield , and Captain America . The release of the pack coincided with the release of the Shadow Battle DLC .
Following the game 's launch , a Marvel vs. Capcom merchandise program was launched in April 2011 . Apparel wholesalers Mad Engine and Philcos sold T @-@ shirts and sweatshirts bearing Marvel vs. Capcom 3 promotional artwork . Diamond Select Toys created a line of Minimates based on various characters from the game . Hollywood Collectibles debuted collectible statue sets featuring Akuma , Dante , Deadpool , Doctor Doom , Ryu , and Wolverine . In 2012 , after the release of Ultimate Marvel vs. Capcom 3 , UDON Entertainment unveiled a 200 @-@ page artbook , titled Marvel vs. Capcom : Official Complete Works , containing compilations of existing Marvel vs. Capcom imagery alongside new commissioned pieces by comic book artists .
= = Reception = =
Marvel vs. Capcom 3 : Fate of Two Worlds received positive reviews from critics , garnering aggregate scores of 85 / 100 and 84 / 100 from Metacritic for the Xbox 360 and PlayStation 3 versions , respectively , and 86 % from GameRankings for both systems .
Reviewers praised Marvel vs. Capcom 3 for its simplified , yet deep gameplay and diverse cast of characters . According to GameSpot 's Maxwell McGee , the game 's simplified core combat mechanics worked harmoniously to drive the action forward . McGee also praised the addition of Simple Mode , saying that its simplicity was ideal for series newcomers . Richard George of IGN stated that the alterations to the control scheme helped to mature the franchise by removing needless complexities . Neidel Crisan of 1UP.com complimented the uniqueness of the characters ' play styles , stating that he enjoyed exploring the roster and possible team combinations . Brian Leahy of G4 also praised the variety and balance of characters , claiming that , unlike Marvel vs. Capcom 2 , in which a large majority of the cast was " severely underpowered " compared to its top fighters , almost every character in Marvel vs. Capcom 3 seemed to be a viable option .
In contrast to its character roster , the game was criticized for its lack of diversity in game modes and online features . George expressed his disappointment that the development team did not supplement Marvel vs. Capcom 3 's core experience with extras to add variety to the total package and extend its lifespan . GameTrailers criticized the Arcade Mode , stating that its " underwhelming Powerpoint @-@ style " endings left much to be desired , especially in comparison to the intro , outro , and rival battle sequences seen in Street Fighter IV . Tim Turi of Game Informer stated that fans expecting to see extensive online functionality similar to Street Fighter IV should " regulate their excitement " . Eurogamer 's Simon Parkin pointed specifically to the absence of a spectator mode , noting that the exclusion of viewable matches also presented a serious shortcoming .
At the Electronic Entertainment Expo 2010 , Marvel vs. Capcom 3 : Fate of Two Worlds received the award for " Best Fighting Game " from the Game Critics Awards . It also earned " Best Fighting Game of E3 " awards from IGN , 1UP.com , and X @-@ Play / G4 . Prior to its release , Capcom expected to sell 2 millions units of Marvel vs. Capcom 3 worldwide across both platforms . On March 30 , 2011 , the company announced that it had shipped more than 2 million copies of the game a month and a half after its debut . In response to reaching the milestone , Capcom dubbed Marvel vs. Capcom 3 a commercial success .
= = Ultimate Marvel vs. Capcom 3 = =
Ultimate Marvel vs. Capcom 3 is a standalone updated version of Marvel vs. Capcom 3 : Fate of Two Worlds , released in November 2011 for the PlayStation 3 and Xbox 360 . The game was later ported to the PlayStation Vita . While the update features largely identical gameplay mechanics to the original , changes were made to both the aerial combat and X @-@ Factor systems . It features the entire roster from Fate of Two Worlds , including the two DLC characters , and introduces 12 new playable fighters . Among the added fighters , only one is a returning character from previous games in the Marvel vs. Capcom series : Strider Hiryu . The other eleven characters , all new to the franchise , are Doctor Strange , Firebrand , Frank West , Ghost Rider , Hawkeye , Iron Fist , Nemesis T @-@ Type , Nova , Phoenix Wright , Rocket Raccoon , and Vergil .
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= 2012 Critérium du Dauphiné =
The 2012 Critérium du Dauphiné was the sixty @-@ fourth running of the Critérium du Dauphiné cycling stage race ; a race rated as a World Tour event on the UCI calendar , the highest classification such an event can have . The race consisted of eight stages , beginning with a prologue in Grenoble on 3 June , and concluded in Châtel on 10 June . The race was organised by the Amaury Sport Organisation , the same group that organises the Tour de France . It was viewed as a great preparation for July 's Tour de France , hence why a majority of the contenders for the general classification of the major tour participated in the Dauphiné . It featured mountainous stages as well as an individual time trial quite similar in length to those that awaited the riders in the Tour .
The race was won for the second successive year by Team Sky rider Bradley Wiggins , who claimed the leader 's yellow and blue jersey after the first stage , extending his race @-@ leading advantage after winning the fourth stage individual time trial , and ultimately maintained that advantage . Wiggins became only the third rider to win the Dauphiné and Paris – Nice – a race that Wiggins had won in March – in the same year after Jacques Anquetil ( 1963 and 1965 ) and Eddy Merckx ( 1971 ) had previously done so .
Wiggins ' winning margin over his team @-@ mate and runner @-@ up Michael Rogers was one minute and seventeen seconds , and BMC Racing Team 's Cadel Evans completed the podium , nine seconds down on Rogers . In the race 's other classifications , Liquigas – Cannondale rider Cayetano Sarmiento won the King of the Mountains classification , Evans won the green jersey for the points classification , Rabobank 's Wilco Kelderman won the young rider classification , with Team Sky finishing at the head of the teams classification by over thirteen minutes , after placing four riders inside the final overall top ten placings .
= = Participating teams = =
As the Critérium du Dauphiné was a UCI World Tour event , all eighteen UCI ProTeams were invited automatically and obligated to send a squad . Four other squads were given wildcard places into the race , and as such , formed the event 's 22 @-@ team peloton . All twenty @-@ two squads that competed in the Dauphiné contested the Tour de France later in the year .
The twenty @-@ two teams that competed in the race were :
= = Schedule = =
The route for the race was announced on 27 March 2012 .
= = Stages = =
= = = Prologue = = =
3 June 2012 — Grenoble , 5 @.@ 7 km ( 3 @.@ 5 mi ) , individual time trial ( ITT )
The Dauphiné began with its traditional short individual time trial stage , with a near @-@ flat course around the streets of Grenoble ; the city was hosting the prologue of the race for the fourth time in fifteen years following prior starts in 1997 , 2000 and 2007 , the last of which was won by the 2011 race winner Bradley Wiggins , then riding for the Cofidis team . With rain expected to disrupt the stage , as it had done so in the 2011 prologue , teams decided to spread their time trial specialists across the field in order to maximise their potential of winning the stage . For the first rider to depart the start in Grenoble , Vacansoleil – DCM 's Lieuwe Westra , weather conditions were dry . Westra ultimately recorded a time of 6 ' 46 " for the stage , which was good enough for a top @-@ 12 stage placing after all 175 riders had taken to the course . Westra 's time was beaten shortly afterwards by Rabobank rider Carlos Barredo , who went four seconds quicker around the course , 5 @.@ 7 km ( 3 @.@ 5 mi ) in length .
Barredo held the top spot for around quarter of an hour , as his time was marginally beaten by Andriy Hryvko , a four @-@ time Ukrainian champion in the discipline , riding for the Astana team . Soon after , the eventual stage @-@ winning performance was recorded by the Australian national champion Luke Durbridge , for Orica – GreenEDGE . Durbridge set a time of 6 ' 38 " , in the favourable conditions ; he held on to his spot throughout the expected changeable weather that was a factor in the remainder of the running order . Following a rain shower that effected the racing during the middle portion of the stage , the later riders to take to the course did have dry roads to contend with but the wind had picked up and made conditions more difficult than what the earlier riders had for their passages through the parcours . Durbridge 's time remained untroubled to the end , despite the best attempts of defending champion Wiggins , who finished just 1 @.@ 35 seconds in arrears in second place , having started last of the 175 competitors . Thus , Durbridge took his first stage victory at World Tour level , which gave him a clean sweep of the jerseys post @-@ stage , for holding the lead of the overall , points and young rider classifications . Other overall contenders Tejay van Garderen ( BMC Racing Team ) , Omega Pharma – Quick @-@ Step 's Tony Martin , Jérôme Coppel ( Saur – Sojasun ) , as well as van Garderen 's team @-@ mate Cadel Evans and 2010 winner Janez Brajkovič ( Astana ) all lost time in comparison to Wiggins ; Martin placed best in fifth position , although Evans also made the top ten , in ninth place .
= = = Stage 1 = = =
4 June 2012 — Seyssins to Saint @-@ Vallier , 187 km ( 116 @.@ 2 mi )
With no fewer than six categorised climbs during the 187 km ( 116 @.@ 2 mi ) parcours , the first mass @-@ start stage was not ideally suited towards the sprinters , but was favourable towards puncheurs , as the final of the six climbs – the third @-@ category Côte de la Sizeranne – came just 9 km ( 5 @.@ 6 mi ) from the stage 's finish in Saint @-@ Vallier . Six riders – Giovanni Bernaudeau ( Team Europcar ) , RadioShack – Nissan rider Markel Irizar , Rabobank 's Maarten Tjallingii , Nicolas Edet of Cofidis , Sep Vanmarcke ( Garmin – Barracuda ) and Argos – Shimano rider Yukihiro Doi – advanced clear of the main field in the early running of the stage ; the sextet managed to extend their advantage to a maximum of over thirteen minutes around a quarter of the way through the stage . Around the same point , a crash involving Pierrick Fédrigo ( FDJ – BigMat ) and Samuel Sánchez ( Euskaltel – Euskadi ) brought both riders down . Neither rider returned to the main group , as Fédrigo lost over six minutes and Sánchez almost four times that ; losing almost 24 minutes , after reports that he had been suffering with broken ribs . He was taken to hospital after the stage , where he was diagnosed with bruised ribs .
The teams of several of the general classification contenders were prevalent on the front of the peloton as they set about reducing the advantage that the breakaway group of six riders were holding over them . The gap had been reduced to around the three @-@ minute mark with 50 km ( 31 @.@ 1 mi ) left of the stage to cover . Another big crash happened some 20 km ( 12 @.@ 4 mi ) later with Orica – GreenEDGE 's Simon Gerrans , Vacansoleil – DCM rider Pim Ligthart and Dan Martin of Garmin – Barracuda among those to hit the tarmac . Omega Pharma – Quick @-@ Step moved forward , and pulled the gap under two minutes and caused the breakaway to splinter through pressure . Bernaudeau – who had figured at each of the mountain passes to the point – and Doi failed to stay with their companions as they approached the day 's final climb , the Côte de la Sizeranne . Tjallingii was also dropped by the remaining members of the breakaway , while in the main field , Alexander Vinokourov ( Astana ) and Andy Schleck of RadioShack – Nissan – who had been criticised by team manager Johan Bruyneel for his poor opening half to the season – were both struggling off the back of the group . Both riders lost over three minutes by the stage end .
As the lead group approached the top of the Côte de la Sizeranne , Irizar attacked from the group of the remaining three breakaway riders , while Vanmarcke and Edet were joined by Team Europcar rider Pierre Rolland , who had escaped the confines of the main group itself . Another three @-@ rider move went forwards from the peloton as Rolland 's team @-@ mate Cyril Gautier , Rabobank 's Luis León Sánchez and BMC Racing Team rider Philippe Gilbert got clear by several seconds . Irizar held a slim advantage , but overshot a corner and was eventually caught with around 5 km ( 3 @.@ 1 mi ) to go . As Irizar was caught , Jérôme Coppel of Saur – Sojasun counter @-@ attacked , and was eventually joined by Cadel Evans – a team @-@ mate of Gilbert at BMC Racing Team – and Astana 's Andrey Kashechkin , who finished third in the race in 2007 . The trio managed to hold off the closing peloton into the finish , where Evans managed to fend off the advances of Coppel and Kashechkin to take the stage win . FDJ – BigMat rider Nacer Bouhanni led home the peloton just four seconds in arrears , and with race leader Luke Durbridge ( Orica – GreenEDGE ) not featuring in the split peloton , Bradley Wiggins assumed the race lead for Team Sky ; Evans moved up to second , one second behind Wiggins .
= = = Stage 2 = = =
5 June 2012 — Lamastre to Saint @-@ Félicien , 160 km ( 99 @.@ 4 mi )
Just like the previous day 's stage , the second stage of the race also comprised six categorised climbs , packed into the 160 km ( 99 @.@ 4 mi ) route through the Ardèche region , with the highest point coming at the summit of the second @-@ category Col de Montivernoux . The finish in Saint @-@ Félicien came at the end of a 2 @.@ 5 km ( 1 @.@ 6 mi ) climb , which would more or less rule out the sprinters more obviously than the first stage parcours . FDJ – BigMat rider Rémi Pauriol and Saur – Sojasun 's Maxime Méderel broke clear of the peloton in the opening stages , and they were subsequently joined by a group which contained a number of overall race contenders including maillot jaune et bleu wearer Bradley Wiggins ( Team Sky ) , Vincenzo Nibali of Liquigas – Cannondale and Omega Pharma – Quick @-@ Step rider Sylvain Chavanel . The group was eventually reabsorbed back into the main group after around 20 km ( 12 @.@ 4 mi ) of racing .
After a period of stability within the main group , a four @-@ rider move consisting of three French riders – David Moncoutié representing Cofidis , Blel Kadri of Ag2r – La Mondiale and Team Europcar 's Christophe Kern , who won a stage during the 2011 race – as well as Colombia 's Cayetano Sarmiento , riding for the Liquigas – Cannondale team , advanced clear of the field and quickly established an advantage over them ; of those , Kadri was best @-@ placed at just eleven seconds behind Wiggins prior to the stage . Team Sky marshalled the front of the peloton as a result , not letting the gap over four minutes at any point . Behind , there were several moves in order for riders to bridge a gap between the main field and the leaders ; at the Col de Lalouvesc with 40 km ( 24 @.@ 9 mi ) to go , the leaders only held a gap of around half a minute over their chasers . Five riders tried to do so , but only one was able to stay in between the breakaway and the peloton .
FDJ – BigMat 's Anthony Roux was the rider in question , and he set off after the quartet up front , and was able to reach them with around 7 km ( 4 @.@ 3 mi ) remaining of the stage . However , the peloton was not far behind , and the breakaway did not last much longer after that . With the field back together , several riders attempted solo moves off the front of the peloton , including Kadri 's team @-@ mate Mickaël Cherel , but all were unsuccessful . The group remained together into the climb towards the finish ; Liquigas – Cannondale and BMC Racing Team headed the group , protecting their main riders Nibali and Cadel Evans from any potential trouble . World time trial champion Tony Martin tried to get clear within the final kilometre for Omega Pharma – Quick @-@ Step but could not sustain a gap over everyone else , and Team Katusha rider Daniel Moreno timed his sprint perfectly , to take his third win of the season , ahead of French pair Julien Simon ( Saur – Sojasun ) and RadioShack – Nissan 's Tony Gallopin . Wiggins finished ninth to maintain his one @-@ second overall lead over Evans , who was seventh .
= = = Stage 3 = = =
6 June 2012 — Givors to La Clayette , 167 km ( 103 @.@ 8 mi )
With a lengthy individual time trial and three mountainous stages left during the itinerary , the third stage was billed as the sprinters ' one remaining chance at a stage victory at the Dauphiné . As such , the parcours of the stage suited them ; although there were three categorised climbs during the stage – a third @-@ category climb and two fourth @-@ category passes – they were all within the first half of the stage . Two riders – Spanish pairing Luis Ángel Maté of Cofidis and Euskaltel – Euskadi rider Egoi Martínez – went clear almost immediately after the start of the stage , making the early breakaway from the field , and the duo managed to extend their advantage over the main field to around five @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half minutes , within the first 20 km ( 12 @.@ 4 mi ) of the stage . Behind the lead pair , Team Europcar 's Giovanni Bernaudeau was the first rider from the peloton to cross the fourth @-@ category climbs , and regained the lead of the mountains classification from Ag2r – La Mondiale rider Blel Kadri .
Argos – Shimano and FDJ – BigMat looked to set the tempo on the front of the peloton , in the hopes of getting their respective sprinters John Degenkolb and Nacer Bouhanni towards the front if a sprint finish materialised . It was those two teams who gradually brought back Maté and Martínez for the majority of the parcours , but as the race drew nearer La Clayette , more teams put men into the relay and the breakaway was ended inside the final 15 km ( 9 @.@ 3 mi ) . Omega Pharma – Quick @-@ Step held their riders on the front of the peloton in the closing stages , with Sylvain Chavanel , seventh overall , being protected by his team @-@ mates before setting the pace at times . Degenkolb 's chances for the stage ended with around 2 km ( 1 @.@ 2 mi ) remaining due to a puncture . Philippe Gilbert attacked for BMC Racing Team with 1 @.@ 5 km ( 0 @.@ 9 mi ) to go , gaining an advantage of a few seconds but was caught with around 300 m ( 980 ft ) left .
RadioShack – Nissan looked to get Tony Gallopin in position for the sprint , while behind , Ricardo Garcia ( Euskaltel – Euskadi ) clipped the barriers , and fell back into the path of the sprint causing the majority of the field to be hampered ; all riders that were impacted by the crash were eventually given the same time . Up front , Edvald Boasson Hagen ( Team Sky ) launched his sprint off the wheel of Gerald Ciolek ( Omega Pharma – Quick @-@ Step ) , and won the stage by a bike length from Ciolek with Astana 's Borut Božič completing the podium . Due to the crash in the closing metres and the resultant nullification of any time gaps , Boasson Hagen 's team @-@ mate Bradley Wiggins maintained his one @-@ second lead in the general classification over Cadel Evans ( BMC Racing Team ) , despite his earlier reservations of holding the lead into the time trial due to the skinsuit type provided by the race organisation compared to that of his team . Evans also lost the lead of the points classification to Gallopin , who achieved his third consecutive top @-@ ten finish at the line ; adding the points jersey to the young rider jersey that he had already achieved , after Boasson Hagen was dropped the previous day .
= = = Stage 4 = = =
7 June 2012 — Villié @-@ Morgon to Bourg @-@ en @-@ Bresse , 53 @.@ 5 km ( 33 @.@ 2 mi ) , individual time trial ( ITT )
Unlike the third stage time trial in 2011 , in which the course used in Grenoble largely set the route for the penultimate @-@ day time trial in the Tour de France a month later , the time trial in the 2012 event was held on an independent course , running from west @-@ to @-@ east between Villié @-@ Morgon and Bourg @-@ en @-@ Bresse , with an undulating parcours that only amounted to a 61 m ( 200 ft ) difference in altitude from start to finish . As was customary of time trial stages , the riders set off in reverse order from where they were ranked in the general classification at the end of the previous stage . Thus , Arnaud Gérard of FDJ – BigMat , who , in 172nd place – of the 175 starters – trailed overall leader Bradley Wiggins ( Team Sky ) by thirty minutes and forty @-@ nine seconds , was the first rider to set off on the stage . However , he was not the first to finish as he was passed by the two riders directly behind him on the start order , that started at one @-@ minute intervals , Dan Martin of Garmin – Barracuda and Orica – GreenEDGE 's Travis Meyer .
Meyer recorded a time of one hour , seven minutes and fifty seconds as he was first to reach the line ; his time held for around a quarter of an hour , as no rider could get within twenty seconds of his time , until his team @-@ mate Luke Durbridge , the prologue winner and incumbent under @-@ 23 world time trial champion crossed the finish line in a time of one hour , four minutes and forty @-@ nine seconds , just over three minutes quicker than Meyer . Durbridge 's time held top spot for over two hours , as the majority of the field failed to match his time for the 53 @.@ 5 km ( 33 @.@ 2 mi ) course . It was not until Wilco Kelderman of the Rabobank team – starting 143rd as opposed to Durbridge starting 19th – had set quicker times at each of the intermediate timing points that Durbridge 's time came under threat from another rider , and Kelderman ultimately beat Durbridge 's time by twelve seconds , despite almost overshooting the final corner , narrowly avoiding the barriers on the outside of the corner . At the end of the stage , Kelderman stated that his performance came as " a surprise " , taking the lead of the young rider classification from Tony Gallopin ( RadioShack – Nissan ) in the process .
The first of four Team Sky riders to start within the final twenty @-@ five riders , Chris Froome got within eight seconds of Kelderman 's time , but it was not until another of the team 's riders , Michael Rogers , that the lead changed hands . Although he trailed at the first intermediate point , Rogers overhauled the time of Kelderman at the finish by fourteen seconds ; he held the lead into the final five starters , where it was then taken by the world time trial champion Tony Martin , riding for the Omega Pharma – Quick @-@ Step team . Martin bettered the time of Rogers by 37 seconds , but it was not to last as Wiggins was cementing his overall lead . Wiggins made up a deficit of seven seconds to Martin at the first intermediate point , and turned it into a 36 @-@ second lead in the space of 22 km ( 13 @.@ 7 mi ) , eventually taking the stage victory by 34 seconds over Martin . Such was Wiggins ' performance , which he later deemed " satisfying " , that he was almost catching Cadel Evans ( BMC Racing Team ) on the road , despite Evans starting two minutes before Wiggins ; Evans ultimately finished the stage in eighth position , 1 ' 43 " down on Wiggins ' time . RadioShack – Nissan rider Andy Schleck , another of the overall contenders for the Tour de France along with Evans and Wiggins , lost over ten minutes to Wiggins on the stage after a crash and a puncture .
= = = Stage 5 = = =
8 June 2012 — Saint @-@ Trivier @-@ sur @-@ Moignans to Rumilly , 186 @.@ 5 km ( 115 @.@ 9 mi )
The first of three mountainous stages to conclude the Dauphiné , the fifth stage of the race was seen as a precursor to the tenth stage of July 's Tour de France , with the majority of the day 's route making up the parcours of that stage to be held on 11 July . Three categorised climbs were part of the 186 @.@ 5 km ( 115 @.@ 9 mi ) parcours of the day , notably the hors catégorie Le Grand Colombier – making its début in the race – with an average gradient of 6 @.@ 9 % , reaching up to an altitude of 1 @,@ 501 m ( 4 @,@ 925 ft ) , but the summit of the final climb – the Col de Richemond – came with 45 @.@ 5 km ( 28 @.@ 3 mi ) remaining of the stage . Mini @-@ attacks set the course of the early running of the stage , which was carried out a quick pace , with the peloton covering 48 @.@ 3 km ( 30 @.@ 0 mi ) in the first hour of racing . After Ag2r – La Mondiale rider Blel Kadri escaped out of the peloton to take the honours at the first summit of the day , the Côte de Corlier , it was not until the uncategorised Col de la Berche several kilometres later that a group of riders managed to get clear .
A total of ten riders went clear , and quickly gathered a five @-@ minute lead over the rest of the field . At the foot of Le Grand Colombier , another seven riders formed a chase group on the road ahead of the peloton , which was later reduced to just Christophe Kern ( Team Europcar ) and Brice Feillu ( Saur – Sojasun ) , after Kern had upped the pace in the group . At this point , Kern 's team @-@ mate Kévin Reza was dropped from the lead group , and the peloton itself had been slimmed to around fifty riders , with Sylvain Chavanel ( Omega Pharma – Quick @-@ Step ) and David Millar ( Garmin – Barracuda ) – both in the top ten of the general classification overnight – along with Astana 's Alexander Vinokourov among those that did not feature within the peloton . On the descent from the climb , a group of BMC Racing Team riders including Cadel Evans , George Hincapie and Tejay van Garderen broke out from the peloton , in the hope of pulling Evans nearer the overall lead of Team Sky 's Bradley Wiggins , following his time loss the previous day in the individual time trial .
Having caught Kern and Feillu on the road , the group lost ground to the peloton and with Wiggins later joining up with the group , Evans ' efforts were in vain ; with the group now back together as a whole , their efforts went back to the original break . Kern was part of another six @-@ rider wave that went clear on the descent from the Col de Richemond , with the highest @-@ placed rider being ninth @-@ placed Luis León Sánchez of Rabobank . Team Sky took up station on the front of the main field , not allowing Sánchez to gain too much ground . The gap peaked out at around the 30 @-@ second mark and with nobody looking to help Sánchez with the pace @-@ making in the group , they sat up and allowed to be reabsorbed into the peloton . FDJ – BigMat 's Arthur Vichot attacked out of the lead group with around 7 km ( 4 @.@ 3 mi ) to go , and soloed away from his breakaway companions to take the victory by 26 seconds from the rest of the group . The peloton crossed the line around one minute down on Vichot , with Wiggins maintaining his 38 @-@ second overall lead as he was part of that group .
= = = Stage 6 = = =
9 June 2012 — Saint @-@ Alban @-@ Leysse to Morzine , 167 @.@ 5 km ( 104 @.@ 1 mi )
The queen stage of the 2012 Dauphiné , the penultimate stage consisted of six categorised climbs during its 167 @.@ 5 km ( 104 @.@ 1 mi ) parcours , the first of which coming after only 11 km ( 6 @.@ 8 mi ) with the first @-@ category Col de Plainpalais . After a pair of third @-@ category passes , the field tackled another first @-@ category climb , the Col de la Colombière coming with 65 km ( 40 @.@ 4 mi ) remaining of the stage . Inside the final 40 km ( 24 @.@ 9 mi ) , the day 's two remaining climbs were ascented ; the third @-@ category Côte de Châtillon , and the race 's second and final hors catégorie climb , with the Col de Joux Plane – reaching an altitude of 1 @,@ 691 m ( 5 @,@ 548 ft ) – being the start of the run @-@ in towards Morzine , with the summit of the climb coming with 12 km ( 7 @.@ 5 mi ) to go of the stage .
Nineteen riders went clear of the peloton almost immediately after the start of the stage ; among those riders were the two combatants for the mountains classification , Blel Kadri of Ag2r – La Mondiale and Liquigas – Cannondale 's Cayetano Sarmiento . Sarmiento took out maximum points at each of the first two climbs , and thus extended his points advantage that he held over Kadri . With RadioShack – Nissan 's Tiago Machado being the best @-@ placed rider of the group at almost six minutes down on overall leader Bradley Wiggins ( Team Sky ) , Wiggins ' team @-@ mates were leading the peloton around four minutes down on the lead group . Astana rider Andriy Hryvko , who had been in the top three earlier in the race , then joined the group after attacking out the front of the peloton . Saur – Sojasun 's Brice Feillu accelerated out of the lead group on the Côte de Châtillon , and soon picked up a gap of over a minute ahead of his former breakaway companions , while the peloton had fallen a little further away from Feillu , as they were almost four @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half minutes behind on the climb .
FDJ – BigMat rider Anthony Roux attacked out of the peloton , holding station off the front for a period of time but was soon brought back by the peloton , still led by Team Sky with assistance from Jurgen Van den Broeck 's Lotto – Belisol outfit . The group was brought back on the Col de Joux Plane , with only Feillu remaining off the front , almost 90 seconds clear . Nairo Quintana of the Movistar Team then attacked out of a diminishing favourites group , later followed by BMC Racing Team 's Cadel Evans . Quintana was too far ahead for Evans to catch him back , and eventually achieved his first World Tour victory by sixteen seconds ahead of Evans , with Team Katusha 's Daniel Moreno leading a group of eight riders , including Wiggins – and team @-@ mates Michael Rogers and Chris Froome – as well as Van Den Broeck , across the line eight seconds later . With Omega Pharma – Quick @-@ Step 's Tony Martin being dropped on the stage , Wiggins opened up his lead to 1 ' 20 " over Rogers , with Evans moving into third – taking the points classification lead in the process – ahead of Froome . RadioShack – Nissan 's Andy Schleck , one of the favourites for July 's Tour de France , abandoned during the stage citing a knee injury from his time trial crash .
= = = Stage 7 = = =
10 June 2012 — Morzine to Châtel , 124 @.@ 5 km ( 77 @.@ 4 mi )
Although the stage was relatively short at 124 @.@ 5 km ( 77 @.@ 4 mi ) in length , the parcours still featured five categorised climbs – of which one was to the finish in Châtel – reaching its highest point with the first @-@ category Col du Corbier . Mini @-@ attacks set the course of the early running of the stage , with the field remaining as a whole for the first hour of racing after the attacks were closed down within minutes . It was not until a third of the way through the stage – some 40 km ( 24 @.@ 9 mi ) in – that a move was allowed to be established on the road , as Team Europcar rider Pierre Rolland , Saur – Sojasun 's Jérôme Coppel and Lieuwe Westra of Vacansoleil – DCM accelerated out of the peloton . They were later joined by five more riders as Omega Pharma – Quick @-@ Step pairing Sylvain Chavanel and Stijn Vandenbergh , Astana 's Dmitry Fofonov , Yaroslav Popovych of RadioShack – Nissan and Christophe Le Mével representing the Garmin – Barracuda team provided some assistance to the breakaway move .
Coppel was the best @-@ placed rider of the octet , as he was in fifteenth place overall overnight around four @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half minutes down on race leader Bradley Wiggins ( Team Sky ) ; as such , the breakaway 's advantage was not allowed to gather momentum and the gap remained between two and two @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half minutes for the majority of the stage . Team Sky allowed BMC Racing Team to carry out most of the work in the peloton , with Wiggins keeping an eye on their rider Cadel Evans , who had made a late @-@ race attack the previous day and gained time back to Wiggins . Coppel , Westra and Rolland , the break initiators , then went clear again on the second @-@ category Côte de la Vernaz , but the peloton were still closing in on them , after chasing down a group that had got clear on the climb . Vincenzo Nibali ( Liquigas – Cannondale ) remained off the front , and tried to close down the leaders . Rolland and Coppel dropped Westra on the descent from the following Col du Corbier climb , where he was eventually joined by Nibali , but the solo move that he had put in was starting to show as he could not stay with Westra , and was eventually caught by the BMC Racing Team @-@ led peloton with around 10 km ( 6 @.@ 2 mi ) remaining .
Westra was caught not long after that as the lead duo 's advantage was diminishing by the kilometre , as they held a half @-@ minute lead into the final 8 km ( 5 @.@ 0 mi ) . Argos – Shimano 's Alexandre Geniez attacked out of the main group , and caught his two countrymen up the road but the breakaway was not to succeed as they were caught with 2 @.@ 3 km ( 1 @.@ 4 mi ) to go . Team Katusha took the front in the hope of a second stage win for Daniel Moreno , but Fabrice Jeandesboz attacked in the final kilometre for Saur – Sojasun but was closed down by Richie Porte , protecting his team leader Wiggins . Moreno and Rabobank 's Luis León Sánchez battled it out for the stage honours , with Moreno edging out his compatriot for the victory . Wiggins crossed the line ten seconds behind the nine @-@ man lead group , but was sufficient enough for a second consecutive Dauphiné title by 1 ' 17 " over team @-@ mate Michael Rogers . Evans later stated that he was beaten by " the better rider " , but remained pleased with his performance of third place , a stage victory and the points classification title .
= = Classification leadership = =
In the 2012 Critérium du Dauphiné , four different jerseys were awarded . For the general classification , calculated by adding each cyclist 's finishing times on each stage , the leader received a yellow jersey with a blue bar . This classification was considered the most important of the 2012 Critérium du Dauphiné , and the winner of the classification was considered the winner of the race .
Additionally , there was a points classification , which awarded a green jersey . In the points classification , cyclists got points for finishing highly in a stage . For the first three mass @-@ start stages – stages 1 , 2 and 3 – the win earned 25 points , second place earned 22 points , third 20 , fourth 18 , fifth 16 , and one point fewer per place down to a single point for 20th . For the prologue , individual time trial and final three stages , the win earned 15 points , second place earned 12 points , third 10 , fourth 8 , fifth 6 , and one point fewer per place down to a single point for 10th .
There was also a mountains classification , the leadership of which was marked by a red and white polka @-@ dot jersey . In the mountains classification , points were won by reaching the top of a climb before other cyclists . Each climb was categorised as either hors , first , second , third , or fourth @-@ category , with more points available for the higher @-@ categorised climbs . Hors catégorie climbs awarded the most points , with 20 points on offer for the first rider across the summit ; the first ten riders were able to accrue points towards the mountains classification , compared with the first eight on first @-@ category passes and the first six riders on second @-@ category climbs . Fewer points were on offer for the smaller hills , marked as third @-@ category or fourth @-@ category .
The fourth jersey represented the young rider classification , marked by a white jersey . This was decided the same way as the general classification , but only riders born after 1 January 1987 were eligible to be ranked in the classification . There was also a classification for teams , in which the times of the best three cyclists per team on each stage were added together ; the leading team at the end of the race was the team with the lowest total time .
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= McKinsey & Company =
McKinsey & Company is a worldwide management consulting firm . It conducts qualitative and quantitative analysis in order to evaluate management decisions across the public and private sectors . Widely considered the most prestigious management consultancy , McKinsey 's clientele includes 80 % of the world 's largest corporations , and an extensive list of governments and non @-@ profit organisations . More current and former Fortune 500 C.E.O.s are alumni of McKinsey than of any other company , a list including Google C.E.O. Sundar Pichai , Facebook C.O.O. Sheryl Sandberg , Morgan Stanley C.E.O. James P. Gorman , and many more . McKinsey publishes the McKinsey Quarterly , funds the McKinsey Global Institute research organization , publishes reports on management topics , and has authored many influential books on management . Its practices of confidentiality , influence on business practices , and corporate culture have experienced a polarizing reception .
McKinsey was founded in 1926 by James McKinsey in order to apply accounting principles to management . McKinsey died in 1937 , and the firm was restructured several times , with the modern @-@ day McKinsey & Company emerging in 1939 . Marvin Bower is credited with establishing McKinsey 's culture and practices in the 1930s based on the principles he experienced as a lawyer . The firm developed an " up or out " policy , where consultants who are not promoted are asked to leave . McKinsey was the first management consultancy to hire recent college graduates , rather than experienced managers .
In the 1980s and 1990s , the firm expanded internationally and established new practice areas . It had 88 staff in 1951 and 7 @,@ 700 by the early 2000s . McKinsey 's consulting has helped to establish many of the norms in business and contributed to many of the major successes and failures in business in the modern era .
= = History = =
= = = Early history = = =
McKinsey & Company was founded under the name James O. McKinsey & Company in 1926 by James McKinsey , a professor of accounting at the University of Chicago . He conceived the idea after witnessing inefficiencies in military suppliers while working for the U.S. Army Ordnance Department . The firm called itself an " accounting and management firm " and started out giving consulting on using accounting principles as a management tool . Mr. McKinsey 's first partners were Tom Kearney , hired in 1929 , and Marvin Bower , hired in 1933 . In its first few years , the firm grew quickly and began developing rapport among corporations ; its second office was opened in New York City in 1932 . In 1935 , Mr. McKinsey left the firm temporarily to serve as the Chairman and CEO of client Marshall Field 's as it implemented the restructuring plan created by his firm .
McKinsey was merged with accounting firm Scovell , Wellington & Company that same year , creating the New York @-@ based McKinsey , Wellington & Co. and splitting off the accounting practice into Chicago @-@ based Wellington & Company . A Wellington project that accounted for 55 percent of McKinsey , Wellington & Company 's billings was about to expire and Kearney and Bower had disagreements about how to run the firm . Bower wanted to expand nationally and hire young business school graduates , whereas Kearney wanted to stay in Chicago and hire experienced accountants . Additionally , in 1937 James O. McKinsey died after catching pneumonia .
This led to the division of McKinsey , Wellington & Company in 1939 . The accounting practice returned to Scovell , Wellington & Company , while the management engineering practice was split into McKinsey & Company and McKinsey , Kearney & Company . Bower had partnered with Guy Crockett from Scovell Wellington , who invested in the new McKinsey & Company and became managing partner , while Marvin Bower is credited with founding the firm 's principles and strategy as his deputy . The New York office purchased exclusive rights to the McKinsey name in 1946 .
= = = Establishment = = =
McKinsey & Company grew quickly in the 1940s and 50s , especially in Europe . It had 88 staff in 1951 and more than 200 by the 1960s , including 37 in London by 1966 . In the same year , McKinsey had six offices in major US cities like San Francisco , Los Angeles and Washington D.C. , as well as six abroad . These foreign offices were primarily in Europe , such as in London , Paris , Amsterdam , as well as in Melbourne . By this time , one third of the company 's revenues originated from its European offices . Guy Crockett stepped down as managing director in 1950 , and Marvin Bower was elected in his place . McKinsey 's profit @-@ sharing , executive and planning committees were formed in 1951 . The organization 's client base expanded especially among governments , defense contractors , bluechip companies and military organizations in the post @-@ World War II era . After seven years of consideration , McKinsey became a private corporation with shares owned exclusively by McKinsey employees in 1956 .
After Bower stepped down in 1967 , the firm 's revenues declined . New competitors like the Boston Consulting Group and Bain & Company created increased competition for McKinsey by marketing specific branded products , such as the Growth @-@ Share Matrix , and by selling their industry expertise . In 1971 , McKinsey created the Commission on Firm Aims and Goals , which found that McKinsey had become too focused on geographic expansion and lacked adequate industry knowledge . The commission advised that McKinsey slow its growth and develop industry specialties . In 1976 , Ron Daniel was elected managing director , serving until 1988 . Daniel and Fred Gluck helped shift the firm away from its generalist approach by developing 15 specialized working groups within McKinsey called Centers of Competence and by developing practice areas called Strategy , Operations and Organization . Daniel also began McKinsey 's knowledge management efforts in 1987 . This led to the creation of an IT system that tracked McKinsey engagements , a process to centralize knowledge from each practice area and a resource directory of internal experts . " By the end of his tenure in 1988 the firm was growing again and had opened new offices in Rome , Helsinki , São Paulo and Minneapolis .
Fred Gluck served as McKinsey ’ s managing director from 1988 to 1994 . The firm 's revenues doubled during his tenure . He organized McKinsey into 72 " islands of activity " that were organized under 7 sectors and 7 functional areas . By 1997 , McKinsey had grown eightfold over its size in 1977 . In 1989 the firm attempted to make a talent acquisition in IT services through a $ 10 million purchase of the Information Consulting Group ( ICG ) , but a culture clash caused 151 out of the 254 ICG staff members to leave by 1993 .
= = = Recent history = = =
= = = = Further expansion = = = =
In 1994 , Rajat Gupta became the first non @-@ American @-@ born partner to be elected as the firm ’ s managing director . By the end of his tenure , McKinsey had grown from 2 @,@ 900 to 7 @,@ 700 staff and 58 to 84 locations . He opened new international offices in cities such as Moscow , Beijing and Bangkok . Continuing the structure developed by prior directors , Gupta also created 16 industry groups charged with understanding specific markets and instituted a three @-@ term limit for the managing director . McKinsey created practice areas for manufacturing and business technology in the late 1990s .
McKinsey set up " accelerators " in the 1990s , where the firm accepted stock @-@ based reimbursement to help internet startups ; the company performed more than 1 @,@ 000 e @-@ commerce projects from 1998 @-@ 2000 alone . The burst of the dot @-@ com bubble led to a reduction in utilization rates of McKinsey 's consultants from 64 to 52 percent . Though McKinsey avoided dismissing any personnel following the decline , the decline in revenues and losses from equity @-@ based payments as stock interests lost their value , together with a recession in 2001 , meant the company had to reduce its prices , cut expenses and reduce hiring .
In 2001 , McKinsey launched several practices that focused on the public and social sector . It took on many public sector or non profit clients on a pro bono basis . By 2002 McKinsey had invested a $ 35 @.@ 8 million budget on knowledge management , up from $ 8 @.@ 3 million in 1999 . Its revenues were 50 , 20 and 30 percent from strategy , operations and technology consulting respectively .
In 2003 Ian Davis , the head of the London , UK office , was elected to the position of managing director . Davis promised a return to the company ’ s core values , after a period in which the firm had expanded rapidly , which some McKinsey consultants felt was a departure from the company 's heritage . Also in 2003 , the firm established a headquarters for the Asia @-@ Pacific region in Shanghai , China . By 2004 , more than 60 percent of McKinsey 's revenues were generated outside the U.S. The company started a Social Sector Office ( SSO ) in 2008 , which is divided into three practices : Global Public Health , Economic Development and Opportunity Creation ( EDHOC ) and Philanthropy . McKinsey does much of its pro @-@ bono work through the SSO , whereas a Business Technology Office ( BTO ) , founded in 1997 , provides consulting on technology strategy .
By 2009 , the firm consisted of 400 directors ( senior partners ) , up from 151 in 1993 . Dominic Barton was elected as Managing Director , a role he was re @-@ elected for in 2012 and 2015 .
= = = = Galleon insider trading scandal = = = =
Former McKinsey senior executives , Rajat Gupta and Anil Kumar , were among those convicted in a government investigation into insider trading for sharing inside information with Galleon Group hedge fund owner Raj Rajaratnam . Though McKinsey was not accused of any wrongdoing , the convictions were embarrassing for the firm , since it prides itself for integrity and client confidentiality . Following the initial allegations McKinsey no longer maintains a relationship with either senior partner , though the manner in which it severed ties attracted controversy .
Senior partner Anil Kumar , described as Gupta 's protégé , left the firm after the allegations in 2009 and pleaded guilty in January 2010 . While he and other partners had been pitching McKinsey 's consulting services to the Galleon Group , Kumar and Rajaratnam reached a private consulting agreement , violating McKinsey 's policies on confidentiality . Gupta was convicted in June 2012 of four counts of conspiracy and securities fraud , and acquitted on two counts . In October 2011 , he was arrested by the FBI on criminal charges of sharing insider information from these confidential board meetings with Rajaratnam . At least twice , Gupta used a McKinsey phone to call Rajaratnam and retained other perks — an office , assistant , and $ 6 million retirement salary that year — as a senior partner emeritus .
After the scandal McKinsey instituted new policies and procedures to discourage future indiscretions from consultants , including investigating other partners ' ties to Gupta .
= = Organization = =
= = = Structure = = =
McKinsey & Company was originally organized as a partnership before being legally restructured as a private corporation with shares owned by its Partners in 1956 . It mimics the structure of a partnership and employees are called " partners " . The company has a flat hierarchy and each member is assigned a mentor . Since the 1960s , McKinsey 's Managing Director has been elected by a vote of senior directors to serve up to three , three @-@ year terms or until reaching the mandatory retirement age of 60 . The firm is also managed by a series of committees that each has its own area of responsibility .
McKinsey has a de @-@ centralized structure , whereby different offices operate similarly , but independently . Each office is expected to put the overall organization 's best interest before the office 's , which McKinsey refers to as the " one firm " principle . Consultants and engagements are often shared across offices . Revenues from all offices are pooled and an individual office 's revenue does not directly affect it financially . The company 's budgeting is centralized , but individual consultants are given a large degree of autonomy .
McKinsey consultants are either industry experts , functional experts , or generalists that cover specific geographic regions . The firm has 23 Industry Practices focused on individual industries , nine Functional Practices that work in areas like finance , marketing or risk , and five Capabilities and Solutions areas related to technology consulting .
= = = Culture = = =
Marvin Bower is credited with creating McKinsey 's values and principles in 1937 . He established a set of rules : that consultants should put the interests of clients before McKinsey 's revenues , not discuss client affairs , tell the truth even if it means challenging the client 's opinion and , only perform work that is both necessary and that McKinsey can do well . Bower created the firm 's principle of only working with CEOs , which was later expanded to CEOs of subsidiaries and divisions . He also created McKinsey 's principle of only working with clients the firm felt would follow its advice .
Bower also established the firm 's language . McKinsey calls itself " The Firm " and its employees " members " . McKinsey says its consultants are not motivated by money . McKinsey & Company tries to keep a " very low profile public image . " The firm has a policy against discussing specific client situations . The firm says it does not advertise , though it did advertise allegedly for recruitment purposes in TIME Magazine in 1966 . Members are not supposed to " sell " their services . McKinsey 's consultants are expected to become a part of the community and recruit clients from church , charitable foundations , board positions and other community involvements .
A 1993 profile story in Fortune Magazine said McKinsey & Company was " the most well @-@ known , most secretive , most high @-@ priced , most prestigious , most consistently successful , most envied , most trusted , most disliked management consulting firm on earth . " According to BusinessWeek the firm is " ridiculed , reviled , or revered depending on one 's perspective . "
McKinsey 's culture has often been compared to religion , because of the influence , loyalty and zeal of its members . Fortune Magazine said partners talk to each other with " a sense of personal affection and admiration . " An article in The News Observer said McKinsey 's internal culture was " collegiate and ruthlessly competitive " and has been described as arrogant . The Wall Street Journal said McKinsey is seen as " elite , loyal and secretive " . According to Reuters , it has a " button @-@ down culture " focused on " playing by the rules " . According to BusinessWeek , some consultants say the firm has strayed from its original values as it increased in size . The Guardian said at McKinsey " hours are long , expectations high and failure not acceptable . "
= = = Influence = = =
Many of McKinsey 's alumni become CEOs of major corporations or hold important government positions . In doing so , they influence the other organization with McKinsey 's values and culture . McKinsey 's alumni have been appointed as CEOs or high @-@ level executives at Google , American Express , IBM , Westinghouse Electric , Sears , AT & T , PepsiCo , and Enron . McKinsey alumni have held positions with Tony Blair 's office . Citicorp and Merrill Lynch have also hired many McKinsey alumni . As of 2008 , McKinsey alumni held CEO positions with 16 corporations that have more than $ 2 billion in revenue . The firm was ranked by USA Today as the most likely company to work for and become a future CEO of a major corporation , with odds of 1 out of 690 . McKinsey 's consulting work has also been influential in establishing many of the norms of how governments and corporations are run . The company has been influential in the British Department of Health for many years and was heavily involved in the discussions around the Health and Social Care Act 2012 .
= = Consulting services = =
McKinsey & Company provides management consulting services , such as providing advice on an acquisition , developing a plan to restructure a sales force , creating a new business strategy or providing advice on downsizing . Its consultants design and implement studies to evaluate management decisions using data and interviews to test hypotheses . Conclusions of the study are presented to senior management , typically in a PowerPoint presentation and a booklet .
McKinsey is considered one of the most prestigious and most expensive management consulting firms . In Dangerous Company , journalists James O 'Shea and Charles Madigan said McKinsey is the most influential , most reputable management consulting firm in the industry and that it carries the most weight with corporate boards . The News Observer said McKinsey is the " creme de la creme " and the " Rolls Royce " of management consulting . Between 2002 and 2014 , McKinsey has been ranked in the number one position of the branche @-@ internal " The Best Consulting Firms : Prestige to work for " list by Vault.com.
McKinsey & Company has traditionally charged approximately 25 percent more than competing firms with an average project of one million dollars . Prices were reduced in the economic slump following the dot @-@ com bubble . According to The Globe and Mail , McKinsey clients estimate that the firm 's advice turns out to be poor in retrospect about 10 to 20 percent of the time .
A typical McKinsey engagement can last between two and twelve months and involves three to six McKinsey consultants . An engagement is usually managed by a generalist that covers the region the client 's headquarters are located in and specialists that have either an industry or functional expertise . Unlike some competing consulting firms , McKinsey does not hold a policy against working for multiple competing companies ( although individual consultants are barred from doing so ) . This has sometimes led to accusations of sharing confidential information or re @-@ packaging a competitor 's tactics as best practices .
= = = Environmental consulting = = =
Marginal abatement cost curves attempt to compare the financial costs of different options for reducing pollution in a region and are used in emissions trading , policy discussions and incentive programs . McKinsey & Company released its first marginal abatement cost ( MAC ) curve for greenhouse gas emissions in February 2007 , which was updated to version two in January 2009 . McKinsey & Company 's MAC curve has become the most widely used and is the basis for McKinsey ’ s consulting on climate change and sustainability .
McKinsey 's curve predicts negative cost abatement strategies , which has been controversial among economists . The International Association for Energy Economics said in The Energy Journal that McKinsey 's cost @-@ curve was popular among policymakers , because it suggests they can take " bold action towards improving energy efficiency without imposing costs on society . "
In a 2010 report , the Rainforest Foundation UK said McKinsey 's cost curve methodology was misleading for policy decisions regarding the Reduced Emissions from Deforestation and Forest Degradation ( REDD ) program . The report argued that McKinsey 's calculations exclude certain implementation and governance costs , which makes it favor industrial uses of forests while discouraging subsistence projects . Greenpeace said the curve has allowed Indonesia and Guyana to win financial incentives from the United Nations by creating inflated estimates of current deforestation so they could demonstrate reductions in comparison . McKinsey said they had made it clear in the cost @-@ curve publications that cost curves do not translate " mechanically " into policy implications and that policymakers should consider " many other factors " before introducing new laws .
= = Recruiting and compensation = =
McKinsey & Company was the first management consultancy to hire recent graduates instead of experienced business managers , when it started doing so in 1953 . Many of its recruits are Baker Scholars , Rhodes scholars , Marshall Scholars , Gates @-@ Cambridge scholars , or White House Fellows . Less than half of the firm 's recruits are from business majors , while others have advanced degrees in science , medicine , engineering or law . Prestigious business colleges may have McKinsey consultants assigned to cultivating relationships with upcoming graduates .
According to The Observer , McKinsey recruits recent graduates and " imbues them with a religious conviction " in the firm , then culls through them with its " up @-@ or @-@ out " policy . The " up or out " policy , which was established in 1951 , means that consultants that are not being promoted within the firm are asked to leave . About one @-@ fifth of McKinsey 's consultants depart under the up or out policy each year . McKinsey 's practice of hiring recent graduates and the " up @-@ or @-@ out " philosophy , were originally based on Marvin Bower 's experiences at the law firm Jones Day in the 1930s , as well as the " Cravath system " used at the law firm Cravath , Swaine and Moore .
According to Financial Times journalist Duff McDonald , as of September 2013 , the firm receives 225 @,@ 000 employment applications annually and about one percent — or 2 @,@ 200 — of the applicants are hired . There is an ongoing debate within the firm on how fast it should grow . According to a report by WetFeet , McKinsey " offers some of the best experience , opportunity and professional development in the industry " and it is prestigious to have McKinsey on a resume . However , it said the work environment is demanding , involving extensive travel and long hours . Consulting Magazine 's 2007 list of " Best Consulting Firms to Work For " ranked McKinsey as number 3 .
New undergraduate McKinsey recruits are paid about $ 80 @,@ 000 a year , while senior partners are estimated to earn $ 1 – $ 3 million or more . According to Fortune Magazine , some McKinsey staff earn more than the CEOs they consult .
= = Research and publishing = =
McKinsey & Company consultants regularly publish books , research and articles about business and management . The firm spends $ 50 – $ 100 million a year on research . McKinsey was one of the first organizations to fund management research , when it founded the Foundation for Management Research in 1955 . The firm began publishing a business magazine , The McKinsey Quarterly , in 1964 . It funds the McKinsey Global Institute , which studies global economic trends and was founded in 1990 . Many consultants are contributors to the Harvard Business Review . McKinsey consultants published only two books from 1960 @-@ 1980 , then more than 50 from 1980 to 1996 . McKinsey 's publications and research give the firm a " quasi @-@ academic " image .
A McKinsey book , In Search of Excellence , was published in 1982 . It featured eight characteristics of successful businesses based on an analysis of 43 top performing companies . It became one of the most influential and highly read management books and marked the beginning of McKinsey 's shift from accounting to " softer " aspects of management , like skills and culture . In Search of Excellence 's distribution prompted others , including McKinsey consultants , to write more management books . According to David Guest from King 's College , In Search of Excellence became popular among business managers because it was easy to read , well @-@ marketed and some of its core messages were valid . However , it was disliked by academics because of flaws in its methodology . Additionally , a 1984 analysis by BusinessWeek found that many of those companies identified as " excellent " in the book no longer met the criteria only two years later .
A 1997 article and a book it published in 2001 on " The War for Talent " prompted academics and the business community to start focusing more on talent management . The authors found that the best @-@ performing companies were " obsessed " with acquiring and managing the best talent . They advocated that companies rank employees by their performance and promote " stars " , while targeting under @-@ performers for improvement or layoffs . After the book was published , Enron , a company which followed many of its principles , was involved in a scandal that led to its bankruptcy . In May 2001 , a Stanford professor wrote a paper critical of the " War on Talent " arguing that it prioritized individuals at the expense of the larger organization .
McKinsey consultants published Creative Destruction in 2001 . The book suggested that CEOs need to be willing to change or rebuild a company , rather than protect what they have created . It found that out of the first S & P 500 list from 1957 , only 74 were still in business by 1998 . The New York Times said it " makes a cogent argument that in times of rampant , uncertain change ... established companies are handcuffed by success . " In 2009 , McKinsey consultants published " The Alchemy of Growth " , which established three " horizons " for growth : core enhancements , new growth platforms and options . Its three horizons became adopted widely , because it gave executives a simple vocabulary about business growth .
In February 2011 , McKinsey surveyed 1 @,@ 300 US private @-@ sector employers on their expected response to the Affordable Care Act ( ACA ) . 30 percent of respondents said they anticipated they would probably or definitely stop offering employer sponsored health coverage after the ACA went into effect in 2014 . These results , published in June 2011 in the McKinsey e @-@ Quarterly , became " a useful tool for critics of the ACA and a deep annoyance for defenders of the law " according to an article in TIME Magazine . Supporters of healthcare reform argued the survey far surpassed estimates by the Congressional Budget Office and insisted that McKinsey disclose the survey 's methodology . Two weeks after publishing the survey results , McKinsey released the contents of the survey including the questionnaire and 206 @-@ pages of survey data . In its accompanying statement , McKinsey said it was intended to capture the attitude of employers at a certain point in time , not make a prediction .
Since 1990 , McKinsey has been publishing Valuation : Measuring and Managing the Value of Companies , a popular textbook on valuation . The book is now available in its sixth edition .
= = Consulting projects = =
According to The Firm , McKinsey has been influential in establishing the norms of business , such as working in large @-@ scale office settings . According to a 1993 profile in Fortune magazine , " while McKinsey has consulted for many of the current era 's great successes ... it has also been a fixture at many of the big losers . " In The Firm , author Duff McDonald said McKinsey helped restructure the White House , guided corporations through large @-@ scale re @-@ organizations in post @-@ war Europe and facilitated turn @-@ arounds , but in other cases advised companies to adopt strategies that led to their collapse or was unable to prevent an impending bankruptcy . It said
McKinsey was a major player in the efficiency boom in the 1920s , the postwar gigantism of the 1940s , the rationalization of government and rise of marketing in the 1950s , the age of corporate influence in the 1960s , the restructuring of America and rise of strategy in the 1970s , the massive growth in information technology in the 1980s , the globalization of the 1990s , and the boom @-@ bust @-@ and @-@ cleanup of the 2000s .
= = = History = = =
McKinsey & Company 's founder , James O. McKinsey , introduced the concept of budget planning as a management framework in his fifth book Budgetary Control in 1922 . The firm 's first client was the treasurer of Armour & Company , who , along with other early McKinsey clients , had read Budgetary Control . In 1931 McKinsey created a methodology for analyzing a company called the General Survey Outline ( GSO ) , which was established based on ideas introduced in the 1924 book Business Administration . It was also known as the Banker 's Survey , because McKinsey 's clients who used it in the 1930s were predominantly banks . After the Wagner Act gave certain rights to employees to organize into unions in 1935 , McKinsey started consulting corporations on employee relations . Later in the 1950s , the work of a McKinsey consultant on compensation was influential in " skyrocketing executive pay " . It also helped many companies such as Heinz , IBM and Hoover expand into Europe .
In the 1940s , McKinsey helped many corporations convert into wartime production for World War II . It also helped organize NASA into an organization that relies heavily on contractors in 1958 . McKinsey created a report in 1953 for Dwight Eisenhower that was used to guide government appointments . In 1973 , McKinsey & Company led a project for a consortium of grocery chains represented by the U.S. Supermarket Ad Hoc Committee on a Uniform Grocery Product Code to create the barcode . According to the book " Business Research Methods " , the barcode became commonplace after a study by McKinsey persuaded Krogers to adopt it .
In the 1970s and 1980s , McKinsey helped European companies change their organizational structure to M @-@ form ( Multidivisional Form ) , which organizes the company into semi @-@ autonomous divisions that function around a product , industry or customer , rather than a function or expertise . In the 1980s , AT & T reduced investments in cell towers due to McKinsey 's prediction that there would only be 900 @,@ 000 cell phone subscribers by 2000 . According to The Firm this was " laughably off the mark " from the 109 million cellular subscribers by 2000 . At the time cell phones were bulky and expensive . The firm helped the Dutch government facilitate a turnaround for Hoogovens , the world 's largest steel company as of 2013 , through a $ 1 billion bankruptcy bailout . It also implemented a turnaround for the city of Glasgow , which had problems with unemployment and crime . McKinsey created the corporate structure for NationsBank , when it was still a small company known as North Carolina National Bank . McKinsey was hired by General Motors to do a large @-@ scale re @-@ organization to help it compete with Japanese auto @-@ makers . The book The Firm said it was an " unmitigated disaster " because McKinsey focused on corporate structure , whereas GM needed to compete with Japanese automakers through manufacturing process improvement . A McKinsey consultant said GM did not follow their advice .
A 2002 article in BusinessWeek said that a series of bankruptcies of McKinsey clients , such as Swissair , Kmart , and Global Crossing , in the 1990s raised questions as to whether McKinsey was responsible or had a lapse in judgement . McKinsey recommended that Swissair avoid high operating costs in its home country by developing partnerships with airlines based in other regions . In order to attract partners , Swissair acquired more than $ 1 billion in shares of other airlines , many of which were failing . This led to huge losses for Swissair .
Prior to the Enron scandal , McKinsey helped it shift from an oil and gas production company into an electric commodities trader , which led to significant growth in profits and revenues . According to The Independent , there was " no suggestion that McKinsey was complicit in the subsequent scandal , [ but ] critics say the arrogance of Enron 's leaders is emblematic of the McKinsey culture . " The government did not investigate McKinsey , who said they did not provide advice on Enron 's accounting , but some questioned whether McKinsey knew about Enron 's accounting problems or ignored warning signs .
Former Financial Times journalist Duff McDonald , said McKinsey 's confidentiality policy often prevents the public from becoming informed about the firm 's work , except after it is exposed through lawsuits or investigations . 13 @,@ 000 McKinsey documents were released as part of a lawsuit against Allstate , which showed that McKinsey recommended the company reduce payouts to insurance claimants by offering low settlements , delaying processing to wear out claimants through attrition , and fighting customers that protest in court . Allstate 's profits doubled over ten years after adopting McKinsey 's strategy , but it also led to lawsuits alleging they were cheating claimants out of legitimate insurance claims .
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= Georgetown University =
Georgetown University is a private research university in Washington , D.C. Founded in 1789 , it is the oldest Catholic and Jesuit institution of higher education in the United States . Located in Washington 's historic Georgetown neighborhood , the university 's main campus is noted for Healy Hall , a National Historic Landmark . Georgetown 's law school is located on Capitol Hill , and the university has auxiliary campuses in Italy , Turkey , and Qatar .
Georgetown 's founding by John Carroll , America 's first Catholic bishop , realized efforts dating from the settlement of the province of Maryland in 1634 to establish a local Roman Catholic college in the face of religious persecution . The university expanded after the American Civil War under the leadership of Patrick Francis Healy , who came to be known as Georgetown 's " second founder " despite having been born into slavery . Jesuits have participated in the university 's administration since 1805 , a heritage Georgetown celebrates , but the university has always been governed independently of the Society of Jesus and of church authorities .
Comprising nine undergraduate and graduate schools , the university enrolls approximately 7 @,@ 000 undergraduate and 10 @,@ 000 post @-@ graduate students from a wide variety of religious , ethnic , and geographic backgrounds , including 130 foreign countries . The university 's most notable alumni are prominent in public life in the United States and abroad . Among them are former U.S. President Bill Clinton , U.S. Chief Justice Edward Douglass White , U.S. Supreme Court Associate Justice Antonin Scalia , dozens of U.S. governors and members of Congress , heads of state or government of more than a dozen countries , royalty and diplomats .
Campus organizations include the country 's largest student @-@ run business and largest student @-@ run financial institution . Georgetown 's athletic teams , nicknamed the Hoyas , include a men 's basketball team that has won a record @-@ tying seven Big East championships , appeared in five Final Fours , and won a national championship in 1984 , as well as a co @-@ ed sailing team that holds nine national championship and one world championship title .
= = History = =
= = = Founding = = =
Jesuit settlers from England founded the Province of Maryland in 1634 . However , the 1646 defeat of the Royalists in the English Civil War led to stringent laws against Roman Catholic education and the extradition of known Jesuits from the colony , including missionary Andrew White , and the destruction of their school at Calverton Manor . During most of the remainder of Maryland 's colonial period , Jesuits conducted Catholic schools clandestinely . It was not until after the end of the American Revolution that plans to establish a permanent Catholic institution for education in the United States were realized .
Because of Benjamin Franklin 's recommendation , Pope Pius VI appointed former Jesuit John Carroll as the first head of the Roman Catholic Church in America , even though the papal suppression of the Jesuit order was still in effect . Carroll began meetings of local clergy in 1783 near Annapolis , Maryland , where they orchestrated the development of a new university . On January 23 , 1789 , Carroll finalized the purchase of the property in Georgetown on which Dahlgren Quadrangle was later built . Future Congressman William Gaston was enrolled as the school 's first student on November 22 , 1791 , and instruction began on January 2 , 1792 .
During its early years , Georgetown College suffered from considerable financial strain . The Maryland Society of Jesus began its restoration in 1805 , and Jesuit affiliation , in the form of teachers and administrators , bolstered confidence in the college . The school relied on private sources of funding and the limited profits from local lands which had been donated to the Jesuits . To raise money for Georgetown and other schools in 1838 , Maryland Jesuits conducted a mass sale of some 272 slaves to two Deep South plantations from their six in Maryland , ending their slaveholding .
The United States Congress issued Georgetown the first federal university charter in 1815 , which allowed it to confer degrees , and the first bachelor 's degrees were awarded two years later . In 1844 , the school received a corporate charter , under the name " The President and Directors of Georgetown College " , affording the growing school additional legal rights . In response to the demand for a local option for Roman Catholic students , the Medical School was founded in 1851 .
= = = Civil War = = =
The U.S. Civil War greatly affected Georgetown as 1 @,@ 141 students and alumni enlisted in one army or the other , and the Union Army commandeered university buildings . By the time of President Abraham Lincoln 's May 1861 visit to campus , 1 @,@ 400 troops were living in temporary quarters there . Due to the number of lives lost in the war , enrollment levels remained low until well after the war . Only seven students graduated in 1869 , down from over 300 in the previous decade . When the Georgetown College Boat Club was founded in 1876 , the school 's rowing team , it adopted blue , used for Union uniforms , and gray , used for Confederate uniforms , as its colors to signify the peaceful unity among students . Subsequently , the school adopted these as its official colors .
Enrollment did not recover until during the presidency of Patrick Francis Healy from 1873 to 1881 . Born in Georgia as a slave by law and mixed @-@ race by ancestry , Healy was the first head of a predominantly white American university of acknowledged African descent . He identified as Irish Catholic , like his father , and was educated in Catholic schools in the United States and France . He is credited with reforming the undergraduate curriculum , lengthening the medical and law programs , and creating the Alumni Association . One of his largest undertakings was the construction of a major new building , subsequently named Healy Hall in his honor . For his work , Healy is known as the school 's " second founder . "
= = = Expansion = = =
After the founding of the Law Department in 1870 , Healy and his successors hoped to bind the professional schools into a university , and focus on higher education . The School of Medicine added a dental school in 1901 and the undergraduate School of Nursing in 1903 . Georgetown Preparatory School relocated from campus in 1919 and fully separated from the University in 1927 . The School of Foreign Service ( SFS ) was founded in 1919 by Edmund A. Walsh , to prepare students for leadership in diplomacy and foreign commerce . The School of Dentistry became independent of the School of Medicine in 1956 . The School of Business was separated from the SFS in 1957 . In 1998 it was renamed the McDonough School of Business in honor of alumnus Robert E. McDonough .
Besides expansion of the University , Georgetown also aimed to expand its resources and student body . The School of Nursing has admitted female students since its founding , and most of the university classes were made available to them on a limited basis by 1952 . With the College of Arts and Sciences welcoming its first female students in the 1969 – 1970 academic year , Georgetown became fully coeducational .
Georgetown ended its bicentennial year of 1989 by electing Leo J. O 'Donovan as president . He subsequently launched the Third Century Campaign to build the school 's endowment . In December 2003 , Georgetown completed the campaign after raising over $ 1 billion for financial aid , academic chair endowment , and new capital projects . John J. DeGioia , Georgetown 's first lay president , has led the school since 2001 , and has continued its financial modernization and sought to " expand opportunities for intercultural and interreligious dialogue . " He opened a campus in Qatar .
= = = Jesuit tradition = = =
Georgetown University was founded by former Jesuits in the tradition of Ignatius of Loyola ; it is a member of the Association of Jesuit Colleges and Universities . Georgetown is not a pontifical university , though seven Jesuits serve on the thirty @-@ six member Board of Directors , the school 's highest governance . Fifty @-@ two members of the Society of Jesus live on campus , and are employed by Georgetown mostly as professors or administrators . Jesuit Heritage Week has been held every year since 2001 to celebrate the contributions of Jesuits to the Georgetown tradition .
The role that Georgetown 's Catholic heritage has played in its policies has been controversial at times , even as its influence is relatively limited . Stores in University @-@ owned buildings are not allowed to sell or distribute birth control products . Georgetown University Medical Center and Georgetown University Hospital , operated by MedStar Health , are prohibited from performing abortions . As recently as 2004 , the hospital did perform research using embryonic stem cells . Georgetown has been criticized by religious groups such as the Cardinal Newman Society for hosting speakers such as John Kerry and Barack Obama , prominent pro @-@ choice politicians . Washington 's Archbishop , Donald Wuerl , criticized the university for inviting Kathleen Sebelius to be a commencement speaker . The university hosts the Cardinal O 'Connor Conference on Life every January to discuss the pro @-@ life movement .
Between 1996 and 1999 , the administration added crucifixes to many classroom walls , a change that attracted national attention . Before 1996 , crucifixes had hung only in hospital rooms and historic classrooms . Some of these crucifixes are historic works of art , and are noted as such . According to Imam Yahya Hendi , the school 's on @-@ campus Muslim cleric , pressure to remove the crucifixes comes from within the Catholic community , while he and other campus faith leaders have defended their placement . The Intercultural Center is an exception to this controversy , rotating displays of various faith and culture symbols in the lobby .
= = Academics = =
As of 2014 , the University has 7 @,@ 636 undergraduate students , and 10 @,@ 213 graduate students . Bachelor 's programs are offered through Georgetown College , the School of Nursing and Health Studies , the Robert Emmett McDonough School of Business , the School of Continuing Studies , and the Edmund A. Walsh School of Foreign Service , which includes the Qatar campus . The now @-@ defunct School of Dentistry closed in 1990 after 89 years in operation . Some high school students from Georgetown Visitation are permitted to attend classes for Advanced Placement credit .
Georgetown University offers undergraduate degrees in forty @-@ eight majors in the four undergraduate schools , as well as the opportunity for students to design their own individualized courses of study . All majors in the College are open as minors to students in the College , the School of Nursing and Health Studies , and the School of Business . Students in the School of Foreign Service cannot receive minors , but can complete certificates instead . All courses are on a credit hour system . Georgetown offers many opportunities to study abroad , and about 50 % of the undergraduate student body spends time at an institution overseas .
Master 's and doctoral programs are offered through the Graduate School of Arts and Sciences , the Law Center , the School of Medicine , the McCourt School of Public Policy , and the School of Continuing Studies . Masters students occasionally share some advanced seminars with undergraduates , and most undergraduate schools offer abbreviated bachelors and masters programs following completion of the undergraduate degree . The McDonough School of Business and the Edmund A. Walsh School of Foreign Service both offer masters programs . The School of Foreign Service is renowned for its academic programs in international affairs . Its graduate program was ranked first in the world by Foreign Policy and its undergraduate program was ranked fourth . The Center for Contemporary Arab Studies also offer a Master 's of Arab Studies , as well as certificates .
Each graduate school offers at least one double degree with another graduate school . Additionally , the Law Center offers a joint degree with the Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health . The School of Continuing Studies includes the Center for Continuing and Professional Education , and operates four types of degree programs , over thirty professional certificates and non @-@ degree courses , undergraduate and graduate degrees in Liberal Studies , as well as summer courses for graduates , undergraduates , and high school students .
= = = Faculty = = =
As of 2012 , Georgetown University employed 1 @,@ 354 full @-@ time and 880 part @-@ time faculty members across its three Washington , D.C. campuses , with additional staff at SFS @-@ Qatar . The faculty comprises leading academics and notable political and business leaders , and are predominantly male by a two @-@ to @-@ one margin . Politically , Georgetown University 's faculty members give more support to liberal candidates , and while their donation patterns are generally consistent with those of other American university faculties , they gave more than average to Barack Obama 's presidential campaign .
The current faculty includes scholars such as the former President of the American Philological Association James J. O 'Donnell , theologian John Haught , social activists Sam Marullo and Chai Feldblum , Nobel laureate George Akerlof , and preeminent hip @-@ hop scholar Michael Eric Dyson . Many former politicians choose to teach at Georgetown , including the former Secretary of State Madeleine Albright , former U.S. Ambassador to the United Nations Jeane Kirkpatrick , U.S. Agency for International Development administrator Andrew Natsios , National Security Advisor Anthony Lake , and CIA director George Tenet . Internationally , the school attracts numerous former ambassadors and heads of state , such as Prime Minister of Spain José María Aznar , Saudi Ambassador Prince Turki bin Faisal Al Saud , and President of Colombia Álvaro Uribe .
= = = Research = = =
Georgetown University is a self @-@ described " student @-@ centered research university " considered by the Carnegie Classification of Institutions of Higher Education to have " very high research activity . " As of 2014 , Georgetown 's libraries held over 3 @.@ 5 million printed items , including 1 @.@ 25 million e @-@ books , in seven buildings , with most in Lauinger Library . The Blommer Science Library , located in the Reiss Science Building on campus , houses most of the Science collection . Additionally , the Law School campus includes the nation 's fifth largest law library . Georgetown faculty conduct research in hundreds of subjects , but have priorities in the fields of religion , ethics , science , public policy , and cancer medicine . Cross @-@ institutional research is performed with Columbia University and Virginia Tech .
In 2014 , Georgetown received $ 172 million in external research grants , ranking # 113 amongst all universities in the United States , for research . In 2012 , Georgetown spent $ 180 million on research , ranking it 108th nationwide . In 2007 , it received about $ 14 @.@ 8 million in federal funds for research , with 64 % from the National Science Foundation , National Institutes of Health , the United States Department of Energy , and the Department of Defense . In 2010 , the school received $ 5 @.@ 6 million from the Department of Education to fund fellowships in several international studies fields . Georgetown 's Vincent Lombardi Cancer Center is one of 41 research @-@ intensive comprehensive cancer centers in the United States , and developed the breakthrough HPV vaccine for cervical cancer and Conditionally Reprogrammed Cells ( CRC ) technology .
Centers which conduct and sponsor research at Georgetown include the Berkley Center for Religion , Peace , and World Affairs , the Prince Alwaleed Center for Muslim – Christian Understanding and the Woodstock Theological Center . Regular publications include the Georgetown Journal on Poverty Law and Policy , the Kennedy Institute of Ethics Journal , the Georgetown Law Journal , the Georgetown Journal of International Affairs , and the Georgetown Public Policy Review .
= = = Admissions = = =
Admission to Georgetown has been deemed " most selective " by U.S. News & World Report , with the university receiving nearly 20 @,@ 000 applications and admitting 16 @.@ 4 % of those that applied during the 2014 – 2015 admissions cycle . The Fiske Guide to Colleges states that " only Stanford and a handful of Ivy League schools are tougher to get into than Georgetown . " As of 2011 , Georgetown 's graduate schools have acceptance rates of 3 @.@ 6 % to the School of Medicine , 19 % to the Law Center , 25 % to the MSFS , and 34 @.@ 9 % to the MBA program . In 2004 , a National Bureau of Economic Research study on revealed preference of U.S. colleges showed that Georgetown was the 16th most @-@ preferred choice .
The undergraduate schools maintain a restrictive Early Action admissions program , as students who have applied through an Early Decision process at another school are not permitted to apply early to Georgetown . 94 % of students accepted for the class of 2014 were in the top 10 % of their class and the interquartile range of SAT scores was 660 – 760 in Critical Reading and 670 – 770 in Math . Georgetown accepts both the SAT and ACT , though does not consider the writing portion of either . Over 55 % of undergraduates receive financial aid , and the university meets 100 % of demonstrated need , with an average financial aid package of $ 23 @,@ 500 and about 70 % of aid distributed in the forms of grants or scholarships .
= = Campuses = =
Georgetown University has four campuses in Washington , D.C. : the undergraduate campus , the Medical Center , the School of Continuing Studies ( in Chinatown ) and the Law Center . The undergraduate campus and Medical Center are together in the Georgetown neighborhood and form the main campus . Other centers are located around Washington , D.C. , including the Center for Continuing and Professional Education at Clarendon in Arlington , Virginia . Transit between these locations and the Washington Metro is supplied by a system of shuttles , known as GUTS buses . Georgetown also operates a facility in Doha , Qatar , and villas in Alanya , Turkey and Fiesole , Italy . In their campus layout , Georgetown 's administrators consistently used the traditional quadrangle design .
= = = Main campus = = =
Georgetown 's undergraduate and medical school campuses are situated on an elevated site above the Potomac River overlooking Northern Virginia . Because of this , Georgetown University is often referred to as " The Hilltop . " The main gates , known as the Healy Gates , are located at the intersection of 37th and O Streets NW , and lead directly to the heart of campus . The main campus is relatively compact , being 104 acres ( 0 @.@ 4 km2 ) in area , but includes fifty @-@ four buildings , student residences and apartments capable of accommodating 80 % of undergraduates , and various athletic facilities . Most buildings employ collegiate Gothic architecture and Georgian brick architecture . Campus green areas include fountains , a cemetery , large clusters of flowers , groves of trees , and open quadrangles . Georgetown received a B grade on the 2011 College Sustainability Report Card , and new buildings and major renovations are required to meet LEED Silver criteria .
Healy Hall , designed by Paul J. Pelz in Neo @-@ Medieval style and built from 1877 to 1879 , is the architectural gem of Georgetown 's campus , and is a National Historic Landmark . Within Healy Hall are a number of notable rooms including Gaston Hall , Riggs Library , and the Bioethics Library Hirst Reading Room . Both Healy Hall and the Georgetown University Astronomical Observatory , built in 1844 , are listed on the National Register of Historic Places . In front of the Healy and Copley Hall buildings is the large front lawn area , which is crossed by walkways and paths that center on the statue of John Carroll . In addition to the front lawn , the main campus has traditionally centered on Dahlgren Quadrangle behind Healy Hall , which is home to Dahlgren Chapel ; however , in recent decades , Red Square has replaced the Dahlgren Quadrangle as the focus of student life . North of Red Square is an extended pathway that is home to buildings such as the Intercultural Center ( ICC ) , the Reiss Science building , and the large Leavey Student Center . The northern terminus of the undergraduate campus is marked by St. Mary 's Hall adjacent to Reservoir Road , home to the School of Nursing and Health Sciences . Across Reservoir Road is the Burleith neighborhood , where some upperclassmen rent houses off @-@ campus . The medical school is located in the northwestern part of the main campus on Reservoir Road , and is integrated with Georgetown University Hospital . The Medical campus includes the historic Medical @-@ Dental Building , the Dahlgren Memorial Library , and other research and classroom facilities .
In the last decade , the West side of the Hilltop has emerged as a new developing area of the main campus . The university completed the Southwest Quadrangle Project in late 2003 , and brought a new 907 @-@ bed upperclassmen residence hall , the Leo J. O 'Donovan dining hall , a large underground parking facility , and a new Jesuit Residence to the campus . The school 's first performing arts center , named for Royden B. Davis , was completed in November 2005 . The new business school headquarters , named for Rafik Hariri , opened in Fall 2009 , and Regents Hall , the new science building , opened in the Fall of 2012 . These two large buildings , along with the adjacent Leavey Student Center , have become popular study spaces , and overlook a newly developed scenic lawn space . Additionally , in the fall of 2014 , the university opened a new student center , the Healey Family Student Center ( HFSC ) to complement the longstanding Leavey Center . The Healey Family Student Center is located on the 1st floor of New South Hall , a space which had functioned as the university 's main dining facility until the opening of the Leo J. O 'Donovan dining hall in 2003 . It features over 43 @,@ 000 square feet including a number of study spaces , conference rooms , dance and music studios , as well as a pub called " Bulldog Tavern " and a salad store " Hilltoss , " which is operated by The Corp. The university owns many of the buildings in the Georgetown neighborhood east of the main campus and west of 35th Street NW , including all buildings west of 36th Street . This area is known as " East Campus " and is used for upperclassmen housing , classroom space , along with specific institutions , offices , and alumni facilities . Additionally , the Walsh School of Foreign Service and the Graduate School of Arts and Sciences both have classroom buildings in this area . Georgetown Visitation , a private Roman Catholic girls high school , is located on the northeast side of campus , on land adjoining the undergraduate campus .
As a location , Georgetown is ranked nationally as the second best college town by the Princeton Review . The Georgetown neighborhood west of Wisconsin Avenue NW , is dominated by the presence of university students . Students have easy access to the M Street commercial area , the Georgetown Waterfront , and numerous trails that lead to the National Mall and other parks . Despite this , " town and gown " relations between the university communities and other Georgetown residents are often strained by facilities construction , enlargement of the student body , as well as noise and alcohol violations . More recently , several groups of neighborhood residents have attempted to slow University growth in Georgetown , creating friction between students and the surrounding neighborhood . Despite the relative safety of the neighborhood , crime is nonetheless a persistent issue , with campus security responding to 257 crimes in 2008 .
= = = Law Center campus = = =
The Law Center campus is located in the Capitol Hill neighborhood on New Jersey Avenue , near Union Station and consists of five buildings . First @-@ year students at the Law Center can live in the single on @-@ campus dormitory , the Gewirz Student Center . Most second- and third @-@ year students , as well as some first @-@ year students , live off @-@ campus . As there is little housing near the Law Center , most are spread throughout the Washington metropolitan area . The " Campus Completion Project " , finished in 2005 , saw the addition of the Hotung International Building and the Sport and Fitness Center . G Street and F Street are closed off between 1st and 2nd Streets to create open lawns flanking McDonough Hall , the main building on the campus .
= = = Facilities abroad = = =
In December 1979 , the Marquesa Margaret Rockefeller de Larrain , granddaughter of John D. Rockefeller , gave the Villa Le Balze to Georgetown University . The Villa is in Fiesole , Italy , on a hill above the city of Florence . The Villa is used year @-@ round for study abroad programs focused on specialized interdisciplinary study of Italian culture and civilization . The main facility for the McGhee Center for Eastern Mediterranean Studies was donated to Georgetown in 1989 by alumnus and former United States Ambassador to Turkey George C. McGhee . The school is in the town of Alanya , Turkey within the Seljuq @-@ era Alanya Castle , on the Mediterranean . The Center operates study abroad programs one semester each year , concentrating on Turkish language , architectural history , and Islamic studies .
In 2002 , the Qatar Foundation for Education , Science and Community Development presented the School of Foreign Service with the resources and space to open a facility in the new Education City in Doha , Qatar . SFS @-@ Qatar opened in 2005 as a liberal arts and international affairs undergraduate school for regional students . In December 2007 , Georgetown opened a liaison office in Shanghai , China to coordinate with Fudan University and others . In 2008 , the Georgetown University Law Center in conjunction with an international consortium of law schools established the Center for Transnational Legal Studies in London , England .
= = Student life = =
The Georgetown undergraduate student body , at 7 @,@ 636 as of 2014 , is composed primarily of students from outside the District of Columbia area , with 34 % of new 2010 students coming from Mid @-@ Atlantic states , 11 % being international students and the remainder coming from other areas of the US . The student body also represented 129 different countries , with 11 % being international , including over 330 undergraduate and 1 @,@ 050 graduate students who chose to come to Georgetown as a study abroad destination in 2009 – 10 . In 2014 – 2015 , the racial diversity of the undergraduate student body was 57 @.@ 0 % white , 8 @.@ 8 % Asian , 6 @.@ 2 % black , and 7 @.@ 5 % Hispanic ; Additionally , 55 @.@ 1 % of undergraduates are female .
Although it is a Jesuit university , only 41 % of the student body identify as Roman Catholic , while 22 % identify as Protestant as of 2009 . Georgetown employs a full @-@ time rabbi , as 6 @.@ 5 % of undergraduates are Jewish . It was the first U.S. college to have a full @-@ time imam , to serve the over four @-@ hundred Muslims on campus , and in 2014 , they appointed their first Hindu priest to serve a weekly community of around one hundred . Georgetown also sponsors student groups for Bahá 'i , Buddhist , and Mormon traditions . The student body consists of both religious and non @-@ religious students , and more than four @-@ hundred freshmen and transfer students attend a nonreligious Ignatian retreat annually , called ESCAPE .
A 2007 survey of undergraduates also suggests that 62 @.@ 8 % are sexually active , while 6 @.@ 2 % identify as LGBTQ . Discrimination can be an issue on campus , and three @-@ fourths of a 2009 survey considered homophobia a campus problem . Newsweek , however , rated Georgetown among its top " Gay @-@ Friendly Schools " in 2010 . A survey by the school in 2016 showed that 31 % of females undergraduates reported experiencing unwanted sexual contact , and 86 % of LGBTQ students reported some form of sexual harassment at the college . In 2011 , College Magazine ranked Georgetown as the tenth most hipster U.S. college , while People for the Ethical Treatment of Animals considered it the third most vegan friendly small U.S. school .
Almost all undergraduates attend full @-@ time . A majority of undergraduates , 76 % , live on @-@ campus in several dormitories and apartment complexes , including all underclassmen . As of 2011 , 1255 undergraduates and 339 graduate students live off @-@ campus , mostly in the Georgetown , Glover Park , Burleith , and Foxhall neighborhoods . Although many of the University 's hall directors and area coordinators attend graduate level courses , on @-@ campus housing is not available for main campus graduate students . The school hopes to build such housing by 2020 . All students in the Medical School live off @-@ campus , most in the surrounding neighborhoods , with some in Northern Virginia and elsewhere through the region .
= = = Student groups = = =
As of 2012 , 92 @.@ 89 % of Georgetown University undergraduates are involved in at least one of the 179 registered student organizations which cover a variety of interests : student government , club sports , media and publications , performing arts , religion , and volunteer and service . Students also operate campus stores , banks , and medical services . Students often find their interests at the Student Activities Commission Club Fair , where both official and unofficial organizations set up tables . The Georgetown University Student Association is the student government organization for undergraduates . There are also student representatives within the schools , to the Board of Directors , and , since 1996 , to the Georgetown Advisory Neighborhood Commission .
Georgetown 's student organizations include one of the nation 's oldest debating clubs , the Philodemic Society , founded in 1830 , and the oldest university theater group , the Mask and Bauble Dramatic Society . Nomadic Theatre , founded in 1982 as an alternative troupe without an on @-@ campus home , produces " plays which educate and challenge all members of the university community through thought @-@ provoking theatre . " The Georgetown Improv Association , founded in 1995 , performs monthly long @-@ form improvisational shows on @-@ campus at Bulldog Alley in addition to hosting " Improvfest " , one of the oldest improv festivals in the country . The Model United Nations team that is run by the Georgetown International Relations Club , the largest club on campus , and its affiliate , Georgetown International Relations Association , has attained the status of best in the world on several occasions .
There are a total of seven a cappella groups on campus , including The Georgetown Saxatones , The Georgetown Chimes , the Phantoms , Superfood , The GraceNotes , the Chamber Singers , Essence , Harmony , and the Capitol G 's . These groups perform annually at the " D.C. A Cappella Festival " , held since 1991 , and the " Cherry Tree Massacre " concert series , held since 1974 . The Georgetown University Band is composed of the Georgetown Pep Band and the Georgetown Wind Ensemble , and performs on campus , in Washington , D.C. , and at post @-@ season basketball tournaments .
In addition to student organizations and clubs , Georgetown University is home to the nation 's largest entirely student @-@ owned and -operated corporation , Students of Georgetown , Inc . Founded in 1972 , " The Corp " operates three coffee shops , two grocery stores , a salad and health food service , catering and printing services , as well as running seasonal storage and airport shuttles for students . The business has annual revenues of about $ 2 million , and surpluses are directly re @-@ invested into the Georgetown student body through Corp Philanthropy , which gave out over $ 85 @,@ 000 in scholarships and donations to Georgetown groups in 2014 – 2015 . Georgetown University Alumni & Student Federal Credit Union is the oldest and largest all student @-@ run financial institution , with over $ 17 million in assets and 12 @,@ 000 members . The Georgetown University Student Investment Fund is one of a few undergraduate @-@ run investment funds in the United States , and hosted CNBC 's Jim Cramer to tape Mad Money in September 2006 .
Another student @-@ run group , the Georgetown Emergency Response Medical Service , " GERMS " , is an all @-@ volunteer ambulance service founded in 1982 that serves campus and the surrounding communities . Georgetown 's Army Reserve Officer Training Corps ( ROTC ) unit , the Hoya Battalion , is the oldest military unit native to the District of Columbia , and was awarded the top ranking among ROTC programs in 2012 . The proportion of ROTC students at Georgetown was the 79th highest among universities in the United States as of 2010 . GUGS , the Georgetown University Grilling Society , has been a Georgetown tradition since 2002 , selling half @-@ pound hamburgers in Red Square on most Fridays .
= = = Activism = = =
Georgetown University student organizations include a diverse array of groups focused on social justice issues , including organizations run through both Student Affairs and the Center for Social Justice . Oriented against gender violence , Take Back the Night coordinates an annual rally and march to protest against rape and other forms of violence against women . Georgetown Solidarity Committee is a workers ' rights organization whose successes include ending use of sweatshops in producing Georgetown @-@ logoed apparel , and garnering pay raises for both university cleaning staff and police . Georgetown Students for Fair Trade successfully advocated for all coffee in campus cafeterias to be Fair Trade Certified .
Georgetown has many additional groups representing national , ethnic , and linguistic interests . Georgetown 's has the second most politically active student body in the United States according to the Princeton Review . Groups based on local , national , and international issues are popular , and political speech is protected on campus . Student political organizations are active on campus and engage their many members in local and national politics . The Georgetown University College Republicans represent their party , while the Georgetown University College Democrats , the largest student organization on campus in 2008 , represent theirs .
The reproductive rights organization H * yas for Choice is not officially recognized by the University as its positions on abortion are in opposition to University policy , prompting the asterisk in " Hoyas . " While not financially supported by the school , the organization is permitted to meet and table in university spaces . The issue contributes to Georgetown 's ' red light ' status on free speech under the Foundation for Individual Rights in Education rating system . In 2010 , the " Plan A : Hoyas for Reproductive Justice " campaign led several protests against the school policy against the sale of birth control on campus , and in 2007 , Georgetown University Law Center students protested the University 's decision to cease funding for a student 's internship at Planned Parenthood 's litigation department despite funding it previous years . Law Center student Sandra Fluke petitioned the university to change its health insurance policy to include coverage for contraception for three years prior to addressing the issue before the House Democratic Steering and Policy Committee in 2012 . Though the remarks Rush Limbaugh subsequently directed at Fluke were criticized by Georgetown administrators as both misogynist and vitriolic , the school remains opposed to the coverage of contraception .
= = = Media = = =
Georgetown University has several student @-@ run newspapers . The Hoya is the University 's oldest newspaper . It has been in print since 1920 , and since 1987 , has been published twice weekly . The Georgetown Voice , known for its weekly cover stories , is a newsmagazine that was founded in March 1969 to focus more attention on citywide and national issues . The Georgetown Independent is a monthly journal of news , commentary and the arts . Founded in 1966 , the Georgetown Law Weekly is the student @-@ run paper on the Law Center campus , and is a three @-@ time winner of the American Bar Association 's Best Newspaper award . The Georgetown Journal of International Affairs , established in 2000 , is a student @-@ managed , semi @-@ annual publication on current affairs and international relations . The Hoya and The Georgetown Voice both run online blogs , and there are other popular blogs written about the school and its sports teams .
The Georgetown Academy , restarted in 2008 after a hiatus , targets traditionalist Catholic readers , and the Georgetown Federalist , founded in 2006 , purports to bring a conservative and libertarian viewpoint to campus . Other political publications include the Georgetown Progressive , an online publication run by the Georgetown University College Democrats , and Counterpoint Magazine , a liberal monthly founded in the spring of 2011 . The Fire This Time is Georgetown 's minority newssource . The Georgetown Heckler is a humor magazine founded on the Internet in 2003 by Georgetown students , releasing its first print issue in 2007 . The Gonzo was a former student humor magazine , published from 1993 to 1998 .
The University has a campus @-@ wide television station , GUTV , which began broadcasting in 1999 . The station hosts an annual student film festival in April for campus filmmakers . WGTB , Georgetown 's radio station , is available as a webcast and on 92 @.@ 3 FM in certain dormitories . The station was founded in 1946 , and broadcast on 90 @.@ 1 FM from 1960 to 1979 , when university president Timothy S. Healy gave away the frequency and broadcast capabilities to the University of the District of Columbia because of WGTB 's far left political orientation . The station now broadcasts through the Internet in its headquarters in the Leavey Center .
= = = Greek life = = =
Although Jesuit schools are not obliged to disassociate from Greek systems , many do , and Georgetown University officially recognizes and funds only one of the many Greek organizations on campus , Alpha Phi Omega , the national co @-@ ed community service fraternity . Despite this , other Greek organizations exist on campus , however , none require members to live in fraternal housing . Additionally , Georgetown University students are affiliated , in some cases , with fraternities at other nearby universities and colleges .
Active fraternities at Georgetown include Delta Phi Epsilon , a professional foreign service fraternity and sorority ; Alpha Kappa Psi , a professional co @-@ ed business fraternity ; Alpha Phi Omega , a national co @-@ ed community service fraternity ; Alpha Epsilon Pi , a Jewish social fraternity ; and social fraternities Sigma Phi Epsilon , Zeta Psi , and Sigma Alpha Epsilon . Delta Phi Epsilon was founded at Georgetown in 1920 , and members of their Alpha Chapter include Jesuits and several deans of the School of Foreign Service . The Delta Phi Epsilon foreign service sorority , founded in 1973 , is the only professional sorority active at Georgetown . In October 2013 the first social Greek sorority came to the Georgetown campus with the Eta Tau chapter of Kappa Kappa Gamma , followed by the Theta Iota chapter of Kappa Alpha Theta in the spring of 2014 . Georgetown 's chapter of Alpha Epsilon Pi , was established in 2002 . Sigma Phi Epsilon chartered its chapter as a general social fraternity in 2007 . The Omega Lambda chapter of professional business fraternity Alpha Kappa Psi replaced Delta Sigma Pi , which lost its charter in 2006 . The Zeta Psi chapter , named Gamma Epsilon , was chartered in March 2009 after a year as a colony .
= = = Events = = =
Annual events on campus celebrate Georgetown traditions , culture , alumni , sports , and politics . In late April , Georgetown University celebrates Georgetown Day . Besides the full @-@ day carnival , the day rewards the best professor of the year with the Dorothy Brown Award , as voted by students . Halloween is celebrated with public viewings of alumnus William Peter Blatty 's film The Exorcist , which takes place in the neighborhood surrounding the university .
Homecoming coincides with a home football game , and festivities such as tailgating and a formal dance are sponsored by the Alumni Association to draw past graduates back to campus . The largest planned sports related celebration is the first basketball practice of the season . Dubbed Midnight Madness , this event introduces the men 's and women 's basketball teams shortly after midnight on the first day the teams are allowed by NCAA rules to formally practice together . In 2013 , Georgetown hosted the east regional finals round of the NCAA Men 's Basketball Tournament .
Georgetown University hosts notable speakers each year , largely because of the success of the Georgetown Lecture Fund and the Office of Communications . These are frequently important heads of state who visit Georgetown while in the capital , as well as scholars , authors , U.S. politicians , and religious leaders . Many prominent alumni are known to frequent the main campus . The Office of the President hosts numerous symposia on religious topics , such as Nostra aetate , Pacem in terris , and the Building Bridges Seminar .
= = Athletics = =
Georgetown fields 23 varsity teams and the Club Sports Board supports an additional 23 club teams . The varsity teams participate in the NCAA 's Division I. The school generally competes in the Big East Conference , although the football team competes in the Division I FCS Patriot League , the sailing team in Middle Atlantic Intercollegiate Sailing Association , and the rowing teams in the Eastern Association of Rowing Colleges . U.S. News & World Report listed Georgetown 's athletics program among the 20 best in the nation . Georgetown 's student athletes have a 94 % graduation success rate , and over one @-@ hundred have gone on to play professionally .
The school 's teams are called " Hoyas " , a name whose origin is uncertain . Sometime before 1893 , students well versed in classical languages invented the mixed Greek and Latin chant of " Hoya Saxa " , translating roughly as " what ( or such ) rocks . " The school 's baseball team , then called the Stonewalls , began in 1870 , and football in 1874 , and the chant likely refers to one of these teams . By the 1920s , the term " Hoyas " was used to describe groups on campus , and by 1928 , campus sports writers started using it instead of the older team name , the " Hilltoppers . " The name was picked up in the local publications , and became official shortly after . Jack the Bulldog has been the mascot of Georgetown athletics programs since 1962 , and the school fight song is There Goes Old Georgetown .
The men 's basketball team is particularly noteworthy as it won the NCAA championship in 1984 under coach John Thompson . The current coach is his son , John Thompson III , who coached the team to the Final Four in the 2007 NCAA tournament . The team is tied for the most Big East conference tournament titles with seven , and has made twenty @-@ seven NCAA tournament appearances . Well @-@ known team alumni include Sleepy Floyd , Patrick Ewing , Dikembe Mutombo , Alonzo Mourning , Allen Iverson , Jeff Green , and Roy Hibbert . Georgetown 's NBA alumni are collectively among the highest earners from a single program .
The sailing team has won nine national championships since 2001 , as well as one World Championship in match racing . Over that time they have graduated 79 All @-@ Americans and 6 College Sailors of the year . Georgetown has been nationally successful in both cross country and track and field , and in 2011 , the women 's cross country team won Georgetown 's only other NCAA Championship . The rowing teams are perennial contenders as well for national titles . The men 's and women 's lacrosse teams have both been ranked in the top ten nationally , as have both soccer teams , with the men making the national championship game in 2012 , and the women making the national quarterfinals in 2010 . The rugby club team also made it to the Division II Final Four in 2005 and 2009 .
= = Alumni = =
Georgetown graduates have found success in a wide variety of fields , and have served at the heads of diverse institutions both in the public and private sector . Immediately after graduation , about 54 – 61 % of undergraduates enter the workforce , while others go on to additional education . Georgetown graduates have been recipients of 23 Rhodes Scholarships , 21 Marshall Scholarships , 26 Truman Scholarships , and 14 Mitchell Scholarships . Georgetown is also one of the top @-@ ten yearly producers of Peace Corps volunteers as of 2010 , with 35 active and 866 total volunteers since 1961 . Georgetown alumni have a median starting salary of $ 55 @,@ 000 with a median mid @-@ career salary of $ 110 @,@ 000 , according to Payscale.com. NNDB , the Notable Names Database , lists 493 notable alumni as of 2015 .
Eight former heads of state are alumni . Former President of the United States Bill Clinton is a 1968 graduate of the School of Foreign Service , and other former world leaders include Laura Chinchilla of Costa Rica , Gloria Macapagal @-@ Arroyo of the Philippines , Saad Hariri of Lebanon , and Alfredo Cristiani of El Salvador . Two SFS graduates are also currently elected presidents , Dalia Grybauskaitė of Lithuania , who completed a six @-@ month program in 1992 , and Željko Komšić , one of the tripartite Presidents of Bosnia and Herzegovina . Six alumni serve in the United States Senate , and thirteen in the House of Representatives . Current congressional alumni include Dick Durbin , Senate minority whip , and Steny Hoyer , House minority whip . Governor Pat Quinn of Illinois graduated from the SFS in 1971 while Governor Terry McAuliffe of Virginia received his J.D. from the Law Center in 1984 . On the U.S. Supreme Court , alumni include former Associate Justice Antonin Scalia and former Chief Justice Edward Douglass White . Members of the current Obama Administration cabinet include Treasury Secretary Jack Lew who graduated from the law school in 1983 and White House Chief of Staff Denis McDonough who received his master 's degree in 1996 .
King Felipe VI of Spain , King Abdullah II of Jordan , Prince Guillaume of Luxembourg , Prince Turki bin Faisal Al Saud of the Saudi Arabia royal family , and Prince Pavlos of Greece and Denmark are among the royals who attended Georgetown . Besides numerous members of the senior diplomatic corps , graduates have also headed military organizations on both the domestic and international level , such as former Secretary of Defense Robert Gates and former National Security Advisor General James L. Jones . Notable alumni in business include Mary Callahan Erdoes , CEO of J.P. Morgan Asset Management , Patricia Russo , former Alcatel @-@ Lucent CEO , William J. Doyle of the Potash Corporation of Saskatchewan , and Ted Leonsis , owner of the Washington Capitals , Wizards , and Mystics franchises and former America Online executive . Leonsis is among four other undergraduate alumni who own professional sports teams , making Georgetown the most popular undergraduate university for major North American sports franchise owners . Actor Bradley Cooper , People Magazine 's Sexiest Man Alive 2011 , is also a graduate of Georgetown and its English program . Actors / comedians Nick Kroll , John Mulaney , Jim Gaffigan , and Mike Birbiglia are also graduates of Georgetown .
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= The Boat Race 1858 =
The 15th Boat Race took place on the River Thames on 27 March 1858 . Typically held annually , the event is a side @-@ by @-@ side rowing race between crews from the Universities of Oxford and Cambridge . The 1858 race , disrupted by poor rowing and a collision with a barge , was won by Cambridge who defeated Oxford by seven @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half lengths in a time of 21 minutes 23 seconds .
= = Background = =
The Boat Race is a side @-@ by @-@ side rowing competition between the University of Oxford ( sometimes referred to as the " Dark Blues " ) and the University of Cambridge ( sometimes referred to as the " Light Blues " ) . The race was first held in 1829 , and since 1845 has taken place on the 4 @.@ 2 @-@ mile ( 6 @.@ 8 km ) Championship Course on the River Thames in southwest London . Oxford went into this year 's race as reigning champions , having defeated Cambridge by eleven lengths in the previous year 's race . Cambridge however led overall with eight wins to Oxford 's six .
Cambridge were coached for the fifth time by Thomas Selby Egan , ( who had coxed the Light Blues in the 1836 , 1839 and 1840 races ) , while Oxford 's coach was Alfred Shadwell ( cox for the Dark Blues in the 1842 race and coach for the fourth time ) . The race was umpired by Joseph William Chitty who had rowed for Oxford twice in 1849 ( in the March and December races ) and the 1852 race , while the starter was Edward Searle .
= = Crews = =
The Oxford crew weighed an average of 11 st 8 @.@ 875 lb ( 73 @.@ 7 kg ) , 1 pound ( 0 @.@ 5 kg ) per rower more than their opponents . Archibald Levin Smith , Robert Wharton and Robert Lewis @-@ Lloyd ( who was rowing his third Boat Race for the Light Blues ) had featured in Cambridge 's 1857 crew . Oxford 's crew included five participants who had competed in the previous race , including J. T. Thorley , who was making his third appearance in the event .
= = Race = =
Cambridge won the toss and elected to start from the Middlesex station , handing the Surrey side of the river to Oxford . The race commenced at 1pm and almost immediately the Oxford boat club president and stroke J. T. Thorley " caught a crab " which " completely brought their eight to standstill . " Cambridge took the lead but were caught following a clash of their port @-@ side oars with a barge . The boats were level at the Crab Tree pub but here Cambridge began to draw ahead and passed under Hammersmith Bridge with a length @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half lead . The Light Blues continued to increase their lead and passed the flag @-@ boat at Mortlake seven @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half lengths ahead of Oxford in a time of 21 minutes 23 seconds .
It was the fastest time since the 1846 race ( which was held on the ebb tide ) , and took the overall record in the event to 9 – 6 in Cambridge 's favour . Although it was hoped that a rematch would be conducted at the Henley Royal Regatta , Oxford failed to make up a crew , and Cambridge went on to defeat Leander Club before winning the Grand Challenge Cup against London Rowing Club .
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= Old Church of St Gwenllwyfo , Llanwenllwyfo =
The Old Church of St Gwenllwyfo , Llanwenllwyfo is a medieval ruined church near Dulas , in Anglesey , north Wales , perhaps built in the 15th century to replace another church from which only the 12th @-@ century font survived . Dedicated to Gwenllwyfo , a 7th @-@ century female saint about whom nothing else is known , it was used as a chapel of ease for the church in Amlwch , about 5 miles ( 8 km ) away . Restored in 1610 and again in the 18th and 19th centuries , it contained an oak screen and pulpit from 1610 .
It was replaced in the middle of the 19th century by a larger church about two @-@ thirds of a mile ( 1 @.@ 1 km ) away , to which some of the contents , including a memorial brass plaque from the early 17th century and the church bell , were removed ; other items were left behind . The disused church was noted to be in bad condition in 1937 , and the roof collapsed in 1950 . Little of the structure now remains , as the walls have been reduced to 5 feet ( 1 @.@ 5 m ) in height .
= = History and location = =
The ruins of St Gwenllwyfo 's Church stand near Dulas , in the north @-@ east of Anglesey , Wales . The date of construction of the first church on the site is unknown . There was a church here in medieval times : one 19th @-@ century writer suggested that the present building dates from the 15th century and that the font , probably 12th century in date , was the only surviving part of an earlier church on the site . Restoration work was carried out in about 1610 and in the 18th century ; the latter changes eradicated the church 's historical details .
The church ( dedicated to Gwenllwyfo , a 7th @-@ century woman about whom nothing else is known ) was a chapel of ease attached to the parish of Amlwch , about 5 miles ( 8 km ) away . The parish tithes , however , were divided between the Bishop of Bangor and the incumbent of St Eilian 's Church , Llaneilian . The area takes its name from the church : the Welsh word llan originally meant " enclosure " and then " church " , and " ‑ wenllwfyo " is a modified form of the saint 's name .
In 1812 , the priest responsible for the church was Edward Hughes , whose wife was the niece of the owner of Llys Dulas , the landed estate in the area . He employed an architect to carry out some further restoration work , although the details are unknown . The church was in need of further repair by the middle of the 19th century , and the congregation needed a larger building . A new church was therefore built between 1854 and 1856 about two @-@ thirds of a mile ( 1 @.@ 1 km ) away , financed largely by the widow of William Hughes , 1st Baron Dinorben ( the son of Edward Hughes ) . The old church , which was allowed to fall into ruins , stands in a disused cemetery surrounded by trees .
= = Architecture and fittings = =
The nave and chancel of the church were not structurally divided , and measure 39 feet 6 inches by 15 feet 9 inches ( 12 by 4 @.@ 8 m ) . The walls are 3 feet ( 0 @.@ 9 m ) thick . In 1844 , it was recorded as having a coved roof , doors in the north and south walls and windows in the east , north and west walls . It also had a pulpit and an oak screen , 7 feet ( 2 @.@ 1 m ) high , both dated 1610 . The screen had inscriptions in Welsh and Latin , and a note that " Richard Williams of Rhodogeidio who married Marcelly Lloyd at his own charge caused all this worke to be don to the honor of God and his church " . A brass plaque , erected in 1609 by Williams in memory of his wife , was moved to the new church . Another screen was later added at the west end to stop the wind blowing into the nave , and two windows were added on opposite sides of the chancel . Two box pews were installed during the 18th century , and a bell ( now used by the new church ) was added .
At the time of a survey by the Royal Commission on Ancient and Historical Monuments in Wales and Monmouthshire in 1937 , although the building was in bad condition with an insecure roof , it still retained an 18th @-@ century oak communion table , a rectangular font dating from the 12th century , the 1610 screen ( damaged ) , the pulpit , fragments of an oak sounding board ( also dated 1610 ) and some 18th @-@ century memorials . There were also stone benches along the north and south walls , and some wooden benches from the 18th or early 19th century . The medieval roof trusses were also still in place in 1937 , but the roof collapsed in 1950 . The walls have since been lowered to a height of 5 feet ( 1 @.@ 5 m ) .
= = Assessment = =
The antiquarian Angharad Llwyd described the church in 1833 as " a small neat edifice , appropriately fitted up for the performance of divine service " . Samuel Lewis , writing in the middle of the 19th century , said that the church was " a conspicuous and interesting object " in a parish that " partakes much of the general character of dreary sterility by which the mining districts in the immediate vicinity are distinguished " . However , the clergyman and antiquarian Harry Longueville Jones , writing in 1859 about the church as it had been 15 years earlier , said that " the whole building was in bad repair " . One writer described the church in the 1970s as " a roofless , forgotten shell " .
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= The Boat Races 2015 =
The 2015 Boat Races took place on 11 April 2015 . Held annually , The Boat Race is a side @-@ by @-@ side rowing race between male crews from the Universities of Oxford and Cambridge along a 4 @.@ 2 @-@ mile ( 6 @.@ 8 km ) tidal stretch of the River Thames in south @-@ west London . For the first time in the history of the event , the men 's , women 's and both reserves ' races were all held on the Tideway ; in the men 's reserve race , Cambridge 's Goldie faced Oxford 's Isis after the women 's race , as a preliminary to the main men 's race , while the women 's reserve race , held the day before , saw Oxford 's Osiris race against Cambridge 's Blondie .
Oxford 's women won the first running of the Women 's Boat Race on the Tideway , and the 70th overall , by six and a half lengths , to take the overall record in the event to 41 – 29 in Cambridge 's favour . Oxford also won the men 's reserve race , with Isis winning by three lengths . In the main men 's race , umpired by the six @-@ time Blue Boris Rankov , Oxford won by six lengths in a time of 17 minutes 35 seconds , taking the overall record in the event to 81 – 79 in Cambridge 's favour . The women 's reserve race was won by Oxford 's Osiris by fifteen lengths , making the overall record 21 – 20 in Cambridge 's favour .
= = Background = =
The Boat Race is a side @-@ by @-@ side rowing competition between the University of Oxford ( sometimes referred to as the " Dark Blues " ) and the University of Cambridge ( sometimes referred to as the " Light Blues " ) . First held in 1829 , the race takes place on the 4 @.@ 2 @-@ mile ( 6 @.@ 8 km ) Championship Course , between Putney and Mortlake on the River Thames in south @-@ west London . The rivalry is a major point of honour between the two universities ; it is followed throughout the United Kingdom and broadcast worldwide . Oxford went into the race as champions , having won the 2014 race by a margin of eleven lengths , but Cambridge led overall with 81 victories to Oxford 's 78 ( excluding the " dead heat to Oxford by five feet " of 1877 ) .
