page
stringlengths 23
146k
|
|---|
= .hack ( video game series ) =
.hack / dɒt hæk / is a series of single @-@ player hack and slash developed for the PlayStation 2 console by CyberConnect2 and published by Bandai . The series of four games , titled .hack / / Infection , .hack / / Mutation , .hack / / Outbreak , and .hack / / Quarantine , features a " game within a game " ; a fictional massively multiplayer online role @-@ playing game ( MMORPG ) called The World which does not require the player to connect to the Internet . Players may transfer their characters and data between games in the series . Each game comes with an extra DVD containing an episode of .hack / / Liminality , the accompanying original video animation series which details fictional events that occur concurrently with the games .
The games are part of a multimedia franchise called Project .hack which explores the mysterious origins of The World . Set after the events of the anime series .hack / / Sign , the games focus on a player named Kite and his quest to discover why some users have become comatose as a result of playing The World . The search evolves into a deeper investigation of The World and its effects on the stability of the Internet .
Critics gave the series mixed reviews . It was praised for its unique setting and its commitment to preserve suspension of disbelief , as well as the character designs . However , it was criticized for uneven pacing and a lack of improvement between games . The commercial success of the franchise led to the production of .hack / / frägment — a remake of the series with online capabilities — and .hack / / G.U. , another video game trilogy .
= = Gameplay = =
.hack simulates an MMORPG ; players assume the role of a participant in a fictional game called The World . The player controls the on @-@ screen player character Kite from a third @-@ person perspective but first @-@ person mode is available . The player manually controls the viewing perspective using the game controller . Within the fictional game , players explore monster @-@ infested fields and dungeons , and " Root Towns " that are free of combat . They can also log off from The World and return to a computer desktop interface which includes in @-@ game e @-@ mail , news , message boards , and desktop and background music customization options . The player may save the game to a memory card both from the desktop and within The World at a Save Shop . A Data Flag appears on the save file after the player completes the game , allowing the transfer of all aspects of the player character and party members to the next game in the series .
The series is typical of action role @-@ playing games , in which players attack enemies in real time . The game 's action pauses whenever the menu is opened to select magic to cast , items to use , or skills to perform . The player directly controls Kite and the other characters are controlled by artificial intelligence . The player may either provide the computer @-@ controlled characters with guidelines ( " attack " , " first aid " , " magic " , etc . ) or issue direct commands . Most hostile creatures are contained within magic portals and combat will not begin until the player character approaches the portal and releases the monsters inside . Kite possesses a unique ability called " Data Drain " which allows him to transform these enemies into rare items . Many boss monsters are known as " Data Bugs " — enemies with corrupted data which gives them infinite health . Data Drain is used to repair the damaged monsters ' data and render them vulnerable but its use increases Kite 's level of infection , randomly causing harmful side effects . The infection can be cured by defeating enemies without Data Drain .
Root Towns are non @-@ combat areas of The World where the player may restock items , buy equipment , or chat and trade with other players of The World . In many towns , the player may also raise a sentient , pig @-@ like creature called a Grunty , which can be ridden in fields and in later games raced for prizes . A blue portal called the Chaos Gate is used to travel between towns ( called " servers " ) and to access the fields and dungeons where battles occur . A three @-@ word password system controls the characteristics of each area ; attributes such as the prevalence of monsters or items change depending on the properties of each word in the password phrase . Certain plot @-@ related areas have restricted access , but the player character has an ability called " Gate Hacking " which allows him to access these areas using " Virus Cores " obtained through Data Drain .
= = Plot = =
= = = Setting = = =
The .hack games are set in an alternate timeline of Earth , in the year 2010 . After a computer virus called " Pluto 's Kiss " crashes nearly every computer in the world , access to the Internet is closed to the general public to address security concerns . After two years without the Internet and online games , a MMORPG called The World is released . It becomes the most popular online game of all time with over 20 million unique players . Shortly before the events portrayed in the .hack games , a number of users become comatose as a result of playing The World . However , the developers blame their condition on cyberterrorism .