It was the first time in the history of The Boat Race that the three main races , the men 's , women 's and men 's reserves ' , were held on the same day and on the same course along the Tideway . Prior to this year , the women 's race which first took place in 1927 , was usually held at the Henley Boat Races along the 2 @,@ 000 @-@ metre ( 2 @,@ 200 yd ) course . However , on at least two occasions in the interwar period , the women competed on the Thames between Chiswick and Kew . Oxford went into the race as reigning champions , having won the 2014 race by four lengths , with Cambridge leading 41 – 28 overall . For the third year , the men 's race was sponsored by BNY Mellon while the women 's race saw BNY Mellon 's subsidiary Newton Investment Management as sponsors . It was part of the sponsorship deal with Newton Investment Management that mandated the women 's race to be rowed on the same course and with the same funding as the men 's race . According to their chief executive , Helena Morrissey , the company " didn 't just want a name on a shirt ; [ it ] wanted to do something meaningful " . The women 's race was scheduled to take place at 4 : 50 p.m. , the men 's reserves ' race half an hour later and the men 's race a further half @-@ hour after that at 5 : 50 p.m. The women 's reserve race between Cambridge 's Blondie and Oxford 's Osiris took place on the Tideway for the first time , one day before the main races , at 4 : 05 p.m.
The television historian and former Oxford rower Dan Snow ( who represented the Dark Blues in the 1999 , 2000 and 2001 races ) said : " Most televised sport is a carnival of misogyny so it is great news that the Boat Race is leading the way in ensuring that women take their rightful place alongside men . " The BBC sports broadcaster Eleanor Oldroyd suggested that scheduling the races on the same course and day was " a game @-@ changing move " for female sport , and " now they 've achieved equality – same course , same distance , same prize money [ sic ] , same BBC TV coverage , to an expected global audience of 100 million " . The television presenter Clare Balding opted to cover the women 's race instead of the 2015 Grand National , claiming that the combined rowing event would have a " ripple effect all across society , business and sport " .
The autumn reception was held at the London headquarters of BNY Mellon . As Oxford had won the previous year 's race , it was Cambridge 's responsibility to offer the traditional challenge to the Dark Blues . To that end , Alexander Leichter and Caroline Reid , presidents of the Cambridge boat clubs , challenged Constantine Louloudis and Anastasia Chitty , their counterparts , who duly accepted . Umpires for the senior races were announced on 4 March : the former Cambridge rower Simon Harris , who represented the Light Blues in the 1982 and 1983 races oversaw the Women 's race , while the six @-@ time Oxford Blue Boris Rankov umpired the men 's race for the fourth time . Rob Clegg , the umpire of the 2011 race oversaw the men 's reserve race while the Olympic bronze medallist Sarah Winckless umpired the women 's reserve race .
= = Coaches = =
The Cambridge men 's crew coaching team was led by their Chief Coach Steve Trapmore . Appointed to the post in 2010 , Trapmore was a gold medal @-@ winning member of the men 's eight at the 2000 Summer Olympics . He was assisted by Ed Green , the former head coach at University College Cork and development coach at Molesey Boat Club . Green 's primary responsibility will be to coach Goldie . Mark Beer , former Cambridge University Boat Club assistant coach , was appointed as the development coach for the Light Blues . Sean Bowden returned as Chief Coach for Oxford , having been responsible for the senior men 's crew since 1997 . He was a former Great Britain Olympic coach and coached the Light Blues in the 1993 and 1994 Boat Races . His assistant coach was Andy Nelder who has coached the senior boat since 2006 .
Oxford 's women 's Head Coach was the Canadian Christine Wilson who had previously assisted in coaching the United States Olympic team and held the position of Head Coach of women 's rowing at Yale University . She was assisted by Natasha Townsend who had represented Great Britain in the women 's eights at two Olympics . Cambridge were coached by the former Goldie coach Rob Baker who was assisted by Paddy Ryan and Nick Acock , along with two guest coaches in Jonathan Condor and Annie Vernon ; Ed Hallam was their strength and conditioning coach .
= = Trials = =
= = = Women 's trials = = =
The trials took place on The Championship Course on 9 December 2014 , in each case being the first and only time the crews would have to practice the route while racing side @-@ by @-@ side . Both races were umpired by Simon Harris in windy conditions .
Oxford University Women 's Boat Club 's ( OUWBC ) trial eights , Real Life and Fantasy , set off at 1 : 15 p.m. Real Life , starting from the Middlesex station , made a better start and were three seats ahead at the Town Buoy before holding a length 's lead after the first bend . Following a warning from Harris as the crews approached Hammersmith Bridge , the lead was reduced to half @-@ a @-@ length around the Surrey bend . Fantasy allowed Real Life to take a clear water advantage by the Bandstand , and they pulled away at Barnes Bridge to win by three lengths . The Oxford coach Christine Wilson noted that " today the crews pushed each other to know the course and to take risks when a racing opportunity presents itself " .
The two boats in the Cambridge University Women 's Boat Club ( CUWBC ) trials were denoted as Rise and Grind , with the race commencing at 2 : 30 p.m. Starting from the Surrey station , Rise , despite the lower stroke rate , were half a length ahead within the first 20 strokes , and held a length 's lead by Craven Cottage . They gradually extended their lead to two lengths by Hammersmith Bridge , three by Chiswick Steps and finished five lengths ahead of Grind . Cambridge 's coach Rob Baker was mildly disappointed but remained upbeat , suggesting " Though I would have liked a closer race , I saw some excellent performances " .
= = = Men 's trials = = =
The men 's trials took place along The Championship Course on 11 December 2014 , and according to the author Chris Dodd , were held in conditions " perfect ... for coaches in the process of testing their men and trying to seat people in the right order . " Both races were umpired by Boris Rankov , the former Oxford Blue who rowed for the Dark Blues on a record six occasions .
Cambridge 's senior men 's trial boats were called 63 and Not Out in honour of the Australian Test cricketer Phillip Hughes who had died earlier in the year after being struck in the neck by a bouncer during a domestic match . Not Out made the better start but lost their canvas @-@ length lead by Barn Elms , and the crews passed the Mile Post level . Shooting Hammersmith Bridge , 63 were half a length down , and a length @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half down by Chiswick Steps . Not Out held a two @-@ length lead by the time the crews passed under Barnes Bridge which they extended to two @-@ and @-@ three @-@ quarters by the finishing post . Dodd described the race as " epic " , while senior coach Trapmore expressed his contentment with the trial suggesting " it is an invaluable exercise . "
The Oxford trial saw Per Terram line up against Per Mare , so named to commemorate the 350th anniversary of the foundation of the Royal Marines whose motto is " Per Mare , Per Terram " ( " By sea , by land " ) . Per Terram , stroked by the Oxford University Boat Club president Louloudis , took an early lead and were half @-@ a @-@ length ahead before Per Mare recovered the deficit to be level by Barn Elms . A spurt from Per Terram at the Mile Post saw them regain the lead but at Harrods Furniture Depository , Per Mare took the lead back , shooting Hammersmith Bridge precisely and holding a three @-@ quarter length lead by St Paul 's School . Both crews experienced fierce winds with Per Terram coping better and taking a half @-@ length advantage . Per Mare kept in touch through to Barnes Bridge but Per Terram pushed on and passed the finishing post with a winning margin of two lengths . Oxford 's coach Bowden was cautious , stating that the " trial shows that Oxford is in good shape , but this race is not the only bit of the trials process " . Dodd described the race as " cracking " .
= = Build @-@ up = =
= = = Women 's = = =
On 25 January 2015 , a CUWBC crew raced against a crew from Newcastle University Boat Club along three sections of the Championship Course . Cambridge won all three races with relative ease , and their boat club president Reid , rowing at number four , reflected that it had been " a useful experience " . Cambridge raced against an Imperial College Boat Club crew on 8 March over two sections of the Tideway course , first between the start and Hammersmith Bridge , before racing between the Mile Post and Chiswick Steps . The first leg was declared to be too close to call by the umpire Simon Harris , while the second ended in a two @-@ thirds length victory to the Light Blues . OUWBC raced against Molesey Boat Club on 21 February 2015 , in three stages on the Tideway , and comfortably won each race . This was followed by a race against Imperial College Boat Club on 22 March over three sections of the Thames . Imperial were waterlogged in the first piece , but Oxford easily won the second and third races .
OUWBC were rescued by the Royal National Lifeboat Institution ( RNLI ) on the Thames on 1 April 2015 after becoming waterlogged in rough conditions . They were inadvertently discovered stranded during an RNLI exercise . Prior to race day , Rachel Quarrell , the former Oxford cox ( who steered OUWBC in the 1991 race ) writing in The Daily Telegraph noted that " since the start of this season the Oxford women have been notably faster " .
= = = Men 's = = =
On 16 March 2015 , CUBC raced in two pieces along the Tideway against a Leander Club crew steered by Oxford 's 2012 race cox Zoe De Toledo . Cambridge won the first race , from the Boat Race start to the top of Chiswick Eyot , by two and a half lengths , and the second , between the Eyot and Mortlake by four lengths . OUBC faced a crew from Molesey Boat Club in three races along the Tideway five days later . Despite Imperial being given a head start in two of the three races , Oxford won all three pieces relatively easily . The same day , Cambridge faced a Netherlands Eight in two races on the Thames . The Light Blues easily won the first race , but finished the second level against " experienced and accomplished opposition . "
= = Crews = =
The official weigh @-@ in for both women 's and men 's crews took place at the Royal Academy of Arts on 19 March 2015 , hosted by Clare Balding .
= = = Women 's = = =
The Cambridge crew weighed an average of 11 st 6 lb 2 oz ( 72 @.@ 5 kg ) , 2 pounds ( 0 @.@ 9 kg ) per rower more than their opponents . Oxford saw four rowers with Boat Race experience return , including bow Maxie Sheske and Anastasia Chitty who was making her third appearances in the event . Cambridge 's crew included three former Blues in Caroline Reid , Claire Watkins and Melissa Wilson ( who was also making her third appearance in the event ) . Oxford 's stroke , the American Caryn Davies , was a three @-@ time Olympic medallist , having taken silver in the women 's coxed eights at the 2004 Summer Olympics and gold at both the 2008 and 2012 Summer Olympics . Cambridge 's cox Rosemary Ostfeld steered Goldie the previous year . Over the Easter weekend , Oxford switched their number five and seven , moving Nadine Graedel Iberg behind stroke . Cambridge swapped bow for stroke , switching Hannah Evans for Fanny Belais .
= = = Men 's = = =
The Cambridge crew weighed an average of 14 st 4 lb 11 oz ( 90 @.@ 8 kg ) , 11 @.@ 5 pounds ( 5 @.@ 2 kg ) per rower more than their opponents . Oxford saw four rowers with Boat Race experience return , including number seven Sam O 'Connor and stroke Louloudis who made their third consecutive appearances in the event . Louloudis was an Olympic bronze medallist , having stroked Great Britain to third place in the men 's eight at the 2012 Summer Olympics . The New Zealand brothers Sam and James O 'Connor were the first siblings to row in the event since the Winklevoss twins represented Oxford in the 2010 race . Cambridge 's crew contained five Blues who participated in the 2014 race , including their cox Ian Middleton . During " Tideway week " , James Mountain replaced James O 'Connor , the latter suffering from illness . On O 'Connor 's return to the boat , he was switched with Thomas Swartz at number two .
= = Races = =
Over 250 @,@ 000 spectators lined the Thames to watch the three races . Around eighty people needed to be rescued as the river level rose from the high tide and the wake of the flotilla .
= = = Reserves = = =
The women 's reserve race , the 41st since 1968 , was contested between Oxford 's Osiris and Cambridge 's Blondie on 10 April 2015 . Osiris won by 15 lengths in a time of 18 minutes 58 seconds , their fourth consecutive victory and thirteenth win in the past fifteen years . It took the overall record in the event to 21 – 20 in CUWBC 's favour .
The men 's reserve race was the 51st contest between Isis and Goldie , and started at 5 : 20 p.m. on 11 April 2015 . The overall record in the event stood at 29 – 21 in Goldie 's favour . The Light Blue reserves won the toss and elected to start from the Surrey station , handing the Middlesex side of the river to Isis . Goldie took an early lead , despite warnings from the umpire around Barn Elms , and Isis were behind by five seconds at Hammersmith Bridge . Coming round to St Paul 's School , both crews came into a strong head wind and Isis rating 34 to Goldie 's 36 began to close the gap . The crews were level by the Bandstand , but Isis had taken a half length lead by Barnes Bridge , and they pulled away again to win by three lengths . This was the fifth consecutive victory for Isis , taking the overall event to 29 – 22 in Cambridge 's favour .
= = = Main races = = =
= = = = Women 's = = = =
The women 's race was the 70th contest between OUWBC and CUWBC , and started at 4 : 50 p.m. on 11 April 2015 . The overall record in the event before the race stood at 41 – 28 in Cambridge 's favour , but Oxford were considered favourites to win . Prior to the race , The Boat Race Company Limited announced that the two boats had been named to honour this auspicious occasion . Cambridge elected to name their boat Project Ely while Oxford had opted for Catalyst . OUWBC won the toss and elected to start from the Surrey station , handing the Middlesex side of the river to CUWBC . The conditions were sunny but very windy . OUWBC took an immediate lead and were five seconds ahead at the Mile Post . Despite out @-@ rating their opponents , Cambridge failed to make any ground on Oxford , and were around three lengths down by St Paul 's School . Approaching Barnes Bridge , Oxford 's cox called for a push , and OUWBC passed below the central arch with a substantial lead . OUWBC won by a margin of six and a half lengths in a time of 19 minutes 45 seconds , taking the overall record to 41 – 29 in Cambridge 's favour .
= = = = Men 's = = = =
The men 's race was the 161st contest between OUBC and CUBC , and was held at 5 : 50 p.m on 11 April 2015 . Prior to the race , the overall record in the event stood at 81 – 78 in Cambridge 's favour , with one dead heat . The Dark Blues went into the race as the " strongest favourites in the history of the race " . Cambridge won the toss and elected to start from the Surrey station , handing the Middlesex side of the river to Oxford . Oxford made the better start and were quickly ahead , with a quarter @-@ length lead after a minute . Cambridge drew back into contention and held a canvas lead after two minutes where both crews were warned by Rankov as they closed . Cambridge marginally out @-@ rated the Dark Blues as Oxford took a slight lead and were one second ahead by the Mile Post . Rankov issued further warnings as the crews passed beside Harrods Furniture Depository , Oxford half a length ahead , but with the Light Blues holding the advantage of the bend in the river as they approached Hammersmith Bridge .
Cambridge failed to make the best of the bend , and Oxford went clear after a push , taking an additional half a length and crossed in front of the Light Blues nine minutes into the race . The Dark Blues were over a length clear by the end of Chiswick Eyot and continued to pull away , holding a seven @-@ second lead by Chiswick Steps . Passing through Barnes Bridge , Oxford were around five lengths ahead . Oxford passed the finishing post six lengths ahead in a winning time of 17 minutes 35 seconds . It was the Dark Blues ' third consecutive victory and took the overall record in the event to 81 – 79 in Cambridge 's favour .
= = Reaction = =
The trophies were presented to the winning crews by the five @-@ time Olympic gold medallist Steve Redgrave . OUWBC 's winning president Chitty said " It 's a really special moment , something I 've been working towards for three years " while her counterpart Reid accepted that Cambridge " didn 't get off to [ their ] best start and Oxford did " and that the conditions were " pretty horrendous around the halfway mark with the wind against the tide and some pretty high waves " . Oxford 's stroke Davies said : " I 'm so glad we can be role models to all the young women out there . " Cambridge 's coach Baker noted " We ’ ve got a young crew that has come a long way and they raced their best ... We ’ ve improved quite a lot , but it just wasn ’ t good enough " .
The Cambridge 's men 's president Leichter was generous in defeat : " It was 100 % fair . It was very painful but they took us round the outside of Surrey and we couldn 't respond " while four @-@ time winner Louloudis was content : " We stuck to our plan and executed a really good race " . Oxford 's coach Bowden said of his eleven victories with the Dark Blues in the event , " they are all different and tough but we came together well " . He went on to honour the former Oxford coach Dan Topolski who had died in February : " We definitely had Dan in our hearts throughout the campaign and we ’ re just so pleased to have won in style for him " .
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= Joyas Prestadas =
Joyas Prestadas : Pop and Joyas Prestadas : Banda ( English : Borrowed Jewels ) are the twelfth and final studio albums released by American recording artist Jenni Rivera on November 21 , 2011 by Fonovisa Records . Joyas Prestadas consists of eleven cover versions , with the first album being recorded in Latin pop , while the second was recorded in banda . Both albums were produced by Enrique Martinez . According to Rivera , the songs she chose to cover were those she was enamored with while working as a cashier in a record store . It was her first production to include ballad recordings .
Joyas Prestadas : Pop reached number one on the Mexican Albums Chart and number one on the Billboard Top Latin Albums chart in the United States while Joyas Prestadas : Banda peaked at number three on the Mexican Albums Chart and number two on the Billboard Top Latin Albums chart . Three singles were released from the album : " ¡ Basta Ya ! " , " A Cambio de Qué " , and " Detrás de Mi Ventana " . David Jeffries of Allmusic gave both albums a positive review and called the productions " polished " .
Joyas Prestadas : Pop received a Lo Nuestro award for Pop Album of the Year and Billboard Latin Music Award nomination for Latin Pop Album of the Year and a nomination for Pop Album of the Year by a Female Artist at the 2013 Oye ! Awards . Joyas Prestadas : Banda was awarded two Oye ! awards for Banda Albums of the Year and Popular Album of the Year and a Billboard Latin Music Award nomination for Regional Mexican Album of the Year .
= = Background = =
On August 23 , 2011 , Jenni Rivera renewed her contract with Universal Music Latin Entertainment / Fonovisa Records . To celebrate this event , she performed at the Staples Center in Los Angeles , California , becoming the first female Regional Mexican singer to do so . Rivera also announced she would be recording two albums in pop and banda titled Joyas Prestadas . The album was her first production to include ballads in a recording .
= = Recording and covers = =
Joyas Prestadas is a double album consisted of eleven tracks originally performed by other singers . Rivera recorded these songs on two versions : pop and banda . According to her , the songs she chose were recordings she listened to while working as a record store cashier . The albums were produced by Enrique Martinez and were recorded at the Twin Recording Studio in Burbank , California . A deluxe version of Joyas Prestadas : Pop was released on August 28 , 2012 which contains a DVD of her performing the album live at the Teatro de la Ciudad in Mexico City , Mexico .
The first track , " A Cambio de Qué " , was first recorded by Mexican singer Marisela on her album Completamente Tuya ( 1985 ) . The second track , " A Que no le Cuentas " , was first performed by Puerto Rican singer Ednita Nazario on her album , Ednita ( 1982 ) . " Así Fue " and " Resulta " were both composed by Mexican singer @-@ songwriter Juan Gabriel and originally performed by Isabel Pantoja and Lucha Villa respectively . Rivera also covers Pantoja 's song , " Porque Me Gusta a Morir " . " ¡ Basta Ya " and " Como Tu Mujer " were composed by Mexican singer @-@ songwriter Marco Antonio Solís and first performed by Olga Tañón and Rocío Dúrcal . Rivera had previously collaborated with Tañón with their cover of " Cosas del Amor " on the latter 's album Exitos en 2 Tiempos ( 2007 ) . Solís himself appears on both tracks .
The sixth track , " Detrás de Mi Ventana " , was written by Ricardo Arjona in 1993 and included in Nueva era ( 1993 ) , a studio album by Mexican singer Yuri , who performed the song for the first time . Melina Leon also performed the song for Arjona in his compilation album Trópico , released in 2009 . " Lo Siento Mi Amor " and " Señora " are covers of Rocío Jurado 's songs . " Que Ganas de No Verte Más " was first performed by Argentine singer Valeria Lynch .
= = Promotion = =
Jenni Rivera performed the pop version of " ¡ Basta Ya ! " live at La Voz ... México on November 27 , 2011 . Four months later at the end of Yuri 's concert at the National Auditorium , Rivera was invited to sing with her . After which Rivera took over the concert and performed ballads from the album as well as songs from her career . At the 19th Latin Billboard Awards ceremony , Rivera performed the pop versions of " Como Tu Mujer " and " Asi Fue " . The tour for the album officially began on May 18 , 2012 where she performed throughout concerts Mexico and the United States . It abruptly ended on December 9 , 2012 after her concert in the Monterrey Arena when a plane carrying her and five other members crashed near Near Iturbide , Nuevo León killing her and everyone else on board .
= = Commercial performance = =
= = = Album = = =
In Mexico , Joyas Prestadas : Pop peaked at number one on the Top 100 Mexico albums chart while Joyas Prestadas : Banda peaked at number three on the Top 100 Mexico albums chart . Joyas Prestadas : Pop was certified quadruple platinum and gold by AMPROFON for shipping 270 @,@ 000 copies in the country while Joyas Prestadas : Banda was certified triple platinum by AMPROFON for shipping 180 @,@ 000 copies . In the United States , Joyas Prestadas : Pop peaked at number one on the Billboard Top Latin Albums and number one on the Billboard Latin Pop Albums charts . Similarly , Joyas Prestadas : Banda peaked at number two on the Top Latin Albums chart and number one on the Billboard Regional Mexican Albums chart . Within the week of her death , sales for both albums soared in the United States selling over 2 @,@ 000 copies . Both albums were certified double platinum ( Latin field ) by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) for shipments of 200 @,@ 000 copies . Joyas Prestadas : Pop was the best @-@ selling Latin pop album of 2013 in the United States . As of December 2013 , both albums have sold over 300 @,@ 000 copies combined .
= = = Singles = = =
Both versions of " ¡ Basta Ya ! " were released as the lead single from the album on August 29 , 2011 . In the United States , the song peaked at number fourteen on the Billboard Hot Latin Songs chart and number six on the Billboard Regional Mexican Songs chart . In Mexico , the song reached number one the Monitor Latino charts and number three on the Billboard Mexican Airplay chart . A music video was released for the pop version of the song which was directed by Ricardo Moreno and filmed in Los Angeles , California . " A Cambio de Qué " was the second single to be released from the album on February 28 , 2012 . In the United States , the song peaked at number forty @-@ nine on the Hot Latin Songs chart and at number twenty @-@ one on the Regional Mexican Songs chart . In Mexico , the song peaked at number twenty @-@ one on the Mexican Airplay chart . " Detrás de Mi Ventana " was the final single released from the album on July 3 , 2012 . The song peaked at number sixteen on the Hot Latin Songs chart and number six on the Regional Mexican Songs chart .
= = Reception = =
David Jeffries of Allmusic gave the album a 3 @.@ 5 of 5 stars and called the productions for both album " polished " . At the 2012 Juventud Awards , the album received a nomination for Best Music Album . At the second Billboard Mexican Music Awards in 2012 , Joyas Prestadas : Banda received an award for Banda Album of the Year and a nomination for Album of the Year . At the 25th Lo Nuestro Awards in 2013 , Rivera was posthumously awarded Pop Female Artist of the Year , Pop Album of the Year for Joyas Prestadas : Pop and Pop Song of the Year for her cover of " A Cambio de Qué " . A tribute to Rivera was made during the ceremony .
At the 2013 Latin Billboard Awards , Joyas Prestadas : Pop was awarded Album of the Year by a Female Artist while both albums were nominated Latin Pop Album of the Year and Regional Mexican Album of the Year . At the 2013 Mexican Oye ! Awards , Joyas Prestadas : Banda was recognized Popular Album of the Year and Banda Album of the Year by a Soloist or Group , while Joyas Prestadas : Pop was nominated Pop Album of the Year by a Female Artist . Joyas Prestadas : Banda was nominated Album of the Year and Banda Album of the Year at the third Billboard Mexican Music Awards . Joyas Prestadas : Pop was nominated Top Latin Album of the Year and Latin Pop Album of the Year at the 2014 Billboard Latin Music Awards .
= = Track listing = =
= = Credits and personnel = =
The following credits are from Allmusic :
= = Charts = =
= = = Weekly charts = = =
= = = Year @-@ end charts = = =
= = Certifications = =
= = Release history = =
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= M @-@ 186 ( Michigan highway ) =
M @-@ 186 , is a state trunkline highway in the U.S. state of Michigan . It functions as a connector highway wholly contained in Grand Traverse County , which is located in the northwestern Lower Peninsula . The western terminus is at M @-@ 113 east of Kingsley and the eastern terminus is at U.S. Highway 131 ( US 131 ) west of downtown Fife Lake . The current incarnation of M @-@ 186 is the second usage of the designation . The first was used for a highway in the Upper Peninsula in the 1930s .
= = Route description = =
M @-@ 186 forms an easterly extension of M @-@ 113 from Kingsley to Fife Lake . M @-@ 186 starts south of a ninety @-@ degree curve in M @-@ 113 and runs east through flat , wooded terrain to Fife Lake . The roadway runs parallel to the survey section lines in Fife Lake Township , and it passes several residences along the whole length . From the eastern terminus , State Street connects M @-@ 186 and US 131 with downtown Fife Lake .
In 2007 , the average annual daily traffic ( AADT ) surveys conducted by the Michigan Department of Transportation ( MDOT ) showed that 2 @,@ 100 vehicles used M @-@ 186 . M @-@ 113 west of M @-@ 186 logged an average of 7 @,@ 800 vehicles a day north of the junction and 4 @,@ 400 vehicles south of the junction . On the east end , US 131 carried 5 @,@ 100 vehicles north and 4 @,@ 800 vehicles south of the junction in Fife Lake . Of the 2 @,@ 100 vehicles on M @-@ 186 , only 140 trucks travelled the highway each day on average .
= = History = =
= = = Previous designation = = =
In the 1930s , M @-@ 186 was designated on a 4 @.@ 3 @-@ mile ( 6 @.@ 9 km ) connector route in the Upper Peninsula of Michigan between US 2 / US 41 at Rapid River and M @-@ 35 near Brampton . This designation existed from 1933 until July 26 , 1939 , forming a route for westbound US 2 traffic to access M @-@ 35 northbound towards Gwinn and Negaunee .
= = = Current designation = = =
In 1940 , US 131 ended at a threeway convergence with M @-@ 113 and M @-@ 131 four miles ( 6 km ) north of Walton Junction in Paradise Township . From this intersection , US 131 ran south to Walton Junction , M @-@ 113 ran west to Kingsley , and M @-@ 131 ran east toward Fife Lake before turning north to Petoskey . A new alignment of US 131 was built from Walton Junction directly to Fife Lake . This formed a third leg of a triangle of roads , allowing US 131 to bypass the Paradise Township intersection . US 131 replaced M @-@ 131 north from Fife Lake to Petoskey . M @-@ 113 was extended along the former section of US 131 south to Walton Junction . The remaining leg of the triangle from Paradise Township to Fife Lake along a portion of the former M @-@ 131 was designated M @-@ 186 at this time .
= = Major intersections = =
The entire highway is in Fife Lake Township , Grand Traverse County .
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= Globular cluster =
A globular cluster is a spherical collection of stars that orbits a galactic core as a satellite . Globular clusters are very tightly bound by gravity , which gives them their spherical shapes and relatively high stellar densities toward their centers . The name of this category of star cluster is derived from the Latin globulus — a small sphere . A globular cluster is sometimes known more simply as a globular .
Globular clusters , which are found in the halo of a galaxy , contain considerably more stars and are much older than the less dense galactic , or open clusters , which are found in the disk . Globular clusters are fairly common ; there are about 150 to 158 currently known globular clusters in the Milky Way , with perhaps 10 to 20 more still undiscovered . These globular clusters orbit the Galaxy at radii of 40 kiloparsecs ( 130 @,@ 000 light @-@ years ) or more . Larger galaxies can have more : Andromeda , for instance , may have as many as 500 . Some giant elliptical galaxies , particularly those at the centers of galaxy clusters , such as M87 , have as many as 13 @,@ 000 globular clusters .
Every galaxy of sufficient mass in the Local Group has an associated group of globular clusters , and almost every large galaxy surveyed has been found to possess a system of globular clusters . The Sagittarius Dwarf galaxy and the disputed Canis Major Dwarf galaxy appear to be in the process of donating their associated globular clusters ( such as Palomar 12 ) to the Milky Way . This demonstrates how many of this galaxy 's globular clusters might have been acquired in the past .
Although it appears that globular clusters contain some of the first stars to be produced in the galaxy , their origins and their role in galactic evolution are still unclear . It does appear clear that globular clusters are significantly different from dwarf elliptical galaxies and were formed as part of the star formation of the parent galaxy rather than as a separate galaxy .
= = Observation history = =
The first globular cluster discovered was M22 in 1665 by Abraham Ihle , a German amateur astronomer . However , given the small aperture of early telescopes , individual stars within a globular cluster were not resolved until Charles Messier observed M4 . The first eight globular clusters discovered are shown in the table . Subsequently , Abbé Lacaille would list NGC 104 , NGC 4833 , M55 , M69 , and NGC 6397 in his 1751 – 52 catalogue . The M before a number refers to the catalogue of Charles Messier , while NGC is from the New General Catalogue by John Dreyer .
When William Herschel began his comprehensive survey of the sky using large telescopes in 1782 there were 34 known globular clusters . Herschel discovered another 36 himself and was the first to resolve virtually all of them into stars . He coined the term " globular cluster " in his Catalogue of a Second Thousand New Nebulae and Clusters of Stars published in 1789 .
The number of globular clusters discovered continued to increase , reaching 83 in 1915 , 93 in 1930 and 97 by 1947 . A total of 152 globular clusters have now been discovered in the Milky Way galaxy , out of an estimated total of 180 ± 20 . These additional , undiscovered globular clusters are believed to be hidden behind the gas and dust of the Milky Way .
Beginning in 1914 , Harlow Shapley began a series of studies of globular clusters , published in about 40 scientific papers . He examined the RR Lyrae variables in the clusters ( which he assumed were cepheid variables ) and would use their period – luminosity relationship for distance estimates . Later , it was found that RR Lyrae variables are fainter than cepheid variables , which caused Shapley to overestimate the distance to the clusters .
Of the globular clusters within the Milky Way , the majority are found in the vicinity of the galactic core , and the large majority lie on the side of the celestial sky centered on the core . In 1918 , this strongly asymmetrical distribution was used by Harlow Shapley to make a determination of the overall dimensions of the galaxy . By assuming a roughly spherical distribution of globular clusters around the galaxy 's center , he used the positions of the clusters to estimate the position of the sun relative to the galactic center . While his distance estimate was in significant error , it did demonstrate that the dimensions of the galaxy were much greater than had been previously thought . His error was because dust in the Milky Way diminished the amount of light from a globular cluster that reached the earth , thus making it appear farther away . Shapley 's estimate was , however , within the same order of magnitude as the currently accepted value .
Shapley 's measurements also indicated that the Sun was relatively far from the center of the galaxy , contrary to what had previously been inferred from the apparently nearly even distribution of ordinary stars . In reality , ordinary stars lie within the galaxy 's disk and are thus often obscured by gas and dust , whereas globular clusters lie outside the disk and can be seen at much further distances .
= = = Classification of globulars = = =
Shapley was subsequently assisted in his studies of clusters by Henrietta Swope and Helen Battles Sawyer ( later Hogg ) . In 1927 – 29 , Harlow Shapley and Helen Sawyer began categorizing clusters according to the degree of concentration the system has toward the core . The most concentrated clusters were identified as Class I , with successively diminishing concentrations ranging to Class XII . This became known as the Shapley – Sawyer Concentration Class ( it is sometimes given with numbers [ Class 1 – 12 ] rather than Roman numerals . ) In 2015 , a new type of globular cluster was proposed on the basis of observational data , the dark globular clusters .
= = Formation = =
The formation of globular clusters remains a poorly understood phenomenon and it remains uncertain whether the stars in a globular cluster form in a single generation or are spawned across multiple generations over a period of several hundred million years . In many globular clusters , most of the stars are at approximately the same stage in stellar evolution , suggesting that they formed at about the same time . However , the star formation history varies from cluster to cluster , with some clusters showing distinct populations of stars . An example of this is the globular clusters in the Large Magellanic Cloud ( LMC ) that exhibit a bimodal population . During their youth , these LMC clusters may have encountered giant molecular clouds that triggered a second round of star formation . This star @-@ forming period is relatively brief , compared to the age of many globular clusters . It has also been proposed that the reason for this multiplicity in stellar populations could have a dynamical origin . In the Antennae galaxy , for example , the Hubble Space Telescope has observed clusters of clusters , regions in the galaxy that span hundreds of parsecs , where many of the clusters will eventually collide and merge . Many of them present a significant range in ages , hence possibly metallicities , and their merger could plausibly lead to clusters with a bimodal or even multiple distribution of populations .
Observations of globular clusters show that these stellar formations arise primarily in regions of efficient star formation , and where the interstellar medium is at a higher density than in normal star @-@ forming regions . Globular cluster formation is prevalent in starburst regions and in interacting galaxies . Research indicates a correlation between the mass of a central supermassive black holes ( SMBH ) and the extent of the globular cluster systems of elliptical and lenticular galaxies . The mass of the SMBH in such a galaxy is often close to the combined mass of the galaxy 's globular clusters .
No known globular clusters display active star formation , which is consistent with the view that globular clusters are typically the oldest objects in the Galaxy , and were among the first collections of stars to form . Very large regions of star formation known as super star clusters , such as Westerlund 1 in the Milky Way , may be the precursors of globular clusters .
= = Composition = =
Globular clusters are generally composed of hundreds of thousands of low @-@ metal , old stars . The type of stars found in a globular cluster are similar to those in the bulge of a spiral galaxy but confined to a volume of only a few million cubic parsecs . They are free of gas and dust and it is presumed that all of the gas and dust was long ago turned into stars .
Globular clusters can contain a high density of stars ; on average about 0 @.@ 4 stars per cubic parsec , increasing to 100 or 1000 stars per cubic parsec in the core of the cluster . The typical distance between stars in a globular cluster is about 1 light year , but at its core , the separation is comparable to the size of the Solar System ( 100 to 1000 times closer than stars near the Solar System ) .
However , they are not thought to be favorable locations for the survival of planetary systems . Planetary orbits are dynamically unstable within the cores of dense clusters because of the perturbations of passing stars . A planet orbiting at 1 astronomical unit around a star that is within the core of a dense cluster such as 47 Tucanae would only survive on the order of 108 years . There is a planetary system orbiting a pulsar ( PSR B1620 − 26 ) that belongs to the globular cluster M4 , but these planets likely formed after the event that created the pulsar .
Some globular clusters , like Omega Centauri in the Milky Way and G1 in M31 , are extraordinarily massive , with several million solar masses ( M ☉ ) and multiple stellar populations . Both can be regarded as evidence that supermassive globular clusters are in fact the cores of dwarf galaxies that are consumed by the larger galaxies . About a quarter of the globular cluster population in the Milky Way may have been accreted along with their host dwarf galaxy .
Several globular clusters ( like M15 ) have extremely massive cores which may harbor black holes , although simulations suggest that a less massive black hole or central concentration of neutron stars or massive white dwarfs explain observations equally well .
= = = Metallic content = = =
Globular clusters normally consist of Population II stars , which have a low proportion of elements other than hydrogen and helium when compared to Population I stars such as the Sun . Astronomers refer to these heavier elements as metals and to the proportions of these elements as the metallicity . These elements are produced by stellar nucleosynthesis and then are recycled into the interstellar medium , where they enter the next generation of stars . Hence the proportion of metals can be an indication of the age of a star , with older stars typically having a lower metallicity .
The Dutch astronomer Pieter Oosterhoff noticed that there appear to be two populations of globular clusters , which became known as Oosterhoff groups . The second group has a slightly longer period of RR Lyrae variable stars . Both groups have weak lines of metallic elements . But the lines in the stars of Oosterhoff type I ( OoI ) cluster are not quite as weak as those in type II ( OoII ) . Hence type I are referred to as " metal @-@ rich " ( e.g. Terzan 7 ) while type II are " metal @-@ poor " ( e.g. ESO 280 @-@ SC06 ) .
These two populations have been observed in many galaxies , especially massive elliptical galaxies . Both groups are nearly as old as the universe itself and are of similar ages , but differ in their metal abundances . Many scenarios have been suggested to explain these subpopulations , including violent gas @-@ rich galaxy mergers , the accretion of dwarf galaxies , and multiple phases of star formation in a single galaxy . In the Milky Way , the metal @-@ poor clusters are associated with the halo and the metal @-@ rich clusters with the bulge .
In the Milky Way it has been discovered that the large majority of the low metallicity clusters are aligned along a plane in the outer part of the galaxy 's halo . This result argues in favor of the view that type II clusters in the galaxy were captured from a satellite galaxy , rather than being the oldest members of the Milky Way 's globular cluster system as had been previously thought . The difference between the two cluster types would then be explained by a time delay between when the two galaxies formed their cluster systems .
= = = Exotic components = = =
Globular clusters have a very high star density , and therefore close interactions and near @-@ collisions of stars occur relatively often . Due to these chance encounters , some exotic classes of stars , such as blue stragglers , millisecond pulsars and low @-@ mass X @-@ ray binaries , are much more common in globular clusters . A blue straggler is formed from the merger of two stars , possibly as a result of an encounter with a binary system . The resulting star has a higher temperature than comparable stars in the cluster with the same luminosity , and thus differs from the main sequence stars formed at the beginning of the cluster .
Astronomers have searched for black holes within globular clusters since the 1970s . The resolution requirements for this task , however , are exacting , and it is only with the Hubble space telescope that the first confirmed discoveries have been made . In independent programs , a 4 @,@ 000 M ☉ intermediate @-@ mass black hole has been suggested to exist based on HST observations in the globular cluster M15 and a 20 @,@ 000 M ☉ black hole in the Mayall II cluster in the Andromeda Galaxy . Both x @-@ ray and radio emissions from Mayall II appear to be consistent with an intermediate @-@ mass black hole .
These are of particular interest because they are the first black holes discovered that were intermediate in mass between the conventional stellar @-@ mass black hole and the supermassive black holes discovered at the cores of galaxies . The mass of these intermediate mass black holes is proportional to the mass of the clusters , following a pattern previously discovered between supermassive black holes and their surrounding galaxies .
Claims of intermediate mass black holes have been met with some skepticism . The heaviest objects in globular clusters are expected to migrate to the cluster center due to mass segregation . As pointed out in two papers by Holger Baumgardt and collaborators , the mass @-@ to @-@ light ratio should rise sharply towards the center of the cluster , even without a black hole , in both M15 and Mayall II .
= = Color @-@ magnitude diagram = =
The Hertzsprung @-@ Russell diagram ( HR @-@ diagram ) is a graph of a large sample of stars that plots their visual absolute magnitude against their color index . The color index , B − V , is the difference between the magnitude of the star in blue light , or B , and the magnitude in visual light ( green @-@ yellow ) , or V. Large positive values indicate a red star with a cool surface temperature , while negative values imply a blue star with a hotter surface .
When the stars near the Sun are plotted on an HR diagram , it displays a distribution of stars of various masses , ages , and compositions . Many of the stars lie relatively close to a sloping curve with increasing absolute magnitude as the stars are hotter , known as main @-@ sequence stars . However the diagram also typically includes stars that are in later stages of their evolution and have wandered away from this main @-@ sequence curve .
As all the stars of a globular cluster are at approximately the same distance from us , their absolute magnitudes differ from their visual magnitude by about the same amount . The main @-@ sequence stars in the globular cluster will fall along a line that is believed to be comparable to similar stars in the solar neighborhood . The accuracy of this assumption is confirmed by comparable results obtained by comparing the magnitudes of nearby short @-@ period variables , such as RR Lyrae stars and cepheid variables , with those in the cluster .
By matching up these curves on the HR diagram the absolute magnitude of main @-@ sequence stars in the cluster can also be determined . This in turn provides a distance estimate to the cluster , based on the visual magnitude of the stars . The difference between the relative and absolute magnitude , the distance modulus , yields this estimate of the distance .
When the stars of a particular globular cluster are plotted on an HR diagram , in many cases nearly all of the stars fall upon a relatively well defined curve . This differs from the HR diagram of stars near the Sun , which lumps together stars of differing ages and origins . The shape of the curve for a globular cluster is characteristic of a grouping of stars that were formed at approximately the same time and from the same materials , differing only in their initial mass . As the position of each star in the HR diagram varies with age , the shape of the curve for a globular cluster can be used to measure the overall age of the star population .
However , the above @-@ mentioned historic process of determining the age and distance to globular clusters is not as robust as first thought , since the morphology and luminosity of globular cluster stars in color @-@ magnitude diagrams are influenced by numerous parameters , many of which are still being actively researched . Certain clusters even display populations that are absent from other globular clusters ( e.g. , blue hook stars ) , or feature multiple populations . The historical paradigm that all globular clusters consist of stars born at exactly the same time , or sharing exactly the same chemical abundance , has likewise been overturned ( e.g. , NGC 2808 ) . Further , the morphology of the cluster stars in a color @-@ magnitude diagram , and that includes the brightnesses of distance indicators such as RR Lyrae variable members , can be influenced by observational biases . One such effect is called blending , and it arises because the cores of globular clusters are so dense that in low @-@ resolution observations multiple ( unresolved ) stars may appear as a single target . Thus the brightness measured for that seemingly single star ( e.g. , an RR Lyrae variable ) is erroneously too bright , given those unresolved stars contributed to the brightness determined . Consequently , the computed distance is wrong , and more importantly , certain researchers have argued that the blending effect can introduce a systematic uncertainty into the cosmic distance ladder , and may bias the estimated age of the Universe and the Hubble constant .
The most massive main @-@ sequence stars will also have the highest absolute magnitude , and these will be the first to evolve into the giant star stage . As the cluster ages , stars of successively lower masses will also enter the giant star stage . Thus the age of a single population cluster can be measured by looking for the stars that are just beginning to enter the giant star stage . This forms a " knee " in the HR diagram , bending to the upper right from the main @-@ sequence line . The absolute magnitude at this bend is directly a function of the age of globular cluster , so an age scale can be plotted on an axis parallel to the magnitude .
In addition , globular clusters can be dated by looking at the temperatures of the coolest white dwarfs . Typical results for globular clusters are that they may be as old as 12 @.@ 7 billion years . This is in contrast to open clusters which are only tens of millions of years old .
The ages of globular clusters place a bound on the age limit of the entire universe . This lower limit has been a significant constraint in cosmology . Historically , astronomers were faced with age estimates of globular clusters that appeared older than cosmological models would allow . However , better measurements of cosmological parameters through deep sky surveys and satellites such as the Hubble Space Telescope appear to have resolved this issue .
Evolutionary studies of globular clusters can also be used to determine changes due to the starting composition of the gas and dust that formed the cluster . That is , the evolutionary tracks change with changes in the abundance of heavy elements . The data obtained from studies of globular clusters are then used to study the evolution of the Milky Way as a whole .
In globular clusters a few stars known as blue stragglers are observed , apparently continuing the main sequence in the direction of brighter , bluer stars . The origins of these stars is still unclear , but most models suggest that these stars are the result of mass transfer in multiple star systems .
= = Morphology = =
In contrast to open clusters , most globular clusters remain gravitationally bound for time periods comparable to the life spans of the majority of their stars . However , a possible exception is when strong tidal interactions with other large masses result in the dispersal of the stars .
After they are formed , the stars in the globular cluster begin to interact gravitationally with each other . As a result , the velocity vectors of the stars are steadily modified , and the stars lose any history of their original velocity . The characteristic interval for this to occur is the relaxation time . This is related to the characteristic length of time a star needs to cross the cluster as well as the number of stellar masses in the system . The value of the relaxation time varies by cluster , but the mean value is on the order of 109 years .
Although globular clusters generally appear spherical in form , ellipticities can occur due to tidal interactions . Clusters within the Milky Way and the Andromeda Galaxy are typically oblate spheroids in shape , while those in the Large Magellanic Cloud are more elliptical .
= = = Radii = = =
Astronomers characterize the morphology of a globular cluster by means of standard radii . These are the core radius ( rc ) , the half @-@ light radius ( rh ) , and the tidal ( or Jacobi ) radius ( rt ) . The overall luminosity of the cluster steadily decreases with distance from the core , and the core radius is the distance at which the apparent surface luminosity has dropped by half . A comparable quantity is the half @-@ light radius , or the distance from the core within which half the total luminosity from the cluster is received . This is typically larger than the core radius .
Note that the half @-@ light radius includes stars in the outer part of the cluster that happen to lie along the line of sight , so theorists will also use the half @-@ mass radius ( rm ) — the radius from the core that contains half the total mass of the cluster . When the half @-@ mass radius of a cluster is small relative to the overall size , it has a dense core . An example of this is Messier 3 ( M3 ) , which has an overall visible dimension of about 18 arc minutes , but a half @-@ mass radius of only 1 @.@ 12 arc minutes .
Almost all globular clusters have a half @-@ light radius of less than 10 pc , although there are well @-@ established globular clusters with very large radii ( i.e. NGC 2419 ( Rh |
= 18 pc ) and Palomar 14 ( Rh =
25 pc ) ) .
Finally the tidal radius , or Hill sphere , is the distance from the center of the globular cluster at which the external gravitation of the galaxy has more influence over the stars in the cluster than does the cluster itself . This is the distance at which the individual stars belonging to a cluster can be separated away by the galaxy . The tidal radius of M3 is about 40 arc minutes , or about 113 pc at the distance of 10 @.@ 4 kpc .
= = = Mass segregation , luminosity and core collapse = = =
In measuring the luminosity curve of a given globular cluster as a function of distance from the core , most clusters in the Milky Way increase steadily in luminosity as this distance decreases , up to a certain distance from the core , then the luminosity levels off . Typically this distance is about 1 – 2 parsecs from the core . However about 20 % of the globular clusters have undergone a process termed " core collapse " . In this type of cluster , the luminosity continues to increase steadily all the way to the core region . An example of a core @-@ collapsed globular is M15 .
Core @-@ collapse is thought to occur when the more massive stars in a globular cluster encounter their less massive companions . Over time , dynamic processes cause individual stars to migrate from the center of the cluster to the outside . This results in a net loss of kinetic energy from the core region , leading the remaining stars grouped in the core region to occupy a more compact volume . When this gravothermal instability occurs , the central region of the cluster becomes densely crowded with stars and the surface brightness of the cluster forms a power @-@ law cusp . ( Note that a core collapse is not the only mechanism that can cause such a luminosity distribution ; a massive black hole at the core can also result in a luminosity cusp . ) Over a lengthy period of time this leads to a concentration of massive stars near the core , a phenomenon called mass segregation .
The dynamical heating effect of binary star systems works to prevent an initial core collapse of the cluster . When a star passes near a binary system , the orbit of the latter pair tends to contract , releasing energy . Only after the primordial supply of binaries is exhausted due to interactions can a deeper core collapse proceed . In contrast , the effect of tidal shocks as a globular cluster repeatedly passes through the plane of a spiral galaxy tends to significantly accelerate core collapse .
The different stages of core @-@ collapse may be divided into three phases . During a globular cluster 's adolescence , the process of core @-@ collapse begins with stars near the core . However , the interactions between binary star systems prevents further collapse as the cluster approaches middle age . Finally , the central binaries are either disrupted or ejected , resulting in a tighter concentration at the core .
The interaction of stars in the collapsed core region causes tight binary systems to form . As other stars interact with these tight binaries , they increase the energy at the core , which causes the cluster to re @-@ expand . As the mean time for a core collapse is typically less than the age of the galaxy , many of a galaxy 's globular clusters may have passed through a core collapse stage , then re @-@ expanded .
The Hubble Space Telescope has been used to provide convincing observational evidence of this stellar mass @-@ sorting process in globular clusters . Heavier stars slow down and crowd at the cluster 's core , while lighter stars pick up speed and tend to spend more time at the cluster 's periphery . The globular star cluster 47 Tucanae , which is made up of about 1 million stars , is one of the densest globular clusters in the Southern Hemisphere . This cluster was subjected to an intensive photographic survey , which allowed astronomers to track the motion of its stars . Precise velocities were obtained for nearly 15 @,@ 000 stars in this cluster .
A 2008 study by John Fregeau of 13 globular clusters in the Milky Way shows that three of them have an unusually large number of X @-@ ray sources , or X @-@ ray binaries , suggesting the clusters are middle @-@ aged . Previously , these globular clusters had been classified as being in old age because they had very tight concentrations of stars in their centers , another test of age used by astronomers . The implication is that most globular clusters , including the other ten studied by Fregeau , are not in middle age as previously thought , but are actually in ' adolescence ' .
The overall luminosities of the globular clusters within the Milky Way and the Andromeda Galaxy can be modeled by means of a gaussian curve . This gaussian can be represented by means of an average magnitude Mv and a variance σ2 . This distribution of globular cluster luminosities is called the Globular Cluster Luminosity Function ( GCLF ) . ( For the Milky Way , Mv |
= − 7 @.@ 20 ± 0 @.@ 13 , σ =
1 @.@ 1 ± 0 @.@ 1 magnitudes . ) The GCLF has also been used as a " standard candle " for measuring the distance to other galaxies , under the assumption that the globular clusters in remote galaxies follow the same principles as they do in the Milky Way .
= = = N @-@ body simulations = = =
Computing the interactions between the stars within a globular cluster requires solving what is termed the N @-@ body problem . That is , each of the stars within the cluster continually interacts with the other N − 1 stars , where N is the total number of stars in the cluster . The naive CPU computational " cost " for a dynamic simulation increases in proportion to N 2 ( each of N objects must interact pairwise with each of the other N objects ) , so the potential computing requirements to accurately simulate such a cluster can be enormous . An efficient method of mathematically simulating the N @-@ body dynamics of a globular cluster is done by subdividing into small volumes and velocity ranges , and using probabilities to describe the locations of the stars . The motions are then described by means of a formula called the Fokker – Planck equation . This can be solved by a simplified form of the equation , or by running Monte Carlo simulations and using random values . However the simulation becomes more difficult when the effects of binaries and the interaction with external gravitation forces ( such as from the Milky Way galaxy ) must also be included .
The results of N @-@ body simulations have shown that the stars can follow unusual paths through the cluster , often forming loops and often falling more directly toward the core than would a single star orbiting a central mass . In addition , due to interactions with other stars that result in an increase in velocity , some of the stars gain sufficient energy to escape the cluster . Over long periods of time this will result in a dissipation of the cluster , a process termed evaporation . The typical time scale for the evaporation of a globular cluster is 1010 years . In 2010 it became possible to directly compute , star by star , N @-@ body simulations of a globular cluster over the course of its lifetime .
Binary stars form a significant portion of the total population of stellar systems , with up to half of all stars occurring in binary systems . Numerical simulations of globular clusters have demonstrated that binaries can hinder and even reverse the process of core collapse in globular clusters . When a star in a cluster has a gravitational encounter with a binary system , a possible result is that the binary becomes more tightly bound and kinetic energy is added to the solitary star . When the massive stars in the cluster are sped up by this process , it reduces the contraction at the core and limits core collapse .
The ultimate fate of a globular cluster must be either to accrete stars at its core , causing its steady contraction , or gradual shedding of stars from its outer layers .
= = = Intermediate forms = = =
The distinction between cluster types is not always clear @-@ cut , and objects have been found that blur the lines between the categories . For example , BH 176 in the southern part of the Milky Way has properties of both an open and a globular cluster .
In 2005 , astronomers discovered a completely new type of star cluster in the Andromeda Galaxy , which is , in several ways , very similar to globular clusters . The new @-@ found clusters contain hundreds of thousands of stars , a similar number to that found in globular clusters . The clusters share other characteristics with globular clusters such as stellar populations and metallicity . What distinguishes them from the globular clusters is that they are much larger – several hundred light @-@ years across – and hundreds of times less dense . The distances between the stars are , therefore , much greater within the newly discovered extended clusters . Parametrically , these clusters lie somewhere between a globular cluster and a dwarf spheroidal galaxy .
How these clusters are formed is not yet known , but their formation might well be related to that of globular clusters . Why M31 has such clusters , while the Milky Way does not , is not yet known . It is also unknown if any other galaxy contains these types of clusters , but it would be very unlikely that M31 is the sole galaxy with extended clusters .
= = Tidal encounters = =
When a globular cluster has a close encounter with a large mass , such as the core region of a galaxy , it undergoes a tidal interaction . The difference in the pull of gravity between the part of the cluster nearest the mass and the pull on the furthest part of the cluster results in a tidal force . A " tidal shock " occurs whenever the orbit of a cluster takes it through the plane of a galaxy .
As a result of a tidal shock , streams of stars can be pulled away from the cluster halo , leaving only the core part of the cluster . These tidal interaction effects create tails of stars that can extend up to several degrees of arc away from the cluster . These tails typically both precede and follow the cluster along its orbit . The tails can accumulate significant portions of the original mass of the cluster , and can form clumplike features .
The globular cluster Palomar 5 , for example , is near the apogalactic point of its orbit after passing through the Milky Way . Streams of stars extend outward toward the front and rear of the orbital path of this cluster , stretching out to distances of 13 @,@ 000 light @-@ years . Tidal interactions have stripped away much of the mass from Palomar 5 , and further interactions as it passes through the galactic core are expected to transform it into a long stream of stars orbiting the Milky Way halo .
Tidal interactions add kinetic energy into a globular cluster , dramatically increasing the evaporation rate and shrinking the size of the cluster . Not only does tidal shock strip off the outer stars from a globular cluster , but the increased evaporation accelerates the process of core collapse . The same physical mechanism may be at work in dwarf spheroidal galaxies such as the Sagittarius Dwarf , which appears to be undergoing tidal disruption due to its proximity to the Milky Way .
= = Orbits = =
There are many globular clusters with a retrograde orbit round the Milky Way Galaxy . A hypervelocity globular cluster was discovered around Messier 87 in 2014 , having a velocity in excess of the escape velocity of M87 .
= = Planets = =
Astronomers are searching for exoplanets of stars in globular star clusters .
In 2000 , the results of a search for giant planets in the globular cluster 47 Tucanae were announced . The lack of any successful discoveries suggests that the abundance of elements ( other than hydrogen or helium ) necessary to build these planets may need to be at least 40 % of the abundance in the Sun . Terrestrial planets are built from heavier elements such as silicon , iron and magnesium . The very low abundance of these elements in globular clusters means that the member stars have a far lower likelihood of hosting Earth @-@ mass planets , when compared to stars in the neighborhood of the Sun . Hence the halo region of the Milky Way galaxy , including globular cluster members , are unlikely to host habitable terrestrial planets .
In spite of the lower likelihood of giant planet formation , just such an object has been found in the globular cluster Messier 4 . This planet was detected orbiting a pulsar in the binary star system PSR B1620 @-@ 26 . The eccentric and highly inclined orbit of the planet suggests it may have been formed around another star in the cluster , then was later " exchanged " into its current arrangement . The likelihood of close encounters between stars in a globular cluster can disrupt planetary systems , some of which break loose to become free floating planets . Even close orbiting planets can become disrupted , potentially leading to orbital decay and an increase in orbital eccentricity and tidal effects .
= = = General resources = = =
NASA Astrophysics Data System has a collection of past articles , from all major astrophysics journals and many conference proceedings .
SCYON is a newsletter dedicated to star clusters .
MODEST is a loose collaboration of scientists working on star clusters .
= = = Books = = =
Binney , James ; Tremaine , Scott ( 1987 ) . Galactic Dynamics ( First ed . ) . Princeton , New Jersey : Princeton University Press . ISBN 0 @-@ 691 @-@ 08444 @-@ 0 .
Heggie , Douglas ; Hut , Piet ( 2003 ) . The Gravitational Million @-@ Body Problem : A Multidisciplinary Approach to Star Cluster Dynamics . Cambridge University Press . ISBN 0 @-@ 521 @-@ 77486 @-@ 1 .
Spitzer , Lyman ( 1987 ) . Dynamical Evolution of Globular Clusters . Princeton , New Jersey : Princeton University Press . ISBN 0 @-@ 691 @-@ 08460 @-@ 2 .
= = = Review articles = = =
Elson , Rebecca ; Hut , Piet ; Inagaki , Shogo ( 1987 ) . Dynamical evolution of globular clusters . Annual review of astronomy and astrophysics 25 565 . Bibcode : 1987ARA & A .. 25 .. 565E
Meylan , G. ; Heggie , D. C. ( 1997 ) . Internal dynamics of globular clusters . The Astronomy and Astrophysics Review 8 1 . Bibcode : 1997A & ARv ... 8 .... 1M
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= Hapalopilus nidulans =
Hapalopilus nidulans ( also known as Hapalopilus rutilans ) is a species of polypore fungus in the family Polyporaceae . Officially described in 1821 , it was transferred to its current genus Hapalopilus six decades later . It is commonly known as the tender nesting polypore , purple dye polypore , or the cinnamon bracket . This widely distributed species is found on five continents . It grows on the fallen or standing dead wood of deciduous trees , in which it fruits singly , in groups , fused , or in overlapping clusters . Fruit bodies are in the form of kidney @-@ shaped to semicircular , cinnamon @-@ orange @-@ brown brackets . The underside of the fruit body features a yellowish to brownish pore surface with tiny angular pores , from which spores are released .
The poisonous fruit bodies cause neurotoxic symptoms if ingested , an effect attributable to the compound polyporic acid , which is present in high concentrations . When an alkaline solution is placed on the fungus , the flesh turns violet . The fungus is used in mushroom dyeing to produce purple colors .
= = Taxonomy = =
The species was first described in 1791 by French mycologist Jean Baptiste François Pierre Bulliard , who called it Boletus suberosus . However , this name had been used previously by Carl Linnaeus ( for a species now known as Polyporus suberosus ) , and so Bulliard 's name was an illegitimate homonym . In 1821 , Elias Magnus Fries published the species as Polyporus nidulans . In 1881 , Petter Karsten transferred it to its current genus , Hapalopilus , as the type species . The fungus has been shuffled to several genera throughout its taxonomic history , including Boletus ( Kurt Sprengel , 1827 ) , Inonotus ( Petter Karsten , 1881 ) , Phaeolus ( Narcisse Théophile Patouillard , 1900 ) , Polystictus ( François @-@ Xavier Gillot and Jean Louis Lucand , 1890 ) , and Agaricus ( Ernst Hans Ludwig Krause , 1933 ) .
The name Boletus rutilans , published by Christiaan Hendrik Persoon in 1798 , and later transferred to Hapalopilus by William Alphonso Murrill in 1904 , is a synonym that is still used in several recent sources . Murrill noted , " When Fries studied the plant he gave it the name P. nidulans , following it with Persoon 's P. rutilans , which , he naively remarked , was perhaps a variety of P. nidulans . The two species were kept distinct by Berkeley , but he had little and poor material and evidently did not know them intimately . " According to MycoBank , although the name Boletus rutilans was sanctioned by Fries in his 1818 book Observationes mycologicae , his remarks in the text suggest that he recognized the species were the same , and subsequently the name was not sanctioned against P. nidulans . According to Field Museum mycologist Patrick Leacock , however , Fries ( 1818 ) was not a sanctioning work , although both names were sanctioned later by Fries in his 1821 work Systema Mycologicum . Since both names are sanctioned , and the basionym for H. rutilans was published earlier ( in 1798 ) , Leacock suggests this name should take priority . As of November 2015 , both MycoBank and Species Fungorum give H. rutilans and H. nidulans as synonymous , with the latter being the preferred name .
The polypore is commonly known as the " purple dye polypore " , " cinnamon bracket " , or the " tender nesting polypore " . The specific epithet nidulans is Latin for " nesting " ; the epithet rutilans means " orange @-@ red " .
= = Description = =
The cap is fan @-@ shaped to semicircular and convex , reaching a diameter of 2 @.@ 5 – 12 cm ( 1 @.@ 0 – 4 @.@ 7 in ) . It lacks a stalk , and is instead attached broadly to the substrate . The fruit bodies are initially soft and spongy , but become hard and brittle once they have lost their moisture . The cap surface is covered with matted hairs , has shallow concentric furrows , and a dull brownish @-@ orange color . The flesh is up to 3 cm ( 1 @.@ 2 in ) thick at the thickest part , and is a pale cinnamon color . The pore surface is yellowish to brownish , and the pores are angular , numbering about 2 – 4 per millimeter . In young fruit bodies , the pore surface bruises reddish brown . The mushroom 's odor and taste ranges from sweetish to indistinct .
Fruit bodies produce a white spore print . Spores are elliptical to cylindrical , smooth , hyaline ( translucent ) , and measure 3 @.@ 5 – 5 by 2 – 3 μm . The basidia ( spore @-@ bearing cells ) are club shaped and four @-@ spored , with dimensions of 18 – 22 by 5 – 5 @.@ 6 μm . H. nidulans has a monomitic hyphal system , containing only generative hyphae with clamp connections . In the flesh , these hyphae are thick @-@ walled and highly branched , measuring up to 10 μm in diameter ; hyphae comprising the pores and the subhymenium are thinner ( up to 6 μm wide ) and less branched . A chemical test can be used to help identify H. nidulans : all parts of the fruit body will instantly stain bright violet if a drop of an alkaline solution is applied . Dilute ( 3 – 10 % ) potassium hydroxide ( KOH ) , is often used for this purpose .
= = = Similar species = = =
Some other polypores are roughly similar in appearance to H. nidulans and might be confused with it . Phellinus gilvus has a yellowish to rusty @-@ yellow fibrous cap , yellowish @-@ brown flesh that stains black in KOH , and a grayish @-@ brown to dark brown pore surface . Hapalopilus croceus produces large fruit bodies with caps up to 20 @.@ 5 cm ( 8 @.@ 1 in ) in diameter . Its pore surface is bright reddish orange when fresh , and its flesh stains red with KOH . Pycnoporus cinnabarinus has a tougher fruit body and is a brighter red color . The edible " beefsteak fungus " Fistulina hepatica may readily be confused with H. nidulans . It has soft , blood @-@ red fruit bodies that ooze red juice . Also edible , the " chicken of the woods " , Laetiporus sulphureus , has bright yellow fruit bodies whose color fades in age .
= = Habitat , distribution , and ecology = =
A saprobic species , Hapalopilus nidulans causes a white rot in its host . Fruit bodies of the fungus grow singly , in groups , or in fused and overlapping clusters on the wood of dead and decaying deciduous trees . Preferred hosts include Quercus ( oak ) , Fagus ( beech ) , and Betula ( birch ) , although on rare occasions it has been recorded on conifer wood as well . In central Europe , its preferred host is oak , while in northern Europe it is found most commonly on Corylus and Sorbus . Fruiting typically occurs from early summer to autumn , but the tough fruit bodies are persistent and may be encountered out of the usual growing season .
Hapalopilus nidulans has a mostly circumboreal distribution in the north temperate zone , and has been found in North Africa , Asia , Europe , and North America . Outside of this region , it has been recorded from Australia , and Oceania . In North America , where it can be found as far north as the Northwest Territories in Canada , it is more common in the eastern and southwestern part of the continent . In Europe , its northern distribution extends to Porsanger in Norway . Reported for the first time from India in 2011 , it was found in forests depots of Chhattisgarh , growing on the stored logs of several native trees : Anogeissus latifolia , Chloroxylon swietenia , Desmodium oojeinense , Shorea robusta , and Terminalia elliptica .
Fungus beetle species known to inhabit and rear their young in the fruit bodies of Hapalopilus nidulans include Sulcacis affinis , Hallomenus axillaris , H. binotatus , and Orchesia fasciata .
= = Uses = =
The fruit bodies of H. nidulans are inedible . They have been reported to have neurotoxic effects attributable to polyporic acid , a terphenyl compound first identified from a mycelial culture of the fungus in 1877 . This chemical , present at 20 – 40 % of the dry weight of the fruit bodies , inhibits the enzyme dihydroorotate dehydrogenase . It is found in other mushrooms , but in much lower amounts . In a poisoning case reported in 1992 , one German family who consumed H. nidulans experienced nausea , impaired movement , visual impairment , liver and kidney failure ; symptoms began about 12 hours after consuming the mushroom . Additionally , the urine of all three poisoning victims temporarily turned violet . They recovered fully a week later . Similar symptoms and recovery were reported in a 2013 poisoning case , in which the fungus was confused with the edible Fistulina hepatica . The set of symptoms arising from consumption of H. nidulans has been called the neurotoxic delayed syndrome .
Hapalopilus nidulans is highly appreciated by those who make mushroom dyes . When used in combination with alkaline fixatives , the fruit bodies can produce striking violet colors .
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= Alexander Cameron Rutherford =
Alexander Cameron Rutherford , KC ( February 2 , 1857 – June 11 , 1941 ) was a Canadian lawyer and politician who served as the first Premier of Alberta from 1905 to 1910 . Born in Ormond , Ontario , he studied and practised law in Ottawa before moving with his family to the Northwest Territories in 1895 . Here he began his political career , winning in his third attempt a seat in the Legislative Assembly of the Northwest Territories . In keeping with the territorial custom Rutherford ran as an independent , though he generally supported the territorial administration of Premier Frederick W. A. G. Haultain . At the federal level , however , Rutherford was a Liberal .
In 1905 , Alberta Lieutenant Governor George Bulyea asked Rutherford to form the new province 's first government . As Premier , his first task was to win a workable majority in the Legislative Assembly of Alberta , which he did in the 1905 provincial election . His second was to provide the apparatus of provincial government : his government established everything from speed limits to a provincial court system . The legislature also controversially , and with Rutherford 's support , selected Edmonton over rival Calgary as the provincial capital . Calgarians ' bruised feelings were not salved when the government located the University of Alberta , a project dear to the Premier 's heart , in his hometown of Strathcona , just across the North Saskatchewan River from Edmonton .
The government was faced with labour unrest in the coal mining industry , which it resolved by establishing a commission to examine the problem . It also set up a provincial government telephone network — Alberta Government Telephones — at great expense , and tried to encourage the development of new railways . It was in pursuit of this last objective that the Rutherford government found itself embroiled in scandal . Early in 1910 , William Henry Cushing 's resignation as Minister of Public Works precipitated the Alberta and Great Waterways Railway scandal , which turned many of Rutherford 's Liberals against his government . Eventually , pressure from many party figures forced Rutherford to resign . He kept his seat in the legislature after resigning as premier , but was defeated in the 1913 election by Conservative Herbert Crawford .
After leaving politics , Rutherford continued his law practice and his involvement with a wide range of community groups . Most importantly , he became chancellor of the University of Alberta , whose earlier founding had been a personal project . He died of a heart attack June 11 , 1941 . A University of Alberta library , an Edmonton elementary school , and Jasper National Park 's Mount Rutherford are named in his honour . Additionally , his home , Rutherford House , was opened as a museum in 1973 .
= = Early life = =
Alexander Rutherford was born February 2 , 1857 , near Ormond , Ontario on his family 's dairy farm . His parents , James ( 1817 – 1891 ) and Elspet " Elizabeth " ( 1818 – 1901 ) Cameron Rutherford , had immigrated from Scotland two years previous . They joined the Baptist Church , and his father joined the Liberal Party of Canada and served for a time on the Osgoode village council . Rutherford attended public school locally and , after rejecting dairy farming as a vocation , enrolled in a Metcalfe high school . After graduating in 1874 , he attended the Canadian Literary Institute , a Baptist college in Woodstock . He graduated from there in 1876 , and taught for a year in Osgoode .
Next he moved to Montreal to study arts and law at McGill University . He was awarded degrees in both in 1881 , and joined the Ottawa law firm of Scott , McTavish and McCracken where he was articled for four years under the tutelage of Richard William Scott . Called to the Ontario bar in 1885 , he became a junior partner in the firm of Hodgins , Kidd and Rutherford with responsibility for its Kemptville office for ten years . He also established a moneylending business there .
During this time , his social circle grew to include William Cameron Edwards . Through Edwards , Rutherford was introduced to the Birkett family , which included former Member of Parliament Thomas Birkett . Rutherford married Birkett 's niece , Mattie Birkett , in December 1888 . The couple had three children : Cecil ( born in 1890 ) , Hazel ( born in 1893 ) , and Marjorie ( born in 1903 , but died sixteen months later ) . Rutherford had a traditional view of gender roles , and was happy to leave most child @-@ rearing responsibilities to his wife .
= = = Move west = = =
In November 1886 Rutherford visited the Canadian West for the first time when he travelled to British Columbia to investigate the disappearance of his cousin . The Rocky Mountains left a great impression on him , as did the coastal climate which he found " very agreeable " . He visited again in the summer of 1894 , when he took the Canadian Pacific Railway across the prairies . Upon arriving in South Edmonton , he was excited by its growth potential and pleased to find that the dry air relieved his bronchitis . He resolved to settle there , and did so one year later , bringing his reluctant wife and his children , who arrived by train June 10 , 1895 . Within ten days of their arrival , Rutherford had opened a law office , purchased four lots of land , and contracted local builder Hugh McCurdy to build him a house . In July the family moved into their new four @-@ room house , built on a single storey . In 1896 Rutherford became the town 's only lawyer , as his competition , Mervyn Mackenzie , had moved to Toronto .
Rutherford quickly became deeply involved in the community . Among the roles he acquired during his first three years in the District of Alberta were President of the newly formed South Edmonton Football Club , secretary @-@ treasurer of the South Edmonton School Board , president of the South Edmonton Athletic Association , vice president of the South Edmonton Literary Institute , auditor of the South Edmonton Agricultural Society , and worthy master of the Acacia Lodge , Ancient Free and Accepted Masons . He later added to this the title of secretary of the Edmonton District Butter and Cheese Manufacturing Association . He was an early advocate for the incorporation of South Edmonton , hitherto an unincorporated community . When incorporation came in 1899 — as the Town of Strathcona — Rutherford became the new town 's secretary @-@ treasurer ( after acting as returning officer in its first election ) .
Throughout this period , he practised law , from 1899 with Frederick C. Jamieson as his partner , who later was elected as a Conservative member of the MLA . He employed single women as secretaries in an era when clerical workers were predominantly male , and defended a First Nations person accused of murder , at a time when most lawyers refused such cases . As their practice grew , he and Jamieson also engaged in moneylending . Besides his law practice , Rutherford was a successful real estate investor , and also owned an interest in gold mining equipment situated on the North Saskatchewan River .
= = = Early political career = = =
In 1896 , Frank Oliver , who had represented Edmonton in the Legislative Assembly of the Northwest Territories since 1888 , resigned to pursue a career in federal politics . Several Strathcona residents urged Rutherford to run for Oliver 's old seat in the ensuing by @-@ election . Though he was originally reluctant , he agreed to stand after a 300 @-@ signature petition urging his candidacy was presented to him . His only opponent was former Edmonton mayor Matthew McCauley who , like Rutherford , ran as an independent . Rutherford campaigned on a platform of improved roads , resource development , simplification of territorial ordinances , and — in what would become a theme of his political career — increased educational funding . McCauley won the election , but Rutherford received more than forty percent of the vote .
During the 1898 territorial election , Rutherford again challenged the now @-@ incumbent McCauley . His defeat of two years previous still fresh in his mind , his platform this time included a call for a redrawing of the territory 's electoral boundaries ; he believed that the current Edmonton riding was gerrymandered in McCauley 's favour . He also repeated his past calls for improved roads and advocated increased taxation on the railroads . He pledged " independent support " for the non @-@ partisan administration of Premier Frederick Haultain , and supported that administration 's call for the creation of a single province from the territories following the 1901 census . Rutherford criticized McCauley 's past record , accusing him of silence on issues that were of concern to his constituents . Despite this , McCauley won again , albeit by a reduced margin .
Rutherford was at last successful in the 1902 election , when he ran in the newly created riding of Strathcona . His 1902 platform was similar to his 1898 platform and supported Haultain , though this time he supported a two @-@ province integration of the Northwest Territories into Confederation , rather than Haultain 's preferred one @-@ province approach , on the grounds that a single province would be so large as to be ungovernable . It at first looked as though he would run unopposed ; however , at the last minute local lawyer Nelson D. Mills publicly accused Rutherford of being not a true independent , but a dyed @-@ in @-@ the @-@ wool Haultain supporter , and announced that he would run against him . Rutherford was supported by most of Strathcona 's most prominent residents , including his law partner Jamieson and his future rival John R. Boyle , and won an easy victory .
Rutherford served in the Legislative Assembly of the Northwest Territories until Alberta became a province in 1905 . During his tenure , he was elected deputy speaker and sat on standing committees for libraries , municipal law , and education . His legislative efforts included successful attempts to extend the boundaries of the Town of Strathcona and to empower it to borrow for construction of public works . He was considered a possible member of Haultain 's executive council , likely in the post of Commissioner of Public Works , but the post instead went to George Bulyea . He joined many of his fellow MLAs in continuing to advocate for provincial status , finding that the limitations on a territory 's means to raise revenue prevented the Northwest Territories from meeting its obligations .
Though Rutherford supported Haultain 's vision of non @-@ partisan territorial administration , federally he was an avowed Liberal . In 1900 , he was elected president of the Strathcona Liberal association , and was a delegate to the convention that nominated Oliver as the party 's candidate in Alberta for the 1900 federal election . He subsequently campaigned for Oliver in his successful re @-@ election attempt . When the new federal constituency of Strathcona was formed in advance of the 1904 election , Rutherford was urged to accept the Liberal nomination , but demurred . Peter Talbot was selected instead and , supported by Rutherford , was elected .
= = = Selection as Premier = = =
In February 1905 , the federal government of Prime Minister Sir Wilfrid Laurier introduced legislation to create two new provinces — Alberta and Saskatchewan — from the Northwest Territories . Though Haultain wanted the new provinces to be governed on the same non @-@ partisan basis as the Territories had been , it was expected that the Liberal Laurier would recommend a Liberal to serve as Lieutenant @-@ Governor , and it was further assumed that the Lieutenant @-@ Governor would call on a Liberal to form the new province 's first government . Oliver was the province 's most prominent Liberal , but had just been named federal Minister of the Interior , and was not interested in leaving Ottawa . Talbot was Laurier 's preferred candidate , but he expected to be appointed to the Senate and found the prospect more congenial than serving as Premier of Alberta . Both men supported Rutherford , though neither was enthusiastic about doing so . In August , Bulyea was appointed Alberta 's first Lieutenant @-@ Governor and later that month the Alberta Liberals selected Rutherford as their first leader . A final barrier was removed a few days later when Haultain , who was a Conservative federally but who was thought to be a potential leader of a coalition government , announced that he would stay in Regina to lead the Saskatchewan Conservatives . On September 2 , Bulyea asked Rutherford to form the first government of Alberta .
After accepting the position of premier , Rutherford selected a geographically diverse cabinet on September 6 : Edmonton 's Charles Wilson Cross as Attorney @-@ General , Calgary 's William Henry Cushing as Minister of Public Works , Medicine Hat 's William Finlay as Minister of Agriculture and Provincial Secretary , and Lethbridge 's George DeVeber as Minister without Portfolio . Rutherford kept for himself the positions of Provincial Treasurer and Minister of Education .
= = Premier = =
= = = 1905 election = = =
Rutherford was Premier , but had not yet faced the people in an election and did not yet have a legislature to which he could propose legislation . Elections for the first Legislative Assembly of Alberta were accordingly fixed for November 9 . The Conservatives , the young province 's only other political party , had already selected R. B. Bennett as their leader . Bennett attacked the terms under which Alberta had been made a province , especially the clauses that left control of its lands and natural resources in the hands of the federal government and required the continued provincial funding of separate schools . He pointed out that Canada 's older provinces had control of their own natural resources and that education was a provincial responsibility under the British North America Act . The Liberals responded to these criticisms by highlighting the financial compensation the province received from the federal government in exchange for control of its natural resources , which amounted to $ 375 @,@ 000 per year . They further suggested that Conservative concern for control of lands was due to their desire to make favourable land concessions to the unpopular Canadian Pacific Railway , which had historically been friendly with the Conservatives , and for whom Bennett had acted as solicitor .
Besides the Conservatives ' ties to the CPR , Rutherford 's Liberals enjoyed the incumbent 's advantage of controlling the levers of patronage , and the election 's result was never really in doubt . Before the election , Talbot predicted that the government would win 18 of the province 's 25 seats . Immediately after the election it appeared that the Liberals had won 21 ; when all the votes had been counted they had won 23 seats to the Conservatives ' two . Bennett himself was defeated in his Calgary riding . When the outcome was clear , the people of Strathcona feted Rutherford with a torchlight procession and bonfire .
= = = First legislature and regional tensions = = =
One of the most contentious issues facing the newly elected government was the decision of the province 's capital city . The federal legislation creating the province had fixed Edmonton as the provisional capital , much to the chagrin of Calgary . Neither party had taken a position on the divisive question during the campaign , but selecting a permanent capital was high on the list of the new legislature 's orders of business . Calgary 's case was made most enthusiastically by Minister of Public Works Cushing , Edmonton 's by Attorney @-@ General Cross . Banff and Red Deer were also possibilities , but motions to select each failed to find seconders . In the end , Edmonton was designated by a vote of sixteen members — including Rutherford — to eight .
A personal priority of Rutherford had been the establishment of a university . Though the Edmonton Bulletin opined that it would be unfair " that the people of the Province should be taxed for the special benefit of four per cent that they may be able to attach the cognomen of B.A. or M.A. to their names and flaunt the vanity of such over the taxpayer , who has to pay for it " , Rutherford proceeded quickly . He was concerned that delay might result in the creation of denominational colleges , striking a blow to his dream of a high quality non @-@ sectarian system of post @-@ secondary education . A bill establishing the University was passed by the legislature , but left the government to decide the location . Calgary felt that , having lost the fight to be provincial capital , it could expect the university to be established there , and was not pleased a year later when the government announced the founding of the University of Alberta in Rutherford 's hometown of Strathcona .
While these regionally charged issues attracted much attention , they were far from the government 's only initiatives during the legislature 's first session . In 1906 it passed a series of acts dealing with the organization and administration of the new provincial government and incorporated the cities of Lethbridge , Medicine Hat , and Wetaskiwin . It also established a speed limit of 20 miles per hour ( 32 km / h ) for motorized vehicles and set up a regime for mine inspection . Perhaps most significantly , it set up a court system , with Arthur Lewis Sifton as the province 's first Chief Justice .
Though the founding of the University of Alberta was the centrepiece of Rutherford 's educational policy , his activity as Minister of Education extended well beyond it . In the first year of Alberta 's existence , 140 new schools were established , and a normal school was set up in Calgary to train teachers . Rutherford put great emphasis on the creation of English @-@ language schools in the large portions of the province occupied primarily by central- and eastern @-@ European immigrants . The immigrants themselves were often unable to speak English , and the provision of these schools for their children was a major factor in their rapid assimilation into Albertan society . They were also in lieu of separate religious schools for groups such as Mennonites ; while the continued existence of Roman Catholic separate schools was mandated by the terms of Alberta 's admission into Confederation , the government 's policy was otherwise to encourage a unified and secular public school system . Rutherford also introduced free school texts in the province , though he was criticized for commissioning the texts from a Toronto publisher ( which printed them in New York ) rather than locally .
= = = Labour unrest = = =
The winter of 1906 – 07 was the coldest in Alberta history ; this was exacerbated by a shortage of coal . One cause of this shortage was the strained relationship between coal miners and mine operators in the province . At the beginning of April 1907 the Canada West Coal and Coke Company locked out the miners from its mine near Taber . The same company was also facing a work stoppage at its mine in the Crow 's Nest Pass , where miners were refusing to sign a new contract . The problem spread , until by April 22 all 3 @,@ 400 miners working for member @-@ companies of the Western Coal Operators ' Association were off work . Miners ' demands included increased wages , a reduction in working hours to eight per day ( from ten ) , the posting of mine inspection reports , the isolated storage of explosives , the use of non @-@ freezing explosives , and semi @-@ monthly rather than monthly pay ; the mine operators objected to this last point on the basis that many miners did not report to work the day after payday , and it was thus desirable to keep paydays to a minimum .
Rutherford 's government appointed a commission in February , but it was not until May that it met . It consisted of Chief Justice Sifton , mining executive Lewis Stockett , and miners ' union executive William Haysom . It began taking evidence in July . In the meantime , a May agreement saw most miners return to work at increased rates of pay ; coal supply promptly increased , as did its price . In August , the commission released its recommendations , which included a prohibition on children under 16 working in mines , the posting of inspectors ' reports , mandatory bath houses at mine sites , and improved ventilation inspection . It also recommended that Albertans keep a supply of coal on hand during the summer for winter use . The commission was silent on wages , other than to say that these should not be fixed by legislation , the operation of company stores ( a sore point among the miners ) , and the incorporation of mine unions which was recommended by mines but opposed by the unions . It also made no recommendation about working hours , but Rutherford 's government legislated an eight @-@ hour day anyway .
Apart from coal mining issues , the government also passed workers ' compensation legislation designed to make such compensation automatic , rather than requiring the injured worker to sue his employer . Labour representatives criticized the bill for failing to impose fines on negligent employers and for limiting construction workers ' eligibility under the program to injuries sustained while working on buildings more than 40 feet ( 12 m ) in height , as well as for its exemption of casual labourers . It also viewed the maximum payout of $ 1 @,@ 500 as inadequate . In response to these concerns , the maximum was increased to $ 1 @,@ 800 and the minimum building height reduced to 30 feet ( 9 @.@ 1 m ) . In response to farmers ' concerns , farm labourers were exempt from the bill entirely .
Rutherford 's relationship with organized labour was never easy . Historian L.G. Thomas argued that there was little indication that Rutherford had any interest in courting the labour vote . In 1908 , Labour candidate Donald McNabb was elected in a Lethbridge by @-@ election ; the riding had previously been held by a Liberal . McNabb was the first Labour MLA elected in Alberta , though he was defeated in his 1909 re @-@ election bid .
= = = Public works = = =
Rutherford 's Liberals self @-@ identified as the party of free enterprise , in contrast to the public ownership @-@ supporting Conservatives . Despite this , they made a limited number of large @-@ scale forays into government operation of utilities , the most notable of which was the creation of Alberta Government Telephones . In 1906 , Alberta 's municipalities legislation was passed and included a provision authorizing municipalities to operate telephone companies . Several , including Edmonton , did so , alongside private companies . The largest of this latter group was the Bell Telephone Company , which held a monopoly over service in Calgary . Such monopolies and the private firms ' refusal to extend their services into sparsely populated and unprofitable rural areas aroused demand for provincial entry into the market , which was effected in 1907 . The government constructed a number of lines , beginning with one between Calgary and Banff , and also purchased Bell 's lines for $ 675 @,@ 000 .
Alberta 's public telephone system was financed by debt , which was unusual for a government like Rutherford 's that was generally committed to the principle of " pay as you go " . Rutherford 's stated rationale was that the cost of such a large capital project shouldn 't be borne by a single generation and that incurring debt to finance a corresponding asset was , in contrast to operating deficits , acceptable . Though the move was popular at the time , it would prove not to be a financially astute one : by focusing on areas neglected by existing companies , the government was entering into the most expensive and least profitable fields of telecommunication . These problems would not come to fruition until Rutherford had left office , however ; in the short @-@ term , the government 's involvement in the telephone business helped it to a sweeping victory in the 1909 election , in which the Liberals won 37 of 41 seats in the newly expanded legislature .
Of equal profile was Rutherford 's government 's management of the province 's railways . Alberta 's early years were optimistic ones , which manifested itself in a pronounced enthusiasm for the construction of new railway lines . Every town wanted to be a railway centre , and the government had great confidence in the ability of the free market to provide low freight rates to the province 's farmers provided sufficient charters were issued to competing companies . The legislature passed government @-@ sponsored legislation setting out a framework for new railways in 1907 , but interest from private firms in actually building the lines was limited . In the face of public demand and support by legislators of all parties for as rapid as possible an expansion of the province 's lines , the government offered loan guarantees to several companies in exchange for commitments to build lines . Rutherford justified this in part by his conviction that railways needed to expand along with population , rather than having railway expansion follow population growth as would be the case without government intervention . The Conservatives argued that this strategy didn 't go far enough , and called for direct government ownership .
While most public works issues were handled by Public Works Minister Cushing , following the 1909 election Rutherford named himself as the province 's first Minister of Railways .
= = = Railway scandal = = =
When the legislature met for the first time after the 1909 election , things seemed to be going well for Rutherford and his government . He controlled a huge majority , albeit slightly reduced from the 1905 election , and enjoyed widespread popularity . His government had achieved significant success in setting up a new province , and this success looked poised to continue . Early in this new legislative session , however , two signs of trouble appeared : Liberal backbencher John R. Boyle began to ask questions about the agreement between the government and the Alberta and Great Waterways Railway Company , and Cushing resigned from cabinet over his views of this same agreement .
The Alberta and Great Waterways Railway was one of several companies that had been granted charters and assistance by the legislature to build new railways in the province . The government support that it received was more generous than that received by more established railways , such as the Grand Trunk Pacific Railway and the Canadian Northern Railway . Boyle , Cushing , and Bennett alleged favouritism or ineptitude by Rutherford and his government , and pointed to the sale of government @-@ guaranteed bonds in support of the company as further evidence . Because of the high interest rate they paid , the bonds were sold at above par value , but the government only received par for them , leaving the company to pocket the difference .
Boyle sponsored a motion of non @-@ confidence against the government . Despite enjoying the support of twelve Liberals , including Cushing , the motion was defeated and the government upheld . Rutherford attempted to quell the controversy by calling a royal commission , but pressure from many Liberals , including Bulyea , led him to resign May 26 , 1910 ; he was replaced by Arthur Sifton , hitherto the province 's chief judge . In November , the royal commission issued its report . It found that the evidence did not show a conflict of interest on Rutherford 's part , but the majority report was nevertheless highly critical of the former Premier . A minority report was much kinder , avowing perfect satisfaction with Rutherford 's version of events .
= = Later life = =
= = = Later political career = = =
After resigning as Premier , Rutherford continued to sit as a Liberal MLA . He commanded the loyalty of many Liberals who had supported his government through the Alberta and Great Waterways issue , though this faction began increasingly to see Cross as its real leader . Rutherford opposed the Sifton government 's decision to confiscate the Alberta and Great Waterways bond money and revoke its charter , and in 1913 was one of only two Liberals to support a non @-@ confidence motion against the government ( Cross had by this time joined the Sifton cabinet , which placated most members of the Cross @-@ Rutherford faction ) . In the 1913 election , Rutherford was again nominated as the Liberal candidate in Edmonton South ( Strathcona had been amalgamated into Edmonton in 1912 ) , despite pledging opposition to the Sifton government and offering to campaign around the province for the Conservatives if they agreed not to run a candidate against him . At the nomination meeting , he stated that he was " not running as a Sifton candidate " and was " a good independent candidate ... and a good Liberal too " . Despite his opposition to the government , the Conservatives declined his offer of support and nominated Herbert Crawford to run against him . After a vigorous campaign , Crawford defeated Rutherford by fewer than 250 votes . Cross lobbied Prime Minister Laurier unsuccessfully for Rutherford to be appointed to the Senate , though he was made King 's Counsel shortly after his electoral defeat .
The 1913 election was not the first time Rutherford had dissented from his own party during an election , nor would it be the last . Before the 1911 federal election , several local Liberals opposed to Frank Oliver had asked Rutherford to run against him in Strathcona . Relations between Oliver and Rutherford had always been chilly — Oliver was implacably opposed to Cross , who he viewed as a rival for dominance of the Liberal party in Alberta , and his Edmonton Bulletin had taken the side of the dissidents during the railway scandal . A nominating meeting unanimously nominated Rutherford as Liberal candidate , though Oliver refused to accept its legitimacy and awaited a later meeting . Before this meeting came to pass , however , Rutherford abruptly withdrew . Historian Douglas Babcock has suggested that this was due to the Conservatives ' nomination of William Antrobus Griesbach , dashing Rutherford 's hopes that his popularity among Conservatives would preclude their opposing him . Rumours at the time alleged that Rutherford had been asked to make a personal contribution of $ 15 @,@ 000 to his campaign fund , and had balked . Rutherford himself cited a desire to avoid splitting the vote on reciprocity , which he and Oliver both favoured but Griesbach opposed . Whatever the reason , Oliver went on to be nominated as Liberal candidate and was re @-@ elected .
After his defeat in 1913 , Rutherford was not active in politics until 1921 . In that year 's provincial election , he campaigned actively for the Conservatives , including for Crawford , the man who had defeated him eight years earlier . Rutherford continued to call himself a Liberal , but criticized the incumbent administration for the growth of the provincial debt and for letting the party fall into disarray . Calling the Charles Stewart @-@ led government " rotten " , he offered voters the slogan " get rid of the barnacles and the Boyles " . The Liberals were defeated , but the landslide win by the United Farmers of Alberta left the Conservatives with only one seat .
= = = Professional career = = =
Once out of politics , Rutherford returned to his law practice . His partnership with Jamieson saw partners come and go . Rutherford divided his time between the original Strathcona office and the Edmonton office he opened in 1910 ; his practice focussed on contracts , real estate , wills and estates , and incorporations . In 1923 , Rutherford 's son Cecil joined the firm along with Stanley Harwood McCuaig , who in 1919 would marry Rutherford 's daughter Hazel . In 1925 , Jamieson left the partnership to establish his own firm . In 1939 , McCuaig did the same . Cecil 's partnership with his father continued until the latter 's death .
Besides his work as a lawyer , Alexander Rutherford was involved in a number of business enterprises . He was President of the Edmonton Mortgage Corporation , and Vice President and solicitor of the Great Western Garment Company . This latter enterprise , which Rutherford co @-@ founded , was a great success : established in 1911 with eight seamstresses , it had quadrupled in size within a year . During the Second World War , the Great Western Garment Company made military uniforms and was reputed to be the largest garment operation in the British Empire . It was acquired by Levi Strauss & Co. in 1961 , but continued to manufacture garments in Edmonton until 2004 .
Rutherford also acted as director of the Canada National Fire Insurance Company , the Imperial Canadian Trust Company , the Great West Permanent Loan Company , and the Monarch Life Assurance Company .
= = = University of Alberta = = =
Education was a personal priority of Rutherford 's , as evidenced by his retention of the office of Education Minister for his entire time as Premier and by his enthusiastic work in founding the University of Alberta . In 1911 he was elected by Alberta 's university graduates to the University of Alberta Senate , responsible for the institution 's academic affairs . In 1912 he established the Rutherford Gold Medal in English for the senior year honours English student with the highest standing ; the prize still exists today as the Rutherford Memorial Medal in English . In 1912 , with the University 's first graduating class , Rutherford instituted a tradition of inviting convocating students to his house for tea ; this tradition would last for twenty @-@ six years .
Convocation was not the only reason that students visited Rutherford 's home : he had a wealth of both knowledge and books on Canadian subjects , and welcomed students to consult his private library . This library eventually expanded beyond the room in his mansion devoted to it , to encompass the house 's den , maid 's sitting room , and garage as well . After his death , the collection was donated and sold to the University 's library system ; it was described in 1967 as " still the most important rare collection in the library " .
Rutherford remained on the university senate until 1927 , when he was elected Chancellor . The position was the titular head of the university , and its primary duty was presiding over convocations . According to Rutherford biographer Douglas Babcock , this was the honour that Rutherford prized most . He was acclaimed to the position every four years until his death . It has been estimated that he awarded degrees to more than five thousand students . His final convocation , however , was marred by controversy : in 1941 , a committee of the university senate recommended awarding an honorary degree to Premier William Aberhart . Aberhart was pleased , and happily accepted University President William Alexander Robb Kerr 's invitation to deliver the commencement address at convocation . However , a week prior to convocation the full senate — responsible for all university academic affairs — met , and voted against awarding Aberhart a degree . Aberhart rescinded his acceptance of Kerr 's invitation ( and later removed the senate 's authority — except , ironically , the authority to award honorary degrees ) and Kerr resigned in protest . Rutherford was mortified , but presided over convocation nonetheless .
= = = Community involvement and family life = = =
Rutherford remained active in a wide range of community organizations well after his departure from politics . He was a deacon in his church until well into his dotage , was a member of the Young Women 's Christian Association advisory board from 1913 until his death , was Edmonton 's first exalted ruler of the Benevolent and Protective Order of Elks and spent three years as the grand exalted ruler of the Elk Order of Canada . During World War I he was Alberta director of the National Service Commission , which oversaw conscription from 1916 until 1918 , and in 1916 was appointed Honorary Colonel of the 194th Highland Battalion of the Canadian Expeditionary Force . Rutherford served on the Loan Advisory Committee of the Soldier Settlement Board after the war , was President of the Alberta Historical Society ( which had been created by his government ) from 1919 until his death , was elected President of the McGill University Alumni Association of Alberta in 1922 , and spent the last years of his life as honorary president of the Canadian Authors Association . He was also a member of the Northern Alberta Pioneers and Old @-@ Timers Association , the British Association for the Advancement of Science , the Royal Colonial Institute of London , and the Masons . He continued to curl and played tennis into his late fifties , and took up golf at the age of sixty @-@ four , becoming a charter member of the Mayfair Golf and Country Club . He received honorary doctorates of laws from four universities : McGill , the University of Alberta , McMaster University , and the University of Toronto .
In 1911 , the Rutherfords built a new house adjacent to the University of Alberta campus . Rutherford named it " Archnacarry " , after his ancestral homeland . It is now known as Rutherford House , and serves as a museum . He made several trips to the United Kingdom , and was invited to attend the coronation of King George VI and Queen Elizabeth , but had to return to Canada before the event . On December 19 , 1938 , the Rutherfords celebrated their fiftieth wedding anniversary ; tributes and well @-@ wishes arrived from across Canada .
= = = Death and legacy = = =
Besides his bronchitis , Rutherford developed diabetes in later years . His wife monitored his sugar intake , though when they were apart Rutherford sometimes took less care than she would have liked him to . In 1938 , possibly as a result of diabetes , he suffered a stroke that left him paralyzed and mute . He learned to walk again and with the help of a grade one reader got his speech back . September 13 , 1940 , Mattie Rutherford died of cancer . Less than a year later , June 11 , 1941 , Rutherford suffered a fatal heart attack while in hospital for insulin treatment . He was 84 years old . Alexander Rutherford was buried in Mount Pleasant Cemetery in Edmonton , alongside his family . His name was attached to many institutions both during his life and after : Rutherford Elementary School in Edmonton was established in 1911 and the University of Alberta 's Rutherford Library in 1951 . In 1954 , a mountain in Jasper National Park was named Mount Rutherford . In 1980 , the government of Alberta created the Alexander Rutherford Scholarship , which awards more than $ 20 million annually to high school students selected on the basis of a minimum of a 75 % average . The top ten students receiving Alexander Rutherford scholarships are recognized as ' Rutherford Scholars ' , and are presented with an additional scholarship and plaque .
Rutherford 's policy legacy is mixed . L. G. Thomas concludes that he was a weak leader , unable to dominate the ambitions of his lieutenants and with very little skill at debate . Despite this , he recognizes the Rutherford government 's legacy of province building . Douglas Babcock suggests that Rutherford , while himself honourable , left himself at the mercy of unscrupulous men who ultimately ruined his political career . Bennett , Rutherford 's rival and later Prime Minister , concurred with this assessment , calling Rutherford " a gentleman of the old school ... not equipped by experience or temperament for the rough and tumble of western politics " . There is general agreement that Rutherford 's greatest legacy , and the one in which he took the most pride , lies in his contributions to Alberta 's education . As Mount Royal College historian Patricia Roome concluded her chapter on Rutherford in a book about Alberta 's first twelve premiers , " Rutherford 's educational contribution remains his ultimate legacy to Albertans . "
= = Electoral record = =
= = = As party leader = = =
= = = As MLA = = =
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= Mr. Hankey , the Christmas Poo =
" Mr. Hankey , the Christmas Poo " is the ninth episode in the first season of the American animated television series South Park . It originally aired on Comedy Central in the United States on December 17 , 1997 . In the episode , the Jewish character Kyle feels excluded from the town 's celebrations during Christmas , and is comforted by Mr. Hankey , a talking and singing lump of feces wearing a red hat . Mr. Hankey does not come alive in the presence of other characters , so they think that Kyle is delusional . In another plot strand , the townspeople remove all religious aspects of Christmas from South Park to remain politically correct and inoffensive .
The episode was written and directed by the series ' co @-@ creators Trey Parker and Matt Stone . The Mr. Hankey character was based on an idea from Parker 's childhood ; when Parker and Stone conceived the South Park series , they wanted to make Mr. Hankey the lead character . Heavily influenced by the Peanuts Christmas special A Charlie Brown Christmas , " Mr. Hankey , the Christmas Poo " was the first Christmas @-@ themed South Park episode , the first musical episode , and the only episode in season one ( and therefore the first time in the series ) in which Kenny does not die . It was a satire of political correctness and religious sensitivity . Parker and Stone felt the episode elevated South Park to a new level of popularity and relevance .
The episode received generally positive reviews and has been described as one of the classic South Park episodes . It was viewed in about 4 @.@ 5 million households during its original broadcast , the highest Nielsen rating to that date for South Park and the fourth @-@ highest overall for a basic cable entertainment program of 1997 . In addition to Mr. Hankey himself , the episode introduced the popular South Park songs " A Lonely Jew on Christmas " and " Kyle 's Mom is a Big Fat Bitch " . John Kricfalusi , the creator of The Ren & Stimpy Show , accused Parker and Stone of stealing the idea for Mr. Hankey from him , which the duo vehemently denied .
= = Plot = =
Kyle is playing Saint Joseph in the South Park Elementary School 's Christmas nativity play , but he is forced to quit when his mother hears of the play and expresses outrage that her Jewish son is being forced to participate in a Christian production . She demands that the religious elements be taken out of the public school , and threatens to take her case to the mayor . Kyle suggests he could sing the " Mr. Hankey , the Christmas Poo " song as a non @-@ religious substitute , but his suggestion is rejected because nobody else believes in Mr. Hankey , a living and talking " Christmas poo " . Kyle leaves the school feeling lonely and excluded because he cannot celebrate Christmas with everyone else .
Mayor McDaniels decides that anything offensive to anyone will be removed from the Christmas celebrations , including Santa Claus , Christmas trees , wreaths , fairy lights , candy canes , mistletoe and the Star of Bethlehem . Kyle once again tries to suggest that they use Mr. Hankey as a non @-@ religious Christmas icon since he does not discriminate against anyone . At home , Kyle is scolded by his parents for believing in Mr. Hankey . While Kyle is brushing his teeth , Mr. Hankey comes out of the toilet , spreading feces stains everywhere he goes , prompting Kyle 's parents to blame Kyle for the mess . Kyle decides he will bring Mr. Hankey to school to prove he is real , but this only causes more problems as Mr. Hankey disguises himself as an unadorned , dried @-@ out piece of feces when he is around people who do not believe in him , leading Cartman to ask if carrying around boxes with feces in them is some kind of Jewish tradition . Mr. Hankey leaps at Cartman 's face as he sings " Kyle 's Mom is a Big Fat Bitch " in D Minor , and Kyle is blamed . He is sent to talk to guidance counselor , Mr. Mackey , but Kyle only gets into further trouble when Mr. Hankey takes a bath in Mr. Mackey 's coffee . Cartman , Stan and Kenny believe Kyle is insane and check him into a mental institution .
Like the whole town , the school Christmas pageant is stripped of all symbols of Christmas , and the children instead present a minimalist song and dance created by composer Philip Glass . The parents , astounded by how awful the pageant has turned out , begin blaming one another for destroying Christmas and a fight breaks out . When Chef finds out where Kyle is , he reveals to the children that Mr. Hankey does actually exist . When all the children start believing , Mr. Hankey finally reveals himself to everyone and scolds them for losing sight of the good things of Christmas and focusing on the bad . The townspeople release Kyle from the asylum and apologize , then they all sing Christmas songs and watch Mr. Hankey fly away with Santa Claus . Cartman , Stan , and Kyle feel that something is still missing . " THE END " then appears , and Kenny is excited and relieved that he has survived the entire episode without getting killed in spite of being involved in dangerous and life @-@ threatening situations throughout .
During the end credits , Jesus dejectedly sings , " Happy Birthday " to himself alone in his television studio .
= = Production = =
= = = Conception and early history = = =
The Mr. Hankey character was based on an idea Trey Parker 's father created when he was toilet @-@ training Trey as a child . Parker said he refused to flush the toilet as a child , so his father told him if he did not flush down his stool , which he called " Mr. Hankey " , it would come to life and kill him . The concept stayed with Parker throughout his childhood ; starting in elementary school and throughout his entire education , he would often draw the character in class , wearing a sailor 's hat instead of the Santa Claus hat he would later wear in South Park . Parker shared the concept with future South Park co @-@ creator Matt Stone when the two met at the University of Colorado at Boulder , and the duo immediately knew they wanted to create a film or production involving Mr. Hankey . The two discussed filming a three @-@ minute short film involving a boy who befriended the talking stool , but Mr. Hankey would not come alive for anybody else , prompting others to believe the boy was crazy . They planned for the boy 's parents to find him holding a stool in the bathroom and blame the child for smearing feces along the walls when it was actually Mr. Hankey 's fault ; they also planned to have him visit a school counselor , where Mr. Hankey would leap into the counselor 's coffee mug and the boy would be blamed . At the end , it would turn out that the boy was indeed crazy and Mr. Hankey was not real at all , but a figment of the boy 's imagination . Parker and Stone never made the short film , but practically all of its elements were included in the future South Park episode " Mr. Hankey , the Christmas Poo " , with the notable exception of the ending .
Although the Mr. Hankey short film was never made , Parker and Stone made two Christmas @-@ related animated short films called The Spirit of Christmas , which served as precursors to the South Park series . When the shorts began to generate interest for a possible television series , Parker and Stone originally conceived the idea of a South Park @-@ like show with four children characters , but with a talking stool named Mr. Hankey as the show 's main protagonist ; they planned to call it " The Mr. Hankey Show " . They pitched the idea to friend Brian Graden , then a television executive with the Fox Broadcasting Company , but he rejected it and said , according to Matt Stone , " I 'm not putting poo on my network " . Parker and Stone adapted their original idea into a show revolving around the South Park town and four children without Mr. Hankey as a protagonist , but they planned to revive the character as a minor supporting role in a future episode . Later , when Comedy Central expressed interest in the series , Parker and Stone brought up the idea of a Mr. Hankey episode during negotiations with the network executives . Parker claimed during a meeting , he said , " One thing we have to know before we really go any further : how do you feel about talking poo ? " The executives were receptive to the idea , which Parker said was one of the main reasons he and Stone decided to sign on with the channel .
The elements of the episode involving Kyle 's loneliness as a Jew during Christmas were inspired by Parker and Stone 's perceptions of Jews growing up in Colorado during their childhood . Although the two went to different schools , they both witnessed Jewish children get beat up and bullied because both of their schools had very few Jewish students to begin with ; although Stone himself is Jewish , he was not raised as a practicing Jew and so he did not experience much of the bullying himself firsthand . The unsuccessful efforts by the South Park Elementary School in the episode to include people of non @-@ Christian denomination were inspired by similarly failed attempts Parker and Stone witnessed growing up . Parker cited as an example a chorus concert in which the single Jewish student was asked to sing her own Hanukkah song while everybody else sang Christmas songs ; although the idea was to make the student feel special , Parker said it only made her feel more lonely and isolated .
= = = Episode production = = =
" Mr. Hankey , the Christmas Poo " was written and directed by Parker and Stone , and first aired in the United States on Comedy Central on December 17 , 1997 . It was the first official South Park Christmas episode . Television journalists said the Spirit of Christmas shorts were precursors to Mr. Hankey and that they shared some common traits , but that the television episode was considered tamer and more tasteful . Parker and Stone originally conceived the episode " Damien " , which involves a boxing match between Jesus and Satan , as the first season 's Christmas episode . Although they had long planned to feature Mr. Hankey in the show , they did not decide to make him a Christmas character until halfway through the filming of " Damien " . Once they made the decision , they decided to make " Mr. Hankey , the Christmas Poo " the holiday episode instead ; although it would not air until after the " Mr. Hankey " episode , Parker and Stone finished production of " Damien " before working on " Mr. Hankey , the Christmas Poo " .
At the time they were writing the episode , Parker and Stone had seen a large number of news reports about government buildings refusing to allow the display of models of the nativity scene and other Christian holiday symbols , in an effort not to offend other religions . Parker and Stone , as two agnostics who still appreciated the Christmas holiday , said they felt the idea was " ridiculous " and , according to Stone , " We just wanted Mr. Hankey to say Christmas was about good and about presents , and it doesn 't have to be this religious [ controversy ] . " The two sought to write an episode in the tradition of old classic Christmas specials with their own irreverent South Park twist , and so they watched the famous 1965 Peanuts special , A Charlie Brown Christmas , repeatedly during the production process . Parker said , " At this point , we just sort of wanted to do a Charlie Brown Christmas South Park version . That [ special ] was definitely a huge part of my life growing up . "
The episode was considered the first South Park musical episode , and included such songs as " Mr. Hankey , the Christmas Poo " , " A Lonely Jew on Christmas " and " Kyle 's Mom is a Big Fat Bitch " . Parker and Stone were initially concerned about making a musical because , Parker said , " The general rule was people hated musicals " . For the Mr. Hankey character , Parker and Stone adapted most of the elements from the Mr. Hankey short film they planned in college , except that Mr. Hankey would prove to be real , not a figment of Kyle 's imagination . Parker said this was decided because of his frustration with the character Mr. Snuffleupagus in the children 's show Sesame Street ; for his first 14 years on the show , Mr. Snuffleupagus was an imaginary character seen only by Big Bird , which Parker said " really bummed me out " . Parker and Stone felt Mr. Hankey should embody the wholesomeness and morals of cartoons from the 1930s , so they designed him to resemble the version of Mickey Mouse in the 1928 cartoon Steamboat Willie , particularly in his eyes . For the scenes in which Mr. Hankey smears feces wherever he walks , the animators scanned images of spread out chocolate and fudge and inserted it into the episode . Parker and Stone had trouble deciding on a voice for Mr. Hankey , but Stone said it came to him while eating a Sausage McMuffin at a McDonald 's in New York City , while taking a break from promoting South Park to the press .
Although Comedy Central did not object to most aspects of the episode , they did require some edits to material they deemed potentially offensive . During rehearsal for a Nativity play , a baby Jesus resembling a fetus pops out of Wendy , who is playing the Virgin Mary , and is caught by Kyle , who is portraying Joseph of Nazareth . Although the scene was ultimately kept in the episode , Comedy Central executives had problems with it and Parker said they had to handle its animation " very carefully " . Additionally , during filming of the live @-@ action Mr. Hankey commercial , the baby originally held the Mr. Hankey stool and took a bite out of it . Comedy Central officials would not allow the scene in the episode and it was changed to portray the idea that the baby had already eaten the stool off @-@ camera , which Parker said he felt was actually funnier .
" Mr. Hankey , the Christmas Poo " is the first episode in which Kenny was not killed . Parker and Stone deliberately included several scenes that looked like they might lead to Kenny 's death , but they decided because it was Christmas that they would not kill him . The episode was also the first time Mr. Garrison was portrayed as an anti @-@ semite and racist , particularly when he asks Mayor McDaniels if she can get rid of all the Mexicans in South Park . Parker said this decision was made because , " Garrison at that point had already shown himself to be the most messed up person in the entire town , and there 's obviously so much wrong with him mentally . A person that disturbed being a racist is funny to us . "
= = = Home video and soundtrack release = = =
" Mr. Hankey , the Christmas Poo " was released , along with 11 other episodes , in a three @-@ DVD set in November 1998 . It was included in the third volume , which also included the episodes " Starvin ' Marvin " , " Mecha @-@ Streisand " and " Tom 's Rhinoplasty " . " Mr. Hankey , the Christmas Poo " was also one of six episodes included on a 1998 VHS called " South Park Festival Special " , which included " Starvin ' Marvin " , " Merry Christmas , Charlie Manson ! " , " Mr. Hankey 's Christmas Classics " , " Korn 's Groovy Pirate Ghost Mystery " and " Pinkeye " . It was later released in the November 2007 DVD release " Christmas Time in South Park " , which also included the episodes , " Merry Christmas , Charlie Manson ! " , " Mr. Hankey 's Christmas Classics " , " A Very Crappy Christmas " , " Red Sleigh Down " , " It 's Christmas in Canada " and " Woodland Critter Christmas " . The episode , along with the other 12 from the first season , was also included in the DVD release " South Park : The Complete First Season " , which was released on November 12 , 2002 . Parker and Stone recorded commentary track for each episode , but they were not included with the DVDs due to " standards " issues with some of the statements ; Parker and Stone refused to allow the tracks to be edited and censored , so they were released in a CD completely separately from the DVDs .
Songs from " Mr. Hankey , the Christmas Poo " were featured in the October 2007 CD soundtrack release called " Mr. Hankey 's Christmas Classics " . The Birmingham News said the album " gleefully tramples on one of America 's most cherished holidays [ and ] will likely make even cynical listeners gasp " .
= = Themes = =
" Mr. Hankey , the Christmas Poo " is a satire on political correctness and religious sensitivity , particularly in its portrayal of the characters organizing " The Happy , Non @-@ Offensive , Non @-@ Denominational Christmas Play " to avoid offending anyone of any religious backgrounds . While many Christmas specials focus on the religious , spiritual and moral values of the Christmas holiday rather than the commercial aspects , " Mr. Hankey , the Christmas Poo " actually embraces commercialism in Christmas , suggesting viewers should enjoy those elements of the holiday without taking religion too seriously . York University Professor Alison Halsall said of this aspect of the episode , " Again , Parker and Stone blur the sacred and the profane , in this instance , to gut holidays of their traditional meanings . "
The episode has also been described as simultaneously embracing and parodying animated Christmas specials like A Charlie Brown Christmas , Frosty the Snowman and It 's the Great Pumpkin , Charlie Brown . It has also been described as a commentary on the way Jewish children are overlooked during the Christmas holiday ; this theme is overtly stated by Stan , who says at the end of the episode that Jews and Hanukkah " can be cool " as well as Christmas . M. Keith Booker , author of Drawn to Television : Prime @-@ Time Animation from The Flintstones to Family Guy , said although the episode is irreverent in its treatment of Christmas , " even if spearheaded by a singing turd , [ it ] is about as close as South Park ever comes to being sentimental and nostalgic " . Literary critic Mark Caldwell said the fact that Kenny survived the episode demonstrates the episode 's " strong , albeit dutifully ironic , undercurrent of conventional holiday decency . "
Alison Halsall said " Mr. Hankey , the Christmas Poo " is the strongest example of a history of scatology , the study of excrement , throughout the South Park series . Halsall said the use of fecal matter as a character , and especially its tendency to smear parts of itself around as it moved , directly confronts the viewer with " the inherent dirtiness of the human body , no matter how much we try to aestheticize it , Mr. Hankey 's stains systematically mess up the cleanliness of the social order . [ ... ] South Park refuses sanitization through the gross @-@ out factor . "
= = Cultural impact and references = =
Some writers consider Mr. Hankey one of the most easily recognizable and popular of the non @-@ regular South Park characters . His high @-@ pitched greeting , " Howdy @-@ ho " , was equally recognizable and became one of the most quoted lines from the show 's first season . Several fan websites were made about the character within months of the episode 's broadcast . In January 1998 , Entertainment Weekly reported that Comedy Central executives had plans to produce a Mr. Hankey chocolate bar . Larry Lieberman , the channel 's vice president of strategic planning and new business development , said a sketch of a Mr. Hankey candy bar was drawn and circulated , but mainly as a joke ; he said no serious discussions were held about producing such an item . A stuffed Mr. Hankey became one of the most popular South Park tie @-@ in products of the 1998 Christmas season .
In addition to the title character , " Mr. Hankey , the Christmas Poo " included the first appearances of characters Father Maxi and Mr. Mackey . Both characters appeared in " Damien " , which was produced before " Mr. Hankey , the Christmas Poo " , but the Christmas episode aired first . Mr. Mackey was inspired by Parker 's real @-@ life school guidance counselor ; Parker , who provides the voice for Mackey , said the real @-@ life counselor was similarly thin and wiry and that Parker 's voice for Mr. Mackey is an exact , unexaggerated version of how his counselor spoke .
" Mr. Hankey , the Christmas Poo " includes several references to the Peanuts holiday special , A Charlie Brown Christmas . A Christmas pageant features the same biblical quote spoken by Linus in that special ; additionally , the music featured in the pageant is very similar to the Peanuts special 's musical score by Vince Guaraldi , and the South Park kids go outside to catch falling snowflakes on their tongues in the same way as in the special .
A doctor prescribes Prozac , a real life antidepressant , to Kyle for his apparent love for feces , which he describes as " fecalphilia " , a condition perhaps better known by the medical term coprophilia . Composer Philip Glass composes the avant @-@ garde musical score for the non @-@ denominational Christmas play . Stone and Parker both strongly dislike Glass ; Parker , who was a music major in college , said , " I really thought you could basically tell a third grader to sit down at a keyboard and mess around and sell it as a Philip Glass album , and no one would know the difference . " The do @-@ it @-@ yourself kit in the live action commercial , in which families can make their own Mr. Hankey , is similar to the Mr. Potato Head toy set .
= = Reception = =
= = = Reviews and ratings = = =
Although Parker and Stone credit " Big Gay Al 's Big Gay Boat Ride " as helping elevate the series , they felt " Mr. Hankey , the Christmas Poo " elevated South Park to a new level of popularity and relevance . Parker said of it , " This was the episode that just vaulted everything . " Following the success of " Mr. Hankey , the Christmas Poo " , a large number of celebrities started contacting Comedy Central with the hopes of making guest appearances in South Park episodes . This allowed Parker and Stone to practically take their pick of guest stars , and led to appearances by Natasha Henstridge in " Tom 's Rhinoplasty " and Robert Smith in " Mecha @-@ Streisand " . Stone said although " Mr. Hankey , the Christmas Poo " has become less shocking with time , viewers at the time of the episode 's original broadcast were shocked , and some were horrified , at the idea of a living and speaking Christmas stool . " Mr. Hankey , the Christmas Poo " was the fourth @-@ highest overall basic cable entertainment program of 1997 . In its original American broadcast , the episode received a Nielsen Rating of 5 @.@ 4 , meaning the episode was seen by about 4 @.@ 5 million households . The rating was the highest yet for South Park , and was more than seven times the Comedy Central prime @-@ time average . The episode also earned a 51 share of the male demographic aged between 18 and 24 ; a share represents the percentage of households using a television at the time the program is airing .
" Mr. Hankey , the Christmas Poo " has been described as one of the classic episodes of South Park . Chris Vognar of The Dallas Morning News described Mr. Hankey himself as " the most outrageous character yet on TV 's most outrageous show " . Charlie Patton of The Florida Times @-@ Union said the episode was " crude , nasty , irreverent and generally offensive — also extremely funny " . He also said of the Mr. Hankey character , " If you 're the sort of person who didn 't care for that scene in Trainspotting where the Ewan McGregor character dove down the toilet and into the sewer in pursuit of his lost suppository , the whole Mr. Hankey subplot is going to be deeply disturbing . " Doug Pratt , a DVD reviewer and Rolling Stone contributor , said , " Technically , the Christmas episode might well be the show 's best effort , artistically , because it tackles the PC @-@ ification of Christmas head @-@ on , and also has an interesting psychological subtext : does the hero actually see Mr. Hankey , or does he have some serious psychological problems ? " Diane Werts of Newsday said of the episode , " It 's gross . It 's yucky . It 's probably offensive . It 's also possibly the funniest holiday episode anybody 's airing this year . " Werts particularly praised the song " A Lonely Jew on Christmas " . Jeffrey Andrew Weinstock , author of Taking South Park Seriously , said , " This episode arguably pushes the boundaries of what is acceptable , both for Christmas specials and television in general , farther than any previous one . " Weinstock said this was particularly true of the episode 's fake live @-@ action commercial .
Before the episode was released , Debbie Liebling , then @-@ Comedy Central vice president of development and production , herself described the episode as " adorably offensive " . Alan Sepinwall of The Star @-@ Ledger called the episode " a brilliant skewering " of political correctness and over @-@ sensitivity , and called it " at once hilariously satiric and extraordinarily foul . " Sepinwall also added Mr. Hankey to his 1997 list of most memorable TV moments , describing the character as the year 's " most disturbing cartoon image " and as " a mythical holiday creature so bizarre and offensive it literally cannot be described in a family newspaper " . Matt Roush of USA Today praised the episode , which he described as " ribald , raunchy and riotous " . A.J. Jacobs of Entertainment Weekly said in January 1998 that the episode was " already infamous " . Jacobs also said Mr. Hankey was so popular , he half @-@ jokingly suggested Matt Parker and Trey Stone pursue a spin @-@ off revolving around the character .
The music in " Mr. Hankey , the Christmas Poo " was also praised . " A Lonely Jew on Christmas " has been described as a " classic song " , and " Kyle 's Mom is a Big Fat Bitch " , which reviewers described as one of Cartman 's trademarks , was included in the 1999 South Park film , South Park : Bigger , Longer & Uncut . Not all reviews of " Mr. Hankey , the Christmas Poo " were positive . Rick Marin of Newsweek described the episode as " simply one long potty joke " . Virginia Rohan of The Record said he liked Kyle 's song and some of Kenny 's antics , but said the episode was not as funny as The Spirit of Christmas shorts . Rohan said South Park " can be brilliantly over the edge , but often tonight , it sorely needs a comic bungee cord " .
In 2003 , the Chicago @-@ based RedEye ranked " Mr. Hankey , the Christmas Poo " the greatest South Park episode . In October 2004 , the Comedy Central website held a poll to determine the top 27 South Park episodes for a television marathon ; " Mr Hankey , the Christmas Poo " came third , just behind " Good Times with Weapons " at # 2 and " Fat Butt and Pancake Head " at # 1 . South Park Studios , the official South Park website , listed " Mr. Hankey , the Christmas Poo " at number four on its list of the Five Most Notorious Episodes .
= = = Ren & Stimpy controversy = = =
John Kricfalusi , the creator of The Ren & Stimpy Show , claimed the Mr. Hankey concept was stolen from his cartoon short , " Nutty the Friendly Dump " , which was part of a cartoon book series viewable online . Kricfalusi said after the show aired , " I got nine or 10 messages from friends screaming , ' I can 't believe this ! They totally stole your story ! ' ... This idea of [ feces ] singing or dancing and being friends , well , that is my idea . " Kricfalusi said he felt other elements of South Park were lifted from his work , and he told media outlets his company Spümcø was contemplating taking legal action against Parker and Stone . Comedy Central spokesman Tony Fox said Stone and Parker were not familiar with " Nutty the Friendly Dump " and that the claim was " ludicrous " . Parker said he had never seen more than half an episode of Ren & Stimpy , which he said he did not enjoy because the characters were too over @-@ the @-@ top and the voice acting was too annoying . Parker said Kricfalusi eventually contacted the South Park creators : " He wrote a letter back saying , ' Oh , OK , I see how it could just be a coincidence , but you should just admit to the press that you 're a big Ren and Stimpy fan . ' — I 'm not a Ren and Stimpy fan . "
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= Ghost of a Chance ( Homicide : Life on the Street ) =
" Ghost of a Chance " is the second episode of the first season of the American police drama television series Homicide : Life on the Street . It originally aired on NBC in the United States on February 3 , 1993 . The teleplay was written Noel Behn based on a story by executive producer Tom Fontana , and the episode was directed by Martin Campbell . In it Bayliss begins his investigation into the murder of 11 @-@ year @-@ old Adena Watson , Munch and Bolander investigate the unusual death of an elderly man , and Howard insists she is receiving advice about her murder case from a ghost .
The episode marked the first major developments in the Watson case , a major season one story arc based on the real @-@ life slaying of Latonya Kim Wallace . The Wallace case was featured in David Simon 's non @-@ fiction book Homicide : A Year on the Killing Streets , from which the series was adapted . Baltimore Detective Tom Pellegrini , who handled the Wallace case , appears on @-@ screen as a detective in " Ghost of a Chance " . The episode introduced several important supporting characters , including prosecuting attorney Ed Danvers ( Željko Ivanek ) , Colonel Burt Granger ( Gerald F. Gough ) , Captain George Barnfather ( Clayton LeBouef ) and Officer Chris Thormann ( Lee Tergesen ) .
The episode introduces the concept of a " red ball " , a high @-@ profile case that draws close media and political attention . The term would be used frequently in future episodes . It was also the first episode to feature a murder in a wealthy rural setting . At the time , most American television police shows focused on crimes in poorer neighborhoods , so " Ghost of a Chance " was noted for demonstrating that murders can take place in various socioeconomic circumstances .
The episode , seen by 9 @.@ 5 million households in its original broadcast , was considered a disappointment due to the drop in viewership from the post @-@ Super Bowl series debut , which had more than 18 million viewers . It received generally positive reviews , and was later featured in a Court TV marathon of the top 15 Homicide episodes . Gwen Verdon was nominated for an Emmy Award for her guest performance as Jessie Doohen , the woman accused of killing her husband of 60 years . The episode , along with the rest of the first and second seasons of Homicide : Life on the Street was released on DVD in the United States on May 27 , 2003 .
= = Plot summary = =
Bayliss ( Kyle Secor ) is the primary detective on the murder investigation of an 11 @-@ year @-@ old girl named Adena Watson . A rookie detective on his first homicide case , Bayliss has difficulty informing the family , while the veteran Pembleton ( Andre Braugher ) remains detached from his emotional response . Much of the homicide department is dedicated to the case , and Bayliss works without the benefit of his own desk . When Bayliss acts weak and indecisive during a department meeting , Gee ( Yaphet Kotto ) angrily orders him to show more confidence . But when a news report by journalist Griselda Battel ( Taylor Young ) discusses Bayliss ' lack of prior experience , Gee resists pressure from his superiors to replace Bayliss , insisting , " That rookie will surprise us all " .
Munch ( Richard Belzer ) and Bolander ( Ned Beatty ) arrive at the scene of a dead man named Thomas Doohen ( John Habberton ) , only to find that the man had only fainted and was still alive . When he wakes up , the man immediately starts arguing with his elderly wife Jessie ( Gwen Verdon ) , who is unhappy with their 60 @-@ year marriage and wishes the man were dead . Later that same day , they respond to the same house to find the same elderly man dead from a heart attack . Medical examiner Blythe ( Wendy Hughes ) classifies the death as a murder because the widow dragged him into the basement and " prayed he 'd stay dead " , but Bolander , himself having recently left an unhappy marriage , defends the widow . Despite the disagreement , Bolander becomes smitten with Blythe , and seeks romantic advice from Munch .
Prosecuting attorney Ed Danvers ( Željko Ivanek ) tells Howard ( Melissa Leo ) that if she cannot find more evidence against Ralph Fenwick ( Michael Sheldon ) , who is a suspect in a brutal murder , Danvers will have to plead to manslaughter . The next day , Howard tells her partner Felton ( Daniel Baldwin ) she was visited by the ghost of Fenwick 's murder victim and told where the murder weapon was , but Howard cannot find it . Felton does not believe her , and Howard grows angry when he tells Lewis ( Clark Johnson ) and Crosetti ( Jon Polito ) about the ghost experience . The next day , however , Howard and Felton arrest Fenwick after finding the murder weapon based on advice Felton got from a tarot card reader .
The department continues investigating leads into the Adena Watson case , including an interrogation of a man who lived within walking distance of the scene and was previously charged with murdering a 14 @-@ year @-@ old girl . All of the leads turn into dead ends . While investigating the Adena Watson scene , police find coagulated blood and hair on a piece of metal . Battel witnesses the find , but agrees to hold the information until police authorize it , as long as she gets the story first . She also tells Bayliss about a carry @-@ out store owner who claims to know who the murderer is . The episode ends with an emotional Bayliss attending Watson 's funeral .
= = Production = =
" Ghost of a Chance " was written by Noel Behn based on a story by executive producer Tom Fontana , and was directed by Martin Campbell . It marked the first major developments the story arc of the Adena Watson murder case , which was introduced in the final scene of series premiere " Gone for Goode " and dominates much of the Homicide : Life on the Street first season . The Watson case was based on the real @-@ life 1988 Baltimore slaying of Latonya Kim Wallace , which is chronicled in Homicide : A Year on the Killing Streets , the 1991 David Simon non @-@ fiction book about a Baltimore Police Department , which was adapted into the Homicide series . " Ghost of a Chance " introduced the concept of a " red ball " , which is a police jargon phrase used in the episode to describe the Adena Watson murder . A red ball is a high @-@ profile case that draws such close media and political attention , that it diverts time and attention away from other cases in the homicide department . The phrase , which came directly from Simon 's book , would be used frequently in future Homicide : Life on the Street episodes .
" Ghost of a Chance " introduced several important characters that would be regularly featured throughout the series . Among them were prosecuting attorney Ed Danvers , played by Željko Ivanek , and police department bosses Colonel Burt Granger and Captain George Barnfather , played by Gerald F. Gough and Clayton LeBouef , respectively . Ivanek was cast by his long @-@ time friend Fontana , who thought Danvers was written in a dull and simple way , but felt confident Ivanek could " make it a real character " . The episode also introduced Officer Chris Thormann ( Lee Tergesen ) , who would become the center of a significant season one subplot in the next episode , " Son of a Gun " , when he would be shot in the head during a failed arrest . Detective Tom Pellegrini , who handled the real @-@ life Latonya Kim Wallace case and served as the basis for the Tim Bayliss character , appeared on @-@ screen as the police officer who first discovered Adena Watson 's body . Pellegrini , who was still haunted by his failure to solve the Wallace case , specifically asked to be in that scene . During filming , he stayed close to the actress who played Watson , which Secor interpreted as an attempt to make amends to the real Wallace child . Although Pellegrini personally advised Secor on his performance , the actor later said he learned more about how to play Bayliss by watching Pellegrini during that scene than anything else the detective could have told him .
In its portrayal of the possible murder of Thomas Doohen , " Ghost of a Chance " is the first Homicide episode to demonstrate a murder in a wealthy rural setting , rather than an urban or predominantly poorer location ; the episode was noted for demonstrating better than most American television police shows that murders can take place in various socioeconomic circumstances . This is particularly illustrated by Munch 's comment to Bolander , " Ah , green lawns , fresh air , nice houses , this is the place for a murder . " The episode also maintains a common Homicide trait of combining tragedy , like the devastated response by Adena Watson 's family to her murder , with scenes of dark comedy , like Jessie Doohen 's claim that she endured a miserable 60 @-@ year marriage because , " We made a promise we wouldn 't get a divorce until all the children were dead . "
" Ghost of a Chance " marked a development of Beau Felton 's character by identifying not only his trademark bullying nature , but a kinder and sweeter side of his personality . After mocking Howard publicly for her belief in ghosts , he puts in extra effort to find the killer by embracing Howard 's beliefs , much to her appreciation . Howard 's superstitious beliefs reappear in future episodes , particularly the fourth season episode " Heartbeat " , which featured a black cat inspired by Edgar Allan Poe 's short story , " The Black Cat " . A scene in which a busload of rookie police officers straight out of the academy are brought in to investigate the Adena Watson crime scene was inspired by strategies used by real police departments ; the New York Police Department employed exactly the same tactic while searching for the remains of a missing girl in upstate New York in 1987 .
= = Cultural references = =
" Ghost of a Chance " continues a common motif repeated throughout the first season of Crosetti discussing various conspiracy theories about the assassination of Abraham Lincoln , the 16th president of the United States . Crosetti said he believes the killing was arranged by the highest ranks of the Confederate States of America . Crosetti 's fascination with the Lincoln assassination was based on Tom Fontana 's real @-@ life obsession with it . Throughout the episode , Lewis mournfully discussed the then @-@ recent closing of Baltimore 's Memorial Stadium . Fearing it will go to waste , Lewis wants to flood the stadium and turn it into an aquatic theme park .
The song " Hazy Shade of Blue " , by songwriter Tor Hyams , plays while the police raid several neighborhood homes in search of clues and leads in the Adena Watson murder case . The hymn " The Sweet By and By " , written by S. Fillmore Bennett and Joseph P. Webster , plays during Watson 's funeral in the final scene of the movie . Crosetti and Lewis sing the theme song to the children 's show Casper the Friendly Ghost while making fun of Howard about dreaming of ghosts .
= = Reception = =
" Ghost of a Chance " originally aired on NBC in the United States on February 3 , 1993 , marking the show 's debut in the Wednesday 9 p.m. time slot . In its original broadcast , the episode was watched by 9 @.@ 5 million households , according to Nielsen Media Research . The episode received a 10 @.@ 6 rating / 15 share . The rating was considered a disappointment by NBC and the press , coming off of 18 @.@ 8 million viewers in the series debut " Gone for Goode " , which aired immediately after Super Bowl XXVII on January 31 and received generally positive reviews . " Ghost of a Chance " ranked third in its time slot for the night , The time slot winner was ABC 's comedy Home Improvement , which was seen by 19 @.@ 92 million viewers , the highest ever rating for the series. and ranked 60th in prime time shows for the week . " Ghost of a Chance " lost viewers from the first half hour to the second , and the episode dropped 19 % in viewership among the 18 @-@ 49 age group compared to " Gone for Goode " . ABC 's Coach earned 17 @.@ 13 million viewers , while CBS 's In the Heat of the Night earned 10 @.@ 88 viewers . " Ghost of a Chance " also underperformed compared its predecessors in the NBC timeslot , the comedies Seinfeld and Mad About You , which averaged a combined 9 @.@ 87 million viewers .
The episode received generally positive reviews . Danny Duncan of the National Catholic Reporter particularly praised the performances of Belzer , Beatty and Kotto , as well as the police relationship between Pembleton and Bayliss , which he said serves as the source of dramatic tension driving the series narrative forward in the early episodes of the first season . Eric Kohanik of The Hamilton Spectator said the episode continues to demonstrate why Homicide is " the best new series of the midseason " , and praised it for not resorting to " silly car chases ( and ) blazing guns " . Chris Kaltenbach of The Baltimore Sun complimented the episode , particularly the performances of Beatty and Verdon . Ed Siegel of The Boston Globe said he enjoyed both the humor of the episode , such as the Gwen Verdon subplot , as well as dramatic touches , like Bayliss cleaning up the spilled corn flakes of Adena Watson 's despairing mother .
Not all reviews were positive . Liam Lacey said the episode was " not quite as taut " as the debut episode , particularly criticizing the ghost subplot . Lacey said , " There already appear a few cracks in the show 's engaging facade , including a drift toward the Northern Exposure @-@ style indulgent quirkiness . " Time magazine reviewer Richard Zoglin said the second episode " already seems to be marking time with goofy character diversions " , including Crosetti 's Lincoln conspiracies and Bolander 's requests for a date from Blythe . In 1999 , " Ghost of a Chance " was among a Court TV marathon of the top 15 Homicide episodes , as voted on by 20 @,@ 000 visitors to the channel 's website .
= = Emmy nomination = =
Gwen Verdon was nominated for an Emmy Award for Outstanding Guest Actress in a Drama Series her guest performance in " Ghost of a Chance " . It was her second Emmy nomination in the 45th Annual Primetime Emmy Award season alone ; she was also nominated for an Emmy for Outstanding Guest Actress in a Comedy Series that year for her performance in the series Dream On .
= = DVD release = =
" Ghost of a Chance " and the rest of the first and second season episodes were included in the four @-@ DVD box @-@ set " Homicide : Life on the Street : The Complete Seasons 1 & 2 " , which was released by A & E Home Video on May 27 , 2003 for $ 69 @.@ 95 .
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= El Greco =
Doménikos Theotokópoulos ( Greek : Δομήνικος Θεοτοκόπουλος [ ðoˈminikos θeotoˈkopulos ] ; 1541 – 7 April 1614 ) , most widely known as El Greco ( pronounced : [ el ˈgɾeko ] ; Spanish for " The Greek " ) , was a painter , sculptor and architect of the Spanish Renaissance . The nickname " El Greco " refers both to his Greek origin and Spanish citizenship . The artist normally signed his paintings with his full birth name in Greek letters , Δομήνικος Θεοτοκόπουλος ( Doménikos Theotokópoulos ) , often adding the word Κρής ( Krēs , " Cretan " ) .
El Greco was born in Crete , which was at that time part of the Republic of Venice , and the center of Post @-@ Byzantine art . He trained and became a master within that tradition before traveling at age 26 to Venice , as other Greek artists had done . In 1570 he moved to Rome , where he opened a workshop and executed a series of works . During his stay in Italy , El Greco enriched his style with elements of Mannerism and of the Venetian Renaissance . In 1577 , he moved to Toledo , Spain , where he lived and worked until his death . In Toledo , El Greco received several major commissions and produced his best @-@ known paintings .
El Greco 's dramatic and expressionistic style was met with puzzlement by his contemporaries but found appreciation in the 20th century . El Greco is regarded as a precursor of both Expressionism and Cubism , while his personality and works were a source of inspiration for poets and writers such as Rainer Maria Rilke and Nikos Kazantzakis . El Greco has been characterized by modern scholars as an artist so individual that he belongs to no conventional school . He is best known for tortuously elongated figures and often fantastic or phantasmagorical pigmentation , marrying Byzantine traditions with those of Western painting .
= = Life = =
= = = Early years and family = = =
Born in 1541 , in either the village of Fodele or Candia ( the Venetian name of Chandax , present day Heraklion ) on Crete , El Greco was descended from a prosperous urban family , which had probably been driven out of Chania to Candia after an uprising against the Venetians between 1526 and 1528 . El Greco 's father , Geórgios Theotokópoulos ( d . 1556 ) , was a merchant and tax collector . Nothing is known about his mother or his first wife , also Greek . El Greco 's older brother , Manoússos Theotokópoulos ( 1531 – 13 December 1604 ) , was a wealthy merchant and spent the last years of his life ( 1603 – 1604 ) in El Greco 's Toledo home .
El Greco received his initial training as an icon painter of the Cretan school , a leading center of post @-@ Byzantine art . In addition to painting , he probably studied the classics of ancient Greece , and perhaps the Latin classics also ; he left a " working library " of 130 books at his death , including the Bible in Greek and an annotated Vasari . Candia was a center for artistic activity where Eastern and Western cultures co @-@ existed harmoniously , where around two hundred painters were active during the 16th century , and had organized a painters ' guild , based on the Italian model . In 1563 , at the age of twenty @-@ two , El Greco was described in a document as a " master " ( " maestro Domenigo " ) , meaning he was already a master of the guild and presumably operating his own workshop . Three years later , in June 1566 , as a witness to a contract , he signed his name as μαΐστρος Μένεγος Θεοτοκόπουλος σγουράφος ( " Master Ménegos Theotokópoulos , painter " ) .
Most scholars believe that the Theotokópoulos " family was almost certainly Greek Orthodox " , although some Catholic sources still claim him from birth . Like many Orthodox emigrants to Catholic areas of Europe , some assert that he may have transferred to Catholicism after his arrival , and possibly practiced as a Catholic in Spain , where he described himself as a " devout Catholic " in his will . The extensive archival research conducted since the early 1960s by scholars , such as Nikolaos Panayotakis , Pandelis Prevelakis and Maria Constantoudaki , indicates strongly that El Greco 's family and ancestors were Greek Orthodox . One of his uncles was an Orthodox priest , and his name is not mentioned in the Catholic archival baptismal records on Crete . Prevelakis goes even further , expressing his doubt that El Greco was ever a practicing Roman Catholic .
Important for his early biography , El Greco , still in Crete , painted his Dormition of the Virgin near the end of his Cretan period , probably before 1567 . Three other signed works of " Doménicos " are attributed to El Greco ( Modena Triptych , St. Luke Painting the Virgin and Child , and The Adoration of the Magi ) . In 1563 , at the age of twenty @-@ two , El Greco was already an enrolled master of the local guild , presumably in charge of his own workshop . He left for Venice a few years later , and never returned to Crete . His Dormition of the Virgin , of before 1567 in tempera and gold on panel ( 61 @,@ 4 x 45 cm , Holy Cathedral of the Dormition of the Virgin , Hermoupolis , Syros ) was probably created near the end of El Greco 's Cretan period . The painting combines post @-@ Byzantine and Italian Mannerist stylistic and iconographic elements , and incorporates stylistic elements of the Cretan School .
= = = Italy = = =
It was natural for the young El Greco to pursue his career in Venice , Crete having been a possession of the Republic of Venice since 1211 . Though the exact year is not clear , most scholars agree that El Greco went to Venice around 1567 . Knowledge of El Greco 's years in Italy is limited . He lived in Venice until 1570 and , according to a letter written by his much older friend , the greatest miniaturist of the age , Giulio Clovio , was a " disciple " of Titian , who was by then in his eighties but still vigorous . This may mean he worked in Titian 's large studio , or not . Clovio characterized El Greco as " a rare talent in painting " .
In 1570 , El Greco moved to Rome , where he executed a series of works strongly marked by his Venetian apprenticeship . It is unknown how long he remained in Rome , though he may have returned to Venice ( c . 1575 – 1576 ) before he left for Spain . In Rome , on the recommendation of Giulio Clovio , El Greco was received as a guest at the Palazzo Farnese , which Cardinal Alessandro Farnese had made a center of the artistic and intellectual life of the city . There he came into contact with the intellectual elite of the city , including the Roman scholar Fulvio Orsini , whose collection would later include seven paintings by the artist ( View of Mt . Sinai and a portrait of Clovio are among them ) .
Unlike other Cretan artists who had moved to Venice , El Greco substantially altered his style and sought to distinguish himself by inventing new and unusual interpretations of traditional religious subject matter . His works painted in Italy were influenced by the Venetian Renaissance style of the period , with agile , elongated figures reminiscent of Tintoretto and a chromatic framework that connects him to Titian . The Venetian painters also taught him to organize his multi @-@ figured compositions in landscapes vibrant with atmospheric light . Clovio reports visiting El Greco on a summer 's day while the artist was still in Rome . El Greco was sitting in a darkened room , because he found the darkness more conducive to thought than the light of the day , which disturbed his " inner light " . As a result of his stay in Rome , his works were enriched with elements such as violent perspective vanishing points or strange attitudes struck by the figures with their repeated twisting and turning and tempestuous gestures ; all elements of Mannerism .
By the time El Greco arrived in Rome , Michelangelo and Raphael were dead , but their example continued to be paramount , and somewhat overwhelming for young painters . El Greco was determined to make his own mark in Rome defending his personal artistic views , ideas and style . He singled out Correggio and Parmigianino for particular praise , but he did not hesitate to dismiss Michelangelo 's Last Judgment in the Sistine Chapel ; he extended an offer to Pope Pius V to paint over the whole work in accord with the new and stricter Catholic thinking . When he was later asked what he thought about Michelangelo , El Greco replied that " he was a good man , but he did not know how to paint " . And thus we are confronted by a paradox : El Greco is said to have reacted most strongly or even condemned Michelangelo , but he had found it impossible to withstand his influence . Michelangelo 's influence can be seen in later El Greco works such as the Allegory of the Holy League . By painting portraits of Michelangelo , Titian , Clovio and , presumably , Raphael in one of his works ( The Purification of the Temple ) , El Greco not only expressed his gratitude but also advanced the claim to rival these masters . As his own commentaries indicate , El Greco viewed Titian , Michelangelo and Raphael as models to emulate . In his 17th century Chronicles , Giulio Mancini included El Greco among the painters who had initiated , in various ways , a re @-@ evaluation of Michelangelo 's teachings .
Because of his unconventional artistic beliefs ( such as his dismissal of Michelangelo 's technique ) and personality , El Greco soon acquired enemies in Rome . Architect and writer Pirro Ligorio called him a " foolish foreigner " , and newly discovered archival material reveals a skirmish with Farnese , who obliged the young artist to leave his palace . On 6 July 1572 , El Greco officially complained about this event . A few months later , on 18 September 1572 , El Greco paid his dues to the Guild of Saint Luke in Rome as a miniature painter . At the end of that year , El Greco opened his own workshop and hired as assistants the painters Lattanzio Bonastri de Lucignano and Francisco Preboste .
= = = Spain = = =
= = = = Move to Toledo = = = =
In 1577 , El Greco migrated to Madrid , then to Toledo , where he produced his mature works . At the time , Toledo was the religious capital of Spain and a populous city with " an illustrious past , a prosperous present and an uncertain future " . In Rome , El Greco had earned the respect of some intellectuals , but was also facing the hostility of certain art critics . During the 1570s the huge monastery @-@ palace of El Escorial was still under construction and Philip II of Spain was experiencing difficulties in finding good artists for the many large paintings required to decorate it . Titian was dead , and Tintoretto , Veronese and Anthonis Mor all refused to come to Spain . Philip had to rely on the lesser talent of Juan Fernández de Navarrete , of whose gravedad y decoro ( " seriousness and decorum " ) the king approved . However , Fernández died in 1579 ; the moment should have been ideal for El Greco .
Through Clovio and Orsini , El Greco met Benito Arias Montano , a Spanish humanist and agent of Philip ; Pedro Chacón , a clergyman ; and Luis de Castilla , son of Diego de Castilla , the dean of the Cathedral of Toledo . El Greco 's friendship with Castilla would secure his first large commissions in Toledo . He arrived in Toledo by July 1577 , and signed contracts for a group of paintings that was to adorn the church of Santo Domingo el Antiguo in Toledo and for the renowned El Espolio . By September 1579 he had completed nine paintings for Santo Domingo , including The Trinity and The Assumption of the Virgin . These works would establish the painter 's reputation in Toledo .
El Greco did not plan to settle permanently in Toledo , since his final aim was to win the favor of Philip and make his mark in his court . Indeed , he did manage to secure two important commissions from the monarch : Allegory of the Holy League and Martyrdom of St. Maurice . However , the king did not like these works and placed the St Maurice altarpiece in the chapter @-@ house rather than the intended chapel . He gave no further commissions to El Greco . The exact reasons for the king 's dissatisfaction remain unclear . Some scholars have suggested that Philip did not like the inclusion of living persons in a religious scene ; some others that El Greco 's works violated a basic rule of the Counter @-@ Reformation , namely that in the image the content was paramount rather than the style . Philip took a close interest in his artistic commissions , and had very decided tastes ; a long sought @-@ after sculpted Crucifixion by Benvenuto Cellini also failed to please when it arrived , and was likewise exiled to a less prominent place . Philip 's next experiment , with Federico Zuccari was even less successful . In any case , Philip 's dissatisfaction ended any hopes of royal patronage El Greco may have had .
= = = = Mature works and later years = = = =
Lacking the favor of the king , El Greco was obliged to remain in Toledo , where he had been received in 1577 as a great painter . According to Hortensio Félix Paravicino , a 17th @-@ century Spanish preacher and poet , " Crete gave him life and the painter 's craft , Toledo a better homeland , where through Death he began to achieve eternal life . " In 1585 , he appears to have hired an assistant , Italian painter Francisco Preboste , and to have established a workshop capable of producing altar frames and statues as well as paintings . On 12 March 1586 he obtained the commission for The Burial of the Count of Orgaz , now his best @-@ known work .
The decade 1597 to 1607 was a period of intense activity for El Greco . During these years he received several major commissions , and his workshop created pictorial and sculptural ensembles for a variety of religious institutions . Among his major commissions of this period were three altars for the Chapel of San José in Toledo ( 1597 – 1599 ) ; three paintings ( 1596 – 1600 ) for the Colegio de Doña María de Aragon , an Augustinian monastery in Madrid , and the high altar , four lateral altars , and the painting St. Ildefonso for the Capilla Mayor of the Hospital de la Caridad ( Hospital of Charity ) at Illescas ( 1603 – 1605 ) . The minutes of the commission of The Virgin of the Immaculate Conception ( 1607 – 1613 ) , which were composed by the personnel of the municipality , describe El Greco as " one of the greatest men in both this kingdom and outside it " .
Between 1607 and 1608 El Greco was involved in a protracted legal dispute with the authorities of the Hospital of Charity at Illescas concerning payment for his work , which included painting , sculpture and architecture ; this and other legal disputes contributed to the economic difficulties he experienced towards the end of his life . In 1608 , he received his last major commission : for the Hospital of Saint John the Baptist in Toledo .
El Greco made Toledo his home . Surviving contracts mention him as the tenant from 1585 onwards of a complex consisting of three apartments and twenty @-@ four rooms which belonged to the Marquis de Villena . It was in these apartments , which also served as his workshop , that he passed the rest of his life , painting and studying . He lived in considerable style , sometimes employing musicians to play whilst he dined . It is not confirmed whether he lived with his Spanish female companion , Jerónima de Las Cuevas , whom he probably never married . She was the mother of his only son , Jorge Manuel , born in 1578 , who also became a painter , assisted his father , and continued to repeat his compositions for many years after he inherited the studio . In 1604 , Jorge Manuel and Alfonsa de los Morales gave birth to El Greco 's grandson , Gabriel , who was baptized by Gregorio Angulo , governor of Toledo and a personal friend of the artist .
During the course of the execution of a commission for the Hospital Tavera , El Greco fell seriously ill , and a month later , on 7 April 1614 , he died . A few days earlier , on 31 March , he had directed that his son should have the power to make his will . Two Greeks , friends of the painter , witnessed this last will and testament ( El Greco never lost touch with his Greek origins ) . He was buried in the Church of Santo Domingo el Antiguo , aged 73 .
= = Art = =
= = = Technique and style = = =
The primacy of imagination and intuition over the subjective character of creation was a fundamental principle of El Greco 's style . El Greco discarded classicist criteria such as measure and proportion . He believed that grace is the supreme quest of art , but the painter achieves grace only if he manages to solve the most complex problems with obvious ease .
El Greco regarded color as the most important and the most ungovernable element of painting , and declared that color had primacy over form . Francisco Pacheco , a painter and theoretician who visited El Greco in 1611 , wrote that the painter liked " the colors crude and unmixed in great blots as a boastful display of his dexterity " and that " he believed in constant repainting and retouching in order to make the broad masses tell flat as in nature " .
Art historian Max Dvořák was the first scholar to connect El Greco 's art with Mannerism and Antinaturalism . Modern scholars characterize El Greco 's theory as " typically Mannerist " and pinpoint its sources in the Neoplatonism of the Renaissance . Jonathan Brown believes that El Greco endeavored to create a sophisticated form of art ; according to Nicholas Penny " once in Spain , El Greco was able to create a style of his own — one that disavowed most of the descriptive ambitions of painting " .
In his mature works El Greco demonstrated a characteristic tendency to dramatize rather than to describe . The strong spiritual emotion transfers from painting directly to the audience . According to Pacheco , El Greco 's perturbed , violent and at times seemingly careless @-@ in @-@ execution art was due to a studied effort to acquire a freedom of style . El Greco 's preference for exceptionally tall and slender figures and elongated compositions , which served both his expressive purposes and aesthetic principles , led him to disregard the laws of nature and elongate his compositions to ever greater extents , particularly when they were destined for altarpieces . The anatomy of the human body becomes even more otherworldly in El Greco 's mature works ; for The Virgin of the Immaculate Conception El Greco asked to lengthen the altarpiece itself by another 1 @.@ 5 feet ( 0 @.@ 46 m ) " because in this way the form will be perfect and not reduced , which is the worst thing that can happen to a figure ' " . A significant innovation of El Greco 's mature works is the interweaving between form and space ; a reciprocal relationship is developed between the two which completely unifies the painting surface . This interweaving would re @-@ emerge three centuries later in the works of Cézanne and Picasso .
Another characteristic of El Greco 's mature style is the use of light . As Jonathan Brown notes , " each figure seems to carry its own light within or reflects the light that emanates from an unseen source " . Fernando Marias and Agustín Bustamante García , the scholars who transcribed El Greco 's handwritten notes , connect the power that the painter gives to light with the ideas underlying Christian Neo @-@ Platonism .
Modern scholarly research emphasizes the importance of Toledo for the complete development of El Greco 's mature style and stresses the painter 's ability to adjust his style in accordance with his surroundings . Harold Wethey asserts that " although Greek by descent and Italian by artistic preparation , the artist became so immersed in the religious environment of Spain that he became the most vital visual representative of Spanish mysticism " . He believes that in El Greco 's mature works " the devotional intensity of mood reflects the religious spirit of Roman Catholic Spain in the period of the Counter @-@ Reformation " .
El Greco also excelled as a portraitist , able not only to record a sitter 's features but also to convey their character . His portraits are fewer in number than his religious paintings , but are of equally high quality . Wethey says that " by such simple means , the artist created a memorable characterization that places him in the highest rank as a portraitist , along with Titian and Rembrandt " .
= = = Painting materials = = =
El Greco painted many of his paintings on fine canvas and employed a viscous oil medium . He painted with the usual pigments of his period such as azurite , lead @-@ tin @-@ yellow , vermilion , madder lake , ochres and red lead , but he seldom used the expensive natural ultramarine .
= = = Suggested Byzantine affinities = = =
Since the beginning of the 20th century , scholars have debated whether El Greco 's style had Byzantine origins . Certain art historians had asserted that El Greco 's roots were firmly in the Byzantine tradition , and that his most individual characteristics derive directly from the art of his ancestors , while others had argued that Byzantine art could not be related to El Greco 's later work .
The discovery of the Dormition of the Virgin on Syros , an authentic and signed work from the painter 's Cretan period , and the extensive archival research in the early 1960s , contributed to the rekindling and reassessment of these theories . Although following many conventions of the Byzantine icon , aspects of the style certainly show Venetian influence , and the composition , showing the death of Mary , combines the different doctrines of the Orthodox Dormition of the Virgin and the Catholic Assumption of the Virgin . Significant scholarly works of the second half of the 20th century devoted to El Greco reappraise many of the interpretations of his work , including his supposed Byzantinism . Based on the notes written in El Greco 's own hand , on his unique style , and on the fact that El Greco signed his name in Greek characters , they see an organic continuity between Byzantine painting and his art . According to Marina Lambraki @-@ Plaka " far from the influence of Italy , in a neutral place which was intellectually similar to his birthplace , Candia , the Byzantine elements of his education emerged and played a catalytic role in the new conception of the image which is presented to us in his mature work " . In making this judgement , Lambraki @-@ Plaka disagrees with Oxford University professors Cyril Mango and Elizabeth Jeffreys , who assert that " despite claims to the contrary , the only Byzantine element of his famous paintings was his signature in Greek lettering " . Nikos Hadjinikolaou states that from 1570 El Greco 's painting is " neither Byzantine nor post @-@ Byzantine but Western European . The works he produced in Italy belong to the history of the Italian art , and those he produced in Spain to the history of Spanish art " .
The English art historian David Davies seeks the roots of El Greco 's style in the intellectual sources of his Greek @-@ Christian education and in the world of his recollections from the liturgical and ceremonial aspect of the Orthodox Church . Davies believes that the religious climate of the Counter @-@ Reformation and the aesthetics of mannerism acted as catalysts to activate his individual technique . He asserts that the philosophies of Platonism and ancient Neo @-@ Platonism , the works of Plotinus and Pseudo @-@ Dionysius the Areopagite , the texts of the Church fathers and the liturgy offer the keys to the understanding of El Greco 's style . Summarizing the ensuing scholarly debate on this issue , José Álvarez Lopera , curator at the Museo del Prado , Madrid , concludes that the presence of " Byzantine memories " is obvious in El Greco 's mature works , though there are still some obscure issues concerning his Byzantine origins needing further illumination .
= = = Architecture and sculpture = = =
El Greco was highly esteemed as an architect and sculptor during his lifetime . He usually designed complete altar compositions , working as architect and sculptor as well as painter — at , for instance , the Hospital de la Caridad . There he decorated the chapel of the hospital , but the wooden altar and the sculptures he created have in all probability perished . For El Espolio the master designed the original altar of gilded wood which has been destroyed , but his small sculptured group of the Miracle of St. Ildefonso still survives on the lower center of the frame .
His most important architectural achievement was the church and Monastery of Santo Domingo el Antiguo , for which he also executed sculptures and paintings . El Greco is regarded as a painter who incorporated architecture in his painting . He is also credited with the architectural frames to his own paintings in Toledo . Pacheco characterized him as " a writer of painting , sculpture and architecture " .
In the marginalia that El Greco inscribed in his copy of Daniele Barbaro 's translation of Vitruvius ' De architectura , he refuted Vitruvius ' attachment to archaeological remains , canonical proportions , perspective and mathematics . He also saw Vitruvius ' manner of distorting proportions in order to compensate for distance from the eye as responsible for creating monstrous forms . El Greco was averse to the very idea of rules in architecture ; he believed above all in the freedom of invention and defended novelty , variety , and complexity . These ideas were , however , far too extreme for the architectural circles of his era and had no immediate resonance .
= = Legacy = =
= = = Posthumous critical reputation = = =
El Greco was disdained by the immediate generations after his death because his work was opposed in many respects to the principles of the early baroque style which came to the fore near the beginning of the 17th century and soon supplanted the last surviving traits of the 16th @-@ century Mannerism . El Greco was deemed incomprehensible and had no important followers . Only his son and a few unknown painters produced weak copies of his works . Late 17th- and early 18th @-@ century Spanish commentators praised his skill but criticized his antinaturalistic style and his complex iconography . Some of these commentators , such as Acislo Antonio Palomino de Castro y Velasco and Juan Agustín Ceán Bermúdez , described his mature work as " contemptible " , " ridiculous " and " worthy of scorn " . The views of Palomino and Bermúdez were frequently repeated in Spanish historiography , adorned with terms such as " strange " , " queer " , " original " , " eccentric " and " odd " . The phrase " sunk in eccentricity " , often encountered in such texts , in time developed into " madness " .
With the arrival of Romantic sentiments in the late 18th century , El Greco 's works were examined anew . To French writer Théophile Gautier , El Greco was the precursor of the European Romantic movement in all its craving for the strange and the extreme . Gautier regarded El Greco as the ideal romantic hero ( the " gifted " , the " misunderstood " , the " mad " ) , and was the first who explicitly expressed his admiration for El Greco 's later technique . French art critics Zacharie Astruc and Paul Lefort helped to promote a widespread revival of interest in his painting . In the 1890s , Spanish painters living in Paris adopted him as their guide and mentor . However , in the popular English @-@ speaking imagination he remained the man who " painted horrors in the Escorial " in the words of Ephraim Chambers ' Cyclopaedia in 1899 .
In 1908 , Spanish art historian Manuel Bartolomé Cossío published the first comprehensive catalogue of El Greco 's works ; in this book El Greco was presented as the founder of the Spanish School . The same year Julius Meier @-@ Graefe , a scholar of French Impressionism , traveled in Spain , expecting to study Velásquez , but instead becoming fascinated by El Greco ; he recorded his experiences in Spanische Reise ( Spanish Journey , published in English in 1926 ) , the book which widely established El Greco as a great painter of the past " outside a somewhat narrow circle " . In El Greco 's work , Meier @-@ Graefe found foreshadowing of modernity . These are the words Meier @-@ Graefe used to describe El Greco 's impact on the artistic movements of his time :
To the English artist and critic Roger Fry in 1920 , El Greco was the archetypal genius who did as he thought best " with complete indifference to what effect the right expression might have on the public " . Fry described El Greco as " an old master who is not merely modern , but actually appears a good many steps ahead of us , turning back to show us the way " .
During the same period , other researchers developed alternative , more radical theories . The ophthalmologists August Goldschmidt and Germán Beritens argued that El Greco painted such elongated human figures because he had vision problems ( possibly progressive astigmatism or strabismus ) that made him see bodies longer than they were , and at an angle to the perpendicular ; the physician Arturo Perera , however , attributed this style to the use of marijuana . Michael Kimmelman , a reviewer for The New York Times , stated that " to Greeks [ El Greco ] became the quintessential Greek painter ; to the Spanish , the quintessential Spaniard " .
As was proved by the campaign of the National Art Gallery in Athens to raise the funds for the purchase of Saint Peter in 1995 , El Greco is loved not just by experts and art lovers but also by ordinary people ; thanks to the donations mainly of individuals and public benefit foundations the National Art Gallery raised 1 @.@ 2 million dollars and purchased the painting . Epitomizing the consensus of El Greco 's impact , Jimmy Carter , the 39th President of the United States , said in April 1980 that El Greco was " the most extraordinary painter that ever came along back then " and that he was " maybe three or four centuries ahead of his time " .
= = = Influence on other artists = = =
El Greco 's re @-@ evaluation was not limited to scholars . According to Efi Foundoulaki , " painters and theoreticians from the beginning of the 20th century ' discovered ' a new El Greco but in process they also discovered and revealed their own selves " . His expressiveness and colors influenced Eugène Delacroix and Édouard Manet . To the Blaue Reiter group in Munich in 1912 , El Greco typified that mystical inner construction that it was the task of their generation to rediscover . The first painter who appears to have noticed the structural code in the morphology of the mature El Greco was Paul Cézanne , one of the forerunners of cubism . Comparative morphological analyses of the two painters revealed their common elements , such as the distortion of the human body , the reddish and ( in appearance only ) unworked backgrounds and the similarities in the rendering of space . According to Brown , " Cézanne and El Greco are spiritual brothers despite the centuries which separate them " . Fry observed that Cézanne drew from " his great discovery of the permeation of every part of the design with a uniform and continuous plastic theme " .
The Symbolists , and Pablo Picasso during his Blue Period , drew on the cold tonality of El Greco , utilizing the anatomy of his ascetic figures . While Picasso was working on Les Demoiselles d 'Avignon , he visited his friend Ignacio Zuloaga in his studio in Paris and studied El Greco 's Opening of the Fifth Seal ( owned by Zuloaga since 1897 ) . The relation between Les Demoiselles d 'Avignon and the Opening of the Fifth Seal was pinpointed in the early 1980s , when the stylistic similarities and the relationship between the motifs of both works were analysed .
The early cubist explorations of Picasso were to uncover other aspects in the work of El Greco : structural analysis of his compositions , multi @-@ faced refraction of form , interweaving of form and space , and special effects of highlights . Several traits of cubism , such as distortions and the materialistic rendering of time , have their analogies in El Greco 's work . According to Picasso , El Greco 's structure is cubist . On 22 February 1950 , Picasso began his series of " paraphrases " of other painters ' works with The Portrait of a Painter after El Greco . Foundoulaki asserts that Picasso " completed ... the process for the activation of the painterly values of El Greco which had been started by Manet and carried on by Cézanne " .
The expressionists focused on the expressive distortions of El Greco . According to Franz Marc , one of the principal painters of the German expressionist movement , " we refer with pleasure and with steadfastness to the case of El Greco , because the glory of this painter is closely tied to the evolution of our new perceptions on art " . Jackson Pollock , a major force in the abstract expressionist movement , was also influenced by El Greco . By 1943 , Pollock had completed sixty drawing compositions after El Greco and owned three books on the Cretan master .
Contemporary painters are also inspired by El Greco 's art . Kysa Johnson used El Greco 's paintings of the Immaculate Conception as the compositional framework for some of her works , and the master 's anatomical distortions are somewhat reflected in Fritz Chesnut 's portraits .
El Greco 's personality and work were a source of inspiration for poet Rainer Maria Rilke . One set of Rilke 's poems ( Himmelfahrt Mariae I.II. , 1913 ) was based directly on El Greco 's Immaculate Conception . Greek writer Nikos Kazantzakis , who felt a great spiritual affinity for El Greco , called his autobiography Report to Greco and wrote a tribute to the Cretan @-@ born artist .
In 1998 , the Greek electronic composer and artist Vangelis published El Greco , a symphonic album inspired by the artist . This album is an expansion of an earlier album by Vangelis , Foros Timis Ston Greco ( A Tribute to El Greco , Φόρος Τιμής Στον Γκρέκο ) . The life of the Cretan @-@ born artist is the subject of the film El Greco of Greek , Spanish and British production . Directed by Ioannis Smaragdis , the film began shooting in October 2006 on the island of Crete and debuted on the screen one year later ; British actor Nick Ashdon has been cast to play El Greco .
= = Debates on attribution = =
The exact number of El Greco 's works has been a hotly contested issue . In 1937 , a highly influential study by art historian Rodolfo Pallucchini had the effect of greatly increasing the number of works accepted to be by El Greco . Pallucchini attributed to El Greco a small triptych in the Galleria Estense at Modena on the basis of a signature on the painting on the back of the central panel on the Modena triptych ( " Χείρ Δομήνιχου " , Created by the hand of Doménikos ) . There was consensus that the triptych was indeed an early work of El Greco and , therefore , Pallucchini 's publication became the yardstick for attributions to the artist . Nevertheless , Wethey denied that the Modena triptych had any connection at all with the artist and , in 1962 , produced a reactive catalogue raisonné with a greatly reduced corpus of materials . Whereas art historian José Camón Aznar had attributed between 787 and 829 paintings to the Cretan master , Wethey reduced the number to 285 authentic works and Halldor Sœhner , a German researcher of Spanish art , recognized only 137 . Wethey and other scholars rejected the notion that Crete took any part in his formation and supported the elimination of a series of works from El Greco 's oeuvre .
Since 1962 , the discovery of the Dormition and the extensive archival research has gradually convinced scholars that Wethey 's assessments were not entirely correct , and that his catalogue decisions may have distorted the perception of the whole nature of El Greco 's origins , development and oeuvre . The discovery of the Dormition led to the attribution of three other signed works of " Doménicos " to El Greco ( Modena Triptych , St. Luke Painting the Virgin and Child , and The Adoration of the Magi ) and then to the acceptance of more works as authentic — some signed , some not ( such as The Passion of Christ ( Pietà with Angels ) painted in 1566 ) , — which were brought into the group of early works of El Greco . El Greco is now seen as an artist with a formative training on Crete ; a series of works illuminate his early style , some painted while he was still on Crete , some from his period in Venice , and some from his subsequent stay in Rome . Even Wethey accepted that " he [ El Greco ] probably had painted the little and much disputed triptych in the Galleria Estense at Modena before he left Crete " . Nevertheless , disputes over the exact number of El Greco 's authentic works remain unresolved , and the status of Wethey 's catalogue raisonné is at the center of these disagreements .
A few sculptures , including Epimetheus and Pandora , have been attributed to El Greco . This doubtful attribution is based on the testimony of Pacheco ( he saw in El Greco 's studio a series of figurines , but these may have been merely models ) . There are also four drawings among the surviving works of El Greco ; three of them are preparatory works for the altarpiece of Santo Domingo el Antiguo and the fourth is a study for one of his paintings , The Crucifixion .
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= Film noir =
The film noir genre generally refers to mystery and crime dramas produced from the early 1940s to the late 1950s . Movies of this genre were characteristically shot in black and white , and featured stories involving femmes fatales , doomed heroes or anti @-@ heroes , and tough , cynical detectives .
The term film noir , French for " black film " ( literal ) or " dark film " ( closer meaning ) , first applied to Hollywood films by French critic Nino Frank in 1946 , was unrecognized by most American film industry professionals of that era . Cinema historians and critics defined the category retrospectively . Before the notion was widely adopted in the 1970s , many of the classic films noir were referred to as " melodramas " . Whether film noir qualifies as a distinct genre is a matter of ongoing debate among scholars .
Film noir encompasses a range of plots : the central figure may be a private eye ( The Big Sleep ) , a plainclothes policeman ( The Big Heat ) , an aging boxer ( The Set @-@ Up ) , a hapless grifter ( Night and the City ) , a law @-@ abiding citizen lured into a life of crime ( Gun Crazy ) , or simply a victim of circumstance ( D.O.A. ) . Although film noir was originally associated with American productions , films now so described have been made around the world . Many pictures released from the 1960s onward share attributes with film noir of the classical period , and often treat its conventions self @-@ referentially . Some refer to such latter @-@ day works as neo @-@ noir .
= = Problems of definition = =
The questions of what defines film noir , and what sort of category it is , provoke continuing debate . " We 'd be oversimplifying things in calling film noir oneiric , strange , erotic , ambivalent , and cruel [ … ] " — this set of attributes constitutes the first of many attempts to define film noir made by French critics Raymond Borde and Etienne Chaumeton in their 1955 book Panorama du film noir américain 1941 – 1953 ( A Panorama of American Film Noir ) , the original and seminal extended treatment of the subject . They emphasize that not every film noir embodies all five attributes in equal measure — one might be more dreamlike ; another , particularly brutal . The authors ' caveats and repeated efforts at alternative definition have been echoed in subsequent scholarship : in the more than five decades since , there have been innumerable further attempts at definition , yet in the words of cinema historian Mark Bould , film noir remains an " elusive phenomenon [ … ] always just out of reach " .
Though film noir is often identified with a visual style , unconventional within a Hollywood context , that emphasizes low @-@ key lighting and unbalanced compositions , films commonly identified as noir evidence a variety of visual approaches , including ones that fit comfortably within the Hollywood mainstream . Film noir similarly embraces a variety of genres , from the gangster film to the police procedural to the gothic romance to the social problem picture — any example of which from the 1940s and 1950s , now seen as noir 's classical era , was likely to be described as a " melodrama " at the time .
While many critics refer to film noir as a genre itself , others argue that it can be no such thing . While noir is often associated with an urban setting , many classic noirs take place in small towns , suburbia , rural areas , or on the open road ; so setting cannot be its genre determinant , as with the Western . Similarly , while the private eye and the femme fatale are character types conventionally identified with noir , the majority of film noirs feature neither ; so there is no character basis for genre designation as with the gangster film . Nor does film noir rely on anything as evident as the monstrous or supernatural elements of the horror film , the speculative leaps of the science fiction film , or the song @-@ and @-@ dance routines of the musical .
A more analogous case is that of the screwball comedy , widely accepted by film historians as constituting a " genre " : the screwball is defined not by a fundamental attribute , but by a general disposition and a group of elements , some — but rarely and perhaps never all — of which are found in each of the genre 's films . However , because of the diversity of noir ( much greater than that of the screwball comedy ) , certain scholars in the field , such as film historian Thomas Schatz , treat it as not a genre but a " style " . Alain Silver , the most widely published American critic specializing in film noir studies , refers to film noir as a " cycle " and a " phenomenon " , even as he argues that it has — like certain genres — a consistent set of visual and thematic codes . Other critics treat film noir as a " mood " , characterize it as a " series " , or simply address a chosen set of films they regard as belonging to the noir " canon " . There is no consensus on the matter .
= = Background = =
= = = Cinematic sources = = =
Film noir 's aesthetics are deeply influenced by German Expressionism , an artistic movement of the 1910s and 1920s that involved theater , photography , painting , sculpture , and architecture , as well as cinema . The opportunities offered by the booming Hollywood film industry , and , later , the threat of growing Nazi power , led to the emigration of many important film artists working in Germany who had either been directly involved in the Expressionist movement or studied with its practitioners . Fritz Lang 's M ( 1931 ) , shot only a few years before his departure from Germany , is among the first major crime films of the sound era to join a characteristically noirish visual style with a noir @-@ type plot , one in which the protagonist is a criminal ( as are his most successful pursuers ) . Directors such as Lang , Robert Siodmak , and Michael Curtiz brought a dramatically shadowed lighting style and a psychologically expressive approach to visual composition , or mise @-@ en @-@ scène , with them to Hollywood , where they would make some of the most famous of classic noirs .
By 1931 , Curtiz had already been in Hollywood for half a decade , making as many as six films a year . Movies of his such as 20 @,@ 000 Years in Sing Sing ( 1932 ) and Private Detective 62 ( 1933 ) are among the early Hollywood sound films arguably classifiable as noir — scholar Marc Vernet offers the latter as evidence that dating the initiation of film noir to 1940 or any other year is " arbitrary " . Giving Expressionist @-@ affiliated filmmakers particularly free stylistic rein were Universal horror pictures such as Dracula ( 1931 ) , The Mummy ( 1932 ) — the former photographed and the latter directed by the Berlin @-@ trained Karl Freund — and The Black Cat ( 1934 ) , directed by Austrian émigré Edgar G. Ulmer . The Universal horror that comes closest to noir , both in story and sensibility , however , is The Invisible Man ( 1933 ) , directed by Englishman James Whale and photographed by American Arthur Edeson . Edeson would subsequently photograph The Maltese Falcon ( 1941 ) , widely regarded as the first major film noir of the classic era .
The Vienna @-@ born but largely American @-@ raised Josef von Sternberg was directing in Hollywood at the same time . Films of his such as Shanghai Express ( 1932 ) and The Devil Is a Woman ( 1935 ) , with their hothouse eroticism and baroque visual style , specifically anticipate central elements of classic noir . The commercial and critical success of Sternberg 's silent Underworld ( 1927 ) was largely responsible for spurring a trend of Hollywood gangster films . Successful films in that genre such as Little Caesar ( 1931 ) , The Public Enemy ( 1931 ) , and Scarface ( 1932 ) demonstrated that there was an audience for crime dramas with morally reprehensible protagonists . An important , and possibly influential , cinematic antecedent to classic noir was 1930s French poetic realism , with its romantic , fatalistic attitude and celebration of doomed heroes . The movement 's sensibility is mirrored in the Warner Bros. drama I Am a Fugitive from a Chain Gang ( 1932 ) , a key forerunner of noir . Among those films not themselves considered films noir , perhaps none had a greater effect on the development of the genre than Citizen Kane ( 1941 ) , directed by Orson Welles . Its visual intricacy and complex , voiceover @-@ driven narrative structure are echoed in dozens of classic films noir .
Italian neorealism of the 1940s , with its emphasis on quasi @-@ documentary authenticity , was an acknowledged influence on trends that emerged in American noir . The Lost Weekend ( 1945 ) , directed by Billy Wilder , another Vienna @-@ born , Berlin @-@ trained American auteur , tells the story of an alcoholic in a manner evocative of neorealism . It also exemplifies the problem of classification : one of the first American films to be described as a film noir , it has largely disappeared from considerations of the field . Director Jules Dassin of The Naked City ( 1948 ) pointed to the neorealists as inspiring his use of on @-@ location photography with nonprofessional extras . This semidocumentary approach characterized a substantial number of noirs in the late 1940s and early 1950s . Along with neorealism , the style had a homegrown precedent , specifically cited by Dassin , in director Henry Hathaway 's The House on 92nd Street ( 1945 ) , which demonstrated the parallel influence of the cinematic newsreel .
= = = Literary sources = = =
The primary literary influence on film noir was the hardboiled school of American detective and crime fiction , led in its early years by such writers as Dashiell Hammett ( whose first novel , Red Harvest , was published in 1929 ) and James M. Cain ( whose The Postman Always Rings Twice appeared five years later ) , and popularized in pulp magazines such as Black Mask . The classic film noirs The Maltese Falcon ( 1941 ) and The Glass Key ( 1942 ) were based on novels by Hammett ; Cain 's novels provided the basis for Double Indemnity ( 1944 ) , Mildred Pierce ( 1945 ) , The Postman Always Rings Twice ( 1946 ) , and Slightly Scarlet ( 1956 ; adapted from Love 's Lovely Counterfeit ) . A decade before the classic era , a story by Hammett was the source for the gangster melodrama City Streets ( 1931 ) , directed by Rouben Mamoulian and photographed by Lee Garmes , who worked regularly with Sternberg . Wedding a style and story both with many noir characteristics , released the month before Lang 's M , City Streets has a claim to being the first major film noir .
Raymond Chandler , who debuted as a novelist with The Big Sleep in 1939 , soon became the most famous author of the hardboiled school . Not only were Chandler 's novels turned into major noirs — Murder , My Sweet ( 1944 ; adapted from Farewell , My Lovely ) , The Big Sleep ( 1946 ) , and Lady in the Lake ( 1947 ) — he was an important screenwriter in the genre as well , producing the scripts for Double Indemnity , The Blue Dahlia ( 1946 ) , and Strangers on a Train ( 1951 ) . Where Chandler , like Hammett , centered most of his novels and stories on the character of the private eye , Cain featured less heroic protagonists and focused more on psychological exposition than on crime solving ; the Cain approach has come to be identified with a subset of the hardboiled genre dubbed " noir fiction " .
For much of the 1940s , one of the most prolific and successful authors of this often downbeat brand of suspense tale was Cornell Woolrich ( sometimes under the pseudonym George Hopley or William Irish ) . No writer 's published work provided the basis for more films noir of the classic period than Woolrich 's : thirteen in all , including Black Angel ( 1946 ) , Deadline at Dawn ( 1946 ) , and Fear in the Night ( 1947 ) .
Another crucial literary source for film noir was W. R. Burnett , whose first novel to be published was Little Caesar , in 1929 . It would be turned into a hit for Warner Bros. in 1931 ; the following year , Burnett was hired to write dialogue for Scarface , while The Beast of the City ( 1932 ) was adapted from one of his stories . At least one important reference work identifies the latter as a film noir despite its early date . Burnett 's characteristic narrative approach fell somewhere between that of the quintessential hardboiled writers and their noir fiction compatriots — his protagonists were often heroic in their way , a way just happening to be that of the gangster . During the classic era , his work , either as author or screenwriter , was the basis for seven films now widely regarded as films noir , including three of the most famous : High Sierra ( 1941 ) , This Gun for Hire ( 1942 ) , and The Asphalt Jungle ( 1950 ) .
= = Classic period = =
= = = Overview = = =
The 1940s and 1950s are generally regarded as the " classic period " of American film noir . While City Streets and other pre @-@ WWII crime melodramas such as Fury ( 1936 ) and You Only Live Once ( 1937 ) , both directed by Fritz Lang , are categorized as full @-@ fledged noir in Alain Silver and Elizabeth Ward 's film noir encyclopedia , other critics tend to describe them as " proto @-@ noir " or in similar terms . The film now most commonly cited as the first " true " film noir is Stranger on the Third Floor ( 1940 ) , directed by Latvian @-@ born , Soviet @-@ trained Boris Ingster . Hungarian émigré Peter Lorre — who had starred in Lang 's M — was top @-@ billed , though he did not play the lead . He would play secondary roles in several other formative American noirs . Though modestly budgeted , at the high end of the B movie scale , Stranger on the Third Floor still lost its studio , RKO , $ 56 @,@ 000 , almost a third of its total cost . Variety magazine found Ingster 's work " too studied and when original , lacks the flare to hold attention . It 's a film too arty for average audiences , and too humdrum for others . " Stranger on the Third Floor was not recognized as the beginning of a trend , let alone a new genre , for many decades .
Most of the films noir of the classic period were similarly low- and modestly budgeted features without major stars — B movies either literally or in spirit . In this production context , writers , directors , cinematographers , and other craftsmen were relatively free from typical big @-@ picture constraints . There was more visual experimentation than in Hollywood filmmaking as a whole : the Expressionism now closely associated with noir and the semi @-@ documentary style that later emerged represent two very different tendencies . Narrative structures sometimes involved convoluted flashbacks uncommon in non @-@ noir commercial productions . In terms of content , enforcement of the Production Code ensured that no film character could literally get away with murder or be seen sharing a bed with anyone but a spouse ; within those bounds , however , many films now identified as noir feature plot elements and dialogue that were very risqué for the time .
Thematically , films noir were most exceptional for the relative frequency with which they centered on women of questionable virtue — a focus that had become rare in Hollywood films after the mid @-@ 1930s and the end of the pre @-@ Code era . The signal film in this vein was Double Indemnity , directed by Billy Wilder ; setting the mold was Barbara Stanwyck 's unforgettable femme fatale , Phyllis Dietrichson — an apparent nod to Marlene Dietrich , who had built her extraordinary career playing such characters for Sternberg . An A @-@ level feature all the way , the film 's commercial success and seven Oscar nominations made it probably the most influential of the early noirs . A slew of now @-@ renowned noir " bad girls " would follow , such as those played by Rita Hayworth in Gilda ( 1946 ) , Lana Turner in The Postman Always Rings Twice ( 1946 ) , Ava Gardner in The Killers ( 1946 ) , and Jane Greer in Out of the Past ( 1947 ) . The iconic noir counterpart to the femme fatale , the private eye , came to the fore in films such as The Maltese Falcon ( 1941 ) , with Humphrey Bogart as Sam Spade , and Murder , My Sweet ( 1944 ) , with Dick Powell as Philip Marlowe . Other seminal noir sleuths served larger institutions , such as Dana Andrews ' police detective in Laura ( 1944 ) , Edmond O 'Brien 's insurance investigator in The Killers , and Edward G. Robinson 's government agent in The Stranger ( 1946 ) .
The prevalence of the private eye as a lead character declined in film noir of the 1950s , a period during which several critics describe the form as becoming more focused on extreme psychologies and more exaggerated in general . A prime example is Kiss Me Deadly ( 1955 ) ; based on a novel by Mickey Spillane , the best @-@ selling of all the hardboiled authors , here the protagonist is a private eye , Mike Hammer . As described by Paul Schrader , " Robert Aldrich 's teasing direction carries noir to its sleaziest and most perversely erotic . Hammer overturns the underworld in search of the ' great whatsit ' [ which ] turns out to be — joke of jokes — an exploding atomic bomb . " Orson Welles 's baroquely styled Touch of Evil ( 1958 ) is frequently cited as the last noir of the classic period . Some scholars believe film noir never really ended , but continued to transform even as the characteristic noir visual style began to seem dated and changing production conditions led Hollywood in different directions — in this view , post @-@ 1950s films in the noir tradition are seen as part of a continuity with classic noir . A majority of critics , however , regard comparable films made outside the classic era to be something other than genuine film noirs . They regard true film noir as belonging to a temporally and geographically limited cycle or period , treating subsequent films that evoke the classics as fundamentally different due to general shifts in filmmaking style and latter @-@ day awareness of noir as a historical source for allusion .
= = = Directors and the business of noir = = =
While the inceptive noir , Stranger on the Third Floor , was a B picture directed by a virtual unknown , many of the films noir still remembered were A @-@ list productions by well @-@ known film makers . Debuting as a director with The Maltese Falcon ( 1941 ) , John Huston followed with Key Largo ( 1948 ) and The Asphalt Jungle ( 1950 ) . Opinion is divided on the noir status of several Alfred Hitchcock thrillers from the era ; at least four qualify by consensus : Shadow of a Doubt ( 1943 ) , Notorious ( 1946 ) , Strangers on a Train ( 1951 ) and The Wrong Man ( 1956 ) . Otto Preminger 's success with Laura ( 1944 ) made his name and helped demonstrate noir 's adaptability to a high @-@ gloss 20th Century @-@ Fox presentation . Among Hollywood 's most celebrated directors of the era , arguably none worked more often in a noir mode than Preminger ; his other noirs include Fallen Angel ( 1945 ) , Whirlpool ( 1949 ) , Where the Sidewalk Ends ( 1950 ) ( all for Fox ) and Angel Face ( 1952 ) . A half @-@ decade after Double Indemnity and The Lost Weekend , Billy Wilder made Sunset Boulevard ( 1950 ) and Ace in the Hole ( 1951 ) , noirs that were not so much crime dramas as satires on Hollywood and the news media . In a Lonely Place ( 1950 ) was Nicholas Ray 's breakthrough ; his other noirs include his debut , They Live by Night ( 1948 ) and On Dangerous Ground ( 1952 ) , noted for their unusually sympathetic treatment of characters alienated from the social mainstream .
Orson Welles had notorious problems with financing but his three film noirs were well budgeted : The Lady from Shanghai ( 1947 ) received top @-@ level , " prestige " backing , while The Stranger , his most conventional film and Touch of Evil , an unmistakably personal work , were funded at levels lower but still commensurate with headlining releases . Like The Stranger , Fritz Lang 's The Woman in the Window ( 1945 ) was a production of the independent International Pictures . Lang 's follow @-@ up , Scarlet Street ( 1945 ) , was one of the few classic noirs to be officially censored : filled with erotic innuendo , it was temporarily banned in Milwaukee , Atlanta and New York State . Scarlet Street was a semi @-@ independent , cosponsored by Universal and Lang 's Diana Productions , of which the film 's co @-@ star , Joan Bennett , was the second biggest shareholder . Lang , Bennett and her husband , the Universal veteran and Diana production head Walter Wanger , made Secret Beyond the Door ( 1948 ) in similar fashion .
Before he was forced abroad by political persecution , Jules Dassin made two classic noirs that also straddled the major – independent line : Brute Force ( 1947 ) and the influential documentary @-@ style The Naked City were developed by producer Mark Hellinger , who had an " inside / outside " contract with Universal similar to Wanger 's . Years earlier , working at Warner Bros. , Hellinger had produced three films for Raoul Walsh , the proto @-@ noirs They Drive by Night ( 1940 ) , Manpower ( 1941 ) and High Sierra ( 1941 ) , now regarded as a seminal work in noir 's development . Walsh had no great name during his half @-@ century as a director but his noirs White Heat ( 1949 ) and The Enforcer ( 1951 ) had A @-@ list stars and are seen as important examples of the cycle . Other directors associated with top @-@ of @-@ the @-@ bill Hollywood film noirs include Edward Dmytryk ( Murder , My Sweet [ 1944 ] , Crossfire [ 1947 ] ) — the first important noir director to fall prey to the industry blacklist — as well as Henry Hathaway ( The Dark Corner [ 1946 ] , Kiss of Death [ 1947 ] ) and John Farrow ( The Big Clock [ 1948 ] , Night Has a Thousand Eyes [ 1948 ] ) .
Most of the Hollywood films considered to be classic noirs , fall into the category of " B movie " . Some were Bs in the most precise sense , produced to run on the bottom of double bills by a low @-@ budget unit of one of the major studios or by one of the smaller Poverty Row outfits , from the relatively well @-@ off Monogram to shakier ventures such as Producers Releasing Corporation ( PRC ) . Jacques Tourneur had made over thirty Hollywood Bs ( a few now highly regarded , most forgotten ) before directing the A @-@ level Out of the Past , described by scholar Robert Ottoson as " the ne plus ultra of forties film noir " . Movies with budgets a step up the ladder , known as " intermediates " by the industry , might be treated as A or B pictures depending on the circumstances . Monogram created Allied Artists in the late 1940s to focus on this sort of production . Such films have long been colloquially known as B movies . Robert Wise ( Born to Kill [ 1947 ] , The Set @-@ Up [ 1949 ] ) and Anthony Mann ( T @-@ Men [ 1947 ] and Raw Deal [ 1948 ] ) each made a series of impressive intermediates , many of them noirs , before graduating to steady work on big @-@ budget productions . Mann did some of his most celebrated work with cinematographer John Alton , a specialist in what James Naremore called " hypnotic moments of light @-@ in @-@ darkness " . He Walked by Night ( 1948 ) , shot by Alton and though credited solely to Alfred Werker , directed in large part by Mann , demonstrates their technical mastery and exemplifies the late 1940s trend of " police procedural " crime dramas . Put out , like other Mann @-@ Alton noirs , by the small Eagle @-@ Lion company , it was the inspiration for the Dragnet series , which debuted on radio in 1949 and television in 1951 .
Several directors associated with noir built well @-@ respected oeuvres largely at the B @-@ movie / intermediate level . Samuel Fuller 's brutal , visually energetic films such as Pickup on South Street ( 1953 ) and Underworld U.S.A. ( 1961 ) earned him a unique reputation ; his advocates praise him as " primitive " and " barbarous " . Joseph H. Lewis directed noirs as diverse as Gun Crazy ( 1950 ) and The Big Combo ( 1955 ) . The former — whose screenplay was written by the blacklisted Dalton Trumbo , disguised by a front — features a bank hold @-@ up sequence shown in an unbroken take of over three minutes that was influential . The Big Combo was shot by John Alton and took the shadowy noir style to its outer limits . The most distinctive films of Phil Karlson ( The Phenix City Story [ 1955 ] and The Brothers Rico [ 1957 ] ) tell stories of vice organized on a monstrous scale . The work of other directors in this tier of the industry , such as Felix E. Feist ( The Devil Thumbs a Ride [ 1947 ] , Tomorrow Is Another Day [ 1951 ] ) , has become obscure . Edgar G. Ulmer spent most of his Hollywood career working at B studios and once in a while on projects that achieved intermediate status ; for the most part , on unmistakable Bs . In 1945 , while at PRC , he directed a noir cult classic , Detour . Ulmer 's other noirs include Strange Illusion ( 1945 ) , also for PRC ; Ruthless ( 1948 ) , for Eagle @-@ Lion , which had acquired PRC the previous year and Murder Is My Beat ( 1955 ) , for Allied Artists .
A number of low- and modestly @-@ budgeted noirs were made by independent , often actor @-@ owned , companies contracting with larger studios for distribution . Serving as producer , writer , director and top @-@ billed performer , Hugo Haas made films like Pickup ( 1951 ) and The Other Woman ( 1954 ) . It was in this way that accomplished noir actress Ida Lupino established herself as the sole female director in Hollywood during the late 1940s and much of the 1950s . She does not appear in the best @-@ known film she directed , The Hitch @-@ Hiker ( 1953 ) , developed by her company , The Filmakers , with support and distribution by RKO . It is one of the seven classic film noirs produced largely outside of the major studios that have been chosen for the United States National Film Registry . Of the others , one was a small @-@ studio release : Detour . Four were independent productions distributed by United Artists , the " studio without a studio " : Gun Crazy ; Kiss Me Deadly ; D.O.A. ( 1950 ) , directed by Rudolph Maté and Sweet Smell of Success ( 1957 ) , directed by Alexander Mackendrick . One was an independent distributed by MGM , the industry leader : Force of Evil ( 1948 ) , directed by Abraham Polonsky and starring John Garfield , both of whom were blacklisted in the 1950s . Independent production usually meant restricted circumstances but Sweet Smell of Success , despite the plans of the production team , was clearly not made on the cheap , though like many other cherished A @-@ budget noirs , it might be said to have a B @-@ movie soul .
Perhaps no director better displayed that spirit than the German @-@ born Robert Siodmak , who had already made a score of films before his 1940 arrival in Hollywood . Working mostly on A features , he made eight films now regarded as classic @-@ era film noirs ( a figure matched only by Lang and Mann ) . In addition to The Killers , Burt Lancaster 's debut and a Hellinger / Universal co @-@ production , Siodmak 's other important contributions to the genre include 1944 's Phantom Lady ( a top @-@ of @-@ the @-@ line B and Woolrich adaptation ) , the ironically titled Christmas Holiday ( 1944 ) , and Cry of the City ( 1948 ) . Criss Cross ( 1949 ) , with Lancaster again the lead , exemplifies how Siodmak brought the virtues of the B @-@ movie to the A noir . In addition to the relatively looser constraints on character and message at lower budgets , the nature of B production lent itself to the noir style for economic reasons : dim lighting saved on electricity and helped cloak cheap sets ( mist and smoke also served the cause ) ; night shooting was often compelled by hurried production schedules ; plots with obscure motivations and intriguingly elliptical transitions were sometimes the consequence of hastily written scripts , of which there was not always enough time or money to shoot every scene . In Criss Cross , Siodmak achieved these effects with purpose , wrapping them around Yvonne De Carlo , playing the most understandable of femme fatales , Dan Duryea , in one of his many charismatic villain roles and Lancaster as an ordinary laborer turned armed robber , doomed by a romantic obsession .
= = Outside the United States = =
Although the term " film noir " was originally coined to describe Hollywood movies , film noir was an international phenomenon . Even before the beginning of the generally accepted classic period , there were films made far from Hollywood that can be seen in retrospect as film noirs , for example , the French productions Pépé le Moko ( 1937 ) , directed by Julien Duvivier , and Le Jour se lève ( 1939 ) , directed by Marcel Carné . In addition , Mexico experienced a vibrant film noir period from roughly 1946 to 1952 , around the same time film noir was blossoming in the U.S.
During the classic period , there were are many films produced in Europe , particularly in France , that share elements of style , theme , and sensibility with American film noirs and may themselves be included in the genre 's canon . In certain cases , the interrelationship with Hollywood noir is obvious : American @-@ born director Jules Dassin moved to France in the early 1950s as a result of the Hollywood blacklist , and made one of the most famous French film noirs , Rififi ( 1955 ) . Other well @-@ known French films often classified as noir include Quai des Orfèvres ( 1947 ) and Les Diaboliques ( 1955 ) , both directed by Henri @-@ Georges Clouzot ; Casque d 'Or ( 1952 ) and Touchez pas au grisbi ( 1954 ) , both directed by Jacques Becker ; and Ascenseur pour l 'échafaud ( 1958 ) , directed by Louis Malle . French director Jean @-@ Pierre Melville is widely recognized for his tragic , minimalist film noirs — Bob le flambeur ( 1955 ) , from the classic period , was followed by Le Doulos ( 1962 ) , Le deuxième souffle ( 1966 ) , Le Samouraï ( 1967 ) , and Le Cercle rouge ( 1970 ) .
Scholar Andrew Spicer argues that British film noir evidences a greater debt to French poetic realism than to the expressionistic American mode of noir . Examples of British noir from the classic period include Brighton Rock ( 1947 ) , directed by John Boulting ; They Made Me a Fugitive ( 1947 ) , directed by Alberto Cavalcanti ; The Small Back Room ( 1948 ) , directed by Michael Powell and Emeric Pressburger ; The October Man ( 1950 ) , directed by Roy Ward Baker ; and Cast a Dark Shadow ( 1955 ) , directed by Lewis Gilbert . Terence Fisher directed several low @-@ budget thrillers in a noir mode for Hammer Film Productions , including The Last Page ( a.k.a. Man Bait ; 1952 ) , Stolen Face ( 1952 ) , and Murder by Proxy ( a.k.a. Blackout ; 1954 ) . Before leaving for France , Jules Dassin had been obliged by political pressure to shoot his last English @-@ language film of the classic noir period in Great Britain : Night and the City ( 1950 ) . Though it was conceived in the United States and was not only directed by an American but also stars two American actors — Richard Widmark and Gene Tierney — it is technically a UK production , financed by 20th Century @-@ Fox 's British subsidiary . The most famous of classic British noirs is director Carol Reed 's The Third Man ( 1949 ) , from a screenplay by Graham Greene . Set in Vienna immediately after World War II , it also stars two American actors , Joseph Cotten and Orson Welles , who had appeared together in Citizen Kane .
Elsewhere , Italian director Luchino Visconti adapted Cain 's The Postman Always Rings Twice as Ossessione ( 1943 ) , regarded both as one of the great noirs and a seminal film in the development of neorealism . ( This was not even the first screen version of Cain 's novel , having been preceded by the French Le Dernier tournant in 1939 . ) In Japan , the celebrated Akira Kurosawa directed several films recognizable as film noirs , including Drunken Angel ( 1948 ) , Stray Dog ( 1949 ) , The Bad Sleep Well ( 1960 ) , and High and Low ( 1963 ) .
Among the first major neo @-@ noir films — the term often applied to films that consciously refer back to the classic noir tradition — was the French Tirez sur le pianiste ( 1960 ) , directed by François Truffaut from a novel by one of the gloomiest of American noir fiction writers , David Goodis . Noir crime films and melodramas have been produced in many countries in the post @-@ classic area . Some of these are quintessentially self @-@ aware neo @-@ noirs — for example , Il Conformista ( 1969 ; Italy ) , Der Amerikanische Freund ( 1977 ; Germany ) , The Element of Crime ( 1984 ; Denmark ) , As Tears Go By ( 1988 ; Hong Kong ) , and El Aura ( 2005 ; Argentina ) . Others simply share narrative elements and a version of the hardboiled sensibility associated with classic noir , such as The Castle of Sand ( 1974 ; Japan ) , Insomnia ( 1997 ; Norway ) , Croupier ( 1998 ; UK ) , Blind Shaft ( 2003 ; China ) , and The Square ( 2008 ; Australia ) .
= = Neo @-@ noir and echoes of the classic mode = =
The neo @-@ noir film genre developed mid @-@ way into the Cold War . This cinematological trend reflected much of the cynicism and the possibility of nuclear annihilation of the era . This new genre introduced innovations that were not available with the earlier noir films . The violence was also more potent than in earlier noir films .
= = = 1960s and 1970s = = =
While it is hard to draw a line between some of the noir films of the early 1960s such as Blast of Silence ( 1961 ) and Cape Fear ( 1962 ) and the noirs of the late 1950s , new trends emerged in the post @-@ classic era . The Manchurian Candidate ( 1962 ) , directed by John Frankenheimer , Shock Corridor ( 1962 ) , directed by Samuel Fuller , and Brainstorm ( 1965 ) , directed by experienced noir character actor William Conrad , all treat the theme of mental dispossession within stylistic and tonal frameworks derived from classic film noir . The Manchurian Candidate examined the situation of American prisoners of war ( POWs ) during the Korean War . These incidents that occurred during the war as well as post @-@ war incidents that ensued , functioned as an inspiration for a different " subgenre of Cold War Noir " . The television series The Fugitive ( 1963 – 67 ) brought classic noir themes and mood to the small screen for an extended run .
In a different vein , films began to appear that self @-@ consciously acknowledged the conventions of classic film noir as historical archetypes to be revived , rejected , or reimagined . These efforts typify what came to be known as neo @-@ noir . Though several late classic noirs , Kiss Me Deadly in particular , were deeply self @-@ knowing and post @-@ traditional in conception , none tipped its hand so evidently as to be remarked on by American critics at the time . The first major film to overtly work this angle was French director Jean @-@ Luc Godard 's À bout de souffle ( Breathless ; 1960 ) , which pays its literal respects to Bogart and his crime films while brandishing a bold new style for a new day . In the United States , Arthur Penn ( Mickey One [ 1964 ] , drawing inspiration from Truffaut 's Tirez sur le pianiste and other French New Wave films ) , John Boorman ( Point Blank [ 1967 ] , similarly caught up , though in the Nouvelle vague 's deeper waters ) , and Alan J. Pakula ( Klute [ 1971 ] ) directed films that knowingly related themselves to the original film noirs , inviting audiences in on the game .
A manifest affiliation with noir traditions — which , by its nature , allows different sorts of commentary on them to be inferred — can also provide the basis for explicit critiques of those traditions . In 1973 , director Robert Altman flipped off noir piety with The Long Goodbye . Based on the novel by Raymond Chandler , it features one of Bogart 's most famous characters , but in iconoclastic fashion : Philip Marlowe , the prototypical hardboiled detective , is replayed as a hapless misfit , almost laughably out of touch with contemporary mores and morality . Where Altman 's subversion of the film noir mythos was so irreverent as to outrage some contemporary critics , around the same time Woody Allen was paying affectionate , at points idolatrous homage to the classic mode with Play It Again , Sam ( 1972 ) . The " blaxploitation " film Shaft ( 1971 ) , wherein Richard Roundtree plays the titular African @-@ American private eye , John Shaft , takes conventions from classic noir .
The most acclaimed of the neo @-@ noirs of the era was director Roman Polanski 's 1974 Chinatown . Written by Robert Towne , it is set in 1930s Los Angeles , an accustomed noir locale nudged back some few years in a way that makes the pivotal loss of innocence in the story even crueler . Where Polanski and Towne raised noir to a black apogee by turning rearward , director Martin Scorsese and screenwriter Paul Schrader brought the noir attitude crashing into the present day with Taxi Driver ( 1976 ) , a crackling , bloody @-@ minded gloss on bicentennial America . In 1978 , Walter Hill wrote and directed The Driver , a chase film as might have been imagined by Jean @-@ Pierre Melville in an especially abstract mood .
Hill was already a central figure in 1970s noir of a more straightforward manner , having written the script for director Sam Peckinpah 's The Getaway ( 1972 ) , adapting a novel by pulp master Jim Thompson , as well as for two tough private eye films : an original screenplay for Hickey & Boggs ( 1972 ) and an adaptation of a novel by Ross Macdonald , the leading literary descendant of Hammett and Chandler , for The Drowning Pool ( 1975 ) . Some of the strongest 1970s noirs , in fact , were unwinking remakes of the classics , " neo " mostly by default : the heartbreaking Thieves Like Us ( 1973 ) , directed by Altman from the same source as Ray 's They Live by Night , and Farewell , My Lovely ( 1975 ) , the Chandler tale made classically as Murder , My Sweet , remade here with Robert Mitchum in his last notable noir role . Detective series , prevalent on American television during the period , updated the hardboiled tradition in different ways , but the show conjuring the most noir tone was a horror crossover touched with shaggy , Long Goodbye – style humor : Kolchak : The Night Stalker ( 1974 – 75 ) , featuring a Chicago newspaper reporter investigating strange , usually supernatural occurrences .
= = = 1980s and 1990s = = =
The turn of the decade brought Scorsese 's black @-@ and @-@ white Raging Bull ( cowritten by Schrader ) ; an acknowledged masterpiece — the American Film Institute ranks it as the greatest American film of the 1980s and the fourth greatest of all time — it is also a retreat , telling a story of a boxer 's moral self @-@ destruction that recalls in both theme and visual ambience noir dramas such as Body and Soul ( 1947 ) and Champion ( 1949 ) . From 1981 , the popular Body Heat , written and directed by Lawrence Kasdan , invokes a different set of classic noir elements , this time in a humid , erotically charged Florida setting ; its success confirmed the commercial viability of neo @-@ noir , at a time when the major Hollywood studios were becoming increasingly risk averse . The mainstreaming of neo @-@ noir is evident in such films as Black Widow ( 1987 ) , Shattered ( 1991 ) , and Final Analysis ( 1992 ) . Few neo @-@ noirs have made more money or more wittily updated the tradition of the noir double @-@ entendre than Basic Instinct ( 1992 ) , directed by Paul Verhoeven and written by Joe Eszterhas . The film also demonstrates how neo @-@ noir 's polychrome palette can reproduce many of the expressionistic effects of classic black @-@ and @-@ white noir . Poison Ivy ( 1992 ) makes use of similar devices executed in Basic Instinct , including a shady , seductive femme @-@ fatale with ulterior motives .
Among big @-@ budget auteurs , Michael Mann has worked frequently in a neo @-@ noir mode , with such films as Thief ( 1981 ) and Heat ( 1995 ) and the TV series Miami Vice ( 1984 – 89 ) and Crime Story ( 1986 – 88 ) . Mann 's output exemplifies a primary strain of neo @-@ noir , in which classic themes and tropes are revisited in a contemporary setting with an up @-@ to @-@ date visual style and rock- or hip hop – based musical soundtrack . Like Chinatown , its more complex predecessor , Curtis Hanson 's Oscar @-@ winning L.A. Confidential ( 1997 ) , based on the James Ellroy novel , demonstrates an opposite tendency — the deliberately retro film noir ; its tale of corrupt cops and femmes fatales is seemingly lifted straight from a film of 1953 , the year in which it is set . Director David Fincher followed the immensely successful neo @-@ noir Seven ( 1995 ) with a film that developed into a cult favorite after its original , disappointing release : Fight Club ( 1999 ) is a sui generis mix of noir aesthetic , perverse comedy , speculative content , and satiric intent .
Working generally with much smaller budgets , brothers Joel and Ethan Coen have created one of the most extensive film oeuvres influenced by classic noir , with films such as Blood Simple ( 1984 ) and Fargo ( 1996 ) , considered by some a supreme work in the neo @-@ noir mode . The Coens cross noir with other generic lines in the gangster drama Miller 's Crossing ( 1990 ) — loosely based on the Dashiell Hammett novels Red Harvest and The Glass Key — and the comedy The Big Lebowski ( 1998 ) , a tribute to Chandler and an homage to Altman 's version of The Long Goodbye . The characteristic work of David Lynch combines film noir tropes with scenarios driven by disturbed characters such as the sociopathic criminal played by Dennis Hopper in Blue Velvet ( 1986 ) and the delusionary protagonist of Lost Highway ( 1997 ) . The Twin Peaks cycle , both TV series ( 1990 – 91 ) and film , Fire Walk with Me ( 1992 ) , puts a detective plot through a succession of bizarre spasms . David Cronenberg also mixes surrealism and noir in Naked Lunch ( 1991 ) , inspired by the William S. Burroughs novel .
Perhaps no American neo @-@ noirs better reflect the classic noir A @-@ movie @-@ with @-@ a @-@ B @-@ movie @-@ soul than those of director @-@ writer Quentin Tarantino ; neo @-@ noirs of his such as Reservoir Dogs ( 1992 ) and Pulp Fiction ( 1994 ) display a relentlessly self @-@ reflexive , sometimes tongue @-@ in @-@ cheek sensibility , similar to the work of the New Wave directors and the Coens . Other films from the era readily identifiable as neo @-@ noir ( some retro , some more au courant ) include director John Dahl 's Kill Me Again ( 1989 ) , Red Rock West ( 1992 ) , The Last Seduction ( 1993 ) , To Die For ( 1995 ) , and A Perfect Murder ( 1998 ) ; four adaptations of novels by Jim Thompson — The Kill @-@ Off ( 1989 ) , After Dark , My Sweet ( 1990 ) , The Grifters ( 1990 ) , and the remake of The Getaway ( 1994 ) ; and many more , including adaptations of the work of other major noir fiction writers : The Hot Spot ( 1990 ) , from Hell Hath No Fury , by Charles Williams ; Miami Blues ( 1990 ) , from the novel by Charles Willeford ; and Out of Sight ( 1998 ) , from the novel by Elmore Leonard . Several films by director @-@ writer David Mamet involve noir elements : House of Games ( 1987 ) , Homicide ( 1991 ) , The Spanish Prisoner ( 1997 ) , and Heist ( 2001 ) . On television , Remington Steele ( 1982 – 87 ) and Moonlighting ( 1985 – 89 ) paid homage to classic noir while demonstrating an unusual appreciation of the sense of humor often found in the original cycle . Between 1983 and 1989 , Mickey Spillane 's hardboiled private eye Mike Hammer was played with wry gusto by Stacy Keach in a series and several stand @-@ alone television films ( an unsuccessful revival followed in 1997 – 98 ) . The British miniseries The Singing Detective ( 1986 ) , written by Dennis Potter , tells the story of a mystery writer named Philip Marlow ; widely considered one of the finest neo @-@ noirs in any medium , some critics rank it among the greatest television productions of all time .
= = = 2000s and 2010s = = =
The Coens referenced the noir tradition again with The Man Who Wasn 't There ( 2001 ) ; a black @-@ and @-@ white crime melodrama set in 1949 , it features a scene apparently staged to mirror the one from Out of the Past pictured above . Lynch 's Mulholland Drive ( 2001 ) continued in his characteristic vein , making the classic noir setting of Los Angeles the venue for a noir @-@ inflected psychological jigsaw puzzle . British @-@ born director Christopher Nolan 's black @-@ and @-@ white debut , Following ( 1998 ) , was an overt homage to classic noir . During the new century 's first decade , he was one of the leading Hollywood directors of neo @-@ noir with the acclaimed Memento ( 2000 ) and the remake of Insomnia ( 2002 ) .
Director Sean Penn 's The Pledge ( 2001 ) , though adapted from a very self @-@ reflexive novel by Friedrich Dürrenmatt , plays noir comparatively straight , to devastating effect . Screenwriter David Ayer updated the classic noir bad @-@ cop tale , typified by Shield for Murder ( 1954 ) and Rogue Cop ( 1954 ) , with his scripts for Training Day ( 2001 ) and , adapting a story by James Ellroy , Dark Blue ( 2002 ) ; he later wrote and directed the even darker Harsh Times ( 2006 ) . Michael Mann 's Collateral ( 2004 ) features a performance by Tom Cruise as an assassin in the lineage of Le Samouraï . The torments of The Machinist ( 2004 ) , directed by Brad Anderson , evoke both Fight Club and Memento . In 2005 , Shane Black directed Kiss Kiss Bang Bang , basing his screenplay in part on a crime novel by Brett Halliday , who published his first stories back in the 1920s . The film plays with an awareness not only of classic noir but also of neo @-@ noir reflexivity itself .
With ultra @-@ violent films such as Sympathy for Mr. Vengeance ( 2002 ) and Thirst ( 2009 ) , Park Chan @-@ wook of South Korea has been the most prominent director outside of the United States to work regularly in a noir mode in the new millennium . The most commercially successful neo @-@ noir of this period has been Sin City ( 2005 ) , directed by Robert Rodriguez in extravagantly stylized black and white with the odd bit of color . The film is based on a series of comic books created by Frank Miller ( credited as the film 's codirector ) , which are in turn openly indebted to the works of Spillane and other pulp mystery authors . Another comic book adaptation with similar style and elements is The Spirit ( 2008 ) . This film is adapted from the comic book of the same name originally created by cartoonist Will Eisner . Similarly , graphic novels provide the basis for Road to Perdition ( 2002 ) , directed by Sam Mendes , and A History of Violence ( 2005 ) , directed by David Cronenberg ; the latter was voted best film of the year in the annual Village Voice poll . Writer @-@ director Rian Johnson 's Brick ( 2005 ) , featuring present @-@ day high schoolers speaking a version of 1930s hardboiled argot , won the Special Jury Prize for Originality of Vision at the Sundance Film Festival . The television series Veronica Mars ( 2004 – 7 ) also brought a youth @-@ oriented twist to film noir . Examples of this sort of generic crossover have been dubbed teen noir .
Classical neo @-@ noir examples in the 2010s include Kim Jee @-@ woon ’ s I Saw the Devil ( 2010 ) , Fred Cavaye ’ s Point Blank ( 2010 ) , Na Hong @-@ jin ’ s The Yellow Sea ( 2010 ) and Nicolas Winding Refn ’ s Drive ( 2011 ) .
= = = Science fiction noir = = =
In the post @-@ classic era , a significant trend in noir crossovers has involved science fiction . In Jean @-@ Luc Godard 's Alphaville ( 1965 ) , Lemmy Caution is the name of the old @-@ school private eye in the city of tomorrow . The Groundstar Conspiracy ( 1972 ) centers on another implacable investigator and an amnesiac named Welles . Soylent Green ( 1973 ) , the first major American example , portrays a dystopian , near @-@ future world via a self @-@ evidently noir detection plot ; starring Charlton Heston ( the lead in Touch of Evil ) , it also features classic noir standbys Joseph Cotten , Edward G. Robinson , and Whit Bissell . The film was directed by Richard Fleischer , who two decades before had directed several strong B noirs , including Armored Car Robbery ( 1950 ) and The Narrow Margin ( 1952 ) .
The cynical and stylish perspective of classic film noir had a formative effect on the cyberpunk genre of science fiction that emerged in the early 1980s ; the film most directly influential on cyberpunk was Blade Runner ( 1982 ) , directed by Ridley Scott , which pays evocative homage to the classic noir mode ( Scott would subsequently direct the poignant noir crime melodrama Someone to Watch Over Me [ 1987 ] ) . Scholar Jamaluddin Bin Aziz has observed how " the shadow of Philip Marlowe lingers on " in such other " future noir " films as 12 Monkeys ( 1995 ) , Dark City ( 1998 ) and Minority Report ( 2002 ) . Fincher 's feature debut was Alien 3 ( 1992 ) , which evoked the classic noir jail film Brute Force .
David Cronenberg 's Crash ( 1996 ) , an adaptation of the speculative novel by J. G. Ballard , has been described as a " film noir in bruise tones " . The hero is the target of investigation in Gattaca ( 1997 ) , which fuses film noir motifs with a scenario indebted to Brave New World . The Thirteenth Floor ( 1999 ) , like Blade Runner , is an explicit homage to classic noir , in this case involving speculations about virtual reality . The Animatrix ( 2003 ) , based on the The Matrix trilogy , contains an anime short film in classic noir style titled " A Detective Story " which takes place within the story of the trilogy . Anime television series with science fiction noir themes include Ghost in the Shell , Cowboy Bebop ( 1998 ) , The Big O ( 1999 ) , and Noir ( 2001 ) .
The 2015 film Ex Machina puts a film noir spin on the Frankenstein mythos , with the femme fatale sentient android Ava manipulating outsider Caleb to perform a crime against her creator Nathan .
= = Parodies = =
Film noir has been parodied many times , in many manners . In 1945 , Danny Kaye starred in what appears to be the first intentional film noir parody , Wonder Man . That same year , Deanna Durbin was the singing lead in the comedic noir Lady on a Train , which makes fun of Woolrich @-@ brand wistful miserablism . Bob Hope inaugurated the private @-@ eye noir parody with My Favorite Brunette ( 1947 ) , playing a baby @-@ photographer who is mistaken for an ironfisted detective . In 1947 as well , The Bowery Boys appeared in Hard Boiled Mahoney , which had a similar mistaken @-@ identity plot ; they spoofed the genre once more in Private Eyes ( 1953 ) . Two RKO productions starring Robert Mitchum take film noir over the border into self @-@ parody : The Big Steal ( 1949 ) , directed by Don Siegel , and His Kind of Woman ( 1951 ) . The " Girl Hunt " ballet in Vincente Minnelli 's The Band Wagon ( 1953 ) is a ten @-@ minute distillation of — and play on — noir in dance . The Cheap Detective ( 1978 ) , starring Peter Falk , is a broad spoof of several films , including the Bogart classics The Maltese Falcon and Casablanca . Carl Reiner 's black @-@ and @-@ white Dead Men Don 't Wear Plaid ( 1982 ) appropriates clips of classic noirs for a farcical pastiche , while his Fatal Instinct ( 1993 ) sends up noirs both classic ( Double Indemnity ) and neo ( Basic Instinct ) . Robert Zemeckis 's Who Framed Roger Rabbit ( 1988 ) develops a noir plot set in 1940s L.A. around a host of cartoon characters .
Noir parodies come in darker tones as well . Murder by Contract ( 1958 ) , directed by Irving Lerner , is a deadpan joke on noir , with a denouement as bleak as any of the films it kids . An ultra @-@ low @-@ budget Columbia Pictures production , it may qualify as the first intentional example of what is now called a neo @-@ noir film ; it was likely a source of inspiration for both Melville 's Le Samouraï and Scorsese 's Taxi Driver . Belying its parodic strain , The Long Goodbye 's final act is seriously grave . Taxi Driver caustically deconstructs the " dark " crime film , taking it to an absurd extreme and then offering a conclusion that manages to mock every possible anticipated ending — triumphant , tragic , artfully ambivalent — while being each , all at once . Flirting with splatter status even more brazenly , the Coens ' Blood Simple is both an exacting pastiche and a gross exaggeration of classic noir . Adapted by director Robinson Devor from a novel by Charles Willeford , The Woman Chaser ( 1999 ) sends up not just the noir mode but the entire Hollywood filmmaking process , with seemingly each shot staged as the visual equivalent of an acerbic Marlowe wisecrack .
In other media , the television series Sledge Hammer ! ( 1986 – 88 ) lampoons noir , along with such topics as capital punishment , gun fetishism , and Dirty Harry . Sesame Street ( 1969 – curr . ) occasionally casts Kermit the Frog as a private eye ; the sketches refer to some of the typical motifs of noir films , in particular the voiceover . Garrison Keillor 's radio program A Prairie Home Companion features the recurring character Guy Noir , a hardboiled detective whose adventures always wander into farce ( Guy also appears in the Altman @-@ directed film based on Keillor 's show ) . Firesign Theatre 's Nick Danger has trod the same not @-@ so @-@ mean streets , both on radio and in comedy albums . Cartoons such as Garfield 's Babes and Bullets ( 1989 ) and comic strip characters such as Tracer Bullet of Calvin and Hobbes have parodied both film noir and the kindred hardboiled tradition — one of the sources from which film noir sprang and which it now overshadows .
= = Identifying characteristics = =
In their original 1955 canon of film noir , Raymond Borde and Etienne Chaumeton identified twenty @-@ two Hollywood films released between 1941 and 1952 as core examples ; they listed another fifty @-@ nine American films from the period as significantly related to the field of noir . A half @-@ century later , film historians and critics had come to agree on a canon of approximately three hundred films from 1940 – 58 . There remain , however , many differences of opinion over whether other films of the era , among them a number of well @-@ known ones , qualify as film noirs or not . For instance , The Night of the Hunter ( 1955 ) , starring Robert Mitchum in an acclaimed performance , is treated as a film noir by some critics , but not by others . Some critics include Suspicion ( 1941 ) , directed by Alfred Hitchcock , in their catalogues of noir ; others ignore it . Concerning films made either before or after the classic period , or outside of the United States at any time , consensus is even rarer .
To support their categorization of certain films as noirs and their rejection of others , many critics refer to a set of elements they see as marking examples of the mode . The question of what constitutes the set of noir 's identifying characteristics is a fundamental source of controversy . For instance , critics tend to define the model film noir as having a tragic or bleak conclusion , but many acknowledged classics of the genre have clearly happy endings ( e.g. , Stranger on the Third Floor , The Big Sleep , Dark Passage , and The Dark Corner ) , while the tone of many other noir denouements is ambivalent . Some critics perceive classic noir 's hallmark as a distinctive visual style . Others , observing that there is actually considerable stylistic variety among noirs , instead emphasize plot and character type . Still others focus on mood and attitude . No survey of classic noir 's identifying characteristics can therefore be considered definitive . In the 1990s and 2000s , critics have increasingly turned their attention to that diverse field of films called neo @-@ noir ; once again , there is even less consensus about the defining attributes of such films made outside the classic period .
= = = Visual style = = =
The low @-@ key lighting schemes of many classic film noirs are associated with stark light / dark contrasts and dramatic shadow patterning — a style known as chiaroscuro ( a term adopted from Renaissance painting ) . The shadows of Venetian blinds or banister rods , cast upon an actor , a wall , or an entire set , are an iconic visual in noir and had already become a cliché well before the neo @-@ noir era . Characters ' faces may be partially or wholly obscured by darkness — a relative rarity in conventional Hollywood filmmaking . While black @-@ and @-@ white cinematography is considered by many to be one of the essential attributes of classic noir , the color films Leave Her to Heaven ( 1945 ) and Niagara ( 1953 ) are routinely included in noir filmographies , while Slightly Scarlet ( 1956 ) , Party Girl ( 1958 ) , and Vertigo ( 1958 ) are classified as noir by varying numbers of critics .
Film noir is also known for its use of low @-@ angle , wide @-@ angle , and skewed , or Dutch angle shots . Other devices of disorientation relatively common in film noir include shots of people reflected in one or more mirrors , shots through curved or frosted glass or other distorting objects ( such as during the strangulation scene in Strangers on a Train ) , and special effects sequences of a sometimes bizarre nature . Night @-@ for @-@ night shooting , as opposed to the Hollywood norm of day @-@ for @-@ night , was often employed . From the mid @-@ 1940s forward , location shooting became increasingly frequent in noir .
In an analysis of the visual approach of Kiss Me Deadly , a late and self @-@ consciously stylized example of classic noir , critic Alain Silver describes how cinematographic choices emphasize the story 's themes and mood . In one scene , the characters , seen through a " confusion of angular shapes " , thus appear " caught in a tangible vortex or enclosed in a trap . " Silver makes a case for how " side light is used ... to reflect character ambivalence " , while shots of characters in which they are lit from below " conform to a convention of visual expression which associates shadows cast upward of the face with the unnatural and ominous " .