The World was developed by a German programmer named Harald Hoerwick ; its backstory is based on the Epitaph of Twilight , an epic poem by Emma Wielant . Her death inspired Hoerwick to create the game . Elements of the poem are coded into the game 's programming . The hidden purpose of Hoerwick 's game is to develop the ultimate artificial intelligence ( AI ) , which is capable of making decisions for itself . To this end , Hoerwick inserted functions into the system which monitor and extract behavioral data from millions of the game 's players to aid in the AI 's learning process . After Hoerwick 's death , these pieces of code became black boxes to the current developers , who cannot fathom their purpose , yet are critical to the proper functioning of the game .
= = = Characters = = =
The main protagonist of .hack is Kite , a new player of The World whose friend Orca becomes comatose under mysterious circumstances . Kite is joined by nearly twenty other players in his quest to solve the mystery of the coma victims . The players who have the greatest impact on the success of Kite 's mission are BlackRose , a fellow newbie to The World whose brother is also in a coma ; Balmung , a legendary player who seeks to eliminate sources of corruption in the game he loves ; and Wiseman , an information broker who becomes a key strategist for Kite 's team . Helba , a professional hacker , and Lios , a reluctant system administrator , also aid in Kite 's efforts to rescue the coma victims .
= = = Story = = =
In .hack / / Infection , Kite 's friend Orca invites him to play The World . In the first dungeon they visit , they encounter a girl in white , Aura , being chased by a humanoid monster . Aura tries to entrust Orca with an item called " the Book of Twilight " , but the monster attacks him , crashing The World 's servers . Kite 's player discovers that Yasuhiko , Orca 's player , has fallen comatose after the attack , and resolves to discover the cause . Kite meets BlackRose , who takes him to a cathedral where they are attacked by a headless swordsman . The legendary player Balmung appears and defeats it , but the monster revives itself as a Data Bug . The Book of Twilight then activates , altering Kite 's character data and giving him the Twilight Bracelet . He uses its Data Drain to correct the swordsman 's code , allowing Balmung to kill it . Balmung accuses Kite of causing the viral infection spreading through the game , and leaves . Kite and BlackRose decide to cooperate to help the coma victims . After investigating a number of leads , Kite and BlackRose track down Skeith , the creature that put Orca into a coma . They defeat Skeith , but it transforms into a larger enemy called Cubia , from which they escape .
In .hack / / Mutation , Kite and BlackRose encounter system administrator Lios , who declares Kite 's bracelet to be an illegal hack . He tries to delete Kite 's character data , but fails due to Kite 's data being encrypted by the Book of Twilight . Helba intervenes , and convinces Lios to observe Kite for the time being . Lios directs them to an area where they find Innis , a monster with powers similar to Skeith 's . Upon defeating Innis , Kite receives an e @-@ mail from Aura , who reveals that she is an AI . They travel to an area to meet her ; but Cubia attacks them , and they repel the monster with difficulty . Short on leads , they contact Wiseman , who is intrigued by Kite 's bracelet . He suggests that Skeith and Innis are based on the " Cursed Wave " , an antagonistic force featured in the poem Epitaph of Twilight , upon which The World is based . Wiseman helps grant them access to Net Slum , a place known as a paradise for hackers and wandering AIs . Upon arrival , another Cursed Wave monster called Magus attacks them . They defeat it and return to the Root Town , where they discover that the computer virus has spread to The World 's main servers and into the real world .
In .hack / / Outbreak , Balmung realizes that he cannot end the situation on his own , and joins Kite 's quest . BlackRose tells Kite that her brother became comatose under similar circumstances as Orca , which renews both characters ' determination . Wiseman formulates a plan to combat the Cursed Wave , enlisting Helba 's assistance . Their teamwork destroys the Wave monster Fidchell , but the aftermath causes networks in the real world to malfunction . Aura contacts Kite again , but their meeting is cut short by Cubia 's reappearance . Lios , observing Cubia 's power , agrees to join Kite , Helba , and the others to combat the Cursed Wave . In the resulting operation , the team pools their resources to defeat another Wave monster called Gorre , with no repercussions in the real world .