= = = Structure and narrational devices = = =
Film noirs tend to have unusually convoluted story lines , frequently involving flashbacks and other editing techniques that disrupt and sometimes obscure the narrative sequence . Framing the entire primary narrative as a flashback is also a standard device . Voiceover narration , sometimes used as a structuring device , came to be seen as a noir hallmark ; while classic noir is generally associated with first @-@ person narration ( i.e. , by the protagonist ) , Stephen Neale notes that third @-@ person narration is common among noirs of the semidocumentary style . Neo @-@ noirs as varied as The Element of Crime ( surrealist ) , After Dark , My Sweet ( retro ) , and Kiss Kiss Bang Bang ( meta ) have employed the flashback / voiceover combination .
Bold experiments in cinematic storytelling were sometimes attempted during the classic era : Lady in the Lake , for example , is shot entirely from the point of view of protagonist Philip Marlowe ; the face of star ( and director ) Robert Montgomery is seen only in mirrors . The Chase ( 1946 ) takes oneirism and fatalism as the basis for its fantastical narrative system , redolent of certain horror stories , but with little precedent in the context of a putatively realistic genre . In their different ways , both Sunset Boulevard and D.O.A. are tales told by dead men . Latter @-@ day noir has been in the forefront of structural experimentation in popular cinema , as exemplified by such films as Pulp Fiction , Fight Club , and Memento .
= = = Plots , characters , and settings = = =
Crime , usually murder , is an element of almost all films noir ; in addition to standard @-@ issue greed , jealousy is frequently the criminal motivation . A crime investigation — by a private eye , a police detective ( sometimes acting alone ) , or a concerned amateur — is the most prevalent , but far from dominant , basic plot . In other common plots the protagonists are implicated in heists or con games , or in murderous conspiracies often involving adulterous affairs . False suspicions and accusations of crime are frequent plot elements , as are betrayals and double @-@ crosses . According to J. David Slocum , " protagonists assume the literal identities of dead men in nearly fifteen percent of all noir . " Amnesia is fairly epidemic — " noir 's version of the common cold " , in the words of film historian Lee Server .
Films noir tend to revolve around heroes who are more flawed and morally questionable than the norm , often fall guys of one sort or another . The characteristic protagonists of noir are described by many critics as " alienated " ; in the words of Silver and Ward , " filled with existential bitterness " . Certain archetypal characters appear in many films noir — hardboiled detectives , femme fatales , corrupt policemen , jealous husbands , intrepid claims adjusters , and down @-@ and @-@ out writers . Among characters of every stripe , cigarette smoking is rampant . From historical commentators to neo @-@ noir pictures to pop culture ephemera , the private eye and the femme fatale have been adopted as the quintessential film noir figures , though they do not appear in most films now regarded as classic noir . Of the twenty @-@ six National Film Registry noirs , in only four does the star play a private eye : The Maltese Falcon , The Big Sleep , Out of the Past , and Kiss Me Deadly . Just four others readily qualify as detective stories : Laura , The Killers , The Naked City , and Touch of Evil .
Film noir is often associated with an urban setting , and a few cities — Los Angeles , San Francisco , New York , and Chicago , in particular — are the location of many of the classic films . In the eyes of many critics , the city is presented in noir as a " labyrinth " or " maze " . Bars , lounges , nightclubs , and gambling dens are frequently the scene of action . The climaxes of a substantial number of films noir take place in visually complex , often industrial settings , such as refineries , factories , trainyards , power plants — most famously the explosive conclusion of White Heat , set at a chemical plant . In the popular ( and , frequently enough , critical ) imagination , in noir it is always night and it always rains .
A substantial trend within latter @-@ day noir — dubbed " film soleil " by critic D. K. Holm — heads in precisely the opposite direction , with tales of deception , seduction , and corruption exploiting bright , sun @-@ baked settings , stereotypically the desert or open water , to searing effect . Significant predecessors from the classic and early post @-@ classic eras include The Lady from Shanghai ; the Robert Ryan vehicle Inferno ( 1953 ) ; the French adaptation of Patricia Highsmith 's The Talented Mr. Ripley , Plein soleil ( Purple Noon in the U.S. , more accurately rendered elsewhere as Blazing Sun or Full Sun ; 1960 ) ; and director Don Siegel 's version of The Killers ( 1964 ) . The tendency was at its peak during the late 1980s and 1990s , with films such as Dead Calm ( 1989 ) , After Dark , My Sweet ( 1990 ) , The Hot Spot ( 1990 ) , Delusion ( 1991 ) , Red Rock West ( 1993 ) and the television series Miami Vice .
= = = Worldview , morality , and tone = = =
Film noir is often described as essentially pessimistic . The noir stories that are regarded as most characteristic tell of people trapped in unwanted situations ( which , in general , they did not cause but are responsible for exacerbating ) , striving against random , uncaring fate , and frequently doomed . The films are seen as depicting a world that is inherently corrupt . Classic film noir has been associated by many critics with the American social landscape of the era — in particular , with a sense of heightened anxiety and alienation that is said to have followed World War II . In author Nicholas Christopher 's opinion , " it is as if the war , and the social eruptions in its aftermath , unleashed demons that had been bottled up in the national psyche . " Film noirs , especially those of the 1950s and the height of the Red Scare , are often said to reflect cultural paranoia ; Kiss Me Deadly is the noir most frequently marshaled as evidence for this claim .
Film noir is often said to be defined by " moral ambiguity " , yet the Production Code obliged almost all classic noirs to see that steadfast virtue was ultimately rewarded and vice , in the absence of shame and redemption , severely punished ( however dramatically incredible the final rendering of mandatory justice might be ) . A substantial number of latter @-@ day noirs flout such conventions : vice emerges triumphant in films as varied as the grim Chinatown and the ribald Hot Spot .
The tone of film noir is generally regarded as downbeat ; some critics experience it as darker still — " overwhelmingly black " , according to Robert Ottoson . Influential critic ( and filmmaker ) Paul Schrader wrote in a seminal 1972 essay that " film noir is defined by tone " , a tone he seems to perceive as " hopeless " . In describing the adaptation of Double Indemnity , noir analyst Foster Hirsch describes the " requisite hopeless tone " achieved by the filmmakers , which appears to characterize his view of noir as a whole . On the other hand , definitive film noirs such as The Big Sleep , The Lady from Shanghai , Scarlet Street and Double Indemnity itself are famed for their hardboiled repartee , often imbued with sexual innuendo and self @-@ reflexive humor .
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= John Gielgud =
Sir Arthur John Gielgud OM CH ( / ˈɡiːlɡʊd / ; 14 April 1904 – 21 May 2000 ) was an English actor and theatre director whose career spanned eight decades . With Ralph Richardson and Laurence Olivier , he was one of the trinity of actors who dominated the British stage for much of the 20th century . A member of the Terry family theatrical dynasty , he gained his first paid acting work as a junior member of his cousin Phyllis Neilson @-@ Terry 's company in 1922 . After studying at the Royal Academy of Dramatic Art he worked in repertory theatre and in the West End before establishing himself at the Old Vic as an exponent of Shakespeare in 1929 – 31 .
During the 1930s Gielgud was a stage star in the West End and on Broadway , appearing in new works and classics . He began a parallel career as a director , and set up his own company at the Queen 's Theatre , London . He was regarded by many as the finest Hamlet of his era , and was also known for high comedy roles such as John Worthing in The Importance of Being Earnest . In the 1950s Gielgud feared that his career was threatened when he was convicted and fined for a homosexual offence , but his colleagues and the public supported him loyally . When avant @-@ garde plays began to supersede traditional West End productions in the later 1950s he found no new suitable stage roles , and for several years he was best known in the theatre for his one @-@ man Shakespeare show , The Ages of Man . From the late 1960s he found new plays that suited him , by authors including Alan Bennett , David Storey and Harold Pinter .
During the first half of his career Gielgud did not take the cinema seriously . Though he made his first film in 1924 , and had successes with The Good Companions ( 1933 ) and Julius Caesar ( 1953 ) , he did not begin a regular film career until his sixties . Between Becket in 1964 , for which he received his first Oscar nomination , and Elizabeth in 1998 he appeared in more than sixty films . As the acid @-@ tongued Hobson in Arthur ( 1981 ) he won the Academy Award for Best Supporting Actor .
Although largely indifferent to awards , Gielgud had the rare distinction of winning an Oscar , an Emmy , a Grammy , and a Tony . He was famous from the start of his career for his voice and his mastery of Shakespearean verse . He broadcast more than a hundred radio and television dramas , between 1929 and 1994 , and made commercial recordings of many plays , including ten of Shakespeare 's . Among his honours , he was knighted in 1953 and the Gielgud Theatre was named after him . From 1977 to 1989 , he was president of the Royal Academy of Dramatic Art .
= = Life and career = =
= = = Background and early years = = =
Gielgud was born in South Kensington , London , the third of the four children and youngest of three sons of Frank Henry Gielgud ( 1860 – 1949 ) and his second wife , Kate Terry @-@ Gielgud , née Terry @-@ Lewis ( 1868 – 1958 ) . The two elder boys were Lewis , who became a senior official of the Red Cross and UNESCO , and Val , later head of BBC radio drama ; their sister Eleanor became John 's secretary for many years . On his father 's side , Gielgud was of Lithuanian and Polish descent . The surname derives from Gelgaudiškis , a village in Lithuania . The Counts Gielgud had owned the Gielgudziszki Castle on the River Niemen , but their estates were confiscated after they took part in a failed uprising against Russian rule in 1830 – 31 . Jan Gielgud took refuge in England with his family ; one of his grandchildren was Frank Gielgud , whose maternal grandmother was a famous Polish actress , Aniela Aszpergerowa .
Frank married into a family with wide theatrical connections . His wife , who was on the stage until she married , was the daughter of the actress Kate Terry , and a member of the stage dynasty that included Ellen , Fred and Marion Terry , Mabel Terry @-@ Lewis and Edith and Edward Gordon Craig . Frank had no theatrical ambitions and worked all his life as a stockbroker in the City of London .
In 1912 , aged eight , Gielgud went to Hillside preparatory school in Surrey as his elder brothers had done . For a child with no interest in sport he acquitted himself reasonably well in cricket and rugby for the school . In class , he hated mathematics , was fair at classics , and excelled at English and divinity . Hillside encouraged his interest in drama , and he played several leading roles in school productions , including Mark Antony in Julius Caesar and Shylock in The Merchant of Venice .
After Hillside , Lewis and Val had won scholarships to Eton and Rugby , respectively ; lacking their academic achievement , John failed to secure such a scholarship . He was sent as a day boy to Westminster School , where , as he later said , he had access to the West End " in time to touch the fringe of the great century of the theatre . " He saw Sarah Bernhardt act , Adeline Genée dance and Albert Chevalier , Vesta Tilley and Marie Lloyd perform in the music halls . The school choir sang in services at Westminster Abbey , which appealed to his fondness for ritual . He showed talent at sketching , and for a while thought of scenic design as a possible career .
The young Gielgud 's father took him to concerts , which he liked , and galleries and museums , " which bored me rigid . " Both parents were keen theatregoers , but did not encourage their children to follow an acting career . Val Gielgud recalled , " Our parents looked distinctly sideways at the Stage as a means of livelihood , and when John showed some talent for drawing his father spoke crisply of the advantages of an architect 's office . " On leaving Westminster in 1921 , Gielgud persuaded his reluctant parents to let him take drama lessons on the understanding that if he was not self @-@ supporting by the age of twenty @-@ five he would seek an office post .
= = = First acting experience = = =
Gielgud , aged seventeen , joined a private drama school run by Constance Benson , wife of the actor @-@ manager Sir Frank Benson . On the new boy 's first day Lady Benson remarked on his physical awkwardness : " she said I walked like a cat with rickets . It dealt a severe blow to my conceit , which was a good thing . " Before and after joining the school he played in several amateur productions , and in November 1921 made his debut with a professional company , though he himself was not paid . He played the Herald in Henry V at the Old Vic ; he had one line to speak and , he recalled , spoke it badly . He was kept on for the rest of the season in walk @-@ on parts in King Lear , Wat Tyler and Peer Gynt , with no lines .
Gielgud 's first substantial engagement came through his family . In 1922 his cousin Phyllis Neilson @-@ Terry invited him to tour in J. B. Fagan 's The Wheel , as understudy , bit @-@ part player and assistant stage manager , an invitation he accepted . A colleague , recognising that the young man had talent but lacked technique , recommended him to the Royal Academy of Dramatic Art ( RADA ) . Gielgud was awarded a scholarship to the academy and trained there throughout 1923 under Kenneth Barnes , Helen Haye and Claude Rains .
The actor @-@ manager Nigel Playfair , a friend of Gielgud 's family , saw him in a student presentation of J. M. Barrie 's The Admirable Crichton . Playfair was impressed and cast him as Felix , the poet @-@ butterfly , in the British premiere of the Čapek brothers ' The Insect Play . Gielgud later said that he made a poor impression in the part : " I am surprised that the audience did not throw things at me . " The critics were cautious but not hostile to the play ; it did not attract the public and closed after a month . While still continuing his studies at RADA , Gielgud appeared again for Playfair in Robert E Lee by John Drinkwater . After leaving the academy at the end of 1923 Gielgud played a Christmas season as Charley in Charley 's Aunt in the West End , and then joined Fagan 's repertory company at the Oxford Playhouse .
Gielgud was in the Oxford company in January and February 1924 , from October 1924 to the end of January 1925 , and in August 1925 . He played a wide range of parts in classics and modern plays , greatly increasing his technical abilities in the process . The role he most enjoyed was Trofimov in The Cherry Orchard , his first experience of Chekhov : " It was the first time I ever went out on stage feeling that perhaps , after all , I could really be an actor . "
= = = Early West End roles = = =
Between Gielgud 's first two Oxford seasons , the producer Barry Jackson cast him as Romeo to the Juliet of Gwen Ffrangcon @-@ Davies at the Regent 's Theatre , London , in May 1924 . The production was not a great success , but the two performers became close friends and frequently worked together throughout their careers . Gielgud made his screen debut during 1924 as Daniel Arnault in Walter Summers 's silent film Who Is the Man ? ( 1924 ) .
In May 1925 the Oxford production of The Cherry Orchard was brought to the Lyric Theatre , Hammersmith . Gielgud again played Trofimov . His distinctive speaking voice attracted attention and led to work for BBC radio , which his biographer Sheridan Morley calls " a medium he made his own for seventy years . " In the same year Noël Coward chose Gielgud as his understudy in his play The Vortex . For the last month of the West End run Gielgud took over Coward 's role of Nicky Lancaster , the drug @-@ addicted son of a nymphomaniac mother . It was in Gielgud 's words " a highly @-@ strung , nervous , hysterical part which depended a lot upon emotion . " He found it tiring to play because he had not yet learned how to pace himself , but he thought it " a thrilling engagement because it led to so many great things afterwards . "
The success of The Cherry Orchard led to what one critic called a " Chekhov boom " in British theatres , and Gielgud was among its leading players . As Konstantin in The Seagull in October 1925 he impressed the Russian director Theodore Komisarjevsky , who cast him as Tusenbach in the British premiere of Three Sisters . The production received enthusiastic reviews , and Gielgud 's highly praised performance enhanced his reputation as a potential star . There followed three years of mixed fortunes for him , with successes in fringe productions , but West End stardom was elusive .
In 1926 the producer Basil Dean offered Gielgud the lead role , Lewis Dodd , in a dramatisation of Margaret Kennedy 's best @-@ selling novel , The Constant Nymph . Before rehearsals began Dean found that a bigger star than Gielgud was available , namely Coward , to whom he gave the part . Gielgud had an enforceable contractual claim to the role , but Dean , a notorious bully , was a powerful force in British theatre . Intimidated , Gielgud accepted the position of understudy , with a guarantee that he would take over the lead from Coward when the latter , who disliked playing in long runs , left . In the event Coward , who had been overworking , suffered a nervous collapse three weeks after the opening night , and Gielgud played the lead for the rest of the run . The play ran for nearly a year in London and then went on tour .
By this time Gielgud was earning enough to leave the family home and take a small flat in the West End . He had his first serious romantic relationship , living with John Perry , an unsuccessful actor , later a writer , who remained a lifelong friend after their affair ended . Morley makes the point that , like Coward , Gielgud 's principal passion was the stage ; both men had casual dalliances , but were more comfortable with " low @-@ maintenance " long @-@ term partners who did not impede their theatrical work and ambitions .
In 1928 Gielgud made his Broadway debut as the Grand Duke Alexander in Alfred Neumann 's The Patriot . The play was a failure , closing after a week , but Gielgud liked New York and received favourable reviews from critics including Alexander Woollcott and Brooks Atkinson . After returning to London he starred in a succession of short runs , including Ibsen 's Ghosts with Mrs Patrick Campbell ( 1928 ) , and Reginald Berkeley 's The Lady with a Lamp ( 1929 ) with Edith Evans and Gwen Ffrangcon @-@ Davies . In 1928 he made his second film , The Clue of the New Pin . This , billed as " the first British full @-@ length talkie " , was an adaptation of an Edgar Wallace mystery story ; Gielgud played a young scoundrel who commits two murders and very nearly a third before he himself is killed .
= = = Old Vic = = =
In 1929 Harcourt Williams , newly appointed as director of productions at the Old Vic , invited Gielgud to join the company for the forthcoming season . The Old Vic , in an unfashionable area of London south of the Thames , was run by Lilian Baylis to offer plays and operas to a mostly working @-@ class audience at low ticket prices . She paid her performers very modest wages , but the theatre was known for its unrivalled repertory of classics , mostly Shakespeare , and Gielgud was not the first West End star to take a large pay cut to work there . It was , in Morley 's words , the place to learn Shakespearean technique and try new ideas .
During his first season at the Old Vic , Gielgud played Romeo to the Juliet of Adele Dixon , Antonio in The Merchant of Venice , Cleante in The Imaginary Invalid , the title role in Richard II , and Oberon in A Midsummer Night 's Dream . His Romeo was not well reviewed , but as Richard II Gielgud was recognised by critics as a Shakespearean actor of undoubted authority . The reviewer in The Times commented on his sensitiveness , strength and firmness , and called his performance " work of genuine distinction , not only in its grasp of character , but in its control of language . " Later in the season he was cast as Mark Antony in Julius Caesar , Orlando in As You Like It , the Emperor in Androcles and the Lion and the title role in Pirandello 's The Man with the Flower in His Mouth .
In April 1930 Gielgud finished the season playing Hamlet . Williams 's production used the complete text of the play . This was regarded as a radical innovation ; extensive cuts had been customary for earlier productions . A running time of nearly five hours did not dampen the enthusiasm of the public , the critics or the acting profession . Sybil Thorndyke said , " I never hoped to see Hamlet played as in one 's dreams ... I 've had an evening of being swept right off my feet into another life – far more real than the life I live in , and moved , moved beyond words . " The production gained such a reputation that the Old Vic began to attract large numbers of West End theatregoers . Demand was so great that the cast moved to the Queen 's Theatre in Shaftesbury Avenue , where Williams staged the piece with the text discreetly shortened . The effect of the cuts was to give the title role even more prominence . Gielgud 's Hamlet was richly praised by the critics . Ivor Brown called it " a tremendous performance ... the best Hamlet of [ my ] experience . " James Agate wrote , " I have no hesitation whatsoever in saying that it is the high water @-@ mark of English Shakespearean acting of our time . "
Hamlet was a role with which Gielgud was associated over the next decade and more . After the run at the Queen 's finished he turned to another part for which he became well known , John Worthing in The Importance of Being Earnest . Gielgud 's biographer Jonathan Croall comments that the two roles illustrated two sides of the actor 's personality : on the one hand the romantic and soulful Hamlet , and on the other the witty and superficial Worthing . The formidable Lady Bracknell was played by his aunt , Mabel Terry @-@ Lewis . The Times observed , " Mr Gielgud and Miss Terry @-@ Lewis together are brilliant ... they have the supreme grace of always allowing Wilde to speak in his own voice . "
Returning to the Old Vic for the 1930 – 31 season , Gielgud found several changes to the company . Donald Wolfit , who loathed him and was himself disliked by his colleagues , was dropped , as was Adele Dixon . Gielgud was uncertain of the suitability of the most prominent new recruit , Ralph Richardson , but Williams was sure that after this season Gielgud would move on ; he saw Richardson as a potential replacement . The two actors had little in common . Richardson recalled , " He was a kind of brilliant butterfly , while I was a very gloomy sort of boy " , and " I found his clothes extravagant , I found his conversation flippant . He was the New Young Man of his time and I didn 't like him . " The first production of the season was Henry IV , Part 1 , in which Gielgud as Hotspur had the best of the reviews . Richardson 's notices , and the relationship of the two leading men , improved markedly when Gielgud , who was playing Prospero in The Tempest , helped Richardson with his performance as Caliban :
He gave me about two hundred ideas , as he usually does , twenty @-@ five of which I eagerly seized on , and when I went away I thought , " This chap , you know , I don 't like him very much but by God he knows something about this here play . " ... And then out of that we formed a friendship .
The friendship and professional association lasted for more than fifty years , until the end of Richardson 's life . Gielgud 's other roles in this season were Lord Trinket in The Jealous Wife , Richard II again , Antony in Antony and Cleopatra , Malvolio in Twelfth Night , Sergius in Arms and the Man , Benedick in Much Ado About Nothing – another role for which he became celebrated – and he concluded the season as King Lear . His performance divided opinion . The Times commented , " It is a mountain of a part , and at the end of the evening the peak remains unscaled " ; in The Manchester Guardian , however , Brown wrote that Gielgud " is a match for the thunder , and at length takes the Dover road with a broken tranquillity that allowed every word of the King 's agony to be clear as well as poignant . "
= = = West End star = = =
Returning to the West End , Gielgud starred in J B Priestley 's The Good Companions , adapted for the stage by the author and Edward Knoblock . The production ran from May 1931 for 331 performances , and Gielgud described it as his first real taste of commercial success . He played Inigo Jollifant , a young schoolmaster who abandons teaching to join a travelling theatre troupe . This crowd @-@ pleaser drew disapproval from the more austere reviewers , who felt Gielgud should be doing something more demanding , but he found playing a conventional juvenile lead had challenges of its own and helped him improve his technique . During the run of the play he made another film , Insult ( 1932 ) , a melodrama about the French Foreign Legion , and he starred in a cinema version of The Good Companions in 1933 , with Jessie Matthews . A letter to a friend reveals Gielgud 's view of film acting : " There is talk of my doing Inigo in the film of The Good Companions , which appals my soul but appeals to my pocket . " In his first volume of memoirs , published in 1939 , Gielgud devoted two pages to describing the things about filming that he detested . Unlike his contemporaries Richardson and Laurence Olivier , he made few films until after the Second World War , and did not establish himself as a prominent film actor until many years after that . As he put it in 1994 , " I was stupid enough to toss my head and stick to the stage while watching Larry and Ralph sign lucrative Korda contracts . "
In 1932 Gielgud turned to directing . At the invitation of George Devine , the president of the Oxford University Dramatic Society , Gielgud took charge of a production of Romeo and Juliet by the society , featuring two guest stars : Peggy Ashcroft as Juliet and Edith Evans as the Nurse . The rest of the cast were students , led by Christopher Hassall as Romeo , and included Devine , William Devlin and Terence Rattigan . The experience was satisfactory to Gielgud : he enjoyed the attentions of the undergraduates , had a brief affair with one of them , James Lees @-@ Milne , and was widely praised for his inspiring direction and his protégés ' success with the play . Already notorious for his innocent slips of the tongue ( he called them " Gielgoofs " ) , in a speech after the final performance he referred to Ashcroft and Evans as " Two leading ladies , the like of whom I hope I shall never meet again . "
During the rest of 1932 Gielgud played in a new piece , Musical Chairs , by Ronald Mackenzie , and directed one new and one classic play , Strange Orchestra by Rodney Ackland in the West End , and The Merchant of Venice at the Old Vic , with Malcolm Keen as Shylock and Ashcroft as Portia . In 1932 he starred in Richard of Bordeaux by Elizabeth MacKintosh . This , a retelling in modern language of the events of Richard II , was greeted as the most successful historical play since Shaw 's Saint Joan nine years earlier , more faithful to the events than Shakespeare had been . After an uncertain start in the West End it rapidly became a sell @-@ out hit and played in London and on tour over the next three years .
Between seasons of Richard , in 1934 Gielgud returned to Hamlet in London and on tour , directing and playing the title role . The production was a box @-@ office success , and the critics were lavish in their praise . In The New York Times , Charles Morgan wrote , " I have never before heard the rhythm and verse and the naturalness of speech so gently combined . ... If I see a better performance of this play than this before I die , it will be a miracle . " Morley writes that junior members of the cast such as Alec Guinness and Frith Banbury would gather in the wings every night " to watch what they seemed intuitively already to know was to be the Hamlet of their time . "
The following year Gielgud staged perhaps his most famous Shakespeare production , a Romeo and Juliet in which he co @-@ starred with Ashcroft and Olivier . Gielgud had spotted Olivier 's potential and gave him a major step up in his career . For the first weeks of the run Gielgud played Mercutio and Olivier played Romeo , after which they exchanged roles . As at Oxford , Ashcroft and Evans were Juliet and the nurse . The production broke all box @-@ office records for the play , running at the New Theatre for 189 performances . Olivier was enraged at the notices after the first night , which praised the virility of his performance but fiercely criticised his speaking of Shakespeare 's verse , comparing it with his co @-@ star 's mastery of the poetry . The friendship between the two men was prickly , on Olivier 's side , for the rest of his life .
In May 1936 Gielgud played Trigorin in The Seagull , with Evans as Arkadina and Ashcroft as Nina . Komisarjevsky directed , which made rehearsals difficult as Ashcroft , with whom he had been living , had just left him . Nonetheless , Morley writes , the critical reception was ecstatic . In the same year Gielgud made his last pre @-@ war film , co @-@ starring with Madeleine Carroll in Alfred Hitchcock 's Secret Agent . The director 's insensitivity to actors made Gielgud nervous and further increased his dislike of filming . The two stars were praised for their performances , but Hitchcock 's " preoccupation with incident " was felt by critics to make the leading roles one @-@ dimensional , and the laurels went to Peter Lorre as Gielgud 's deranged assistant .
From September 1936 to February 1937 Gielgud played Hamlet in North America , opening in Toronto before moving to New York and Boston . He was nervous about starring on Broadway for the first time , particularly as it became known that the popular actor Leslie Howard was to appear there in a rival production of the play . When Gielgud opened at the Empire Theatre in October the reviews were mixed , but , as the actor wrote to his mother , the audience response was extraordinary . " They stay at the end and shout every night and the stage door is beset by fans . " Howard 's production opened in November ; it was , in Gielgud 's words , a débâcle , and the " battle of the Hamlets " heralded in the New York press was over almost as soon as it had begun . Howard 's version closed within a month ; the run of Gielgud 's production beat Broadway records for the play .
= = = Queen 's Theatre company = = =
After his return from America in February 1937 Gielgud starred in He Was Born Gay by Emlyn Williams . This romantic tragedy about French royalty after the Revolution was quite well received during its pre @-@ London tour , but was savaged by the critics in the West End . The Times said , " This is one of those occasions on which criticism does not stand about talking , but rubs its eyes and withdraws hastily with an embarrassed , incredulous , and uncomprehending blush . What made Mr Emlyn Williams write this play or Mr Gielgud and Miss Ffrangcon @-@ Davies appear in it is not to be understood . " The play closed after twelve performances . Its failure , so soon after his Shakespearean triumphs , prompted Gielgud to examine his career and his life . His domestic relationship with Perry was comfortable but unexciting , he saw no future in a film career , and the Old Vic could not afford to stage the classics on the large scale he aspired to . He decided that he must form his own company to play Shakespeare and other classic plays in the West End .
Gielgud invested £ 5 @,@ 000 , most of his earnings from the American Hamlet ; Perry , who had family money , put in the same sum . From September 1937 to April 1938 Gielgud was the tenant of the Queen 's Theatre , where he presented a season consisting of Richard II , The School for Scandal , Three Sisters , and The Merchant of Venice . His company included Harry Andrews , Peggy Ashcroft , Glen Byam Shaw , George Devine , Michael Redgrave and Harcourt Williams , with Angela Baddeley and Gwen Ffrangcon @-@ Davies as guests . His own roles were King Richard , Joseph Surface , Vershinin and Shylock . Gielgud 's performances drew superlatives from reviewers and colleagues . Agate considered his Richard II , " probably the best piece of Shakespearean acting on the English stage today . " Olivier said that Gielgud 's Joseph Surface was " the best light comedy performance I 've ever seen , or ever shall see . "
The venture did not lose money , nor did it make much , and in July 1938 Gielgud turned to more conventional West End enterprises , in unconventional circumstances . He directed Spring Meeting , a farce by Perry and Molly Keane , presented by Binkie Beaumont , for whom Perry had just left Gielgud . Somehow the three men remained on excellent terms . In September of the same year Gielgud appeared in Dodie Smith 's sentimental comedy Dear Octopus . The following year he directed and appeared in The Importance of Being Earnest at the Queen 's , with Evans playing Lady Bracknell for the first time . They were gratified when Allan Aynesworth , who had played Algernon in the 1895 premiere , said that the new production " caught the gaiety and exactly the right atmosphere . It 's all delightful ! "
= = = War and post @-@ war = = =
At the start of the Second World War Gielgud volunteered for active service , but was told that men of his age , thirty @-@ five , would not be wanted for at least six months . The government quickly came to the view that most actors would do more good performing to entertain the troops and the general public than serving , whether suitable or not , in the armed forces .
Gielgud directed Michael Redgrave in a 1940 London production of The Beggar 's Opera for the Glyndebourne Festival . This was a chaotic affair : Gielgud 's direction confused his star , and when Redgrave lost his voice Gielgud had to step in and sing the role as best he could . Gielgud felt that something serious or even solemn was necessary for wartime London , where most entertainment was light @-@ hearted . Together with Harley Granville @-@ Barker and Guthrie he reopened the Old Vic with Shakespeare . His King Lear once again divided the critics , but his Prospero was a considerable success . He played the role quite differently from his attempt on the same stage in 1930 : in place of the " manic conjurer " his Prospero was " very far from the usual mixture of Father Christmas , a Colonial Bishop , and the President of the Magicians ' Union ... a clear , arresting picture of a virile Renaissance notable " , according to Brown . The critics singled out , among the other players , Jack Hawkins as Caliban , Marius Goring as Ariel , Jessica Tandy as Miranda and Alec Guinness as Ferdinand .
Following the example of several of his stage colleagues , Gielgud joined tours of military camps . He gave recitals of prose and poetry , and acted in a triple bill of short plays , including two from Coward 's Tonight at 8 @.@ 30 , but he found at first that less highbrow performers like Beatrice Lillie were better than he at entertaining the troops . He returned to filming in 1940 , as Disraeli in Thorold Dickinson 's The Prime Minister . In this morale @-@ boosting film he portrayed the politician from ages thirty to seventy ; this was , in Morley 's view , the first time he seemed at home before the camera . Gielgud made no more films for the next ten years ; he turned down the role of Julius Caesar in the 1945 film of Shaw 's Caesar and Cleopatra with Vivien Leigh . He and Leigh were close friends , and Shaw tried hard to persuade him to play the part , but Gielgud had taken a strong dislike to the director , Gabriel Pascal . Caesar was eventually played by Gielgud 's former teacher , Claude Rains .
Throughout 1941 and 1942 Gielgud worked continually , in Barrie 's Dear Brutus , another Importance of Being Earnest in the West End , and Macbeth on tour . Returning , with more assurance than before , to entertaining the troops , he so far departed from his classical style as to join Lillie and Michael Wilding singing a comic trio . His 1943 revival of William Congreve 's Love for Love on tour and then in London received high praise from reviewers . In 1944 he was approached by Ralph Richardson , who had been asked by the governors of the Old Vic to form a new company . Unwilling to take sole charge , Richardson proposed a managing triumvirate of Gielgud , Olivier and himself . Gielgud declined : " It would be a disaster , you would have to spend your whole time as referee between Larry and me . "
A 1944 – 45 season at the Haymarket for Beaumont included a Hamlet that many considered his finest . Agate wrote , " Mr Gielgud is now completely and authoritatively master of this tremendous part . ... I hold that this is , and is likely to remain , the best Hamlet of our time . " Also in the season were A Midsummer Night 's Dream , The Duchess of Malfi and the first major revival of Lady Windermere 's Fan ( 1945 ) . These productions attracted much praise , but at this point in his career Gielgud was somewhat overshadowed by his old colleagues . Olivier was celebrated for his recent film of Henry V , and with Richardson ( and John Burrell in Gielgud 's stead ) was making the Old Vic " the most famous theatre in the Anglo @-@ Saxon world " according to the critic Harold Hobson .
Through the autumn and winter of 1945 – 46 Gielgud toured for ENSA in the Middle and Far East with Hamlet and Coward 's Blithe Spirit . During this tour he played Hamlet on stage for the last time . He was Raskolnikoff in a stage version of Crime and Punishment , in the West End in 1946 and on Broadway the following year . Agate thought it the best thing Gielgud had done so far , other than Hamlet . Between these two engagements Gielgud toured North America in The Importance of Being Earnest and Love for Love . Edith Evans was tired of the role of Lady Bracknell , and refused to join him ; Margaret Rutherford played the part to great acclaim . Gielgud was in demand as a director , with six productions in 1948 – 49 . They included The Heiress in 1949 , when he was brought in at the last moment to direct Richardson and Ashcroft , saving what seemed a doomed production ; it ran for 644 performances . His last big hit of the 1940s was as Thomas Mendip in The Lady 's Not for Burning , which he also directed . The London cast included the young Claire Bloom and Richard Burton , who went with Gielgud when he took the piece to the US the following year .
= = = 1950s – film success and personal crisis = = =
At the Shakespeare Memorial Theatre , Stratford @-@ upon @-@ Avon , Gielgud did much to reclaim his position as a leading Shakespearean . His cold , unsympathetic Angelo in Peter Brook 's production of Measure for Measure ( 1950 ) showed the public a new , naturalistic manner in his playing . He followed this with three other Shakespeare productions with Brook , which were well received . His own attempt at direction in Stratford , for Richardson 's Macbeth in 1952 , was much less successful , with poor notices for the star and worse ones for the director .
In 1953 Gielgud made his first Hollywood film , the sole classical actor in Joseph L. Mankiewicz 's Julius Caesar . Marlon Brando ( Mark Antony ) was in awe of him , and James Mason ( Brutus ) was disheartened at Gielgud 's seemingly effortless skill . Gielgud , for his part , felt he learned much about film technique from Mason . Gielgud enjoyed his four @-@ month stay in California , not least , as Morley comments , for the relaxed attitude there to homosexuality .
Returning to London later in 1953 Gielgud took over management of the Lyric , Hammersmith , for a classical season of Richard II , Congreve 's The Way of the World , and Thomas Otway 's Venice Preserv 'd , directing the first , acting in the last , and doing both in the second . Feeling he was too old for Richard , he cast the young Paul Scofield ; both the actor and the production were a critical and commercial success . During the season Gielgud was knighted in the 1953 Coronation honours .
On the evening of 20 October 1953 , Gielgud , usually highly discreet about casual sex , was arrested in Chelsea for cruising in a public lavatory . Until the 1960s sexual activity of any kind between men was illegal in Britain . The Home Secretary of the day , David Maxwell Fyfe , was fervently homophobic , urging the police to arrest anyone who contravened the Victorian laws against homosexuality . Gielgud was fined ; when the press reported the story , he thought his disgrace would end his career . When the news broke he was in Liverpool on the pre @-@ London tour of a new play , A Day by the Sea . According to the biographer Richard Huggett , Gielgud was so paralysed by nerves that the prospect of going onstage as usual seemed impossible , but his fellow players , led by Sybil Thorndike , encouraged him :
She grabbed him and whispered fiercely , " Come on , John darling , they won 't boo me " , and led him firmly on to the stage . To everybody 's astonishment and indescribable relief , the audience gave him a standing ovation . They cheered , they applauded , they shouted . The message was quite clear . The English public had always been loyal to its favourites , and this was their chance to show that they didn 't care tuppence what he had done in his private life ... they loved him and respected him dearly . It was a moment never to be forgotten by those who witnessed it .
His career was safe , but the episode briefly affected Gielgud 's health ; he suffered a nervous breakdown some months afterwards . He never spoke publicly about the incident , and it was quickly sidelined by the press and politely ignored by writers during his lifetime . Privately he made donations to gay campaign groups , but did not endorse them in public . In his later years he said to the actor Simon Callow , " I do admire people like you and Ian McKellen for coming out , but I can 't be doing with that myself . "
Between December 1953 and June 1955 Gielgud concentrated on directing and did not appear on stage . His productions ranged from a revival of Charley 's Aunt with John Mills to The Cherry Orchard with Ffrangcon @-@ Davies , and Twelfth Night with Olivier . His return to the stage was in a production of King Lear , which was badly hampered by costumes and scenery by Isamu Noguchi that the critics found ludicrous . A revival of Much Ado About Nothing with Ashcroft in 1955 was much better received ; in The Manchester Guardian , Philip Hope @-@ Wallace called it " Shakespearean comedy for once perfectly realised . " In 1955 Gielgud made his second appearance in a film of Shakespeare , portraying Clarence in Olivier 's Richard III .
In the second half of the 1950s Gielgud 's career was in the doldrums as far as new plays were concerned . British theatre was moving away from the West End glamour of Beaumont 's productions to more avant @-@ garde works . Olivier had a great success in John Osborne 's The Entertainer in 1957 , but Gielgud was not in tune with the new wave of writers . He remained in demand as a Shakespearean , but there were few new plays suitable for him . He directed and played the lead in Coward 's Nude with Violin in 1956 , which was dismissed by the critics as old fashioned , though it ran for more than a year . He made two film appearances , playing a cameo comedy scene with Coward in Michael Anderson 's Around the World in 80 Days ( 1956 ) and Mr Barrett , in Sidney Franklin 's 1957 remake of The Barretts of Wimpole Street . He did not consider his performance as the tyrannical father convincing , and confessed that he undertook it only for the large fee ( " it will set me up for a couple of years " ) and to keep him before the public in America , where he had not performed for over four years .
During 1957 Gielgud directed Berlioz 's The Trojans at Covent Garden and played Prospero at Drury Lane , but the production central to his career over the late 1950s and into the 1960s was his one @-@ man show The Ages of Man . He first appeared in this in 1956 and revived it every year until 1967 . It was an anthology of Shakespearean speeches and sonnets , compiled by George Rylands , in which , wearing modern evening clothes on a plain stage , Gielgud recited the verses , with his own linking commentary . He performed it all over Britain , mainland Europe , Australasia and the US , including a performance at the White House in 1965 . He found there were advantages to performing solo : " You 've no idea how much easier it is without a Juliet . When there 's a beautiful girl above you on a balcony , or lying on a tomb with candles round her , naturally the audience look at her the whole time , and Romeo has to pull out all the stops to get any attention . " His performance on Broadway won him a Tony Award in 1958 , and an audio recording in 1979 received a Grammy . He made many other recordings , both before and after this , including ten Shakespeare plays .
Gielgud continued to try , without much success , to find new plays that suited him as an actor , but his direction of Peter Shaffer 's first play , Five Finger Exercise ( 1958 ) won him another Tony the following year . While in the US for the Shaffer play , Gielgud revived Much Ado About Nothing , this time with Margaret Leighton as his Beatrice . Most of the New York critics praised the production , and they all praised the co @-@ stars . He gave his first performances on television during 1959 , in Rattigan 's The Browning Version for CBS and N C Hunter 's A Day by the Sea for ITV . He appeared in more than fifty more plays on television over the next four decades .
= = = 1960s = = =
During the early 1960s Gielgud had more successes as a director than as an actor . He directed the first London performance of Britten 's opera A Midsummer Night 's Dream ( 1961 ) at Covent Garden and Hugh Wheeler 's Big Fish , Little Fish on Broadway , the latter winning him another Tony . His performance as Othello at Stratford in the same year was less successful ; Franco Zeffirelli 's production was thought ponderous and Gielgud " singularly unvehement . " As Gaev in The Cherry Orchard to the Ranevskaya of Ashcroft he had the best of the notices ; his co @-@ star and the production received mixed reviews . The following year Gielgud directed Richardson in The School for Scandal , first at the Haymarket and then on a North American tour , which he joined as , in his words , " the oldest Joseph Surface in the business . "
In 1962 Gielgud met Martin Hensler ( 1932 – 99 ) , an interior designer exiled from Hungary . He was temperamental , and Gielgud 's friends often found him difficult , but the two became a long @-@ term couple and lived together until Hensler 's death . Under his influence Gielgud moved his main residence from central London to Wotton Underwood in Buckinghamshire .
Gielgud received an Oscar nomination for his performance as the King of France in Becket ( 1964 ) . Morley comments , " A minor but flashy role , this had considerable and long @-@ lasting importance ; his unrivalled theatrical dignity could greatly enhance a film . " In 1964 Gielgud directed Richard Burton in Hamlet on Broadway . Burton 's performance received reviews ranging from polite to hostile , but the production was a box @-@ office success , and a film was made of it . Gielgud finally began to take the cinema seriously , for financial and sometimes artistic reasons . He told his agent to accept any reasonable film offers . His films of the mid @-@ 1960s were Tony Richardson 's The Loved One ( 1965 ) , which was a disaster , and Orson Welles 's Falstaff film , Chimes at Midnight ( 1966 ) , which was unsuccessful at the time but has since been recognised as " one of the best , albeit most eccentric , of all Shakespearean movies " , according to Morley .
Much of Gielgud 's theatre work in the later 1960s was as a director : Chekhov 's Ivanov at the Phoenix in London and the Shubert in New York , Peter Ustinov 's Half Way Up the Tree at the Queen 's and Mozart 's Don Giovanni at the Coliseum . One potentially outstanding acting role , Ibsen 's Bishop Nicholas , fell through in 1967 when Olivier , with whom he was to co @-@ star at the National Theatre in The Pretenders , was ill . Gielgud played Orgon in Tartuffe and the title role in Seneca 's Oedipus during the National 's 1967 – 68 season , but according to Croall neither production was satisfactory . After this , Gielgud at last found a modern role that suited him and which he played to acclaim : the Headmaster in Alan Bennett 's first play , Forty Years On ( 1968 ) . The notices for both play and star were excellent . In The Daily Telegraph John Barber wrote , " Gielgud dominates all with an unexpected caricature of a mincing pedant , his noble features blurred so as to mimic a fussed and fatuous egghead . From the great mandarin of the theatre , a delicious comic creation . "
Having finally embraced film @-@ making , Gielgud appeared in six films in 1967 – 69 . His most substantial role was Lord Raglan in Tony Richardson 's The Charge of the Light Brigade . His other roles , in films including Michael Anderson 's The Shoes of the Fisherman ( 1968 ) and Richard Attenborough 's Oh ! What a Lovely War ( 1969 ) were cameo appearances in character roles .
= = = 1970s – Indian summer = = =
In 1970 Gielgud played another modern role in which he had great success ; he joined Ralph Richardson at the Royal Court in Chelsea in David Storey 's Home . The play is set in the gardens of a nursing home for mental patients , though this is not clear at first . The two elderly men converse in a desultory way , are joined and briefly enlivened by two more extrovert female patients , are slightly scared by another male patient , and are then left together , conversing even more emptily . The Punch critic , Jeremy Kingston , wrote :
At the end of the play , as the climax to two perfect , delicate performances , Sir Ralph and Sir John are standing , staring out above the heads of the audience , cheeks wet with tears in memory of some unnamed misery , weeping soundlessly as the lights fade on them . It makes a tragic , unforgettable close .
The play transferred to the West End and then to Broadway . In The New York Times Clive Barnes wrote , " The two men , bleakly examining the little nothingness of their lives , are John Gielgud and Ralph Richardson giving two of the greatest performances of two careers that have been among the glories of the English @-@ speaking theater . " The original cast recorded the play for television in 1972 .
In the first half of the decade Gielgud made seven films and six television dramas . Morley describes his choice as indiscriminate , but singles out for praise his performances in 1974 as the old Cardinal in Joseph Losey 's Galileo and the manservant Beddoes in Sidney Lumet 's Murder on the Orient Express . In a 1971 BBC presentation of James Elroy Flecker 's Hassan , Gielgud played the Caliph to Richardson 's Hassan . The critic of The Illustrated London News said that viewers would " shiver at a towering performance by Gielgud , as a Caliph with all the purring beauty and ruthlessness of a great golden leopard . " In the theatre Gielgud directed Coward 's Private Lives and Somerset Maugham 's The Constant Wife ( both 1973 , London and 1974 , New York ) . His final production as a director was Pinero 's The Gay Lord Quex ( 1975 ) .
Gielgud continued his long stage association with Richardson in Harold Pinter 's No Man 's Land ( 1975 ) directed by Hall at the National . Richardson played Hirst , a prosperous but isolated and vulnerable author , and Gielgud was Spooner , a down @-@ at @-@ heel sponger and opportunist . Hall found the play " extremely funny and also extremely bleak . " The production was a critical and box @-@ office success and , over a period of three years , played at the Old Vic , in the West End , at the Lyttelton Theatre in the new National Theatre complex , on Broadway and on television . In Julian Mitchell 's Half @-@ Life ( 1977 ) at the National , Gielgud was warmly praised by reviewers ; he reprised the role at the Duke of York 's Theatre in the West End in 1978 and on tour the following year .
In the latter part of the decade Gielgud worked more for cinema and television than on stage . His film work included what Morley calls " his most embarrassing professional appearance " , in Caligula ( 1979 ) , Gore Vidal 's story of Ancient Rome , spiced with pornographic scenes . In Gielgud 's ten other films from this period , his most substantial role was Clive Langham in Alain Resnais ' Providence ( 1977 ) . Gielgud thought it " by far the most exciting film I have ever made . " He won a New York Film Critics Circle award for his performance as a dying author , " drunk half the time ... throwing bottles about , and roaring a lot of very coarse dialogue . " His other film parts included the Head Master of Eton in Jack Gold 's Aces High ( 1976 ) and Tomlinson in Otto Preminger 's The Human Factor ( 1979 ) . For television his roles included Lord Henry Wotton in The Picture of Dorian Gray ( 1976 ) , John of Gaunt in Richard II ( 1978 ) and Chorus in Romeo and Juliet ( 1978 ) .
= = = Later years = = =
In the 1980s Gielgud appeared in more than twenty films . Morley singles out as noteworthy The Elephant Man ( 1980 ) , Chariots of Fire ( 1981 ) , Gandhi ( 1982 ) , The Shooting Party ( 1984 ) and Plenty ( 1985 ) , directed by David Lynch , Hugh Hudson , Richard Attenborough , Alan Bridges and Fred Schepisi respectively . Tony Palmer 's Wagner ( 1983 ) was the only film in which Gielgud , Richardson , and Olivier played scenes together . Gielgud made cameo appearances in films of little merit , lending distinction while not damaging his own reputation . He told an interviewer , " They pay me very well for two or three days ' work a month , so why not ? It 's nice at my age to be able to travel all over the world at other people 's expense . "
Gielgud 's most successful film of the decade was Steve Gordon 's Arthur ( 1981 ) , which starred Dudley Moore as a self @-@ indulgent playboy . Gielgud played Hobson , Moore 's butler . He turned the part down twice before finally accepting it , nervous , after the Caligula débâcle , of the strong language used by the acerbic Hobson . He won an Oscar as supporting actor and other awards for the performance . He placed little value on awards , and avoided presentation ceremonies whenever he could : " I really detest all the mutual congratulation baloney and the invidious comparisons which they evoke . "
For television Gielgud played nineteen roles during the 1980s ; they included Edward Ryder in an eleven @-@ part adaptation of Waugh 's Brideshead Revisited ( 1982 ) ; The Times said that he gave the role " a desolate and calculated malice which carries almost singlehandedly [ the ] first two episodes " . At the end of the decade he played a rakish journalist , Haverford Downs , in John Mortimer 's Summer 's Lease , for which he won an Emmy Award .
Gielgud 's final West End play was Hugh Whitemore 's The Best of Friends ( 1988 ) . He played Sir Sydney Cockerell , director of the Fitzwilliam Museum , in a representation of a friendship between Cockerell , Bernard Shaw and Laurentia McLachlan , a Benedictine nun . Gielgud had some trouble learning his lines ; and at one performance he almost forgot them , momentarily distracted by seeing in a 1938 copy of The Times , read by his character , a review of his own portrayal of Vershinin in Three Sisters fifty years earlier .
In 1990 Gielgud appeared in the James Scott @-@ directed Strike It Rich , an adaptation of a Graham Greene novel co @-@ starring Molly Ringwald and Robert Lindsay . That same year he made his last film appearance in a leading role , playing Prospero in Prospero 's Books , Peter Greenaway 's adaptation of The Tempest . Reviews for the film were mixed , but Gielgud 's performance in one of his signature roles was much praised . He continued to work on radio , as he had done throughout his career ; Croall lists more than fifty BBC radio productions of plays starring Gielgud between 1929 and 1994 . To mark his ninetieth birthday he played Lear for the last time ; for the BBC Kenneth Branagh gathered a cast that included Judi Dench , Eileen Atkins and Emma Thompson as Lear 's daughters , with actors such as Bob Hoskins , Derek Jacobi and Simon Russell Beale in supporting roles . He made further cameo appearances on television , and in films including Branagh 's Hamlet ( as King Priam , 1996 ) , Dragonheart ( as the voice of King Arthur , 1996 ) , and Shine ( as Cecil Parkes , 1996 ) . His last feature film appearance was as Pope Pius V in Shekhar Kapur 's Elizabeth ( 1999 ) . In 2000 he had a non @-@ speaking role alongside Pinter in a film of Beckett 's short play Catastrophe directed by David Mamet .
Gielgud 's partner , Martin Hensler , died in 1999 . After this , Gielgud went into a physical and psychological decline ; he died in May the following year , peacefully at home , at the age of 96 . At his request there was no memorial service , and his funeral at Wotton parish church was private , for family and close friends .
= = Honours , character and reputation = =
Gielgud 's state honours were Knight Bachelor ( UK , 1953 ) , Legion of Honour ( France , 1960 ) , Companion of Honour ( UK , 1977 ) , and Order of Merit ( UK , 1996 ) . He was awarded honorary degrees by St Andrews , Oxford and Brandeis universities .
From 1977 to 1989 Gielgud was president of the Royal Academy of Dramatic Art — a symbolic position — and was the academy 's first honorary fellow ( 1989 ) . In 1996 the Globe Theatre in Shaftesbury Avenue was renamed the Gielgud Theatre . He had not acted on stage for eight years , and felt out of touch with the West End : he commented on the renaming of the theatre , " At last there is a name in lights on the Avenue which I actually recognise , even if it is my own . "
Gielgud was uninterested in religion or politics . As a boy he had been fascinated by the rituals at Westminster Abbey , but his brief attraction to religion quickly faded , and as an adult he was a non @-@ believer . His indifference to politics was illustrated at a formal dinner not long after the Second World War when he asked a fellow guest , " Whereabouts are you living now ? " , unaware that , as he was talking to Clement Attlee , the answer was " 10 Downing Street " . In his Who 's Who entry Gielgud listed his hobbies as music and painting , but his concentration on his work , which Emlyn Williams called fanatical , left little scope for leisure activities . His dedication to his art was not solemn . The critic Nicholas de Jongh wrote that Gielgud 's personality was " such infinite , mischievous fun " , and Coward 's biographer Cole Lesley recalled the pleasure of Gielgud 's company , " the words tumbling out of his mouth in an avalanche , frequently having to wipe away his own tears of laughter at the funniness of the disasters he recounted , disasters always against himself . "
Together with Richardson and Olivier , Gielgud was internationally recognised as one of the " great trinity of theatrical knights " who dominated the British stage for more than fifty years during the middle and later decades of the 20th century . The critic Michael Coveney wrote , for Gielgud 's ninety @-@ fifth birthday :
I have seen Olivier , Ralph Richardson , Alec Guinness and Peggy Ashcroft but John Gielgud is something else . Gielgud is the lone survivor of those great actors whose careers laid the foundation stones of modern theatre . He is acclaimed as the greatest speaker of Shakespearean verse this century . People my age and younger can only take on trust the impact of the Hamlet whose influence lasted more than 30 years . Even the recordings do not quite convey the mellifluous magic of the voice once described by Guinness as a " silver trumpet muffled in silk . "
He is indelibly linked with the roles of Prospero and King Lear – regarded as pinnacles of theatrical achievement – yet he is also widely remembered for his wonderful comic touch as Jack Worthing in Wilde 's The Importance of Being Earnest . But his influence goes far beyond his performances . Without Gielgud there would be no National Theatre or Royal Shakespeare Company . He was a pioneer in establishing the first permanent companies in the West End .
In an obituary in The Independent Alan Strachan , having discussed Gielgud 's work for cinema , radio and television , concluded that " any consideration of Gielgud 's rich and often astonishing career must return to the stage ; as he wrote at the close of An Actor and his Time ( 1979 ) , he saw the theatre as ' more than an occupation or a profession ; for me it has been a life ' . "
= = Books by Gielgud = =
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= Saga ( comic book ) =
Saga is an epic space opera / fantasy comic book series written by Brian K. Vaughan and illustrated by Fiona Staples , published monthly by the American company Image Comics . The series is heavily influenced by Star Wars and is based on ideas Vaughan conceived both as a child and as a parent . It depicts a husband and wife , Alana and Marko , from long @-@ warring extraterrestrial races , fleeing authorities from both sides of a galactic war as they struggle to care for their daughter , Hazel , who is born in the beginning of the series and who occasionally narrates the series as an unseen adult .
The comic was described in solicitations as " Star Wars meets Game of Thrones , " and by critics as evocative of both science fiction and fantasy epics such as The Lord of the Rings and classic works like Romeo & Juliet . It is Vaughan 's first creator @-@ owned work to be published through Image Comics , and represents the first time he employs narration in his comics writing .
The first issue of Saga was published on March 14 , 2012 , to positive reviews and a sold @-@ out first printing . It was published in trade paperback form in October 2012 . It has also been a consistent sales success , outselling The Walking Dead , another successful Image comic .
The series has been met with wide critical acclaim , and is one of the most celebrated comics being published . It has also garnered numerous awards , including a number of Eisner and Harvey Awards in 2013 , 2014 and 2015 . The first trade paperback collection won the 2013 Hugo Award for Best Graphic Story . It has also been noted for its diverse portrayal of ethnicity , sexuality and gender social roles , and for its treatment of war .
= = Publication history = =
Writer Brian K. Vaughan conceived Saga in his childhood , calling it " a fictional universe that I created when I was bored in math class . I just kept building it . " He was inspired by such influences as Star Wars , Flash Gordon and children 's books , and has also invoked the awe and wonder of first seeing the Silver Surfer , which seemed an " incredible and different " concept to him . It was not until his wife became pregnant with his second daughter , however , that he conceived of the protagonists , the winged Alana and the horned Marko , two lovers from warring extraterrestrial races who struggle to survive with their newborn daughter , Hazel , who occasionally narrates the series . It was also at this point that the central theme that Vaughan wanted for the book emerged . Vaughan explains , " I wanted to write about parenthood , but I wanted to Trojan @-@ horse it inside some sort of interesting genre story , to explore the overlap between artistic creation and the creation of a child . " Vaughan , who intended to return to writing a comics series following the 2010 conclusion of his previous series , Ex Machina , and who notes that the publication of Saga # 1 coincided with the birth of his daughter , saw parallels between the caution advised by colleagues against launching a new book in the poor economy and those who cautioned against bringing a new child into the world , observing :
I realized that making comics and making babies were kind of the same thing and if I could combine the two , it would be less boring if I set it in a crazy sci @-@ fi fantasy universe and not just have anecdotes about diaper bags ... I didn ’ t want to tell a Star Wars adventure with these noble heroes fighting an empire . These are people on the outskirts of the story who want out of this never @-@ ending galactic war ... I ’ m part of the generation that all we do is complain about the prequels and how they let us down ... And if every one of us who complained about how the prequels didn ’ t live up to our expectations just would make our own sci @-@ fi fantasy , then it would be a much better use of our time .
Vaughan explained that the main characters ' romance would be a major theme of the book . Touching upon the juxtaposition of the book 's mature subject matter with its Star Wars inspirations , Vaughan jokingly described the book as " Star Wars for perverts . "
The book was announced at the 2011 San Diego Comic @-@ Con International , and was billed as " Star Wars meets A Game of Thrones " in solicitations . Saga represents the first time Vaughan has employed narration in his comics writing , a decision influenced by the whimsical interaction between the text and images in the children 's books he reads with his children , and by his desire to try something new that he felt would work well with Saga 's narrator , Hazel . It is also his first series to be published through Image Comics , whom he selected as the series ' publisher on the recommendation of writer Jay Faerber , who cited the creative freedom afforded by that publisher . Vaughan elaborated on his selection of Image thus :
I love all the other companies I 've worked with , but I think Image might be the only publisher left that can still offer a contract I would consider " fully creator @-@ owned . " Saga is a really important story to me , so I wanted a guarantee of no content restrictions or other creative interference , and I needed to maintain 100 % control and ownership of all non @-@ publishing rights with the artist , including the right to never have our comic turned into a movie or television show or whatever ... [ Image Publisher ] Eric Stephenson was the only publisher I spoke with who was thrilled to make that deal , and co @-@ creator Fiona Staples and I didn 't have to sign exclusives or agree to work on a bunch of corporate @-@ owned titles to get it .
Although Vaughan has written for television , and has endeavored to have his previous works adapted into film , he stresses that he developed Saga strictly to be a comic book and not to be adapted to other media , explaining " I wanted to do something that was way too expensive to be TV and too dirty and grown @-@ up to be a four @-@ quadrant blockbuster . " Vaughan has also indicated that he has an ending in mind for the series and that he plans five issues ahead , having written the first six issues as the first story arc , which would have ended with the two main characters dying on the rocketship launch pad in issue 5 if the series had not been successful . By June 2016 , Vaughan indicated that he knew what the last page of the series ' final issue would be .
The series is illustrated by Fiona Staples , who was introduced to Vaughan by their mutual friend , writer Steve Niles , with whom Staples worked on Mystery Society . Vaughan , who did not meet Staples in person until just before their panel at the 2011 San Diego Comic @-@ Con , explained his selection of Staples by describing his reaction upon first seeing her work , saying " Her artwork is incredible . [ It ] doesn 't look like anyone else . She is very unique . When I opened up this file I was like , ' This is going to work ! ' " Staples is co @-@ owner of Saga and was given first billing on the cover of issue 31 . In addition to designing all the characters , vehicles and alien races in the story , she provides painted covers and hand @-@ letters Hazel 's narration using her own handwriting , which is the last thing she does after finishing the artwork on a page . Staples renders the characters in a pen @-@ and @-@ ink style line while using all @-@ color settings inspired by video games and Japanese animation . At the 2012 Image Expo , Staples described the process by which she produces her art as harkening back to animation cels , in which emphasis is placed on figures and backgrounds . Vaughan has stated that Staple 's style has influenced the direction of the story . The character Ghüs , for example is entirely Staples ' creation . Another example is the organic forms of most of the series ' technology , such as the main characters ' wooden rocket ship , which is derived from Staples ' dislike of drawing mechanical objects . To design the series ' various planetary settings , Staples looks to the real world for inspiration and then exaggerates some elements of them . Some rooms on the planet Cleave , for example , were inspired by Cambodian architecture .
The book is priced at $ 2 @.@ 99 and will remain at that price for the duration of its run , which Vaughan arranged as part of his contract with Image along with the stipulation that it never be less than 22 pages long . The first issue features 44 pages of story and no advertisements in both its print and digital versions . At the end of each issue is an old @-@ fashioned letters column called " To Be Continued " which prints readers letters submitted entirely through postal mail as it does not provide an email address for this purpose . Vaughan usually handles the column himself , including responding to letters .
The book 's release was celebrated with a launch party at Los Angeles ' Meltdown Comics which featured a public conversation with Vaughan 's former colleague , Lost co @-@ creator Damon Lindelof , who had hired Vaughan as a writer / producer on that series in 2007 . Vaughan also promoted the book by appearing at signings at Midtown Comics in Manhattan and Bergen Street Comics in Brooklyn during the week of the first issue 's release .
After the publication of issue 6 in August 2012 , Vaughan announced that the series would take a two @-@ month hiatus , after which the first six @-@ issue story arc was published in trade paperback form in October for $ 9 @.@ 99 before the series ' return in November , a practice that Vaughan and Staples would continue after each successive story arc and trade paperback publication . That same month , Vaughan and Staples promoted the series by appearing together at the 2012 New York Comic Con , their first appearance together since the series ' debut . Some retailers refused to display the trade paperback because its cover ( a reuse of the first issue 's cover ) depicts Alana breastfeeding Hazel .
In December 2014 , Image published Saga Deluxe Edition Volume 1 , a hardcover volume collecting the first 18 issues of the series , which comprise its first three story arcs . Because Vaughn sees Saga as a story about Hazel , he and Staples decided to have each new hardcover volume feature an original image of that character at a different stage of her life . Because the first volume covers her birth and infancy , its cover features a closeup of Hazel nursing from her mother 's breast , set against the backdrop of Landfall and Wreath , which recalls the first issue 's cover . Eric Stephenson warned Vaughn and Staples that some retailers and distributors would object to this cover image , thus limiting the series ' audience , but after seeing Staples ' rendition of the image , Stephenson decided that sales would not be a problem .
= = Plot = =
The opening story arc introduces the series ' leads , Alana and Marko , two lovers from different worlds whose people are at war with one another . Alana comes from the technologically advanced Landfall Coalition , so named after Landfall , the largest planet in the galaxy , and Marko is from Wreath , Landfall 's only satellite , whose people wield magic . Because the destruction of one of the worlds would send the other spinning out of orbit , the war was " outsourced " to other worlds . Although peace was restored on the two home worlds , the conflict spread across all the other known planets , whose native species were forced to choose a side . As Landfall and Wreath were on opposite sides , Alana and Marko met when she was assigned to guard him in a prison on the planet Cleave after he became a prisoner of war . They escaped together twelve hours after meeting . In the beginning of the series ' first issue , Alana gives birth to their daughter , Hazel , who occasionally narrates the series . Their respective peoples are incredulous when it is suggested that they have voluntarily mated and they are pursued by both the Wreathers and the Landfallians , both because of the perceived betrayal of the two fugitives and to prevent knowledge of their pairing from spreading and damaging morale among their troops . On Landfall , Prince Robot IV is assigned by his father to capture him and comes into conflict with his counterpart from Wreath , a mercenary named The Will . The ghost of a dead girl named Izabel is bonded to Hazel and the four of them escape Cleave before being joined by Marko 's parents .
In the second story arc , more is revealed about Marko 's parents and his upbringing and his initial time with Alana . Marko 's ex @-@ fiancée , Gwendolyn , joins The Will 's hunt as does a six @-@ year @-@ old sex slave rescued by The Will and Gwendolyn who takes the name Sophie . The family later takes refuge at the home of writer D. Oswald Heist ( the author of Alana 's favorite novel ) , where they first come into contact with Prince Robot IV .
The third story arc , beginning in August 2013 , which Vaughan intended as a " big tonal shift " , introduces the tabloid journalists Upsher and Doff , as they pursue their own investigation of Alana and Marko , who take refuge at the lighthouse home of author D. Oswald Heist . There , the family first comes into direct contact with , and manages to escape from , Prince Robot IV and Gwendolyn . By the end of the story , Hazel has begun to walk .
The fourth story arc establishes the family living on the planet Gardenia , with Alana acting in an underground entertainment program called the Open Circuit in which all the actors wear masks . Hazel is now speaking in simple phrases , while Prince Robot IV 's son is born . A disgruntled robot janitor , Dengo , kills Prince Robot IV 's wife , kidnaps his infant son and journeys to Gardenia , where he kidnaps the family . Marko and Prince Robot IV team up to pursue them . Meanwhile , The Will 's sister , The Brand , teams with Gwendolyn and Sophie to acquire an elixir to heal The Will 's injuries .
The fifth story arc begins three months later . The family 's rocketship has set down in a frozen region of a planet , where Dengo meets with revolutionaries who wish to use Hazel as a pawn in their campaign against Landfall and Wreath . Meanwhile , as Marko and Prince Robot IV struggle to maintain their alliance while in pursuit of their kidnapped loved ones , Alana and Yuma both deal with the consequences of their use of the drug Fadeway . By end of the arc , Dengo has turned on the revolutionaries , but is himself killed by Prince Robot IV , who is united with his son . Marko and Alana are reunited , but Hazel and Klara are relegated to a Landfallian prison .
In the sixth story arc , Alana and Marko search for their loved ones who remain incarcerated in a detention center on Landfall . Upsher and Doff resume their investigation of the couple after hearing about The Brand 's death . The journalists , however , are confronted by The Will , who has resumed his vendetta against Robot IV – now called Sir Robot IV – who is now raising his rapidly growing son , Squire . New characters introduced include Hazel 's sympathetic schoolteacher Noreen and a transgender female prisoner , Petrichor . The arc closes with Hazel successfully reunited with her parents and the revelation that Alana is once again pregnant .
= = Characters = =
= = = The family = = =
Alana - The female lead of the series , Alana is Marko 's wife and Hazel 's mother . She is a native of the planet Landfall , and like all Landfallians she has wings , although her wings do not allow her to fly until issue # 18 . After joining her planet 's war against the Wreathers ( one issue says she was drafted after flunking out of state college while another says that she joined the military a few months after her father remarried Alana 's childhood friend , Even ) , she was subsequently reprimanded for " abject cowardice " for hesitating to kill civilians and was redeployed to the planet Cleave , where as a prison guard she met Marko . She developed a friendship with him and when she learned he was to be transferred to a more brutal prison from which detainees never return , she helped him escape - just twelve hours after having met him . She later married him and gave birth to their daughter , Hazel , in the series ' first issue .
Marko - The male lead of the series , Marko is Alana 's husband and Hazel 's father . He is from the Landfall 's moon Wreath , whose people have horns or antlers and can wield magic . Marko was a foot soldier in his people 's war against the Coalition of Landfall . Marko was raised since a young age with the knowledge of the atrocities that Landfall committed against their people . When Marko left Wreath as an adult , he was still " a gung @-@ ho kid who just wanted to do [ his ] moon proud and kick some ass . " This changed the first time he saw battle , after which he began to develop a less militant and more pacifist outlook . When he tried to share these misgivings with his fiancée Gwen , he realized from her unsympathetic and jingoistic responses that they had grown too far apart to continue their relationship . Marko surrendered to Coalition forces as a " conscientious objector " 18 months before the beginning of the series . He was a prisoner of war on the planet Cleave until his guard , Alana , escaped with him , married him and conceived their daughter , Hazel . Wreath High Command sent The Will after Marko because Marko " renounced his oath and betrayed The Narrative " by fraternizing with an enemy combatant . Though he is a pacifist who vows upon the birth of his daughter to never again to use his sword , and dislikes the practice of owning firearms , he does so nonetheless when his family is threatened and is so skilled with a sword that he can dispatch an entire squad of enemy soldiers armed with firearms , for which he is referred to by Prince Robot IV as a " force of nature " .
Hazel - The daughter of the two lead characters , born in the first issue , who occasionally narrates the series . She has wings like her mother , horns like her father , and green @-@ brown eyes unlike that of either of her parents . She spends most of her childhood growing up in the organic tree @-@ like rocketship with which she and her parents escape Cleave . She is seen taking her first steps at the end of the third story arc , and is speaking in simple phrases by the beginning of the fourth . She celebrates her fourth birthday in the sixth story arc , during a part of her life when she and her grandmother are being held in a Landfallian detention center .
Izabel - Izabel is the ghost of a teenage girl from the planet Cleave who was killed by a landmine . She manifests as a reddish torso with her intestines hanging out from under the hem of her T @-@ shirt . She comes from a family of resistance fighters who built tunnels to escape people who invaded Cleave . She makes a deal with Alana to save Marko 's life in exchange for being taken with them when they leave the planet , but to do so has to bond her soul to Hazel 's . Although Alana is initially reluctant to allow this , she finally relents and soon comes to appreciate Izabel 's presence since she can act as a " babysitter " at night and allow Alana and Marko to rest . She has the ability to create realistic illusions with which she can disguise her appearance , although these do not work on machines such as the Robots .
Klara - Marko 's mother , who first appears with Marko 's father at the end of issue # 6 . Her mother died in an incident at Langencamp at the hands of Landfallians , and thus Klara is less accepting of Marko and Alana 's relationship . Brian K. Vaughan , when asked which character was his favorite , stated that Klara was the easiest to write .
= = = The family 's pursuers = = =
Prince Robot IV - A member of the royal family of the Robot Kingdom , assigned by Landfall as their primary pursuer of Alana and Marko in the beginning of the series when his wife is pregnant with their first child . Like others of his race , he is a humanoid with a small television set for a head , which Vaughan explains is influenced by a fascination with old televisions that he developed when he began writing for TV . He also has blue blood and the ability to morph his right arm into a cannon . In the beginning of the series , Prince Robot IV has just returned from a " two – year tour of hell " after which he had to be given a new leg following a brutal sneak attack . His brain " reboots " after he is injured confronting the family in the third story arc and is still missing when his son is born in the fourth story arc .
The Will - One of the freelance bounty hunters hired by the Wreath High Command to kill Marko and Alana and bring Hazel back alive , not only for Marko 's betrayal but also to prevent news of Alana and Marko 's coupling from spreading and thus threatening troop morale . The Will is accompanied by a Lying Cat , a large talking feline that can detect lies . Vez , the woman who hires him , says she hired The Will because he shares Marko 's moral relativism . When he travels to the sexually permissive planet Sextillion and is presented with a six @-@ year @-@ old sexual slave girl , The Will kills her pimp . The Will was once the lover of The Stalk , a female spider @-@ like bounty hunter who is also assigned to Alana and Marko until she is killed by Prince Robot IV , for which The Will vows revenge . He develops an attraction to Gwendolyn even as he mourns The Stalk . His sister Sophie , who addresses him " Billy " and who introduced him to The Stalk , is another Freelancer who works under the name The Brand . In the third story arc , he decides to abandon his Freelancer life but suffers a near @-@ fatal injury . Although his life is saved at a hospital , it is said that he will likely never fully recover from the trauma .
Lying Cat - Lying Cat is a large female talking feline companion to The Will who aids him in his work . Green in color and with yellow stripes , she has the ability to detect when a verbal statement is a lie , which she indicates by saying " Lying " . Her power is limited to the state of the mind of the person speaking : she can detect deliberate deception , but cannot detect a falsehood if a given statement is believed to be true by the speaker . According to Izabel , Lying Cats always play by the rules , an allusion to the fact that a Lying Cat must also admit ethical truths as well as factual ones . When Gwendolyn , who becomes Lying Cat 's ally , accidentally kills a man , Izabel says that they had no right to execute that man in his home , which Lying Cat could not deny . It has been revealed that Lying Cat was the runt of her seven @-@ kitten litter , which has caused her distress .
Sophie - A six @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half @-@ year @-@ old former sex slave , initially known only as Slave Girl , that The Will discovers on the pleasure planet Sextillion . He and Gwendolyn rescue her , after which the girl reveals she possesses the power of psychometry , with which she helps The Will track Marko and Alana . The Will decides to name her Sophie in issue # 13 , which is the same name as his sister . Vaughan has stated that Sophie , whose first appearance Staples initially refused to draw , was created to illustrate the horrific effects of war and as a critique of the sexualized portrayal of Princess Leia as Jabba the Hutt 's slave in the film Star Wars : Return of the Jedi , explaining " That 's that character at her least sexy . There are slave girls in the world and they don 't look like Princess Leia in a bikini . "
Gwendolyn - Marko 's former fiancée , who joins The Will 's pursuit of the family . Gwendolyn first appears at the end of issue # 8 , having been assigned by the Secretary General of Wreath High Command to check on The Will and helps him rescue Slave Girl from Sextillion in order to spur him to complete his mission . Marko and Alana 's wedding rings , which also function as translator devices , were originally those of Gwendolyn 's grandparents , who had the rings enchanted with a translator spell because they spoke two different dialects of Wreath 's native language . She wears her grandparents ' translation pendant around her neck , which were forged with the rings as part of the same set . She resists The Will 's advances , though she reveals she loves him while attempting get medical attention for him after he suffers a near @-@ fatal injury .
Upsher and Doff - Upsher and Doff are a tabloid journalist and photographer , respectively , from the planet Jetsam , who work for a tabloid called The Hebdomadal , and who are also lovers . First appearing in issue # 13 , their speech , like all people from Jetsam , is rendered in the form of blue text surrounded by speech balloons that more closely resemble traditional comics thought bubbles . Jetsam is a partially underwater society , as its natives possess an amphibious physiology , and are capable of surviving in and out of water . Upsher and Doff experience more than one confrontation with Freelancers hired to put an end to their investigation . The Brand poisons them with embargon , a substance that will kill them if they report their findings about the family to anyone else , though they attempt to find a way around this in order to continue their investigation . After they learn The Brand is dead , they attempt to resume their investigation , but are confronted by The Will , who drafts them into his service .
= = Reception = =
= = = Sales and reprints = = =
The first issue sold out of its first printing ahead of its March 14 release date . A second printing ordered for April 11 , the same release date as issue # 2 , also sold out , with a third printing arriving in stores on April 25 . The issue ultimately went through five printings . By August it had sold over 70 @,@ 000 copies in various printings . As of 2016 , the collected editions of the series outsell those of The Walking Dead , another successful Image comic that has greater public visibility through the television series adapted from it .
The first trade paperback collection , Saga , Vol . 1 , which collects the first six issues , was published October 10 , 2012 , and appeared at Number 6 on the New York Times Graphic Books Best Seller list the week of October 29 . As of August 2013 , it had sold 120 @,@ 000 copies .
Although issue # 7 sold out , Image Comics PR & Marketing Director Jennifer deGuzman announced in a December 12 , 2012 letter to retailers that it would not reprint select comics , such as that issue . DeGuzman explained the move as a result of decreasing orders on well @-@ performing titles like Saga , despite critical acclaim and consistently selling out at a distributor level , and pointed to orders on Saga # 8 , which decreased 4 % from orders on issue # 7 . Rather than invest in second printings , deGuzman explained , Image would instead focus its attention on ensuring that the first printing garners the sales desired . This move displeased some retailers , which prompted Image Publisher Eric Stephenson to announce the following day that Image would indeed publish a second printing of issue # 7 at a considerable discount , but cautioned that the publisher would not be able to reprint every issue of the series indefinitely , and implored retailers not to under @-@ order the series .
The second trade paperback collection immediately appeared at the top of the New York Times graphic books best @-@ seller list .
= = = Critical reception = = =
The series was met with wide critical acclaim and is one of the most celebrated comics being published . It holds an average score of 9 @.@ 0 out of 10 at the review aggregator website Comic Book Roundup . This score is held by both the regular series and the collected volumes .
The first issue was widely acclaimed in publications such as Publishers Weekly , MTV , Ain 't it Cool News , Complex magazine , Comic Book Resources , iFanboy and ComicsAlliance ; they all praised Vaughan 's ability to incorporate elements of different genres , establishing the vast setting and mythology , and introducing characters that engaged the reader . Multiple reviewers likened the book to a combination of sci @-@ fi / fantasy works such as Star Wars and The Lord of the Rings and classic works of literature such as Romeo and Juliet , Hamlet and the New Testament . AICN singled @-@ out the use of the newborn Hazel as a lone individual to chronicle large @-@ scale events from a past perspective , and Alex Zalben of MTV Geek remarking that he could hear a John Williams score as he read the book . Multiple reviewers also lauded Vaughan for beginning the story with Hazel 's birth rather than hurting the story 's pace with copious exposition of Alana and Marko 's initial meeting and courtship . Todd Allen of The Beat approved of the book 's unique " flavor " , singling out the characters ' motivations , the immersiveness of its surrealist setting , the strangeness of the story 's various oddities and the timely nature of the story 's political undertones . Both Alex Evans of Weekly Comic Book Review and P. S. Hayes of Geeks of Doom called the series a " classic " ; Hayes also praised Image Comics for publishing such an " original " series . Also widely praised was Fiona Staples ' artwork , which was characterized as " glorious " , with Zalben predicting that readers would " fall head over heels in love " with it , and Greg McElhatton of Comic Book Resources positively comparing it to that of Leinil Francis Yu , specifically her use of delicate lines to frame characters with large , bold figures and Staples ' mixture of the familiar and the foreign together in her character designs to create a visually cohesive universe . AICN singled out Staples ' handling of grand , sweeping space shots and other genre trappings , as well as her mastery of facial expressions - which AICN felt was perfectly suited to Vaughan 's subtle dialogue . Todd Allen of The Beat wrote that Staples ' landscapes at times play as much a part in the story as the foreground .
The subsequent issues that made up the series ' initial six @-@ issue story arc also garnered similarly positive reviews , with three printings ordered for issue # 2 , and second printings ordered for issues 3 - 6 . The series was included in IGN 's 2012 list of " The Comics We 're Thankful For This Year " and took the # 1 spot in CBR 's " Top 10 Comics of 2012 " . In August 2013 , Douglas Wolk of Time magazine referred to the series as a " breakout hit " , calling it " mischievous , vulgar and gloriously inventive . "
Joseph McCabe of The Nerdist included the hardcover Saga Deluxe Edition Volume 1 in their Top 5 Comic Reprint Collections of 2014 . That same year , Laura Sneddon of the British Science Fiction Association 's journal Vector listed Saga among her list of six groundbreaking science fiction comics .
= = = Awards = = =
Saga won the three Eisner Awards it was nominated for in 2013 : Best Continuing Series , Best New Series and Best Writer . The Vol . 1 trade paperback won the 2013 Hugo Award for Best Graphic Story . The series was nominated for seven 2013 Harvey Awards and won six of those : Best Writer , Best Artist , Best Color , Best New Series , Best Continuing or Limited Series , and Best Single Issue or Story .
In 2014 the series won three Eisners : Best Painter / Multimedia Artist , Best Writer , and Best Continuing Series . In 2015 the series was again nominated for the same three Eisner awards it won the previous year and won two of them : Best Continuing Series and Best Penciller / Inker .
The fourth volume was awarded the Goodreads Choice Award for Graphic Novels & Comics in 2015 .
= = = Censorship = = =
On April 9 , 2013 , media reported that Apple Inc. had prohibited the sale of issue 12 of Saga through iOS , because two panels that depicted oral sex between men in a small , in @-@ set image violated Apple 's restrictions on sexual content . This resulted in criticism by artists and writers , who pointed to similarly explicit content in previous issues and in other works sold through iTunes . William Gibson and others suggested that the restriction could have occurred specifically because the drawings in question depicted gay sex . A day later , digital distributor Comixology announced that it had been they , not Apple , who had chosen not to make the issue available based on their interpretation of Apple 's rules , and that after receiving clarification from Apple , the issue would now be sold via iOS .
In 2014 the series was included on the American Library Association 's list of the ten most frequently challenged books that year . It had been challenged for containing nudity and offensive language and for being " anti @-@ family , ... sexually explicit , and unsuited for age group . "
= = = Other media = = =
Although interest has been expressed in adapting Saga for film or TV , Vaughan and Staples reaffirmed their desire not to do so in an August 2013 interview , with Vaughan stating that the point of Saga as he conceived it was " to do absolutely everything I couldn 't do in a movie or a TV show . I 'm really happy with it just being a comic . " Vaughan has stated that they are open to the possibility , though it is not a priority for them . However , merchandise based on the series has been produced , including a line of T @-@ shirts featuring Lying Cat , which have become visible in popular media . In " Pac @-@ Man Fever " , the April 24 , 2013 episode of the American TV series Supernatural , the character Charlie Bradbury ( played by Felicia Day ) is seen wearing a Lying Cat T @-@ shirt . Day , who has referred to Saga as the " best comic EVER " , indicated that show writer Robbie Thompson picked out the shirt .
In 2015 , Skybound Entertainment began taking pre @-@ orders for an 8 ” tall , hand @-@ painted Lying Cat resin statue , which retails for $ 75 . In February 2016 , Essential Sequential began taking orders for a posable , 19 @-@ inch tall plushy Lying Cat doll that says , " Lying " when its collar is pressed , scheduled to ship that May . Later that June , Skybound announced that at the following month 's San Diego Comic @-@ Con , it would debut action figures based on the two lead characters , Alana and Marko , by McFarlane Toys . The five @-@ inch figures are issued together in a two @-@ pack , and are paired with a mace and a sword .
The controversial cover of the comic 's first issue was referenced in " The Meemaw Materialization " , the February 4 , 2016 episode of the American TV sitcom The Big Bang Theory . In the episode , Claire ( Alessandra Torresani ) , a new patron of Stuart 's comics shop , is reading the first trade paperback of the series ( which features the same cover as its first issue ) , and Raj Koothrappali ( Kunal Nayyar ) responds to this by observing , " Not a lot of comics have a woman with wings breastfeeding a baby right on the cover . " Though the The Big Bang Theory is often criticized for its portrayal of comic book fans , according to Comic Book Resources , a Twitter search indicated reaction to the scene by fans of Saga readers who saw it was mostly positive .
= = Collected editions = =
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= Doug Ring with the Australian cricket team in England in 1948 =
Doug Ring was a member of Donald Bradman 's famous Australian cricket team which toured England in 1948 . Bradman 's men went undefeated in their 34 matches ; this unprecedented feat by a Test side touring England earned them the sobriquet The Invincibles .
A leg spinner , Ring was not prominent in the team 's success . Regarded as the last bowler to be selected for the team , Ring played in only the Fifth Test , taking one wicket for 44 runs ( 1 / 44 ) for the match and scoring nine runs in his only innings after replacing off spinner Ian Johnson , who was dropped for poor form . Along with Ron Hamence and Colin McCool , neither of whom played in a Test during the tour , Ring called himself " ground staff " because of the paucity of the trio 's on @-@ field duties in the major matches and they often sang ironic songs about their status .
For the entire tour , Ring took 60 first @-@ class wickets at a bowling average of 21 @.@ 81 , the most expensive among Australia 's frontline bowlers . As England agreed to have a new ball available 55 overs after the start of each innings in the Tests — more frequently than usual — fast bowling dominated over spin , and Ring was used primarily in the non @-@ Test tour matches . Outside the Tests , only Bill Johnston bowled more overs , and Ring was used to relieve the workload on Bradman 's pace spearheads to keep them fresh for the Tests . Ring scored 150 first @-@ class runs at a batting average of 16 @.@ 66 during the tour , and a top @-@ score of 53 was his only effort beyond 50 .
= = Background = =
Ring made his Test debut in last international match of the 1947 – 48 Australian season , the Fifth Test against India . Australia rested a few of its players and some fringe cricketers such as Ring and Sam Loxton were given a debut so that their ability could be evaluated before the tour of England . Ring took six wickets for the match and was selected for the tour along with Loxton , who scored 80 .
= = Early tour = =
Australia traditionally fielded its first @-@ choice team in the tour opener , which was customarily against Worcestershire . Ring was omitted from this match , despite having replaced Colin McCool to make his Test debut in the fifth and final match against India in Australia during the 1947 – 48 season that preceded the tour of England ; Ring had taken six wickets for 120 runs ( 6 / 120 ) . Fellow leg spinner McCool and off spinner Ian Johnson — who had been regular Test players since World War II — were the two slow bowlers picked as Australia started their campaign with an innings victory .
Ring was called into the team for the second tour match against Leicestershire . He made two runs with the bat before being run out as Australia ended on 448 . Ring took two top order wickets to leave the hosts at 3 / 56 before returning to take three late wickets as Leicestershire lost their last four wickets without addition to be all out for 130 . Ring ended with 5 / 45 . Made to follow on , Leicestershire scored 147 and lost by an innings . Ring failed to add to his wicket tally in the county 's second innings , conceding 26 runs . Ring was rested for the next match against Yorkshire , on a damp pitch that suited slower bowling . It was the closest Australia came to defeat on the tour , as they scraped home by four wickets in a low scoring affair . The Australians travelled to London to play Surrey at The Oval , and Ring made two in the tourists ' 632 . He then took 3 / 34 in the first innings , removing Arthur McIntyre , Alec Bedser and Jim Laker . He bowled five wicketless overs in the second innings as Surrey were defeated by an innings . Ring then took 1 / 18 and 0 / 52 from a total of 44 overs as Australia amassed 4 / 414 declared and defeated Cambridge University by an innings .
In the following match , Australia crushed Essex by an innings and 451 runs , its largest winning margin for the summer . On the first day , Australia set a world record by scoring 721 , the most first @-@ class runs made in a single day 's play , but Ring was unable to contribute to the surfeit of scoring , making only one . He bowled 18 overs and conceded a total of 35 runs without success as the hosts were bowled out for 83 and 187 . This was followed by another innings victory , this time over Oxford University . After having failed to score more than two runs in any of his first three innings of the tour , Ring came to the wicket at 7 / 317 and scored 53 , adding 87 runs in partnership with fellow Victorian Sam Loxton before being bowled . After Australia were out for 431 , Ring took a match total of 1 / 51 , removing Geoffrey Keighley as the hosts made 185 and 156 .
The next match was against the Marylebone Cricket Club at Lord 's . The MCC fielded seven players who would represent England in the Tests , N- and were basically a full strength Test team , while Australia fielded their first @-@ choice team . It was a chance for both teams to gain a psychological advantage . At this point of the tour , Ring had only taken ten wickets at an average of 28 @.@ 30 , while McCool had taken 17 at 14 @.@ 35 . McCool retained the first @-@ choice leg spinner 's position and took 4 / 35 as Australia won by an innings .
Ring was rested for Australia 'a first non @-@ victory of the tour , a rain @-@ affected draw against Lancashire . He returned for the match against Nottinghamshire at Trent Bridge , which was also drawn . Ring took 2 / 31 in the first innings , both of his victims being stumped , as the hosts made 179 , before making an unbeaten nine in Australia 's reply of 400 . He then shouldered the heaviest workload as Nottinghamshire made 8 / 299 in the second innings , the highest score against the Australians thus far on the tour . Ring bowled 43 overs and took 4 / 104 . He removed Joe Hardstaff junior , who had made the first century against Australia for the season , triggering a collapse that saw the loss of four wickets for 27 runs to leave the hosts at 8 / 289 . He also dismissed future Test batsman Reg Simpson for 70 . The hosts were 32 runs short of making Australia bat again , but held on for a draw as time ran out .
Against Hampshire , Ring took 1 / 19 as the home team made 195 after being put into bat on a drying pitch . He made a duck as Australia collapsed to 117 to trail by 78 runs , the first time the tourists had conceded a first innings lead during the English summer . Ring was not required to bat in the Australian second innings , as Hampshire were bowled out for 103 in 42 @.@ 5 overs and Australia then reached their target of 182 to win by eight wickets . Ring had a final chance to push for Test selection in the innings win over Sussex , the last match before the First Test . He bowled only two wicketless overs as the pacemen skittled the hosts for 86 , and did not bat as Australia amassed 5 / 549 declared . He then took three consecutive wickets as Sussex fell from 5 / 98 to 8 / 109 before eventually being bowled out for 138 . Ring ended with 3 / 42 from 13 overs .
= = Test omission = =
Ring 's performances were not enough for him to take McCool 's place in Bradman 's first @-@ choice team . Instead , Bill Johnston , who had taken 10 / 40 against Yorkshire and 11 / 117 against Hampshire on damp surfaces , was given the place on the opening morning of the First Test when rain appeared likely . Johnston then took nine wickets in Australia 's victory , cementing his position in the team . This left Ring jostling with the other spinners — Johnson and McCool — for one spot in the Test team .
After the First Test , Ring returned to action as Australia completed an innings victory over Northamptonshire . He took 1 / 31 in the hosts ' first innings of 119 , before making an unbeaten 16 in partnering McCool in an unbroken stand of 39 as Australia declared at 8 / 352 . In the second innings , he took four of the last five wickets and ended with 4 / 31 as Northamptonshire collapsed from 5 / 142 to be all out for 169 . This was followed by a drawn match against Yorkshire , in which Ring scored three runs and was not asked to bowl in the first innings . Yorkshire were bowled out for 206 from 90 @.@ 1 overs ; Bradman called on Ernie Toshack and Johnston to bowl 81 @.@ 1 overs and did not entrust the other bowlers with substantial work . Ring then took 1 / 22 in the second innings as the match petered out into a draw .
Ring was overlooked for the Second Test at Lord 's as Bradman retained the same XI , despite the incumbent spinner Johnson managing only 1 / 85 in the First Test . Australia won convincingly by 409 runs . The next match was against Surrey , starting the day after the finish of the Test . Ring took 3 / 51 from 21 @.@ 2 overs in the first innings , leading the way in terms of wickets and overs ; most of the Test bowlers were given a light workload . He then contributed an unbeaten 15 in Australia 's first innings of 389 . After Australia took a first innings lead of 168 , Ring bowled another 24 overs in the second innings and took 1 / 54 . He twice dismissed Jack Parker , who had top @-@ scored in each innings with 76 and 81 . Australia then chased down the 122 runs for victory in less than an hour , to complete a 10 @-@ wicket win .
In the match against Gloucestershire immediately before the Third Test , Ring did not bat as Australia reached 7 / 774 declared , which was their highest score of the tour and which underpinned an innings victory . Ring took two wickets in the space of three runs , including Test batsman Charlie Barnett , to end with 2 / 83 in 25 overs as the hosts made 279 . After stand @-@ in captain Lindsay Hassett enforced the follow on — Bradman had rested himself — Ring removed Test batsmen Barnett and George Emmett to leave Gloucestershire at 2 / 20 . After resting he resumed bowling with the score at 4 / 93 and took three more wickets , as the hosts fell to 9 / 109 and then 132 all out . Ring took 5 / 47 and bowled the most overs ( 25 ) in the second innings . Johnson , however , took 11 / 100 in the match and retained his place in the team for the Third Test at Old Trafford . The Test was drawn amid inclement weather .
Ring then played against Middlesex in Australia 's only match before the Fourth Test . He took one wicket in each innings for a match total of 2 / 57 . After only scoring two in the first innings , Ring opened the batting with McCool in the second innings , with a target of only 22 runs . They promptly reached the target without loss , with Ring unbeaten on 15 . This was not enough for Ring to force his way into the team for the Fourth Test at Headingley . Australia persisted with the same bowling attack and posted 3 / 404 in the second innings , setting a world record for the highest successful run @-@ chase to win a Test . Former Australian Test leg spinner Bill O 'Reilly criticised the Australians for using only one spinner , pointing out that he and Chuck Fleetwood @-@ Smith , a left @-@ arm wrist spinner , had taken 17 wickets between them during the last Anglo @-@ Australian Test at Headingley in 1938 . O 'Reilly cited the 1934 Headingley Test the same venue in 1934 in which he and Clarrie Grimmett had significant success for Australia , and said that at least one of McCool or Ring , should have played alongside Johnson . England had been at 2 / 423 in their first innings , before collapsing to be 496 all out ; O 'Reilly blamed Australia 's lack of early success on the absence of a leg spinner , attributing England 's collapse to inept batting .
Immediately after the Headingley Test , Ring scored four as Australia amassed 456 against Derbyshire . He bowled the most overs in the first innings , taking 3 / 73 from 24 overs as the hosts made 240 . He then took 0 / 23 from six overs after Australia enforced the follow on and ultimately won the match by an innings . In the next match against Glamorgan , Ring led the bowling with 3 / 34 , including the wicket of opposition captain Wilf Wooller as the hosts folded for 197 . Ring did not bat , as rain ended the match early , with Australia 's score at 3 / 215 . Ring was then rested for the match against Warwickshire , which Australia won by nine wickets .
Bradman recalled Ring as Australia faced and drew with Lancashire for the second time on the tour . Ring scored 17 not out as Australia made 321 ; he then dismissed Test players Ken Cranston ( who was captaining Lancashire ) and Dick Pollard , to end with 2 / 25 in the first innings . In the county 's second innings Ring bowled 22 of the 57 overs during which Australia reduced Lancashire to 7 / 199 before time ran out . He took 2 / 88 , including the wicket of Cranston for the second time . In a non @-@ first @-@ class match against Durham , the last fixture before the Fifth Test , Ring made an unbeaten single as Australia scored 282 . He then took 1 / 24 as the hosts fell to 5 / 73 in their first innings , before rain washed out the match .
= = Fifth Test = =
After taking only seven wickets at 61 @.@ 00 in the first four Tests , Johnson was dropped for the Fifth Test at The Oval ; Ring replaced him as the team 's spinner . English skipper Norman Yardley won the toss and elected to bat on a rain @-@ affected pitch , which was regarded as a surprising move by the majority of the press corps . Precipitation in the previous week caused an extremely wet outfield , which meant that the Test could not start until midday had passed . Former Australian Test batsman Jack Fingleton speculated that the Australians would have bowled if they had won the toss .
Along with the effects of the rain on the pitch , the humid conditions assisted the Australian fast bowlers , who were able to make the ball bounce at variable heights . Led by Lindwall , who took 6 / 20 , Australia skittled England for 52 , and Ring did not get a chance to bowl . Ring then made nine before being caught by Jack Crapp in the slips as Australia replied with 389 . England started their second innings 337 runs in arrears late on day two and resumed at 1 / 54 the next morning . During the first session , Ring bowled a tidy spell of 13 overs as Denis Compton and Len Hutton added only 67 runs for the session . Ring did not bowl consistently or accurately , and although the batsman hit him regularly , they did not place their shots , which often went to the fielders . There were four men in the off side ring and they had much work to do as Hutton hit the ball there repeatedly . The English batsmen progressed steadily although Ring had one confident appeal for lbw against Compton . Later in the day , Ring dismissed debutant Allan Watkins for two to take his only wicket of the match . Watkins lofted a delivery from Ring to the leg side straight into the hands of Hassett , who did not need to move from his position on the boundary , leaving England at 6 / 167 . The hosts were eventually bowled out early on the fourth morning for 188 , sealing defeat by an innings and 149 runs . Ring had taken 1 / 44 after sending down the most overs in the innings ( 28 ) , including 13 maidens .
= = Later tour matches = =
After the Fifth Test seven matches remained on Bradman 's quest to go through a tour of England without defeat . Australia rested Ring for the match against Kent , which Australia won by an innings . This was followed by a game against the Gentlemen of England , the leading amateurs in the country . Ring was not required to bat as Australia amassed 5 / 610 before declaring . He then bowled the most overs in the first innings , sending down 25 @.@ 3 and taking the wickets of English Test batsmen Bill Edrich , Trevor Bailey and Freddie Brown . Ring ended with 3 / 74 as the hosts were bowled out for 245 . Australia enforced the follow on and Ring again shouldered the heaviest workload . He removed Reg Simpson to break the opening stand of 60 . The Gentlemen progressed to 3 / 217 before Ring dismissed Edrich for 128 , followed by George Mann for a duck without further addition to the score . Ring then bowled Yardley and dismissed Wilf Wooller soon after , leaving the hosts at 7 / 240 ; they were eventually all out for 284 , which sealed an innings victory for Australia . Ring ended with 5 / 70 from 32 overs . The following match against Somerset followed a similar pattern . Ring did not bat as Australia declared at 5 / 560 . He then took 2 / 17 in the first innings and was not required to bowl in the second innings as the hosts collapsed for 115 and 71 to cede another innings victory .
Ring was rested for the match against the South of England . Australia declared at 7 / 522 before the hosts made 298 ; rain ended the match before the second innings could start . Australia 's biggest challenge in the post @-@ Test tour matches was against the Leveson @-@ Gower 's XI . During the previous Australian tour of England in 1938 , this team was effectively a full @-@ strength England outfit , but this time Bradman insisted that only six current England Test players be allowed to play for the hosts . Bradman then fielded a full @-@ strength team . He made only one change from the team that won the Fifth Test , dropping Ring for Johnson . Australia led by 312 runs on the first innings before persistent rain ended the match .
The tour ended with two non @-@ first @-@ class matches against Scotland . In the first , Ring made an unbeaten three as Australia scored 236 . He bowled five overs without success in the first innings , before removing four of the first five batsmen in the second innings and ending with 4 / 20 . Scotland made 85 and 111 to lose by an innings . In the second match , Ring was the costliest bowler in the first innings , conceding 42 runs without success in Scotland 's 178 . After Australia declared at 6 / 407 , Ring took the leading figures of 4 / 30 , including the wickets of both openers as Australia ended the tour with another innings triumph .
= = Role = =
Although the 1948 tour of England was an unprecedented triumph for the Australians , Ring 's leg spin was not prominent in the success . He jostled with McCool and Johnson for a position as Bradman selected only one specialist spinner in the Tests . Headlined by Lindwall , Miller and Johnston , the faster bowlers dominated the bowling attack . With a new ball allowed at intervals of 55 overs in Tests , a period that usually elapsed sooner than the 200 runs stipulated under the usual rule of the time , spinners were given few opportunities and made little impact in the big matches . Bradman and his fellow tour selectors — vice @-@ captain Lindsay Hassett and Arthur Morris — picked a pace @-@ dominated attack to exploit the more frequently shiny ball , as a new ball swings and seams more for fast bowlers , while slower bowlers can impart more spin with a worn ball . In its summary of the tour , Wisden said that Ring " was never a trump card in the pack " . Such was the strength of the bowling that Ring 's 60 first @-@ class wickets at an average of 21 @.@ 81 made him the most expensive of the regular bowlers on the tour . Among the seven frontline bowlers , Ring 's strike rate of 54 @.@ 26 was the second least incisive and his economy rate of 40 @.@ 20 was the second most expensive . Although McCool was less economical , he had the second highest strike rate , and while Toshack had the worst strike rate , he was the second most economical of the Australians in the first @-@ class fixtures .
Ring did most of his work in the non @-@ Test first @-@ class matches , in which he sent down 3 @,@ 088 deliveries . This was second only to Johnston , who bowled 3 @,@ 251 . In contrast , Lindwall and Miller sent down only 2 @,@ 105 and 1 @,@ 749 deliveries outside the Tests respectively , as Bradman sought to preserve them for hostile bursts with the new ball against England . Along with Lindwall , Ring was the equal third highest wicket @-@ taker in first @-@ class matches excluding the Tests , with 59 scalps , doing a large part of the work in the county matches so that the leading bowlers could conserve energy for the Tests .
Ring had limited opportunities with the bat . Along with Toshack and Johnston , he invariably batted in the bottom three positions.N- This was because Australia 's other frontline bowlers tended to be capable with the bat ; Lindwall , Miller , and McCool all made Test centuries and more than nine triple @-@ figure first @-@ class scores , with the latter pair averaging over 30 in Tests . Johnson passed fifty on 21 occasions in his first @-@ class career , six of them in Tests . The strength of the batting side meant that Ring batted only 14 times in his 19 first @-@ class matches on the tour , as Australia often batted only once and won by an innings , and several times declared their first innings closed before Ring could bat . Ring scored 150 runs at 16 @.@ 66 , an aggregate and average better than only Toshack 's . He passed 50 only once , and his tour batting average was lower than his career benchmark of 23 @.@ 25 . Ring also took 12 catches .
Ring and fellow fringe members of the squad McCool and Ron Hamence , would refer themselves as the " ground @-@ staff " , as it was unlikely that the tour selectors would include them in the Test team during the tour . The trio were known to sing ironic songs about the paucity of their on @-@ field duties during the tour .
= = = Statistical notes = = =
= = = General notes = = =
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= Blackmouth catshark =
The blackmouth catshark ( Galeus melastomus ) is a species of catshark , and part of the family Scyliorhinidae , common in the northeastern Atlantic Ocean from Iceland to Senegal , including the Mediterranean Sea . It is typically found over the continental slope at depths of 150 – 1 @,@ 400 m ( 490 – 4 @,@ 590 ft ) , on or near muddy bottoms . The youngest sharks generally inhabit shallower water than the older juveniles and adults . This slim @-@ bodied species is characterized by the black interior of its mouth , a marbled pattern of pale @-@ edged brownish saddles or blotches along its back and tail , and a prominent saw @-@ toothed crest of enlarged dermal denticles along the upper edge of its caudal fin . It reaches lengths of 50 – 79 cm ( 20 – 31 in ) , with sharks in the Atlantic growing larger than those in the Mediterranean .
Slow @-@ swimming but active , the blackmouth catshark is a generalist that preys on a wide variety of crustaceans , cephalopods , and fishes . Its visual and electroreceptive systems are adept at tracking moving , bioluminescent prey . This species is oviparous , with females producing batches of up to 13 egg cases throughout the year . Because of its abundance , the blackmouth catshark forms a substantial part of the bycatch of deepwater commercial fisheries across much of its range . It has low economic value and is usually discarded , though the largest sharks may be marketed for meat and leather . The International Union for Conservation of Nature ( IUCN ) has listed this species under Least Concern , as there is no indication that its numbers have declined despite fishing pressure .
= = Taxonomy and phylogeny = =
Constantine Samuel Rafinesque briefly described the blackmouth catshark in his 1810 Caratteri di alcuni nuovi generi e nuove specie di animali e piante della Sicilia : con varie osservazioni sopra i medesimi , wherein he referenced the distinctive black interior of its mouth ( from which the specific epithet melastomus is derived ) . No type specimen was designated . This species may also be called the black @-@ mouthed dogfish . A 2005 phylogenetic analysis that included five Galeus species , based on mitochondrial and nuclear DNA , found that G. melastomus forms a clade with G. murinus , apart from the clade of G. eastmani , G. gracilis , and G. sauteri . The oldest documented blackmouth catshark fossils come from the northern Apennines and date to the Lower Pliocene ( 5 @.@ 3 – 3 @.@ 6 Ma ) .
= = Distribution and habitat = =
The blackmouth catshark is widely distributed in the northeastern Atlantic Ocean , from southwestern Iceland and Trondheim , Norway southward to Senegal , including the Faroe Islands , the British Isles , the Azores , and the northern portion of the Mid @-@ Atlantic Ridge . It occurs throughout the Mediterranean Sea , save for the northern waters of the Adriatic and Aegean Seas , and is absent from the Black Sea . This species primarily inhabits the continental slope , at depths of 150 – 1 @,@ 400 m ( 490 – 4 @,@ 590 ft ) . However , it has been documented from water as shallow as 20 – 25 m ( 66 – 82 ft ) in Norway , and as deep as 2 @,@ 300 – 3 @,@ 850 m ( 7 @,@ 550 – 12 @,@ 630 ft ) in the eastern Mediterranean . The depths at which it is most common vary between regions , for example 300 – 500 m ( 980 – 1 @,@ 640 ft ) in the Bay of Biscay , 400 – 800 m ( 1 @,@ 300 – 2 @,@ 600 ft ) off Portugal , 500 – 800 m ( 1 @,@ 600 – 2 @,@ 600 ft ) in the Strait of Sicily , 1 @,@ 000 – 1 @,@ 400 m ( 3 @,@ 300 – 4 @,@ 600 ft ) in the Catalan Sea , and 1 @,@ 500 – 1 @,@ 830 m ( 4 @,@ 920 – 6 @,@ 000 ft ) in the eastern Mediterranean . Water temperature does not appear to be an important factor in determining the distribution of this species .
Found on or near the bottom , the blackmouth catshark favors a muddy habitat . There is little evidence for segregation by sex . A number of studies in the northern and western Mediterranean have reported that adults occur deeper than juveniles . Other studies though have found no such pattern . It is possible that areas such as the waters off southern France offer a habitat suitable for sharks of all ages . Another explanation with some scientific support is that adults are most common at intermediate depths , while young sharks are restricted to shallower water and both adults and juveniles are found in deeper water . If true , the age @-@ depth inconsistencies observed from previous research could have resulted from incomplete depth sampling .
= = Description = =
The reported maximum lengths attained by the blackmouth catshark varies from 67 to 79 cm ( 26 to 31 in ) for Atlantic sharks and 50 to 64 cm ( 20 to 25 in ) for Mediterranean sharks ; a length record of 90 cm ( 35 in ) may be dubious . Females attain a larger ultimate size than males . The maximum weight on record is 1 @.@ 4 kg ( 3 @.@ 1 lb ) . This species has a slender , firm body with a rather long , pointed snout comprising roughly 6 – 9 % of the total length . The anterior rim of each nostril bears a large triangular flap , which divides the nostril into incurrent and excurrent openings . The eyes are horizontally oval and equipped with rudimentary nictitating membranes ( protective third eyelids ) . Beneath each eye is a subtle ridge , and behind is a small spiracle . The mouth forms a short , wide arch , and bears moderately long furrows around the corners . The upper and lower jaws contain around 69 and 79 tooth rows respectively . Each tooth is small , with a narrow central cusp flanked by one or two smaller cusplets on either side . There are five pairs of gill slits , with the fifth pair over the pectoral fin bases .
The two dorsal fins are roughly equal in size and placed far back on the body : the first originates behind the midpoint of the pelvic fin bases and the second behind the midpoint of the anal fin base . The pectoral fins are large , while the pelvic fins are small and low , with angular margins . The anal fin is much larger than either dorsal fin ; its base measures 13 – 18 % of the total length and greatly exceeds the distance between the pelvic and anal fins , or between the dorsal fins . The caudal peduncle is laterally compressed , with the end of the anal fin very close to the caudal fin . The caudal fin comprises around a quarter of the total length ; the upper lobe is low with a ventral notch near the tip , while the lower lobe is indistinct . The skin is very thick and covered by well @-@ calcified dermal denticles . There is a prominent row of enlarged denticles , resembling saw teeth , along the upper edge of the caudal fin . The body is grayish @-@ brown above , with 15 – 18 dark , rounded saddles , blotches , and / or spots that run onto the tail ; each marking is highlighted by a paler border . The underside is white , as are the tips of the dorsal and caudal fins . The inside of the mouth is black .
= = Biology and ecology = =
Within its range , the blackmouth catshark is one of the most abundant sharks over the upper and middle continental slope . It is nomadic in nature and may be found alone or in groups . Relatively slow , this shark swims with strong eel @-@ like ( anguilliform ) undulations of its body . It often cruises just above the sea floor , perhaps taking advantage of the ground effect ( a reduction in the drag on a wing when close to the ground ) to save energy . It has also been seen resting motionless on the bottom . Known predators of the blackmouth catshark include the kitefin shark ( Dalatias licha ) and the European flying squid ( Todarodes sagittatus ) . Parasites that have been documented from this species include the tapeworm Ditrachybothridium macrocephalum and the protist Eimeria palavensis .
= = = Feeding = = =
The blackmouth catshark is an active , generalist predator that feeds on both bottom @-@ dwelling and free @-@ swimming organisms . Its diet is dominated by decapods , krill , bony fishes ( including lanternfishes , bristlemouths , dragonfishes , and moras ) , and cephalopods . The most significant prey species generally reflect what is most available in the environment , for example the shrimps Calocaris macandreae and Pasiphaea multidentata off southern France and the prawns Sergestes arcticus and Sergia robusta off the Iberian Peninsula . Juveniles consume a greater amount and variety of crustaceans than adults , including smaller types such as mysids and hyperiid amphipods . Adults favor relatively large fish prey and have been known to take other sharks and rays and smaller members of the same species . The importance of cephalopod prey across ages differs between regions . The stomachs of some blackmouth catsharks have found to contain pieces of animals too large for a single shark to overwhelm , suggesting that it may sometimes attack in groups . Scavenging has been infrequently documented , including of human refuse .
When foraging , the blackmouth catshark swings its head from side to side to employ its senses more effectively . It likely relies mainly on vision and electroreception to find food , and less on smell . As in most sharks , its visual acuity is greatest along the median horizontal plane . The lens and cone cells of its eyes are large , allowing smaller or farther objects to be discerned from the background . The rod cells of its eyes are most sensitive to the wavelengths emitted by bioluminescence , which is exhibited by most of the organisms it hunts . For electroreception , the blackmouth catshark has a high number of ampullae of Lorenzini that are evenly arranged , which enhances spatial resolution and is best suited for localizing fast @-@ moving prey .
= = = Life history = = =
Unlike most members of its genus , the blackmouth catshark exhibits multiple oviparity , in which more than one egg can mature within each oviduct simultaneously . Females may contain up to 13 developing eggs , though 1 – 4 per oviduct is typical . The number of eggs laid annually per female has been estimated at between 60 and 100 , increasing with female size . Only the right ovary is functional in mature females . The egg case is vase @-@ shaped and bears a slight flange along the lateral margins ; the anterior end is squared off , with a pair of stubby , coiled horns at the corners , while the posterior end is rounded . The surface of the case is somewhat translucent , smooth , and glossy . The case is a golden brown color when first laid , and becomes dark brown in sea water . Egg cases produced by Atlantic sharks measure 3 @.@ 5 – 6 @.@ 5 cm ( 1 @.@ 4 – 2 @.@ 6 in ) long and 1 @.@ 4 – 3 @.@ 0 cm ( 0 @.@ 55 – 1 @.@ 18 in ) across . Those produced by Mediterranean sharks tend to be smaller at 4 @.@ 2 – 5 @.@ 5 cm ( 1 @.@ 7 – 2 @.@ 2 in ) long and 1 @.@ 7 – 2 @.@ 5 cm ( 0 @.@ 67 – 0 @.@ 98 in ) across . Larger females produce slightly larger egg cases .
Mating and egg @-@ laying proceeds year @-@ round ; reproductive activity is highest in winter and summer , though not all studies have found such a seasonal pattern . The eggs are deposited on muddy substrates in relatively shallow water . Maturation size varies between geographical regions , and is generally larger in the Atlantic than in the Mediterranean . Lengths at maturity for males and females have been variously reported from 48 to 79 cm ( 19 to 31 in ) and 56 to 79 cm ( 22 to 31 in ) respectively in the Atlantic , and from 42 to 55 cm ( 17 to 22 in ) and 39 to 61 cm ( 15 to 24 in ) respectively in the Mediterranean .
= = Human interactions = =
Harmless to humans and of little economic value , the blackmouth catshark is caught incidentally in large numbers by commercial bottom trawl and longline fisheries . In particular , it is among the most commonly bycaught sharks in trawls targeting deepwater lobsters and shrimps ( Nephrops norvegicus , Parapenaeus longirostris , Aristeus antennatus , and Aristaeomorpha folicea ) , operating off Portugal and in the Mediterranean . Most captured sharks are discarded , probably with heavy mortality . Some fisheries , such as those off Portugal and Italy , retain and utilize a small subset of the largest individuals for human consumption fresh or dried and salted , and for leather ; the fishing fleet of Viareggio , Tuscany reported landing 700 kg ( 1 @,@ 500 lb ) in 2005 . In the northeastern Atlantic , this shark is being increasingly targeted by fishers following the decline of other deepwater shark species .
Off Corsica , Sicily , and southern Portugal , and in the Ionian , southern Adriatic , and Aegean Seas , most of the blackmouth catsharks captured are immature , suggesting there has been a negative impact of fishing pressure . However , the species remains extremely abundant in a number of areas , and survey and fishery data have not shown any evidence of overall population decline . The wide range of depths it occupies likely afford it some protection against fishing , particularly given a 2005 ban on trawling deeper than 1 @,@ 000 m ( 3 @,@ 300 ft ) in the Mediterranean . Therefore , the International Union for Conservation of Nature ( IUCN ) has listed the blackmouth catshark under Least Concern . In the waters of the European Commission , fishing for this species is managed as part of the Total Allowable Catch ( TAC ) for deepwater sharks .
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= New York State Route 359 =
New York State Route 359 ( NY 359 ) is a state highway located entirely within the town of Skaneateles in Onondaga County , New York in the United States . At 1 @.@ 71 miles ( 2 @.@ 75 km ) in length , it is one of the shortest signed state highways in all of New York . The route begins at NY 38A a half @-@ mile ( 0 @.@ 8 km ) north of the Onondaga @-@ Cayuga County county line and ends at NY 41A in the hamlet of Mandana . It lies between Skaneateles Lake and Owasco Lake . Excluding its termini , there are only two junctions with other roadways along the entire route . NY 359 was assigned in the early 1940s and was part of the original NY 26 from 1924 to 1930 .
= = Route description = =
NY 359 begins in the town of Skaneateles at an intersection with Heifer Street , a local road , and NY 38A . The route goes north , intersecting with Weeks Road 0 @.@ 6 miles ( 1 @.@ 0 km ) north of NY 38A . Here , NY 359 begins to curve to the east with Weeks Road carrying on the northward alignment of NY 359 . Upon meeting Lacy Road , the route takes over its east – west routing and heads east . NY 359 comes to an end just under a mile later at NY 41A in the lakeside hamlet of Mandana . East of NY 41A , the roadway continues for roughly 400 feet ( 120 m ) to a boat launch on the western shore of Skaneateles Lake , 1 @.@ 71 miles ( 2 @.@ 75 km ) from NY 38A .
Signed as a north – south route , it lies that way at the southern end , but about midway along its length the road turns and thence travels east – west . Excluding its termini , there are only two junctions with other roadways along the entire route . It is the only instance in New York of a route designated without an alphabetic suffix that terminates at both ends at suffixed routes .
= = History = =
The origins of NY 359 date back to the assignment of the first state routes in New York in 1924 . At this time , all of modern NY 359 became part of NY 26 , a highway that continued north along what is now NY 41A toward the village of Skaneateles and south on modern NY 38A toward the village of Moravia . In the 1930 renumbering of state highways in New York , NY 26 was reassigned elsewhere in the state . Its former routing was incorporated into several new routes , including part of NY 38A from Moravia to the modern junction of NY 38A and NY 359 and part of NY 41A from Mandana to Skaneateles . The portion that is now NY 359 , however , received no designation and became unnumbered . It was designated as NY 359 in the early 1940s .
= = Major intersections = =
The entire route is in Skaneateles , Onondaga County .
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= Edward Low =
Captain Edward " Ned " Low ( also spelled Lowe or Loe ; ca . 1690 – ca . 1724 ) was a notorious English pirate during the latter days of the Golden Age of Piracy , in the early 18th century . He was born around 1690 into poverty in Westminster , London , and was a thief from an early age . Low moved to Boston , Massachusetts , as a young man . His wife died in childbirth in late 1719 . Two years later , he became a pirate , operating off the coasts of New England and the Azores , and in the Caribbean .
He captained a number of ships , usually maintaining a small fleet of three or four . Low and his pirate crews captured at least a hundred ships during his short career , burning most of them . Although he was active for only three years , Low remains notorious as one of the most vicious pirates of the age , with a reputation for violently torturing his victims before killing them .
Sir Arthur Conan Doyle described Low as " savage and desperate , " and a man of " amazing and grotesque brutality " . The New York Times called him a torturer , whose methods would have " done credit to the ingenuity of the Spanish Inquisition in its darkest days " . The circumstances of Low 's death , which took place around 1724 , have been the subject of much speculation .
= = Early life = =
According to Charles Johnson 's A General History of the Pyrates , Edward Low was born in Westminster , London , England , around 1690 . He was described as illiterate , having a " quarrelsome nature " , and always ready to cheat , running " wild in the streets of his native parish " . As a young man , he was said to be a pickpocket and gambler , playing games of chance with the footmen of the nearby House of Commons .
Most of his family appear to have been thieves . While young , his brother , Richard , was small for his age and is said to have been carried around in a basket on a friend 's back ; in a crowd , Richard would snatch the hats and wigs of passers @-@ by . Richard Low later took to other forms of criminal activity and ended up hanged at Tyburn in 1707 for the burglary of a house in Stepney .
= = Life in Boston = =
As he grew older , Low tired of pickpocketing and thievery and turned to burglary . Eventually , he left England , and travelled alone to the New World around 1710 . He spent three to four years in various locations , before settling in Boston , Massachusetts . On 12 August 1714 , he married Eliza Marble at the First Church of Boston . They had a son , who died when he was an infant , and then a daughter named Elizabeth , born in the winter of 1719 .
Eliza died in childbirth , leaving Low with his daughter . The loss of his wife had a profound effect on Low : in his later career of piracy , he would often express regret for the daughter he left behind , and refused to press @-@ gang married men into joining his crews . He would also allow women to return to port safely . At first working honestly as a rigger , in early 1722 he joined a gang of twelve men on a sloop headed for Honduras , where they planned to collect a shipment of logs for resale in Boston .
Low was employed as a patron , supervising the loading and carrying of the logs . One day , he returned to the ship when hungry , but was told by the captain he would have to wait to eat , and that he and his men would have to be satisfied with a ration of rum . At this , Low " took up a loaded musket and fired at the captain but missed him , [ and ] shot another poor fellow through the throat " .
Following this failed mutiny , Low and his friends were forced to leave the boat . A day later , Low led the twelve @-@ man gang — which included Francis Farrington Spriggs , who went on to become a notorious pirate in his own right — in taking over a small sloop off the coast of Rhode Island . Killing one man during the theft , Low and his crew turned pirate , determined " to go in her , make a black Flag , and declare War against all the World . "
= = Piracy = =
= = = Lieutenant = = =
Low , using his newly captured ship , lay in wait on the popular shipping route between Boston and New York . Within a few days , he and his crew seized a sloop out of Rhode Island , and plundered it . His crew cut the rigging away to prevent the sloop returning too quickly to port to raise the alarm . He then captured a number of unarmed merchantmen near Port Rosemary .
Low headed south and began operating in the waters of Grand Cayman , with a period as lieutenant to the established pirate George Lowther , who captained the Happy Delivery , a 100 @-@ ton Rhode Island sloop with eight cannon and ten swivel guns . When she was " destroyed by Indians " , Lowther and his crew transferred to a sloop named the Ranger . Lowther 's crew was constantly expanded by desperate sailors willing to join him . Fast acquiring a taste for cruelty , Low taught Spriggs a torture technique which involved tying a victim 's hands with rope between their fingers and setting it alight , burning their flesh down to the bones .
Following a number of successful raids , Lowther eventually captured a large 6 @-@ gun brigantine ( named Rebecca ) on 28 May 1722 . He gave it to Low to captain . With a crew of 44 , Low amicably dissolved his partnership with Lowther .
= = = Pirate captain = = =
In one notable raid in June 1722 , Low and his crew attacked thirteen New England fishing vessels sheltering at anchor in Port Roseway , Shelburne , Nova Scotia . Although outnumbered , Low hoisted his Jolly Roger flag and declared that no mercy would be given to the fishermen if any resisted . The fleet submitted and Low 's men robbed every vessel . Low chose the largest , an 80 @-@ ton schooner which he renamed The Fancy and armed with 10 guns , to become his flagship .
He sank the other ships of the fleet , and abandoned the Rebecca . The Boston News Letter of 9 July 1722 published a list of those captured by Low . A number of the fishermen were forced to join Low , including Philip Ashton who escaped in May 1723 on Roatán Island in the Bay Islands of Honduras , and who wrote a detailed account of life aboard Low 's pirate ship . Before Ashton 's escape , he had been beaten , whipped , kept in chains , and threatened with death many times , as he refused to sign Low 's articles and become a pirate .
Low 's tactics consisted primarily of hoisting false colours and approaching an unsuspecting vessel . Off the coast of St John 's , Newfoundland , Low mistook a fully armed man @-@ of @-@ war for a fishing boat , and barely escaped . He moved on to Conception Bay , capturing a number of boats around the Grand Banks southeast of Newfoundland before crossing the Atlantic to the Azores . There , he captured a French ( or Portuguese — sources differ ) pink , a narrow @-@ sterned former man of war , which Low rearmed and refitted as his new flagship , naming it the Rose Pink .
He also captured an English vessel with two Portuguese passengers aboard . Low had his crew hoist them up and drop them back down from the yard arm several times , until they died . He moved on to the Canaries , Cape Verde and then back across to the coast of Brazil , where he was driven back by foul weather .
Low abandoned his plans for plundering the rich shipping trade off the coast of Brazil , and moved on to the Caribbean . George Roberts , a mate on the British ship King Sagamore , recounted a meeting with Low aboard the Pink . Roberts ' ship was captured by Low 's fleet , of which he was now styling himself " Commodore " .
= = = Capsizing of the Rose Pink = = =
Forty leagues ( 120 nautical miles or around 220 km ) to the east of Surinam , Low and his fleet of two ships ( the Rose Pink and the Fancy , captained by a young Charles Harris ) dropped anchor to remove growth such as seaweed and barnacles from the outside of the boats , in a process known as careening , necessary because no dry dock was available to pirates .
Still relatively inexperienced , Low ordered too many men to the outside of the boat to work on the buildup , and the Rose Pink tipped over too far . The portholes had been left open , and the vessel took on water and sank , with the death of two men . The Pink had been carrying most of the provisions , and Low — by now captaining a captured schooner , the Squirrel — and his crew were forced to strictly ration their fresh water to half a pint ( around 275 ml ) per man , per day .
Failing to reach their initial destination of Tobago due to light winds and strong currents , Low 's depleted fleet made it to Grenada , a French @-@ owned island . Hiding most of his men belowdecks , he was permitted to send men ashore for water . The following day , a French sloop was sent out to investigate , but was captured when Low 's men came out from hiding . Low , now commanding the captured sloop ( renamed the Ranger ) , gave the schooner Squirrel to his quartermaster , Spriggs , who renamed it the Delight before sailing away in the middle of the night with a small crew following a disagreement with Low over the disciplining of one of Spriggs ' crew .
= = = Early 1723 = = =
The new fleet captured many more sloops , including one Low kept , naming it the Fortune . During a trial on 10 July 1723 for a number of Low 's crew , a sailor on board the Fortune named John Welland recalled how Low stripped his boat , including gold to the value of £ 150 , then beat him and cut off his ear with a cutlass .
Following this , Low 's fleet captured a Portuguese ship called the Nostra Signiora de Victoria on 25 January 1723 . The Victoria 's Portuguese captain allowed a bag containing approximately 11 @,@ 000 gold moidores ( worth at the time around £ 15 @,@ 000 ) to fall into the sea rather than see it captured . One of Low 's most noted episodes of cruelty followed : in his rage , he slashed off the Portuguese captain 's lips with a cutlass , broiled them , and forced the victim to eat them while still hot . He then murdered the remaining crew . Low 's own men described him as " a maniac and a brute " .
A story describes Low burning a French cook alive , saying he was a " greasy fellow who would fry well " , and another tells he once killed 53 Spanish captives with his cutlass . Some historians , including David Cordingly , believe this was deliberately done to cultivate a ferocious image . Historian Edward Leslie described Low as a psychopath with a history filled with " mutilations , disembowelings , decapitations , and slaughter " .
Low , like other pirates of the time , tried to intimidate his victims into surrendering , by threatening to kill or torture them . The crew of the targeted ship would hinder the officers from defending the ship , so afraid were they of reprisals . One failed torture session led to one of Low 's crew members accidentally cutting him in the mouth . Botched surgery left Low scarred .
A snow called the Unity was added to the fleet , and used as a tender , but was abandoned during an encounter with a man of war named the Mermaid . As Low 's success increased in the Caribbean , so did his notoriety . Eventually , a bounty was placed on his head , and Low set out for the Azores , again teaming up with Charles Harris . As they terrorised the Azores , the pressure increased from the authorities , who by then had taken special notice of Edward Low , despite the hordes of pirates in operation at the time .
= = = A defeat = = =
Low , Harris and their ships left the Azores for the Carolinas . On 10 June 1723 , they suffered a resounding defeat in a battle with HMS Greyhound , a heavily armed man of war . Greyhound had been dispatched under the command of Peter Solgard to hunt down Low and his fleet . Low fled in the Fancy with a skeleton crew and £ 150 @,@ 000 in gold on board and headed back to the Azores , leaving Harris and the Ranger behind .
Twenty @-@ five of the crew of the Ranger , including the ship 's doctor , were tried between 10 July and 12 July , with Solgard giving evidence and recounting the battle . The men were hanged for felony , piracy and robbery , near Newport , Rhode Island , on 19 July 1723 . Harris was sent back to England and hanged at Execution Dock in Wapping . When Solgard returned to New York , he was presented with the freedom of the city and a gold snuffbox for his part in bringing some of Low 's crew to justice .
= = = End of Low 's career = = =
Low , still captaining the Fancy , sailed north . He captured a whaling vessel 80 miles ( 130 km ) out at sea , and in a foul mood following the encounter with the Greyhound and the loss of his right @-@ hand man , Harris , tortured the captain before shooting him through the head . He set the whaler 's crew adrift with no provisions , intending them to starve to death ( they were lucky , and reached Nantucket after a difficult journey ) .
Remaining off the coast of North America , his crew took a fishing boat near Block Island . Low decapitated the ship 's master , and sent the crew ashore . When he captured two more fishing boats near Rhode Island , his actions became so savage his crew refused to carry out his orders to torture the fishermen .
Heading south again , Low captured a 22 @-@ gun French ship and a large Virginian merchant vessel , the Merry Christmas , in late June 1723 . Following the defeat by the Greyhound , Low became " peculiarly cruel " to his English victims . His fleet of three ships rejoined forces with George Lowther in July . In late 1723 , Low and Lowther 's fleet captured the Delight off the coast of Guinea , mounting fourteen guns on her , with command being given to Spriggs . Two days later , Spriggs and Lowther both abandoned Low , leaving him the Merry Christmas , by now mounted with 34 guns , as his sole ship .
= = = Fate = = =
There are conflicting reports on the circumstances of Edward Low 's death . Charles Johnson — considered by some to be Daniel Defoe writing under a pseudonym — stated in his A General History of the Pyrates , at odds with other sources , that Edward Low and the Fancy were last sighted near the Canaries and Guinea , but at the time of his 1724 book no further reports had surfaced . He noted one rumour that Low was sailing for Brazil and another that Low 's ship sank in a storm with the loss of all hands . The National Maritime Museum in London states that he was never caught , ending his days in Brazil .
The Pirates Own Book and Ossian both suggest that Low was set adrift without provisions by the crew of the Merry Christmas , in a mutiny brought about by Low 's murdering of a sleeping subordinate following an argument . Low was subsequently rescued by a French ship ; when the French authorities learned of his identity he was brought to trial , and was hanged in Martinique , in 1724 .
= = Flags = =
Initially , Low used the same flag as Edward Teach ( " Blackbeard " ) . Later , he used his own flag , a red skeletal figure on a black background , which became notorious . He first flew his own flag in late July 1723 .
Low also used a green silk flag with a yellow figure of a man blowing a trumpet ; this Green Trumpeter was hoisted on the mizzen peak to call his fleet 's captains to meetings aboard the flagship .
= = Articles = =
Low had a set of Articles , a code of conduct and an ironic reference to the Royal Navy 's own Articles of War . The Articles listed below are attributed to Low by the Boston News @-@ Letter . The first eight of these articles are essentially identical to those attributed to Lowther by Charles Johnson .
It is likely that both reports are correct and that Low and Lowther shared the same articles , with Low 's two extra articles being an ordonnance , or amendment , adopted after the two crews separated .
I. The Captain is to have two full Shares ; the [ Quarter ] Master is to have one Share and one Half ; The Doctor , Mate , Gunner and Boatswain , one Share and one Quarter .
II . He that shall be found guilty of taking up any Unlawfull Weapon on Board the Privateer or any other prize by us taken , so as to Strike or Abuse one another in any regard , shall suffer what Punishment the Captain and the Majority of the Company shall see fit .
III . He that shall be found Guilty of Cowardice in the time of Ingagements , shall suffer what Punishment the Captain and the Majority of the Company shall think fit .
IV . If any Gold , Jewels , Silver , & c. be found on Board of any Prize or Prizes to the value of a Piece of Eight , & the finder do not deliver it to the Quarter Master in the space of 24 hours he shall suffer what Punishment the Captain and the Majority of the Company shall think fit .
V. He that is found Guilty of Gaming , or Defrauding one another to the value of a Royal of Plate , shall suffer what Punishment the Captain and the Majority of the Company shall think fit .
VI . He that shall have the Misfortune to loose a Limb in time of Engagement , shall have the Sum of Six hundred pieces of Eight , and remain aboard as long as he shall think fit .
VII . Good Quarters to be given when Craved .
VIII . He that sees a Sail first , shall have the best Pistol or Small Arm aboard of her .
IX . He that shall be guilty of Drunkenness in time of Engagement shall suffer what Punishment the Captain and Majority of the Company shall think fit .
X. No Snaping of Guns in the Hould .
= = Legacy = =
Edward Low 's acts , along with those of other pirates of the period such as Edward Teach , Bartholomew Roberts ( " Black Bart " ) , and William Fly , led to a great increase in the military presence to protect shipping lanes , resulting in the effective end of the Golden Age of Piracy .
By 1700 , the European states had enough troops and ships at their disposal , following the end of a number of wars , to begin better protecting their important colonies in the West Indies and in the Americas , without relying on the aid of privateers . Pirates based in the Caribbean were chased from the seas by a new British Royal Navy squadron based at Port Royal , Jamaica , and a smaller group of Spanish privateers , sailing from the Spanish Main , known as the Guarda de Costa ( Coast Guard in English ) , or simply the Guarda .
Less is recorded of Low than of other equally prolific pirates such as Teach and Stede Bonnet . Howard Pyle , in an 1880 children 's book on pirates , said : " No one stood higher in the trade than [ Low ] , and no one mounted to more lofty altitudes of bloodthirsty and unscrupulous wickedness . ' Tis strange that so little has been written and sung of this man of might , for he was as worthy of story and of song as was Blackbeard . " Sir Arthur Conan Doyle , in his work The Green Flag , described Low as " savage and desperate " , and a man of " amazing and grotesque brutality " . The New York Times said " Low and his crew became the terror of the Atlantic , and his depredations were committed on every part of the ocean , from the coast of Brazil to the Grand Banks of Newfoundland " .
Low has featured on stamps and commemorative currency around the Caribbean . A postage stamp featuring Low was commissioned by the Cayman Islands in 1975 , and in 1994 the government of Antigua and Barbuda featured Edward Low and his brigantine , Rebecca , on a legal tender one hundred @-@ dollar bill made of gold leaf .
" Ned Low " is one of the pirates featured on the Pirates of the Caribbean ride at the Disneyland theme park in California . A duplicate of Low 's flag was used for the flag of the fictional pirate Sao Feng in Disney 's Pirates of the Caribbean films . Ned Low is played by Tadhg Murphy in the Starz TV series Black Sails .
Some of Low 's haunts , such as the waters around the Isles of Shoals off New Hampshire and Isle Haute in Nova Scotia , attract treasure hunters who seek artifacts in the ships he sank .
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= Henry Rollins =
Henry Rollins ( born Henry Lawrence Garfield ; February 13 , 1961 ) is an American musician , actor , television and radio host , and comedian . He hosts a weekly radio show on KCRW , and is a regular columnist for LA Weekly and Rolling Stone Australia .
After performing for the short @-@ lived Washington , D.C. band State of Alert in 1980 , Rollins fronted the California hardcore punk band Black Flag from August 1981 until mid @-@ 1986 . Following the band 's breakup , Rollins established the record label and publishing company 2 @.@ 13 @.@ 61 to release his spoken word albums , and formed the Rollins Band , which toured with a number of lineups from 1987 until 2003 , and during 2006 .
Since Black Flag disbanded , Rollins has hosted numerous radio shows , such as Harmony in My Head on Indie 103 , and television shows such as The Henry Rollins Show , MTV 's 120 Minutes , and Jackass . He had recurring dramatic roles in the second season of Sons of Anarchy , in the final seasons of the animated series The Legend of Korra as Zaheer , and has also had roles in several films . Rollins has campaigned for various political causes in the United States , including promoting LGBT rights , World Hunger Relief , the West Memphis Three and an end to war in particular .
As of 2013 , Rollins is the host of the educational history television series 10 Things You Don 't Know About , joining the show for its second and third seasons . New episodes air weekly on H2 in the U.S.
= = Early life = =
Rollins was born in Washington , D.C. , the only child of Iris and Paul Garfield . When he was three years old , his parents divorced and he was raised by his mother in Glover Park , an affluent neighborhood of Washington . As a child and teenager , Rollins was sexually assaulted . He suffered from depression and low self @-@ esteem . In the fourth grade , he was diagnosed with hyperactivity and took Ritalin for several years so that he could focus during school . He attended The Bullis School , an all @-@ male preparatory school in Potomac , Maryland ( Bullis became co @-@ educational in 1981 after Rollins graduated ) . According to Rollins , the Bullis School helped him to develop a sense of discipline and a strong work ethic . It was at Bullis that he began writing . In 1987 , Rollins said he had not seen his father since he was 18 .
= = Music career = =
= = = State of Alert = = =
After high school , Rollins attended American University in Washington D.C. for one semester , but dropped out in December 1979 . He began working minimum @-@ wage jobs , including a job as a courier for kidney samples at the National Institutes of Health . Rollins developed an interest in punk rock after he and his friend Ian MacKaye procured a copy of The Ramones 's eponymous debut album ; he later described it as a " akin to shooting heroin . " From 1979 to 1980 , Rollins was working as a roadie for Washington bands , including Teen Idles . When the band 's singer Nathan Strejcek failed to appear for practice sessions , Rollins convinced the Teen Idles to let him sing . Word of Rollins 's ability spread around the punk rock scene in Washington ; Bad Brains singer H.R. would sometimes get Rollins on stage to sing with him .
In 1980 , the Washington punk band the Extorts lost their frontman Lyle Preslar to Minor Threat . Rollins joined the rest of the band to form State of Alert ( S.O.A. ) , and became its frontman and vocalist . He put words to the band 's five songs and wrote several more . S.O.A. recorded their sole EP , No Policy , and released it in 1981 on MacKaye 's Dischord Records . S.O.A. disbanded after a total of a dozen concerts and one EP . Rollins had enjoyed being the band 's frontman , and had earned a reputation for fighting in shows . He later said , " I was like nineteen and a young man all full of steam and loved to get in the dust @-@ ups . " By this time , Rollins had become the manager of the Georgetown Häagen @-@ Dazs ice cream store ; his steady employment had helped to finance the S.O.A. EP .
= = = Black Flag = = =
In 1980 , a friend gave Rollins and MacKaye a copy of Black Flag 's Nervous Breakdown EP . Rollins soon became a fan of the band , exchanging letters with bassist Chuck Dukowski and later inviting the band to stay in his parents ' home when Black Flag toured the East Coast in December 1980 . When Black Flag returned to the East Coast in 1981 , Rollins attended as many of their concerts as he could . At an impromptu show in a New York bar , Black Flag 's vocalist Dez Cadena allowed Rollins to sing " Clocked In " , a song Rollins had asked the band to play in light of the fact that he had to drive back to Washington , D.C. to begin work .
Unbeknownst to Rollins , Cadena wanted to switch to guitar , and the band was looking for a new vocalist . The band was impressed with Rollins ' singing and stage demeanor , and the next day , after a semi @-@ formal audition at Tu Casa Studio in New York City , they asked him to become their permanent vocalist . Despite some doubts , he accepted , in part because of MacKaye 's encouragement . His high level of energy and intense personality suited the band 's style , but Rollins ' diverse tastes in music were a key factor in his being selected as singer ; Black Flag 's founder Greg Ginn was growing restless creatively and wanted a singer who was willing to move beyond simple , three @-@ chord punk .
After joining Black Flag in 1981 , Rollins quit his job at Häagen @-@ Dazs , sold his car , and moved to Los Angeles . Upon arriving in Los Angeles , Rollins got the Black Flag logo tattooed on his left biceps and also on the back of his neck , chose the stage name of Rollins , a surname he and MacKaye had used as teenagers . Rollins played his first show with Black Flag on August 21 , 1981 at Cuckoo 's Nest in Costa Mesa , California . Rollins was in a different environment in Los Angeles ; the police soon realized he was a member of Black Flag , and he was hassled as a result . Rollins later said : " That really scared me . It freaked me out that an adult would do that . [ ... ] My little eyes were opened big time . "
Before concerts , as the rest of the band tuned up , Rollins would stride about the stage dressed only in a pair of black shorts , grinding his teeth ; to focus before the show , he would squeeze a pool ball . His stage persona impressed several critics ; after a 1982 show in Anacortes , Washington , Sub Pop critic Calvin Johnson wrote : " Henry was incredible . Pacing back and forth , lunging , lurching , growling ; it was all real , the most intense emotional experiences I have ever seen . "
By 1983 , Rollins ' stage persona was increasingly alienating him from the rest of Black Flag . During a show in England , Rollins assaulted a member of the audience , who attacked Ginn ; Ginn later scolded Rollins , calling him a " macho asshole " . A legal dispute with Unicorn Records held up further Black Flag releases until 1984 , and Ginn was slowing the band 's tempo down so that they would remain innovative . In August 1983 , guitarist Dez Cadena had left the band ; a stalemate lingered between Dukowski and Ginn , who wanted Dukowski to leave , before Ginn fired Dukowski outright . 1984 's heavy metal music @-@ influenced My War featured Rollins screaming and wailing throughout many of the songs ; the band 's members also grew their hair to confuse the band 's hardcore punk audience .
Black Flag 's change in musical style and appearance alienated many of their original fans , who focused their displeasure on Rollins by punching him in the mouth , stabbing him with pens , or scratching him with their nails , among other methods . He often fought back , dragging audience members on stage and assaulting them . During a Black Flag concert , Rollins punched a fan repeatedly in the face that had continuously reached for his microphone . Rollins became increasingly alienated from the audience ; in his tour diary , Rollins wrote " When they spit at me , when they grab at me , they aren 't hurting me . When I push out and mangle the flesh of another , it 's falling so short of what I really want to do to them . " During the Unicorn legal dispute , Rollins had started a weight @-@ lifting program , and by their 1984 tours , he had become visibly well @-@ built ; journalist Michael Azerrad later commented that " his powerful physique was a metaphor for the impregnable emotional shield he was developing around himself . " Rollins has since replied that " no , the training was just basically a way to push myself . "
= = = Rollins Band and solo releases = = =
Before Black Flag disbanded in August 1986 , Rollins had already toured as a solo spoken word artist . He released two solo records in 1987 , Hot Animal Machine , a collaboration with guitarist Chris Haskett , and Drive by Shooting , recorded as " Henrietta Collins and the Wifebeating Childhaters " ; Rollins also released his second spoken word album , Big Ugly Mouth in the same year . Along with Haskett , Rollins soon added Andrew Weiss and Sim Cain , both former members of Ginn 's side @-@ project Gone , and called the new group Rollins Band . The band toured relentlessly , and their 1987 debut album , Life Time , was quickly followed by the outtakes and live collection Do It . The band continued to tour throughout 1988 ; in 1989 another Rollins Band album , Hard Volume was released . Another live album , Turned On , and another spoken word release , Live at McCabe 's , followed in 1990 .
In 1991 the Rollins Band signed a distribution deal with Imago Records and appeared at the Lollapalooza festival ; both improved the band 's presence . However , in December 1991 , Rollins and his best friend Joe Cole were accosted by two armed robbers outside Rollins 's home . Cole was murdered by a gunshot to the head , Rollins escaped without injury but police suspected him in the murder and detained him for ten hours . Although traumatized by Cole 's death , as chronicled in his book Now Watch Him Die , Rollins continued to release new material ; the spoken @-@ word album Human Butt appeared in 1992 on his own record label , 2 @.@ 13 @.@ 61 . The Rollins Band released The End of Silence , Rollins 's first charting album .
The following year , Rollins released a spoken @-@ word double album , The Boxed Life . The Rollins Band embarked upon the End of Silence tour ; bassist Weiss was fired towards its end and replaced by funk and jazz bassist Melvin Gibbs . According to critic Steve Huey , 1994 was Rollins 's " breakout year " . The Rollins Band appeared at Woodstock 94 and released Weight , which ranked on the Billboard Top 40 . Rollins released Get in the Van : On the Road with Black Flag , a double @-@ disc set of him reading from his Black Flag tour diary of the same name ; he won the Grammy for Best Spoken Word Recording as a result . Rollins was named 1994 's " Man of the Year " by the American men 's magazine Details and became a contributing columnist to the magazine . With the increased exposure , Rollins made several appearances on American music channels MTV and VH1 around this time , and made his Hollywood film debut in 1994 in The Chase playing a police officer .
In 1995 , the Rollins Band 's record label , Imago Records , declared itself bankrupt . Rollins began focusing on his spoken word career . He released Everything , a recording of a chapter of his book Eye Scream with free jazz backing , in 1996 . He continued to appear in various films , including Heat , Johnny Mnemonic and Lost Highway . The Rollins Band signed to Dreamworks Records in 1997 and soon released Come in and Burn , but it did not receive as much critical acclaim as their previous material . Rollins continued to release spoken @-@ word book readings , releasing Black Coffee Blues in the same year . In 1998 , Rollins released Think Tank , his first set of non @-@ book @-@ related spoken material in five years .
By 1998 , Rollins felt that the relationship with his backing band had run its course , and the line @-@ up disbanded . He had produced a Los Angeles hard rock band called Mother Superior , and invited them to form a new incarnation of the Rollins Band . Their first album , Get Some Go Again , was released two years later . The Rollins Band released several more albums , including 2001 's Nice and 2003 's Rise Above : 24 Black Flag Songs to Benefit the West Memphis Three . After 2003 , the band became inactive as Rollins focused on radio and television work . During a 2006 appearance on Tom Green Live ! , Rollins stated that he " may never do music again " , a feeling which he reiterated in 2011 when talking to Trebuchet magazine . In an interview with Culture Brats , Henry admitted he had sworn off music for good – " ... and I must say that I miss it every day . I just don 't know honestly what I could do with it that 's different . "
In 2014 , Rollins admitted a disdain for rehashing old music for the sake of it - " I don ’ t want to play old music . To me , it is fighting battles that are already over and calling yourself a warrior . For me , I see no courage or adventure in doing the old thing over again . If others want to , that ’ s for them . For myself , I have to move on . Life is too short to live in the past . There is a lot to be done . " On the same topic , Henry more recently said in 2016 " For me , music was a time and a place . I never really enjoyed being in a band . It was in me and it needed to come out , like a 25 @-@ year exorcism . One day , I woke up , and I didn ’ t have any more lyrics . I just had nothing to contribute to the form , and I was done with band practice and travelling in groups . "
= = = Musical style = = =
As a vocalist , Rollins has adopted a number of styles through the years . He was noted in the Washington , D.C. hardcore scene for what journalist Michael Azerrad described as a " compelling , raspy howl . " With State of Alert , Rollins " spat out the lyrics like a bellicose auctioneer . " He adopted a similar style after joining Black Flag in 1981 . By their album Damaged , however , Black Flag began to incorporate a swing beat into their style . Rollins then abandoned his State of Alert " bark " and adopted the band 's swing . Rollins later explained : " What I was doing kind of matched the vibe of the music . The music was intense and , well , I was as intense as you needed . "
In both incarnations of the Rollins Band , Rollins combined spoken word with his traditional vocal style in songs such as " Liar " ( the song begins with a one @-@ minute spoken diatribe by Rollins ) , barked his way through songs ( such as " Tearing " and " Starve " ) , and employed the loud @-@ quiet dynamic . Rolling Stone 's Anthony DeCurtis names Rollins a " screeching hate machine " and his " hallmark " as " the sheets @-@ of @-@ sound assault " .
With the Rollins Band , his lyrics focused " almost exclusively on issues relating to personal integrity , " according to critic Geoffrey Welchman .
= = = As producer = = =
In the 1980s , Henry Rollins produced an album of acoustic songs for the famed convict Charles Manson titled Completion . The record was supposed to be released by SST Records , but the project was canceled because the label received death threats for working with Manson . Only five test presses of Completion were pressed , two of which remain in Rollins ' possession .
In 1995 , Henry Rollins produced Australian hard rock band the Mark of Cain 's third full @-@ length album Ill at Ease .
= = Joe Cole = =
Rollins and his best friend Joe Cole , son of actor Dennis Cole , were involved in a shooting when they were assaulted by robbers in December 1991 outside their shared Venice Beach , California , home . Cole died after being shot in the face , but Rollins escaped . The murder remains unsolved .
In an April 1992 Los Angeles Times interview , Rollins revealed he kept a plastic container full of soil soaked with the blood of Joe Cole . Rollins said " I dug up all the earth where his head fell — he was shot in the face — and I 've got all the dirt here , and so Joe Cole 's in the house . I say good morning to him every day . I got his phone , too , so I got a direct line to him . So that feels good . "
In a 2001 interview with Howard Stern , Rollins was asked about rumors that he had Joe Cole 's brain in his house . Rollins stated that he only has the soil from the spot Cole was killed . During the interview , Rollins also speculated that the reason they were targeted may have been because days prior to the incident , record producer Rick Rubin - who was a fan of Rollins Band - had requested to hear the then newly recorded album , The End of Silence , and turned up and parked outside their Venice Beach home in his Rolls @-@ Royce , carrying a cell phone . Because of the notoriety of the neighborhood , Rollins suspected that this would bring trouble because of the implication that they had a lot of money in the home ; he even wrote in his journal the night of Rubin 's visit : " My place is going to get popped " .
Rollins has included Cole 's story in his spoken word performances .
= = Media work = =
= = = Television = = =
As Rollins rose to prominence with the Rollins Band , he began to present and appear on television . These included Alternative Nation and MTV Sports in 1993 and 1994 respectively . Rollins also co starred in The Chase with Charlie Sheen . In 1995 Rollins appeared on an episode of Unsolved Mysteries that explored the murder of his best friend Joe Cole and present State of the Union Undressed on Comedy Central . Rollins began to present and narrate VH1 Legends in 1996 . Rollins , busy with the Rollins Band , did not present more programs until 2001 , but made appearances on a number of other television shows , including Welcome to Paradox in 1998 in the episode " All Our Sins Forgotten " , as a therapist who develops a device that can erase the bad memories of his patients . Rollins also voiced Mad Stan in Batman Beyond in 1999 and 2000 .
Rollins was a host of film review programme Henry 's Film Corner on the Independent Film Channel , before presenting the weekly The Henry Rollins Show on the channel . The Henry Rollins Show is now being shown weekly on Film24 along with Henry Rollins Uncut . The show also lead to a promotional tour in Europe that led to Henry being dubbed a “ bad boy goodwill ambassador ” by a NY reviewer . He also hosted Fox 's short @-@ lived 2001 horror anthology Night Visions .
In 2002 Rollins guest @-@ starred on an episode of the sitcom The Drew Carey Show as a man whom Oswald found on eBay and paid to come to his house and " kick his ass " . He co @-@ hosted the British television show Full Metal Challenge , in which teams built vehicles to compete in various driving and racing contests , from 2002 to 2003 on Channel 4 and TLC . He has made a number of cameo appearances in television series such as MTV 's Jackass and an episode of Californication , where he played himself hosting a radio show . In 2006 , Rollins appeared in a documentary series by VH1 and The Sundance Channel called The Drug Years .
Rollins appears in FX 's Sons of Anarchy 's second season , which premiered in the fall of 2009 in the United States . Rollins plays A.J. Weston , a white @-@ supremacist gang leader and new antagonist in the show 's fictional town of Charming , California , who poses a deadly threat to the Sons of Anarchy Motorcycle Club . In 2009 , Rollins voiced " Trucker " in American Dad ! ' s fourth season ( episode eight ) . Rollins voiced Benjamin Knox / Bonk in the 2000 animated film Batman Beyond : Return of the Joker .
In 2010 , Rollins appeared as a guest judge on Season 2 episode 6 of RuPaul 's Drag Race . In 2011 , he was interviewed in the National Geographic Explorer episode " Born to Rage " , regarding his possible link to the MAO gene ( warrior gene ) and violent behavior . In 2012 , he hosted the National Geographic Wild series " Animal Underworld " , investigating where the real boundaries lay in human @-@ animal relationships . Rollins also appeared in the Hawaii Five @-@ 0 episode " Hoʻopio " that aired on May 6 , 2013 .
In November 2013 , Rollins started hosting the show 10 Things You Don 't Know About on the History Channel 's H2 . In 2014 , he voiced the antagonist Zaheer in the third season of the animated series The Legend of Korra .
= = = Radio = = =
On May 19 , 2004 , Rollins began hosting a weekly radio show , Harmony in My Head , on Indie 103 @.@ 1 radio in Los Angeles . The show aired every Monday evening , with Rollins playing music ranging from early rock and jump blues to hard rock , blues rock , folk rock , punk rock , heavy metal and rockabilly , and touching on hip hop , jazz , world music , reggae , classical music and more . Harmony in my Head often emphasizes B @-@ sides , live bootlegs and other rarities , and nearly every episode has featured a song either by the Beastie Boys or British group The Fall .
Rollins put the show on a short hiatus to undertake a spoken @-@ word tour in early 2005 . Rollins posted playlists and commentary on @-@ line ; these lists were expanded with more information and published in book form as Fanatic ! through 2 @.@ 13 @.@ 61 in November 2005 . In late 2005 , Rollins announced the show 's return and began the first episode by playing the show 's namesake Buzzcocks song . In 2008 , the show was continuing each week despite Rollins 's constant touring with new pre @-@ recorded shows between live broadcasts . In 2009 Indie 103 @.@ 1 went off the air , although it continues to broadcast over the Internet .
In 2007 , Rollins published Fanatic ! Vol . 2 through 2 @.@ 13 @.@ 61 . Fanatic ! Vol . 3 was released in the fall of 2008 . On February 18 , 2009 , KCRW announced that Rollins would be hosting a live show on Saturday nights starting March 7 , 2009 , which has since been moved to Sunday nights at 8PM . In 2011 Rollins was interviewed on Episode 121 of American Public Media 's podcast , " The Dinner Party Download " , posted on November 3 , 2011 .
= = = Film = = =
Rollins began his film career appearing in several independent films featuring the band Black Flag . His film debut was in 1982 's The Slog Movie , about the West Coast punk scene . An appearance in 1985 's Black Flag Live followed . Rollins ' first film appearance without Black Flag was the short film The Right Side of My Brain with Lydia Lunch in 1985 . Following the band 's breakup , Rollins did not appear in any films until 1994 's The Chase . Rollins appeared in the 2007 direct @-@ to @-@ DVD sequel to Wrong Turn ( 2003 ) , Wrong Turn 2 : Dead End as a retired Marine Corps officer who hosts his own show which tests the contestants ' will to survive . Rollins has also appeared in Punk : Attitude , a documentary on the punk scene , and in American Hardcore ( 2006 ) . In 2012 , Henry Rollins appeared in a short documentary entitled " Who Shot Rock and Roll " discussing the early punk scene in Los Angeles as well as photographs of himself in Black Flag taken by esteemed photographer Edward Colver .
Some feature @-@ length movies Henry Rollins has appeared in include :
Kiss Napoleon Goodbye ( 1990 ) , with Lydia Lunch and Don Bajema
The Chase ( 1994 ) , with Charlie Sheen
Johnny Mnemonic ( 1995 ) , with Keanu Reeves , Ice @-@ T and Dolph Lundgren
Heat ( 1995 ) , with Al Pacino , Robert De Niro and Val Kilmer
Lost Highway ( 1997 ) , with Bill Pullman and Patricia Arquette ; directed by David Lynch
Jack Frost ( 1998 ) , with Michael Keaton
Batman Beyond : Return of the Joker ( 2000 ) ( voice ) , with Kevin Conroy and Mark Hamill
Morgan 's Ferry ( 2001 ) , with Billy Zane and Kelly McGillis
Dogtown and Z @-@ Boys ( 2001 documentary )
Scenes of the Crime ( 2001 ) , with Jeff Bridges
The New Guy ( 2002 ) , with Tommy Lee and DJ Qualls
Jackass The Movie ( 2002 ) with Johnny Knoxville and Bam Margera
Bad Boys II ( 2003 ) with Will Smith and Martin Lawrence
Deathdealer : A Documentary ( 2004 )
Feast ( 2005 ) , with Balthazar Getty and Navi Rawat
Jackass Number Two ( 2006 ) , with Preston Lacy , Steve @-@ O and Chris Pontius
The Alibi ( 2006 )
Wrong Turn 2 : Dead End ( 2007 )
The Devil 's Tomb ( 2009 ) , with Cuba Gooding , Jr. and Ron Perlman
H for Hunger ( 2009 documentary ) , directed by Neil Hollander
William Shatner 's Gonzo Ballet ( 2009 documentary )
Suck ( 2009 ) , with Alice Cooper , Iggy Pop and Malcolm McDowell
Green Lantern : Emerald Knights ( 2011 ) ( voice ) as Kilowog
West of Memphis ( 2012 documentary )
Downloaded ( 2013 documentary )
Salad Days ( 2014 documentary )
He Never Died ( 2015 ) , with Steven Ogg and Booboo Stewart
Gutterdämmerung ( 2015 ) , with Iggy Pop and Grace Jones , directed by Björn Tagemose
The Last Heist ( 2016 )
= = = Books and audiobooks = = =
Rollins has written a variety of books , including Black Coffee Blues , Do I Come Here Often ? , The First Five ( a compilation of High Adventure in the Great Outdoors , Pissing in the Gene Pool , Bang ! , Art to Choke Hearts , and One From None ) , See a Grown Man Cry , Now Watch Him Die , Smile , You 're Traveling , Get in the Van , Eye Scream , Broken Summers , Roomanitarian , and Solipsist .
For the audiobook version of the 2006 novel World War Z Rollins voiced the character of T. Sean Collins , a mercenary hired to protect celebrities during a mass panic caused by an onslaught of the undead . Rollins ' other audiobook recordings include 3 : 10 to Yuma and his own autobiographical book Get in the Van , for which he won a Grammy Award .
= = = Online journalism = = =
In September 2008 , Rollins began contributing to the " Politics & Power " blog at the online version of Vanity Fair magazine . Since March 2009 , his posts have appeared under their own sub @-@ title , Straight Talk Espresso . His posts consistently direct harsh criticism at conservative politicians and pundits , although he does occasionally target those on the left . In August 2010 , he began writing a music column for LA Weekly in Los Angeles . In 2012 , Rollins began publishing articles with The Huffington Post and alternative news website WordswithMeaning ! . In the months leading up to the 2012 United States Presidential election , Rollins broadcast a YouTube series called " Capitalism 2012 " , in which he toured the capital cities of the US states , interviewing people about current issues .
= = = Spoken word = = =
Rollins also has toured all over the world doing spoken word performances and his shows frequently last for over three hours . His spoken word style encompasses stand up comedy , accounts of experiences he 's had in the world of music and during his extensive travels around the globe , self @-@ deprecating stories about his own shortcomings , introspective recollections from his own life ( such as the death of his friend , Joe Cole ) , commentaries on society and playful , sometimes vulgar , anecdotes .
= = = Video games = = =
Rollins was a playable character in both Def Jam : Fight for NY and Def Jam Fight for NY : The Takeover . Rollins is also the voice of Mace Griffin in Mace Griffin : Bounty Hunter .
= = Campaigning and activism = =
Rollins has become an outspoken human rights activist , most vocally for gay rights . Rollins frequently speaks out on social justice on his spoken word tours and promotes equality , regardless of sexuality . He was the host of the WedRock benefit concert , which raised money for a pro @-@ gay @-@ marriage organization .
During the 2003 Iraq War , he started touring with the United Service Organizations to entertain troops overseas while remaining against the war , leading him to once cause a stir at a base in Kyrgyzstan when he told the crowd : " Your commander would never lie to you . That 's the vice president 's job . " Rollins believes it is important that he performs to the troops so that they have multiple points of contact with the rest of the world , stating that " they can get really cut loose from planet earth . " He has made eight tours , including visits to bases in Djibouti , Kuwait , Iraq , Kyrgyzstan , Afghanistan ( twice ) , Egypt , Turkey , Qatar , Honduras , Japan , Korea and the United Arab Emirates .
He has also been active in the campaign to free the " West Memphis Three " — three young men who were believed by their supporters to have been wrongfully convicted of murder , and who have since been released from prison , but not exonerated . Rollins appears with Public Enemy frontman Chuck D on the Black Flag song " Rise Above " on the benefit album Rise Above : 24 Black Flag Songs to Benefit the West Memphis Three , the first time Rollins had performed Black Flag 's material since 1986 .
Continuing his activism on behalf of US troops and veterans , Rollins joined Iraq and Afghanistan Veterans of America ( IAVA ) in 2008 to launch a public service advertisement campaign , CommunityofVeterans.org , which helps veterans coming home from war reintegrate into their communities . In April 2009 , Rollins helped IAVA launch the second phase of the campaign which engages the friends and family of Iraq and Afghanistan veterans at SupportYourVet.org.
On December 3 , 2009 , Rollins wrote of his support for the victims of the Bhopal disaster in India , in an article for Vanity Fair 25 years – to the day – after the methyl isocyanate gas leak from the Union Carbide Corporation 's pesticide factory exposed more than half a million local people to poisonous gas and resulted in the death of 17 @,@ 000 . He spent time in Bhopal with the people , to listen to their stories . In a later radio interview in February 2010 Rollins summed up his approach to activism , " This is where my anger takes me , to places like this , not into abuse but into proactive , clean movement . "
In August 2015 , Rollins discussed his support for Bernie Sanders as a candidate in the 2016 Democratic Party presidential primaries .
= = Works = =
= = = Musical releases = = =
= = = = With State of Alert = = = =
No Policy ( 1981 )
three songs on the sampler Flex Your Head ( 1982 )
= = = = With Black Flag = = = =
Damaged ( December 1981 )
My War ( March 1984 )
Family Man ( September 1984 )
Slip It In ( December 1984 )
Live ' 84 ( December 1984 )
Loose Nut ( May 1985 )
In My Head ( October 1985 )
Who 's Got the 10 ½ ? ( 1986 )
= = = = As Henry Rollins = = = =
Hot Animal Machine ( 1987 )
Drive by Shooting ( 1987 )
Live ( 1987 ) - split album with Dutch band Gore
= = = = With Rollins Band = = = =
Life Time ( 1987 , re @-@ release 1999 )
Hard Volume ( 1989 , re @-@ release 1999 )
Turned On ( 1990 )
The End of Silence ( 1992 , double @-@ CD re @-@ release 2002 ) # 160 US
Weight ( 1994 ) # 33 US , # 22 UK
Come in and Burn ( 1997 ) # 89 US
Insert Band Here ( 1999 )
A Clockwork Orange Stage ( 2000 )
Get Some Go Again ( 2000 ) # 180 US
Nice ( 2001 ) # 178 US
A Nicer Shade of Red ( 2002 )
End Of Silence Demos ( 2002 )
The Only Way to Know for Sure : Live in Chicago ( 2002 )
Rise Above : 24 Black Flag Songs to Benefit the West Memphis Three ( 2002 )
= = = = With Wartime = = = =
Fast Food For Thought ( 1990 )
= = = Spoken word = = =
Short Walk on a Long Pier ( 1985 )
Big Ugly Mouth ( 1987 )
Sweatbox ( 1989 )
Live at McCabe 's ( 1990 )
Human Butt ( 1992 )
The Boxed Life ( 1993 )
Think Tank ( 1998 )
Eric the Pilot ( 1999 )
A Rollins in the Wry ( 2001 )
Live at the Westbeth Theater ( 2001 )
Talk Is Cheap : Volume 1 ( 2003 )
Talk Is Cheap : Volume 2 ( 2003 )
Talk Is Cheap : Volume 3 ( 2004 )
Talk Is Cheap : Volume 4 ( 2004 )
Provoked ( 2008 )
Spoken Word Guy ( 2010 )
Spoken Word Guy 2 ( 2010 )
= = = Spoken word videos = = =
Talking from the Box ( 1993 )
Henry Rollins Goes to London ( 1995 )
You Saw Me Up There ( 1998 )
Up for It ( 2001 )
Live at Luna Park ( 2004 )
Shock & Awe : The Tour ( 2005 )
Uncut from NYC ( 2006 )
Uncut from Israel ( 2006 )
San Francisco 1990 ( 2007 )
Live in the Conversation Pit ( 2008 )
Provoked : Live From Melbourne ( 2008 )
50 ( 2012 )
= = = Audio books = = =
Get in the Van : On the Road with Black Flag ( 1994 )
Everything ( 1996 )
Black Coffee Blues ( 1997 )
Nights Behind the Tree Line ( 2004 )
= = = Guest appearances and collaborations = = =
= = = Essays = = =
I Am an Audiophile , an editorial essay in Stereophile magazine .
Iron and The Soul , an editorial essay in Details magazine .
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= Mulder and Scully ( song ) =
" Mulder and Scully " is a song by Catatonia , released as a single from their 1998 album , International Velvet . The song makes direct reference to fictional FBI special agents Fox Mulder ( David Duchovny ) and Dana Scully ( Gillian Anderson ) , the two main characters of the popular sci @-@ fi TV series The X @-@ Files who work on cases linked to the paranormal , called X @-@ Files . In an interview Cerys Matthews , co @-@ writer of the song , explained that while she was not a serious fan of the show , the basic premise of the series matched the conceit of what she was trying to express .
" Mulder and Scully " was released as the second single from the band 's album International Velvet . Originally , it was supposed to be the first single , but was delayed due to circumstances beyond the band 's control . The song was Catatonia 's first single in the United States . " Mulder and Scully " became the group 's break @-@ out hit and received a mixed to positive from the music press ; many critics felt that , musically , the song was well played , but that the track 's pop culture references were out of place .
A music video was released that featured the band performing the track while Mulder and Scully , played by look @-@ alikes , search the concert venue with torches . It was popular in both the United Kingdom and the United States . The song reached number three in the UK Singles Chart , making it Catatonia 's highest UK charting song . It also charted in Ireland , peaking at number 17 .
= = Lyrics and composition = =
The song makes direct reference to FBI special agents Fox Mulder ( David Duchovny ) and Dana Scully ( Gillian Anderson ) , the two main characters of the popular sci @-@ fi TV series The X @-@ Files who work on cases linked to the paranormal , called X @-@ Files . Although the title and refrain reference the popular show , the song has little to do with the two characters . The use of Mulder and Scully are used to represent a metaphor for a relationship being so " strange " that it could be " a case for Mulder and Scully " , a reference to the paranormal cases — the titular X @-@ Files — the two investigate on the show . Cerys Matthews , the co @-@ writer of the song , explained that the conceit of the song was " about asking Mulder and Scully to figure out this thing called love . I like the idea of two people going round the planet investigating odd phenomena , in this case love " .
Matthews later admitted that she was not a serious fan of the show , but that she only used the line because it adequately described the type of relationship she was singing about . In an interview with the Daily Record , she explained , " I 'm not a big fan of [ The X @-@ Files ] but I got the line about things getting strange for Mulder and Scully from watching the odd episode " . After questioning , she later said that she would " prefer to go out for a night on the town with Gazza and Chris Evans than meet [ The X @-@ Files ] stars Gillian Anderson and David Duchovny " . Matthews also related that " I 'm sure loads of people bought the record by mistake , but who cares ? They should be flattered we wrote a song about [ The X @-@ Files ] anyway " .
= = Release and acclaim = =
The song was met with mixed to positive reviews from critics ; many reviewers lauded the band 's musical composition , but maligned the track for its heavy reliance on pop culture references . The Sunday Mirror wrote positively of the song and called it " hard rockin ' " . Ben Myers from the now @-@ defunct music magazine Melody Maker named the song the " Single of the Week " and called it " fantastic " . He noted that " they 've damn near written a perfect pop song . The first best single of the year " . Jerry Rubino , host of the popular radio show " Left of Center " , named the song one of his favorite " Brit Things " . A review from PopMatters noted that the song was built around " somewhat silly X @-@ Files references " , but that it possessed " hooks to die for " . Stephen Thomas Erlewine , from AllMusic gave the song a relatively positive review and singled it out as an " AllMusic Pick " . He also praised the song 's " terrific [ hook ] " but was slightly critical of the " self @-@ conscious pop culture references " . Despite this , he noted the band was successfully able to " bring memorable melodies to the [ song ] " . A subsequent review by AllMusic awarded the single , by itself , two @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half stars out of five . NME called the song " little more than fodder for nostalgia TV " , written by a " lazy television researcher 's imagination " .
Cerys Matthews and the band were extremely pleased with the final product , calling it a " better song " than " All Around the World " by Oasis , the single 's main competitor at the time . Matthews later said that the lyrics for " Mulder and Scully " were " good , top to bottom " . Catatonia later released the song as part of their 2002 greatest hits album , And the song was later included on various Britpop compilations , including the Common People : The Britpop Story album , and the 100 Hits of the 90s album , released by the BBC .
= = Chart performance = =
Originally , Catatonia wished to release " Mulder and Scully " during the summer of 1997 . However , due to complications , these plans were scrapped and the song " I Am the Mob " was released instead . " Mulder and Scully " was eventually released in January 1998 and , due to heavy promotion via BBC Radio 1 , soon became the band 's break @-@ out hit , propelling them " into the limelight [ … ] numerous interviews and television appearances " . The band 's record label , Blanco y Negro Records , promoted the single with a press release that described the song as " [ s ] pooky but spiky " and a " clever grower of a track " . The song debuted on the United Kingdom chart on 31 January 1998 and made its last appearance on 4 April 1998 . During its first week of release , the single performed exceptionally well . Music stores reported that the physical release of " Mulder and Scully " was selling slightly fewer copies than Usher 's single " You Make Me Wanna ... " . Cerys Matthews later told Melody Maker that the single out @-@ sold Oasis " for two days " . During its first week , " Mulder and Scully " peaked on the chart at number three and spent a total of 10 weeks on the chart . The song also charted on the Irish Singles Chart , entering the charts on 2 May 1998 . It peaked at number 17 and spent five weeks charting . Later , a Japanese EP was released under the name " Mulder and Scully EP " . It combined tracks from the title single , as well as the " I Am the Mob " and " Road Rage " singles .
= = Music video = =
The music video for " Mulder and Scully " was directed by Gerald McMorrow and features the band performing at a venue intercut with scenes of life on a tour bus at night . All the while , Mulder and Scully — played by look @-@ alikes — investigate the area around the concert with torches . Eventually , the agents begin passionately kissing while Catatonia plays their song on a stage . The video was filmed at T.J. ' s , a rock concert venue in Newport , Wales . A call was made for fans of the band to arrive and play the part of the audience . While actor Rhys Ifans , one year before his breakout performance in Notting Hill , features prominently . The entire video shoot took a full day to film . The video for " Mulder and Scully " was extremely popular ; according to Billboard magazine , the video for " Mulder and Scully " received " heavy rotation " and was played " 30 to 35 " times weekly in the United Kingdom . The video was heavily promoted in the United States , due in part to its direct allusion to The X @-@ Files , and it received decent airplay .
= = Track listing = =
UK CD single
" Mulder and Scully " – 4 : 10
" No Stone Unturned " – 3 : 28
" Mantra for the Lost " – 2 : 47
" Mulder and Scully " ( The Ex @-@ Files mix ) – 4 : 53
Japanese EP
" Mulder and Scully " ( album version ) – 4 : 10
" Road Rage " ( radio edit ) – 5 : 10
" Jump or Be Sane " – 4 : 00
" No Stone Unturned " – 3 : 28
" Mantra for the Lost " – 2 : 47
" I 'm Cured " – 2 : 55
" Blow the Millennium Pt.2 " – 2 : 30
" I Am the Mob " ( Luca Brasi mix ) – 3 : 41
" Mulder and Scully " ( The Ex @-@ Files mix ) – 4 : 53
" Road Rage ( Ghia ) " – 5 : 10
= = Charts = =
= = Personnel = =
Cerys Matthews – Vocals
Mark Roberts – Guitar
Paul Jones – Bass
Owen Powell – Guitar
Aled Richards – Drums
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= Cynfarwy =
Cynfarwy was a Christian in the 7th century about whom little is known . He was venerated by the early church in Wales as a saint , although he was never formally canonised . St Cynfarwy 's Church in Anglesey is dedicated to him , and his name is also preserved in the name of the settlement around the church , Llechgynfarwy ( or sometimes " Llechcynfarwy " ) . His feast day is in November , although the date varies between sources .
= = Life and commemoration = =
Little is known for certain about Cynfarwy ; his dates of birth and death are not given in the Bonedd y Saint ( a Welsh genealogical tract compiled in the late 18th century using material from older manuscripts ) . According to the 19th @-@ century Celtic scholar Robert Williams , Cynfarwy was active in the 7th century . According to the Bonedd y Saint , he was the son of the otherwise unknown " Awy ab Llehenog , Lord of Cornwall " .
Cynfarwy is venerated as a saint , although he was never canonized by a pope : as the historian Jane Cartwright notes , " In Wales sanctity was locally conferred and none of the medieval Welsh saints appears to have been canonized by the Roman Catholic Church " .
= = Church and feast day = =
Cynfarwy is the patron saint of St Cynfarwy 's Church , Llechgynfarwy in Anglesey , north Wales . According to the 19th @-@ century Welsh historian Angharad Llwyd , he established the first church there in about 630 . The present church ( which is a Grade II listed building ) mainly dates from the 19th century , but has some medieval fabric and a 12th @-@ century font .
Until the 19th century , there was a stone more than 9 feet ( 3 m ) high in the field next to church , known Maen Llechgynfarwy ( maen meaning " stone " , llech meaning " slate " and " ‑ gynfarwy " being a modified form of the saint 's name ) . The settlement around the church , which is about 10 miles ( 16 km ) from the port of Holyhead , is known as Llechgynfarwy ( or sometimes as " Llechcynfarwy " ) .
The traditional date for the feast of St Cynfarwy varies between antiquarian sources , although all place it in November . Some manuscripts say that it falls on the 10th , some on the 11th , whilst according to Angharad Llwyd and others the festival is marked on the 7th .
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= Carl Michael Bellman =
Carl Michael Bellman ( listen ; 4 February 1740 – 11 February 1795 ) was a Swedish poet , songwriter , composer and performer . Bellman is a central figure in the Swedish song tradition and remains a powerful influence in Swedish music , as well as in Scandinavian literature , to this day .
Bellman is best known for two collections of poems set to music , Fredman 's songs ( Fredmans sånger ) and Fredman 's epistles ( Fredmans epistlar ) . Each consists of about 70 songs . The general theme is drinking , but the songs " most ingeniously " combine words and music to express feelings and moods ranging from humorous to elegiac , romantic to satirical .
Bellman 's patrons included the King , Gustav III of Sweden , who called him the master improviser . Bellman has been compared to Shakespeare , Beethoven , Mozart , and Hogarth , but his gift , using elegantly rococo classical references in comic contrast to sordid drinking and prostitution , which are at once regretted and celebrated in song , is unique .
Bellman 's songs continue to be performed and recorded by musicians from Scandinavia and in other languages including English , French , German , Italian and Russian . Several of his songs including Gubben Noak and Fjäriln vingad are known by heart by many Swedes .
= = Biography = =
= = = Early life = = =
Carl Michael Bellman was born on 4 February 1740 in the Stora Daurerska house , which was one of the finest in the Södermalm district of Stockholm . The house was the property of his maternal grandmother , Catharina von Santen , who had brought up his father , orphaned as a small child . Carl Michael 's parents were Johan Arndt Bellman , a civil servant , and Catharina Hermonia , daughter of the priest of the local Maria parish . Her family was wholly Swedish , whereas Johan 's family had German origins : they had come from Bremen in about 1660 . When Carl Michael was four the family moved to a smaller , single storey dwelling called the Lilla Daurerska house . He briefly went to a local school , but was educated mainly by private tutors . He was the eldest of 15 children who lived long enough for their births to be registered . His parents had intended him to become a priest , but he fell ill with a fever , and on recovering found he could express any thought in rhyming verse . His parents appointed a tutor called Ennes who Bellman called " a genius " . Bellman was taught French , German , Italian , English and Latin . He read Horace and Boileau ; Ennes taught him to write poetry and to translate French and German hymns . He was familiar with stories from the Bible including the Apocrypha , many of which found their way into the songs he composed in later life . However , expenses including the Swedish tradition of hospitality left the family with no money to start him off in life with a journey to the south of Europe , such as to Spain to visit his uncle , Jacob Martin Bellman , who was the Swedish Consul in Cádiz . Carl Michael translated a French book by Du Four and dedicated it to his uncle , but the hint was ignored . Deep in debt , at the end of 1757 the family sent Carl Michael to the State Bank as an unpaid trainee . He had no aptitude for numbers , instead discovering the taverns and brothels which were to figure so largely in his songs .
As the banking career was not working out – and as trainees were ( after a period with a relaxed regime ) again required to sit an exam , for which Bellman was ill equipped – he took a break in 1758 , going to the university of Uppsala , where Linnaeus was professor of botany . The idea of attending lectures was no more congenial than banking , and he stayed only one term ; one of his songs ( FS 28 ) records that " He contemplated Uppsala — the beer stung his mouth — love distracted his wits ... " However , he met young men ( such as Carl Bonde ) from wealthy and noble families , went drinking with them , and started to entertain them with his songs . Bellman returned to the bank job , and seems quickly to have fallen into financial difficulty : " a jungle of debts , sureties and bondsmen began to proliferate around him . " The character of bailiff Blomberg appears in his songs ( e.g. FS 14 ) , constantly trying to track down debtors and seize all their property . The law allowed the bankrupt only one way to escape from debtors ' prison : to leave Sweden . In 1763 , Bellman ran away to Norway . From the safety of Halden ( then called Fredrikshald ) he writes to the Council applying first for a passport , and then for a safe @-@ conduct , both of which were granted . Meanwhile , his father had first mortgaged the Lilla Daurerska house , and then sold it : the family 's finances were no better than his own . Even worse , by April 1764 the Bank had become tired of the riotous behaviour of its young men : its investigations showed that Bellman had been the ringleader , leading them ( the Bank wrote ) into " gambling , masquerades , picnics and suchlike " . Bellman resigned , his safe banking career at an end .
= = = Poetry and song = = =
In 1765 , Bellman 's parents died ; deeply moved , he wrote a religious poem . Then his fortunes improved : someone found him a job , first in the Office of Manufactures , then in the Customs , and he was able once again to live happily in Stockholm , observing the people of the city , with at least a modest salary . In 1768 his life 's work as we now know it got under way :
Bellman had begun to compose an entirely new sort of song . A genre which ' had no model and can have no successors ' ( Kellgren ) , these songs were to grow swiftly in number until they made up the great work on which Bellman 's reputation as a poet chiefly rests .
Bellman mostly played the cittern , becoming the most famous player of this instrument in Sweden . His portrait by Per Krafft shows him playing an oval instrument with twelve strings , arranged as six pairs . His first songs were " parody songs " , a common form of entertainment at the time .
Between 1769 and 1773 , Bellman wrote 65 of 82 of his Epistles , as well as many poems . He attempted to publish the poems in 1772 , but was unable to obtain the permission of the king , Gustav III , as a political coup intervened . He finally managed to obtain the permission in 1774 , but soon discovered that the cost of printing , especially as he was determined to publish the sheet music alongside the text , was prohibitive given his ruinous finances , and he was forced to put off his plans . In 1776 the king gave him a sinecure job as secretary to the national lottery ; this supported him for the rest of his life .
On 19 December 1777 , at the age of 37 , he married the 22 @-@ year @-@ old Lovisa Grönlund in Klara Church . They had four children , Gustav , Elis , Karl and Adolf ; Elis died young . Throughout his life , but especially during the 1770s , Bellman also wrote religious poetry , seeing no conflict with his bacchanalian works ; he published collections of his religious poems in 1781 and 1787 . He wrote some ten plays ( none with particularly strong plots ) as divertimentos , some of them later serving as entertainments at the royal court . The plays fill Volume 6 of his collected works . In 1783 , Bellman brought out The Temple of Bacchus ( Bacchi Tempel ) , perhaps hoping to establish his reputation as a poet , rather than the merry entertainer that he was in fact known as at the time ; but he always stood out in people 's minds as unique , a different kind of writer and performer .
Bellman 's main works are the 65 Fredman 's songs ( Fredmans sånger , 1790 ) and the 82 Fredman 's epistles ( Fredmans epistlar , 1791 ) . Their themes include the pleasures of drunkenness and sex . Against this backdrop , Bellman deals with themes of love , death , and the transitoriness of life . The settings of his songs reflect life in 18th century Stockholm , but often refer to Greek and Roman mythological characters such as the goddess of love , Venus ( or her Swedish equivalent , Fröja ) , Neptune and his retinue of water @-@ nymphs , the love @-@ god Cupid , the ferryman Charon and Bacchus , the god of wine and pleasure . Many of Fredman 's Epistles are peopled by a cast which includes the clockmaker Jean Fredman , the prostitute or " nymph " Ulla Winblad , the alcoholic ex @-@ soldier Movitz , and Father Berg , a virtuoso on several instruments . Some of these were based on living models , others probably not . Ulla Winblad was widely believed to have been closely based on Maria Kristina Kiellström , though the real woman , a silk worker once arrested for alleged prostitution , was not the ideal romantic figure of Bellman 's songs . Fredman 's songs also include Old Testament figures such as Noah and Judith .
Bellman achieved his effects of rococo elegance and humour through precisely organised incongruity . For example , Epistle 25 , " Blåsen nu alla ! " ( All blow now ! ) , begins with Venus crossing the water , as in François Boucher 'sTriumph of Venus , but when she disembarks , Bellman transforms her into a lustful Ulla Winblad . Similarly , the ornate and civilized minuet melody of " Ack du min Moder " ( Alas , thou my mother ) contrasts with the text : Fredman is lying with a hangover in the gutter outside a tavern , complaining bitterly about life . Ulla Winblad ( " vineleaf " ) recurs through the Epistles ; Britten Austin comments that
Ulla is at once a nymph of the taverns and a goddess of a rococo universe of graceful and hot imaginings .
The songs are " most ingeniously " set to music , the melodies accentuated by the bold construction of music , word pictures and choice of words , while the music brings out a hidden dimension not seen if the words are simply read as verse . The poems themselves , far from being the brilliant improvisations that they appear , are striking in their " formal virtuosity " . They may be drinking songs in name , but in structure they are tightly woven into a precise metre , situating the " frenzied bacchanalia within a strict and decorous rococo frame . "
Bellman was a gifted entertainer and mimic . He was able to
go into a room apart and behind a half @-@ open door mimic twenty or thirty people at the same time , a crowd pushing its way on to one of the Djurgården ferries , perhaps , or the uproarious atmosphere of a seaman 's tavern . The illusion was so startling , his listeners could have sworn a mob of ' shoe @-@ polishers , customs spies , seamen … coalmen , washerwomen … herring packers , tailors and bird @-@ catchers ' had burst into the next room .
In 1790 , the Swedish Academy awarded Bellman its annual Lundblad prize of 50 Riksdaler for the most interesting piece of literature of the year . Although Fredman 's Epistles was neither exactly literature as understood by the academy , nor meeting the standards of elegant taste , Johan Henric Kellgren and the King ensured that Bellman won the prize .
= = = Later life = = =
After the assassination of the King at the Stockholm opera in 1792 , support for the liberal arts was withdrawn . Bellman , already in poor health from alcoholism , went into decline , drinking increasingly heavily . His drinking very likely contributed to his gout , which troubled him badly in 1790 . He also caught tuberculosis : the disease had already killed his mother , and by the winter of 1792 , he was seriously ill .
As well as being ill , he was imprisoned — after struggling with debts and haunted by the threat of ruin and imprisonment all his life — " for a wretched [ ly small ] debt of 150 Rdr " . The rumour was that a former Customs colleague , E. G. Nobelius , had had his advances to Louise Bellman rejected , and in revenge had sued Bellman for the debt , knowing he was penniless : he owed a total of almost 4 @,@ 000 Riksdaler . On 11 February 1795 , he died in his sleep in his house in Gamla Kungsholmsbrogatan . He was buried in Klara churchyard with no gravestone , its location now unknown . The Swedish Academy belatedly placed a memorial in the churchyard in 1851 , complete with a bronze medallion by Johan Tobias Sergel .
= = Reception = =
King Gustav III called Bellman " Il signor improvisatore " ( The master improviser ) .
Bellman has been compared with poets and musicians as diverse as Shakespeare and Beethoven . Åse Kleveland notes that he has been called " Swedish poetry 's Mozart , and Hogarth " , observing that
The comparison with Hogarth was no accident . Like the English portrait painter , Bellman drew detailed pictures of his time in his songs , not so much of life at court as of ordinary people 's everyday .
Paul Britten Austin says instead simply that :
Bellman is unique among great poets , I think , in that virtually his entire opus is conceived to music . Other poets , of course , notably our Elizabethans , have written songs . But song was only one branch of their art . They did not leave behind , as Bellman did , a great musical @-@ literary work nor paint in words and music a canvas of their age . Nor are their songs dramatic .
= = Legacy = =
Bellman 's poetry continued to be read and sung throughout the nineteenth century , contrary to the widespread belief among researchers that he was largely forgotten during this period . His songs were sung especially by the urban bourgeoisie and in fraternities , but also in aristocratic circles and ordinary people in the countryside . The Orphei Drängar Vocal Society , named after a phrase in Epistle 14 , was founded in Uppsala in 1853 ; the song became their trademark . The Epistles and Songs were published in chapbooks , sung at festivals and performed in a variety of concerts and entertainments . Figures such as Fredman , Ulla Winblad and Movitz , as well as Bellman himself were painted on tavern walls and memorabilia such as plates , beer tankards and hipflasks . Curiously , Bellman was celebrated at least as enthusiastically in polite and abstemious circles , though with bowdlerized versions of the songs .
Major interpreters of Bellman 's songs include the modern Swedish singer Fred Åkerström and the Dutch @-@ born Cornelis Vreeswijk . Other recordings have been made by Evert Taube and his son Sven @-@ Bertil Taube , and as rock music by Joakim Thåström , Candlemass or Marduk . They are also performed as choral music and as drinking songs .
Bellman has been translated into at least 20 languages , including English , most notably by Paul Britten Austin , and into German , for example by Hannes Wader . German Communist leader Karl Liebknecht liked Bellman 's songs and translated some into German . Hans Christian Andersen was one of the first to translate Bellman into Danish . Bellman 's songs have been translated and recorded in Icelandic ( by Bubbi ) , Italian , French , Finnish ( for instance by Vesa @-@ Matti Loiri ) , Russian , Chuvash and Yiddish . English interpretations have been recorded by William Clauson , Martin Best , Freddie Langrind made some Norwegian translations in 2008 . Sven @-@ Bertil Taube , Roger Hinchliffe and Martin Bagge . Schoolchildren two hundred years on still learn some of his songs , and several including Gubben Noak and Fjäriln vingad are known by heart by many Swedes .
Books in English with translations of Bellman 's work have been written by Charles Wharton Stork in 1917 , Hendrik Willem van Loon in 1939 , Paul Britten Austin in 1967 and 1990 , and the historian Michael Roberts in 1977 – 1991 . In English the most thorough treatment of Bellman 's life is also by Britten Austin . Van Loon 's The Last of the Troubadours : The Life and Music of Carl Michael Bellman ( 1740 – 1795 ) was inspired by a visit to Sweden , and tried to introduce the unknown Bellman to an American audience , but critics felt his version of twenty of the songs was " stiff and often ungraceful " , not doing justice to their composer .
Bellman was the subject of an 1844 ballet choreographed by August Bournonville . Bellman features as a character , along with Ulla Winblad and King Gustav III , in the first episode of the Swedish television series " Nisse Hults historiska snedsteg " ( Nisse Hult 's historical slips ) by SVT Drama . Bellman appears with his cittern and various objects from Fredman 's Epistles and Fredman 's Songs on a 100 Swedish kroner postage stamp issued in 2014 and designed by Beata Boucht ; he was shown on earlier Swedish stamps in 1940 and 1990 , commemorating the 200th and 250th anniversaries of his birth , and again in 2006 . Bellmansgatan in Stockholm 's Södermalm district is named for Bellman ; Stieg Larsson places the apartment of his Millennium trilogy hero Mikael Blomkvist in Bellmansgatan , which Dan Burstein and Arne de Keijzer suggest is meant to provide Bellman associations .
Swedish schoolchildren tell Bellman jokes about a person named Bellman , an antihero or modern @-@ day trickster with little or no connection to the poet . The first known Bellman joke is in a book from 1835 , which quoted a letter written in 1808 by a contemporary of Bellman . 19th century Bellman jokes were told by adults and focused on Bellman 's life at court ; they often related to sex . In the 20th century , the ' Bellman ' character became generic , the jokes were told by schoolchildren , and often related to bodily functions . The jokes have been studied by anthropologists and psychologists since the 1950s .
= = = Bellmanmuseet = = =
Stora Henriksvik , also called the Bellman museum ( Bellmanmuseet ) for its small permanent Bellman exhibition , celebrates his life and work with paintings , replica objects and a beachside café in a 17th @-@ century Stockholm house . The place , beside the beach at Långholm , was in Bellman 's time called Lilla Sjötullen ( The Small Lake @-@ Customs House ) where farmers from Lake Mälaren had to pay a toll on the goods they were taking to market in Stockholm 's Gamla stan . The place is mentioned in Epistle No. 48 , Solen glimmar blank och trind .
= = = Bellmansällskapet = = =
The Bellman Society ( Bellmansällskapet ) , founded in Stockholm on the anniversary of Bellman 's birth in 1919 , fosters interest in Bellman and supports research into the man and his work . To these ends it organises concerts , lectures and excursions . It produces the series of Bellmanstudier , starting in 1924 , so far running to 24 volumes , as well as facsimile prints of Bellman documents , essay collections , and Yngve Berg 's Bellman porcelain . It has published recordings including Alla Fredmans Epistlar ( All Fredman 's Epistles ) and Alla Fredmans Sånger ( All Fredman 's Songs ) . The Society 's newsletter is called Hwad behagas ? .
= = Works = =
Månan ( The Moon ) , Nyström och Stolpe , 1760
Bacchi Tempel ( Temple of Bacchus ) , 1783
Fredmans Epistlar ( Fredman 's Epistles ) , 1790
Fredmans Sånger ( Fredman 's Songs ) , 1791
Samlade verk ( Collected Works )
= = = English = = =
Britten Austin , Paul . The Life and Songs of Carl Michael Bellman : Genius of the Swedish Rococo . Allhem , Malmö American @-@ Scandinavian Foundation , New York , 1967 . ISBN 978 @-@ 3 @-@ 932759 @-@ 00 @-@ 0
Britten Austin , Paul . Carl Michael Bellman : Sweden 's Shakespeare of the Guitar Song . Stockholm : Proprius , 1998 .
Britten Austin , Paul . Fredman 's Epistles and Songs . Stockholm : Proprius , 1990 and 1999 .
Van Loon , Hendrik Willem and Grace Castagnetta . The Last of the Troubadours . New York : Simon and Schuster , 1939 .
Massengale , James . The Musical @-@ Poetic Method of Carl Michael Bellman . PhD thesis , self @-@ published . ISBN 978 @-@ 9 @-@ 15540 @-@ 849 @-@ 7
Roberts , Michael . Epistles and Songs . Grahamstown , three volumes , 1977 – 1981 .
Stork , Charles Wharton . Anthology of Swedish lyrics from 1750 to 1915 . New York : The American @-@ Scandinavian Foundation , 1917 .
= = = Swedish = = =
Andersson , Ingvar , Agne Beijer , Bertil Kjellberg , Bo Lindorm ( 1979 ) . Ny svensk historia – Gustavianskt 1771 – 1810 [ New Swedish history – Gustavian 1771 – 1810 ] . ISBN 91 @-@ 46 @-@ 13373 @-@ 9 .
Brunner , Ernst ( 2002 ) . Fukta din aska [ Moisten your ashes ] . Bonnier . ISBN 91 @-@ 0 @-@ 058026 @-@ 0 .
Eriksson , Lars @-@ Göran , ed . ( 1982 ) . Kring Bellmann [ Around Bellman ] . Stockholm : Wahlström & Widstrand . ISBN 91 @-@ 46 @-@ 14135 @-@ 9 .
Hassler , Göran ( 1989 ) . Bellman – en antologi [ Bellman – an anthology ] . Peter Dahl ( illus . ) . En bok för alla . ISBN 91 @-@ 7448 @-@ 742 @-@ 6 .
Henrikson , Alf ( 1986 ) . Ekot av ett skott – öden kring 1792 [ The echo of a shot – life around 1792 ] . Höganäs : Bra Böcker . ISBN 91 @-@ 7752 @-@ 124 @-@ 2 .
Huldén , Lars ( 1991 ) . Carl Michael Bellman . Stockholm : Natur och kultur . ISBN 91 @-@ 27 @-@ 03767 @-@ 3 .
Hägg , Göran ( 1996 ) . Den svenska litteraturhistorien [ The Swedish literature history ] . Stockholm : Wahlström & Widstrand . ISBN 91 @-@ 46 @-@ 17629 @-@ 2 .
Jonshult , Bengt Gustaf ( 1990 ) . Med Bellman på Haga och Carlberg [ With Bellman at Haga and Carlberg ] . Solna : Solna Hembygdsförening . ISBN 91 @-@ 971109 @-@ 1 @-@ 4 , ISSN 0280 @-@ 3062 .
Kleveland , Åse ( 1984 ) . Fredmans epistlar & sånger [ The songs and epistles of Fredman ] . Svenolov Ehrén ( illus . ) . Stockholm : Informationsförlaget . ISBN 91 @-@ 7736 @-@ 059 @-@ 1 . ( with facsimiles of sheet music from first editions in 1790 , 1791 )
Matz , Edvard ( 2004 ) . Carl Michael Bellman – Nymfer och friskt kalas [ Carl Michael Bellman – Nymphs and splendid feasts ] . Lund : Historiska Media . ISBN 91 @-@ 89442 @-@ 97 @-@ 0 .
Hjord , Bengt , ed . ( 1989 ) . " " Carl Michael Bellmans okända släkt " by Marianne Nyström pp. 209 @-@ 226 and " Skalde @-@ Anor : Carl Michael Bellmans härstammning " by Håkan Skogsjö pp. 227 @-@ 236 " . Stadsbor i gångna tider : Släktforskaren och staden : Årsbok 1989 [ City dwellers in olden times : The genealogist and the town ] . Stockholm : Sveriges Släktforskarförbund , Norstedts Tryckeri . ISBN 91 @-@ 87676 @-@ 03 @-@ 6 .
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= Lions ( album ) =
Lions is the sixth studio album by American rock band The Black Crowes . It was released in 2001 as their first album on V2 Records following their departure from Columbia , and is their only studio album to feature guitarist Audley Freed . Lions was recorded in New York City in January and February of that year , and was produced by Don Was . Bass guitar duties were shared by Rich Robinson and Was , as Greg Rzab had left the band and was not replaced until the tour that followed the release of the album .
The album debuted on the Billboard 200 at its peak position of 20 , selling more than 53 @,@ 000 copies in its first week . Lions received mixed reviews ; although the overall sound of the album generally garnered praise , a frequent complaint was the lack of " memorable " songs . The critics who rated Lions lowest considered it a poor imitation of the band 's influences , such as Led Zeppelin .
The band supported Lions with two North American tours ( one with Oasis co @-@ headlining ) , and a short tour of Europe and Japan in between . Soundboard recordings of several concerts were available for download to those who owned the album . Following the tour , the band went on hiatus until 2005 .
= = Background = =
The Black Crowes began writing songs for the follow @-@ up to their 1999 album By Your Side as free agents , having left Columbia Records through a loophole in their contract . The decision to leave was driven by Columbia 's promotion of By Your Side . According to band member Rich Robinson , " That record was destined to fail because ... [ Columbia executives ] just said , ' It 's not going to do well ... It 's no use wasting time or money . ' " The band also was frustrated by the label 's request for albums sounding similar to their first , 1990 's Shake Your Money Maker .
In late 1999 , lead vocalist Chris Robinson began a relationship with Kate Hudson , which would influence subtly the lyrics on Lions . The pair met at a Friday night party in Manhattan , which led to a Saturday stroll through Central Park and a Sunday move @-@ in . Their wedding at the Aspen , Colorado , ranch of Kurt Russell and Kate 's mother , Goldie Hawn , followed on December 31 , 2000 .
Before the 2000 tour with Jimmy Page , bassist Sven Pipien was fired after arriving late for a performance and missing the return flight . Rich said it was not enough to warrant termination , but Pipien 's defensiveness when confronted about the incident was too much to handle . Greg Rzab and Andy Hess were considered as replacements ; the band chose Rzab because he had more touring experience than Hess . Rzab , however , departed before the recording of Lions .
In mid @-@ 2000 , the band signed with Richard Branson 's V2 Records . Rich explained , " The cool thing about V2 , the reason that we chose them , is that they told us , ' You guys go make the record you want to make . Then give it to us and we 'll sell it . ' That 's what we needed to hear . " The freedom V2 afforded through its hands @-@ off approach influenced not only the music , but the album title as well . According to Chris , " Lions is a symbol that stands for the fierce feeling and freedom that music allows you . "
= = Writing and production = =
Chris Robinson granted that the experience of playing Led Zeppelin songs with Jimmy Page influenced Lions , but not on a song @-@ by @-@ song basis . " Led Zeppelin 's music is very dramatic and very dynamic . That 's something we 've attempted to do with our style also . I think it definitely affected how we make our music . " Funk and R & B were bigger influences than on past albums , and " Miracle to Me " was influenced by Nick Drake .
Chris claimed Kate Hudson 's influence on his lyrics was subtle : " More so than a literal reference to her , it 's the vantage point from where I 'm writing . It 's the reasons that I 'm singing and it 's the feeling . That is an influence far greater than the literal influence . " He did grant , however , that " Soul Singing " and " Miracle to Me " were written with Hudson in mind , and explained that the album 's track order roughly follows a path from confusion to clarity that mirrored his own . Producer Don Was said of Chris , " I realized he was taking on something that was significant . He was writing about becoming a man ... There 's a lot of old man / young man symbolism that 's a self @-@ conversation ... I don 't know that anyone has actually chronicled being 33 [ years old ] as well as this album . "
Heated discussions during the writing of Lions were rare , owing to the Robinson brothers ' usual method in which Rich writes the music and Chris writes the lyrics . " Soul Singing " was the only song to cause disagreement ; " I 'd written this part where although the vocals changed the music stayed the same throughout . I thought we should add something or just not finish it , but Chris thought it was already a song , and a good one . So we talked about that one for a while " , Rich recalled .
The Black Crowes had previously sent Was demos to interest him in producing By Your Side , but Was believed the demos were good enough to be the album . Columbia Records disagreed with Was ' assessment , however , leading to Kevin Shirley 's hiring . With complete artistic control under V2 Records , the band was free to hire Was for Lions . Recording took place in January and February 2001 at Montana Rehearsal Studios and Theater 99 Recording in New York City . The recording sessions progressed as smoothly as the writing ; only " Come On " caused conflict between the band and Was . Rich acknowledged , " We must have recorded ' Come On ' about five times in different ways ... Then [ Was ] just took it away with him and came back with this different mix " , which impressed the band , leading to its inclusion on the album . The band ultimately was satisfied by the recording experience , finding that Was was devoted to helping realize their vision for the album rather than imposing his own .
The sessions were recorded on tape and Pro @-@ Tools simultaneously ; the band ultimately chose to use the tape version , as they preferred its sound quality . Most songs were recorded live with the band members playing together in one room , and microphones set up to capture the overall sound rather than that of individual instruments . Was felt this approach best approximated the feel of a Black Crowes concert , later noting that the Lions songs debuted at a private show in February 2001 " sounded exactly like the record . " Most of the recordings that comprise the album were recorded during preproduction , the purpose of which was to test arrangements . " [ W ] e didn 't think we were recording the record . And it turned out to be great " said Rich . Audley Freed played guitar on only three tracks because Rich did not want " the meat of the song , which is the riff " , to get lost in a " wall of sound " . Though Rich brought his entire collection of guitars and a number of amplifiers , he mostly recorded with a 1954 Fender Esquire through a Harry Joyce amp . To achieve a resonator @-@ like tone on " Soul Singing " , he used a James Trussart metal @-@ bodied electric . Since Andy Hess did not join The Black Crowes until the above private show , the band did not have a bassist during the recording sessions ; Rich thus played bass on most tracks . On " Lay It All on Me " , however , Rich played piano , leaving the bass guitar duties to Don Was .
A total of twenty songs were recorded during the Lions sessions . Of the seven cut from the album , four were mixed and mastered for potential release ; three ( " Last Time Again " , " Love Is Now " and " Sleepyheads " ) appeared as B @-@ sides , and the other ( " The Pretty Gurl Song " ) circulates on a bootleg recording .
= = Promotion and release = =
Soon after the Lions sessions , V2 Records threw a " completion party " at The Bank in New York City , at which The Black Crowes performed four songs from the new album , five songs from their catalog and a cover of Fleetwood Mac 's " Oh Well " . The band then played scattered dates in the U.S. and UK , including an appearance on Later ... with Jools Holland , ahead of Lions ' release . During this sequence of concerts , every song from the album was performed except " Losing My Mind " and " Ozone Mama " ; the remaining two would be played on the album @-@ supporting tour .
Lions was released on May 7 , 2001 , in the UK and a day later in the U.S. ; it subsequently debuted at its peak position of number 20 on the Billboard 200 chart , and sold over 53 @,@ 000 copies in its first week . As of January 2002 , the album had sold 192 @,@ 000 copies in the U.S.
Around the album 's release , band members made numerous promotional appearances . Chris Robinson guested on The Daily Show with Jon Stewart the day before the album was released in the U.S. , and Chris and Steve Gorman appeared on The Howard Stern Show the following day . The band performed " Soul Singing " on The Tonight Show with Jay Leno on May 10 , and was inducted into Hollywood 's RockWalk four days later . A second late night television performance of " Soul Singing " took place on June 6 , this time on the Late Show with David Letterman .
" Lickin ' " was the first single from the album ; it peaked at number 9 on Billboard 's Mainstream Rock Tracks on May 19 . The song 's promotional video was a compilation of various takes of a static , low @-@ angle shot of the band performing the song on a tiny stage . Second single " Soul Singing " peaked at number 12 on the same chart on August 18 ; its promotional video featured the band playing in a grassy field as the sun rises in the sky . A third single , " Miracle to Me " , was canceled , but not before a promotional video was shot of the band ostensibly recording the song in a studio . Videos also were filmed for " Come On " , " Greasy Grass River " and " Cypress Tree " . Despite not playing on the album , Andy Hess appears in some of these videos , all of which are available as streaming media on the band 's official website .
= = Critical reception = =
Media reviews of Lions were mixed . Numerous writers detected a Led Zeppelin influence ( which was praised by some , but panned by others ) and attributed it to The Black Crowes ' recent tour with Jimmy Page . Dave McKenna , writing for The Washington Post , compared Steve Gorman 's drumming to that of John Bonham and found analogs to specific guitar and keyboard tones in Led Zeppelin albums . Nigel Williamson of The Times found similarities in Chris Robinson 's voice on " Come On " to that of Robert Plant , and wrote that the song " could almost be a Led Zeppelin II cast off . " Other reviewers noted similarities to Aerosmith ; Howard Cohen of The Miami Herald called " Lickin ' " " the best Aerosmith single that band hasn 't recorded in years . " The perceived lack of originality , though , turned off some critics . The Herald Sun 's Andrew McUtchen inferred " The Black Crowes are unaware it 's no longer the ' 70s and after one listen to Lions ... it 's clear someone should tell them . " Everett True of Playlouder concurred , writing " It 's blindingly obvious the Crowes are imitators , and always will be " , though Elysa Gardner , writing for USA Today , recognized the band " exhibit an energy and dexterity that compensate — at least somewhat — for their lack of invention . "
Many reviewers praised the sound of Lions but felt the songs were weak . Writing for dotmusic , John Mulvey highlighted the " gutsy , no @-@ messing sound " , but appreciated " Cosmic Friend " for being " as impressively mad as you 'd hope , too , beginning like Beatles psychedelia , taking in massive Brazilian drumming and a touch of pedal steel , before coalescing into furious heavy rock . " Stephen Thomas Erlewine of Allmusic described Lions as a " powerful , textured hard rock record that covers a lot of ground , surging from powerful riffs to gospel choruses and funkier @-@ than @-@ expected riffs " , though he also complained that " the songs can seem incomplete . " Critics disagreed on which songs were lacking , though . " Losing My Mind " and " Young Man , Old Man " were called " highlights " by Jane Stevenson of the Toronto Sun , though elsewhere the former was called " woeful " and the latter a " ' Freddie 's Dead ' vamp " that should have been skipped .
The lyrics of Lions were another target for the critics . Mark Beaumont of NME stated that the eloquence ends at the " Come awn come awn ! / Everyone ! " chorus of " Come On " , and Stephen Thompson of The A.V. Club bemoaned that " hoary tropes abound " .
= = Concert tours = =
Shortly after the release of Lions , The Black Crowes and Oasis , with opening band Spacehog , embarked on a co @-@ headlining tour of North American theaters and amphitheaters . The Black Crowes had previously met Liam and Noel Gallagher and hit it off ; " ... so we called them and asked them if they were interested [ in touring together ] . And so they were like , ' Yeah , we 'd love to ! ' " said Rich . The Black Crowes performed last each night , and their seventy @-@ five @-@ minute set always included numerous songs from Lions . Members of Oasis typically would join them for an encore cover such as " Lucifer Sam " , " Can 't You Hear Me Knocking " or " Road Runner " .
The Black Crowes followed the tour with one @-@ off dates and festivals across Europe and Japan , including shows opening for Neil Young . Most of these shows , as well as most of the dates with Oasis , were made available by V2 Records as soundboard recordings . With Lions loaded in a CD @-@ ROM drive , one could stream each show , as well as download one live track per week and one show in its entirety .
Following a month @-@ long break , the group returned to the road in late August for their Listen Massive Tour , with Beachwood Sparks as the opening band . The tour was billed as a return to two @-@ hour shows featuring a rotating set list . The September 11 show at the Greek Theatre in Los Angeles was canceled , but the band performed the next evening in Tucson , Arizona , as scheduled . All profits and merchandise sales from the following week 's three shows at the Beacon Theatre in New York City were donated to the New York State World Trade Center Relief Fund and the New York City Public / Private Initiative . While in New York City , Chris and Rich performed " By Your Side " on Late Night with Conan O 'Brien . The Listen Massive Tour concluded with a 140 @-@ minute show at the Orpheum Theatre in Boston , Massachusetts , on October 31 . This would be Andy Hess and Audley Freed 's last show as band members , as The Black Crowes went on hiatus shortly thereafter .
= = Track listing = =
All songs written by Rich and Chris Robinson .
" Midnight from the Inside Out " – 4 : 21
" Lickin ' " – 3 : 42
" Come On " – 2 : 58
" No Use Lying " – 4 : 57
" Losing My Mind " – 4 : 26
" Ozone Mama " – 3 : 54
" Greasy Grass River " – 3 : 20
" Soul Singing " – 3 : 54
" Miracle to Me " – 4 : 42
" Young Man , Old Man " – 4 : 14
" Cosmic Friend " – 5 : 23
" Cypress Tree " – 3 : 41
" Lay It All on Me " – 5 : 29
Japanese version
" Love Is Now " – 4 : 22
= = Personnel = =
= = Chart positions = =
= = = Album = = =
= = = Singles = = =
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= Above All State Park =
Above All State Park is an undeveloped Connecticut state park located in the town of Warren . Founded in 1927 , the park became the site of a military radar installation from 1957 to 1968 . Remnants of the Cold War defense installation may be seen . The park 's only amenities are unmarked , informal trails that are not maintained by the Connecticut Department of Energy and Environmental Protection .
= = History = =
In his book on Connecticut 's state parks , author Joseph Leary traces the name to when the land was used by the Stone family , who claimed it was the highest working farm by elevation in all of Connecticut . During the 19th century , the site was considered for the " Above @-@ All Mountain House , " a holiday resort that was never built . Leary writes that despite its name , the park is not " above all " in terms of scale , views or elevation and cites the scale of Lake Waramaug State Park , the views of Mount Tom State Park , and the elevation of Dennis Hill State Park . According to Connecticut : A Guide to Its Roads , Lore , and People , the park 's name came from its " top of the world " isolation .
The park was founded in 1927 when the heirs of Seymour Strong gifted three acres of land to the state . The State of Connecticut decided to purchase 28 additional acres from the Stanley estate in December 1927 . Above All State Park was the 36th state park to be designated . From June 1957 to June 1968 , the state park became a military installation known as the New Preston Gap @-@ Filler RADAR Annex P @-@ 50A / Z @-@ 50A . In 1968 , a dirt road and cinder block building , a bunker , were added to the top of the hill as part of an upgrade to the site . Located behind the bunker was the launchpad for the Nike missiles , each carrying a 2 @-@ to @-@ 40 kiloton nuclear warhead . The site also functioned as the command and control center , but Bedell states that it was the command center for the twelve Nike sites across Connecticut . However , the site is also described as an unmanned gap @-@ filler that " providing low altitude coverage " that " consisted of the radar and tower along with the building which contained the radar equipment and a diesel generator . " Bedell states that the park reappeared on the maps after its decommissioning , but has since reverted to secrecy . This claim of secrecy is countered by it being listed on the Connecticut Department of Energy and Environmental Protection website .
In 1981 , the park was the subject of a study by Northeast Utilities as a possible wind power site . An anemometer and wind vane were placed atop a 65 @-@ foot ( 20 m ) tower to record wind data for no less than one year .
= = Status = =
The Above All State Park is managed by the Connecticut Department of Energy and Environmental Protection , but it is unmarked and undeveloped . The location of the military site is the subject of debate because the website Radomes states that the site is " not within a state park as earlier reported , " but proceeds to give the same directions and description as Leary and Bedell . Photos included on the Radome website show the condition of the site in 2001 and 2006 : both show the buildings are extant in " excellent condition , " but the site says the radar tower and chain @-@ link fencing are missing . The site has been vandalized by graffiti .
The park is accessed off Connecticut Route 341 and requires passing a barred gate . There are no markers , toilets , or other facilities at the Above All State Park ; there are some informal trails near the top of the park that are not maintained or marked by the Connecticut Department of Energy and Environmental Protection .
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= Paul Kariya =
Paul Tetsuhiko Kariya ( born October 16 , 1974 ) is a Canadian former professional ice hockey winger who played 15 seasons in the National Hockey League ( NHL ) . Known as a skilled and fast @-@ skating offensive player , he played in the NHL for the Mighty Ducks of Anaheim , Colorado Avalanche , Nashville Predators and St. Louis Blues .
After a two @-@ year career with the Penticton Panthers , in which he was named Canadian Junior A Player of the Year in 1992 , Kariya joined the college ranks with the University of Maine 's Black Bears men 's ice hockey team . In his freshman year , he received the Hobey Baker Award while leading his team to the 1993 NCAA title . Selected fourth overall in the 1993 NHL Entry Draft by the Mighty Ducks , he joined the team in 1994 – 95 and was named to the NHL All @-@ Rookie Team . During his nine @-@ year tenure with Anaheim , Kariya formed an effective duo with fellow winger Teemu Selänne that helped him to three NHL First All @-@ Star Team distinctions , while also finishing as the first runner @-@ up for the Hart Memorial Trophy in 1997 . Not an aggressive player , he won back @-@ to @-@ back Lady Byng Trophies in 1996 and 1997 as the League 's most gentlemanly player . Serving as a captain for seven seasons , he led the Mighty Ducks to the 2003 Stanley Cup Finals , where they lost to the New Jersey Devils in seven games . After a single @-@ season stint with the Avalanche for the purpose of reuniting with Selänne , who had previously been traded away from Anaheim , Kariya signed with the Predators in August 2005 . He played two seasons in Nashville , setting team records for assists and points scored in a single @-@ season in 2005 – 06 . Kariya then finished his career playing three seasons with the Blues .
Internationally , Kariya represented Canada on numerous stages and at different levels . He won gold at the 1993 World Junior Championships , his second appearance at the tournament . He made his first appearance at the Winter Olympics in 1994 as an amateur , winning silver . Eight years later , he helped Canada win gold at the Winter Olympics in Salt Lake City . In between Olympic appearances , he won gold and silver at the 1994 and 1996 World Championships , respectively .
Throughout his NHL career , Kariya struggled with concussions , which eventually forced his retirement in June 2011 after sitting out the 2010 – 11 season because of post @-@ concussion syndrome . Psychiatrist Daniel Amen provided diagnosis and therapy for Kariya , advising him to retire as a professional , which he did .
= = Playing career = =
= = = Amateur = = =
Kariya played two seasons of Junior A with the Penticton Panthers of the British Columbia Junior Hockey League ( BCJHL ) , beginning in 1990 – 91 . Recording 45 goals and 112 points over 54 games in his first season , he was awarded the Vern Dye and Bruce Allison Memorial Trophies as the Interior Conference 's most valuable player ( MVP ) and rookie of the year , respectively . The following season , he improved to 46 goals and 132 points over 40 games and was awarded the Vern Dye Memorial Trophy for a second consecutive year ; he was also further distinguished as the Canadian Junior A Player of the Year .
During his second BCJHL season , in November 1991 , he verbally committed to joining the Maine Black Bears of the National Collegiate Athletics Association ( NCAA ) ' s Hockey East conference for the 1992 – 93 campaign . Before deciding to join the University of Maine , Kariya was also accepted and had visited Boston University and Harvard University for their respective programs , while entertaining offers from several other NCAA teams . He also turned down major junior teams from the Western Hockey League ( WHL ) . His WHL rights originally belonged to the Victoria Cougars before they were traded to the Tri @-@ City Americans in October 1991 .
In his first year with the Black Bears , Kariya scored 100 points ( 25 goals and 75 assists ) in 39 games . He was named Hockey East 's Rookie and Player of the Year , becoming the second player to receive both awards in the same year after Brian Leetch did so with Boston College in 1987 . Kariya also received Hockey East First All @-@ Star Team honours alongside teammates Jim Montgomery , Chris Imes and Mike Dunham . Nationally , Kariya was recognized with the Hobey Baker Award as the NCAA 's top player , becoming the first freshman in history to earn the distinction . During the Black Bears ' playoff run , Head Coach Shawn Walsh heralded him as one of the top three college players all @-@ time . Kariya 's efforts led Maine to a record of 42 wins , one loss and two ties , en route to the Lamoriello Trophy as the Hockey East 's playoff champion and the NCAA title as the country 's top college team . Facing Lake Superior State University in the NCAA final , Kariya registered three assists in the third period to help Maine overcome a two @-@ goal deficit ; they won the game 5 – 4 .
A top prospect heading into the off @-@ season , Kariya was projected to be selected between second and fifth overall in the 1993 NHL Entry Draft . Kariya went on to be chosen fourth overall by the Mighty Ducks of Anaheim , one of the League 's two expansion teams . In addition to becoming Anaheim 's first @-@ ever draft pick , he also became the second @-@ highest pick from Vancouver ( after Barry Beck was chosen by the Colorado Rockies second overall in 1977 ) . Following his draft , Kariya returned to the University of Maine for his sophomore year as team captain . He had been voted by his teammates for the role , along with defenceman Chris Imes . With Imes joining the United States ' national team full @-@ time in 1993 – 94 , however , Kariya returned as the lone captain . Kariya was also committed to the Canadian national team in preparation for the 1994 Winter Olympics and left the Black Bears in December 1993 . Following the Olympics , Kariya chose not to return to Maine , foregoing his remaining college hockey eligibility to turn professional with the Mighty Ducks . He finished the season with seven goals and 41 points over 23 games with the national team , as well as eight goals and 24 points over 12 games with Maine .
Five years after his tenure with the Black Bears , Kariya was selected for induction into the University of Maine Sports Hall of Fame . The ceremony was held on October 15 , 1999 , at Wells Conference Center on the University 's Orono campus . Two years later , in July 2001 , Kariya 's number 9 was retired by the Black Bears .
= = = Mighty Ducks of Anaheim = = =
= = = = 1994 – 98 = = = =
Upon returning from the 1994 Olympics , Kariya began contract negotiations with the Mighty Ducks in hopes of joining the team for the remainder of the 1993 – 94 NHL season . However , a deal failed to materialize and there was speculation in the media that he would instead play in Europe . It was reported that Kariya was seeking a US $ 12 million contract over five years from the Ducks . As both sides continued contract talks leading up to training camp for the 1994 – 95 season , Kariya agreed to a three @-@ year , $ 6 @.@ 5 million deal on August 31 , 1994 . The majority of the contract consisted of a signing bonus worth $ 4 @.@ 775 million , while the annual base salary was valued at $ 575 @,@ 000 . Clarification regarding Kariya 's free agency status had he not signed was required from the League before the contract was agreed upon ; it was ruled that he would have become a free agent on June 1 , 1995 , had the Mighty Ducks not signed him by then .
Garnering a great degree of attention from the Mighty Ducks ' fanbase , Kariya 's first public practice at Arrowhead Pond drew an attendance of 9 @,@ 000 , while 16 @,@ 000 fans watched his first exhibition game . Due to the NHL lockout , resulting from a dispute between players and owners , his regular season debut was delayed until January 1995 and the campaign was shortened to 48 games . During the suspension , Kariya participated in a charity tournament held in Hamilton , Ontario , sponsored by the National Hockey League Players ' Association ( NHLPA ) .
As NHL play resumed , Kariya made his debut against the Edmonton Oilers . He later scored his first career NHL goal on January 21 , 1995 , against Winnipeg Jets goaltender Tim Cheveldae . The goal came after a scramble around the crease knocked the puck loose in front of the net on a power play ; Anaheim won the game 4 – 3 . During his rookie season , he played on a line with Stéphan Lebeau and Shaun Van Allen . Early in the campaign , Kariya held the scoring lead amongst League rookies , but was later overtaken by Quebec Nordiques centre Peter Forsberg . Playing in 47 games , Kariya finished the season with a team @-@ leading 18 goals and 39 points . As a team , however , the Mighty Ducks struggled in their second year since joining the NHL , finishing last in the Western Conference . Nominated for the Calder Memorial Trophy as the League 's rookie of the year , Kariya lost the award to Forsberg . Despite being edged out , Kariya was named to the NHL All @-@ Rookie Team . His play during his first NHL season earned him comparisons to Wayne Gretzky for his vision and Pavel Bure for his speed , while also earning accolades from Gretzky himself .
During Kariya 's second season , he was chosen to play for the Western Conference in the 1996 All @-@ Star Game as the lone Ducks representative . At the time of his selection , in January 1996 , he was ranked 14th in League scoring with 51 points ( 23 goals and 28 assists ) over 42 games . He later replaced the injured Pavel Bure of the Vancouver Canucks on the West 's starting lineup . Kariya scored a goal and an assist for the Western Conference in a 5 – 4 loss to the Eastern Conference . Less than a month after the All @-@ Star Game , the Mighty Ducks acquired Finnish winger Teemu Selänne in a trade with the Winnipeg Jets . Despite Kariya 's efforts , the Ducks were low @-@ scoring as a team ; the deal was designed to give Kariya offensive support . Following the trade , Ducks centre Steve Rucchin commented , " Paul had a lot of pressure on him ... He singlehandedly won some games for us this year ... Now that we have Teemu , there 's no way everybody can just key on Paul . " Selänne was immediately placed on Kariya 's line ; centred by Rucchin , the two wingers formed one of the League 's most high @-@ scoring duos for several seasons . In the last month of the 1995 – 96 campaign , Kariya achieved the 100 @-@ point single @-@ season mark with a goal and three assists in a 5 – 3 win against the San Jose Sharks on April 7 , 1996 . A week later , he became the 14th @-@ youngest NHL player to register 50 goals in one season , scoring twice in the final game of the campaign , a 5 – 2 win over Winnipeg . With seven goals and seven assists over the final seven games of the season , Kariya was named NHL Player of the Month for April . He finished the season with 50 goals and 58 assists for 108 points , tying him with Selänne for seventh overall in NHL scoring . His three overtime goals set a team record . With 20 penalty minutes over 82 games , Kariya won the Lady Byng Trophy as the League 's most gentlemanly player and was also named to the season @-@ ending NHL First All @-@ Star Team . Following the addition of Selänne , the Mighty Ducks pushed for a playoff spot , winning 12 of their final 15 games , but finished the season ninth place in the West ( the top eight teams qualify for the playoffs ) ; they had an equal 78 points to the eighth @-@ ranked Jets , but finished a spot below them by virtue of having fewer wins .
Following the 1995 – 96 season , Ducks captain Randy Ladouceur retired , leaving the team 's leadership position vacant . After serving as an alternate captain the previous year , Kariya was chosen as the third captain in team history , following Ladoceur and Troy Loney . At 21 years old , he was the youngest active captain in the NHL and remained so until defenceman Bryan McCabe became captain of the New York Islanders two years later . Also during the off @-@ season , there was speculation that the Mighty Ducks would acquire Wayne Gretzky , whose contract had expired with the St. Louis Blues . Gretzky 's agent had publicly declared that the All @-@ Star centre had interest in joining the Ducks , particularly to play with Kariya and Selänne , though the team had not contacted him with an offer . Instead , the Ducks signed 36 @-@ year @-@ old centre Jari Kurri from the New York Rangers . Following the signing , Ducks Head Coach Ron Wilson commented that " A veteran player is much better prepared to play with guys like Teemu and Paul . " ( Though Kariya began the season centred by Kurri , the Finnish veteran did not often play on the top line in his lone season with the team . )
As the ensuing 1996 – 97 season began , Kariya was out of the lineup with a pulled abdominal muscle . After missing the first 11 games of the season , he returned to the lineup at the end of October 1996 . Two weeks after his return , however , he was injured again after suffering a concussion during a game against the Toronto Maple Leafs on November 13 , 1996 , after opposing defenceman Mathieu Schneider hit Kariya in the head with his elbow . While the play was not penalized during the game , Schneider was suspended by the League following the contest . Kariya missed two games as a result of the hit . In the 13 games that he was out of the Ducks ' lineup , the team won one game , lost ten and tied two . Later in the season , Kariya was voted in by fans to the West 's starting lineup in the 1997 All @-@ Star Game . Receiving 210 @,@ 015 votes , he was second among Western Conference wingers to Brett Hull 's 254 @,@ 414 . Joining him on the Western squad were Ducks teammates Selänne and Guy Hebert . During the Game , he scored one goal in an 11 – 7 loss to the East . Returning to club play with the Ducks , he scored the fastest goal to start a game in team history , eight seconds into a match against Colorado on March 9 , 1997 . The contest ended in a 2 – 2 tie . Kariya finished the season with 44 goals and 55 assists , one point short of reaching the 100 @-@ point mark for the second consecutive year . Limited to 69 games due to his injuries , he still ranked third in League point @-@ scoring , behind Selänne and Pittsburgh Penguins captain Mario Lemieux . His + 36 plus @-@ minus rating and ten game @-@ winning goals set Ducks records ( the latter mark was tied by Selänne twice in 1997 – 98 and 2006 – 07 , then broken by Corey Perry 's 11 game @-@ winning goals in 2010 – 11 ) . Nominated for the Hart Memorial Trophy as the League 's MVP , alongside Lemieux and Buffalo Sabres goaltender Dominik Hašek , Kariya finished as a runner @-@ up to Hašek . Kariya did , however , win the Lady Byng Award after recording six penalty minutes during the season . In doing so , he became the third player in NHL history to win the award in consecutive years after Mike Bossy ( 1983 and 1984 ) and Wayne Gretzky ( 1991 and 1992 ) . He was also named to the NHL First All @-@ Star Team once more , an honour he shared with Selänne . His efforts helped the Ducks achieve a winning record ( 36 wins , 33 losses and 13 ties ) and reach the playoffs for the first time in team history . Trailing three @-@ games @-@ to @-@ two against the Phoenix Coyotes in the opening round of the 1997 playoffs , the Ducks faced elimination in Game 6 of the series . Kariya scored two goals in the contest , including the overtime @-@ winner , leading the Ducks to a 3 – 2 win . In the ensuing Game 7 , Anaheim won 3 – 0 to eliminate Phoenix . Facing the ( eventual Stanley Cup champions ) Detroit Red Wings in the second round , they were swept in four games . Of the four @-@ game series , one went to overtime , one went to double overtime and one went to triple overtime . Playing 11 games in his first NHL playoff season , Kariya had seven goals and 13 points , which ranked first in team scoring .
With his original NHL contract expiring in the off @-@ season , Kariya and the Ducks struggled to agree on a new deal . As a result , Kariya missed the first 32 games of the 1997 – 98 campaign . After making $ 2 @.@ 1 million the previous season , he was reportedly asking for a three @-@ year deal worth $ 27 million , while the Ducks countered with five @-@ year , $ 25 million and seven @-@ year , $ 49 million contracts . Both sides eventually agreed on a two @-@ year , $ 14 million deal in December 1997 . While the initial year of the contract paid Kariya a pro @-@ rated salary of $ 5 @.@ 5 million ( it was also agreed in contract negotiations that Kariya would donate $ 2 million of his first year 's salary to Orange County charities ) , the second year of the contract paid him $ 8 @.@ 5 million , making him the second @-@ highest paid player in League history ( behind Mario Lemieux 's $ 11 million salary in 1996 – 97 ) . During his absence from the Ducks , Kariya trained with the Canadian national team in preparation for the 1998 Winter Olympics in Nagano , Japan . Due to the contract impasse , he missed an opportunity to play in his father 's home country , Japan , as the Mighty Ducks opened the season with a two @-@ game series against the Vancouver Canucks in Tokyo — an effort on the NHL 's part to attract attention to the sport ahead of the Olympics . In his first game back , he recorded two goals and two assists , helping the Mighty Ducks rally from a three @-@ goal deficit to beat the Washington Capitals 6 – 4 . During the second period of the contest , he took a team record seven shots on goal .
With several weeks remaining until the start of the Olympics , Kariya suffered another concussion after receiving a cross @-@ check to the face from Chicago Blackhawks defenceman Gary Suter during a game on February 1 , 1998 . Kariya had scored a goal and was standing still at the side of the Blackhawks ' net when Suter hit him . As a result , the Blackhawks defenceman received a four @-@ game suspension from the League . There was wide speculation in the media that the incident was an intentional effort to keep Kariya from playing for Canada at the Olympics ; Suter and teammate Chris Chelios were both members of the United States ' national team . In the past , Suter was also accused of intentionally injuring Wayne Gretzky during a game between Canada and the United States in the 1991 Canada Cup . Canada 's general manager , Bobby Clarke , called the hit a " cheap shot " and publicly echoed the sentiment that Suter wanted to eliminate Kariya from Olympic play . While Kariya was initially expected to recover in time for the Olympics , the injury ( his fourth concussion in three years ) ultimately sidelined him from the competition , as well as the remaining three months of NHL play . Limited to 22 games in 1997 – 98 , Kariya recorded 17 goals and 31 points .
Following Suter 's return from suspension , NHL Senior Vice President Brian Burke was supposed by Ducks Head Coach Pierre Pagé to have said that he would have given Suter a longer ban if the extent of Kariya 's injuries were immediately known . Later in the season , prior to a game between the Blackhawks and Maple Leafs in April 1998 , Suter received a death threat , presumably for his actions against Kariya , forcing the NHL to position added security at the Blackhawks bench for the contest . With Kariya away from the team for extended periods of time , the Ducks struggled and finished second @-@ last in the West .
Suffering from post @-@ concussion syndrome , Kariya experienced headaches and a loss of short @-@ term memory . During his recovery , he was personally encouraged by fellow NHL players Eric Lindros and Pat LaFontaine , who were also dealing with serious concussions . He was not permitted by doctors to begin training until May 1998 . Leading up to the 1998 – 99 season , Kariya told reporters he was ready to play a rougher style to protect himself from the opposition , including " getting [ his ] stick up " against oncoming players . He also adopted a helmet with increased protection , featuring extra padding and a tighter chin strap . In a similar effort , the Ducks additionally acquired enforcers Stu Grimson and Jim McKenzie during the off @-@ season . During his recovery , Kariya was outspoken regarding the culture of the league regarding excessive physicality , as well as the lack of deterrence . In an article from the Sporting News , he commented that , " There 's too much of a lack of respect players have for one another ... If the league wants to stop that kind of conduct , it will have to punish players ... Ten @-@ game suspensions ... and more , have to be brought back to help wake up players . " He also added that " There probably isn 't a player in the league who hasn 't had a concussion . "
= = = = 1998 – 2003 = = = =
Fully recovered for the start of the 1998 – 99 season , Kariya returned to NHL play in October 1998 . During a 3 – 2 loss against the Red Wings in November 1998 , he put a team @-@ record 12 shots on goal . Kariya established several other Ducks records in the first half of the campaign , including a 17 @-@ game point @-@ scoring streak on home ice that ended on January 15 , 1999 . He finished with the second 100 @-@ plus point season of his career with 39 goals and a personal best 62 assists . His assists total set a Ducks record that stood for ten years until Ryan Getzlaf recorded 66 in 2008 – 09 . He ranked third in point @-@ scoring among League scorers , behind Selänne and leader Jaromír Jágr of the Pittsburgh Penguins , while ranking first in the League with 429 shots on goal . Ranked sixth in the West , the Mighty Ducks drew the Red Wings in the opening round of the 1999 playoffs . In Game 3 , Kariya blocked a shot with his skate , breaking his right foot . Unavailable for Game 4 , the Ducks lost to the Red Wings and were eliminated . Prior to his injury , Kariya had a goal and four points over three games . Kariya 's comeback season following injury was capped off with his third NHL First Team All @-@ Star distinction , receiving 47 of the possible 58 first @-@ place votes for the left wing position from the Professional Hockey Writers ' Association . Kariya was also nominated for the League 's Bill Masterton Trophy , awarded for perseverance , sportsmanship and dedication to hockey ; he lost to Tampa Bay Lightning forward John Cullen , who attempted to return to the NHL after missing the previous season with non @-@ Hodgkin lymphoma . While Selänne finished as second runner @-@ up for the Lady Byng Trophy , Kariya finished sixth in voting .
Having played the final year of his contract , Kariya agreed on a new three @-@ year deal with the Ducks , reported to be worth between $ 32 and $ 33 million , during the ensuing summer . The contract was signed on June 30 , 1999 , one day before he was set to become a restricted free agent . In the three seasons that ensued , Kariya 's offensive production decreased , a period that coincided with the Mighty Ducks failing to qualify for the playoffs each year .
During the 1999 – 2000 season , Kariya 's younger brother Steve Kariya began playing for the Vancouver Canucks . On December 8 , 1999 , the Ducks and Canucks met for a contest , marking the first time that the brothers played against each other at any level . Steve recorded an assist on the Canucks ' first goal of the game , before being called for a penalty . On the ensuing Ducks power play , Kariya scored to tie the game at a final score of 2 – 2 . Later in the season , Kariya was speared by San Jose Sharks defenceman Bryan Marchment during a game in March 2000 . Kariya was not injured on the play , though Marchment received a three @-@ game suspension from the NHL . Kariya finished the season with the third @-@ highest goals total of his career with 42 , though his points total dipped to 86 . Nevertheless , he ranked fourth in League scoring , behind Jaromír Jágr , Pavel Bure and Mark Recchi . In the NHL 's season @-@ ending awards , Kariya was named to the NHL Second All @-@ Star Team , having been outvoted for left wing on the First Team by Red Wings forward Brendan Shanahan . He also ranked seventh in Lady Byng voting .
During pre @-@ season play in September 2000 , Kariya received a one @-@ game suspension after slashing Minnesota Wild player Aaron Gavey , though he was able to serve the suspension during exhibition play . Several months into the 2000 – 01 season , Kariya suffered a broken right foot after blocking a shot from Tampa Bay Lightning defenceman Pavel Kubina during a game in December 2000 . Missing 15 games , he returned to the lineup in late @-@ January 2001 . The Ducks struggled as a team while both Kariya and Selänne 's paled in comparison to previous years . In March 2001 , Selänne was traded to the San Jose Sharks , marking the end of his duo with Kariya . Despite he and Kariya 's success playing with each other , the Ducks had advanced to the second round of the playoffs just once in their tenure together . While disappointed with the trade , Kariya later commented that with the tandem constituting nearly half of the Ducks ' $ 39 million payroll , " If [ he ] were running the business , [ he ] would have done something too . " Kariya finished the season with 67 points ( 33 goals and 34 assists ) over 66 games . In addition to losing Selänne via trade , Kariya played the majority of the season without centre Steve Rucchin , who was suffering from post @-@ concussion syndrome .
Without Selänne for a full season in 2001 – 02 , Kariya 's points total continued to decrease . During the opening month of the campaign , he went ten consecutive game without a goal . Nevertheless , at mid @-@ season , he was named to his sixth NHL All @-@ Star Game in January 2002 ( although it marked the first time he had been named to the All @-@ Star Game without being voted in as a starter by fans ) . Kariya played on a line with Mario Lemieux and Joe Sakic ( a trio that remained intact two weeks later for the 2002 Winter Olympics ) and notched an assist in an 8 – 5 victory for the North American All @-@ Stars . Shortly thereafter , Kariya played in his 500th career NHL game , against the Philadelphia Flyers , a contest in which he recorded a hat @-@ trick to lead his team to a 5 – 4 win . Though he finished with a team @-@ leading 57 points over 82 games , the 2001 – 02 season marked Kariya 's worst statistical year as a Duck and the third @-@ straight year his points total had decreased . The Ducks also suffered as a team , finishing with the third @-@ worst record in the West . Losing fan support , the team drew the worst attendance in franchise history at home games during the season . During the season , he was often asked by reporters how long he was willing to remain with the Ducks while the franchise floundered . In the Canadian media especially , there was a widespread position that Kariya should be moved to a better club .
During the off @-@ season , Kariya became a restricted free agent before re @-@ signing with the Ducks to a one @-@ year , $ 10 million contract in July 2002 . Prior to the signing , the Ducks made two key acquisitions , signing playmaking centre Adam Oates to a one @-@ year deal and trading for winger Petr Sýkora from the New Jersey Devils . Both acquisitions were made with Kariya 's input , as well as with the expectation they would play on a line with him . Although Oates was injured at the beginning of the season ( during which time Kariya played with his usual centre , Rucchin ) , the trio formed the Ducks ' top line . Despite playing under a defensive system , implemented by new head coach Mike Babcock , the arrival of Kariya 's new linemates coincided with a resurgence in offensive production for him in 2002 – 03 . Several months into the campaign , however , his father died of a heart attack . The Ducks gave Kariya the option to sit out the following game against the Vancouver Canucks , which he played nonetheless on December 28 , 2002 . He recorded an assist in a 7 – 3 loss . At mid @-@ season , Kariya was selected as a reserve to his seventh and final NHL All @-@ Star Game , held in February 2003 . He scored the deciding shootout goal for the Western Conference , as his team beat the East 6 – 5 . While his 25 goals marked the lowest total of his career since his 22 @-@ game 1997 – 98 season , his 56 assists approached a personal best . With 81 points over 82 games , he led the Ducks in scoring for the fifth time . His efforts helped the Mighty Ducks to the seventh seed in the West , marking the team 's return to the playoffs for the first time in four years . Matching up against the second @-@ seeded Red Wings in the first round , Kariya opened the playoffs with a triple @-@ overtime winner in Game 1 , resulting in a 2 – 1 Ducks win . Anaheim went on to sweep the Red Wings in four games ; Kariya scored his second goal of the series in the deciding contest , a 3 – 2 overtime win . It marked the second time in league history that a team eliminated the defending Stanley Cup champion in four @-@ straight games in the first round . The Mighty Ducks went on to eliminate the Dallas Stars and Minnesota Wild in the next two rounds to advance to the Stanley Cup Finals for the first time in franchise history . During Game 6 of the series against New Jersey , a contest in which the Ducks faced elimination , Kariya received a hard open @-@ ice hit from opposing defenceman Scott Stevens . Laying motionless on the ice for several minutes , he needed to be helped to the dressing room . Many felt Kariya 's equipment changes following his first concussion may have saved him from being rendered unconscious from the Stevens hit . Four @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half minutes of playing time later , he returned to the game . Following his return , he scored on a slapshot while skating down the wing to give the Ducks a 4 – 1 lead . Anaheim went on to win the game 5 – 2 to force a Game 7 ; Kariya finished the contest with a goal and two assists . Reactions regarding Stevens ' hit were divided following the game . Kariya told reporters that after looking at replays that Stevens had used his elbow , while Ducks Head Coach Mike Babcock described it as a late hit . The play was not penalized during the game , however , and Stevens received no disciplinary measures from the League . Playing the deciding Game 7 in New Jersey , the Ducks lost the Stanley Cup by a 3 – 0 score . Over 21 games , Kariya finished third on the team in playoff scoring ( behind Adam Oates and Petr Sýkora ) , scoring six goals and 12 points . Much of Anaheim 's success was predicated on goaltender Jean @-@ Sébastien Giguère 's performance , who was awarded the Conn Smythe Trophy as playoff MVP . Kariya , meanwhile , was often singled out for his lack of consistent impact throughout the playoffs . As the highest @-@ profile player on the Ducks , he drew matchups against opposing teams top defencemen during the post @-@ season , such as Willie Mitchell against the Wild and Stevens against the Devils . He had also played part of the post @-@ season with a separated shoulder .
Game 7 of the Finals marked Kariya 's last game as a Mighty Duck . After nine seasons , he left Anaheim as the team 's all @-@ time leader in games played ( 606 ) , goals ( 300 ) , assists ( 369 ) , points ( 669 ) , short handed goals ( 16 ) and shots ( 2 @,@ 455 ) . His seven seasons as team captain also set a Ducks record . After Selänne returned to the Ducks in 2005 , Kariya 's marks in games played , goals , assists and points were all broken .
= = = Colorado Avalanche = = =
Following the Mighty Ducks ' Stanley Cup run , Kariya became an unrestricted free agent in the off @-@ season . With Kariya requiring a $ 10 million qualifying offer from Anaheim to remain the team , General Manager Bryan Murray let him go to free agency . Murray went on record saying , " We understand that he is an important player for the franchise ... but when you are trying to build a team it 's hard to have one player at $ 10 million when your payroll is the mid to low ( $ 40 million range ) . " It was reported that the team had tried negotiating a longer @-@ term deal with a decreased salary , while Murray told media at the time that he would remain in negotiations with Kariya to sign him for less . With former linemate Teemu Selänne also entering unrestricted free agency that summer after three years with San Jose ( he decided to opt out of his final year , valued at $ 6 @.@ 5 million ) , the duo agreed to reunite and sign with the same team . Together , they approached the Colorado Avalanche , having decided the team had the best chance of winning the Stanley Cup . On July 3 , 2003 , the Avalanche announced the signing of Kariya and Selänne to one @-@ year contracts . In order for the team to afford both players , Kariya took an $ 8 @.@ 8 million paycut from his $ 10 million salary with Anaheim the previous year , marking the highest decrease in compensation for a player in NHL history . At $ 1 @.@ 2 million , his salary was below the NHL average , ensuring that he would have the freedom of unrestricted free agency at the end of the season . Selänne , meanwhile , signed for $ 5 @.@ 8 million . Their deals were partially facilitated by goaltender Patrick Roy 's retirement , which freed up $ 8 @.@ 5 million in salary .
Kariya and Selänne joined an already high @-@ powered Avalanche team that included such forwards as Joe Sakic , Peter Forsberg , Milan Hejduk and Alex Tanguay . Despite high expectations for the duo 's reunion , Kariya and Selänne both struggled in their sole years with Colorado . After beginning the 2003 – 04 season on a line with Selänne centred by Joe Sakic , Kariya suffered a sprained right wrist in a game against the Boston Bruins on October 21 , 2003 . After being sidelined for ten games , he returned in mid @-@ November , but re @-@ injured his wrist in his first contest back . Due to the injury , Kariya missed playing against the Ducks for the first time in a home game on November 18 . Still recovering a month later , he remained sidelined for a return to Anaheim 's Arrowhead Pond on December 20 . Kariya 's departure from the Ducks drew criticism from his previous team 's fans . In anticipation of the Avalanche @-@ Ducks game on December 20 , Anaheim fans began a fund that raised over $ 1 @,@ 200 to be given to the favourite charity of the Ducks player who scores the game @-@ winning goal against Colorado . The idea was precipitated by reports that Kariya had given Selänne $ 3 @,@ 000 for scoring the game @-@ winning goal against the Ducks on November 18 ( it is an informal tradition in the NHL for players to offer rewards to teammates who score against former teams ) . Kariya returned to the Avalanche lineup in time for their next game against the Ducks on January 13 , 2004 , at the Pepsi Center . He scored one goal in a 3 – 1 win . Later that month , he played his first game against the Ducks in Anaheim on January 30 . Booed every time he touched puck , he recorded two assists , as the Avalanche lost 4 – 3 in overtime . Limited by injuries , Kariya scored below his career pace with 11 goals and 36 points over 51 games . Selänne recorded 32 points , while playing in 78 games . In the final game of the regular season , Kariya injured his right ankle against the Nashville Predators on April 4 . As a team , Colorado lost their division for the first time in nine years to the Vancouver Canucks . Qualifying for the 2004 playoffs as the fourth seed in the West , they lost in the second round to the Sharks . Kariya returned to the Colorado lineup in time for Game 6 against the Sharks , recording an assist as the Avalanche were eliminated by a score of 3 – 1 .
= = = Nashville Predators = = =
Due to the NHL lockout , Kariya was professionally inactive for the 2004 – 05 season , using the time to recover from several nagging injuries . He incorrectly predicted that the dispute would last " a year @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half [ or ] two years , " as the players and owners agreed on a new collective bargaining agreement ( CBA ) in July 2005 . With NHL play set to resume for the 2005 – 06 season , Kariya became an unrestricted free agent in August 2005 . Entertaining offers from 10 different teams , Kariya signed a two @-@ year , $ 9 million contract with the Nashville Predators on August 5 , 2005 , making him the highest @-@ paid player in team history . Four days later , he was officially introduced as a member of the Predators at a news conference . Predators General Manager David Poile heralded the acquisition as " unquestionably the biggest signing in [ the ] club 's history . " He ultimately chose the Predators for their style of play emphasizing skating and speed . Following the lockout , the NHL adopted several rule changes meant to benefit fast and skilled players such as Kariya . He was one of many NHL players who had publicly spoken out regarding the League 's failed attempts in the past to reduce obstruction . During an earlier League @-@ sponsored conference call with the media , Kariya criticized league rules , stating , " As an offensive player , I 'm going through the neutral zone , and I have a player tugging me the whole way . If I don 't go down , I 'm not going to get a call because they are not going to make the call . " Having come off the worst statistical season of his career in 2003 – 04 , Kariya was admittedly looking to have a bounce @-@ back season .
During the Predators ' training camp in September 2005 , Kariya suffered separate ankle and groin injuries that limited his participation in team practices and pre @-@ season games . Recovering in time for the season @-@ opener , he debuted with the Predators on October 5 , 2005 , at home against the San Jose Sharks . Early in the game , Kariya was routinely cheered by fans when he touched the puck . Trailing 2 – 1 in the third period , he scored on goaltender Evgeni Nabokov to the tie the game , en route to a 3 – 2 win . The following game , Kariya participated in his first NHL shootout ( the tie @-@ breaker was newly implemented by the League for the 2005 – 06 season ) after the Predators remained tied with the Mighty Ducks of Anaheim 2 – 2 following overtime . The last of three shooters for the Predators , Kariya was the lone player to score in the shootout , leading Nashville to a 3 – 2 win . The two wins helped Nashville go undefeated in their first eight games , two wins shy of the League 's record for consecutive victories to start a season . On April 18 , 2006 , the last day of the regular season , Kariya scored a hat @-@ trick against the Detroit Red Wings in a 6 – 3 win , helping the Predators secure the fourth seed in the Western Conference . In his first season with Nashville , Kariya set team records with 31 goals , 54 assists and 85 points . His 14 power play goals also tied defenceman Andy Delmore 's team record set in 2002 – 03 , while his 245 shots came within three of Cliff Ronning 's mark set in 1998 – 99 . With five shootout goals over seven attempts , Kariya ranked fourth in the NHL in shootout scoring percentage at 71 @.@ 4 % ( among players who had taken at least five attempts ) . On a team basis , the Predators set franchise records with 49 wins and 106 points , ranking fourth in the West . Matching up against the San Jose Sharks in the first round of the 2006 playoffs , Kariya opened the post @-@ season with four assists in Game 1 to lead Nashville to a 4 – 3 win . After taking Game 1 , the Predators went on to lose the next four contests and were eliminated from the playoffs . The team was markedly weakened for the playoffs with starting goaltender Tomáš Vokoun unavailable due to injury and Kariya 's linemate Steve Sullivan playing hurt . Kariya had two goals and seven points over the series .
After the Predators ' regular season success in 2005 – 06 , the team bolstered their lineup by acquiring centre Jason Arnott and winger Jean @-@ Pierre Dumont . In response to Arnott 's signing , Kariya commented that the centre position , as well as size , were weaknesses for the team the previous year , especially when they matched up against the Sharks ' top two centres , Joe Thornton and Patrick Marleau , in the playoffs . Leading up to the 2006 – 07 season , the Predators were picked by many analysts in the media ( including those from The Globe and Mail and ESPN ) to contend for the Stanley Cup . Prior to the start of the campaign , the Predators announced defenceman Kimmo Timonen as the team 's new captain , while naming Kariya and Steve Sullivan as alternates ( the two served in that role the previous season , as well , but not on a permanent basis ) . With Kariya leading the team in scoring , the team boasted the top record in the league by the All @-@ Star break . At the NHL trade deadline , the team further bolstered their lineup by acquiring high @-@ profile centre Peter Forsberg from Philadelphia . Forsberg joined Kariya on the top line , though not consistently . With 76 points ( 24 goals and 52 assists ) — the second highest total in team history — over 82 games , Kariya led the Predators in scoring for a second @-@ straight year . His seven shootout goals ( over 11 attempts ) tied for second in the league , one behind Erik Christensen of the Pittsburgh Penguins . The Predators continued to improve and finished with a new team record of 51 wins and 110 points . Despite ranking as the second @-@ best team in the West , Nashville seeded fourth in their conference ( divisional winners within the conference take the top three seeds ; Detroit beat the Predators by there points in the Central Division ) . Playing against the San Jose Sharks for the second consecutive year , the Predators were once again eliminated in five games . Kariya struggled with two assists during the series .
During the off @-@ season , Predators owner Craig Leipold put the team up for sale ; two of the leading candidates to buy the franchise both had plans to relocate the team . With Kariya 's contract expiring , he chose not to re @-@ sign with Nashville , citing the team 's uncertain future .
= = = St. Louis Blues = = =
On July 1 , 2007 , Kariya signed a three @-@ year contract worth $ 18 million with the St. Louis Blues . In similar fashion to his signing with Nashville , his arrival in St. Louis marked one of the team 's first notable free agent acquisitions in a while ( arguably since the team signed Brendan Shanahan in 1991 ) . While the Predators were a team on the rise when he joined them , the Blues had contrastingly missed the playoffs in the previous two seasons .
Although Blues winger Jay McClement was in possession of the jersey number 9 upon Kariya 's arrival in the off @-@ season , he surrendered it so Kariya could retain his usual number . Assigned as an alternate captain for the team , Kariya rotated the position with Keith Tkachuk , and Barret Jackman throughout the 2008 – 09 season . Kariya debuted with the team on October 4 , 2007 , registering an assist in a 3 – 2 loss to the Phoenix Coyotes . After recording six assists in his first four games as a Blue , Kariya scored his first goal with St. Louis on October 17 , 2007 , in a 3 – 1 win against the Chicago Blackhawks . Two months later , Kariya recorded his tenth career NHL hat @-@ trick against the Dallas Stars on December 29 , scoring the Blues ' final three goals , including the game @-@ tying marker with ten seconds remaining in regulation . He was stopped in the shootout , however , by Mike Smith as the Stars won the game 5 – 4 . With the hat trick , Kariya reached the 900 @-@ point mark in his NHL career . Despite a decrease in offensive production , Kariya tied winger Brad Boyes for the team lead in scoring with 65 points ( 16 goals and 49 assists ) over 82 games . The Blues finished with the second @-@ worst record in the Western Conference with 33 wins and 79 points .
A month into 2008 – 09 season , Kariya suffered a hip injury after being hit from behind in a game against the Anaheim Ducks on November 5 , 2008 , tearing muscle fibers near the top his left thigh . The injury was initially undisclosed at the time and was erroneously reported as having resulted from a blocked shot . At the time of the injury , he had 15 points ( 2 goals and 13 assists ) over 11 games , tying him for sixth in NHL scoring . After nearly two months of recovery , he began practicing with the Blues , but had a setback in late @-@ December ; a subsequent MRI exam revealed additional hip damage . Undergoing surgery for a torn acetabular labrum on January 5 , 2009 , the team listed him as sidelined indefinitely , while Blues President John Davidson told reporters he might be back late that season or the next . The following month , another MRI revealed a torn labrum in the opposite side of his hip , as well , requiring a second surgery . Despite the loss of Kariya , the Blues made the playoffs for the first time since 2004 . With the Blues matching up against the Vancouver Canucks in the first round , Kariya began practicing with the team in hopes of a comeback for the playoffs . He told reporters that he felt " stronger that [ he had ] ... since 1999 . " The Blues were swept in four games however , before Kariya could return .
Fully recovered by the start of the 2009 – 10 season , Kariya made his return to the Blues lineup on October 2 , 2009 , a game played in Stockholm . He scored two goals in a 4 – 3 win against the Detroit Red Wings . On March 18 , 2010 , Kariya scored the 400th goal of his NHL career , against the New York Rangers . A week later , he recorded the 402nd and final goal of his career , in a 3 – 1 win against the Los Angeles Kings . Kariya played his last NHL game on April 11 , 2010 , against his former team , the Nashville Predators . With the Blues trailing by one goal in the third period , Kariya helped set up David Backes ' game @-@ tying goal , marking his 25th assist of the season and final point of his career . The Blues went on to lose the game 2 – 1 in a shootout .
During his last season in the NHL , the League began expanding their efforts to eliminate hits to the head with new rules and stiffer penalties . League officials also began looking to penalize " blindside hits , " defined as a bodycheck against a player from the side , where he cannot see the ensuing player coming . At the time , Kariya called the pending rule changes " long overdue , " adding that , " hav [ ing ] been through so much with that ... It 's something that should 've been in place years and years ago . "
With his contract expiring in the off @-@ season , Teemu Selänne , who had since returned to the Ducks , was reportedly in talks with team management to sign Kariya . On August 27 , 2010 , however , on the advice of doctors who refused to clear him to play , Kariya announced that he would sit out the 2010 – 11 season with post @-@ concussion syndrome . While the symptoms eventually did subside somewhat , the same doctors advised Kariya that it was too risky to try to play again , and Kariya officially announced his retirement from hockey on June 29 , 2011 , through the NHLPA . He continued to be outspoken regarding the prevalence of concussions among hockey players ; in an interview with the Globe and Mail , he commented , " The thing I worry about is that you 'll get a guy who is playing with a concussion , and he gets hit , and he dies at centre ice . "
= = International career = =
In the summer of 1991 , Kariya joined the Canadian Under @-@ 18 Selects Team at the Phoenix Cup , the inaugural tournament of what would go on to become the Ivan Hlinka Memorial Tournament . Kariya led all scorers with ten points in six games while being named to the Tournament All @-@ Star Team . Canada won the silver medal , losing out to the Soviet Union .
The following year , he moved up to the Canadian under @-@ 20 team for the 1992 World Junior Championships in Germany . The youngest player on the team , he recorded a goal and an assist over six games as Canada finished in sixth place . Playing in the tournament a second consecutive year in 1993 , Kariya improved to two goals and eight points over seven games , ranking second in team scoring behind Martin Lapointe . Helping Canada to a record of six winsand one loss , they tied Sweden for first overall in the standings , but won the gold medal by way of their 5 – 4 win against them in their second game . The championship marked Kariya 's first international gold medal and began a streak of five consecutive gold medals for Canada at the tournament . He was named to the Tournament All @-@ Star Team , alongside Canadian goaltender Manny Legace and defenceman Brent Tully . Nearly ten years later , TSN held a fan @-@ voted poll on the Internet to select Canada 's all @-@ time World Junior team . The poll garnered in excess of 350 @,@ 000 votes with Kariya chosen as one of 13 forwards on the team .
Four months later , in April 1993 , Kariya debuted with the Canadian men 's team in the IIHF World Championships , held in Germany . At 18 years and six months , he became the youngest player in Canadian history to play at the tournament . He scored nine points in eight games as Canada finished in fourth place .
Later that year , in December 1993 , Kariya left his college team , the Maine Black Bears , to join the Canadian national team in preparation for the 1994 Winter Olympics in Lillehammer , Norway . At the start of the tournament , Canada was seeded seventh overall and were not considered favourites to do well . Playing on a line with Chris Kontos and Petr Nedved , Kariya led his team in scoring with three goals and seven points over eight games , helping Canada to a silver medal . Tied with the Czech Republic 2 – 2 in the quarterfinal , Kariya scored the game @-@ winning goal after 16 minutes of overtime play to help the Canadians advance . In the gold medal game , Kariya scored the first goal as Canada went on to lose 3 – 2 in a shootout to Sweden . With a chance to tie the shootout after Swedish forward Peter Forsberg scored , Swedish goaltender Tommy Salo stopped Kariya with a glove save .
Two months later , Kariya joined Team Canada for the 1994 Men 's World Championships in Italy . He was the lone player on the team to have continued on from the Olympics , as well as the youngest , while playing on a line with Jason Arnott and Brendan Shanahan . During round @-@ robin play , he netted a hat trick against Austria in a 6 – 1 win . In the quarterfinal , he added a goal and an assist in a win over the Czech Republic . Canada advanced to the final , where they defeated Finland 2 – 1 to capture the gold medal . It marked the first championship at the tournament for Canada in 33 years . Kariya finished the tournament with a team @-@ high five goals and 12 points over eight games and received Best Forward and All @-@ Star Team honours on the latter , he was joined by Canadian goaltender Bill Ranford . With his success at the 1994 Winter Olympics and World Championships , Wayne Gretzky heralded Kariya as the next NHL superstar .
In January 1996 , Kariya finished as a runner @-@ up to Wayne Gretzky for the inaugural Jean Beliveau Award , an annual distinction from Hockey Canada for players who have demonstrated " outstanding playing ability and international experience while maintaining the fundamentals of sportsmanship and fair play . " Unlike most annual awards , the distinction did not take into account players ' performances in the prior year , but their contributions on a career @-@ basis . The initial three nominees were chosen by a selection committee , while the winner was determined by fan vote . Randy Gregg was the other nominee .
Following his second NHL season , Kariya was named to Canada 's team for the 1996 World Championships in Vienna . During the round @-@ robin , he scored a hat @-@ trick against the United States , helping Canada to a 5 – 1 win , qualifying them for the quarterfinals . During their semifinal against Russia , Kariya scored in the shootout to help Canada to a 3 – 2 win . Advancing to the gold medal game , they lost 4 – 2 to the Czech Republic . Kariya finished the competition with four goals and seven points over eight games , earning him a spot as Canada 's lone representative on the Tournament 's First All @-@ Star Team . Over three World Championship appearances , Kariya recorded 28 points ( 11 goals and 17 assists ) over 24 games , which at the time , ranked him at third all @-@ time among Canadian scorers , behind Steve Yzerman 's 39 points and Marcel Dionne 's 32 .
Prior to the World Championships , Canada also named Kariya to their team for the 1996 World Cup , which was held in August and September . However , Kariya was kept from competing due to a groin inflammation . During a news conference , he called his withdrawal the " biggest disappointment of [ his ] hockey career . " The World Cup would have marked his first international appearance in a best @-@ on @-@ best tournament , as the competition did not interfere with the Stanley Cup playoffs as the World Championships did . Kariya was replaced in the lineup by New York Rangers winger Adam Graves . Canada went on to finish as runner @-@ up to the United States in the tournament .
In June 1997 , Kariya was again nominated for the Jean Beliveau Award , alongside Gregg , but lost to Bobby Orr .
Four years after his first Olympic appearance as an amateur , the 1998 Winter Olympics in Nagano , Japan , were set to become the first Games in which NHL players could compete in ice hockey . While Kariya was involved in a contract dispute with the Mighty Ducks , causing him to miss the start of the 1997 – 98 NHL season , Hockey Canada contacted Kariya , asking him to provide a training regimen by December 1 , 1997 , ensuring that he would be physically ready to play in the Olympics , given his inactivity in the NHL . Before agreeing to a contract with the Ducks in December , he joined the Canadian national team in training . On November 29 , 1997 , Canadian General Manager Bobby Clarke announced his roster for the Games , which included Kariya . He was the youngest player named to the team , behind defenceman Chris Pronger , who was born six days earlier . Less than a month to go before the start of the tournament , held in February 1998 , however , he suffered a concussion , resulting from an on @-@ ice crosscheck to the head from Chicago Blackhawks defenceman Gary Suter . The hit received much publicity as Suter , a member of the United States ' national team , was accused by many in the media , as well as Bobby Clarke for targeting Kariya specifically in order to sideline him for the Olympics . He again described the missed opportunity as the " biggest disappointment of [ his ] career , " adding that he was looking forward to playing in Japan , having family there .
Leading up to the next Winter Olympics , Kariya was chosen as one of eight initial players to Canada 's roster on March 23 , 2001 . Playing on the top line with Mario Lemieux , Kariya scored three goals and one assist over six games , tying for fourth in Canadian point @-@ scoring . He registered his first goal of the tournament in Canada 's second game , a 3 – 2 win against Germany . His second came against Belarus in the semi @-@ final , qualifying Canada for the gold medal game . Playing the United States in the final , Kariya scored Canada 's first goal of the game , tying the score at 1 – 1 in the first period . Canada went on to win 5 – 2 , capturing their first Olympic gold medal since 1952 . Canada 's roster was later inducted into the Canadian Olympic Hall of Fame under the team category on March 26 , 2009 , during a ceremony in Vancouver .
Despite Kariya 's success with Canada at the 2002 Olympics , he had come off the worst statistical season of his career prior to the national team 's summer development camp in preparation for the 2006 Winter Olympics . His omission was singled out by the media ; General Manager Wayne Gretzky , who selected the camp 's participants , explained publicly , " Paul is a great player , but at some point you have to have a cutoff , " while also asserting that he had spoken to Kariya personally regarding the situation . After a strong start to the 2005 – 06 NHL season , Kariya was one of 49 forwards chosen in October 2005 to Canada 's preliminary list of players to be selected from for the final roster . When the team was announced in December 2005 , however , he was not chosen .
During his career , Kariya became involved with Hockey Canada off the ice , as well . In the late 1990s , he joined the organization as a national spokesperson with women 's team forward Jayna Hefford for the Initiation Program , promoting a safe and positive experience for children first becoming involved with hockey .
= = Playing style = =
Kariya was known for his skilled and entertaining style of play . An offensive player , he was a fast skater with strong puck @-@ handling and passing abilities . Prior to and early in his NHL career , Kariya drew comparisons to Wayne Gretzky . During the 1994 Winter Olympics , American Head Coach Tim Taylor likened his skating and playmaking ability to Gretzky 's , while Kariya 's linemate , Chris Kontos , described his on @-@ ice vision as " Gretzky @-@ like . " Canadian Head Coach Tom Renney heralded him as " think [ ing ] and play [ ing ] at a better speed than anybody else , " adding that his teammates " are usually a half @-@ step behind him . " His speed made him particularly adept in international competition , as games were played on a larger ice surface in comparison to the NHL . Following his first NHL goal against Winnipeg , Jets Head Coach John Paddock told reporters , " like with Gretzky the puck seems to following him around ... It looks like he 's cherry @-@ picking , but he 's not . That 's just great instinct . " Kariya himself cited Gretzky , as well as Brett Hull , Jeremy Roenick and Pavel Bure as players he liked patterning his game after . Kariya was also recognized for his " hockey sense " and the cerebral aspect of his game , which included analyzing the game at a high level . His first NHL coach , Ron Wilson , also once described Kariya as " the hardest @-@ working athlete [ he 's ] ever been associated with . "
While recognized primarily as a playmaker leading up to his NHL career , Kariya was forced into shooting more as the Mighty Ducks lacked scorers in his first two seasons with the team . During his third NHL season , he commented that , " If Teemu [ Selänne ] had been here right off the bat , then maybe I wouldn 't have focused so much on shooting . " Kariya was able to put many shots on goal due to his quick release . In 1998 – 99 , he led the League with 429 shots on goal , which at the time was the second @-@ highest recorded total in NHL history . Nonetheless maintaining his passing ability , Kariya was particularly adept at making plays from deep in the offensive zone and beside the opposing team 's net .
= = Personal life = =
Kariya was born in Vancouver , British Columbia , to parents Tetsuhiko and Sharon Kariya . His father , a Japanese @-@ Canadian born in a World War II internment camp , worked as a math teacher . Tetsuhiko died from a heart attack suffered on December 27 , 2002 . Kariya 's mother , a Scottish @-@ Canadian , was also a teacher . Coming from an athletic family , his father played rugby with the Canadian national team . Kariya is one of four siblings that play professional sports . Brothers Steve and Martin are also hockey players . His sister , Noriko , played hockey , as well , before turning to boxing .
As a teenager , Kariya worked for a summer in construction . At age 16 , he left home to play Junior A hockey in Penticton , British Columbia , where he also worked at a clothing store that belonged to the team 's coach and general manager . Two years later , he enrolled at the University of Maine to join the school 's hockey team and was a dean 's list student . During his rookie NHL season , Kariya lived in the Anaheim area with a family that was close friend with Mighty Ducks Head Coach Ron Wilson . Following his departure from the Ducks in 2003 , he maintained a summer home in Orange County , California . With a background in competitive swimming as a child , he became an avid surfer in the area . He still resides in California , nearby another former Ducks player , Scott Niedermayer . Kariya has maintained a close friendship with Teemu Selänne , and even attended Selänne 's final regular season game at the Honda Center in 2014 . Despite Kariya having only once attended the arena following his retirement , Selänne made sure to invite his old teammate as " he has meant so much to me , all my best years and the chemistry I ’ ve had with him . Selanne even went so far to threaten to tie him up and toss him in his trunk of his car , then drive him to the stadium himself if Kariya refused . Paul Kariya was shown on the Jumbotron during the third period . "
As captain of the Mighty Ducks , Kariya made a cameo appearance in Disney 's D3 : The Mighty Ducks movie , which was released in October 1996 .
= = Career statistics = =
= = = Regular season and playoffs = = =
= = = International = = =
= = Awards and honours = =
= = Records = =
Anaheim Ducks record ; most overtime goals , single season – 3 in 1995 – 96
Anaheim Ducks record ; highest plus @-@ minus , single season – + 36 in 1996 – 97
Anaheim Ducks record ; most shots , single season – 429 in 1998 – 99
Anaheim Ducks record ; longest tenured captain – 8 years from 1996 – 2003
Nashville Predators record ; most assists , single season – 54 in 2005 – 06
Nashville Predators record ; most points , single season – 85 in 2005 – 06
Most Puck Control Relay wins at NHL SkillsCompetition – 1999 , 2000 , 2001 , 2002
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= Simpson and Delilah =
" Simpson and Delilah " is the second episode of The Simpsons ' second season . It originally aired on the Fox network in the United States on October 18 , 1990 . Homer uses the Springfield Nuclear Power Plant medical insurance plan to buy ' Dimoxinil ' , a miracle hair growth formula . Homer grows hair , and is given a promotion at work which allows him to hire a secretary named Karl . The episode was directed by Rich Moore and written by Jon Vitti , and guest starred Harvey Fierstein as Karl .
= = Plot = =
Homer sees an advertisement for Dimoxinil , a new " miracle breakthrough " for baldness . He visits a store which sells Dimoxinil , but at $ 1000 it is far out of Homer 's price range . At work , Lenny suggests Homer pay for Dimoxinil through the Springfield Nuclear Power Plant medical insurance plan . The druggist yells that Dimoxinil is a frivolous product that is not covered by any medical insurance , but whispers to Homer that he will arrange an under @-@ the @-@ table trade . Homer successfully applies the drug , and after using it , he wakes up the next day to the thrill of having a full head of hair , and runs throughout the town blissfully . At work , Mr. Burns surveys the security monitors to find a new person to promote to an executive position . He sees Homer with hair and , mistaking him for a young go @-@ getter , chooses Homer for the job .
As he is about to become an executive , Homer tries to look for a good secretary , but all the applicants fail due to being seductive young women – until Homer finds a man named Karl , who earnestly persuades Homer to tell himself that he deserves everything he has and is the finest creature God ever created . Homer eventually picks Karl , and they go shopping for a suit . At an executive board meeting , Homer is singled out by an impressed Burns to give a suggestion to increase worker productivity , and Homer meekly suggests that he give more tartar sauce in the lunch room , which Mr. Burns does . Following the increase in tartar sauce distribution , Mr. Burns is glad to hear that workplace safety is on the up @-@ and @-@ up and accidents are down . Smithers remarks that all the past accidents were either caused by Homer or believed to be traced to him . However , Burns tells Smithers to stop being negative and even accuses him of harboring jealousy towards Homer . Homer forgets his wedding anniversary , but Marge forgives him due to his new demanding schedule . Karl covers for Homer by hiring a singing telegram service to serenade Marge with " You Are So Beautiful " , which Marge loves .
Homer becomes successful and receives the honor of being given the key to the executive washroom . Smithers begins to feel jealous of Homer for his high standing with Mr. Burns and searches Homer 's file , finding the damaging information he seeks in the case of insurance fraud that gave Homer hair in the first place . Smithers gleefully prepares to fire Homer for the fraud , but Karl takes the blame for Homer and writes the $ 1000 check to repay the company . Frustrated , Smithers is instead forced to fire Karl , who has sacrificed his own job to save Homer 's . Homer is deeply saddened to see Karl go after all Karl had done for him , including lending Homer his umbrella before finally leaving in the rain . Homer is invited to give a speech at the next meeting , and Smithers does his best to ruin Homer 's confidence . Homer is nervous about giving the speech without Karl , but reasons that as long as he has hair , everything will be fine .
Meanwhile , at home , Bart uses some of the Dimoxinil in a misguided attempt to grow a beard . When Homer enters and catches Bart , Bart accidentally drops the Dimoxinil , spilling it all onto the floor . By the next day , Homer has lost all his hair and , bald again , arrives at the meeting . His fears are alleviated when Karl appears with a pre @-@ written speech for him , but Homer is still convinced he is incapable of accomplishing anything without his hair . Karl impatiently tells Homer what he had been trying to teach him all along — that all of Homer 's achievements had been the result of his own will and effort , not of his hair . Karl urges Homer to think higher of himself and give the speech , even kissing him on the lips to prove his point . Reassured , Homer presents a brilliant speech on the Japanese art of self @-@ management , but the audience is unable to take him seriously because he has no hair . Everyone leaves , leaving Homer greatly disappointed . Burns angrily summons Homer , threatening to fire him , but reveals photographs of himself with strawberry curly hair in his younger years when girls flocked to him until he went bald , and as a fellow sufferer of male pattern baldness , sympathizes with Homer 's situation and merely demotes him back to his old position rather than terminating him .
At home later that night , Homer confesses to Marge he is afraid that his life has returned to a dead @-@ end job , that his kids will be disappointed because he can no longer buy the things for them he promised he would , and most of all that Marge will no longer love him as much . However , Marge reminds Homer that his safety inspector job has always brought food to the table , and that the kids will get over not being spoiled . Marge then reaffirms her love for Homer as they sing " You Are So Beautiful " together into the night .
= = Production = =
Homer 's hair product Dimoxinil is a spoof on a similar product , Minoxidil , which fascinated the writers . After growing hair , the production staff tried to give Homer a new hair design in every scene . The character Karl was played by openly gay actor Harvey Fierstein . Groening had originally intended to design Karl to look like Fierstein , who objected to the idea because he felt he did not " look like gay people , how they 're supposed to look . " Fierstein suggested that the character be made " blond , and tall , and gorgeous , and skinny , and [ given ] a beautiful place to live . "
The episode features a kiss between Homer and Karl , which occurred a decade prior to US television 's first real man @-@ on @-@ man kiss on Dawson 's Creek . In the episode , Karl is implied to be homosexual ; creator Matt Groening says that when people began asking " was he gay ? " the day after the episode aired , his response was " he 's whatever you want him to be . " However , Groening points out , " he does kiss Homer : He does give him a nice pat on the butt " which is " beyond [ what ] any other cartoon " had done at the time .
Karl was originally supposed to return for a cameo appearance in the season 14 episode " Three Gays of the Condo " . In the script , Homer was thrown out of the house by Marge , and encountered Karl . The purpose of the appearance was to introduce a gay couple that Homer would live with . Fierstein however felt that " the script was a lot of very clever gay jokes , and there just wasn 't that Simpsons twist " and turned the role down .
= = Cultural references = =
The scene in which Homer is running through town after he got his hair is a reference to the film It 's a Wonderful Life .
The scene in which Homer receives the key to the executive washroom is a reference to the movie Will Success Spoil Rock Hunter ? .
The title of the episode is a reference to Cecil B. DeMille 's Biblical film Samson and Delilah .
= = Reception = =
During the second season , The Simpsons aired on Fox on Thursdays at 8 PM , which was the same time as The Cosby Show , which aired on NBC . The supposed " Bill vs. Bart " rivalry had been heavily hyped by the media . The first airing of " Simpson and Delilah " on Fox had a 16 @.@ 2 rating and 25 % share , while The Cosby Show , which aired during the same timeslot had an 18 @.@ 5 rating . However , viewer @-@ wise , The Simpsons won with 29 @.@ 9 million viewers . It is one of the highest rated episodes of The Simpsons . " Bart Gets an F " , the season premiere and episode that aired the week before , averaged an 18 @.@ 4 Nielsen rating , had 29 % of the audience and was watched by an estimated 33 @.@ 6 million viewers .
This episode was placed twenty @-@ third on Entertainment Weekly 's top 25 The Simpsons episodes list . Harvey Fierstein is number two on TV Guide 's " All @-@ time Favorite Guest Voices . " The Daily Telegraph characterized the episode as one of " The 10 Best Simpsons TV Episodes . " In a 2008 article , Entertainment Weekly named Harvey Fierstein 's role as Karl as one of the sixteen best guest appearances on The Simpsons . Warren Martyn and Adrian Wood , the authors of the book I Can 't Believe It 's a Bigger and Better Updated Unofficial Simpsons Guide , praised Fierstein 's performance , saying the episode was " brought to life by the superb character of Karl , helped no doubt by Harvey Fierstein 's unique vocal drawl . "
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= Opus Dei =
Opus Dei , formally known as The Prelature of the Holy Cross and Opus Dei ( Latin : Praelatura Sanctae Crucis et Operis Dei ) , is an institution of the Roman Catholic Church that teaches that everyone is called to holiness and that ordinary life is a path to sanctity . The majority of its membership are lay people , with secular priests under the governance of a prelate ( bishop ) elected by specific members and appointed by the Pope . Opus Dei is Latin for " Work of God " ; hence the organization is often referred to by members and supporters as the Work .
Founded in Spain in 1928 by the Catholic saint and priest Josemaría Escrivá , Opus Dei was given final Catholic Church approval in 1950 by Pope Pius XII . In 1982 , by the apostolic constitution Ut sit , St. John Paul II made it a personal prelature — that is , the jurisdiction of its own bishop covers the persons in Opus Dei wherever they are , rather than geographical dioceses .
As of 2015 , members of the Prelature numbered 93 @,@ 986 . Lay persons , men and women , numbered 91 @,@ 020 while there were 2 @,@ 094 priests . These figures do not include the diocesan priest members of Opus Dei 's Priestly Society of the Holy Cross , estimated to number 2 @,@ 000 in the year 2005 . Members are in more than 90 countries . About 70 percent of Opus Dei members live in their private homes , leading traditional Catholic family lives with secular careers , while the other 30 per cent are celibate , of whom the majority live in Opus Dei centres . Opus Dei organizes training in Catholic spirituality applied to daily life . Aside from personal charity and social work , Opus Dei members are involved in running universities , university residences , schools , publishing houses , and technical and agricultural training centers .
Opus Dei has been described as the most controversial force within the Catholic Church . According to several journalists who researched Opus Dei separately , many criticisms against Opus Dei are based on fabrications by opponents , and Opus Dei is considered a sign of contradiction . Several popes and other Catholic leaders have endorsed what they see as its innovative teaching on the sanctifying value of work , and its fidelity to Catholic beliefs . In 2002 , Pope John Paul II canonized Escrivá , and called him " the saint of ordinary life . " Criticism of Opus Dei has centered on allegations of secretiveness , controversial recruiting methods , strict rules governing members , elitism and misogyny , and support of or participation in authoritarian or right @-@ wing governments , especially the Francoist Government of Spain until 1978 . The mortification of the flesh practiced by some of its members is also criticized . Within the Catholic Church , Opus Dei is also criticized for allegedly seeking independence and more influence . In recent years , Opus Dei has received international attention due to the novel The Da Vinci Code and its film version of 2006 , both of which prominent Christians and non @-@ believers criticized as misleading , inaccurate and anti @-@ Catholic .
= = History = =
= = = Foundational period = = =
Opus Dei was founded by a Catholic priest , Josemaría Escrivá de Balaguer , on 2 October 1928 in Madrid , Spain . According to Escrivá , on that day he experienced a vision in which he " saw Opus Dei " . He gave the organization the name " Opus Dei " , which in Latin means " Work of God " , in order to underscore the belief that the organization was not his ( Escrivá 's ) work , but was rather God 's work . Throughout his life , Escrivá held that the founding of Opus Dei had a supernatural character . Escrivá summarized Opus Dei 's mission as a way of helping ordinary Christians " to understand that their life ... is a way of holiness and evangelization ... And to those who grasp this ideal of holiness , the Work offers the spiritual assistance and training they need to put it into practice . "
Initially , Opus Dei was open only to men , but in 1930 , Escrivá started to admit women , based on what he believed to be a communication from God . In 1936 , the organization suffered a temporary setback with the outbreak of the Spanish Civil War , as many Catholic priests and religious figures , including Escrivá , were forced into hiding ( the Catholic Church actively supported the Nationalist rebels ) . The many atrocities committed during the civil war included the murder and rape of religious figures by anti @-@ Franco Anarchists . After the civil war was won by General Francisco Franco , Escrivá was able to return to Madrid . Escriva himself recounted that it was in Spain where Opus Dei found " the greatest difficulties " because of traditionalists who he felt misunderstood Opus Dei 's ideas . Despite this , Opus Dei flourished during the years of the Franquismo , spreading first throughout Spain , and after 1945 , expanding internationally .
In 1939 , Escrivá published The Way , a collection of 999 maxims concerning spirituality for people involved in secular affairs . In the 1940s , Opus Dei found an early critic in the Jesuit Superior General Wlodimir Ledóchowski , who told the Vatican that he considered Opus Dei " very dangerous for the Church in Spain , " citing its " secretive character " and calling it " a form of Christian Masonry . "
In 1947 , a year after Escrivá moved the organization 's headquarters to Rome , Opus Dei received a decree of praise and approval from Pope Pius XII , making it an institute of " pontifical right " , i.e. under the direct governance of the Pope . In 1950 , Pius XII granted definitive approval to Opus Dei , thereby allowing married people to join the organisation , and secular clergy to be admitted to the Priestly Society of the Holy Cross .
= = = Post @-@ foundational years = = =
In 1975 , Escriva died and was succeeded by Álvaro del Portillo . In 1982 , Opus Dei was made into a personal prelature . This means that Opus Dei is part of the universal Church , and the apostolate of the members falls under the direct jurisdiction of the Prelate of Opus Dei wherever they are . As to " what the law lays down for all the ordinary faithful " , the lay members of Opus Dei , being no different from other Catholics , " continue to be ... under the jurisdiction of the diocesan bishop " , in the words of John Paul II 's Ut Sit . In 1994 , Javier Echevarria became Prelate upon the death of his predecessor .
One @-@ third of the world 's bishops sent letters petitioning for the canonization of Escrivá . Escriva was beatified in 1992 in the midst of controversy prompted by questions about Escriva 's suitability for sainthood . In 2002 , approximately 300 @,@ 000 people gathered in St. Peter 's Square on the day Pope John Paul II canonised Josemaría Escrivá . According to one author , " Escrivá is ... venerated by millions " .
There are other members whose process of beatification has been opened : Ernesto Cofiño , a father of five children and a pioneer in paediatric research in Guatemala ; Montserrat Grases , a teenage Catalan student who died of cancer ; Toni Zweifel , a Swiss engineer ; Tomás Alvira and wife , Paquita Domínguez , a Spanish married couple ; Isidoro Zorzano , an Argentinian engineer ; Dora del Hoyo , a domestic worker ; and Father José Luis Múzquiz de Miguel .
During the pontificate of John Paul II , two members of Opus Dei , Juan Luis Cipriani Thorne and Julián Herranz Casado , were made cardinals .
In September 2005 , Pope Benedict XVI blessed a newly installed statue of Josemaría Escrivá placed in an outside wall niche of St Peter 's Basilica , a place for founders of Catholic organisations .
During that same year , Opus Dei received some unwanted attention due to the extraordinary success of the novel The Da Vinci Code , in which both Opus Dei and the Catholic Church itself are depicted negatively . The film version was released globally in May 2006 , further polarising views on the organisation .
In 2014 , Pope Francis through a delegate beatified Alvaro del Portillo and said that " he teaches us that in the simplicity and ordinariness of our life we can find a sure path to holiness .
At the end of 2014 , the prelature has been established in 69 countries , while its members are present in 90 countries .
= = Spirituality = =
= = = Doctrine = = =
Opus Dei is an organisation of the Catholic Church . As such , it shares the doctrines of the Catholic Church and has " no other teaching than the teaching of the Magisterium of the Holy See " , as per the founder .
Opus Dei places special emphasis on certain aspects of Catholic doctrine . A central feature of Opus Dei 's theology is its focus on the lives of the ordinary Catholics who are neither priests nor monks . Opus Dei emphasises the " universal call to holiness " : the belief that everyone should aspire to be a saint , as per Jesus ' commandment to " Love God with all your heart " ( Matthew 22 : 37 ) and " Be perfect as your heavenly Father is perfect . " ( Matthew 5 : 48 ) Opus Dei also teaches that sanctity is within the reach of everyone , not just a few special individuals , given Jesus ' teaching that his demands are " easy " and " light , " as his divine assistance is assured . ( Matthew 11 : 28 – 30 )
Opus Dei does not have monks or nuns , and only a minority of its members are priests . Opus Dei emphasizes uniting spiritual life with professional , social , and family life . Members of Opus Dei lead ordinary lives , with traditional families and secular careers , and strive to " sanctify ordinary life " . Indeed , Pope John Paul II called Escrivá " the saint of ordinary life " .
Similarly , Opus Dei stresses the importance of work and professional competence . While some religious institutes encourage their members to withdraw from the material world , Opus Dei exhorts its members and all lay Catholics to " find God in daily life " and to perform their work excellently as a service to society and as a fitting offering to God . Opus Dei teaches that work not only contributes to social progress but is " a path to holiness " , and its founder advised people to : " Sanctify your work . Sanctify yourself in your work . Sanctify others through your work . "
The biblical roots of this Catholic doctrine , according to the founder , are in the phrase " God created man to work " ( Gen 2 : 15 ) and Jesus 's long life as an ordinary carpenter in a small town . Escrivá , who stressed the Christian 's duty to follow Christ 's example , also points to the gospel account that Jesus " has done everything well " ( Mk 7 : 37 ) .
The foundation of the Christian life , stressed Escrivá , is divine filiation : Christians are children of God , identified with Christ 's life and mission . Other main features of Opus Dei , according to its official literature , are : freedom , respecting choice and taking personal responsibility ; and charity , love of God above all and love of others .
At the bottom of Escrivá 's understanding of the " universal call to holiness " are two dimensions , subjective and objective , according to Fernando Ocariz , a Catholic theologian and Vicar General of Opus Dei . The subjective is the call given to each person to become a saint , regardless of his place in society . The objective refers to what Escrivá calls Christian materialism : all of creation , even the most material situation , is a meeting place with God , and leads to union with Him .
Different qualifiers have been used to describe Opus Dei 's doctrine : radical , reactionary , faithful , revolutionary , ultraconservative , most modern , conservative. and liberal .
= = = Prayers = = =
All members – whether married or unmarried , priests or laypeople – are trained to follow a ' plan of life ' , or ' the norms of piety ' , which are some traditional Catholic devotions . This is meant to follow the teaching of the Catholic Catechism : " pray at specific times ... to nourish continual prayer , " which in turn is based on Jesus ' " pray at all times " ( Luke 18 : 1 ) , echoed by St. Paul 's " pray without ceasing " ( 1 Thessalonians 5 : 17 ) . According to Escriva , the vocation to Opus Dei is a calling to be a " contemplative in the middle of the world , " who converts work and daily life into prayer .
Daily norms :
Heroic minute , waking up punctually and saying " Serviam ! " ( Latin : I will serve )
Morning offering , fixing one 's intentions to do everything for the glory of God
Spiritual reading and reading the New Testament , a practice recommended by St. Paul and other saints
Mental prayer , conversation with God
Mass , Communion and Thanksgiving after Communion
Rosary , a traditional Catholic devotion to Christ and to Mary
The Preces ( the common prayer of Opus Dei )
Angelus , a Marian prayer which recalls Christian belief in God 's becoming man
Memorare prayer to the Blessed Virgin Mary offered for the Opus Dei member in most need at that exact moment
Visit to the Blessed Sacrament , a Catholic practice of greeting Jesus in the Eucharist
Examination of conscience at the end of the day
Three Hail Marys before bed to pray for the virtue of purity
Short , spontaneous prayers throughout the day , offering up to God one 's work , sufferings etc .
Weekly norms :
Confession , in pursuit of the Catholic recommendation on frequent confession
a group meeting of spiritual formation ( " the Circle " )
the praying of a Marian antiphon on Saturdays
making Psalm 2 the basis of mental prayer on Tuesdays
making the Adoro te devote the basis of mental prayer on Thursdays
Additionally , members should participate yearly in a spiritual retreat ; a three @-@ week seminar every year is obligatory for numeraries , and a one @-@ week seminar for supernumeraries . Also members are expected to make a day @-@ trip pilgrimage where they recite 3 5 @-@ decade rosaries on the month of May in honour of Mary .
= = = Mortification = = =
Much public attention has focused on Opus Dei 's practice of mortification — the voluntary offering up of discomfort or pain to God ; this includes fasting , or in some circumstances self @-@ inflicted pain such as self @-@ flagellation . Mortification has a long history in many world religions , including the Catholic Church . It has been endorsed by Popes as a way of following Christ , who died in a bloody crucifixion and who gave this advice : " let him deny himself , take up his cross daily and follow me . " ( Lk 9 : 23 ) Supporters say that opposition to mortification is rooted in having lost ( 1 ) the " sense of the enormity of sin " or offense against God , and the consequent penance , both interior and exterior , ( 2 ) the notions of " wounded human nature " and of concupiscence or inclination to sin , and thus the need for " spiritual battle , " and ( 3 ) a spirit of sacrifice for love and " supernatural ends , " and not only for physical enhancement .
As a spirituality for ordinary people , Opus Dei focuses on performing sacrifices pertaining to normal duties and to its emphasis on charity and cheerfulness . Additionally , Opus Dei celibate members practise " corporal mortifications " such as sleeping without a pillow or sleeping on the floor , fasting or remaining silent for certain hours during the day .
= = Organization and activities = =
= = = Governance = = =
In Pope John Paul II 's 1982 decree known as the Apostolic constitution Ut Sit , Opus Dei was established as a personal prelature , a new official structure of the Catholic Church , similar to a diocese in that it contains lay people and secular priests who are led by a bishop . However , whereas a bishop normally has a territory or diocese , the prelate of Opus Dei is pastor to the members and priests of Opus Dei worldwide , no matter what diocese they are in . To date , Opus Dei is the only personal prelature in existence . In addition to being governed by Ut Sit and by the Catholic Church 's general law , Opus Dei is governed by the Church 's Particular Law concerning Opus Dei , otherwise known as Opus Dei 's statutes . This specifies the objectives and workings of the prelature . The prelature is under the Congregation for Bishops .
The head of the Opus Dei prelature is known as the Prelate . The Prelate is the primary governing authority and is assisted by two councils — the General Council ( made up of men ) and the Central Advisory ( made up of women ) . The Prelate holds his position for life . The current prelate of Opus Dei is Javier Echevarría Rodríguez , who became the second Prelate of Opus Dei in 1994 . The first Prelate of Opus Dei was Álvaro del Portillo , who held the position from 1982 until his death in 1994 .
Opus Dei 's highest assembled bodies are the General Congresses , which are usually convened once every eight years . There are separate congresses for the men and women 's branch of Opus Dei . The General Congresses are made up of members appointed by the Prelate , and are responsible for advising him about the prelature 's future . The men 's General Congress also elects the Prelate from a list of candidates chosen by their female counterparts . After the death of a Prelate , a special elective General Congress is convened . The women nominate their preferred candidates for the prelate and is voted upon by the men to become the next Prelate — an appointment that must be confirmed by the Pope .
= = = Membership = = =
Based on the language of Catholic Church law and theology , the prelature calls the people under the pastoral care of the prelate as " faithful of the prelature " , since the term member connotes an association rather than a hierarchical structure such as a prelature or a diocese .
As of 2015 , the faithful of the Opus Dei Prelature numbered 93 @,@ 986 of which 91 @,@ 892 are lay persons , men and women , and 2094 priests . These figures do not include the priest members of Opus Dei 's Priestly Society of the Holy Cross , estimated to number 2 @,@ 000 in the year 2005 .
About 60 per cent of Opus Dei faithful reside in Europe , and 35 per cent reside in the Americas . According to the study of John Allen , for the most part , Opus Dei faithful belong to the middle to low levels in society , in terms of education , income , and social status .
Opus Dei is made up of several different types of faithful :
Supernumeraries , the largest type , currently account for about 70 % of the total membership . Typically , supernumeraries are married men and women with careers . Supernumeraries devote a portion of their day to prayer , in addition to attending regular meetings and taking part in activities such as retreats . Due to their career and family obligations , supernumeraries are not as available to the organisation as the other types of faithful , but they typically contribute financially to Opus Dei , and they lend other types of assistance as their circumstances permit .
Numeraries , the second largest type of the faithful of Opus Dei , comprise about 20 % of total membership . Numeraries are celibate members who usually live in special centers run by Opus Dei . Both men and women may become numeraries , although the centers are strictly gender @-@ segregated . Numeraries generally have careers and devote the bulk of their income to the organisation .
Numerary assistants are unmarried , celibate female faithful of Opus Dei . They live in special centres run by Opus Dei but do not have jobs outside the centres — instead , their professional life is dedicated to looking after the domestic needs of the centers and their residents .
Associates are unmarried , celibate faithful who typically have family or professional obligations . Unlike numeraries and numerary assistants , the associates do not live in Opus Dei centres .
The Clergy of the Opus Dei Prelature are priests who are under the jurisdiction of the Prelate of Opus Dei . They are a minority in Opus Dei — only about 2 % of Opus Dei members are part of the clergy . Typically , they are numeraries or associates who ultimately joined the priesthood .
The Priestly Society of the Holy Cross consists of priests associated with Opus Dei . Part of the society is made up of the clergy of the Opus Dei prelature — priests who fall under the jurisdiction of the Opus Dei prelature are automatically members of the Priestly Society . Other members in the society are diocesan priests — clergymen who remain under the jurisdiction of a geographically defined diocese . These priests are considered full members of Opus Dei who are given its spiritual training . They do not however report to the Opus Dei Prelate but to their own diocesan bishop . As of 2005 , there were roughly two thousand of these priests .
The Cooperators of Opus Dei are non @-@ members who collaborate in some way with Opus Dei — usually through praying , charitable contributions , or by providing some other assistance . Cooperators are not required to be celibate or to adhere to any other special requirements . Indeed , cooperators are not even required to be Christian . There were 164 @,@ 000 cooperators in the year 2005 .
In accordance with Catholic theology , membership is granted when a vocation , or divine calling is presumed to have occurred .
= = = Activities = = =
Leaders of Opus Dei describe the organization as a teaching entity whose main activity is to train Catholics to assume personal responsibility in sanctifying the secular world from within . This teaching is done by means of theory and practice .
Its lay people and priests organize seminars , workshops , retreats , and classes to help people put the Christian faith into practice in their daily lives . Spiritual direction , one @-@ on @-@ one coaching with a more experienced lay person or priest , is considered the " paramount means " of training . Through these activities they provide religious instruction ( doctrinal formation ) , coaching in spirituality for lay people ( spiritual formation ) , character and moral education ( human formation ) , lessons in sanctifying one 's work ( professional formation ) , and know @-@ how in evangelizing one 's family and workplace ( apostolic formation ) .
The official Catholic document which established the prelature states that Opus Dei strives " to put into practice the teaching of the universal call to sanctity , and to promote at all levels of society the sanctification of ordinary work , and by means of ordinary work . " Thus , the founder and his followers describe members of Opus Dei as resembling the members of the early Christian Church — ordinary workers who seriously sought holiness with nothing exterior to distinguish them from other citizens .
Opus Dei runs residential centres throughout the world . These centers provide residential housing for celibate members , and provide doctrinal and theological education . Opus Dei is also responsible for a variety of non @-@ profit institutions called " Corporate Works of Opus Dei " . A study of the year 2005 , showed that members have cooperated with other people in setting up a total of 608 social initiatives : schools and university residences ( 68 % ) , technical or agricultural training centres ( 26 % ) , universities , business schools and hospitals ( 6 % ) . The University of Navarra in Pamplona , Spain is a corporate work of Opus Dei which has been rated as one of the top private universities in the country , while its business school , IESE , was adjudged one of the best in the world by the Financial Times and the Economist Intelligence Unit . The total assets of non @-@ profits connected to Opus Dei are worth at least $ 2 @.@ 8 billion .
= = Relations with Catholic leaders = =
Leopoldo Eijo y Garay , the bishop of Madrid where Opus Dei was born , supported Opus Dei and defended it in the 1940s by saying that " this opus is truly Dei " ( this work is truly God 's ) . Contrary to attacks of secrecy and heresy , the bishop described Opus Dei 's founder as someone who is " open as a child " and " most obedient to the Church hierarchy . "
In the 1950s , Pope Pius XII told the most senior Australian bishop , Cardinal Norman Gilroy that Escriva " is a true saint , a man sent by God for our times " . Pius XII gave Opus Dei the canonical status of " pontifical right " , an institution depending directly and exclusively on the Vatican in its internal governance .
In 1960 , Pope John XXIII commented that Opus Dei opens up " unsuspected horizons of apostolate " . Furthermore , in 1964 , Pope Paul VI praised the organization in a handwritten letter to Escrivá , saying :
Opus Dei is " a vigorous expression of the perennial youth of the Church , fully open to the demands of a modern apostolate ... We look with paternal satisfaction on all that Opus Dei has achieved and is achieving for the kingdom of God , the desire of doing good that guides it , the burning love for the Church and its visible head that distinguishes it , and the ardent zeal for souls that impels it along the arduous and difficult paths of the apostolate of presence and witness in every sector of contemporary life . "
The relationship between Paul VI and Opus Dei , according to Alberto Moncada , a doctor of sociology and ex @-@ member , was " stormy " . After the Second Vatican Council concluded in 1965 , Pope Paul VI denied Opus Dei 's petition to become a personal prelature , Moncada stated .
Pope John Paul I , a few years before his election , wrote that Escrivá was more radical than other saints who taught about the universal call to holiness . While others emphasized monastic spirituality applied to lay people , for Escrivá " it is the material work itself which must be turned into prayer and sanctity " , thus providing a lay spirituality .
Criticisms against Opus Dei have prompted Catholics like Piers Paul Read and Vittorio Messori to call Opus Dei a sign of contradiction , in reference to the biblical quote of Jesus as a " sign that is spoken against . " Said John Carmel Heenan , Cardinal Archbishop of Westminster : " One of the proofs of God 's favour is to be a sign of contradiction . Almost all founders of societies in the Church have suffered . Monsignor Escrivá de Balaguer is no exception . Opus Dei has been attacked and its motives misunderstood . In this country and elsewhere an inquiry has always vindicated Opus Dei . "
One of Opus Dei 's most prominent supporters was Pope John Paul II . John Paul II cited Opus Dei 's aim of sanctifying secular activities as a " great ideal . " He emphasized that Escrivá 's founding of Opus Dei was ductus divina inspiratione , led by divine inspiration , and he granted the organisation its status as a personal prelature . Stating that Escrivá is " counted among the great witnesses of Christianity , " John Paul II canonized him in 2002 , and called him " the saint of ordinary life . " Of the organisation , John Paul II said :
" [ Opus Dei ] has as its aim the sanctification of one 's life , while remaining within the world at one 's place of work and profession : to live the Gospel in the world , while living immersed in the world , but in order to transform it , and to redeem it with one 's personal love for Christ . This is truly a great ideal , which right from the beginning has anticipated the theology of the lay state of the Second Vatican Council and the post @-@ conciliar period . "
One @-@ third of the world 's bishops petitioned for the canonisation of Escrivá . During the canonisation , there were 42 cardinals and 470 bishops from around the world , generals superior of many religious institutes , and representatives of various Catholic groups . During those days , these Church officials commented on the universal reach and validity of the message of the founder . For his canonisation homily , John Paul II said : With the teachings of St. Josemaría , " it is easier to understand what the Second Vatican Council affirmed : ' there is no question , then , of the Christian message inhibiting men from building up the world ... on the contrary it is an incentive to do these very things ' ( Vatican II , Gaudium et spes , n . 34 ) . "
Concerning the group 's role in the Catholic Church , critics have argued that Opus Dei 's unique status as a personal prelature gives it too much independence , making it essentially a " church within a church " and that Opus Dei exerts a disproportionately large influence within the Catholic Church itself , as illustrated , for example , by the unusually rapid canonisation of Escrivá , which some considered to be irregular . In contrast , Catholic officials say that Church authorities have even greater control of Opus Dei now that its head is a prelate appointed by the Pope , and its status as a prelature " precisely means dependence . " Allen says that Escriva 's relatively quick canonization does not have anything to do with power but with improvements in procedures and John Paul II 's decision to make Escriva 's sanctity and message known .
Pope Benedict XVI has been a particularly strong supporter of Opus Dei and of Escrivá . Pointing to the name " Work of God " , Benedict XVI ( then Cardinal Joseph Ratzinger ) , wrote that " The Lord simply made use of [ Escrivá ] who allowed God to work . " Ratzinger cited Escrivá for correcting the mistaken idea that holiness is reserved to some extraordinary people who are completely different from ordinary sinners : Even if he can be very weak , with many mistakes in his life , a saint is nothing other than to speak with God as a friend speaks with a friend , allowing God to work , the Only One who can really make the world both good and happy .
Ratzinger spoke of Opus Dei 's " surprising union of absolute fidelity to the Church 's great tradition , to its faith , and unconditional openness to all the challenges of this world , whether in the academic world , in the field of work , or in matters of the economy , etc . " He further explained :
" the theocentrism of Escrivá ... means this confidence in the fact that God is working now and we ought only to put ourselves at his disposal ... This , for me , is a message of greatest importance . It is a message that leads to overcoming what could be considered the great temptation of our times : the pretense that after the ' Big Bang ' God retired from history . "
Pope Francis is " the first Pope who has dealt with Opus Dei closely as a bishop " , and according to James V. Schall , S.J. , is a " friend of Opus Dei . " Francis referred to St. Josemaria as " a precursor of Vatican II in proposing the universal call to holiness . " In the analysis of John Allen , Pope Francis ' strong dislike for clericalism , which he calls " one of the worst evils " in the Church is a key factor for " what Francis admires about Opus Dei , since Escrivá ’ s emphasis on the dignity of the laity was a challenge to the ultra @-@ clerical ethos of Spanish Catholicism in the late 1920s . " He has a devotion to St. Josemaria , and he prayed before his relics for 45 minutes , when he once visited the church of the prelature in Rome . Francis beatified Alvaro del Portillo , the successor of Escriva . What Bergoglio most liked about Opus Dei was the work done for the poor by one of its schools in Buenos Aires . He thanks Opus Dei for its work to further the holiness of priests in the Roman Curia .
= = Controversy = =
Throughout its history , Opus Dei has been criticized from many quarters , prompting journalists to describe Opus Dei as " the most controversial force in the Catholic Church " and founder Saint Josemaría Escrivá as a " polarizing " figure .
The organisation has been criticized for issues relating to the Catholic Church , especially the practice of mortification of the flesh . Controversies about Opus Dei have centered around criticisms of its behaviours , such as alleged secretiveness , aggressive recruiting methods , and its strict rules governing members . The organization 's members have also been categorized by critics as right @-@ leaning elitists , with some individuals supporting fascist governments , such as the Francoist Government of Spain until 1978 .
= = = Supporting views = = =
According to several journalists who have worked independently on Opus Dei , such as John Allen , Jr . , Vittorio Messori , Patrice de Plunkett , Maggy Whitehouse , Noam Friedlander many of the criticisms against Opus Dei are myths and unproven tales . Allen , Messori , and Plunkett say that most of these myths were created by its opponents , with Allen adding that he perceives that Opus Dei members generally practise what they preach .
Allen , Messori , and Plunkett also state that accusations that Opus Dei is secretive are unfounded . These accusations stem from a clerical paradigm which expects Opus Dei members to behave as monks and clerics , people who are traditionally known and externally identifiable as seekers of holiness . In contrast , these journalists continue , Opus Dei 's lay members , like any normal Catholic professional , are ultimately responsible for their personal actions , and do not externally represent the organization which provides them religious education . Writer and broadcast analyst John L. Allen , Jr. states that Opus Dei provides abundant information about itself . These journalists have stated that the historic roots of criticisms against Opus Dei can be found in influential clerical circles .
As to its alleged participation in right @-@ wing politics , especially the Francoist regime , British historians Paul Preston and Brian Crozier state that the Opus Dei members who were Franco 's ministers were appointed for their talent and not for their Opus Dei membership . Also , there were notable members of Opus Dei who were vocal critics of the Franco Regime such as Rafael Calvo Serer and Antonio Fontán , who was the first President of the Senate in Spain , following the adoption of a democratic Constitution . The German historian and Opus Dei member Peter Berglar calls any connection made between Opus Dei and Franco 's regime a " gross slander . " At the end of Franco 's regime , Opus Dei members were 50 : 50 for and against Franco , according to John Allen . Similarly Álvaro del Portillo , the former Prelate of Opus Dei , said that any statements that Escrivá supported Hitler were " a patent falsehood , " that were part of " a slanderous campaign " . He and others have stated that Escriva condemned Hitler as a " rogue " , a " racist " and a " tyrant " . Opus Dei spokespersons also deny claims that Opus Dei members worked with General Pinochet . Various authors state that Escriva was staunchly non @-@ political , and detested dictatorships . Allen wrote that , compared with other Catholic organizations , Opus Dei 's stress on freedom and personal responsibility is extraordinarily strong . There are many Opus Dei members who are identified with left @-@ wing politics , including Ruth Kelly , Jorge Rossi Chavarría and Jesus Estanislao .
While Opus Dei spokespersons have admitted mistakes in dealing with some members and do not , as a rule , contest their grievances , supporters have rejected generalisations merely based on negative experiences of some members . Sociologists like Bryan R. Wilson write about some former members of any religious group who may have psychological motivations such as self @-@ justification to criticise their former groups . Wilson states that such individuals are prone to create fictitious " atrocity stories " which have no basis in reality . Many supporters of Opus Dei have expressed the belief that the criticisms of Opus Dei stem from a generalised disapproval of spirituality , Christianity , or Catholicism . Expressing this sentiment , one Opus Dei member , Cardinal Julián Herranz , stated " Opus Dei has become a victim of Christianophobia . " Massimo Introvigne , author of an encyclopedia of religion , argues that critics employ the term " cult " in order to intentionally stigmatize Opus Dei because " they could not tolerate ' the return to religion ' of the secularized society " .
Opus Dei is not " elitist " in the sense in which people often invoke the term , meaning an exclusively white @-@ collar phenomenon , concluded John Allen . He observed that among its members are barbers , bricklayers , mechanics and fruit sellers . Most supernumeraries are living ordinary middle @-@ class lives , he said .
Regarding alleged misogyny , John Allen states that half of the leadership positions in Opus Dei are held by women , and they supervise men . The Catholic Church defends its male priesthood by saying that " the greatest in the Kingdom of Heaven are not the ministers but the saints . "
= = = Critical views = = =
In the English @-@ speaking world there is an internet @-@ based blogging website called the Opus Dei Awareness Network ( ODAN ) whose Web page is sub @-@ headed " Bringing light to Opus Dei 's Questionable Practices " . Critics of Opus Dei include María del Carmen Tapia , an ex @-@ member who was a high @-@ ranking officer of Opus Dei for many years , liberal Catholic theologians such as Fr . James Martin , a Jesuit writer and editor , and supporters of Liberation theology , such as journalist Penny Lernoux and Michael Walsh , a writer on religious matters and former Jesuit .
Critics state that Opus Dei is " intensely secretive " — for example , members generally do not disclose their affiliation with Opus Dei in public . Further , under the 1950 constitution , members were expressly forbidden to reveal themselves without the permission of their superiors . This practice has led to much speculation about who may be a member .
Opus Dei has been accused of deceptive and aggressive recruitment practices such as showering potential members with intense praise ( " Love bombing " ) , and instructing numeraries to form friendships and attend social gatherings explicitly for recruiting purposes .
Critics allege that Opus Dei maintains an extremely high degree of control over its members — for instance , past rules required numeraries to submit their incoming and outgoing mail to their superiors for inspection , and members are forbidden to read certain books without permission from their superiors . Critics charge that Opus Dei pressures numeraries to sever contact with non @-@ members , including their own families . Exit counselor David Clark has described Opus Dei as " very cult @-@ like " .
Critics assert that Escrivá and the organisation supported radical right @-@ wing governments , such as those of Franco , Augusto Pinochet and Alberto Fujimori of Peru during the 1990s . Both Pinochet 's and Fujimori 's ministries and prominent supporters allegedly included members of Opus Dei , but there are also prominent Opus Dei members in parties that opposed those governments . Likewise , among Opus Dei members there were also strong detractors of Franco , such as Antonio Fontán . There have also been allegations that Escrivá expressed sympathy for Adolf Hitler . One former Opus Dei priest , Vladimir Felzmann , who has become a vocal Opus Dei critic , says that Escrivá once remarked that Hitler had been " badly treated " by the world and he further declared that " Hitler couldn 't have been such a bad person . He couldn 't have killed six million [ Jews ] . It couldn 't have been more than four million . "
Opus Dei has also been accused of elitism through targeting of " the intellectual elite , the well @-@ to @-@ do , and the socially prominent . "
As a part of the Roman Catholic Church , Opus Dei has been open to the same criticisms as Catholicism in general — for example female members of Opus Dei cannot become priests or prelates . Specifically , Opus Dei 's position has been " to oppose sexual freedoms and promote conservative morals , " according to an investigative report produced by the advocacy group Catholics for Choice The report further cites a study from sociologist Marco Burgos alleging Opus Dei interference in sex education programs in Honduras .
After conducting a critical study of Opus Dei , journalist John L. Allen , Jr. concluded that Opus Dei should ( 1 ) be more transparent , ( 2 ) collaborate with members of religious institutes , and ( 3 ) encourage its members to air out in public their criticisms of the institution .
= = = Other views = = =
Sociologists Peter Berger and Samuel Huntington suggest that Opus Dei is involved in " a deliberate attempt to construct an alternative modernity , " one that engages modern culture while at the same time is resolutely loyal to Catholic traditions . Van Biema of Time magazine emphasises Opus Dei 's Spanish roots as a source of misunderstandings in the Anglo @-@ Saxon world , and suggests that as the United States becomes more Hispanic , controversies about Opus Dei ( and similar Catholic organizations ) will decrease .
In her 2006 book on Opus Dei , Maggy Whitehouse , a non @-@ Catholic journalist , argues that the relative autonomy of each director and centre has resulted in mistakes at the local level . She recommends greater consistency and transparency for Opus Dei , which she sees as having learned the lesson of greater openness when it faced the issues raised by The Da Vinci Code and other critics .
= = Members proposed for Beatification = =
Aside from Escriva ( canonized in 2002 ) and Alvaro del Portillo ( beatified in 2014 ) , there a number of members of Opus Dei who have been proposed for beatification :
Toni Zweifel
Ernesto Cofiño
Tomas Alvira
Francisca " Paquita " Dominguez
Laura Busca Otaegui . Laura was born on November 3 , 1918 in Zumarraga , Guipuzcoa , Spain . She was married to Eduardo Ortiz de Landazuri Fernandez de Heredia and became a mother of seven . She has a degree in pharmacology and a great love for study and reading . After a long illness , she died in Pamplona , with a reputation for sanctity , on October 11 , 2000 . The Archbishop of Pamplona opened her Cause of Canonization on June 14 , 2013 . Together with her husband they are honored as " Servants of God " .
Eduardo Ortiz de Landazuri . Born on October 31 , 1910 in Segovia , Spain . He was a doctor , and he died on May 20 , 1985 in Pamplona , Navarra , Spain . His cause for Canonization was opened by the Congregation for the Causes of Saints , which have given him the Protocol No : 2253 and honored him together with his wife as " Servants of God " on November 3 , 1998 .
Joseph Muzquiz
Montserrat Grases . She was born on July 10 , 1941 in Barcelona , Spain . She died on March 26 , 1959 in Barcelona , Spain . Her cause is now underway to Sainthood . The Congregation for the Causes of Saints had given her the Protocol No : 1137 and she was honored as " Servant of God " .
Maria Encarnacion Ortega Pardo
Jose Maria Hernandez Garnica
Dora del Hoyo . Dora was born on January 11 , 1914 in Boca de Huergano , Leon , Spain . She died on May 20 , 2004 in Rome , Italy . Her Cause for Beatification is now on Preliminary stages .
Guadalupe Ortiz de Landazuri Fernandez de Heredia
Maria Lourdes de Miguel Crespo
Jeremy Joyner White
= = Opus Dei in popular culture = =
Jerry Pournelle 's 1974 Science Fiction story " Enforcer " centers on a fictional coup d 'état in Argentina , whose moving spirit , a Colonel Ortiz , is affiliated to Opus Dei as well as Catholic Action . Though he is the story 's antagonist , Otiz is depicted rather sympathetically as an honest and dedicated officer - who tries ( and eventually fails ) to defend Argentine sovereignty against a giant multi @-@ national corporation employing the " Enforcer " of the title .
In the 1997 novel The Genesis Code by John Case the leader of Umbra Domini , which is the author 's version of Opus Dei , is portrayed as the novel 's antagonist . In the novel , Umbra Domini members are sent on a mission to execute children who were conceived using genetically engineered oocytes .
In another 1997 book , the detective novel " The Death of Faith " which is the seventh in the Commissario Brunetti series by Donna Leon , the book 's mystery turns out to involve sinister activities by Opus Dei . The book ends with the protagonist Brunetti feeling certain that a priest who is an Opus Dei member was responsible for several murders - but has no way to prove it in court , and feels that Opus Dei is too powerful to touch .
Since 2003 , Opus Dei has received world attention as a result of Dan Brown 's novel The Da Vinci Code and the 2006 film based on the novel . In The Da Vinci Code , Opus Dei is portrayed as a Catholic organization that is led into a sinister international conspiracy . In general , The Da Vinci Code has been sharply criticised for its numerous factual inaccuracies , by a wide array of scholars and historians . According to the Anglican Bishop of Durham , the Rt Rev Dr Tom Wright , the novel is a " great thriller " but " lousy history " . For example , Silas , a major villain in The Da Vinci Code is a monk who is a member of Opus Dei — but in reality there are no monks in Opus Dei . The Da Vinci Code implies that Opus Dei is the Pope 's personal prelature — but the term " personal prelature " does not refer to a special relationship to the Pope : It means an institution in which the jurisdiction of the prelate is not linked to a geographic territory but over persons , wherever they be . Nonetheless , Brown stated that his portrayal of Opus Dei was based on interviews with members and ex @-@ members , and books about Opus Dei . An Opus Dei spokesman questioned this statement .
A Franco @-@ Belgian comic book ( bande dessinée ) on the life of Escrivá was published by Coccinelle BD in 2005 . The title is Through the mountains , in reference to Escriva 's escape from the Republican zone through the mountains of Andorra during the Spanish Civil War .
In the bestselling Ashwin Sanghi thriller The Rozabal Line ( 2007 ) , mention of Opus Dei and Illuminati are frequent . Sanghi , often termed the Indian Dan Brown , created an intricate plot revolving around themes of Jesus ' tomb and nuclear bombs and the events , though global , have India as an important theatre .
Camino , a 2008 Spanish film directed by Javier Fesser , allegedly based on the real story of Alexia González @-@ Barros , a girl who died from spinal cancer at fourteen in 1985 and awaits canonisation . Fesser portrays the Opus Dei in a negative way , depicting it as an extreme cult destroying families , suggesting that Opus Dei manipulated the tragedy of the young Camino 's painful death for its own ends .
There Be Dragons , an historical epic film released in the spring of 2011 , includes the early life of Escrivá . It is directed by Roland Joffé , and stars Charlie Cox , Wes Bentley , Derek Jacobi , Golshifteh Farahani , Dougray Scott , Olga Kurylenko , and Lily Cole .
Damien , a 2016 television series based on The Omen has the organisation .
= = = Opus Dei Official sites = = =
Official website
The founder of Opus Dei : Official Site
Writings of the founder of Opus Dei
St. Josemaría Escrivá Historical Institute , Rome
YouTube Channel – Opus Dei
YouTube Channel – St. Josemaria
= = = Sites supporting Opus Dei = = =
The Vatican on Opus Dei and Josemaria Escriva
EWTN page on Opus Dei
Opus Dei Blogs – central hub of internet sources
page on Opus Dei with forum
= = = Sites critical of Opus Dei = = =
Opus Dei Awareness Network – by ex @-@ members and family
OpusLibros.org ( Spanish ) – by ex @-@ members
Opus Dei in the United States – by Father James Martin , S.J.
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= John Alan Coey =
John Alan Coey ( 12 November 1950 – 19 July 1975 ) was an American soldier who served in the Rhodesian Army as one of " the Crippled Eagles " , a loosely organised group of US expatriates fighting for the unrecognised government of Rhodesia ( today Zimbabwe ) during that country 's Bush War . A devout Christian and fervent anti @-@ communist — the African @-@ American historian Gerald Horne described him as a white supremacist of the political ultra @-@ right — he was the first American fatality of the war . He moved to Rhodesia to join its army in 1972 , the day after graduating from college in his home town of Columbus , Ohio , and served until he was killed in action in 1975 . He kept a journal throughout his service that was posthumously published as A Martyr Speaks .
Coey received United States Marine Corps officer training during his studies and was on track to receive a commission when he requested discharge and left for Rhodesia , asserting that the US government had been infiltrated by a " revolutionary conspiracy of internationalists , collectivists and communists " and that fighting for Rhodesia would allow him to better defend Western interests . He joined the Rhodesian Special Air Service ( SAS ) and passed out with the rank of trooper in November 1972 , receiving recognition as one of the army 's best recruits of the year . However , his political views led to an acrimonious fall from favour within the SAS , his expulsion from its officer training programme in October 1973 and ultimately to his leaving the unit four months later . He redeployed to the Rhodesian Army Medical Corps , from which he was posted to the Rhodesian Light Infantry ( RLI ) heliborne commando battalion in July 1974 , concurrently with his promotion to corporal . He thereafter served an instructor and commando medic in the RLI .
Though not an officer , Coey exerted some influence on tactical doctrine , making numerous suggestions to his superiors and pioneering the combat medic role in the Rhodesian Army , which caused him to be nicknamed " the Fighting Doc " . He was killed in action in the Kandeya Tribal Trust Lands in the country 's north on 19 July 1975 , shot through the head while running into the open to treat two fallen comrades . His remains , originally buried in Que Que in central Rhodesia , were reinterred in Ohio in 1979 . His journal and some of his letters home were compiled into A Martyr Speaks by his mother soon after he died , and published in 1988 .
= = Early life = =
John Alan Coey was born in Columbus , Ohio , on 12 November 1950 to George and Phyllis Coey , both devout Christians . While growing up , John was a keen Boy Scout and attained the organisation 's top rank , Eagle Scout . He attended Ohio State University 's campus in his home town , studying forestry , and during his studies enlisted in the United States Marine Corps ' officer training program as a cadet in its Platoon Leaders Class . During this time he also taught at a local Sunday school .
Like his parents , Coey was a fervent Christian , and held forthright views on communism , which he believed was an inherently evil system of government , geared towards the ultimate destruction of Christianity and the West ; he later wrote of the " murder " of 65 million people by communists in China and the Soviet Union since the October Revolution of 1917 , " and the souls of millions more ... indoctrinated with atheism " . In Coey 's opinion , only the retention of a society rooted in traditional Western culture and Christian faith would prevent this from happening elsewhere .
= = Military career = =
= = = Motivations = = =
Coey was on track to receive an officer 's commission into the Marines as soon as he graduated from college , but he became severely disillusioned by the course of the Vietnam War . Puzzled by America 's failure to win the war , he developed a theory that the United States government had been infiltrated by a " revolutionary conspiracy of internationalists , collectivists and communists " , which he claimed was deliberately bringing about defeat in Vietnam to demoralise Americans as a precursor to bringing the United States under a totalitarian world government . His attention was caught by the situation in Rhodesia ( today Zimbabwe ) , where a war pitted the unrecognised government , made up predominantly of the country 's minority whites , against communist @-@ backed black nationalist guerrilla groups . Coey interpreted this as Rhodesia " holding the line " on the behalf of Christendom against communism , and surmised that he would better serve the United States and the Western world if he fought in the Rhodesian Army rather than the US Marine Corps . He successfully requested a discharge from the Marines just before he would have received his commission , and flew to southern Africa the day after he graduated from Ohio State in late March 1972 to join the Rhodesian Army .
Foreigners like Coey who volunteered for the Rhodesian Army received the same pay and conditions of service as local regulars . Ideologically and religiously motivated , Coey viewed himself as a kind of latter @-@ day crusader . He kept a thorough journal of his thoughts and experiences throughout his army service . " I believe God intended me to come here for some purpose , " he wrote soon after enlisting . " This action has cost me an Officer 's Commission , and ... my citizenship may be revoked , [ but ] this is the most I can do for my country under the circumstances . " He told the historian Gerald Horne that he believed communists had already compromised top levels of the US government , and that by serving in Rhodesia he was helping to unify " his people " against a foreign conspiracy . His religious views also affected his views on Zionism : he believed that the State of Israel 's existence prior to the Second Coming of Christ was contrary to scriptural prophecies , and that it should therefore be destroyed .
= = = Special Air Service = = =
Though foreign soldiers in the Rhodesian Army were only required to immediately commit to three years ' service , Coey volunteered on arrival for at least five . He joined the Special Air Service ( SAS ) , an elite commando unit . He was one of several foreigners in his barrack room , and they decorated their quarters with the flags of their home countries . Coey performed well during his initial training , and was recognised as one of the Rhodesian Army 's top recruits of 1972 ; after passing out in November that year with the rank of trooper , he was picked out in January 1973 for instruction as an officer . While training for this new role , he contributed articles to various Rhodesian and South African publications , sending work to the latter under the Afrikaans pseudonym " Johann Coetzee " . The political and religious views reflected in his journal continued : on 18 September 1973 , he expressed profound joy at the overthrow of Chile 's Marxist President Salvador Allende , and painted the incident as a victory for Christianity and the West .
In October 1973 , Coey submitted an inflammatory article detailing his views on America 's foreign policy to the army magazine , Assegai ; the firmly anti @-@ establishment piece , " The Myth of American Anti @-@ communism " , was deemed " subversive " by the army , which blocked its publication . Coey was removed from the officer training programme soon after , officially because of his " temperament " . Though disappointed by his expulsion , and suspicious about the true reasoning behind it , Coey did not complain , writing that as an ordinary trooper he would be free to broadcast his views to the public unhindered .
Coey first saw combat action in November 1973 , in a covert external operation in Portuguese Mozambique 's north @-@ western Tete Province . He enjoyed it , comparing the experience to the American Indian Wars of the 19th century . The following month , however , he was informed by his commanding officer that he would be not be used as a paratrooper , and would not be going on patrol again , as he was , in the commander 's words , " not worth it " . Coey felt so humiliated that he considered leaving , but resolved to stay and fight on . Despite his commander 's order to remain on base , he joined a patrol into Mozambique and crossed the border on 7 January 1974 . The commanding officer flew into a rage when he discovered Coey 's insubordination two weeks later , and immediately had him brought back . Meanwhile , Coey persevered with " The Myth of American Anti @-@ communism " , and secured its publication in the conservative , nationally distributed journal Property and Finance on 7 February 1974 . Five days later , he was barred from taking part in a parachute exercise with his unit , and on 14 February he was instructed to choose another army corps or regiment by the 18th ; the SAS no longer wanted him .
= = = Rhodesian Light Infantry = = =
Coey 's request to transfer to the Rhodesian Army Medical Corps was granted , and he was accordingly placed in a three @-@ month medical course in Bulawayo , starting in April 1974 . On its completion in July , he was promoted to corporal and posted to the Rhodesian Light Infantry ( RLI ) heliborne commando battalion , where he was installed as an instructor . He expressed pride in teaching " as we did at Quantico — the Marine way ! " He was pleased to meet other Americans in the RLI , particularly when they were fellow US Marines . The American expatriates in the Rhodesian forces tended to try to stay together and associate with each other . They were later informally dubbed " the Crippled Eagles " by the American author Robin Moore , who moved to Salisbury in August 1976 and became their unofficial patron . Coey liked and respected his fellow soldiers , who in turn regarded him as strong , capable and brave , but there was mutual animosity concerning their respective lifestyles while off @-@ duty . " They live for pleasure mostly , " Coey wrote in his journal , " drinking and whoring . The Christian soldier is sometimes despised and ridiculed . "
Coey acquitted himself well in the eyes of his superiors following his move to the RLI , and soon after joining the unit mustered into Support Group as a specialist in tracking , mortars and armoured vehicle driving , while also working as a medic . He took part in over 60 Fireforce missions in this capacity , and became nicknamed " the Fighting Doc " because of his vehement insistence on joining such combat excursions . Although his political views had prevented him from becoming an officer , he continued to make tactical suggestions to his superiors , some of which were adopted ; for example , combat medics were introduced to RLI patrols at his suggestion , and following his example . However , other ideas of Coey 's — such as his proposed use of psychochemical weapons and the " weapon of starvation " against Mozambicans and Zambians — were less well received .
On recovering his journal , Coey 's family discovered that portions of it which discussed army operations in too much detail — sometimes brief passages , but occasionally whole months at a time — had been censored by the army , and in some cases removed entirely . Apart from an entry on 26 December 1974 , in which Coey wrote about his loneliness at Christmas and desire to get married , not a word remained after 11 November 1974 . Having become engaged to a young Rhodesian woman , Coey successfully filed for Rhodesian citizenship while on leave in June 1975 , then renewed his US passport in South Africa . " What a chuckle , " he wrote to a friend , " filling out those papers under a portrait of Henry Kissinger ! "
= = = Death = = =
On 19 July 1975 , a unit from the Rhodesian Territorial Force ( TF ) contacted a group of guerrillas near a river in the Kandeya Tribal Trust Lands , north @-@ east of Mount Darwin in the area covered by Operation Hurricane . After the Territorials killed two of the insurgents without loss , the cadres fell back and set up an ambush position underneath the roots of some overhanging trees on the riverbank . The TF patrol summoned a Fireforce made up of 7 and 10 Troops , 2 Commando , RLI from Mount Darwin , which arrived soon after . Coey , who was attached to 2 Commando at the time , accompanied 7 Troop as the patrol 's combat medic .
The Territorals and 10 Troop made a sweep of the river line , but on rounding a bend in the stream were suddenly fired upon by the hidden guerrillas . A sergeant from the TF was killed , as well as Rifleman Hennie Potgeiter of the RLI . RLI Rifleman Ken Lucas suffered a gunshot wound to the leg . The insurgents now held their fire to prevent giving their position away . Incorrectly believing from the inactivity that the cadres had fled , and thinking that the two fallen soldiers were still alive , Major Hank Meyer ordered the leader of 7 Troop , Lieutenant Joe du Plooy , to sweep around the river and send Coey out to treat the men .
Lieutenant du Plooy led his men around the bend , carefully keeping them behind cover , then sent Coey out into the open riverbed to give treatment . With his Red Cross flag clearly visible , Coey came out from cover and made for the bodies on the ground . The concealed cadres immediately opened fire and fatally shot him through the head . His lifeless body fell at du Plooy 's feet . Coey was the first American fatality of the Rhodesian Bush War . The contact in which he died eventually ended with du Plooy and two other Rhodesians being wounded and a further Rhodesian soldier , Corporal Jannie de Beer , being killed . The insurgents escaped without any further loss to their number .
= = Reactions to death , funeral and burial = =
Coey 's parents received letters of consolation from across the world , including one from Lester Maddox , the segregationist Governor of Georgia , and another from the secretary of the far @-@ right Liberty Lobby . Coey was never a member of any radical political group , but his life and death were still used as propaganda by some such movements : according to The Nation , Coey was " eulogized in the American Nazi paper " , and , on 4 July 1976 , Willis Carto of the Liberty Lobby announced a posthumous award to Coey to commemorate the bicentenary of the United States . Members of the Rhodesian public donated money to help the Coey family travel to Rhodesia to attend his funeral service . On arrival , Coey 's parents told the Salisbury Sunday Mail that they believed his death had not been in vain , as he had fallen defending " the last bastion for fighting communism that is left in the Western world " .
On 28 July 1975 , Coey received a full military funeral and was buried in the central Rhodesian town of Que Que , where he had been living . With his parents standing by , Coey 's brother , Edward , gave a eulogy that strongly stressed his family 's religious and ideological beliefs — he said that his brother had achieved " the greatest of Christian virtues : sacrifice " .
When the family returned to Ohio , Phyllis Coey compiled her son 's journal and a selection of his letters home into a book entitled A Martyr Speaks , which she first attempted to have published in 1975 . Because of the controversial views it contained ( including Coey 's dedication of his journal " to the 100 @,@ 000 American dead of Korea and Vietnam who were betrayed by their own government " ) , the book was turned down by publishers for over a decade . Coey 's remains were reburied in Ohio in 1979 , near to his family home . A Martyr Speaks was released in 1988 , 13 years after his death , by the New Puritan Library , a religious press in North Carolina .
= = Publications = =
Coey , John Alan ( March 1988 ) . Brooks , Pat , ed . A Martyr Speaks ( First ed . ) . Fletcher , North Carolina : New Puritan Library . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 932050 @-@ 41 @-@ 0 .
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= California State Route 247 =
State Route 247 ( SR 247 ) is a state highway in the U.S. state of California in San Bernardino County . The road passes through the Mojave Desert , connecting SR 62 in Yucca Valley to Interstate 15 ( I @-@ 15 ) . SR 247 was designated by the California State Legislature in 1969 ; the county roads along that route were given to the state in 1972 .
= = Route description = =
SR 247 begins at a junction with SR 62 in the town of Yucca Valley , where it is signed as Old Woman Springs Road . From Yucca Valley , the two @-@ lane highway heads northwestward through desert , much of it through Johnson Valley , briefly passing through Flamingo Heights and the western tip of Landers .
In the town of Lucerne Valley , SR 18 and SR 247 do not actually intersect , but the highways are less than 0 @.@ 125 miles ( 0 @.@ 201 km ) apart , connected by a short continuation road to extend SR 18 to SR 247 . A right turn at this intersection changes SR 247 's path due north as Barstow Road towards Barstow and its northern terminus at I @-@ 15 , passing by Barstow Community College . However , continuing straight on Old Woman Springs Road , instead of turning right at this intersection , leads to SR 18 , heading west by northwest to Apple Valley and Victorville .
SR 247 is part of the California Freeway and Expressway System , but is not part of the National Highway System , a network of highways that are essential to the country 's economy , defense , and mobility . The route is eligible for the State Scenic Highway System , but it is not officially designated as a scenic highway by the California Department of Transportation . In 2013 , SR 247 had an annual average daily traffic ( AADT ) of 1 @,@ 700 between Stoddard Wells Road and the Barstow city limits , and 18 @,@ 000 at the northern terminus with I @-@ 15 , the latter of which was the highest AADT for the highway .
= = History = =
The California State Legislature defined Route 26 as a route from Lucerne Valley to Morongo Valley in 1959 . SR 247 was designated in the 1964 state highway renumbering as a route from SR 62 in Yucca Valley to SR 18 near Lucerne Valley , and then from there to I @-@ 15 in Barstow . That year , the Lucerne Valley Chamber of Commerce began an effort to have a state highway designated from Lucerne Valley to Yucca Valley along Old Woman Springs Road . By 1969 , county roads had been constructed from Barstow to Lucerne Valley , and from there to Yucca Valley . Barstow Road and Old Woman Springs Road were given to the state by San Bernardino County in 1972 , although the county had agreed to perform some improvements on the two roads after the state began to maintain them .
Parts of the SR 247 roadway buckled in the Landers earthquake of 1992 , and 10 miles ( 16 km ) of the highway was closed while repairs took place . In 2001 , Caltrans indicated that most of the highway was considered " maintain only " until 2020 , except for the portions in Yucca Valley and Barstow , which were to be widened to six lanes .
= = Major intersections = =
Except where prefixed with a letter , postmiles were measured on the road as it was in 1964 , based on the alignment that existed at the time , and do not necessarily reflect current mileage . R reflects a realignment in the route since then , M indicates a second realignment , L refers an overlap due to a correction or change , and T indicates postmiles classified as temporary ( for a full list of prefixes , see the list of postmile definitions ) . Segments that remain unconstructed or have been relinquished to local control may be omitted . The entire route is in San Bernardino County .
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= Tubas =
Tubas ( / ˈtuːbəs / or / ˈtjuːbəs / ; Arabic : طوباس , Tûbâs ) is a Palestinian city in the northeastern West Bank , located 21 kilometers ( 13 mi ) northeast of Nablus , a few kilometers west of the Jordan River . A city of over 16 @,@ 000 inhabitants , it serves as the economic and administrative center of the Tubas Governorate . Its urban area consists of 2 @,@ 271 dunams ( 227 hectares ) . It is governed by a municipal council of 15 members and most of its working inhabitants are employed in agriculture or public services . Jamal Abu Mohsin has been the mayor of Tubas since being elected in 2005 .
Tubas has been identified as the ancient town of Thebez / ˈθiːˌbɛz / — a Canaanite town famous for revolting against King Abimelech . During the late 19th century , during Ottoman rule in Palestine , Arab clans living in the Jordan Valley came to live in Tubas , and it became a major town in the District of Nablus , particularly known for its timber and cheese @-@ making . It came under the British Mandate of Palestine in 1917 , was annexed by Jordan after their capture of the town in the 1948 Arab – Israeli War , and then occupied by Israel in the 1967 Six @-@ Day War . The Palestinian National Authority has had complete control of Tubas since the city was transferred to its jurisdiction in 1995 .
= = History = =
= = = Ancient period = = =
The city 's name Tubas derives from the Canaanite word Tuba Syoys or " illuminating star " . Tubas was identified by Edward Robinson to be the Canaanite / Israelite town of " Thebez " mentioned in the Bible . Thebez was ruled by the Israelite King Abimelech of Shechem . When the people of Shechem ( at that time a Canaanite city ) revolted against him , Thebez joined the revolt . A Biblical story relates that Abimelech attempted to destroy Thebez in response to its participation in the revolt and when he and his army attacked a tower in the town , a woman hurled a millstone at Abimelech , killing him .
Archaeological remains such as cemeteries and olive presses indicate that Tubas was inhabited during the Roman era of rule in Palestine . Jerome mentioned Thebez being 13 Roman miles east of Neapolis ( Nablus ) . Besides the Biblical story , nothing has been known about Thebez before or after the revolt .
= = = Ottoman period = = =
In 1596 it appeared in the Ottoman tax registers as " Tubas " , in the nahiya of Jabal Sami in the liwa of Nablus . It had a population of 41 households and 16 bachelors , all Muslim . Taxes were paid on wheat , barley , summer crops , olive trees , occasional revenues , goats , beehives , and a press for olives or grapes .
In the late 19th century during Ottoman rule in Palestine , groups of Arabs belonging to the Daraghmeh clan — mostly shepherds and farmers who lived in the Jordan Valley — migrated northward to the site because of its fertile ground , proximity to several springs , and its high elevation compared to the Jordan Valley and Wadi al @-@ Far 'a plain ; Mount Gerizim was visible from the area . The Daraghmeh clan had lived in the Jordan Valley since the 15th century and in addition to Tubas , they founded or inhabited the nearby hamlets of Kardala , al @-@ Farisiya , Khirbet al @-@ Malih , Kishda , Yarza , and Ras al @-@ Far 'a . Soon after being established in Tubas , Arabs from Najd , Syria , Transjordan , Hebron and nearby Nablus came to settle in the area . During this period , Tubas became the site of clashes between the ' Abd al @-@ Hadi and Tuqan clans of Nablus and suffered incursions by Bedouins from areas east of the city . The Jarrar clan did not inhabit , but administrated Tubas , as it was located within the nahiya ( " subdistrict " ) of Mashariq al @-@ Jarrar .
Tubas was one of the largest villages in the District of Nablus . Most of the inhabitants resided in mud @-@ built houses or tents in order to work on their distant lands in the Jordan Valley and to graze their sheep and goat flocks . According to traveler Herbert Rix , compared to other towns of its size in Samaria , Tubas was " well @-@ to @-@ do " and had abundant amounts of timber which was harvested for firewood . Tubas , unlike the villages in the rest of the district , depended on livestock and not olives for income . Livestock products included cheese , clarified butter , woolen rugs , tents , ropes , and cloth bags . In 1882 a boys ' school was established in the town .
In 1877 Lieutenant Kitchener , of the Palestine Exploration Fund survey team , reported uncovering an Arabic inscription buried in the wall of the village mosque recording its building and dedication . He also wrote that the villagers had paid a bribe of £ 100 in gold to the Pasha of Nablus to avoid their young men being conscripted into the Turkish army fighting in Crimea . He noted that they would probably have to repeat the payment .
The Palestine Exploration Fund noted that the Samaritans believed that the tomb of Asher , known locally as Nabi Tota ( " the good prophet " ) , was located in Tubas . The tomb served as a shrine in local Muslim tradition .
= = = Modern era = = =
In 1917 , the British captured Palestine from the Ottomans , and in 1922 – 23 Tubas was incorporated into the British Mandate of Palestine . In 1947 , the United Nations drew up a partition plan to divide Palestine into Jewish and Arab states ; Tubas and the surrounding villages and hamlets were to be included in the Arab state . During the 1948 Arab – Israeli War , Fawzi al @-@ Qawuqji led 750 Arab Liberation Army ( ALA ) soldiers to Tubas from Transjordan and set up base there ; Tubas would serve as the ALA 's headquarters in central Palestine throughout the war . Transjordan ( became Jordan in April 1949 ) annexed the city along with the entire West Bank , after gaining control of it during the war . In 1955 the first girls ' school was opened . Tubas was under their control until 1967 , when Israel occupied the West Bank during the Six @-@ Day War .
Tubas was transferred to Palestinian National Authority ( PNA ) control in 1995 under the Interim Agreement on the West Bank and the Gaza Strip . During the Jordanian and Israeli periods , the city was under the administration of the Nablus Governorate , but in 1996 , the PNA declared Tubas and the immediate area to be an electoral district , and later , an independent administrative area — the Tubas Governorate .
Tubas did not see as much violence in the Israeli – Palestinian conflict as nearby Nablus and Jenin , but a number of incidents occurred during the Second Intifada , which began in 2000 . In April 2002 , the Israel Defense Forces ( IDF ) killed six active Hamas members in the town , including Ashraf Tamza Daraghmeh — the chief Hamas commander in Tubas and the surrounding area . On August 31 , 2002 , an Israeli Apache helicopter fired four Hellfire missiles at a civilian car suspected of carrying a local al @-@ Aqsa Martyrs Brigades commander and a nearby home . The strike instead killed five civilians , including two children , two teenagers and a 29 @-@ year @-@ old Fatah activist accused of being a member of the al @-@ Aqsa Brigades . The Israeli Defense Minister , Binyamin Ben @-@ Eliezer , issued a statement expressing " regret " over " harming " civilians in Tubas . Ben @-@ Eliezer described the raid in Tubas as a " mistake " , and promised that the army would investigate the incident . On August 21 , 2009 , a clash between the Sawafta clan and another city clan left a member of the former dead and 38 others injured . Five homes were also burnt and Palestinian Security Forces arrested five people in connection to the death .
= = Geography = =
Tubas is located in the northern West Bank with an elevation of 362 meters ( 1 @,@ 188 ft ) above sea level , whereas most of the Tubas Governorate is located within the Jordan Valley to the south . In a 1945 land survey , Tubas along with nearby Bardala and Kardala consisted of 313 @,@ 123 dunams ( 31 @,@ 312 hectares ) of which 220 @,@ 594 was Arab @-@ owned and the remainder being public property . As of 2005 , its total land area consists of 295 @,@ 123 dunams ( 29 @,@ 512 hectares ) , of which 2 @,@ 271 is classified as built @-@ up , roughly 150 @,@ 000 used for agricultural purposes and about 180 @,@ 000 confiscated by Israel for military bases and buffer zone .
Tubas is 21 kilometers ( 13 mi ) northeast of Nablus , 3 @.@ 7 kilometers ( 2 @.@ 3 mi ) west of the Jordan River and 63 kilometers ( 39 mi ) east of the Mediterranean Sea . Nearby localities include the town of Aqqaba to the north , Tayasir and Aqabah villages to the northeast , Ras al @-@ Far 'a to the southwest , the Palestinian refugee camp of Far 'a to the south and the al @-@ Bikai 'a village cluster to the southeast .
It has a moderate climate ; the summer is hot and dry , and the winter is cold and wet . The average annual temperature is 21 ° C ( 70 ° F ) , and the average annual humidity rate is 56 % .
= = Demographics = =
Tubas had a population of 3 @,@ 349 in 1922 , while in the 1931 census , taken by the British Mandate of Palestine authorities , Tubas , ( including Kashda and Jabagia ) had 773 occupied houses and a population of 4 @,@ 097 , mostly Muslims , but also including 29 Christians . In Sami Hadawi 's 1945 land and population survey , Tubas and nearby Bardala had a combined population of 5 @,@ 530 . In 1964 , Tubas alone had a population of 5 @,@ 880 . About 1 @,@ 100 residents fled Tubas after the 1967 Six @-@ Day War mostly to the Souf refugee camp in Jordan , while 260 immigrated there and in 1981 its population was 5 @,@ 300 .
In the Palestinian Central Bureau of Statistics ' ( PCBS ) first official census in 1997 , Tubas had a population of 11 @,@ 760 inhabitants . The gender make @-@ up was 50 @.@ 8 % male and 49 @.@ 2 % female . Tubas has an overwhelmingly young population with 52 @.@ 7 % of the city 's residents below the age of 20 . People between the ages of 20 and 34 constitute 24 @.@ 7 % , 17 @.@ 7 % between the ages of 35 and 64 , while people above the age of 64 constituted 4 @.@ 9 % of the population . The census also revealed that refugees made up 6 @.@ 1 % of the total residents .
In the 2007 census by the PCBS , Tubas had a population of 16 @,@ 154 , increasing around 33 % from 1997 . The city represents roughly a third ( 33 @.@ 4 % ) of the Tubas Governorate 's total population . The city 's modern @-@ era founders , the Daraghmeh clan , constitute 70 % of Tubas ' inhabitants . The clan has several smaller branches , including the Mslamany , Abd al @-@ Razeq and Abu Khazaran families . The Sawafta family make up 25 % , the Husheh make up 3 % and the Fuquha represent the remaining 2 % . The inhabitants of Tubas are predominantly Muslims , but there is a community of approximately 60 Palestinian Christians , all belonging to the Greek Orthodox Church . The Christian community worships at the Holy Trinity Church in the city and are serviced by a priest from nearby Zababdeh .
= = Economy = =
The economical situation Tubas during the 1993 – 99 period was prosperous , however since the start of the Second Intifada in 2000 – 01 , Tubas ' income level has decreased by roughly 40 % . Prior to the Intifada , the average household income was 2 @,@ 500 NIS , receding to about 1 @,@ 500 NIS . A major factor that has resulted from the conflict was the confiscation of agricultural land located within the city 's or its governorate 's jurisdiction by Israeli settlements or military authorities . According to the PCBS , in 1999 , approximately 52 % of the citizens were within the working age ( 15 @-@ 64 ) . Of the city 's labor force , 48 % are females . The unemployment rate increased dramatically from 20 % in 1999 to 70 % after the year 2000 . Prior to the Intifada , 35 % of the total labor force worked in Israel .
Currently , agriculture constitutes 60 % of Tubas ' economic activity , public services comprise 17 % , trade is 10 % , Israeli labor is 8 % , construction and industry make @-@ up the remaining 5 % . In the city , there are 240 shops and stores , 70 service institutions andone big ready mix concrete factory 30 small ones .
The main economic sector in Tubas is agriculture . There is a total of 150 @,@ 000 dunams of arable land , of which 124 @,@ 450 dunams are covered by forests and 10 @,@ 604 dunams cultivated . Although the land is fertile , there is a lack of water for irrigation . The only spring used is the nearby Ein Far 'a . Field crops account for 49 % of the cultivable land , while fruit orchards account for 40 % and vegetables make @-@ up 11 % . Israeli trenches around the neighboring villages of Ras al @-@ Ahmar and Khirbet al- ' Atuf prevent access to nearly 40 % of Tubas ' arable lands .
Many Tubas residents keep livestock , mostly sheep ; in 2005 , there was a total 6 @,@ 670 sheep . Other livestock owned include 96 heads of cattle , 880 goats and 126 @,@ 500 poultry . In addition , 123 beehives were kept . In 2006 the Golden Sheep Dairy factory was founded in Tubas with help from UCODEP , an independent Italian company . The factory specializes in the production of Italian cheese and primarily targets cosmopolitan consumers in Ramallah , Bethlehem and Jerusalem as well as international workers and diplomats living in the West Bank .
= = Government = =
Tubas serves as the muhfaza ( " capital " or " seat " ) of the Tubas Governorate . Since 1995 , Tubas has been located in Area A , giving the PNA full control over its security , administration and civilian affairs .
Tubas has been governed by a municipal council since 1953 , when it was granted permission to do so by Jordanian authorities who controlled the West Bank at the time . The council is made up of 15 members including the mayor , and is headquartered in the municipal hall in the center of the town . The municipality has over 60 employees . Responsibilities of the municipality include civil administration , urban planning and development , social development services , distribution of social services , the issuing of building permits and infrastructural maintenance : water , electricity and solid waste collection .
Auqab Daraghmeh was succeeded by Jamal Abdel Fattah Mahmoud Abu Mohsin , an independent candidate , elected in the 2005 Palestinian municipal elections . During the elections women won two seats , and though Tubas is normally a Fatah stronghold , all seats were won by independent political lists .
= = Education = =
In 2004 @-@ 05 , Tubas had twelve schools ; four for males , three for females and five co @-@ educational . There were 4 @,@ 924 students and 191 teachers . In addition , six kindergartens are located in the city , and have a total of 620 pupils . In 1997 , the literacy rate was 86 % ; females comprised 78 @.@ 3 % of the illiterate population . Of the literate population , 25 @.@ 7 % completed elementary education , 23 @.@ 3 % completed preparatory education and 22 @.@ 1 % completed secondary or higher education . Many students throughout the Jordan Valley receive their education in Tubas . The Al @-@ Quds Open University based in Jerusalem , has a campus in Tubas known as Al @-@ Quds Open University @-@ Tubas Educational Region . In 2006 , 1 @,@ 789 students were enrolled in the university , it had 90 professors and 24 other employees .
= = Local infrastructure = =
Tubas contains six mosques . The main mosques are the Abd ar @-@ Rahan Mosque , the al @-@ Tawled Mosque , Umar ibn al @-@ Khattab Mosque , and Shaheed Mosque . The Holy Trinity Orthodox Church is also located in Tubas , in the northern part of the city . The church was built in 1976 to serve the small Orthodox Christian community . It consists of a prayer room , a fellowship hall , an office , and a library for children . The Sawafta family has an old palace in Tubas as well .
Since Tubas is the capital and largest city in the Tubas Governorate , it acts as the main provider of services to the towns and villages of the governorate . All Palestinian National Authority offices that serve the governorate are located in the city . There are 21 government institutions in Tubas , including a post office , the Palestinian Ministry of Labor office , the Palestinian Ministry of Agriculture office , the Palestinian Ministry of Social Affairs office , the fire department and a police station .
= = = Transportation = = =
Buses and taxis are the primary means of transportation in Tubas . The total length of paved roads is 10 @,@ 000 meters ( 33 @,@ 000 ft ) , whereas there are 10 @,@ 000 meters ( 33 @,@ 000 ft ) of deteriorating paved roads and 25 @,@ 000 meters ( 82 @,@ 000 ft ) of road that are entirely unpaved . Tubas is located on Highway 588 connected to the main Ramallah @-@ Nablus road ( Highway 60 ) by a network of northeastern offshoots of the road , that pass through the villages of Azmut , al @-@ Badhan and Ras al @-@ Far 'a . It is connected to Jenin from a northern road which passes through ' Aqqaba , Zababdeh and finally to Jenin . Travel to Jordan is through Highway 57 which is connected with Highway 588 just to the south of Tubas .
= = = Health care = = =
The city contains five health centers run by various organizations including the Palestinian Red Crescent . There are no hospitals in Tubas , nor in the Tubas Governorate ; Residents must travel to Nablus for hospital treatment , but there are two ambulances in Tubas for emergency transportation . There are four clinics in the city : Two are run by non @-@ governmental organizations , one by the Palestinian National Authority and one is privately owned . The clinics lack modern equipment and specialists , however . In addition , ten pharmacies exist in Tubas .
= = = Utilities = = =
Approximately 60 % of the residents have telephone connection , and roughly 90 % are connected to the water . The Tubas Municipality administers all water resources in and around the city . In addition , to the water network there is one spring ( Far 'a ) in the immediate area which is the main provider of water for use in households . The city also has a water reservoir with a capacity of 900 cubic metres ( 31 @,@ 783 cubic feet ) . This is primarily used to provide water to the urban areas of city during Summer , and is only available once on a weekly basis .
From 1963 to 1997 local municipal @-@ owned electric generators provided Tubas with all of its electricity needs . In 1997 , the city connected with the Tubas Area Electricity Network which is provided by the Israeli Electric Cooperation . In that period , 99 % of households in the city were connected with electricity . Solid waste management in Tubas is operated by the municipality and Joint Services Council . It is collected 3 @-@ 4 times daily from the residential area , which is sent to a shared dumping site 3 kilometers ( 1 @.@ 9 mi ) from the city . The main disposal method used is burning . Tubas is not connected to the sewage network , therefore all households dispose of their waste water in cesspits , a major source of pollution in groundwater .
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= HMS Illustrious ( 1896 ) =
The third HMS Illustrious of the British Royal Navy was a Majestic @-@ class pre @-@ dreadnought battleship . The ship was built at the Chatham Dockyard ; her keel was laid down in March 1895 , her completed hull was launched in September 1896 , and she was commissioned into the fleet in April 1898 . She was armed with a main battery of four 12 @-@ inch ( 300 mm ) guns and a secondary battery of twelve 6 @-@ inch ( 150 mm ) guns . The ship had a top speed of 16 knots ( 30 km / h ; 18 mph ) .
Illustrious was assigned to the Mediterranean Fleet until 1904 . Transferred to the Channel Fleet ( which was subsequently reorganised to the Atlantic Fleet ) she underwent a refit which was duly completed in early 1906 . Rendered obsolete by the emergence of the new dreadnoughts , she served with the Home Fleet from 1908 . One of the oldest battleships in the Royal Navy when World War I broke out , she served as a guard ship at various regions around Northern England until late 1915 . Her main armament was removed and she then served as a store ship for the remainder of the war . She was decommissioned in 1919 and scrapped the following year .
= = Design = =
Illustrious was 421 feet ( 128 m ) long overall and had a beam of 75 ft ( 23 m ) and a draft of 27 ft ( 8 @.@ 2 m ) . She displaced up to 16 @,@ 060 t ( 15 @,@ 810 long tons ; 17 @,@ 700 short tons ) at full combat load . Her propulsion system consisted of two 3 @-@ cylinder triple expansion engines powered by eight coal @-@ fired cylindrical boilers . By 1907 – 1908 , she was re @-@ boilered with oil @-@ fired models . Her engines provided a top speed of 16 knots ( 30 km / h ; 18 mph ) at 10 @,@ 000 indicated horsepower ( 7 @,@ 500 kW ) . The Majestics were considered good seaboats with an easy roll and good steamers , although they suffered from high fuel consumption . She had a crew of 672 officers and enlisted men .
The ship was armed with four BL 12 @-@ inch Mk VIII guns in twin turrets , one forward and one aft . The turrets were placed on circular barbettes , unlike six of her sisters , which retained earlier pear @-@ shaped barbettes . Illustrious also carried twelve QF 6 @-@ inch / 40 guns . They were mounted in casemates in two gun decks amidships . She also carried sixteen QF 12 @-@ pounder guns and twelve QF 2 @-@ pounder guns . She was also equipped with five 18 in ( 460 mm ) torpedo tubes , four of which were submerged in the ship 's hull , with the last in a deck @-@ mounted launcher . Illustrious and the other ships of her class had 9 inches ( 229 mm ) of Harvey armour , which allowed equal protection with less cost in weight compared to previous types of armour . This allowed Illustrious and her sisters to have a deeper and lighter belt than previous battleships without any loss in protection . The barbettes for the main battery were protected with 14 in ( 360 mm ) of armour , and the conning tower had the same thickness of steel on the sides . The ship 's armoured deck was 2 @.@ 5 to 4 @.@ 5 in ( 64 to 114 mm ) thick .
= = Service history = =
The keel for HMS Illustrious was laid down at the Chatham Dockyard on 11 March 1895 and the ship was launched on 17 September 1896 . She commissioned at Chatham for service in the Fleet Reserve on 15 April 1898 , Captain Sir Richard Poore in command . She went into full commission there on 10 May 1898 for service in the Mediterranean Fleet . While in the Mediterranean , she participated between September and December 1898 in operations at Crete during the Greco @-@ Turkish uprising there , and in 1901 underwent a refit at Malta . Captain Francis John Foley was appointed in command on 24 March 1902 , and the following June she was the lead ship in a coronation fête at Gibraltar . In July 1904 , Illustrious transferred to the Channel Fleet . As a result of a reorganization on 1 January 1905 , the Channel Fleet became the Atlantic Fleet , and she became an Atlantic Fleet unit . Illustrious ended her Atlantic Fleet service in September 1905 and began a refit at Chatham .
Emerging from the refit , she commissioned into the Reserve at Chatham on 14 March 1906 , then went into full commission for service in the new Channel Fleet ( formerly the Home Fleet ) on 3 April 1906 , serving as Flagship , Rear Admiral . She collided with schooner Christa in the English Channel in fog on 13 June 1906 . She was relieved as flagship and ended her Channel Fleet service on 1 June 1908 , paying off at Chatham . Illustrious recommissioned at Chatham on 2 June 1908 for service with the Portsmouth Division of the new Home Fleet . On 22 March 1909 she collided with third @-@ class cruiser HMS Amethyst in Portsmouth Harbour , but suffered no damage . She suffered another mishap on 21 August 1909 when she damaged her bottom by striking a reef in Babbacombe Bay . She underwent a refit in 1912 , and later that year was transferred to the 3rd Fleet and participated in maneuvers as Flagship , Vice Admiral , 7th Battle Squadron .
In late July 1914 , the Royal Navy began a precautionary mobilization , as war seemed imminent . The Majestic @-@ class ships were by then the oldest and least effective battleships in service in the Royal Navy . At first , it was planned that Illustrious would pay off to provide crewmen for the new dreadnought battleship HMS Erin , but instead she was placed in full commission to serve as a guard ship for the Grand Fleet once World War I began in August 1914 . She began guard ship duty at Loch Ewe on 23 August 1914 , transferring to Loch Na Keal on 17 October 1914 , to the Tyne in November 1914 , and to Grimsby on the Humber in December 1914 . She remained on guard ship duty on the Humber until November 1915 .
Illustrious paid off at Grimsby on 26 November 1915 to be converted to a disarmed harbour ship ; two of her 12 @-@ inch ( 305 @-@ mm ) guns were re @-@ used in the Tyne Turrets . Her conversion was completed in March 1916 . She served at Grimsby in her new role until August 1916 , when she transferred to Chatham . Illustrious commissioned there on 20 November 1916 for use as a munitions storeship , and on 24 November 1916 she transferred to the Tyne to serve in this role . In November 1917 , she transferred to Portsmouth to continue service as a munitions storeship there . Illustrious paid off on 21 April 1919 and was placed on the sale list at Portsmouth on 24 March 1920 . She was sold for scrapping on 18 June 1920 , and was broken up at Barrow .
= = Endnotes = =
Notes
Citations
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= Guillaume de Dole =
Guillaume de Dole ( also known as ( Le ) Roman ( s ) de la Rose , or Guillaume de Dole ) is an Old French narrative romance by Jean Renart . Composed in the early 13th century , the poem is 5656 lines long and is especially notable for the large number of chansons it contains , and for its active female protagonist . The romance incorporates forty @-@ six chansons ( or parts thereof ) ; it is the first extant example in French literature of a text that combines narrative and lyric . Its form was quickly imitated , by authors such as Gerbert de Montreuil , and by the end of the 13th century had become canonical .
The poem tells of the adventures of the title character and his sister Liénor . Guillaume is accepted at the court of Emperor Conrad who has fallen in love with Liénor despite his earlier aversion to love and marriage . Guillaume becomes one of the emperor 's favorites and marriage negotiations proceed in a positive manner . The emperor 's seneschal , however , discovers an intimate detail about Liénor 's body and uses it to insinuate to the emperor and his court that she is no longer a virgin ; the clever Liénor , with a ruse , proves his accusation false and marries the emperor .
= = Manuscript , date , author = =
= = = Manuscript = = =
Guillaume de Dole is extant in a single manuscript in the Vatican library , MS Regina 1725 . Todd dates it in the 14th century , others in the late 13th century . The manuscript contains :
Lancelot , the Knight of the Cart , by Chrétien de Troyes ( first part missing ) , 1 @-@ 34b ;
Yvain , the Knight of the Lion , also by Chrétien , 34c @-@ 68b ;
Guillaume de Dole , 68c @-@ 98c ;
Meraugis de Portlesguez , by Raoul de Houdenc , 98d @-@ 130d .
The manuscript 's first known owner was 16th @-@ century French historian Claude Fauchet ; it was part of his extensive collection , and it is due to " Fauchet 's zeal as a collector " that the manuscript and therefore the poem are preserved . During the French Wars of Religion , Fauchet fled Paris and his collection was dispersed . The next mention of the manuscript is as part of the library of Paul Pétau , and in 1650 it was acquired by Christina , Queen of Sweden . The Vatican library acquired the manuscript after 1689 .
= = = Date and title = = =
The opening lines of the poem contain a dedication to Miles de Nanteuil , an early 13th @-@ century churchman who was elected ( but not confirmed ) in 1201 as archbishop of Reims , and later became bishop of Beauvais , in northern France ; he died circa 1235 . According to Todd , the nobleman de Nanteuil may have been too young and wild to be elevated to the archbishopric , but this would have made him a good candidate for Renart 's dedication . This , plus evidence based on other names found in the poem , led Todd to conclude that the poem was composed around the year 1200 . Later critics and researchers , however , date the poem between 1204 and 1228 , and tend toward the earlier date .
In the manuscript , the poem is called Romans de la Rose ( l . 11 ) , and hence Le Roman de la Rose , but it is often referred to as Roman de la Rose , or Guillaume de Dole in order to avoid confusion with Guillaume de Lorris and Jean de Meun 's Roman de la Rose ; Guillaume de Dole is a subtitle added by Fauchet .
= = = Authorship = = =
It wasn 't until the late 19th century that scholars ( including Paul Meyer ) began entertaining the notion that Jean Renart , until then only known as the presumptive author of the Lai de l 'Ombre , might also be responsible for either or both of the two contemporary romances L 'Escoufle and Guillaume de Dole . F. M. Warren of Yale University , in a 1908 article , is one of the early proponents of identifying Renart as the author of all three , based on versification , phrasing , and vocabulary , and places the development of his poetic talent between 1195 and 1205 . The next @-@ to @-@ last line of the poem contains an anagram on Renart 's name : " ... qu 'il enTRA EN Religion . "
= = Content = =
= = = Plot = = =
The story begins at the court of Emperor Conrad , who for all of his good qualities has one defect : he refuses to get married , especially since , as he says , people no longer are as valiant and as noble as they used to be . His minstrel , Jouglet , tells him of Guillaume de Dole and his sister Liénor , and quickly the emperor falls in love with her , although he does not actually see her until the story 's denouement . Guillaume is summoned to the court where he excels in chivalric exploits ; the emperor tells him he wishes to marry his sister . Conrad 's jealous seneschal interferes and visits Guillaume 's family , where he gives his mother a valuable ring and gains her confidence ; from her he learns that Liénor has a particular birthmark in the shape of a rose on her thigh . This knowledge is presented as proof that the seneschal has taken her virginity .
As a result of the accusation , both Guillaume and Conrad are distraught , to the point of misogyny . The clever Liénor , however , her reputation slandered , unmasks the seneschal with a ruse . She has a belt and other gifts sent to the seneschal , supposedly from the Chatelaine of Dijon , whom he had courted , with promises that the Chatelaine is ready to grant him his wishes . The messenger convinces the seneschal to wear the belt under his clothes . Liénor then goes to Conrad 's court , where everyone is struck by her beauty , and pretends to be a maiden who was raped by the seneschal and has thus acquired intimate knowledge of his body and his clothing ; she reveals he has a belt under his clothes . The belt is discovered under his clothes and a trial by ordeal is proposed . The seneschal 's innocence is proven in an ordeal by water : he has never had sex with the maiden . When Liénor reveals that she is in fact Guillaume 's sister , the seneschal 's earlier claim of having deflowered her is proven a lie . The seneschal is shackled and incarcerated , and the wedding is celebrated with great pomp . On the wedding night , Conrad 's happiness is greater than that of Tristan or Lanval ; the next morning , " no one who asked [ Conrad ] for a costly gift was refused . " As for the seneschal , Liénor implores Conrad to be merciful , and he is sent away as a Templar to join a crusade .
= = = Themes = = =
The plot of Guillaume revolves around the common theme of the gageure , a young man who , because of a wager ( in the case of Guillaume , because of jealousy ) needs to find a young woman 's favor . He fails in his enterprise but pretends publicly to have succeeded , causing the ruin of a husband ( if the gageure had claimed to have succeeded with another man 's wife ) or , in this case , the despair of a brother . Usually the young man 's story is believed at first because he reveals an intimate detail about a young woman , who then has to prove her innocence .
Beginning with Michel Zink , whose influential 1979 monograph Roman rose et rose rouge : Le Roman de la rose ou de Guillaume de Dole ushered in a new era of criticism , critics have recognized Guillaume de Dole as a work of literature about literature , a self @-@ referential poem that comments on the improbability of some of its own plot elements and on its own fictional status , encouraging a trend in studies of Renart and his work .
= = = Songs = = =
The romance contains some 46 chansons , which can be separated into two groups , according to Hollier and Bloch . The first group contains sixteen " aristocratic " chansons courtoises on the topic of courtly love , attributed to specific trouvères or troubadours ( including Gace Brulé , Le Chastelain de Couci , Vidame de Chartres , Jaufre Rudel , and Bernart de Ventadorn ) . A second group consists of thirty mostly anonymous songs of a more popular nature , such as three chansons de toile and three other ballads , two pastourelles , and twenty chansons à danser ( dance songs ) . Incorporated also is a laisse of the chanson de geste Gerbert de Metz . Different scholars have slightly different counts ; where Holier and Block count three ballads and three chanson de toiles , Maureen Barry McCann Boulton counts six chansons de toile ; in her detailed investigation of the chansons she claims the poem contains forty @-@ six chansons in eight different genres .
In its hybrid form , Guillaume de Dole is " the first extant example of the combined use of narrative and lyric in French . " The mixed form proved to be popular and was soon found in other works , including Aucassin and Nicolette ( early 13th century ) ; Gautier de Coincy 's Les Miracles de Nostre @-@ Dame ( c . 1218 – 1233 ) ; Gerbert de Montreuil 's Le Roman de la Violette ( c . 1230 ) , which incorporates some forty songs ; and Tibaut 's Roman de la Poire ( c . 1250 ) , which incorporates a series of refrains . By the end of the century the form had become canonical .
= = = Female protagonist = = =
The female protagonist , Liénor , is notable because of her active nature : she herself unmasks the seneschal . She found a quick successor in the active female protagonist of Tibaut 's Roman de la Poire . At least one recent publication states that Liénor might make a justifiable claim to being the romance 's true hero .
= = Editorial and critical history = =
The first mention of Guilllaume de Dole after the Middle Ages is found in the work of Claude Fauchet , who is generally considered to have studied the Vatican Regina manuscript ( instead of another , now lost , manuscript ) . In 1844 , Adelbert Keller published extracts of the poem including some of the chansons ; the chansons acquired some fame , and in 1850 Darenberg and Renan traveled to Rome to study the manuscript , publishing a larger number of the chansons in 1855 . It wasn 't until 1870 that all of the chansons had been published . A lengthy analysis , partial edition , and summary in English was published by Henry Alfred Todd of Johns Hopkins University , in 1886 . The poem was finally published in its entirety in 1893 by Gustave Servois for the Société des anciens textes français .
The first comprehensive study of the work of Jean Renart was published in 1935 by Rita Lejeune @-@ Dehousse , who published an edition of the poem in 1935 . Since then , it has been republished regularly . Translations have been published in modern French ( 1979 ) , German ( 1982 ) , and English ( 1993 , 1995 ) .
Between 2001 and 2007 , Joshua Tyra adapted the text into a musical . An early version was read at the University of Chicago .
= = = Modern editions and translations = = =
Andrieu , G. ; J. Piolle ; M. Plouzeau ( 1978 ) . Le Roman de la rose , ou , De Guillaume de Dole de Jean Renart ; Concordancier complet des formes graphiques occurentes , d 'après l 'édition de Félix Lecoy . Aix @-@ en @-@ Provence . ISBN 2 @-@ 901013 @-@ 04 @-@ X.
Dufournet , Jean ( 2008 ) . Le Roman de la rose ou de Guillaume de Dole . Honoré Champion .
Lecoy , Félix ( 1971 ) . Le Roman de la rose ou de Guillaume de Dole . Paris .
Terry , Patricia ; Nancy Vine ( 1993 ) . The Romance of the Rose or Guillaume De Dole . U of Pennsylvania P. ISBN 0 @-@ 8122 @-@ 1388 @-@ 2 .
Todd , Henry Alfred ( 1886 ) . " Guillaume de Dole : an unpublished Old French romance " . Transactions of the Modern Language Association of America ( Modern Language Association ) : 107 – 57 .
= = = Critical studies = = =
Durling , Nancy Vine ( 1997 ) . Jean Renart and the Art of Romance : Essays on Guillaume de Dole . UP of Florida . ISBN 0 @-@ 8130 @-@ 1495 @-@ 6 .
Zink , Michel ( 1979 ) . Roman rose et rose rouge : Le Roman de la rose ou de Guillaume de Dole , de Jean Renart . Paris : Nizet .
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= Candyman ( Christina Aguilera song ) =
" Candyman " is a song recorded by American singer Christina Aguilera for the second disc of her fifth studio album , Back to Basics ( 2006 ) . The song was written by Aguilera and Linda Perry and was produced by the latter . " Candyman " was planned to be released as the second single from Back to Basics ; however , RCA Records decided to release " Hurt " instead . Subsequently , the track was released in February 2007 as the third single from the album . " Candyman " is described as a pop song that imitates swing styles with lyrics about sexual intercourse .
" Candyman " received generally positive reviews from music critics , most of whom praised the song 's musical style and deemed it one of the best tracks on the second disc of Back to Basics , while some criticized its sexual content . Commercially , the single peaked within the top 20 of record charts in countries including Australia , Canada , Germany , New Zealand , and the United Kingdom . In the United States , it peaked at number 25 on the Billboard Hot 100 chart and was certified gold by the Recording Industry Association of America . As of September 2014 , the song had sold over 1 @.@ 15 million copies in the United States .
A music video for the song was co @-@ directed by Matthew Rolston and Aguilera herself . The video received an MTV Video Music Award nomination for Best Direction at the 2007 award ceremony . The single achieved a Grammy Award nomination for Best Female Pop Vocal Performance at the 2008 ceremony . The song was included on the setlist of Aguilera 's Back to Basics Tour ( 2006 – 08 ) and has been covered by Alexandra Burke and the Glee cast .
Due to popularity of this song in Italy , the song was chosen by the Lega Calcio as a theme soundtrack for the Serie A and Serie B 2007 – 08 season .
= = Recording and release = =
" Candyman " was written by Christina Aguilera and Linda Perry , with production handled by the latter . Perry also played the piano , mellotron , bass , and served as the musical director . Jim McMillen played the trombone , while Ray Herrmann and Glen Berger performed the saxophone , and Chris Tedesco played the trumpet . The drums were played by Nathan Wetherington . According to Aguilera and Perry , the song was a tribute to The Andrews Sisters ' 1941 hit " Boogie Woogie Bugle Boy " .
" Candyman " was planned to be released as the second single from Back to Basics in late 2006 . During an interview with Seventeen in July 2006 , Aguilera again stated that " Candyman " would be released as the follow @-@ up single to " Ain 't No Other Man " . However , RCA Records chose " Hurt " to be released as the second single off the album ; therefore , " Candyman " was released as the third . The song was sent to contemporary hit radio stations in the United States on February 27 , 2007 . In Germany , the single was released for digital download on April 6 , 2007 . One day later , " Candyman " was released as a CD single in France and Germany . On April 10 , the song was available as a CD in the United States . A digital EP was released via iTunes Stores in European countries consisting of Belgium , France , Germany , Spain , and Sweden . On the same day , the digital version of " Candyman " was released in France . It was also available as a maxi single there on September 1 , 2007 . In the United States , a remix EP was released digitally on May 1 , 2007 .
= = Composition = =
" Candyman " is a pop song ; Stylus Magazine 's Thomas Inskeep opined that it imitated swing music , while Joan Anderman from The Boston Globe commented that Perry and Aguilera attempted to modernize early 20th century pop and blues " only to end up imitating the Andrews Sisters , " and Slant Magazine 's Sal Cinquemani characterized the song as standard jazz and blues . " Candyman " is composed on the key of E major . The song has a moderate tempo of 86 beats per minute . Aguilera 's vocals on the song span two octaves from the low @-@ note of G3 to the high @-@ note of G5 . The song opens and concludes with the lyrics , " Tarzan and Jane were swingin ' on a vine / Sippin ' from a bottle of vodka double @-@ wine " , which was credited as a sample used from " Tarzan & Jane Swingin ' on a Vine " from Run To Cadence With U.S. Marines . Lyrically , " Candyman " talks about sexual intercourse ; Jenny Eliscu for Rolling Stone quoted the lyrics " He 's a one @-@ stop shop / Makes the panties drop " and deemed it " nasty . " Sputnikmusic 's Amanda Murray described its lyrics as " dumb and cheekily vulgar . "
= = Critical reception = =
" Candyman " received mainly positive reviews from music critics . Billboard called the single " raunchy " and praised Aguilera 's vocals , saying that " few popular vocalists could pull off such a laudable feat . " Sputnikmusic 's Amanda Murray deemed the song as " fun " and reminiscent of the Spice Girls ' " The Lady Is a Vamp " from Spiceworld ( 1997 ) . Sean Daly from Tampa Bay Times complimented Aguilera 's vocals and its " X @-@ rated lyrics . " Pittsburgh Post @-@ Gazette 's Scott Mervis labelled it " the swingiest single since Brian Setzer jumped , jived and wailed , " while Yahoo ! Music critic Dan Gennoe called " Candyman " " a good @-@ time 1940s big band romp , " and Leah Greenblatt from Entertainment Weekly cited it as one of the few " pop @-@ song highs " in Aguilera 's career .
AllMusic 's Stephen Thomas Erlewine selected " Candyman " as one of the two outstanding songs on the second disc of Back to Basics , alongside " Mercy on Me " . Lucy Davis for BBC Music was negative towards the song , writing that it " successfully turns the volume and intensity down from 11 to somewhere like 5 . " Jenny Eliscu from Rolling Stone criticized " Candyman " as " a dead rip @-@ off " of the Andrews Sisters ' " Boogie Woogie Bugle Boy . " A reviewer from The Guardian disapproved of the " awful creation " and wrote that " the jollier she sounds , the more terrifying it becomes . " " Candyman " received a Grammy Award nomination for Best Female Pop Vocal Performance at the 2008 Grammy Awards .
= = Chart performance = =
In the United States , " Candyman " debuted at number 99 on the Billboard Hot 100 chart on January 20 , 2007 . It peaked at number 25 on the chart , becoming Aguilera 's fourteenth top 40 single on the Hot 100 . On the Pop Songs chart , the single peaked at number 23 and remained there for a total of seven weeks . " Candyman " also peaked at number 18 on the Hot Dance Club Songs chart and stayed there ten weeks . It has been certified gold by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) for shipping more than 500 @,@ 000 copies in the United States . As of August 2014 , " Candyman " had sold 1 @,@ 153 @,@ 000 copies in the United States alone , as reported by Nielsen SoundScan . In Canada , the single peaked at number nine on the Canadian Hot 100 and was certified gold .
In the United Kingdom , " Candyman " peaked at number 17 on the UK Singles Chart and remained within the top 75 for 20 weeks . Throughout Europe , the single attained the top 25 of most countries , peaking at number 11 in Belgium ( Flanders ) and Switzerland ; number 12 in Denmark , Germany , Ireland and the Netherlands ; number 13 in Belgium ( Wallonia ) ; number 14 in Austria ; and number 24 in Sweden . On the European Hot 100 Singles , " Candyman " peaked at number 15 on the chart . In Denmark , the single achieved gold certification by IFPI Denmark . " Candyman " was a commercial hit in Oceania . The single peaked at number two in both Australia and New Zealand . In Australia , the song remained in the top ten for 15 weeks and earned platinum certification by the Australian Recording Industry Association ( ARIA ) . In New Zealand , the single also achieved gold certification by the Recording Industry Association of New Zealand ( RIANZ ) .
= = Music video = =
The music video for " Candyman " was filmed on January 28 , 2007 , in an airport hangar in Southern California . It was directed by Matthew Rolston and co @-@ directed by Aguilera . The video is based on the 1940s World War II theme . In most of the music video , she dances and sings in three different hair colors : red , blonde and brown , as if she were in a singing trio , a tribute to The Andrews Sisters . In other shots she appears as the famous biceps @-@ flexing factory worker from Westinghouse 's " We Can Do It ! " poster and as pin @-@ up girls Judy Garland , Betty Grable and Rita Hayworth . The video also features product placement for Campari . Benji Schwimmer , 2006 winner of the American dancing competition So You Think You Can Dance , makes a cameo appearance as Aguilera 's GI dance partner . Benji 's sister Lacey Schwimmer also appears in the video as a jitterbugger . Aguilera asked Rolston to co @-@ direct the video with her after he worked with her for a photo shoot for the cover of Rolling Stone . Shooting the sequences of Aguilera as a singing trio took the longest since they had to be shot for each hair color and camera angle , which was computer @-@ controlled for precision . Choreography was carefully arranged so that none of the versions overlapped and the takes could be spliced together . The clip 's color scheme is based on Technicolor films , focusing on primary colors and bright secondary colors .
Sal Cinquemani for Slant Magazine praised it as the best video for a song from Back to Basics . John Montgomery for MTV News commented on Aguilera 's " bad girl " image , writing " though Aguilera 's mostly going for glam here , she 's also plenty bad , too , swinging her way into some servicemen 's heart , coyly sipping on a milkshake and shaking it so hard your even your grandpa had to notice . " The video brought Aguilera and Rolston an MTV Video Music Award nomination for Best Direction at the 2007 MTV Video Music Awards , but lost to Justin Timberlake 's " What Goes Around ... Comes Around " .
= = Live performances and covers = =
Aguilera first performed " Candyman " during a concert held in front of 1 @,@ 500 fans and invited guests in London on July 20 , 2006 . The 40 @-@ minute concert comprised songs from the then @-@ upcoming Back to Basics and other songs , including " Lady Marmalade " ( 2001 ) and " Beautiful " ( 2002 ) . MTV UK wrote , " The gig reflected the jazz club mood of Christina 's new album , with a swinging brass @-@ heavy backing band and fit dancers bounding sexily around the stage " . On September 8 , 2006 , Aguilera performed " Candyman " at Fashion Rocks in a white sailor suit with cap . The performance included photos of jazz standard artists that appeared on the backdrop . She also performed " Candyman " on Dick Clark 's New Year 's Rockin ' Eve on December 31 , 2006 , and at the halftime show of the 2007 NBA All @-@ Star Game . The song was included on the setlist of Aguilera 's worldwide Back to Basics Tour . The recording of the performance was included on the video release Back to Basics : Live and Down Under ( 2008 ) . Aguilera performed " Candyman " again on The Tonight Show with Jay Leno in 2013 in military @-@ styled suits in efforts to honor the US troops .
The song was covered by Alexandra Burke during the third week of the live show round of the fifth season of British television singing contest The X Factor . It was also performed by Amber Riley ( Mercedes Jones ) , Naya Rivera ( Santana Lopez ) and Heather Morris ( Brittany Pierce ) in " Pot o ' Gold , " an episode on the third season of the American TV series Glee . The version was well received by critics , some of whom deemed it as the best song of the episode . The Glee version peaked at number 158 on the UK Singles Chart on November 12 , 2011 .
= = Credits and personnel = =
Sampling credits
Contains a sample from " Tarzan & Jane Swingin ' on a Vine " from Run To Cadence With U.S. Marines .
Personnel
Credits are adapted from the liner notes of Back to Basics .
= = Track listing and formats = =
= = Charts = =
= = Certifications = =
= = Release history = =
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= Boredoms =
Boredoms ( ボアダムス ( Boadamusu ) ) ( later known as V ∞ redoms ) is a rock band from Osaka , Japan . The band was officially formed in 1986 . The band 's output is usually referred to as noise rock or sometimes Japanoise , though their more recent records have mostly featured repetitive minimalism , ambient music , and tribal drumming .
The band has a vast and sometimes confusing discography . Many band members have rotated through the group over the years , often using a number of various stage names . Singer Yamantaka Eye is the closest the band has to a frontman ; his style includes a range of baffling screams , babbling , electronic effects , and very heavy post @-@ production . Drummer / keyboard player / vocalist Yoshimi P @-@ We is featured on most Boredoms recordings .
= = History = =
= = = Formation and early years = = =
Boredoms were formed in early 1986 by Yamantaka Eye , who at the time acted as front man for the infamous and highly controversial noise / performance art act Hanatarash , locally notorious for its extremely dangerous live shows consisting entirely of on @-@ stage destruction and complete disregard for the audience 's safety . The antics of Hanatarash would later be highly influential on the earliest incarnation of Boredoms , which was formed by the remaining members of a band Eye started with Hanatarash drummer Ikuo Taketani , as well as guitarist Tabata Mitsuru ( known as Tabata Mara ) , bassist Hosoi Hisato , and vocalist Makki Sasarato , called " Acid Makki & Combi and Zombie " . The band 's sound was characterized by violent , noisy punk rock / No Wave thrashings . They recorded a single track , " U.S.A. " , for a compilation tape . Shortly after the release of their first song , Taketani was replaced on drums by Yoshikawa Toyohito , a friend of Eye 's . The band officially changed their name to Boredoms after Hira replaced Hosoi on bass , and Sasarato left the band due to creative differences . The band 's name comes from the Buzzcocks song " Boredom " .
With the band finally reaching a level of stability , Eye and Tabata recorded their first official EP , Anal by Anal , in mid @-@ 1986 . In early 1987 , Tabata left the group to later join Zeni Geva and was replaced by Seiichi Yamamoto as guitar player . In March 1988 , the band released its first full @-@ length , Osorezan no Stooges Kyo . Due to unhappiness over Yoshikawa 's drumming , Yoshimi P @-@ We from Eye 's Hanatarash @-@ related project UFO or Die was asked to serve as drummer , becoming the first female member of the band , with Yoshikawa switching to general percussion . Shortly after the change Yoshikawa left the group , to be replaced by Chew Hasegawa ( now of Japanese funeral doom band Corrupted ) and then by Kazuya Nishimura , known by his stage name Atari . The band 's sound from this period was marked by harsh , dissonant punk edited extensively by Eye in the studio , citing Sonic Youth and Funkadelic as influences , among others . This style was seen by some as " pointlessly abrasive " without any underlying motive , making Boredoms nihlistic absolute music , according to some critics ; however , the strangeness of the record increased the band 's popularity in the musical underground .
= = = Growing popularity = = =
In 1988 and 1989 , Eye found himself making friends with Sonic Youth and also worked extensively with John Zorn 's polystylistic Naked City project , serving as guest vocalist . After the release of Boredoms ' album Soul Discharge in the United States , the band was able to parlay their growing popularity into long term record deals with Warner Bros. Records in Japan and its United States imprint Reprise Records . With the release of the band 's critically acclaimed Pop Tatari , generally seen as one of the strangest albums ever released by a major label , Boredoms took to the road and toured with Sonic Youth in 1992 , Nirvana for eight consecutive shows in late October and early November 1993 , and Brutal Truth in 1993 . During this period , the band was asked by Steve Albini to record a track for a compilation he was recording . Shortly after Eye again collaborated with John Zorn on an EP under the name Mystic Fugu Orchestra , which was notably the first album released on Zorn 's Tzadik Records .
The following year , at the height of its popularity in the United States , the band was asked to perform on the main stage of the 1994 Lollapalooza tour in support of the album Chocolate Synthesizer , which had just been released in the United States . The album proved largely successful for such an experimental band and was later considered one of the best albums of the 1990s by Alternative Press magazine . Yoshikawa had later joined the band in the early months of 1994 for a second time to play on Pop Tatari , often sharing vocal duties with Eye , but left again in 1994 and was replaced on percussion by EDA , who had been introduced to the band by Pavement bassist Mark Ibold . The band was dropped from the Reprise roster , with Birdman Records distributing the band 's Super Roots EPs during this period .
By the time of 1998 's Super Go ! ! ! ! ! EP and full @-@ length Super æ , the band started to break sharply from their earlier atonal noise rock / Japanoise sound by introducing many elements of sweeping electronica effects and thoroughly constructed psychedelic rock jams into their music . Perceived analogies with the music of Can became common during this period . Described as " tumultuous space @-@ sludge " , Super æ has most often been compared to the defining elements of 1970s krautrock . Soon after its initial release in Japan , Super æ was met with a considerable amount of acclaim from the international music press , recognized as a modern @-@ day avant @-@ garde artifact and progressive " masterpiece " . Notably , Super æ was considered one of the best albums of the 1990s by Pitchfork Media .
In 1999 , the band released Vision Creation Newsun in Japan . This album saw an evolution in their sound , combining the evolving space rock themes explored in their Super Roots EPs and preceding album Super æ with " a much more earthly , primal , primitively worshipful inspiration " . It features psychedelic soundscaping and " cosmic synths " , complex tribal drumming , " cathartic celebrations of noise " , and Eye 's unique power electronic and turntabalistic stylings . The album is often considered the band 's greatest achievement thus far , and has been described by critics as blending the " manic , high @-@ speed , cut @-@ up form punk rock " of their earlier albums with a new sound that is " just as intense and exhilarating , but more beautiful and more expansive " .
After its release , Eye oversaw a series of remix albums of the Boredoms catalogue by guest DJs . After the final remix album , Eye 's own Rebore , vol . 0 , was released in 2000 , Boredoms seemed to disappear for a few years with no releases or tour dates , while the members participated in various side projects and other bands .
= = = Later activities = = =
Rumors that the band had broken up began to circulate , but a smaller ensemble who called themselves V ∞ redoms resurfaced in 2003 . The group 's line @-@ up had changed considerably upon its return , stripping down to a much smaller ensemble with Yamantaka Eye on vocals , Izumi Kiyoshi ( who had performed on Vision Creation Newsun and Super æ ) on synthesizer , and Yoshimi P @-@ We , Nishimura , and EDA playing drums and percussion .
Despite the changes , the group 's music still revolves around the tribal drumming patterns heard on Vision Creation Newsun . The band was signed by Vice Records for its releases in the United States since it had been dropped by Reprise . All Super Roots releases were then reissued on Vice in early 2007 ( with the exclusion of Super Roots 2 ) . In late 2004 , Boredoms released its first album as a group in four years , Seadrum / House of Sun , most of which had been previously recorded before the band 's brief hiatus . This release also saw the band move from their label WEA Japan to the smaller Japanese label Commmons . The album was not celebrated to the extent of their previous albums , yet it still garnered mostly positive reviews , culminating with an exemplary score of 73 % on Metacritic . Following its release , EDA left the band and was replaced by Yojiro Tatekawa .
In early 2007 , the group released Super Roots 9 , the first addition to the Super Roots series since 1999 and their first major release since Seadrum / House of Sun . It was recorded during a Christmas Eve 2004 concert , making it only the band 's third official live release since 1998 's Super Seeeeee ! ! ! ! ! ! video ( discounting disc two of the Vision Creation Newsun boxset , which included a 35 @-@ minute excerpt of a live concert ) . Super Roots 9 also saw the band move from Warner International to the smaller Japanese label Commmons for domestic releases and American label Thrill Jockey for overseas . Later , in April , the group ( as V ∞ redoms ) played three dates with Sonic Youth in Japan . The band also planned to attempt using newly developed contact microphones to record the sounds made by the human body while dancing .
The band released a live DVD / CD combination called Live at Sunflancisco in December 2007 followed by the remix single Voaltz / Relerer in August 2008 , while Eye and Yoshimi have come out with new records of their own this year . During a 2008 United States tour with Iron & Wine , Eye used a new seven @-@ necked guitar called the " Sevener " or " Sevena " .
The band released another addition to the Super Roots EP series , titled Super Roots 10 , on January 28 , 2009 .
= = = = Boadrum concerts = = = =
On July 7 , 2007 , Boredoms performed a concert entitled 77 Boadrum in Brooklyn Bridge Park , New York City , with drummer Muneomi Senju replacing Nishimura . The " 77 " denoted not only the date ( 7 / 7 / 2007 ) but also the number of drummers in the ensemble . Eye has said that the number 77 became significant to him when he climbed the Sun Temple and counted 77 steps .
The band continued the concept on August 8 , 2008 , with two concerts called 88 Boadrum held in Los Angeles and Brooklyn . Boredoms headlined the Los Angeles show while Gang Gang Dance conducted the Brooklyn show .
A third concert , Boadrum 9 , took place on September 9 , 2009 at Terminal 5 in New York City . It featured 9 drummers in total , two from Boredoms ( Yoshimi and Yojiro ) and seven others from prominent experimental music acts , namely Zach Hill ( Hella ) , Hisham Bharoocha ( Soft Circle , ex : Black Dice , Lightning Bolt ) , Butchy Fuego ( Pit er Pat ) , Kid Millions ( Oneida ) , Jeremy Hyman ( Ponytail ) , Dave Nuss ( No @-@ Neck Blues Band ) and Aaron Moore ( Volcano The Bear )
In 2010 , Boredoms toured internationally including two Boadrum performances at All Tomorrow 's Parties curated by Matt Groening at Butlins Minehead , England , in addition to shows in London , Japan , Mexico and as part of the Melbourne International Arts Festival on October 10 , 2010 .
In 2011 , Boredoms premiered new material at the All Tomorrows Parties " I 'll Be Your Mirror " festival in Tokyo . Six drummers were arranged in a circle around Eye , who used motion sensors to trigger ambient drone soundscapes created by Shinji Masuko that corresponded to each drummer . The music featured highly repetitive motorik rhythms that grew in complexity over the course of the hour long set . The band was chosen by Jeff Mangum of Neutral Milk Hotel to perform at the All Tomorrow 's Parties festival that he curated in March 2012 in Minehead , England . That gig ( performed twice during the festival ) featured 14 guitarists and 6 drummers .
In June , 2015 , Boredoms performed another development of the Boardrum series at the Barbican Centre in London , UK as part of Doug Aitken 's Station to Station : A 30 @-@ Day Happening . The performance featured Eye , Yoshimi , Tatekawa , Masuko , and an expanded lineup of drummers and guitarists surrounded by 88 percussionists all playing cymbals .
= = Discography = =
Osorezan no Stooges Kyo ( 1988 )
Soul Discharge ( 1989 )
Pop Tatari ( 1992 )
Chocolate Synthesizer ( 1994 )
Super æ ( 1998 )
Vision Creation Newsun ( 1999 )
Seadrum / House of Sun ( 2004 )
= = Members = =
Yamantaka Eye – lead vocals , noise , sampler , sevena
Yoshimi P @-@ We – drums , percussion , vocals , djembe , keyboards , trumpet
Yojiro Tatekawa – drums , percussion
Shinji Masuko – guitars , noise
= = = Previous members = = =
Muneomi Senju – drums , percussion
Ikuo Taketani – drums
Hosoi Hisato – bass guitar
Tabata Mitsuru ( Tabata Mara ) – guitar
Hiyashi Hira – bass guitar , vocals , percussion
Seiichi Yamamoto – guitar , vocals , percussion
Yoshikawa Toyohito – drums , vocals
Chew Hasegawa – drums
Kazuya Nishimura ( Atari or ATR ) – drums , synth pad , vocals , samples , djembe
EDA – drums , electronic drums , djembe
Izumi Kiyoshi – synthesizer , sampler
God Mama – dancing
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= Ivy Valentine =
Isabella Valentine ( イザベラ ・ バレンタイン , Izabera Barentain ) , commonly called Ivy ( アイヴィー , Aivī ) , is a fictional character in the Soul series of video games . Created by Namco 's Project Soul division , she first appeared in the original Soulcalibur and its subsequent sequels , later appearing in various merchandise related to the series . She was voiced in Japanese by Yumi Tōma between Soulcalibur and Soulcalibur III , Kanako Tōjo between Soulcalibur Legends and Soulcalibur : Broken Destiny , and Miyuki Sawashiro in Soulcalibur V ; in English , she was voiced by Renee Hewitt in Soulcalibur II and Lani Minella for the remainder of the series .
The illegitimate daughter of undead pirate Cervantes de Leon , Ivy was raised by a noble family until her father became obsessed with the cursed sword , Soul Edge , leading to his death and later her mother 's . Desiring to destroy the sword , she creates a segmented , animated blade , only to become Soul Edge 's pawn and learn that it intends to use her as its next host . After an attack by Cervantes results in the loss of her soul , Ivy uses a temporary artificial one to keep herself alive , and continues after the blade .
Since her introduction , Ivy has been well received , considered both an attractive and strong female character by various sources . She has also been included on various countdown lists regarding sexy video game characters . Scholastic studies have examined the character in the context of the series and video games in general , as well as when compared to other video game related sex symbols such as Lara Croft . Her role as a sex symbol has also been discussed by said sources and the media . Some argue that her appearance goes " too far " , while others feel it helps to define her character .
= = Conception and history = =
As a character introduced in Soulcalibur , Ivy 's weapon , a " snake sword " designed to be unique amongst the other weapons in the game , was selected before other elements of the character . Her design and concept were then built to revolve around it , starting with gender , then physical measurements , and lastly background details . After her appearance and movement were fleshed out by a concept artist , her character was rendered as a 3D model by a design team that worked solely on her , and then animated mostly by Naotake Hirata using motion capture to create her in @-@ game movements , with Yasushi Shibue designing the animations for her throws , and several animations created without the use of motion capture for positions difficult for the actors . During this phase the team additionally worked with the Soulcalibur story creators , refining the character 's own role in the plot as needed throughout development .
During development many alternatives for Ivy 's design were considered , including a male ninja , a mummy , and a little girl , while the weapon remained constant , varying only in size . With Soulcalibur II , the development team chose her as their favorite character from the previous title . Producer Hiroaki Yotoriyama felt that her fighting style was not perfectly expressed in Soulcalibur , and focused on Ivy from the start of the project to make her more " uniquely lethal " . Namco has called Ivy one of the three most popular characters in the series in North American markets , alongside Taki and Nightmare . Soulcalibur V producer Hisaharu Tago emphasized this as a reason for the character 's inclusion for the game , additionally citing her fighting style and role in the game 's storyline .
= = = Design = = =
Ivy appears as a tall , large busted woman with short , white hair . A bluish @-@ purple leotard covers her torso and arms , with patches of the fabric removed to expose her cleavage and various parts of her abdomen . Similar leggings cover her legs midway below her thighs , connected to the leotard by garters at golden metal bands at their peak . A sleeve of the same material covers her right arm and hand , while armor covers her left arm , hand , and shoulder . A smaller pauldron covers her right shoulder , while high heels cover her feet , and a white glove covers her right hand . The left shoulder pauldron incorporates the Tudor Rose , a traditional heraldic symbol of England , while the plates of the armor were designed to resemble the links of her sword . A mask covering the right side of her face and eye were also considered but abandoned after the initial character concept . While her design has been altered slightly as the series has progressed , the concept has remained consistent throughout the series , with the exception of the removal of the glove in later designs . Ivy stands 1 @.@ 79 m ( 5 ft 10 in ) tall , making her the series ' tallest female character , and with a bust measurement of 100 cm ( 39 in ) also the bustiest , though this was an aspect that the developers felt they had overdone by her appearance in Soulcalibur IV .
Ivy 's alternate character designs in the games are a contrast to her primary designs , with the secondary from Soulcalibur to Soulcalibur III consisting of countess attire of either blue or red pants , vest , and jacket , with white boots covering her feet and her hair combed back . In Soulcalibur II , a tertiary alternate design was added consisting of a red leotard and gloves with gold trimming , with red stockings on her legs ; in addition , a fourth design resembling her appearance at the conclusion of Soulcalibur was considered , incorporating a cloak and the symbol of caduceus on the front of her leotard cupping her breasts , but was unused . In Soulcalibur III , a long , rose @-@ themed dress with hat and veil was used as a tertiary alternate , one of several considered designs . For Soulcalibur IV , a similarly themed black dress was used as her sole alternate design for the game .
Some versions of the original Soulcalibur arcade game censored Ivy 's default costume by covering her bare skin with a lavender catsuit . With Soulcalibur IV , Ivy 's look on the promotional artwork was modified on the English website to hide her undercleavage , leading to suspicion of censorship in the American release of the game . When asked about the censoring , director Katsutoshi Sasaki stated he had heard of nothing of the sort having taken place . When released in North America it was shown that no actual censorship had occurred within the game .
= = Appearances = =
= = = In video games = = =
As introduced in Soulcalibur , Ivy was raised by the Valentines , a noble family in London , England . Ivy 's father became obsessed with the cursed sword Soul Edge , and worked himself to death . Her mother died shortly afterward , and revealed to Ivy that she was not their biological daughter . Becoming an alchemist , Ivy learned of her father 's obsession and decided to destroy Soul Edge . She created an animated , segmented sword , bringing it to life by unknowingly summoning Soul Edge 's current host , Nightmare , and was convinced to become one of his servants without realizing he wielded the blade she sought . After learning the truth , and that her real father was the sword 's previous host Cervantes and her to be its next , she departed . Continuing her quest to destroy the sword in later games , Ivy was attacked by Cervantes and her soul consumed in Soulcalibur IV . Using an artificial soul to keep herself alive , she acts as a teacher to younger warriors when the sword re @-@ appears years later .
Ivy also appears in the prequel Soulcalibur Legends , allying herself with the protagonist Siegfried , and shares an understanding with another of his allies , Lloyd Irving . In Soulcalibur : Broken Destiny 's " Gauntlet " storyline , a side story set after the events of Soulcalibur IV , Ivy assists the character Hilde and her party develop a cure for her father 's ailment . When told that Cervantes ' soul would be required as payment , they attempt to renegotiate , only for Ivy to use the protagonist 's back as a chair while repeating her terms .
Designed as a weapon with the longest reach in Soulcalibur , Ivy 's sword Valentine consists of several smaller blades linked together by a chain , able to take either broadsword or chain whip forms . These forms are represented by different stances Ivy can use in the series , altering many of her attacks for each and applying different uses to either form of the weapon , with some , such as Spiral Lust , a component of an existing attack . In addition to these the sword can also have the segments be split apart , in which case they will attack the opponent in different ways before recombining on the sword 's chain . Due to her variety , Ivy has been noted as being able to attack from any range , however she has also been described as difficult to properly use unless utilizing a range the opponent is weakest at . However , attacks such as Ivy Brambler allow her greater variety in range , and allow for chaining into other attacks upon a successful strike . Other attacks , such as Summoning Suffering and Calamity Symphony , involve grappling with the opponent to damage them , though utilize complex controller inputs that require them to be utilized in tandem with other moves . With the Xbox Live release of Soulcalibur , due to its complexity the former was utilized for an achievement .
= = = Promotion and merchandising = = =
Ivy was featured amongst other characters for Soulcalibur II 's arcade flyer , and has been featured in other printed advertisements for games in the series . She has also appeared on the cover on every Sony @-@ based console game in the series , as well as Soulcalibur Legends for the Nintendo Wii . She is also visible on the white Xbox 360 Soulcalibur IV arcade joystick alongside Hilde and Siegfried , and the box art for Korean distributions of the lilac @-@ colored PSP . In addition , the character has been used to demonstrate the graphical features of both Soulcalibur IV and its follow @-@ up title , Broken Destiny in a tech demo and promotional flyer respectively . Ivy was also featured alongside Siegfried in a manga adaptation of Soulcalibur Legends printed in the Japanese shōnen Kerokero Ace ; the manga , written in a humorous tone , used a running gag of Siegfried 's annoyance that Ivy was significantly taller than he was .
Several action figures and figurines have been made bearing Ivy 's likeness . Following the release of Soulcalibur , a resin kit by Kurushima was released , alongside a figurine by Kyosho . Epoch C @-@ Works released a 1 / 12 scale Ivy action figure of in a set of three for the title as well , featuring equipable weapons . In August 2003 , Todd McFarlane Productions released an Ivy sculpture amongst a set of five based on Soulcalibur II . The immobile figure was modeled after her primary outfit and stood six inches tall with a base and retracted sword . Yujin released a four inch tall figurine based upon her Soulcalibur II artwork as part of their " Namco Girls Series # 5 " line of gashapon figurines . A twelve inch tall immobile PVC figurine modeled after her Soulcalibur III appearance was released by Enterbrain in September 2008 , using a white version of her outfit and extended sword ; a dark blue outfit for an " international color " version of the sculpture was also produced .
= = Reception = =
Although commonly cited as one of the most difficult characters to play as in the Soul series , Ivy has received a great deal of positive reception and has been described as one of the series ' most " staple " and " stalwart " characters . From her Soulcalibur II appearance , Ivy was nominated in G4 's 2004 G @-@ Phoria awards show under " Hottest Character " , alongside Vanessa Z. Schneider and Rikku ; she was also a character in their 2005 " Video Game Vixens " awards show , winning in the category of " Kinkiest Accessory " . Several other " Top Ten " lists have also featured Ivy in similar context , including those by Team Xbox , Machinima.com , and Spike TV . In 2009 , she was featured on the cover of French magazine Ig alongside other female video game characters as one of the top heroines of gaming .
Ivy was cited in the book " Disconnected America " as an example of Soulcalibur II 's contrast to titles including Mortal Kombat and Street Fighter in terms of a comparable real @-@ world experience . Play magazine called her one of the " finest females in all of 3D fighting " , adding of the characters in the series she was the one they enjoyed playing as the most . She placed second in IGN 's " Soulcalibur : The Top Ten Fighters " article , which stated " Few , if any , Soul fighters so aptly sum up what the series is about as Ivy Valentine . " IGN also included her in their list of guest characters they would have liked to have seen for Super Smash Bros. Brawl , and in their " Top 50 Chicks Behaving Badly " list , describing her as " a pain in the ass , but she 's got a tight one , so she 's okay by us " . Gamespy named her one of the " 25 Extremely Rough Brawlers " in video gaming , praising the brutality of her fighting style and weapon . Tom 's Games named her one of the fifty greatest female characters in video game history , stating that as " an anti @-@ hero who frequently clashes with other Souls , Ivy is a fascinating character for a fighting game " . UGO.com placed her sixteenth on their list of the " Top 50 Evil Women " , noting her role as an antagonist in the first Soulcalibur while adding that it could be " difficult to truly appreciate [ her ] villainy " due to her attractiveness , and adding that her appearance and attitude made her " a feared competitor " . In 2013 , Complex enlisted the 20 best characters from the series , ranking her the seventh best character .
Ivy appeared several times in GameDaily 's " Babe of the Week " series of articles , including as a stand @-@ alone article and at eleventh place in their " Top 50 Hottest Game Babes " article . They later named her amongst other female characters in the Soul series as an example of a strong and iconic female character in video gaming . The New York Times felt her appearance came from the same " Goth cyberaesthetic [ ... ] that gave us The Matrix " , one they felt was already becoming outdated . UGO.com ranked her eighteenth in their " Top 50 Videogame Hotties " article , stating " However much she instills fear in our hearts , we revel in the opportunity to stare at her from the safety of our television sets . " In later articles , they named her one of the top eleven girls of gaming at number ten and one of the top eleven video game heroines at number eight , stating " What can you say about a chick that carries a whip ? If you 're talking about Ivy from the Soul Calibur series , you could say she 's pretty intimidating . "
= = = As a sex symbol = = =
Ivy 's appearance and demeanor have been a focus of discussions , with her commonly compared to or described as a dominatrix , and has been noted both as the series ' sexiest female and one of the " most beautiful women in gaming " . She has been displayed in various third @-@ party media , her likeness appearing in material including magazine swimsuit issue pin @-@ ups , periodicals such as Play 's annual " Girls of Gaming " series , and pornographic dōjinshi . Advertisements have also focused on her visual appeal , such as Sega 's television commercial for Soulcalibur 's Dreamcast port . Other media facets have made comparisons between her and Lara Croft in terms of attractiveness , or depicted them as rivals alongside other female characters in a similar context . Other sources have used her as a standard for a character archetype , comparing later created female characters to her design and appearance . Studies on video games have noted Ivy in the subject of games " growing up " , discussing the increasing popularity of " video game babes " and the reactions of men and women towards them .
The book Game On : The History and Culture of Videogames cited Ivy as an example of realistic character design affected by " the Japanese ' deformed ' aesthetic and the global influence of cartoon animation " , noting she made characters such as Lara Croft look " positively monastic " by comparison . Race , Gender , Media : Considering Diversity Across Audiences , Content , and Producers used her as an example of most female characters in video games , describing her body and clothing as being created solely for the viewing pleasure of players , often males . Rachael Hutchinson , Assistant Professor of Japanese Studies at the University of Delaware , described her sexualized appearance and behavior as devices used by the developers to emphasize her above @-@ average height compared to other female characters in the title as " deviant " , justifying " social and cultural expectation regarding the female form " in the process . In an article on Kotaku , Gamasutra 's Leigh Alexander used Ivy as a primary example of video game representations of the ideal male and female versus the real world and the concept that " sex sells " , noting the unconscious appeal of such a character to represent oneself as in a game .
Reception of the character 's sex appeal has been mostly positive , though with a share of criticism as well as her design evolved through the series . Joystiq bemoaned her appearance in Soulcalibur IV , describing it as an extreme in lieu of games such as Dead or Alive Xtreme Beach Volleyball and noting that while a full redesign was unnecessary , " At least [ Dead or Alive ] keeps its breasts in context . " MSNBC described her attire as " the pinnacle of preposterous " , noting that while it revolved around her femme fatale design , it appeared physically painful and made little sense to wear into combat . Former GameSpot editor Jeff Gerstmann described the alterations to her appearance for Soulcalibur IV as unnecessary , stating " boobs are awesome , but there 's a line . Ivy is over this line . " GamesRadar content editor David Houghton described her alongside similar characters as " festering adolescent wank @-@ fantasies " , adding directly regarding Ivy " [ t ] his is not female empowerment " . The subject was later brought up again at the 2011 PAX East convention , in which an all @-@ female journal panel led by The Escapist 's Susan Arendt agreed that while the character was strong and difficult but rewarding to master in the original Soulcalibur , she was reduced to " a nice ass bouncing around the room " in later games .
In contrast , British magazine CVG cited her appearance in Soulcalibur IV as appealing , stating " Ivy ... we like because she barely wears anything . Yes , we like videogame girls . " IGN in their " Babes of Soulcalibur " article noted that while her outfit pushed the line even by game standards , they had no actual complaint towards that aspect of the character . Team Xbox emphasized that while her appearance played a factor in her allure , her fighting skills and unique weapon were significant as well , adding that " Ivy never disappoints in a swordfight " . Leigh Alexander in an article for GameSetWatch noted that while characters such as Samus Aran served as " bastions of dignity " , characters such as Ivy filled an important role in video games too , stating " [ i ] t looks like Ivy ’ s back is set to snap – but she ’ s a game character ; she ’ ll be fine . Why not just enjoy it ? " The Escapist noted that the character 's behavior and sex appeal defined the character rather than serving as an extraneous aspect , stating " Ivy 's oversexed dominatrix demeanor perfectly compliments her confident , punishing move set . " UGO.com repeated the sentiment , noting in their " Top 11 Girls of Gaming " article " Soul Calibur 's mega @-@ bombastic whip @-@ wielding hottie isn 't the only babe in the game , or even the best @-@ endowed ... but her combination of sultry moves and revealing outfits shoots her up the charts . " In an examination of feminist viewpoints regarding women in gaming , comedian and writer Liana Kerzner cited Ivy as an example of misperception of an empowered female character , noting that when compared to characters such as Wonder Woman the latter was considered a positive character for being " empowered " despite sharing similar exposing outfits and physical builds . She further went on to state that the character was interesting for having " to fight her own flawed battle with no help from anyone " , and that women passionate about gaming had more in common with the character : " aggressive , intimidating , combative , and scrabbling through life by sheer will , armed with homemade weapons " .
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= Rudd Concession =
The Rudd Concession , a written concession for exclusive mining rights in Matabeleland , Mashonaland and other adjoining territories , was granted by King Lobengula of Matabeleland to Charles Rudd , James Rochfort Maguire and Francis Thompson , three agents acting on behalf of the South African @-@ based politician and businessman Cecil Rhodes , on 30 October 1888 . Despite Lobengula 's retrospective attempts to disavow it , it proved the foundation for the royal charter granted by the United Kingdom to Rhodes 's British South Africa Company in October 1889 , and thereafter for the Pioneer Column 's occupation of Mashonaland in 1890 , which marked the beginning of white settlement , administration and development in the country that eventually became Rhodesia , named after Rhodes , in 1895 .
Rhodes 's pursuit of the exclusive mining rights in Matabeleland , Mashonaland and the surrounding areas was motivated by his wish to annex them into the British Empire as part of his personal ambition for a Cape to Cairo Railway — winning the concession would enable him to gain a royal charter from the British government for a chartered company , empowered to annex and thereafter govern the Zambezi – Limpopo watershed on Britain 's behalf . He laid the groundwork for concession negotiations during early 1888 by arranging a treaty of friendship between the British and Matabele peoples and then sent Rudd 's team from South Africa to obtain the rights . Rudd succeeded following a race to the Matabele capital Bulawayo against Edward Arthur Maund , a bidding rival employed by a London @-@ based syndicate , and long negotiations with the king and his council of izinDuna ( tribal leaders ) .
The concession conferred on the grantees the sole rights to mine throughout Lobengula 's country , as well as the power to defend this exclusivity by force , in return for weapons and a regular monetary stipend . Starting in early 1889 , the king repeatedly tried to disavow the document on the grounds of alleged deceit by the concessionaires regarding the settled terms ; he insisted that restrictions on the grantees ' activities had been agreed orally , and apparently considered these part of the contract even though the written text had been translated and repeatedly explained to him just before he signed it . He attempted to persuade the British government to deem the concession invalid , among other things sending emissaries to meet Queen Victoria at Windsor Castle , but these efforts were unsuccessful .
After Rhodes and the London consortium agreed to pool their interests , Rhodes travelled to London , arriving in March 1889 . His amalgamated charter bid gathered great political and popular support over the next few months , prompting the Prime Minister Lord Salisbury to approve the royal charter , which was formally granted in October 1889 . The Company occupied and annexed Mashonaland about a year later . Attempting to create a rival for the Rudd Concession , Lobengula granted similar rights to the German businessman Eduard Lippert in 1891 , but Rhodes promptly acquired this concession as well . Company troops conquered Matabeleland during the First Matabele War of 1893 – 94 , and Lobengula died from smallpox in exile soon after .
= = Background = =
During the 1810s , the Zulu Kingdom was established in southern Africa by the warrior king Shaka , who united a number of rival clans into a centralised monarchy . Among the Zulu Kingdom 's main leaders and military commanders was Mzilikazi , who enjoyed high royal favour for a time , but ultimately provoked the king 's wrath by repeatedly offending him . When Shaka forced Mzilikazi and his followers to leave the country in 1823 , they moved north @-@ west to the Transvaal , where they became known as the Ndebele or " Matabele " — both names mean " men of the long shields " . Amid the period of war and chaos locally called mfecane ( " the crushing " ) , the Matabele quickly became the region 's dominant tribe . In 1836 , they negotiated a peace treaty with Sir Benjamin d 'Urban , Governor of the British Cape Colony , but the same year Boer Voortrekkers moved to the area , during their Great Trek away from British rule in the Cape . These new arrivals soon toppled Mzilikazi 's domination of the Transvaal , compelling him to lead another migration north in 1838 . Crossing the Limpopo River , the Matabele settled in the Zambezi – Limpopo watershed 's south @-@ west ; this area has since been called Matabeleland .
Matabele culture mirrored that of the Zulus in many aspects . The Matabele language , Sindebele , was largely based on Zulu — and just like Zululand , Matabeleland had a strong martial tradition . Matabele men went through a Spartan upbringing , designed to produce disciplined warriors , and military organisation largely dictated the distribution of administrative responsibilities . The inkosi ( king ) appointed a number of izinDuna ( or indunas ) , who acted as tribal leaders in both military and civilian matters . Like the Zulus , the Matabele referred to a regiment of warriors as an impi . The Mashona people , who had inhabited the north @-@ east of the region for centuries , greatly outnumbered the Matabele , but were weaker militarily , and so to a large degree entered a state of tributary submission to them . Mzilikazi agreed to two treaties with the Transvaal Boers in 1853 , first with Hendrik Potgieter ( who died shortly before negotiations ended ) , then with Andries Pretorius ; the first of these , which did not bear Mzilikazi 's own mark , purported to make Matabeleland a virtual Transvaal protectorate , while the second , which was more properly enacted , comprised a more equal peace agreement .
After Mzilikazi died in 1868 , his son Lobengula replaced him in 1870 , following a brief succession struggle . Tall and well built , Lobengula was generally considered thoughtful and sensible , even by contemporary Western accounts ; according to the South African big @-@ game hunter Frederick Hugh Barber , who met him in 1875 , he was witty , mentally sharp and authoritative — " every inch a king " . Based at his royal kraal at Bulawayo , Lobengula was at first open to Western enterprises in his country , adopting Western @-@ style clothing and granting mining concessions and hunting licences to white visitors in return for pounds sterling , weapons and ammunition . Because of the king 's illiteracy , these documents were prepared in English or Dutch by whites who took up residence at his kraal ; to ascertain that what was written genuinely reflected what he had said , Lobengula would have his words translated and transcribed by one of the whites , then later translated back by another . Once the king was satisfied of the written translation 's veracity , he would sign his mark , affix the royal seal ( which depicted an elephant ) , and then have the document signed and witnessed by a number of white men , at least one of whom would also write an endorsement of the proclamation .
For unclear reasons , Lobengula 's attitude towards foreigners reversed sharply during the late 1870s . He discarded his Western clothes in favour of more traditional animal @-@ skin garments , stopped supporting trading enterprises , and began to restrict the movement of whites into and around his country . However , the whites kept coming , particularly after the discovery in 1886 of gold deposits in the South African Republic ( or Transvaal ) , which prompted the Witwatersrand Gold Rush and the founding of Johannesburg . After rumours spread among the Witwatersrand ( or Rand ) prospectors of even richer tracts , " a second Rand " , north of the Limpopo , the miners began to trek north to seek concessions from Lobengula that would allow them to search for gold in Matabeleland and Mashonaland . These efforts were mostly in vain . Apart from the Tati Concession , which covered a small strip of land on the border with the Bechuanaland Protectorate where miners had operated since 1868 , mining operations in the watershed remained few and far between .
The foremost business and political figure in southern Africa at this time was Cecil Rhodes , a vicar 's son who had arrived from England in 1870 , aged 17 . Since entering the diamond trade at Kimberley in 1871 , Rhodes had gained near @-@ complete domination of the world diamond market with the help of Charles Rudd , Alfred Beit and other business associates , as well as the generous financial backing of Nathan Mayer Rothschild . Rhodes was also a member of the Cape Parliament , having been elected in 1881 . Amid the European Scramble for Africa , he envisioned the annexation to the British Empire of territories that would connect the Cape , at Africa 's southern tip , with Cairo , the Egyptian city at the northern end of the continent , and allow for the construction of a railway linking the two . This ambition was directly challenged in the south by the presence of the Boer republics and , just to the north of them , Lobengula 's domains . The fact that the Zambezi – Limpopo region did not fall into any of the " spheres of influence " defined at the 1884 – 85 Berlin Conference further complicated matters ; the Transvaalers , Germans and Portuguese were all also showing interest in the area , much to the annoyance of both Lobengula and Rhodes .
= = Prelude : the Moffat treaty = =
Rhodes began advocating the annexation by Britain of Matabeleland and Mashonaland in 1887 by applying pressure to a number of senior colonial officials , most prominently the High Commissioner for Southern Africa , Sir Hercules Robinson , and Sidney Shippard , Britain 's administrator in the Bechuanaland Crown colony ( comprising that country 's southern part ) . Shippard , an old friend of Rhodes , was soon won over to the idea , and in May 1887 the administrator wrote to Robinson strongly endorsing annexation of the territories , particularly Mashonaland , which he described as " beyond comparison the most valuable country south of the Zambezi " . It was the Boers , however , who were first to achieve diplomatic successes with Lobengula . Pieter Grobler secured a treaty of " renewal of friendship " between Matabeleland and the South African Republic in July 1887 . The same month , Robinson organised the appointment of John Smith Moffat , a locally born missionary , as assistant commissioner in Bechuanaland . Moffat , well @-@ known to Lobengula , was given this position in the hope that he might make the king less cordial with the Boers and more pro @-@ British .
In September 1887 , Robinson wrote to Lobengula , through Moffat , urging the king not to grant concessions of any kind to Transvaal , German or Portuguese agents without first consulting the missionary . Moffat reached Bulawayo on 29 November to find Grobler still there . Because the exact text of the Grobler treaty had not been released publicly , it was unclear to outside observers precisely what had been agreed with Lobengula in July ; in the uncertainty , newspapers in South Africa were reporting that the treaty had made Matabeleland a protectorate of the South African Republic . Moffat made enquiries in Bulawayo . Grobler denied the newspaper reports of a Transvaal protectorate over Lobengula 's country , while the king said that an agreement did exist , but that it was a renewal of the Pretorius peace treaty and nothing more .
In Pretoria , in early December , another British agent met Paul Kruger , the President of the South African Republic , who reportedly said that his government now regarded Matabeleland as under Transvaal " protection and sovereignty " , and that one of the clauses of the Grobler treaty had been that Lobengula could not " grant any concessions or make any contact with anybody whatsoever " without Pretoria 's approval . Meeting at Grahamstown on Christmas Day , Rhodes , Shippard and Robinson agreed to instruct Moffat to investigate the matter with Lobengula and to secure a copy of the Grobler treaty for further clarification , as well as to arrange a formal Anglo @-@ Matabele treaty , which would have provisions included to prevent Lobengula from making any more agreements with foreign powers other than Britain .
Lobengula was alarmed by how some were perceiving his dealings with Grobler , and so was reluctant to sign any more agreements with foreigners . Despite his familiarity with Moffat , the king did not consider him above suspicion , and he was dubious about placing himself firmly in the British camp ; as Moffat said of the Matabele leadership in general , " they may like us better , but they fear the Boers more " . Moffat 's negotiations with the king and izinDuna were therefore very long and uneasy . The missionary presented the proposed British treaty as an offer to renew that enacted by d 'Urban and Mzilikazi in 1836 . He told the Matabele that the Boers were misleading them , that Pretoria 's interpretation of the Grobler treaty differed greatly from their own , and that the British proposal served Matabele interests better in any case . On 11 February 1888 , Lobengula agreed and placed his mark and seal at the foot of the agreement . The document proclaimed that the Matabele and British were now at peace , that Lobengula would not enter any kind of diplomatic correspondence with any country apart from Britain , and that the king would not " sell , alienate or cede " any part of Matabeleland or Mashonaland to anybody .
The document was unilateral in form , describing only what Lobengula would do to prevent any of these conditions being broken . Shippard was dubious about this and the fact that none of the izinDuna had signed the proclamation , and asked Robinson if it would be advisable to negotiate another treaty . Robinson replied in the negative , reasoning that reopening talks with Lobengula so soon would only make him suspicious . Britain 's ministers at Whitehall perceived the unilateral character of the treaty as advantageous for Britain , as it did not commit Her Majesty 's Government to any particular course of action . Lord Salisbury , the British Prime Minister , ruled that Moffat 's treaty trumped Grobler 's , despite being signed at a later date , because the London Convention of 1884 precluded the South African Republic from making treaties with any state apart from the Orange Free State ; treaties with " native tribes " north of the Limpopo were permitted , but the Prime Minister claimed that Matabeleland was too cohesively organised to be regarded as a mere tribe , and should instead be considered a nation . He concluded from this reasoning that the Grobler treaty was ultra vires and legally meaningless . Whitehall soon gave Robinson permission to ratify the Moffat agreement , which was announced to the public in Cape Town on 25 April 1888 .
For Rhodes , the agreement Moffat had made with Lobengula was crucial as it bought time that allowed him to devote the necessary attention to the final amalgamation of the South African diamond interests . A possible way out of the situation for Lobengula was to lead another Matabele migration across the Zambezi , but Rhodes hoped to keep the king where he was for the moment as a buffer against Boer expansion . In March 1888 , Rhodes bought out the company of his last competitor , the circus showman turned diamond millionaire Barney Barnato , to form De Beers Consolidated Mines , a sprawling national monopoly that controlled 90 % of world diamond production . Barnato wanted to limit De Beers to mining diamonds , but Rhodes insisted that he was going to use the company to " win the north " : to this end , he ensured that the De Beers trust deed enabled activities far removed from mining , including banking and railway @-@ building , the ability to annex and govern land , and the raising of armed forces . All this gave the immensely wealthy company powers not unlike those of the East India Company , which had governed India on Britain 's behalf from 1757 to 1857 . Through De Beers and Gold Fields of South Africa , the gold @-@ mining firm he had recently started with Charles Rudd , Rhodes had both the capacity and the financial means to make his dream of an African empire a reality , but to make such ambitions practicable , he would first have to acquire a royal charter empowering him to take personal control of the relevant territories on Britain 's behalf . To secure this royal charter , he would need to present Whitehall with a concession , signed by a native ruler , granting to Rhodes the exclusive mining rights in the lands he hoped to annex .
= = Concession = =
= = = Race to Bulawayo = = =
Rhodes faced competition for the Matabeleland mining concession from George Cawston and Lord Gifford , two London financiers . They appointed as their agent Edward Arthur Maund , who had served with Sir Charles Warren in Bechuanaland between 1884 and 1885 , towards the end of this time visiting Lobengula as an official British envoy . Cawston and Gifford 's base in England gave them the advantage of being better connected with Whitehall , while Rhodes 's location in the Cape allowed him to see the situation with his own eyes . He also possessed formidable financial capital and closer links with the relevant colonial administrators . In May 1888 , Cawston and Gifford wrote to Lord Knutsford , the British Colonial Secretary , seeking his approval for their designs .
The urgency of negotiating a concession was made clear to Rhodes during a visit to London in June 1888 , when he learned of the London syndicate 's letter to Knutsford , and of their appointment of Maund . Rhodes now understood that the Matabeleland concession could still go elsewhere if he did not secure the document quickly . " Someone has to get the country , and I think we should have the best chance , " Rhodes told Rothschild ; " I have always been afraid of the difficulty of dealing with the Matabele king . He is the only block to central Africa , as , once we have his territory , the rest is easy ... the rest is simply a village system with separate headmen ... I have faith in the country , and Africa is on the move . I think it is a second Cinderella . "
Rhodes and Beit put Rudd at the head of their new negotiating team because of his extensive experience negotiating the purchase of Boers ' farms for gold prospecting . Because Rudd knew little of indigenous African customs and languages , Rhodes added Francis " Matabele " Thompson , an employee of his who had for years run the reserves and compounds that housed the black labourers at the diamond fields . Thompson was fluent in Setswana , the language of the Tswana people to Lobengula 's south @-@ west , and therefore could communicate directly and articulately with the king , who also knew the language . James Rochfort Maguire , an Irish barrister whom Rhodes had known at Oxford , was recruited as a third member .
Many analysts find the inclusion of the cultured , metropolitan Maguire puzzling — it is often suggested that he was brought along so he could couch the document in the elaborate legal language of the English bar , and thus make it unchallengeable , but as the historian John Galbraith comments , the kind of agreement that was required was hardly complicated enough to merit the considerable expense and inconvenience of bringing Maguire along . In his biography of Rhodes , Robert I Rotberg suggests that he may have intended Maguire to lend Rudd 's expedition " a touch of culture and class " , in the hope that this might impress Lobengula and rival would @-@ be concessionaires . One of the advantages held by the London syndicate was the societal prestige of Gifford in particular , and Rhodes hoped to counter this through Maguire . Rudd 's party ultimately comprised himself , Thompson , Maguire , J G Dreyer ( their Dutch wagon driver ) , a fifth white man , a Cape Coloured , an African American and two black servants .
Maund arrived in Cape Town in late June 1888 and attempted to gain Robinson 's approval for the Cawston – Gifford bid . Robinson was reserved in his answers , saying that he supported the development of Matabeleland by a company with this kind of backing , but did not feel he could commit to endorsing Cawston and Gifford exclusively while there remained other potential concessionaires , most prominently Rhodes — certainly not without unequivocal instructions from Whitehall . While Rudd 's party gathered and prepared in Kimberley , Maund travelled north , and reached the diamond mines at the start of July . On 14 July , in Bulawayo , agents representing a consortium headed by the South African @-@ based entrepreneur Thomas Leask received a mining concession from Lobengula , covering all of his country , and pledging half of the proceeds to the king . When he learned of this latter condition Leask was distraught , saying the concession was " commercially valueless " . Moffat pointed out to Leask that his group did not have the resources to act on the concession anyway , and that both Rhodes and the London syndicate did ; at Moffat 's suggestion , Leask decided to wait and sell his concession to whichever big business group gained a new agreement from Lobengula . Neither Rhodes 's group , the Cawston – Gifford consortium nor the British colonial officials immediately learned of the Leask concession .
In early July 1888 , Rhodes returned from London and met with Robinson , proposing the establishment of a chartered company to govern and develop south @-@ central Africa , with himself at its head , and similar powers to the British North Borneo , Imperial British East Africa and Royal Niger Companies . Rhodes said that this company would take control of those parts of Matabeleland and Mashonaland " not in use " by the local people , demarcate reserved areas for the indigenous population , and thereafter defend both , while developing the lands not reserved for natives . In this way , he concluded , Matabele and Mashona interests would be protected , and south @-@ central Africa would be developed , all without a penny from Her Majesty 's Treasury . Robinson wrote to Knutsford on 21 July that he thought Whitehall should back this idea ; he surmised that the Boers would receive British expansion into the Zambezi – Limpopo watershed better if it came in the form of a chartered company than if it occurred with the creation of a new Crown colony . He furthermore wrote a letter for Rudd 's party to carry to Bulawayo , recommending Rudd and his companions to Lobengula .
Maund left Kimberley in July , well ahead of the Rudd party . Rudd 's negotiating team , armed with Robinson 's endorsement , was still far from ready — they left Kimberley only on 15 August — but Moffat , travelling from Shoshong in Bechuanaland , was ahead of both expeditions . He reached Bulawayo in late August to find the kraal filled with white concession @-@ hunters . The various bidders attempted to woo the king with a series of gifts and favours , but won little to show for it .
Between Kimberley and Mafeking , Maund learned from Shippard that Grobler had been killed by a group of Ngwato warriors while returning to the Transvaal , and that the Boers were threatening to attack the British @-@ protected Ngwato chief , Khama III , in response . Maund volunteered to help defend Khama , writing a letter to his employers explaining that doing so might lay the foundations for a concession from Khama covering territory that the Matabele and Ngwato disputed . Cawston tersely wrote back with orders to make for Bulawayo without delay , but over a month had passed in the time this written exchange required , and Maund had squandered his head start on Rudd . After ignoring a notice Lobengula had posted at Tati , barring entry to white big @-@ game hunters and concession @-@ seekers , the Rudd party arrived at the king 's kraal on 21 September 1888 , three weeks ahead of Maund .
= = = Negotiations = = =
Rudd , Thompson and Maguire immediately went to present themselves to Lobengula , who came out from his private quarters without hesitation and politely greeted the visitors . Through a Sindebele interpreter , Rudd introduced himself and the others , explained on whose behalf they acted , said they had come for an amiable sojourn , and presented the king with a gift of £ 100 .
After the subject of business was eschewed for a few days , Thompson explained to the king in Setswana what he and his confederates had come to talk about . He said that his backers , unlike the Transvaalers , were not seeking land , but only wanted to mine gold in the Zambezi – Limpopo watershed . During the following weeks , talks took place sporadically . Moffat , who had remained in Bulawayo , was occasionally called upon by the king for advice , prompting the missionary to subtly assist Rudd 's team through his counsel . He urged Lobengula to work alongside one large entity rather than many small concerns , telling him that this would make the issue easier for him to manage . He then informed the king that Shippard was going to pay an official visit during October , and advised him not to make a decision until after this was over .
Accompanied by Sir Hamilton Goold @-@ Adams and 16 policemen , Shippard arrived in mid @-@ October 1888 . The king suspended concession negotiations in favour of meetings with him . The colonial official told the king that the Boers were hungry for more land and intended to overrun his country before too long ; he also championed Rudd 's cause , telling Lobengula that Rudd 's team acted on behalf of a powerful , financially formidable organisation supported by Queen Victoria . Meanwhile , Rhodes sent a number of letters to Rudd , warning him that Maund was his main rival , and that because the London syndicate 's goals overlapped so closely with their own , it was essential that Cawston and Gifford be defeated or else brought into the Rhodes camp . Regarding Lobengula , Rhodes advised Rudd to make the king think that the concession would work for him . " Offer a steamboat on the Zambezi same as [ Henry Morton ] Stanley put on the Upper Congo ... Stick to Home Rule and Matabeleland for the Matabele [ , ] I am sure it is the ticket . "
As October passed without major headway , Rudd grew anxious to return to the Witswatersrand gold mines , but Rhodes insisted that he could not leave Bulawayo without the concession . " You must not leave a vacuum , " Rhodes instructed . " Leave Thompson and Maguire if necessary or wait until I can join ... if we get anything we must always have someone resident " . Thus prevented from leaving , Rudd vigorously tried to persuade Lobengula to enter direct negotiations with him over a concession , but was repeatedly rebuffed . The king only agreed to look at the draft document , mostly written by Rudd , just before Shippard was due to leave in late October . At this meeting , Lobengula discussed the terms with Rudd for over an hour . Charles Helm , a missionary based in the vicinity , was summoned by the king to act as an interpreter . According to Helm , Rudd made a number of oral promises to Lobengula that were not in the written document , including " that they would not bring more than 10 white men to work in his country , that they would not dig anywhere near towns , etc . , and that they and their people would abide by the laws of his country and in fact be his people . "
After these talks with Rudd , Lobengula called an indaba ( conference ) of over 100 izinDuna to present the proposed concession terms to them and gauge their sympathies . It soon became clear that opinion was split : most of the younger izinDuna were opposed to the idea of any concession whatsoever , while the king himself and many of his older izinDuna were open to considering Rudd 's bid . The idea of a mining monopoly in the hands of Rudd 's powerful backers was attractive to the Matabele in some ways , as it would end the incessant propositioning for concessions by small @-@ time prospectors , but there was also a case for allowing competition to continue , so that the rival miners would have to compete for Lobengula 's favour .
For many at the indaba , the most pressing motivator was Matabeleland 's security . While Lobengula considered the Transvaalers more formidable battlefield adversaries than the British , he understood that Britain was more prominent on the world stage , and while the Boers wanted land , Rudd 's party claimed to be interested only in mining and trading . Lobengula reasoned that if he accepted Rudd 's proposals , he would keep his land , and the British would be obliged to protect him from incursions by the Boers .
Rudd was offering generous terms that few competitors could hope to even come close to . If Lobengula agreed , Rudd 's backers would furnish the king with 1 @,@ 000 Martini – Henry breech @-@ loading rifles , 100 @,@ 000 rounds of matching ammunition , a steamboat on the Zambezi ( or , if Lobengula preferred , a lump sum of £ 500 ) , and £ 100 a month in perpetuity . More impressive to the king than the financial aspects of this offer were the weapons : he had at the time between 600 and 800 rifles and carbines , but almost no ammunition for them . The proposed arrangement would lavishly stock his arsenal with both firearms and bullets , which might prove decisive in the event of conflict with the South African Republic . The weapons might also help him keep control of the more rambunctious factions amid his own impis . Lobengula had Helm go over the document with him several times , in great detail , to ensure that he properly understood what was written . None of Rudd 's alleged oral conditions were in the concession document , making them legally unenforceable ( presuming they indeed existed ) , but the king apparently regarded them as part of the proposed agreement nonetheless .
The final round of negotiations started at the royal kraal on the morning of 30 October . The talks took place at an indaba between the izinDuna and Rudd 's party ; the king himself did not attend , but was nearby . The izinDuna pressed Rudd and his companions as to where exactly they planned to mine , to which they replied that they wanted rights covering " the whole country " . When the izinDuna demurred , Thompson insisted , " No , we must have Mashonaland , and right up to the Zambezi as well — in fact , the whole country " . According to Thompson 's account , this provoked confusion among the izinDuna , who did not seem to know where these places were . " The Zambezi must be there " , said one , incorrectly pointing south ( rather than north ) . The Matabele representatives then prolonged the talks through " procrastination and displays of geographical ignorance " , in the phrase of the historian Arthur Keppel @-@ Jones , until Rudd and Thompson announced that they were done talking and rose to leave . The izinDuna were somewhat alarmed by this and asked the visitors to please stay and continue , which they did . It was then agreed that inDuna Lotshe and Thompson would together report the day 's progress to the king .
= = = Agreement = = =
After speaking with Lotshe and Thompson , the king was still hesitant to make a decision . Thompson appealed to Lobengula with a rhetorical question : " Who gives a man an assegai [ spear ] if he expects to be attacked by him afterwards ? " Seeing the allusion to the offered Martini – Henry rifles , Lobengula was swayed by this logic , and made up his mind to grant the concession . " Bring me the fly @-@ blown paper and I will sign it , " he said . Thompson briefly left the room to call Rudd , Maguire , Helm and Dreyer in , and they sat in a semi @-@ circle around the king . Lobengula then put his mark to the concession , which read :
Know all men by these presents , that whereas Charles Dunell Rudd , of Kimberley ; Rochfort Maguire , of London ; and Francis Robert Thompson , of Kimberley , hereinafter called the grantees , have covenanted and agreed , and do hereby covenant and agree , to pay to me , my heirs and successors , the sum of one hundred pounds sterling , British currency , on the first day of every lunar month ; and further , to deliver at my royal kraal one thousand Martini – Henry breech @-@ loading rifles , together with one hundred thousand rounds of suitable ball cartridge , five hundred of the said rifles and fifty thousand of the said cartridges to be ordered from England forthwith and delivered with reasonable despatch , and the remainder of the said rifles and cartridges to be delivered as soon as the said grantees shall have commenced to work mining machinery within my territory ; and further , to deliver on the Zambesi River a steamboat with guns suitable for defensive purposes upon the said river , or in lieu of the said steamboat , should I so elect , to pay to me the sum of five hundred pounds sterling , British currency . On the execution of these presents , I , Lobengula , King of Matabeleland , Mashonaland , and other adjoining territories , in exercise of my sovereign powers , and in the presence and with the consent of my council of indunas , do hereby grant and assign unto the said grantees , their heirs , representatives , and assigns , jointly and severally , the complete and exclusive charge over all metals and minerals situated and contained in my kingdoms , principalities , and dominions , together with full power to do all things that they may deem necessary to win and procure the same , and to hold , collect , and enjoy the profits and revenues , if any , derivable from the said metals and minerals , subject to the aforesaid payment ; and whereas I have been much molested of late by divers persons seeking and desiring to obtain grants and concessions of land and mining rights in my territories , I do hereby authorise the said grantees , their heirs , representatives and assigns , to take all necessary and lawful steps to exclude from my kingdom , principalities , and dominions all persons seeking land , metals , minerals , or mining rights therein , and I do hereby undertake to render them all such needful assistance as they may from time to time require for the exclusion of such persons , and to grant no concessions of land or mining rights from and after this date without their consent and concurrence ; provided that , if at any time the said monthly payment of one hundred pounds shall be in arrear for a period of three months , then this grant shall cease and determine from the date of the last @-@ made payment ; and further provided that nothing contained in these presents shall extend to or affect a grant made by me of certain mining rights in a portion of my territory south of the Ramaquaban River , which grant is commonly known as the Tati Concession .
As Lobengula inscribed his mark at the foot of the paper , Maguire turned to Thompson and said " Thompson , this is the epoch of our lives . " Once Rudd , Maguire and Thompson had signed the concession , Helm and Dreyer added their signatures as witnesses , and Helm wrote an endorsement beside the terms :
Lobengula refused to allow any of the izinDuna to sign the document . Exactly why he did this is not clear . Rudd 's interpretation was that the king considered them to have already been consulted at the day 's indaba , and so did not think it necessary for them to also sign . Keppel @-@ Jones comments that Lobengula might have felt that it would be harder to repudiate the document later if it bore the marks of his izinDuna alongside his own .
= = Validity dispute = =
= = = Announcement and reception = = =
Within hours , Rudd and Dreyer were hurrying south to present the document to Rhodes , travelling by mule cart , the fastest mode of transport available . Thompson and Maguire stayed in Bulawayo to defend the concession against potential challenges . Rudd reached Kimberley and Rhodes on 19 November 1888 , a mere 20 days after the document 's signing , and commented with great satisfaction that this marked a record that would surely not be broken until the railway was laid into the interior . Rhodes was elated by Rudd 's results , describing the concession as " so gigantic it is like giving a man the whole of Australia " . Both in high spirits , the pair travelled to Cape Town by train , and presented themselves to Robinson on 21 November .
Robinson was pleased to learn of Rudd 's success . The High Commissioner wanted to gazette the concession immediately , but Rhodes knew that the promise to arm Lobengula with 1 @,@ 000 Martini – Henrys would be received with apprehension elsewhere in South Africa , especially among Boers ; he suggested that this aspect of the concession should be kept quiet until the guns were already in Bechuanaland . Rudd therefore prepared a version of the document omitting mention of the Martini – Henrys , which was approved by Rhodes and Robinson , and published in the Cape Times and Cape Argus newspapers on 24 November 1888 . The altered version described the agreed price for the Zambezi – Limpopo mining monopoly as " the valuable consideration of a large monthly payment in cash , a gunboat for defensive purposes on the Zambesi , and other services . " Two days later , the Cape Times printed a notice from Lobengula :
But the king was already beginning to receive reports telling him that he had been hoodwinked into " selling his country " . Word abounded in Bulawayo that with the Rudd Concession ( as the document became called ) , Lobengula had signed away far more impressive rights than he had thought . Some of the Matabele began to question the king 's judgement . While the izinDuna looked on anxiously , Moffat questioned whether Lobengula would be able to keep control . Thompson was summoned by the izinDuna and interrogated for over 10 hours before being released ; according to Thompson , they were " prepared to suspect even the king himself " . Rumours spread among the kraal 's white residents of a freebooter force in the South African Republic that allegedly intended to invade and support Gambo , a prominent inDuna , in overthrowing and killing Lobengula . Horrified by these developments , Lobengula attempted to secure his position by deflecting blame . InDuna Lotshe , who had supported granting the concession , was condemned for having misled his king and executed , along with his extended family and followers — over 300 men , women and children in all . Meanwhile , Rhodes and Rudd returned to Kimberley , and Robinson wrote to the Colonial Office at Whitehall on 5 December 1888 to inform them of Rudd 's concession .
= = = Lobengula 's embassy = = =
While reassuring Thompson and Maguire that he was only repudiating the idea that he had given his country away , and not the concession itself ( which he told them would be respected ) , Lobengula asked Maund to accompany two of his izinDuna , Babayane and Mshete , to England , so they could meet Queen Victoria herself , officially to present to her a letter bemoaning Portuguese incursions on eastern Mashonaland , but also unofficially to seek counsel regarding the crisis at Bulawayo . The mission was furthermore motivated by the simple desire of Lobengula and his izinDuna to see if this white queen , whose name the British swore by , really existed . The king 's letter concluded with a request for the Queen to send a representative of her own to Bulawayo . Maund , who saw a second chance to secure his own concession , perhaps even at Rudd 's expense , said he was more than happy to assist , but Lobengula remained cautious with him : when Maund raised the subject of a new concession covering the Mazoe valley , the king replied " Take my men to England for me ; and when you return , then I will talk about that . " Johannes Colenbrander , a frontiersman from Natal , was recruited to accompany the Matabele emissaries as an interpreter . They left in mid @-@ December 1888 .
Around this time , a group of Austral Africa Company prospectors , led by Alfred Haggard , approached Lobengula 's south @-@ western border , hoping to gain their own Matabeleland mining concession ; on learning of this , the king honoured one of the terms of the Rudd Concession by allowing Maguire to go at the head of a Matabele impi to turn Haggard away . While Robinson 's letter to Knutsford made its way to England by sea , the Colonial Secretary learned of the Rudd Concession from Cawston and Gifford . Knutsford wired Robinson on 17 December to ask if there was any truth in what the London syndicate had told him about the agreed transfer of 1 @,@ 000 Martini – Henrys : " If rifles part of consideration , as reported , do you think there will be danger of complications arising from this ? " Robinson replied , again in writing ; he enclosed a minute from Shippard in which the Bechuanaland official explained how the concession had come about , and expressed the view that the Matabele were less experienced with rifles than with assegais , so their receipt of such weapons did not in itself make them lethally dangerous . He then argued that it would not be diplomatic to give Khama and other chiefs firearms while withholding them from Lobengula , and that a suitably armed Matabeleland might act as a deterrent against Boer interference .
Surprised by the news of a Matabele mission to London , Rhodes attempted to publicly downplay the credentials of the izinDuna and to stop them from leaving Africa . When the envoys reached Kimberley Rhodes told his close friend , associate and housemate Dr Leander Starr Jameson — who himself held the rank of inDuna , having been so honoured by Lobengula years before as thanks for medical treatment — to invite Maund to their cottage . Maund was suspicious , but came anyway . At the cottage , Rhodes offered Maund financial and professional incentives to defect from the London syndicate . Maund refused , prompting Rhodes to declare furiously that he would have Robinson stop his progress at Cape Town . The izinDuna reached Cape Town in mid @-@ January 1889 to find that it was as Rhodes had said ; to delay their departure , Robinson discredited them , Maund and Colenbrander in cables to the Colonial Office in London , saying that Shippard had described Maund as " mendacious " and " dangerous " , Colenbrander as " hopelessly unreliable " , and Babayane and Mshete as not actually izinDuna or even headmen . Cawston forlornly telegraphed Maund that it was pointless to try to go on while Robinson continued in this vein .
= = = Rhodes and the London syndicate join forces = = =
Rhodes then arrived in Cape Town to talk again with Maund . His mood was markedly different : after looking over Lobengula 's message to Queen Victoria , he said that he believed the Matabele expedition to England could actually buttress the concession and associated development plans if the London syndicate would agree to merge its interests with his own and form an amalgamated company alongside him . He told Maund to wire this pitch to his employers . Maund presumed that Rhodes 's shift in attitude had come about because of his own influence , coupled with the threat to Rhodes 's concession posed by the Matabele mission , but in fact the idea for uniting the two rival bids had come from Knutsford , who the previous month had suggested to Cawston and Gifford that they were likelier to gain a royal charter covering south @-@ central Africa if they joined forces with Rhodes . They had wired Rhodes , who had in turn come back to Maund . The unification , which extricated Rhodes and his London rivals from their long @-@ standing stalemate , was happily received by both sides ; Cawston and Gifford could now tap Rhodes 's considerable financial and political resources , and Rhodes 's Rudd Concession had greater value now the London consortium no longer challenged it .
There still remained the question of Leask 's concession , the existence of which Rudd 's negotiating team had learned in Bulawayo towards the end of October . Rhodes resolved that it must be acquired : " I quite see that worthless as [ Leask 's ] concession is , it logically destroys yours , " he told Rudd . This loose end was tied up in late January 1889 , when Rhodes met and settled with Leask and his associates , James Fairbairn and George Phillips , in Johannesburg . Leask was given £ 2 @,@ 000 in cash and a 10 % interest in the Rudd Concession , and allowed to retain a 10 % share in his own agreement with Lobengula . Fairbairn and Phillips were granted an annual allowance of £ 300 each . In Cape Town , with Rhodes 's opposition removed , Robinson altered his stance regarding the Matabele mission , cabling Whitehall that further investigation had shown Babayane and Mshete to be headmen after all , so they should be allowed to board ship for England .
= = = Lobengula 's enquiry = = =
Meanwhile , in Bulawayo , South African newspaper reports of the concession started to arrive in the middle of January 1889 . William Tainton , one of the local white residents , translated a press cutting for Lobengula , adding a few embellishments of his own : he told the king that he had sold his country , that the grantees could dig for minerals anywhere they liked , including in and around kraals , and that they could bring an army into Matabeleland to depose Lobengula in favour of a new chief . The king told Helm to read back and translate the copy of the concession that had remained in Bulawayo ; Helm did so , and pointed out that none of the allegations Tainton had made were actually reflected in the text . Lobengula then said he wished to dictate an announcement . After Helm refused , Tainton translated and transcribed the king 's words :
This notice was published in the Bechuanaland News and Malmani Chronicle on 2 February 1889 . A grand indaba of the izinDuna and the whites of Bulawayo was soon convened , but because Helm and Thompson were not present , the start of the investigation was delayed until 11 March . As in the negotiations with Rudd and Thompson in October , Lobengula did not himself attend , remaining close by but not interfering . The izinDuna questioned Helm and Thompson at great length , and various white men gave their opinions on the concession . A group of missionaries acted as mediators . Condemnation of the concession was led not by the izinDuna , but by the other whites , particularly Tainton .
Tainton and the other white opponents of the concession contended that the document conferred upon the grantees all of the watershed 's minerals , lands , wood and water , and was therefore tantamount to a purchase receipt for the whole country . Thompson , backed by the missionaries , insisted that the agreement only involved the extraction of metals and minerals , and that anything else the concessionaires might do was covered by the concession 's granting of " full power to do all things that they may deem necessary to win and procure " the mining yield . William Mzisi , a Fengu from the Cape , who had been to the diamond fields at Kimberley , pointed out that the mining would take thousands of men rather than the handful Lobengula had imagined , and argued that digging into the land amounted to taking possession of it : " You say you do not want any land , how can you dig for gold without it , is it not in the land ? " Thompson was then questioned as to where exactly it had been agreed that the concessionaires could mine ; he affirmed that the document licensed them to prospect and dig anywhere in the country .
Helm was painted as a suspicious figure by some of the izinDuna because all white visitors to Bulawayo met with him before seeing the king . This feeling was compounded by the fact that Helm had for some time acted as Lobengula 's postmaster , and so handled all mail coming into Bulawayo . He was accused of having hidden the concession 's true meaning from the king and of having knowingly sabotaged the prices being paid by traders for cattle , but neither of these charges could be proven either way . On the fourth day of the enquiry , Elliot and Rees , two missionaries based at Inyati , were asked if exclusive mining rights in other countries could be bought for similar sums , as Helm was claiming ; they replied in the negative . The izinDuna concluded that either Helm or the missionaries must be lying . Elliot and Rees attempted to convince Lobengula that honest men did not necessarily always hold the same opinions , but had little success .
Amid the enquiry , Thompson and Maguire received a number of threats and had to tolerate other more minor vexations . Maguire , unaccustomed to the African bush as he was , brought a number of accusations on himself through his personal habits . One day he happened to clean his false teeth in what the Matabele considered a sacred spring and accidentally dropped some eau de Cologne into it ; the angry locals interpreted this as him deliberately poisoning the spring . They also alleged that Maguire partook of witchcraft and spent his nights riding around the bush on a hyena .
Rhodes sent the first shipments of rifles up to Bechuanaland in January and February 1889 , sending 250 each month , and instructed Jameson , Dr Frederick Rutherfoord Harris and a Shoshong trader , George Musson , to convey them to Bulawayo . Lobengula had so far accepted the financial payments described in the Rudd Concession ( and continued to do so for years afterwards ) , but when the guns arrived in early April , he refused to take them . Jameson placed the weapons under a canvas cover in Maguire 's camp , stayed at the kraal for ten days , and then went back south with Maguire in tow , leaving the rifles behind . A few weeks later , Lobengula dictated a letter for Fairbairn to write to the Queen — he said he had never intended to sign away mineral rights and that he and his izinDuna revoked their recognition of the document .
= = = Babayane and Mshete in England = = =
Following their long delay , Babayane , Mshete , Maund and Colenbrander journeyed to England aboard the Moor . They disembarked at Southampton in early March 1889 , and travelled by train to London , where they checked into the Berners Hotel on Oxford Street . They were invited to Windsor Castle after two days in the capital . The audience was originally meant only for the two izinDuna and their interpreter — Maund could not attend such a meeting as he was a British subject — but Knutsford arranged an exception for Maund when Babayane and Mshete refused to go without him ; the Colonial Secretary said that it would be regrettable for all concerned if the embassy were derailed by such a technicality . The emissaries duly met the Queen and delivered the letter from Lobengula , as well as an oral message they had been told to pass on .
The izinDuna stayed in London throughout the month of March , attending a number of dinners in their honour , including one hosted by the Aborigines ' Protection Society . The Society sent a letter to Lobengula , advising him to be " wary and firm in resisting proposals that will not bring good to you and your people " . The diplomats saw many of the British capital 's sights , including London Zoo , the Alhambra Theatre and the Bank of England . Their hosts showed them the spear of the Zulu king Cetshwayo , which now hung on a wall at Windsor Castle , and took them to Aldershot to observe military manoeuvres conducted by Major @-@ General Evelyn Wood , the man who had given this spear to the Queen after routing the Zulus in 1879 . Knutsford held two more meetings with the izinDuna , and during the second of these gave them the Queen 's reply to Lobengula 's letter , which mostly comprised vague assurances of goodwill . Satisfied with this , the emissaries sailed for home .
= = = Rhodes wins the royal charter = = =
In late March 1889 , just as the izinDuna were about to leave London , Rhodes arrived to make the amalgamation with Cawston and Gifford official . To the amalgamators ' dismay , the Colonial Office had received protests against the Rudd Concession from a number of London businessmen and humanitarian societies , and had resolved that it could not sanction the concession because of its equivocal nature , as well as the fact that Lobengula had announced its suspension . Rhodes was originally angry with Maund , accusing him of responsibility for this , but eventually accepted that it was not Maund 's fault . Rhodes told Maund to go back to Bulawayo , to pose as an impartial adviser , and to try to sway the king back in favour of the concession ; as an added contingency , he told Maund to secure as many new subconcessions as he could .
In London , as the amalgamation was formalised , Rhodes and Cawston sought public members to sit on the board of their prospective chartered company . They recruited the Duke of Abercorn , an affluent Irish peer and landowner with estates in Donegal and Scotland , to chair the firm , and the Earl of Fife — soon to become the Duke of Fife , following his marriage to the daughter of the Prince of Wales — to act as his deputy . The third and final public member added to the board was the nephew and heir apparent of the erstwhile Cabinet minister Earl Grey , Albert Grey , who was a staunch imperialist , already associated with southern Africa . Attempting to ingratiate himself with Lord Salisbury , Rhodes then gave the position of standing counsel in the proposed company to the Prime Minister 's son , Lord Robert Cecil . Horace Farquhar , a prominent London financier and friend of the Prince of Wales , was added to the board at Fife 's suggestion later in the year .
Rhodes spent the next few months in London , seeking out supporters for his cause in the West End , the City and , occasionally , the rural estates of the landed gentry . These efforts yielded the public backing of the prominent imperialist Harry Johnston , Alexander Livingstone Bruce ( who sat on the board of the East Africa Company ) , and Lord Balfour of Burleigh , among others . Along with Grey 's active involvement and Lord Salisbury 's continuing favour , the weight of this opinion seemed to be reaping dividends for Rhodes by June 1889 . The amalgamation with the London syndicate was complete , and Whitehall appeared to have dropped its reservations regarding the Rudd Concession 's validity . Opposition to the charter in parliament and elsewhere had been for the most part silenced , and , with the help of Rhodes 's press contacts , prominently William Thomas Stead , editor of the Pall Mall Gazette , opinion in the media was starting to back the idea of a chartered company for south @-@ central Africa . But in June 1889 , just as the Colonial Office looked poised to grant the royal charter , Lobengula 's letter repudiating the Rudd Concession , written two months previously , arrived in London .
Maguire , in London , promptly wrote to the Colonial Office , casting doubt on the letter 's character on the grounds that it lacked the witnessing signature of an unbiased missionary . He concurrently wrote to Thompson , who was still in Bulawayo , to ask if there was any sign that the king had been misled during the repudiation letter 's drafting . Around the same time , Robinson 's strident attacks on parliamentary opponents of the Rudd Concession led to Lord Salisbury replacing him with Sir Henry Brougham Loch . Rhodes claimed not to be worried , telling Shippard in a letter that " the policy will not be altered " . Indeed , by the end of June 1889 , despite the removal of Robinson and the sensation caused by Lobengula 's letter rejecting the concession , Rhodes had got his way : Lord Salisbury 's concerns of Portuguese and German expansionism in Africa , coupled with Rhodes 's personal exertions in London , prompted the Prime Minister to approve the granting of a royal charter . Rhodes returned victorious to the Cape in August 1889 , while back in London Cawston oversaw the final preparations for the chartered company 's establishment .
" My part is done , " Rhodes wrote to Maund , soon after reaching Cape Town ; " the charter is granted supporting Rudd Concession and granting us the interior ... We have the whole thing recognised by the Queen and even if eventually we had any difficulty with king [ Lobengula ] the Home people would now always recognise us in possession of the minerals [ ; ] they quite understand that savage potentates frequently repudiate . " A few weeks later , he wrote to Maund again : with the royal charter in place , " whatever [ Lobengula ] does now will not affect the fact that when there is a white occupation of the country our concession will come into force provided the English and not Boers get the country " . On 29 October 1889 , nearly a year to the day after the signing of the Rudd Concession , Rhodes 's chartered company , the British South Africa Company , was officially granted its royal charter by Queen Victoria . The concession 's legitimacy was now safeguarded by the charter and , by extension , the British Crown , making it practically unassailable .
= = Aftermath = =
= = = Occupation of Mashonaland = = =
Babayane and Mshete had arrived back in Bulawayo in August , accompanied by Maund , and Lobengula had immediately written again to Whitehall , reaffirming that " If the Queen hears that I have given away the whole country , it is not so . " But this letter only reached the Colonial Office in London in late October , too late to make a difference . Meanwhile , the British appointed an official resident in Bulawayo , as Lobengula had requested ; much to the king 's indignation , it was Moffat . Maund counselled Lobengula that the concession was legal beyond doubt and that he would just have to accept it . Lobengula rued the situation to Helm : " Did you ever see a chameleon catch a fly ? The chameleon gets behind the fly and remains motionless for some time , then he advances very slowly and gently , first putting forward one leg and then another . At last , when well within reach , he darts out his tongue and the fly disappears . England is the chameleon and I am that fly . "
The charter incorporating the British South Africa Company committed it to remaining " British in character and domicile " , and defined its area of operations extremely vaguely , mentioning only that it was empowered to operate north of Bechuanaland and the Transvaal , and west of Mozambique . Northern and western bounds were not indicated . This was done deliberately to allow Rhodes to acquire as much land as he could without interference . The Company was made responsible for the safeguarding of peace and law in its territory , and licensed to do so " in such ways and manners as it shall consider necessary " . It was vested with the power to raise its own police force , and charged with , among other things , abolishing slavery in all of its territories and restricting the sale of liquor to indigenous Africans . Local traditions were to be respected . The Company 's charter was otherwise made extremely equivocal with the intention that this would allow it to operate freely and independently , and to govern and develop its acquired territories while also turning a profit .
Rhodes capitalised the Company at £ 1 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 , split into £ 1 shares , and used his other business interests to pump capital into it . Rhodes 's diamond concern , De Beers , invested more than £ 200 @,@ 000 , while his gold firm , Gold Fields , put in nearly £ 100 @,@ 000 . He himself put in £ 45 @,@ 000 , along with another £ 11 @,@ 000 jointly with Beit . Overall , about half of the Chartered Company 's capital was held by its main actors , particularly Rhodes , Beit , Rudd and their confederates . During the Company 's early days , Rhodes and his associates set themselves up to make millions over the coming years through what Robert Blake describes as a " suppressio veri ... which must be regarded as one of Rhodes 's least creditable actions " . Contrary to what Whitehall and the public had been allowed to think , the Rudd Concession was not vested in the British South Africa Company , but in a short @-@ lived ancillary concern of Rhodes , Rudd and others called the Central Search Association , which was quietly formed in London in 1889 . This entity renamed itself the United Concessions Company in 1890 , and soon after sold the Rudd Concession to the Chartered Company for 1 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 shares . When Colonial Office functionaries discovered this chicanery in 1891 , they advised Knutsford to consider revoking the concession , but no action was taken .
Rhodes became Prime Minister of the Cape Colony in July 1890 on the back of widespread support among Cape Afrikaners . He announced that his first objective as premier was the occupation of the Zambezi – Limpopo watershed . His Chartered Company had by this time raised the Pioneer Column , a few hundred volunteers referred to as " pioneers " whose lot was to both occupy Mashonaland and begin its development . To this end its ranks were filled with men from all corners of southern African society , including , at Rhodes 's insistence , several sons of the Cape 's leading families . Each pioneer was promised 3 @,@ 000 acres ( 12 km2 ) of land and 15 mining claims in return for his service .
Lobengula impassively acquiesced to the expedition at the behest of his friend Jameson , much to the fury of many of the izinDuna , who saw the column 's march to Mashonaland as an appropriation of Matabele territory . Led by Major Frank Johnson and the famed hunter Frederick Courteney Selous , and escorted by 500 British South Africa Company 's Police under Lieutenant @-@ Colonel Edward Pennefather , the pioneers skirted their way around Lobengula 's heartlands , heading north @-@ east from Bechuanaland and then north , and founded Fort Tuli , Fort Victoria and Fort Charter along the way . They stopped at the site of the future capital , Fort Salisbury ( named after the Prime Minister ) , on 12 September 1890 , and ceremonially raised the Union Jack the next morning .
The administration of Mashonaland did not immediately prove profitable for the Company or its investors , partly because of the costly police force , which Rhodes dramatically downsized in 1891 to save money . There also existed the problem of land ownership ; Britain recognised the Company 's subsoil rights in Mashonaland , but not its possession of the land itself , and the Company therefore could not grant titles to land or accept rents and other payments from farmers .
= = = Lippert concession = = =
Edward Renny @-@ Tailyour , representing the Hamburg businessman Eduard Lippert — an estranged cousin of Beit — had been attempting to gain a concession from Lobengula since early 1888 . Rhodes saw Lippert 's activities as unwelcome meddling and so repeatedly tried ( and failed ) to settle with him . In April 1891 , Renny @-@ Tailyour grandly announced that he and Lobengula had made an agreement : in return for £ 1 @,@ 000 up front and £ 500 annually , the king would bestow on Lippert the exclusive rights to manage lands , establish banks , mint money , and conduct trade in the territory of the Chartered Company . The authenticity of this document was disputed , largely because the only witnesses to have signed it , apart from inDuna Mshete , were Renny @-@ Tailyour 's associates , one of whom soon attested that Lobengula had believed himself to be granting a concession to Theophilus Shepstone 's son , " Offy " Shepstone , with Lippert merely acting as an agent . The Lippert concession therefore had a number of potential defects , but Lippert was still confident he could extract a princely fee for it from the Chartered Company ; he named his price as £ 250 @,@ 000 in cash or shares at par .
Rhodes , backed by Loch , initially condemned the Lippert concession as a fraud and branded Lippert 's locally based agents enemies of the peace . Loch assured Rhodes that if Lippert tried to gazette his agreement , he would issue a proclamation warning of its infringement on the Rudd Concession and the Company 's charter , and threaten Lippert 's associates with legal action . The Colonial Office agreed with Loch . Rhodes initially said that he would not pay Lippert 's price , which he described as blackmail , but after conferring with Beit decided that refusing to buy out Lippert might lead to drawn @-@ out and similarly expensive court proceedings , which they could not be sure of winning . Rhodes told Beit to start bargaining . Lippert 's agreement turned out to be an unexpected blessing for Rhodes in that it included a concession on land rights from Lobengula , which the Chartered Company itself lacked , and needed if it were to be recognised by Whitehall as legally owning the occupied territory in Mashonaland . After two months and a number of breakdowns in talks , Rudd took over the negotiations . He and Lippert agreed on 12 September 1891 that the Company would take over the concession from Lippert on the condition that he returned to Bulawayo and had it more properly formalised by Lobengula ; in return the Company would grant the German 75 square miles ( 190 km2 ) of his choice in Matabeleland ( with full land and mineral rights ) , 30 @,@ 000 shares in the Chartered Company and other financial incentives .
The success of this plan hinged on Lobengula continuing to believe that Lippert was acting against Rhodes rather than on his behalf . The religious Moffat was deeply troubled by what he called the " palpable immorality " of this deceit , but agreed not to interfere , deciding that Lobengula was just as untrustworthy as Lippert . With Moffat looking on as a witness , Lippert delivered his side of the deal in November 1891 , extracting from the Matabele king the exclusive land rights for a century in the Chartered Company 's operative territories , including permission to lay out farms and towns and to levy rents , in place of what had been agreed in April . As arranged , Lippert sold these rights to the Company , whereupon Loch approved the concession , expressing contentment at the solving of the Company 's land rights problem ; in an internal Whitehall memorandum , the Colonial Office affably remarked how expediently that administrative obstacle had been removed . The Matabele remained unaware of this subterfuge until May 1892 .
= = = Conquest of Matabeleland : the end of Lobengula = = =
Lobengula 's weakened Matabele kingdom uneasily coexisted with Rhodes 's Company settlements in Mashonaland and north of the Zambezi for about another year . The king was angered by the lack of respect he perceived Company officials to have towards his authority , their insistence that his kingdom was separated from Company territory by a line between the Shashe and Hunyani Rivers , and their demands that he stop the traditional raids on Mashona villages by Matabele impis . After Matabele warriors began slaughtering Mashonas near Fort Victoria in July 1893 , Jameson , whom Rhodes had appointed Company administrator in Mashonaland , unsuccessfully tried to stop the violence through an indaba . Lobengula complained that the Chartered Company had " come not only to dig the gold but to rob me of my people and country as well " . Monitoring events from Cape Town , Rhodes gauged Jameson 's readiness for war by telegraph : " Read Luke 14 : 31 " . Jameson wired back : " All right . Have read Luke 14 : 31 " .
On 13 August 1893 , Lobengula refused to accept the stipend due him under the terms of the Rudd Concession , saying " it is the price of my blood " . The next day , Jameson signed a secret agreement with local settlers at Fort Victoria , promising each man 6 @,@ 000 acres ( 24 km2 ) of farm land , 20 gold claims and a share of Lobengula 's cattle in return for service in a war against Matabeleland . Lobengula wrote again to Queen Victoria , and tried to send Mshete to England again at the head of another embassy , but Loch detained the izinDuna at Cape Town for a few days , then sent them home . Following a few minor skirmishes , the First Matabele War started in earnest in October : Company troops moved on Lobengula , using the inexorable firepower of their Maxim machine guns to crush attacks by the far larger Matabele army . On 3 November , with the whites nearing Bulawayo , Lobengula torched the town and fled ; the settlers began rebuilding atop the ruins the next day . Jameson sent troops north from Bulawayo to bring the king back , but this column ceased its pursuit in early December after the remnants of Lobengula 's army ambushed and annihilated 34 troopers who were sent across the Shangani River ahead of the main force . Lobengula had escaped the Company , but he lived only another two months before dying from smallpox in the north of the country on 22 or 23 January 1894 .
Matabeleland was conquered . The Matabele izinDuna unanimously accepted peace with the Company at an indaba in late February 1894 . Rhodes subsequently funded education for three of Lobengula 's sons . The name applied to the Company 's domain by many of its early settlers , " Rhodesia " , was made official by the Company in May 1895 , and by Britain in 1898 . The lands south of the Zambezi were designated " Southern Rhodesia " , while those to the north were divided into North @-@ Western and North @-@ Eastern Rhodesia , which merged to form Northern Rhodesia in 1911 . During three decades under Company rule , railways , telegraph wires and roads were laid across the territories ' previously bare landscape with great vigour , and , with the immigration of tens of thousands of white colonists , prominent mining and tobacco farming industries were created , albeit partly at the expense of the black population 's traditional ways of life , which were varyingly disrupted by the introduction of Western @-@ style infrastructure , government , religion and economics . Southern Rhodesia , which attracted most of the settlers and investment , was turning a profit by 1912 ; Northern Rhodesia , by contrast , annually lost the Company millions right up to the 1920s . Following the results of the government referendum of 1922 , Southern Rhodesia received responsible government from Britain at the termination of the Company 's charter in 1923 , and became a self @-@ governing colony . Northern Rhodesia became a directly administered British protectorate the following year .
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= 1920 Buffalo All @-@ Americans season =
The 1920 Buffalo All @-@ Americans season was the franchise 's inaugural season with the American Professional Football Association ( APFA ) , an American football league , and fifth total as a team . The All @-@ Americans entered 1920 coming off a 9 – 1 – 1 record in 1919 as the Buffalo Prospects in the New York Pro Football League ( NYPFL ) . Several representatives from another professional football league , the Ohio League , wanted to form a new national league , and thus the APFA was created .
Buffalo reshaped itself for the 1920 season . Only two players from the 1919 season stayed , and the team went into new management . Tommy Hughitt ( one of the returning players ) became the new coach , and Frank McNeil became the new owner . The All @-@ Americans opened the season with a 32 – 6 victory over the local semi @-@ pro team West Buffalo , en route to a 9 @-@ win , 1 – loss , 1 @-@ tie ( 9 – 1 – 1 ) record . Its only loss of the season was a 3 – 0 game against the Canton Bulldogs . A meeting was held by the officials of the APFA to determine a winner , with each coach having a vote . The All @-@ Americans stated their cases ; they believed they should deserve the championship trophy because they had the most wins and were undefeated against the Akron Pros and the Decatur Staleys . The officials , however , awarded the Brunswick @-@ Balke Collender Cup to the Akron Pros because they had a 1 @.@ 000 winning percentage . Had standings been counted as they are as of today , the All @-@ Americans would be co @-@ champions .
The sportswriter Bruce Copeland compiled the 1920 All @-@ Pro list , but no players from the All @-@ Americans were on it . That is because Copeland wrote for the Rock Island Argus and did not see any players from the easternmost teams in the league . As of 2012 , no player from the 1920 All @-@ Americans has been enshrined in the Pro Football Hall of Fame .
= = Offseason = =
In the 1919 season , the franchise was named the Buffalo Prospects , and finished with a 9 – 1 – 1 in the NYPFL . As a result , they won the New York Championship . After the 1919 season , the Prospects went under new management , and the name was changed to the All @-@ Americans . Tommy Hughitt became the coach , and several players from the 1919 squad left . Of the 33 players on the 1919 team , only Barney Lepper and Tommy Hughitt remained on the team for the 1920 season .
After the 1919 season , representatives of four Ohio League teams — the Canton Bulldogs , the Cleveland Tigers , the Dayton Triangles , and the Akron Pros — called a meeting on August 20 , 1920 to discuss the formation of a new league . At the meeting , they tentatively agreed on a salary cap and pledged not to sign college players or players already under contract with other teams . They also agreed on a name for the circuit : the American Professional Football Conference . They then invited other professional teams to a second meeting on September 17 .
At that meeting , held at Bulldogs owner Ralph Hay 's Hupmobile showroom in Canton , representatives of the Rock Island Independents , the Muncie Flyers , the Decatur Staleys , the Racine Cardinals , the Massillon Tigers , the Chicago Cardinals , and the Hammond Pros agreed to join the league . Representatives of the All @-@ Americans and Rochester Jeffersons could not attend the meeting , but sent letters to Hay asking to be included in the league . Team representatives changed the league 's name slightly to the American Professional Football Association and elected officers , installing Jim Thorpe as president . Under the new league structure , teams created their schedules dynamically as the season progressed , so there were no minimum or maximum number of games needed to be played . Also , representatives of each team voted to determine the winner of the APFA trophy .
= = Schedule = =
The table below was compiled using the information from The Pro Football Archives , which used various contemporary newspapers . A dagger ( ) indicated a non @-@ APFA team . For the results column , the winning team 's score is posted first . For the attendance , if a block has " N / A " , then that means there is an unknown figure for that game . The green @-@ colored cells indicates a win ; the yellow @-@ colored cells indicates a tie ; and the red @-@ colored cells indicate a loss .
= = Game summaries = =
= = = Week 2 : vs. West Buffalo = = =
October 3 , 1920 at Canisius Field
To open the season , the All @-@ Americans defeated the local , semi @-@ pro team West Buffalo . Running back John Weldon scored a rushing touchdown early in the first quarter . Quarterback Tommy Hughitt and Weldon added touchdowns in the second quarter to make the score 19 – 0 going into halftime . Hughitt scored from a yard out in the third quarter to make the score 25 – 0 . West Buffalo got on the scoreboard when Bob Langdon intercepted a Buffalo pass and ran it back 75 yards for a touchdown . This was West Buffalo 's only points scored their entire year . Buffalo finished off the scoring in the fourth quarter and won the game 32 – 6 .
= = = Week 3 : vs. All @-@ Buffalo = = =
October 10 , 1920 at Canisius Field
For their second game of the season , the All @-@ Americans played against another local team , the Buffalo All @-@ Buffalo . Once again , the All @-@ Americans shut out their opponents , winning 51 – 0 . In the first quarter , Weldon scored a rushing touchdown . In the second quarter , the All @-@ Americans scored three times : Running back Ockie Anderson returned a punt for a touchdown , Hughitt ran for a rushing touchdown , and Weldon caught a receiving touchdown from Hughitt . To start the second half , Anderson scored another rushing touchdown , and that was the only score of the third quarter . In the final quarter , Anderson kicked a 35 @-@ yard field goal . Also , defensive end Murray Shelton recovered a fumble and returned it for a touchdown . Hughitt 's rushing touchdown was the final score of the game .
= = = Week 4 : vs. McKeesport Olympics = = =
October 17 , 1920 at Canisius Field
The McKeesport Olympics , a team from McKeesport , Pennsylvania , was the All @-@ Americans next opponent . This game had to be played outside of Pennsylvania because of that state 's blue laws which disallowed football on Sundays . In fact , this was one of only two away games for the Olympics . Hughitt scored a rushing touchdown in the first quarter to start the game . In the second quarter , Hughitt threw a touchdown pass to offensive lineman Heinie Miller to bring the All @-@ Americans ' lead to 14 – 0 going into halftime . The Olympics scored their only points of the game in the third quarter . A player with the last name of Schreiner caught a receiving touchdown . The All @-@ Americans answered when offensive lineman Lou Little blocked a field goal and ran it back for a touchdown . The final score of the game came when Shelton caught a receiving touchdown in the fourth quarter from Hughitt .
= = = Week 5 : vs. Toledo Maroons = = =
October 24 , 1920 at Canisius Field
For the All @-@ Americans ' next game , they played against the Toledo Maroons . Based in Toledo , Ohio , the Maroons were an independent team but became part of the APFA in 1922 . Coming into the game , the Maroons had not scored a point for the entire season , and that streak continued this game . Six thousand people were in attendance for the 38 – 0 All @-@ Americans victory . In the first quarter , Anderson returned a 40 @-@ yard and a 50 @-@ yard punt for two touchdowns . Hughitt scored a rushing touchdown in the second quarter , and Weldon kicked a 35 @-@ yard field goal to make the score 24 – 0 at halftime . Anderson scored the final two touchdowns of the game . He scored two rushing touchdowns : one in the third quarter and one in the fourth quarter .
= = = Week 6 : vs. Rochester Jeffersons = = =
October 31 , 1920 at Canisius Field
In week six , the All @-@ Americans played their first game against an APFA team , challenging the Rochester Jeffersons . The All @-@ Americans received the kickoff , and on its opening drive kicked a 30 @-@ yard field goal . The Jeffersons ' first drive resulted a turnover on downs . Weldon scored a 3 @-@ yard rushing touchdown on the resulting All @-@ Americans ' drive . Rochester running back Jim Laird scored all of his team 's points . In the second and the fourth quarter , he kicked a 30 @-@ yard and a 33 @-@ yard field goal , respectively . The All @-@ Americans ' final score of the game came from a blocked punt . Red Quigley was punting from his own end zone when Swede Youngstrom blocked the punt , and defensive guard Bill Brace ran it back .
= = = Week 7 : vs. All @-@ Tonawanda Lumberjacks = = =
November 7 , 1920 at Canisius Field
The All @-@ Americans next game was against the All @-@ Tonawanda Lumberjacks , who would join the APFA the following year . Anderson scored a rushing touchdown to put the All @-@ Americans up 7 – 0 at the end of the first quarter . The All @-@ Americans followed up with three touchdowns in the next quarter . Anderson rushed for two , and running back Barney Lepper rushed for another one . Hughitt scored the All @-@ Americans ' last touchdown of the game in the third quarter when he rushed for a touchdown . The final score of the game was 35 – 0 . This game was the Lumberjacks only loss of the season , and the only game in which they failed to score a point .
= = = Week 8 : vs. Columbus Panhandles = = =
November 14 , 1920 at Canisius Field
With 9 @,@ 000 fans in attendance , the All @-@ Americans played an APFA opponent , the Columbus Panhandles . At the end of the first quarter , the Panhandles were winning 7 – 6 . After that , the game " proved disastrous " , according to football historian Chris Willis , to the Panhandles . The final score was 43 – 7 . The Panhandles ' only score was a receiving touchdown from Homer Ruh . The All @-@ Americans had six rushing touchdowns , four of which came from Smith . The other two came from Anderson and Hughitt . From these six rushing touchdowns , five of the extra points were converted , and the All @-@ Americans ' defense got a safety .
= = = Week 9 : vs. Canton Bulldogs = = =
November 21 , 1920 at Buffalo Baseball Park
In week nine , the All @-@ Americans played the Bulldogs . Jim Thorpe , who was later inducted into the Pro Football Hall of Fame , started the game for the Bulldogs , but he came out at halftime because he believed it would end in a tie . Both teams were slowed by a muddy field , and the football became soggy after three quarters . Neither the All @-@ Americans nor the Bulldogs could gain a lot of yards during the game . The lone score of the game came with under four minutes to play : a field goal from the Bulldogs ' Al Feeney . He never missed a field goal the entire 1920 season , and the final score of the game was 3 – 0 .
= = = Week 10 : vs. Cleveland Tigers = = =
November 28 , 1920 at Buffalo Baseball Park
Following their first loss of the season , the All @-@ Americans challenged the Cleveland Tigers . The owner of the Tigers , Jimmy O 'Donnell , helped with the foundation of the APFA . A total of 5 @,@ 000 fans showed up to the game . The only score of the game came in the third quarter . Anderson scored an 8 @-@ yard rushing touchdown . This loss for the Tigers would be their final game of the season .
= = = Week 11 : vs. Canton Bulldogs = = =
December 4 , 1920 at Polo Grounds
The following week , the All @-@ Americans played their second game against the Bulldogs , winning 7 – 3 . The Bulldogs did not get a first down or complete a pass during the game , but Thorpe kicked a field goal in the third quarter after a fumble recovery for the team 's only score . In the fourth quarter , All @-@ Americans tackle Youngstrom blocked a Thorpe punt and returned it for a touchdown . The Sunday Chronicle named Thorpe , Henry and Lowe as the Bulldogs ' stars , while Anderson , Youngstrom , and Miller were the standouts for the All @-@ Americans .
= = = Week 11 : vs. Akron Pros = = =
December 5 , 1920 at Buffalo Baseball Park
The All @-@ Americans had the Akron Pros as their next opponent . The All @-@ Americans were tired from their victory against the Canton Bulldogs the day before . Before the start of the game , Bob Nash of Akron was sold to the All @-@ Americans for $ 300 and 5 % of the Akron @-@ Buffalo gate , making the first deal in APFA history . The reason for the trade was because rain caused a low amount of fans , and the game would not have been profitable for the Pros . However , Nash did not appear in the game for either team , and Scotty Bierce replaced Nash for the Pros . The rain caused sloppy game play as well as a small crowd of 3 @,@ 000 people . The All @-@ Americans had an opportunity to score in the final minutes of the game . Fritz Pollard fumbled the ball , and Heinie Miller recovered it . Buffalo had the ball on the 12 @-@ yard @-@ line , but the officials called the end of the game . It resulted in a 0 – 0 tie .
= = Post @-@ season = =
Since there were no playoff system in the APFA until 1932 , a meeting was held to determine the 1920 APFA Champions . Each team that showed up had a vote to determine the champions . The All @-@ Americans stated that they should win the award because they had more wins and were not beaten by the Akron Pros . Since the Akron Pros had a 1 @.@ 000 winning percentage , however , the Pros were awarded the Brunswick @-@ Balke Collender Cup on April 30 , 1921 . Ties were not counted in standings until 1972 , which is why Akron is credited with a 1 @.@ 000 winning percentage . The sportswriter Bruce Copeland compiled the All @-@ Pro list for the 1920 season . No player from the All @-@ Americans were on the list .
= = Roster = =
= = Standings = =
Awarded the Brunswick @-@ Balke Collender Cup and named APFA Champions.Note : Tie games were not officially counted in the standings until 1972 .
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= The Man with the Golden Gun ( novel ) =
The Man with the Golden Gun is the twelfth novel ( and thirteenth book ) of Ian Fleming 's James Bond series . It was first published by Jonathan Cape in the UK on 1 April 1965 , eight months after the author 's death . The novel was not as detailed or polished as the others in the series , leading to poor but polite reviews . Despite that , the book was a best @-@ seller .
The story centres on the fictional British Secret Service operative James Bond , who had been posted missing , presumed dead , after his last mission in Japan . Bond returns to England via the Soviet Union , where he had been brainwashed to attempt to assassinate his superior , M. After being " cured " by the MI6 doctors , Bond is sent to the Caribbean to find and kill Francisco Scaramanga , the titular " Man with the Golden Gun " .
The first draft and part of the editing process was completed before Fleming 's death and the manuscript had passed through the hands of his copy editor , William Plomer , but it was not as polished as other Bond stories . Much of the detail contained in the previous novels was missing , as this was often added by Fleming in the second draft . Publishers Jonathan Cape passed the manuscript to Kingsley Amis for his thoughts and advice on the story , although his suggestions were not subsequently used .
The novel was serialised in 1965 , firstly in the Daily Express and then in Playboy ; in 1966 a daily comic strip adaptation was also published in the Daily Express . In 1974 the book was loosely adapted as the ninth film in the Eon Productions James Bond series , with Roger Moore playing Bond and Fleming 's cousin , Christopher Lee , as Scaramanga .
= = Plot = =
A year after James Bond 's final confrontation with Ernst Stavro Blofeld , while on a mission in Japan , a man claiming to be Bond appears in London and demands to meet the head of the Secret Service , M. Bond 's identity is confirmed , but during his debriefing interview with M , Bond tries to kill him with a cyanide pistol ; the attempt fails . The Service learns that after destroying Blofeld 's castle in Japan , Bond suffered a head injury and developed amnesia . Having lived as a Japanese fisherman for several months , Bond travelled into the Soviet Union to learn his true identity . While there , he was brainwashed and assigned to kill M upon returning to England .
Now de @-@ programmed , Bond is given a chance to re @-@ prove his worth as a member of the 00 section following the assassination attempt . M sends Bond to Jamaica and gives him the seemingly impossible mission of killing Francisco " Pistols " Scaramanga , a Cuban assassin who is believed to have killed several British secret agents . Scaramanga is known as " The Man with the Golden Gun " because his weapon of choice is a gold @-@ plated Colt .45 revolver , which fires silver @-@ jacketed solid @-@ gold bullets .
Bond locates Scaramanga in a Jamaican bordello and manages to become his temporary personal assistant under the name " Mark Hazard " . He learns that Scaramanga is involved in a hotel development on the island with a group of investors that consists of a syndicate of American gangsters and the KGB . Scaramanga and the other investors are also engaged in a scheme to destabilise Western interests in the Caribbean 's sugar industry and increase the value of the Cuban sugar crop , running drugs into America , smuggling prostitutes from Mexico into America and operating casinos in Jamaica that will cause friction between tourists and the local people .
Bond discovers that he has an ally who is also working undercover at the half @-@ built resort , Felix Leiter , who has been recalled to duty by the CIA and is working ostensibly as an electrical engineer while setting up bugs in Scaramanga 's meeting room . However , they learn that Scaramanga plans to eliminate Bond when the weekend is over . Bond 's true identity is confirmed by a KGB agent and Scaramanga makes new plans to entertain the gangsters and the KGB agent by killing Bond while they are riding a sight @-@ seeing train to a marina . However , Bond manages to turn the tables on Scaramanga and , with the help of Leiter , kill most of the conspirators . Wounded , Scaramanga escapes into the swamps , where Bond pursues him . Scaramanga lulls Bond off @-@ guard and shoots him with a golden derringer hidden in his palm . Bond is hit but returns fire and shoots Scaramanga several times , killing him at last .
As Bond recuperates in hospital , he receives word from M that he is being considered for a knighthood . Bond turns down the offer , reflecting that any sort of public recognition would interfere with his duties in the Secret Service .
= = Characters and themes = =
The central character of the novel is James Bond . In The Man with the Golden Gun , he appears with a different personality from the previous stories and is robot @-@ like , according to author of the " continuation " Bond novels , Raymond Benson . Benson also noted that Bond 's character had not been developed any further than in the previous books . Academic Jeremy Black noted that when given two opportunities to kill Scaramanga in cold blood , he cannot bring himself to do it . The first time this happens , is when Bond sits in a car behind Scaramanga ; the method of killing would be to shoot him in the back of the head and this is compared to the technique used by both the KGB and Nazis . According to Black , Bond has to rise above the actions and act more suitably for a British fictional hero . Once the mission is completed , Bond is offered the KCMG , but he refuses the honour and reflects on his own name , " a quiet , dull , anonymous name " , which had been Fleming 's aim when he first named the character . Benson also points out that the touches of humour displayed by Bond in the previous novels disappeared and he appeared in the book as cold and emotionless .
For the first time in the Bond canon , M 's full name of " Admiral Sir Miles Messervy KCMG " was finally revealed . Despite being the target of the failed assassination attempt , not only does M not press charges against Bond , he sends him out on further missions .
According to Benson , main adversary of the novel , Francisco Scaramanga , is more a henchman than a major adversary and " a second @-@ rate , smalltime crook who happens to have gotten lucky with his shooting . " Comentale , Watt and Willman note that Scaramanga had the same character profile as Herr von Hammerstein , the former Gestapo officer who is the chief of counterintelligence for the Cuban secret service in " For Your Eyes Only " .
There are two main themes of note that appear in the novel . The first is that with Scaramanga providing the Rastafarians with drugs in return for fires in the sugar plantations , there is the return of the theme used in " Risico " , of drugs being used for political purposes to undermine the West . This was part of a wider conspiracy by Scaramanga and his KGB connection , Hendricks , to destabilise the region by a campaign of industrial sabotage against companies based in Jamaica , including Reynolds Metal , Kaiser Bauxite and Aluminia .
Jeremy Black notes that the independent inquiry at the end of the novel , conducted in Bond 's hospital bedroom , was undertaken by the Jamaican judiciary and the CIA and MI6 were recorded as acting " under the closest liaison and direction of the Jamaican CID " ; Bond and Leiter are also awarded the Jamaican Police Medal for " Services to the Independent State of Jamaica . " Black notes that this was the new world of a non @-@ colonial , independent Jamaica , underlining the collapse of the British Empire .
= = Background = =
Ian Fleming wrote The Man with the Golden Gun at his Goldeneye estate in Jamaica in January and February 1964 , completing it by the beginning of March . His health affected him badly during the writing process and he dropped from his usual rate of two thousand words a morning to a little over an hour 's worth of work a day .
As with his previous novels , Fleming used events from his past as elements in his novel . Whilst at Kitzbühel in the 1930s , Fleming 's car , a Standard Tourer , had been struck by a train at a level crossing and he had been dragged fifty yards down the track . From that time on he had associated trains with death , which led to their use as a plot device not just in The Man with the Golden Gun , but also in Diamonds Are Forever and From Russia , with Love .
As well as using events from his past , Fleming also used names of individuals he knew for some of his characters . The editor of The London Magazine , Alan Ross , had provided Fleming with details about the effects of the electroshock therapy that Bond went through and , by way of thanks , the novel 's SIS station chief in Jamaica , Commander Ross , was named after him . Similarly , Fleming used the name of the secretary of the Royal St George 's Golf Club , Mark Nicholson , for the CIA representative at the hotel . Tony Hugill , the sugar planter mentioned in the novel , was named after a member of Fleming 's 30 AU unit who managed the Tate & Lyle plantations in West Indies after the war and the book 's main villain , Francisco Scaramanga , was named after George Scaramanga , an Etonian contemporary of Fleming 's : the pair are said to have fought at school .
The effects of the two Eon Productions Bond films released prior to the writing of the novel ( Dr. No and From Russia with Love ) were reflected in the novel through the increased number of gadgets used . One of these was the poison gun used in the scene of the attempted assassination of M. The idea was taken from the story of Bohdan Stashynsky , who defected from the Eastern Bloc to the West in 1961 . Stashynsky was put on trial for the murder of Ukrainian nationalist leaders Lev Rebet and Stepan Bandera and stated that he had used a poison @-@ spray gun to do it .
Fleming returned to Britain with a completed first draft of the manuscript in March 1964 and wrote to the copy editor of all his novels , William Plomer , saying it needed a lot of re @-@ writing . As time went on Fleming became increasingly unhappy with the book and thought about re @-@ working it in the spring of 1965 , but was persuaded against it by Plomer , who considered the novel viable for publication . Five months after returning from Jamaica , on the morning of 12 August 1964 , Fleming died of a heart attack . His obituary in The Times noted that he " had completed and was revising a new novel , The Man with the Golden Gun . "
Despite William Plomer 's original thought about the state of the manuscript , editors Jonathan Cape were concerned enough about the story to pass the manuscript to Kingsley Amis to read on holiday , paying him £ 35 / 15 shillings for his thoughts and advice , although Amis ' subsequent suggestions were not used by Cape . Cape had taken the step because they thought the novel was thin and " feeble " . Raymond Benson has noted that the thinness comes from a lack of the rich detail and descriptions which are normally present in Fleming 's work , but which are missing from The Man with the Golden Gun ; Benson suggests that these details were normally worked into the second draft by Fleming , but their absence shows that no such additional work was done on this occasion . The Man with the Golden Gun was published posthumously , eight months after its author 's death .
= = Release and reception = =
The Man with the Golden Gun was published in the UK on 1 April 1965 by Jonathan Cape , was 221 pages long and cost eighteen shillings . Cover artist Richard Chopping undertook the cover design again and was paid 300 guineas for the artwork . The Man with the Golden Gun was published in the US in August 1965 , was 183 pages long and cost $ 4 @.@ 50 . Even before the US edition was published , The Man with the Golden Gun was ninth place on the best @-@ seller lists , with 80 @,@ 000 pre @-@ orders for the hardback version .
= = = Reviews = = =
Critics did not praise The Man with the Golden Gun , although much of the criticism was muted . Fleming biographer Henry Chandler noted that the novel " received polite and rather sad reviews , recognizing that the book had effectively been left half @-@ finished , and as such did not represent Fleming at the top of his game . " Kingsley Amis wrote in the New Statesman that the book was " a sadly empty tale , empty of the interests and effects that for better or worse , Ian Fleming made his own . " Meanwhile , the critic for The Times wrote that the novel would " doubtless be followed with close attention by the keen @-@ eyed admirers of the many @-@ wiled Bond . "
Maurice Richardson , writing in The Observer , lamented that " perhaps Ian Fleming was very tired when he wrote it . Perhaps ... he left it unrevised . The fact remains that this posthumous Bond is a sadly sub @-@ standard job . " His praise for the novel was muted , admitting " it isn 't of course by any means totally unreadable but it 's depressingly far from the best Bond . " Writing in The Observer 's sister paper , The Guardian , Christopher Wordsworth noted that " since Goldfinger 007 has been toiling hopelessly in the wake of the Zeitgeist . " Prior to this novel , Wordsworth writes , " the distance between Live and let Die , Ian Fleming 's second and best , and You Only Live Twice , his last and worst , is a long iron down the Sandwich fairway . " The Man with the Golden Gun , however , sinks to the level of a " farrago " .
William Trevor , writing in The Listener , was dismissive of the work , thinking that " Bond continues to behave with so little originality that neither Templar nor Drummond , Marlowe nor Nick Charles , would have paused to waste a pellet on him " ; he continued , saying that " this present work is once again a fantasy for grown @-@ up children , neither as clever nor exciting as the early thrillers of Edgar Wallace or the boys adventure stories of fifty years ago . " Trevor did admit that " for those who like to escape to Bondsville , the old boom @-@ town hasn 't changed a scrap . "
The critic for Time was damning , saying that " It may have been just as well that Fleming died when everybody still thought he could do no wrong " . Meanwhile , the critic for Newsweek said that " James Bond should have had a better exit . Sadly [ it ] ... ends not with a bang but a whimper . The world will be a vastly more lacklustre and complicated place with 007 gone . "
Associated Press wrote that " Bond and Fleming were fun . They entertained , sometimes mildly , often grandly – but always consistently . Life will be less interesting without them . " In his review for The New York Times , Charles Poore wrote that The Man with the Golden Gun was " a gory , glittering saga " . Poore noted that " The Gee @-@ whizzery ... starts early and never flags " and that , despite the passing of Fleming , " the James Bond spirit soars on " . The critic for Books and Bookmen lamented the fact that " Bond has gone out like a lamb ; even the girls are below par , while the villain seems like a refuge from a seedy Western . But we 'll miss our James " .
D.A.N. Jones , writing in The New York Review of Books thought The Man with the Golden Gun was " an innocuous run @-@ of @-@ the @-@ mill adventure story of 1911 vintage " , Anthony Lejeune , writing in the National Review , thought that it " is undeniably slight , but , like everything Fleming wrote , intensely readable ... In a sense Fleming 's job was finished . He had irrevocably transformed the genre in which he worked " . Lejeune went on to say that " in highbrow novels sex and violence are treated gloomily : in Fleming 's stories they are presented cheerfully with full enjoyment . "
= = Adaptations = =
Newspaper serialisation ( 1965 )
The Man with the Golden Gun was published in serial form in the Daily Express newspaper on a daily basis from 22 March 1965 onwards .
Playboy serialisation ( 1965 )
This novel was also serialised over four issues of Playboy from April through July 1965 .
Comic strip ( 1966 )
The novel was adapted as a daily comic strip which was published in the Daily Express newspaper and syndicated around the world . The adaptation ran from 10 January to 10 September 1966 . The adaptation was written by Jim Lawrence and illustrated by Yaroslav Horak . The strip was reprinted by Titan Books in The James Bond Omnibus Vol . 2 , published in 2011 .
The Man with the Golden Gun ( 1974 )
In 1974 , Eon Productions made the ninth Bond film , loosely based on the novel . The film starred Roger Moore as Bond and Fleming 's cousin , Christopher Lee , as Scaramanga . The film moved away from Jamaica to the Far East and borrowed from the martial arts genre that was popular in the 1970s . The plot also changed and used the 1973 energy crisis as a backdrop to the film , allowing the MacGuffin of the " Solex agitator " to be introduced .
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= Martha Wise =
Martha Wise ( 1884 – June 28 , 1971 ) , born Martha Hasel , was an American poisoner . After her husband died and her family forced her to end a relationship with a new lover , Wise retaliated by poisoning seventeen family members , of whom three died , in 1924 . She was convicted of one of the murders , despite defense claims that she was mentally ill and that her lover had ordered her to poison her family . The case is considered one of the most sensational of the era in Ohio , where it occurred .
= = Early life = =
Wise was born in 1884 to Sophie Hasel and her husband , farmers in Hardscrabble , a town in Medina County , Ohio . Three brothers and a sister were also born to the family , although contemporary sources name only one , a brother named Fred . In 1906 , Martha Hasel met the substantially older Albert Wise at a box social ; the two were married , though Wise neglected to give her a wedding ring .
The marriage was not happy . Martha moved onto Albert 's 50 @-@ acre ( 20 ha ) farm , but quickly discovered that he expected a farmhand more than a wife , and life was no less poor as a married woman than it had been when she lived with her parents . Even when pregnant , she was forced to do farm work that was generally male @-@ oriented ( such as plowing fields and slopping hogs ) as well as the usual household chores of baking and cleaning . The couple 's first child , Albert , did not survive infancy ; four others , Everett , Gertrude , Kenneth , and Lester , did .
Wise 's main source of diversion during this period was funerals ; she seldom missed a visit to any funeral held in or near the town , whether she had known the deceased or not . When questioned , she simply said that she liked funerals . Albert Wise died suddenly in 1923 , leaving his wife a 40 @-@ year @-@ old widow with four children . Her odd behavior and fixation on funerals became more noticeable , and she began not only attending funerals , but openly crying and lamenting at them , no matter who had died .
= = Deaths = =
Within a year of Albert Wise 's death , Martha Wise , though not considered a particularly good or attractive catch , found new male companionship in the form of Walter Johns , who worked as a farmhand on property adjacent to her farm . The relationship was frowned upon by Wise 's family , and both Wise 's mother , Sophie Hasel , and her aunt , Lily Gienke , made no secret of their desire for Wise to end the relationship . By the end of 1924 , Wise had acquiesced , and the relationship ended . Johns moved to Cleveland and the couple lost contact .
On Thanksgiving evening , 1924 , several members of the family , including Sophie Hasel , fell ill with a severe stomach ailment . The others recovered shortly , but Hasel 's illness worsened , and she died on December 13 , 1924 .
New Year 's Eve of 1925 brought more illness . Wise 's uncle Fred Gienke , his wife , Lily , and several of their children all began suffering stomach pains similar to those Hasel had experienced before her death . Several family members were hospitalized , and Lily and Fred were both dead by February 1925 . In total , seventeen relatives were taken ill with similar symptoms in the fall and winter of 1924 / 1925 . Four of the Gienke children were left partially paralyzed from the mysterious illness .
= = Investigation = =
After the deaths of the Gienkes , authorities began to investigate the cluster of deaths . The county sheriff , Fred Roshon , soon discovered that Martha Wise had signed at a local drug store for a series of purchases of large quantities of arsenic . An autopsy on Lily Gienke confirmed the presence of arsenic in her digestive tract . Brought in for questioning by the sheriff , Wise at first claimed she had obtained the arsenic to kill rats , but eventually confessed that she had used it to poison family members by putting it in water buckets and coffee pots the family drank out of .
= = Trial = =
Despite her confession , Wise pleaded not guilty to the charge of murdering Lily Gienke in front of a grand jury on March 23 , 1925 . She told the grand jury that she was irresistibly attracted to attending funerals , and that when there were not enough funerals in the community , she was driven to create them by killing . Wise was indicted on a charge of first @-@ degree murder on April 7 , 1925 .
Wise 's trial for murder began on May 4 , 1925 . She was represented by Joseph Pritchard and prosecuted by Joseph Seymour . Defense claims included that Wise was criminally insane and that she was ordered to commit the murders by her former lover , Walter Johns . A number of setbacks plagued the defense , including the May 6 suicide of Wise 's sister @-@ in @-@ law , Edith Hasel , and the subsequent collapse of her husband Fred Hasel , both of whom had been prepared to testify for the defense ; the recantation of testimony by a man named Frank Metzger , who told the prosecution on cross @-@ examination that the defense had asked him to perjure himself to support claims that Wise was insane ; and Wise 's choice to take the stand on her own behalf . Family members including Wise 's son , Lester , and three of the Gienkes ' children testified against her .
After one hour of jury deliberation , Wise was found guilty of first @-@ degree murder . The jury urged mercy in sentencing , and the judge sentenced Wise to a life sentence in prison , under the terms of which she could only be freed by executive clemency .
= = Later life = =
In 1962 , as a result of Wise 's good behavior in prison , Ohio governor Michael DiSalle commuted Wise 's sentence to second @-@ degree murder and she was paroled at age 79 . Wise 's remaining family refused to take her in , and a number of rest homes for the elderly similarly declined her residency ; within three days Wise returned to prison , lacking anywhere else to go . Her parole and the commutation of her sentence were revoked . Wise died in prison on June 28 , 1971 .
= = In media = =
Wise was featured in a 1930 Toledo News @-@ Bee article series profiling " [ w ] omen who are paying the price for folly , women who gambled against society and lost " . A 1962 issue of the St. Joseph Gazette called the Wise case " one of Ohio 's most publicized crimes of the era " , and she has been labeled the " poison widow of Hardscrabble " and a " poison fiend " .
Wise 's case was covered in a 2008 episode of the Investigation Discovery network series Deadly Women .
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= Typhoon Wipha ( 2007 ) =
Typhoon Wipha , known in the Philippines as Typhoon Goring , was the strongest typhoon to threaten the Chinese coastline since Typhoon Saomai in August 2006 . Forming out of a tropical disturbance on September 15 , 2007 , it quickly developed into a tropical storm , and intensified into a typhoon the following day with the appearance of an eye feature . After a period of rapid intensification , Wipha attained its peak intensity on September 18 , with winds of 185 km / h ( 115 mph ) and a barometric pressure of 925 mbar ( hPa ) , according to the Japan Meteorological Agency . Later that day , the storm began to weaken as it interacted with the mountainous terrain of Taiwan before brushing the northern edge of the island . Wipha subsequently made landfall near Fuding along the Fujian @-@ Zhejiang provincial border with winds estimated at 185 km / h ( 115 mph ) by the JTWC . Shortly thereafter , the typhoon weakened as it moved inland , weakening to a tropical storm within 18 hours of moving over land .
Nearly 2 million residents along the Chinese coastline evacuated ahead of Typhoon Wipha 's arrival . Nearly 20 @,@ 000 Chinese soldiers were deployed to the area to assist residents in reinforcing flood barriers and speeding up evacuations . The typhoon triggered severe flooding with rainfall in excess of 353 mm ( 13 @.@ 9 in ) . Roughly 13 @,@ 000 homes were destroyed , 57 @,@ 000 more were damaged and 100 @,@ 000 hectares of farmland was inundated . Throughout China , 14 people were killed and damage amounted to ¥ 7 @.@ 45 billion ( $ 1 billion USD ) .
Although the center of the storm did not pass near the Philippines , its outer rainbands brought severe flooding to Negros Occidental . Two people died and three others were listed as missing . Damage amounted to PHP 15 @.@ 3 million ( $ 314 @,@ 000 USD ) . In Taiwan , high winds killed one person and injured another . Up to 495 mm ( 19 @.@ 5 in ) of precipitation caused landslides and flooding across the island . Agricultural losses in Taiwan amounted to NT $ 7 @.@ 8 million ( US $ 236 @,@ 300 ) . In Okinawa , high winds and rainfall up to 335 mm ( 13 @.@ 2 in ) caused significant damage and resulted in two fatalities . Seven homes across the islands were destroyed and damage totaled ¥ 28 @.@ 3 billion ( $ 285 million USD ) .
= = Meteorological history = =
Typhoon Wipha originated from a tropical disturbance that was first identified by the Joint Typhoon Warning Center ( JTWC ) on September 13 , 2007 roughly 1 @,@ 435 km ( 892 mi ) east of Guam . Deep convection had developed around an area of low pressure that formed within the disturbance . Low wind shear allowed the system to steadily develop as it moved northward . Late on September 14 , convective banding features had formed around the center of circulation , prompting the JTWC to issue a Tropical Cyclone Formation Alert . Several hours later , the Japan Meteorological Agency ( JMA ) began monitoring the system as a tropical depression . At the same time , the JTWC declared that the disturbance had become Tropical Depression 13W . Shortly thereafter , the Philippine Atmospheric , Geophysical and Astronomical Services Administration ( PAGASA ) also began issuing advisories on the developing depression , assigning it the local name Goring . Initially , a Tropical Upper Tropospheric Trough situated to the north of the depression suppressed convective development and outflow . However , late on September 15 , this system weakened , leading to both the JTWC and JMA upgrading the depression to a tropical storm early on September 16 . Upon being declared a tropical storm , the JMA assigned the name Wipha to the storm .
Throughout September 16 , Wipha underwent a brief period of rapid intensification , with the JTWC upgrading it to a Category 1 hurricane , on the Saffir – Simpson Hurricane Scale , within 12 hours . The intensifying system maintained a northwesterly track in response to a subtropical ridge over the northwest Pacific . Early on September 17 , Wipha was upgraded to a typhoon as 10 @-@ minute sustained winds reached 120 km / h ( 75 mph ) . A second round of rapid intensification took place through most of the day , leading to the typhoon attaining its peak intensity late on September 17 with winds of 185 km / h ( 115 mph 10 @-@ minute sustained ) and a barometric pressure of 925 mbar ( hPa ; 27 @.@ 31 inHg ) . At the same time , the JTWC assessed Wipha to have nearly attained Category 5 status , peaking as a high @-@ end Category 4 super typhoon with winds of 250 km / h ( 155 mph 1 @-@ minute sustained ) . Upon reaching this intensity , Wipha became the second strongest storm of the 2007 Pacific typhoon season .
Not long after reaching its peak intensity , Wipha began to weaken as it started to interact with the high terrain of Taiwan . Early on September 18 , PAGASA issued their final advisory on Typhoon Goring as it left their area of responsibility . Later that day , the center of the typhoon passed roughly 130 km / h ( 80 mi ) north of Taipei , Taiwan . Continued weakening took place as the storm neared landfall in Mainland China . Around 1800 UTC , the eye of Wipha crossed the Chinese coastline near Wenzhou with sustained winds of 140 km / h ( 85 mph 10 @-@ minute sustained ) . The JTWC assessed Wipha to have made landfall as a low @-@ end Category 3 typhoon with winds of 185 km / h ( 115 mph 1 @-@ minute sustained ) . Rapid weakening took place as the storm moved further inland . The JTWC issued their final advisory on Wipha during the afternoon of September 19 as they classified the system as an extratropical cyclone . However , the JMA continued to monitor the system as a tropical depression until September 20 . At this time , the remnants of Wipha had entered the Yellow Sea and accelerated northeastward towards the Korean Peninsula . The extratropical remnants of Wipha persisted for several more hours before dissipating off the coast of North Korea that afternoon .
= = Preparations = =
= = = Taiwan = = =
The Songshan Airport in Taipei was shut down due to the threat of Typhoon Wipha . All businesses , including the stock exchange , were closed for September 18 . Typhoon warnings were issued in northern areas of the island and residents were warned about the possibility of landslides in the mountainous regions . Accordingly , 169 people left landslide @-@ prone areas . An additional 237 people were evacuated from the northern areas of Taiwan due to the storm . A code red alert was issued for the areas closest to the center of the cyclone . Nearly 4 @,@ 300 Chinese fishermen sought refuge in Taiwan after being called back to port .
= = = China = = =
As Wipha approached the Chinese coastline , threatening the city of Shanghai , one of the largest evacuations in the country 's history took place . Local media warned that Wipha " may be the most destructive typhoon in a decade . " More than 2 million people evacuated from coastal areas , 1 @.@ 79 million of whom were in Zhejiang Province , the largest relocation of residents in the history of Zhejiang . Following the issuance of a Super Typhoon Warning , Shanghai officials evacuated 291 @,@ 000 people from old buildings , temporary construction sites , and those who live near the coast . About 20 @,@ 000 soldiers were sent to assist in the evacuation and reinforce flood barriers . A parade which was scheduled to take place in Shanghai was cancelled due to the warnings . About 365 workers were evacuated from the Pinghu oil rig located in the East China Sea . Zoos caged animals and increased staff numbers to prevent escape and contain any fires which may be sparked by downed power lines . More than 39 @,@ 000 people were evacuated from Jiangsu Province , mainly along the coast . Numerous cities cancelled schools and closed business for the day of and following the typhoon . The typhoon also caused FIFA to reschedule four matches in the Women 's World Cup . Nearly 40 @,@ 000 vessels were recalled to port throughout China . About 250 @,@ 000 people were also evacuated from Fujian Province with an additional 1 @.@ 41 million text messages were also sent out to residents in the province . The China Meteorological Administration ( CMA ) commenced " level one " emergency plan , the highest state of emergency . The Office of State Flood Control and Drought Relief commenced a " level two " flood control emergency plan and sent four teams to the provinces which were anticipated to be impacted by Wipha . About 50 @,@ 000 factories in Zhejiang were shut down until Wipha passed . The large @-@ scale evacuations resulted in a lower loss of life from the typhoon .
= = = Japan and South Korea = = =
In Okinawa , about 30 @,@ 000 people were evacuated from low @-@ lying areas near rivers which threatened to overflow their banks . At least 50 flights in and out of the prefecture were also cancelled or delayed . Already hit by Typhoon Nari just a few days prior to Wipha , South Korea began evacuating residents as the remnants of the typhoon were expected to hit the country . Rainfall was expected to impact South Korea for several days with accumulations exceeding 150 mm ( 6 in ) . About 940 people were evacuated to shelters throughout the country .
= = Impact = =
= = = Philippines = = =
Although Wipha did not directly impact the Philippines , the outer bands of the storm produced severe flooding in Negros Occidental . The flooding washed out large areas of agricultural land worth PHP 10 @.@ 3 million ( $ 211 @,@ 000 USD ) . Numerous farm to market roads were also damaged or destroyed , costing PHP 5 million ( $ 103 @,@ 000 USD ) . The floods also destroyed 13 homes and damaged 31 others . A rare tornado spawned by the storm destroyed four homes and damaged 19 others . A total of 7 @,@ 640 families were affected by Wipha in the Philippines . The heavy rains caused a landslide which killed one person on September 16 . Another man drowned in a flood swollen river on September 21 . Three other people were listed as missing after being swept away in a river swollen by Wipha .
= = = Taiwan = = =
One person was killed and another was injured in Taipei after a 20 m ( 65 ft ) high scaffolding in a construction site collapsed . At least 495 mm ( 19 in ) of rain fell in the mountains of Taiwan , triggering flooding which damaged about 24 hectares of crops , leaving NT $ 7 @.@ 8 million ( US $ 236 @,@ 300 ) in losses . A total of 8 @,@ 795 residences were left without power at the height of the storm . Several roads and bridges were also washed out from flooding . Officials in Taiwan recorded 29 landslides , mostly in northern areas , and urged residents to evacuate due to the possibility of more .
= = = China = = =
The outer bands of Typhoon Wipha began impacting parts of eastern China on September 17 . Heavy rains dropped up to 162 mm ( 6 @.@ 3 in ) in some cities , causing rivers to near flood stage . Eighty streets in Shanghai flooded due to the rains ahead of Wipha , with news reports showing waters rising up to people 's knees . Upwards of 191 mm ( 7 @.@ 5 in ) of additional rain fell during the typhoon , causing significant flooding which destroyed at least 13 @,@ 000 homes , damaged 57 @,@ 000 others , and flooded over 160 @,@ 000 hectares of farmland . At least 1 @,@ 900 communities were left without power as high winds knocked down numerous power lines . A total of 14 people were killed in China in direct relation to Wipha . One man was electrocuted and died after stepping into floodwaters with live power lines submerged in the water . A landslide triggered by the heavy rains killed five people . At least 11 million people were affected by the storm in Fujian and Zhejiang . Once floodwaters receded , a car was found turned over , the five passengers inside were declared dead on scene . Damages in China amounted to ¥ 7 @.@ 45 billion ( $ 1 billion USD ) .
= = = Japan = = =
As Wipha brushed Okinawa , it produced upwards of 335 mm ( 13 @.@ 1 in ) throughout the islands , peaking on Ishigaki . The highest winds were recorded on Ohara , Okinawa at 140 km / h ( 87 mph ) . Typhoon Wipha killed two people , one of which died during the evacuation from an illness , injured six others , and left another missing throughout the country . A total of seven homes were destroyed , four were damaged , and 39 others were affected . About 3 @,@ 931 hectares of farmland , 7 km ( 4 @.@ 3 mi ) of roads , and three ports , along with ten ships , were damaged or destroyed . At the height of the storm , about 10 @,@ 800 residences were without power . Damages from the storm amounted to ¥ 28 @.@ 3 billion ( $ 285 million USD ) .
= = = North Korea = = =
Heavy rainfall from the typhoon 's remnants , ruined over 100 @,@ 000 hectares of crops and either damaged or destroyed 14 @,@ 000 homes . Additionally , over 8 @,@ 000 public buildings were partially or fully demolished . A total of 1 @,@ 649 people were left homeless following the storm . A month prior to Wipha , deadly flooding impacted most of the country , leaving at least 600 people dead or missing and destroyed thousands of structures .
= = Aftermath = =
= = = Philippines and China = = =
Following the flooding , the local governments in Valladolid and San Enrique declared a state of calamity to allow funds to reach flood victims . By September 26 , about PHP 700 @,@ 000 ( $ 14 @,@ 000 USD ) worth of relief supplies had been distributed to the affected areas . At least PHP 480 @,@ 000 ( $ 10 @,@ 000 USD ) of the calamity funds were sent to the local governments in Negros Occidental . On September 20 , the Chinese Government allocated ¥ 81 million ( $ 11 @.@ 8 million USD ) in living subsidies for those affected by the typhoon . The International Red Cross , which was already assisting China in recovery from flooding in August , took preparatory measures and worked with local branches to get damage assessments . The Zhejiang Red Cross branch provided ¥ 200 @,@ 000 ( $ 29 @,@ 000 USD ) in relief items to the hardest hit areas .
= = = North Korea = = =
Following the impacts of Wipha to the already severely flooded areas of North Korea , the International Red Cross delivered relief supplies to the 2 @,@ 000 people made homeless by the typhoon . Hundreds of medical clinics which were damaged or destroyed set up makeshift clinics as up to 70 percent of the affected population reported abdominal pains or diarrhea . More than 23 @,@ 000 volunteers from the Red Cross mobilized to provide quick rehabilitation in the affected regions . By mid @-@ September , € 420 @,@ 000 ( $ 527 @,@ 000 USD ) was provided to repair hospitals and an additional € 110 @,@ 000 ( $ 138 @,@ 000 USD ) was planned to be sent . By the end of September , health kits were provided for 300 @,@ 000 people and an additional $ 300 @,@ 000 ( USD ) was provided for medical supplies in hospitals . From October 15 to 18 , a Rapid Nutritional Screening of children took place in the worst affected areas . Eleven hospitals were restocked with medical supplies and a permanent water supply was constructed at the Wonsan general hospital . About $ 180 @,@ 000 in aid from Norway was sent to North Korea . By October 22 , 2007 , 80 percent of the $ 14 @.@ 1 million pledged in assistance had been funded . About 4 @,@ 800 tonnes of cereal was to be distributed in October as part of the second shipment of food , following the first which was sent prior to Wipha . Funds and materials , worth $ 166 @,@ 000 ( USD ) , for revegetation were expected to arrive between December 2007 and February 2008 .
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= 2009 Philadelphia Phillies season =
The Philadelphia Phillies ' 2009 season was the 127th season in the history of the franchise . The team , managed by Charlie Manuel , began their sixth season at Citizens Bank Park and defense of their 2008 World Series championship on April 5 . After collecting a third straight Eastern Division championship , the Phillies won their second consecutive National League pennant for the first time in franchise history ; they were defeated by the New York Yankees in the 2009 World Series .
The Phillies posted a second consecutive winning April to open the season with an 11 – 9 record , but the month was marred by the death of " legendary " broadcaster Harry Kalas . After opening the month of May against the rival New York Mets , the Phillies met President Barack Obama to celebrate their World Series victory the previous season , and had two rookie pitchers win consecutive starts for the first time since 2007 . Starting pitcher Jamie Moyer earned his 250th career win during the month , while first baseman Ryan Howard and outfielder Raúl Ibáñez became the first Phillies teammates to hit 10 home runs in the same month . Echoing their strong run in the middle of the 2008 season , the Phillies compiled a 16 – 4 record in late May and early June , which was countered by weakness during interleague play in late June .
After the team 's largest victory of the season ( 22 – 1 over the Cincinnati Reds ) in early July , five Phillies — Howard , Ibáñez , second baseman Chase Utley , and outfielders Shane Victorino and Jayson Werth — were selected to the All @-@ Star team . July was the team 's best showing of the season , as they compiled their first 20 @-@ win month since the 2001 season . The Phillies traded for starting pitcher Cliff Lee at the end of the month to bolster their starting rotation , who won his first five starts with the team , and signed free @-@ agent pitcher Pedro Martínez . In August , Eric Bruntlett turned the first game @-@ ending unassisted triple play in National League history , and the second in team history . The following month , the team clinched its third consecutive division championship on September 30 , becoming the first Phillies team to make a third straight playoff appearance since the 1976 – 1978 Phillies .
Philadelphia defeated the Colorado Rockies in the National League Division Series ( NLDS ) , 3 – 1 , and the Los Angeles Dodgers in the National League Championship Series ( NLCS ) for the second consecutive year , 4 – 1 . Howard was named the most valuable player of the NLCS . The Phillies were defeated by the Yankees in the World Series , four games to two .
Statistical leaders in batting for the 2009 team included Victorino ( batting average , .292 ) , Howard ( home runs , 45 ; runs batted in , 141 ) , and Utley ( runs scored , 112 ) . For his season accomplishments , Utley won his fourth consecutive Silver Slugger Award . Pitching leaders included right @-@ handed starting pitcher Joe Blanton ( innings pitched , 195 1 ⁄ 3 ) , left @-@ handed starter J. A. Happ ( win – loss record , 12 – 4 ) , and relief pitcher Brad Lidge ( saves , 31 ) . Victorino and shortstop Jimmy Rollins also won Rawlings Gold Glove Awards for their play in the field .
= = Offseason = =
= = = Departures = = =
On November 4 , following the World Series , the Phillies released third base coach Steve Smith . Smith had been with the team for two years . The Phillies were expected to have the remaining coaches to return for the 2009 season . However , bench coach Jimy Williams opted not to return to the Phillies for the 2009 season , notifying the team on November 10 . Charlie Manuel had expected Williams to return for the 2009 season , and was surprised that he declined . However , Williams left the team on good terms , and Manuel stated that he was welcome to come back to the Phillies if he changed his mind . Left fielder Pat Burrell became a free agent at the end of the 2008 season , signing with the Tampa Bay Rays , whom the Phillies had defeated in the World Series , on January 5 . The team did not tender an offer to Burrell following eight seasons . The Phillies also released outfielder So Taguchi on November 5 . Taguchi had served as a pinch @-@ hitter for the Phillies in 2008 , and also replaced Burrell in left field some games . Eric Bruntlett replaced Taguchi for the latter half of the 2008 season . Relief pitcher Tom Gordon also filed for free agency , ultimately signing with the Arizona Diamondbacks .
= = = Arrivals = = =
On November 3 , the Phillies named Rubén Amaro , Jr. to be the general manager after Pat Gillick retired at the end of a three @-@ year contract . Amaro previously had a long history with the Phillies , serving as a bat boy in the 1980s , a player in the 1990s , and as assistant general manager for the Phillies from 1998 until his appointment as general manager . Gillick remained with the Phillies as an advisor . On November 13 , Sam Perlozzo joined the Phillies as third base coach and fielding / infield coach after spending the 2008 season in the same position for the Seattle Mariners . Perlozzo previously served as the third base coach for the New York Mets , the Cincinnati Reds , and as third base coach , bench coach , and manager for the Baltimore Orioles . Another former manager , Pete Mackanin , was named the team 's new bench coach on November 21 ; he had been interim manager for the Reds when Jerry Narron was fired in Cincinnati in 2007 . On November 28 , the Phillies signed Mike Koplove Koplove , a right @-@ handed relief pitcher , was optioned to the AAA Lehigh Valley IronPigs at the end of spring training . On December 16 , Raúl Ibáñez agreed to play left field for the Phillies in a 3 @-@ year , $ 31 @.@ 5 million deal . South Korean pitcher Chan Ho Park officially signed a one @-@ year contract to join the Phillies on January 6 , after agreeing to a deal in principle in December . Park was originally signed as an insurance policy for the bullpen , as reliever J. C. Romero was assigned a fifty @-@ game suspension after violating the Major League Baseball drug policy , but won the fifth starter 's job in Spring training .
= = = Retentions = = =
Left @-@ handed reliever Scott Eyre re @-@ signed with the Phillies after becoming a vital part of the bullpen during the stretch run . The Phillies re @-@ signed left @-@ handed starter Jamie Moyer on December 15 after lengthy negotiations . The 46 @-@ year @-@ old Moyer was inked to a two @-@ year contract to return to the world champions and kept a key part of the Phillies ' postseason rotation intact . The team also avoided salary arbitration with first baseman Ryan Howard 's three @-@ year contract .
= = = Injuries = = =
On November 20 , second baseman Chase Utley had hip surgery and was scheduled to be out for four to six months . However , on December 15 , Utley said in a press conference that he could be ready for Opening Night . Just under four months later , Utley made his first pre @-@ season game appearance in an intersquad game March 14 , and his first appearance in actual game competition the next day against the St. Louis Cardinals . Third baseman Pedro Feliz also had surgery on his back to repair a herniated disc on the same day as Utley . Feliz officially returned to spring training action on March 13 . During spring training , starting pitcher Cole Hamels left training camp on March 16 and flew to Philadelphia to have his left elbow examined by Dr. Michael Ciccotti . Hamels felt tightness in between innings and after he was done pitching for the day . " This will obviously set me back a couple of days , and I don ’ t think that should be a big deal " , said Hamels . However , the injury threw his Opening Day start against the Braves into doubt , even though Ciccotti found no structural damage in his arm ; Brett Myers was announced as Hamels ' replacement to start Opening Night .
= = Spring training = =
On November 13 , the Phillies announced their spring training schedule . In addition to their Grapefruit League games , the Phillies played two games against two of the World Baseball Classic teams . The Phillies defeated Team Canada ( with Phillie Matt Stairs ) on March 4 , 9 – 2 , and lost to Team USA ( with Jimmy Rollins and Shane Victorino ) on March 5 , 9 – 6 . The team broke camp April 2 and headed north to play two " On Deck Series " games on April 3 and 4 against the Tampa Bay Rays at Citizens Bank Park ; they split the series , winning 3 – 2 and losing 9 – 7 .
The Phillies finished the 2009 preseason with a record of 13 – 19 , 10 games behind the Grapefruit League @-@ leading New York Yankees . Ryan Howard led all players in Spring Training with 10 home runs . The team set spring training attendance @-@ records for Bright House Field in 2009 . They set a single @-@ game record with 10 @,@ 335 people in attendance on March 15 for a game against the St. Louis Cardinals . The Phillies set the franchise 's total spring training attendance record for Bright House Field , with 133 @,@ 620 attending in 2009 .
= = Regular season = =
= = = April = = =
The Phillies began their 2009 season in front of a sold @-@ out crowd of 44 @,@ 532 at Citizens Bank Park on April 5 , playing against the Atlanta Braves . The Phillies , originally scheduled to play in the afternoon of April 6 , earned the distinction of playing the opening game of the entire 2009 Major League Baseball season after winning the 2008 World Series . They lost the opener 4 – 1 to the division @-@ rival Braves , whose new ace , Derek Lowe , pitched eight shutout innings . The Phillies lost the next game , and were in danger of losing the following night and dropping to 0 – 3 before scoring eight runs in the bottom of the seventh inning for a 12 – 11 come @-@ from @-@ behind win . The Phillies lost their first game in Denver , but came from behind again in their next two games to take the second series from the Colorado Rockies . The Phillies defeated the Washington Nationals in the opener of their third series , just hours after the death of Hall of Fame broadcaster Harry Kalas , but lost the third scheduled game of the series after the second was cancelled due to weather . In their series against the San Diego Padres , the Phillies dropped the first two games as well ; during the second game , closer Brad Lidge blew his first save in a Phillies uniform , breaking his streak of 47 consecutive saves extending back to the 2007 regular season . The Phillies won the Sunday afternoon matinee against the Padres , 5 – 4 , on a walk @-@ off home run by Ibáñez after trailing the entire game .
The Phillies ' offense benefited from rest due to the postponement of the final game of the Padres ' series , as they defeated the Milwaukee Brewers in the opener of their mid @-@ week series , 11 – 4 . The next two games did not go as smoothly , as the Phillies were shut out through eight innings in the second game and nearly no @-@ hit by Brewers starter Dave Bush in the third game . Phillies starter Cole Hamels was hit by a line drive in the fourth inning and exited the game ; before departing , he had retired nine out of the ten batters he faced . Hitting the road for a series against the division @-@ leading Florida Marlins , the Phillies were shut out through eight innings in the first game of the series , only to score seven runs in the top of the ninth against power @-@ throwing closer Matt Lindstrom , winning the game , 7 – 3 , thanks to Shane Victorino 's first career regular season grand slam . The following night 's game offered another come @-@ from @-@ behind win for the Phillies , as they trailed in the ninth again to win in extra innings , 6 – 4 , and the 13 – 2 victory on April 26 capped the team 's first series sweep . Hosting Washington for their second series against the Nationals , the Phillies fell behind in the seventh inning before a grand slam by Ibáñez capped their 13 – 11 victory ; combined with Ryan Howard 's game @-@ tying grand slam in the fifth inning , this was only the fourth time in Phillies history that teammates hit grand slams in the same game . The Phillies split the remaining two games of the series with Washington , finishing with an April record of 11 – 9 , their second consecutive winning April .
= = = May = = =
The Phillies opened May against the division @-@ rival New York Mets , losing the opening game of the month , 7 – 4 . Back @-@ to @-@ back walks in the tenth inning of the Saturday afternoon game gave the Phillies their first win of the season over the Mets . After a rainout , the Phillies opened their first series in St. Louis with the Cardinals . They won the first game of the series on Howard 's second grand slam in as many weeks after a pitchers ' duel between starters Kyle Lohse and Joe Blanton and completed the two @-@ game series sweep with a 10 – 7 victory on May 5 , capped by a Jayson Werth three @-@ run home run and a 4 @-@ for @-@ 5 performance from Victorino . The Phillies ' brief stop in New York was marred by a two @-@ game series sweep ; Phillies hitters were shut down by Mets starters Johan Santana and Mike Pelfrey , and closer Francisco Rodríguez recorded saves in both games of the series . The following series was barely better , as the Phillies dropped two games to the Braves .
On May 12 , Werth stole four bases , including home plate , tying a Phillies record and leading to a 5 – 3 win over the Los Angeles Dodgers ; however , the series result was the same as the previous one , as the Phillies dropped two games in the set to Los Angeles . Carrying a .500 winning percentage south from Philadelphia to Washington , the team visited the White House and was congratulated by President Barack Obama for their championship the previous season . The visit had been postponed from April 14 due to Kalas ' death . After meeting the President , the Phillies opened the series with a second consecutive extra @-@ inning game , defeating the Nationals in 12 innings . Because pitcher J. A. Happ had to enter Friday night 's game in relief , the Phillies called up right @-@ handed starting pitcher Andrew Carpenter from Reading to start the second game of Saturday 's doubleheader ( a make @-@ up of the postponement from April 15 ) . Carpenter earned his first major league win in the rain @-@ shortened second game after Myers earned the win in the afternoon game . Though Sunday 's starter Park only pitched 11 ⁄ 3 innings , the Phillies swept the series with the Nationals with an 8 – 6 come @-@ from @-@ behind win , with new call @-@ up Sergio Escalona earning his first major league win . This marked the first time since the 2007 season that rookies had won back @-@ to @-@ back starts for the Phillies ( Hamels and Kyle Kendrick ) . The Phillies took two of three games in each of their next two series with the Cincinnati Reds and the New York Yankees to finish their road trip with an 8 – 2 record . Though they lost two games against Florida , the final series of the month against Washington resulted in a second straight series sweep , as the Phillies defeated the Nationals in three consecutive games to finish the month with a 17 – 11 record ; the last game of the series was Moyer 's 250th career victory . With strong offensive performances in May , Howard and Ibáñez became the first pair of Phillies to hit 10 home runs in the same month .
= = = June = = =
The month of June saw the continuation of the Phillies ' hot streak ; from May 15 to June 4 , the team compiled a 16 – 4 record , culminating with a three @-@ game sweep of the Padres on the Phillies ' first trip to the West Coast . In that series , rookie Antonio Bastardo made his major league debut , striking out five batters and allowing one earned run in six innings of work to earn his first career victory . Traveling north to Los Angeles for a rematch of the previous year 's playoff series , the Phillies managed a split despite the bullpen 's struggles . Lidge blew two saves in consecutive nights , taking the loss in the first game and allowing the game @-@ tying home run in the other . The series was bookended by the team 's first shutout of the season , a complete game by Hamels , and a second consecutive strong performance from Bastardo , who pitched five innings and allowed only two runs in a game that ended with a final score of 7 – 2 . The final stop on the road trip was Citi Field , where the Phillies faced off against the Mets . All three games were close , with two one @-@ run wins in the series and two extra @-@ inning victories for the Phillies , won by home runs from Utley and Ibáñez on June 10 and 11 .
The team 's strong stretch did not continue , however , as the Phillies entered the second period of interleague play with five consecutive series against the American League East . While they managed a single win against the Boston Red Sox , it was followed by a six @-@ game losing streak wherein the Phillies were swept by the Toronto Blue Jays and the Baltimore Orioles ; Philadelphia was outscored 38 – 19 over the two series . The team showed promise in the first game of their World Series rematch series with the Tampa Bay Rays , winning 10 – 1 , but were defeated in the last two games of the series and lost a fourth straight game to Toronto on June 26 . However , the Phillies were able to exact a modicum of revenge for both their 1993 World Series defeat and the first series sweep by the Jays by winning the last two games . Happ played the role of stopper by pitching his first career complete game shutout , and Moyer followed by earning his 252nd victory in the following game . To close the month , the Phillies lost the opener of their next series with the Braves to finish the month with a 10 – 16 record .
= = = July = = =
Struggles continued for the Phillies to open July , as the Braves completed a three @-@ game series sweep in the first two days of the month ; however , a face @-@ off with the Mets over the Independence Day weekend revitalized the team 's fortunes . The Phillies swept their northern rivals as the Mets managed only three runs in three games . During the series , the team 's 2009 All @-@ Stars were announced : Utley and Ibáñez were elected as starters , and Howard was named as a reserve , one of four first basemen selected to the National League squad . It was also announced that Victorino was one of the five " Final Vote " candidates . Though the Phillies had played much better on the road to this point in the season , home @-@ field advantage paid off the next night , as the offense chased Reds starter Johnny Cueto after 2 ⁄ 3 of an inning by scoring nine runs ; the team went on to score 10 in the first inning and 22 in the entire game . Every Phillies starter had at least one hit , Werth hit an eighth @-@ inning grand slam off of Reds infielder Paul Janish , and Rollins and Victorino , at the top of the order , combined to go 7 @-@ for @-@ 9 with three doubles , a home run , nine runs scored , and five RBIs between them . Though closer Lidge suffered a tough loss on July 7 , sacrificing a run in the ninth inning to earn his fourth of the season , the Phillies bounced back with a dramatic ninth @-@ inning win the following night . Victorino hit a walk @-@ off single to drive in Pedro Feliz and solidify his victory in the All @-@ Star Final Vote , which was announced the next day . Werth was named to replace the New York Mets ' Carlos Beltrán on the All @-@ Star roster due to injury ; Victorino replaced Beltrán as the starter in center field .
After the All @-@ Star break — during which the American League defeated the National League , 4 – 3 — Moyer , Ryan Madson , and J. C. Romero combined for a one @-@ hit , complete @-@ game shutout of the Marlins in the first game back , extending the Phillies ' winning streak to six games , and their record to 10 – 3 in the month of July . The streak was extended to eight straight games as the Phillies swept Florida in three games of the series ( one game was postponed due to weather ) . Happ raised his record to 7 – 0 on the season with another seven @-@ inning shutout performance . The streak continued as the Phillies opened a series at home against the Chicago Cubs ; Chad Durbin earned his first save in 11 months by pitching three scoreless innings of relief . Werth 's three @-@ run home run in the 13th inning the next night gave the Phillies a walk @-@ off win for their tenth consecutive , but Chicago ended the season @-@ high streak with a 10 – 5 defeat on July 22 . The Phillies won three of their next four , and bolstered their rotation by trading for Cliff Lee . The 2008 American League Cy Young Award winner came from the Cleveland Indians along with outfielder Ben Francisco on July 29 ; the Phillies gave up four minor leaguers — catcher Lou Marson , infielders Jason Donald and pitchers Carlos Carrasco and Jason Knapp . Lee and Francisco joined the Phillies in San Francisco after the Phillies ' series victory over the Arizona Diamondbacks , and both started the final game in July . Lee pitched a complete @-@ game four @-@ hitter on July 31 , allowing one run over nine innings of work . The Phillies finished July with a 20 – 7 record , their first 20 @-@ win month since May 2001 .
= = = August = = =
The Phillies opened the month of August with three straight losses , but the stopper 's role again fell to the rookie Happ , who pitched his second shutout of the season — and the second of his career — against the Rockies on August 5 . He earned the team 's 60th win of the season while allowing four hits and striking out ten batters for the first time in his career . In accordance with his 8 – 2 record and strong performances , Amaro announced that Happ would remain in the Phillies ' starting rotation despite the team 's acquisitions of Lee and Pedro Martínez ; rumors regarding Happ 's status had been rampant since Martínez ' signing and during the trade season when Happ was rumored to be the centerpiece of a potential trade for the Blue Jays ' Roy Halladay . New pitcher Lee stifled the Rockies the following day to win the series for the Phillies with a second consecutive strong performance , allowing one run over seven innings and allowing only six hits . In the following series with Florida , however , the Phillies struggled . The Marlins swept all three games of the series , which included Victorino 's first career ejection on several close calls by umpire Ed Rapuano , and a crucial error by Victorino 's center field replacement , Werth , in the final game of the series . Moyer pitched against the Marlins in that game , a team against which he had prior success in his career ( 13 – 3 , 2 @.@ 87 ERA in 1001 ⁄ 3 innings pitched ) , and allowed two earned runs on eleven singles through five innings ; however , with a rotation @-@ high 5 @.@ 47 ERA , the Phillies demoted Moyer to the bullpen to allow Martínez to start . Francisco hit his second Phillies home run against the Cubs on August 11 ; it came in the 12th inning and scored the game @-@ winning run for the Phillies . It became the first win of a three @-@ game series sweep , which Lee closed out with a third straight dominant performance ( eight innings pitched , one run allowed , eight strikeouts ) . The Phillies took two of three games from the Braves in their next series , and completed a three @-@ game homestand against the Diamondbacks with a complete game from Lee , who carried a no @-@ hitter into the sixth inning , and eight innings of three @-@ run baseball from Blanton .
Martínez faced off against his former club on August 23 , with the series tied 1 – 1 . Mets starter Óliver Pérez allowed six runs in the first inning and was pulled in the middle of Martínez ' first at @-@ bat , down in the count 3 – 0 . Ángel Pagán led off the Mets ' first with an inside @-@ the @-@ park home run after the ball became lodged underneath the outfield wall . Martínez pitched six innings , allowing four runs , but the score was 9 – 6 by the end of the eighth inning . Lidge allowed another run to score and had runners on first and second , thanks in part to a booted base hit and an error by Eric Bruntlett . The Mets had no outs and Jeff Francoeur was at the plate representing the go @-@ ahead run . Francoeur hit a line drive over the second base bag , where Bruntlett caught it , stepped on second base , and tagged Daniel Murphy coming from first , completing the 15th unassisted triple play in baseball 's modern era and the second in Phillies history ( Mickey Morandini ) in a game called " the league 's quirkiest of the season " . The Phillies closed the series with a 6 – 2 win behind Lee 's eighth straight victory ( seven innings pitched , no earned runs ) . With a win on August 26 , the Phillies claimed victory in the year 's series over the Pirates ; however , the Bucs won two games in a three @-@ night set wherein the game @-@ winning run was scored in the eighth inning or later each night . Andrew McCutchen hit a game @-@ winning two @-@ run home run off of Lidge in the ninth inning of the opener ; Howard hit a game @-@ winning three @-@ run shot for the Phillies in the top of the tenth on August 26 after the Pirates tied it in the ninth on a Brandon Moss home run . Garrett Jones set a Pirates rookie record with his 15th home run off of Happ in the eighth inning of the series finale . The Phillies closed the month by taking two of three games from the Braves . For his 11 home run performance in August , Howard won the National League Player of the Month award .
= = = September = = =
The Phillies opened the month by taking two of a three @-@ game series against the Giants , besting Jonathan Sánchez , who threw a no @-@ hitter earlier in the 2009 season , and Tim Lincecum , who won the 2008 NL Cy Young Award . This was followed by a trip to Texas for a four @-@ game series against the Houston Astros ; the Phillies were unable to muster much offense during the series and were swept . On September 8 , in the first game of the series against the Washington Nationals , Ibañez and Utley each hit their 30th home runs of the season , making them members of the 12th quartet of teammates in major league history to each reach 30 in a single season , joining Howard and Werth . The Phillies offense backed Lee to his sixth win the following night , with Madson earning his second consecutive save after assuming the de facto closer 's role from Lidge . However , the Phillies could not overcome a pair of three @-@ run home runs by Adam Dunn and Ian Desmond to secure the sweep in the last game of the series , despite Stairs ' grand slam ; it was their third loss of the season to Washington in fifteen games . The Mets came to Philadelphia for their last series of the season , which began on September 11 . The Phillies won game one , 4 – 2 , but the Mets came from behind in the second game of the series , scoring five runs in the final two innings to win 10 – 9 . Making up a postponed game from earlier in the season , the Phillies won the first game of a day @-@ night doubleheader behind Kyle Kendrick 's first major league victory in 13 months . Eight shutout innings from Martínez in the nightcap gave the Phillies a 1 – 0 win , a 3 – 1 win in the 4 @-@ game set , and a 12 – 6 win in the season series . Martínez ' eight innings also began a streak of 26 consecutive scoreless innings by Phillies pitchers : Madson followed with a scoreless ninth for his eighth save of the season ; Cliff Lee pitched a complete game shutout against the Nationals the following night ; and Blanton , Park , and Madson combined for eight scoreless innings against Washington on September 16 until Tyler Walker allowed a run in the top of the ninth inning , an RBI single by Willie Harris which scored Justin Maxwell . Hamels closed out the series with a strong performance , perfect through his first five innings and finishing with one run allowed in eight ; with their 15th win over the Nationals , the Phillies matched their best season record against the franchise , set against the 1976 Montréal Expos .
The Phillies continued to Atlanta , where they took two of three from the Braves , with Kendrick 's second win and Lidge 's 30th save in the first game of the series . Martínez was outdueled by Javier Vázquez in the second game of the series , but the Phillies avoided a loss by defeating the Braves , 4 – 2 , on September 20 . A doubleheader followed against the Marlins ; the Phillies won game one , while the Marlins won game two . In the rubber game , Lidge blew his 11th save after a rain delay to give the Marlins a series victory , keeping the team 's number to clinch the division at five . The Phillies and the Brewers split the next series at two games each , with Philadelphia winning the first and last game of the series . The Phillies returned to Citizens Bank Park for their final homestand to close out the season , opening with a fifth consecutive loss to the Astros . However , the Phillies broke the streak with a 7 – 4 win on September 29 , thanks to a Feliz grand slam . The following night , the Phillies clinched their third consecutive division title with a 10 – 3 win over Houston , guaranteeing a split in the series and a playoff berth , and tying the franchise record for consecutive division titles set by Danny Ozark 's teams from 1976 to 1978 . After the clinching game , the Phillies rested most of their regular starters , six of whom had started over 150 games during the season ; they lost four straight games while the regulars regained their strength , but won the final game of the season in extra innings as Paul Hoover hit a walk @-@ off single in the bottom of the 10th inning . The Phillies finished with a record of 93 wins and 69 losses , one game better than their record in the previous season .
= = = Standings = = =
= = = Record vs. opponents = = =
= = = Game log = = =
= = = Roster = = =
All players who made an appearance for the Phillies during 2009 are included .
= = Postseason = =
= = = National League Division Series = = =
The Phillies , as the No. 2 seed in the National League , faced off against the wild card Colorado Rockies in the first round of the playoffs . Cliff Lee pitched a complete game in the opener of the series , shutting out the Rockies through 8 2 ⁄ 3 innings before allowing a single run in the ninth . He threw 113 pitches in the game , in addition to getting a hit and a stolen base in his first postseason start . The Rockies evened the series in the second game , as Cole Hamels left the stadium early to be with his wife , who went into labor with their first child . The Phillies staged comebacks twice to bring them within a run of tying the game , but could not close the door as Huston Street saved the game for Aaron Cook .
After Charlie Manuel named Pedro Martínez his Game 3 starter , the game was postponed a day due to the weather forecast of snow and record @-@ low temperatures . The postponement prompted Manuel to change his plans , naming rookie left @-@ hander J. A. Happ the new starter for the game . Happ pitched three innings , allowing three runs , but Manuel brought Joe Blanton out of the bullpen , who pitched 2 2 ⁄ 3 innings and allowed only one run . Brad Lidge , after 11 blown saves during the regular season , preserved the win for the Phillies , a 6 – 5 victory . In a back @-@ and @-@ forth affair , the Phillies and Rockies traded leads through Game 4 at Coors Field , but the Phillies scored three runs in the top of the ninth to win by one run . Combined with the sweeps in the other three Division Series , 2009 became the first year since the implementation of the wild card in 1995 that all four Championship Series berths were clinched on the road .
Game 1
Game 2
Game 3
Game 4
= = = National League Championship Series = = =
The Los Angeles Dodgers were the National League 's No. 1 seed by virtue of the best record entering the playoffs ; thus , the Phillies traveled to Chavez Ravine for the opener of the playoffs ' second round , the fifth postseason meeting between the two clubs . James Loney opened the scoring for the Dodgers with a solo home run in the bottom of the second inning , but the Phillies answered back with a five @-@ run fifth inning , chasing starter Clayton Kershaw . Manny Ramírez ' two @-@ run home run in the bottom of the inning made the score 5 – 4 , but Raúl Ibañez followed with a three @-@ run home run in the top of the eighth . Lidge , appearing in his third consecutive postseason game , notched his third consecutive save . Martínez started the second game for the Phillies , throwing 7 scoreless innings on 87 pitches . After his departure , the Phillies used five bullpen pitchers to get three outs in the eighth inning ; those pitchers allowed three hits and two walks , allowing two runs to score . Jonathan Broxton saved the second game for the Dodgers , as Los Angeles won , 2 – 1 .
The series moved to Philadelphia for the third game , and the Phillies capitalized on their home crowd immediately , scoring four runs in the first inning of the game . Lee continued his " superb " postseason performance with an eight @-@ inning shutout performance , allowing three singles and a stolen base . Lee and his batterymate Ruiz had higher offensive production in Game 3 ( three hits in six at @-@ bats , three runs scored , one run batted in ) than the entire Dodger lineup ( three hits in twenty @-@ seven at bats , no runs scored ) . The Phillies won the game , 11 – 0 . In Game 4 , Howard continued to slug , hitting a two @-@ run home run off of former @-@ Phillie Randy Wolf in the first inning ; with the run batted in , he tied Lou Gehrig 's Major League record of eight consecutive postseason games with an RBI . The Dodgers came back to score two runs on a defensive miscue in the fourth inning , adding one run in the fifth on a Matt Kemp home run and one in the sixth on a Casey Blake single . The Phillies got one back in the bottom of the sixth on a Victorino triple and a single by Utley , but were held scoreless until the bottom of the ninth . Los Angeles closer Broxton entered the game in the bottom of the eighth — after George Sherrill allowed two runners to reach base — and coaxed Werth to fly out . Broxton returned to the mound in the bottom of the ninth , inducing a ground ball from Ibáñez before walking Matt Stairs and hitting Ruiz . Greg Dobbs pinch @-@ hit for the pitcher 's spot , lining out to third base . With two outs and two runners aboard , Jimmy Rollins hit a 99 @-@ mile @-@ per @-@ hour ( 159 km / h ) fastball to the right @-@ center field gap , scoring Eric Bruntlett ( who had pinch @-@ run ) and Ruiz . In the fifth game , the Phillies hit four home runs , including two by Jayson Werth , as Hamels allowed three runs in his second start of the series . The Phillies bullpen pitched 4 2 ⁄ 3 innings in the game , allowing only one run as Philadelphia defeated Los Angeles , 10 – 4 . The win clinched the Phillies ' first consecutive National League pennants in franchise history , and the first back @-@ to @-@ back World Series appearances by a National League franchise since the Atlanta Braves in 1995 and 1996 . Howard was named the MVP of the National League Championship Series .
Game 1
Game 2
Game 3
Game 4
Game 5
= = = World Series = = =
The Phillies played the New York Yankees in a three @-@ game series over the Memorial Day weekend during the regular season in May . Rollins said :
How great would that be ? A World Series here , us against the Yankees ? … We 've proved we can put on a pretty good show .
The Yankees defeated the Phillies , four games to two , to win the franchise 's record 27th World Series championship . The Yankees had home field advantage for the series , due to an American League victory in the 2009 All @-@ Star Game . In addition to the 27th championship for New York , several records were tied , extended , or broken during the Series , including postseason wins ( Andy Pettitte with 18 ) , home runs in a World Series ( Utley with 5 ) , strikeouts by a batter in a World Series ( Howard with 13 ) , World Series saves ( Mariano Rivera with 11 ) , and RBI in a single World Series game ( Hideki Matsui with 6 ) .
= = = = Game 1 = = = =
The two previous years ' American League Cy Young Award winners started the game : CC Sabathia , for the Yankees ; and Lee , for the Phillies . Sabathia , who had been 3 – 0 in the postseason to date , pitched seven innings and allowed two earned runs on four hits ; Lee , however , pitched a complete game and allowed no earned runs to go the distance for the second time during the 2009 postseason . The Phillies offense was paced by Utley , who walked in the first inning to set a record of 26 consecutive postseason games reaching base , and hit solo home runs in the third and sixth innings . Philadelphia led 2 – 0 until the eighth inning , when an Ibáñez single scored Rollins and Victorino , and added two more runs in the top of the ninth inning on a Victorino single and a Howard double . The Phillies allowed an unearned run in the bottom of the ninth when Rollins committed a throwing error , tossing the ball past Howard at first base and into the Yankee dugout .
= = = = Game 2 = = = =
The Phillies scored first for the second game in a row in the second inning ; Raúl Ibáñez hit a ground rule double , and a Matt Stairs single off of A. J. Burnett drove him in . It was the only run allowed by the New York pitching staff . Mark Teixeira tied the game with a solo home run in the fourth inning , and Hideki Matsui broke the tie in the sixth with another , giving the Yankees their first lead . Chan Ho Park allowed an RBI single to Jorge Posada after Martínez put two baserunners on in the top of the seventh . Burnett departed after seven innings , replaced by Mariano Rivera in the eighth . The Phillies put two runners on with a walk to Jimmy Rollins and a single by Shane Victorino with one out in the eighth . However , Chase Utley grounded into an inning @-@ ending double play ending on a close play at first base that drew controversy . Rivera completed the ninth inning for his 38th postseason save .
= = = = Game 3 = = = =
After an 80 @-@ minute rain delay , the Phillies scored first in the second inning with Jayson Werth 's lead @-@ off home run followed by a bases @-@ loaded walk and a sacrifice fly . In the fourth inning , Alex Rodriguez hit a ball down the right field line , which struck a camera at the fence and was ruled a home run after review . Nick Swisher opened the top of the fifth inning with a double and scored on a single to center field by Andy Pettitte . Jeter followed with a single , and both he and Pettite were driven in by a Johnny Damon double . J. A. Happ replaced Hamels and allowed a solo home run to Swisher in the sixth inning . Werth answered with a second home run of the game leading off the bottom of the sixth . Mariano Rivera recorded his 38th career postseason save to close out the Yankees ' second consecutive win .
= = = = Game 4 = = = =
The Yankees opened the scoring in the first inning with two runs , but the Phillies answered with back @-@ to @-@ back doubles by Shane Victorino and Chase Utley in the bottom of the inning . The Phillies tied the game in the bottom of the fourth as Ryan Howard singled , stole second , and scored on a single by Pedro Feliz . Replays showed that Howard did not touch home plate as he slid across ; however , the Yankees did not appeal . Swisher led off the fifth inning with a walk , scoring on a single by Derek Jeter , and Melky Cabrera scored on a single by Damon . Park relieved Blanton in the seventh and held the Yankees scoreless . Chase Utley hit his third home run of the series in the bottom of the seventh with two outs . Dámaso Marte struck out Howard to end the inning . After a game @-@ tying home run by Feliz , Lidge entered the game in the ninth and gave up a two @-@ out single to Damon . With Teixeira batting , Damon stole second and advanced to third as the base was uncovered due to the pull shift against Teixeira . Rodriguez put the Yankees ahead with a double to left field , scoring Damon . Posada added to that lead with a single which scored Teixeira , who had singled , and Rodriguez . Mariano Rivera entered in the bottom of the ninth and notched his second save of the series .
= = = = Game 5 = = = =
The Yankees scored first for the second straight game , but Utley gave the lead back to Philadelphia on a three @-@ run home run . Werth and Ibáñez drove in Utley and Howard in the third inning , which chased the starter , Burnett . David Robertson allowed another run to score on a Carlos Ruiz groundout . Eric Hinske , who entered as a pinch @-@ hitter , scored on a ground out by Johnny Damon . Utley tied Reggie Jackson 's record for most home runs in a World Series with a solo home run in the seventh inning , his fifth of the series . Howard struck out for the 12th time in the series , tying Willie Wilson 's 1980 record for most strikeouts in a World Series . Ibáñez hit a solo home run to chase pitcher Phil Coke . After being hit in the hand in the first inning , Victorino was replaced defensively in the eighth inning by Ben Francisco . Lee left the game after allowing two runs to score , and Park gave up a sacrifice fly to Robinson Canó to add another earned run to Lee 's line . Ryan Madson entered in the ninth to close the game , allowing one run on a double play but earning his first career World Series save .
= = = = Game 6 = = = =
The Yankees scored first when Matsui hit a two @-@ run home run with Rodriguez on base after a walk . The Phillies responded with a triple by Ruiz , who scored on a sacrifice fly by Rollins in the top of the third inning . Matsui added to the Yankee lead with a bases @-@ loaded single in the bottom of the inning , scoring Jeter and Damon . Martínez was relieved after four innings by Durbin , who allowed a ground rule double to Jeter , who later scored on a Teixeira single . Durbin hit Rodriguez and was relieved by Happ after recording one out . Happ allowed a two @-@ run double to Matsui , his fifth and sixth RBI of the game which tied a World Series record for most RBI in a single game set by Bobby Richardson in the 1960 World Series .
In the sixth inning , Howard 's home run following a walk issued to Utley brought the game to 7 – 3 . After Ibáñez hit a double into right field , Joba Chamberlain relieved Pettitte , allowing no further runs in the inning . In the top of the eighth inning , Dámaso Marte struck out Howard , which set a new World Series record for most strikeouts by a batter in a single series ( 13 ) . After the strikeout , Marte was relieved by Rivera in a non @-@ save situation , who allowed one hit and one walk before closing out the game and the Yankees ' 27th championship .
= = Awards = =
The 2009 Phillies captured the Warren C. Giles Trophy , as winners of the National League pennant . Baseball America named the Phillies as its Organization of the Year . The Philadelphia Sports Writers Association named the Phillies its " Team of the Year " .
Individual awards were won by Rollins , who won a third straight Rawlings Gold Glove Award at shortstop , Victorino , who won a second Gold Glove in the outfield ; Utley , who won his fourth consecutive Silver Slugger Award at second base ; Werth , who was named the " This Year in Baseball Awards " Unsung Player of the Year , and Howard , who was named the Most Valuable Player of the National League Championship Series . Happ was named the Players Choice Awards NL Outstanding Rookie by his fellow players and the " This Year in Baseball Awards " Rookie of the Year . He also received the Sporting News NL Rookie of the Year Award and was named to the Baseball America All @-@ Rookie Team ( as one of five pitchers ) and the Topps All @-@ Star Rookie team ( as the left @-@ handed pitcher ) .
The Philadelphia chapter of the Baseball Writers ' Association of America ( BBWAA ) presented its annual franchise awards to Ryan Howard ( " Mike Schmidt Most Valuable Player Award " ) , J.A. Happ ( " Steve Carlton Most Valuable Pitcher Award " ) , Jamie Moyer ( " Dallas Green Special Achievement Award " ) , and Brad Lidge ( " Tug McGraw Good Guy Award " ) .
Rubén Amaro , Jr . , was named the " This Year in Baseball Awards " Executive of the Year and the Philadelphia Sports Writers Association Executive of the Year . He was also inducted into the Philadelphia Jewish Sports Hall of Fame .
The Phillie Phanatic was awarded the " Great Friend to Kids " Award by the Please Touch Museum ( the Children 's Museum of Philadelphia ) .
On December 9 , 2009 , Sports Illustrated named Chase Utley as the second baseman on its MLB All @-@ Decade Team . On December 22 , Sports Illustrated named Pat Gillick as number 7 on its list of the Top 10 GMs / Executives of the Decade ( in all sports ) .
= = Regular season player statistics = =
All statistics are current through the 2009 regular season .
= = = Batting = = =
Note : G |
= Games played ; AB =
At bats ; R |
= Runs scored ; H =
Hits ; 2B |
= Doubles ; 3B =
Triples ; HR |
= Home runs ; RBI =
Runs batted in ; AVG |
= Batting average ; SB =
Stolen bases
= = = Pitching = = =
Note : W |
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