.hack / / Quarantine sees the current server becoming increasingly unstable . To fix the problem , Helba replaces it with a copy of the Net Slum . At the bottom of a dungeon , Kite encounters Mia , a member of his party . He discovers that Mia is actually another Cursed Wave monster named Macha , whom he reluctantly defeats . Meanwhile , Cubia grows stronger , and Kite 's team barely fends off its latest attack . In contrast , Operation Orca is a success as they destroy Tarvos , the next Wave monster . Kite seeks the advice of Harald Hoerwick , the creator of the game who survives beyond death through his AI incarnations . Aura appears and hints that Cubia is the " shadow " of Kite 's Twilight Bracelet . Cubia ambushes them and destroys the AI Harald . In their final battle , Kite recalls Aura 's hint and has BlackRose destroy the bracelet , causing Cubia to fade away . Without the bracelet , the final Wave member , Corbenik , ambushes the party in Net Slum Root Town . With the aid of the spirits of the coma victims , Kite penetrates Corbenik 's barrier . Aura sacrifices herself to end the battle , restoring the network to normal and reviving all the coma victims .
= = Development = =
Development for .hack began in early 2000 with the aim of shocking and surprising the player and creating a distinctive product . CyberConnect2 's president Hiroshi Matsuyama played a key role in developing the concept for the series . A number of core ideas , including " slaying dragons or being a thief in London " were explored , but these were rejected in favor of an " offline / online game " . Matsuyama said that this would give young gamers an opportunity to experience online play without paying monthly fees or needing powerful Internet connections . The developers looked at a number of MMORPGs such as Phantasy Star Online , Ultima Online , and Final Fantasy XI for inspiration , and drew influences from the prior works of character designer Yoshiyuki Sadamoto ( Neon Genesis Evangelion ) and scenario writer Kazunori Itō ( Ghost in the Shell ) . Itō noted that casting the player into the role of a subscriber of The World creates a unique story @-@ telling situation which draws the player deeper into the plot .
From the start of its development , .hack was envisioned as a four @-@ part series intended to mirror the four @-@ volume story arcs found in manga . Matsuyama theorized that the act of transferring saved data across the four volumes would help to create a sense of the human drama embodied by the games ' story and invest the player into the narrative . The games were developed simultaneously alongside other elements of Project .hack such as .hack / / Sign to emphasize the multimedia aspect of the franchise . The three @-@ month gap between each game 's release allowed the developers to make minor changes in response to criticisms . The games were packaged with bonus DVDs featuring episodes of .hack / / Liminality , an original video animation ( OVA ) series that depicts events that occur concurrently with the games . The developers intended the OVA series to depict fictional events happening in the real world outside the game . Players in Japan who purchased all four games were rewarded with .hack / / Gift , an OVA parodying the .hack series . After the completion of the series , the development team produced .hack / / frägment , a game using the same engine as the .hack series with an online multiplayer component . The aims of .hack / / frägment were to allow the developers to watch player interactions in an online environment and to gauge interest in an .
= = Reception = =
By March 2004 , sales of the .hack games exceeded 1 @.@ 73 million , with 780 @,@ 000 copies sold in Japan . Critics gave the series mixed reviews . .hack / / Infection received the most positive reviews of the series ; critics were intrigued by the games ' unique premise . Jeremy Dunham of IGN was impressed by the game 's commitment to preserve the illusion of online and praised the character designs and the inclusion of the Japanese voice track , but criticized the camera manipulation and the game 's shortness and lack of difficulty . A Game Informer reviewer praised the way it captures the sense of community that a real MMORPG offers .
Many reviewers cited the game 's unusual setting as the counterbalance to the mediocre gameplay , repetitive environments and poor camera control . Overall , the first game was moderately well received , with reviewers overlooking gameplay flaws because of a compelling story . Christian Nutt of Gamespy awarded if four stars out of five and commended Bandai for breaking new ground and Cyber Connect 2 for providing an engrossing RPG experience . Gary Steinman of Official U.S. PlayStation Magazine wrote , " [ a ] t its core , .hack is not a good game " , calling the battle systems " wildly unbalanced " and the graphics " spectacularly underwhelming " , but said the " mind @-@ bending " story allowed him to look past its obvious flaws and anticipate future games in the series . Greg Kasavin of GameSpot was less forgiving , deriding .hack / / Infection as a sub @-@ par version of Kingdom Hearts .
.hack / / Mutation also received mixed reviews , and many critics complained that little was done to address the problems of its predecessor . Fennec Fox of Gamepro said that game , " is simply an extension of Infection " , with " muddy graphics , questionable control , and a story concept that ’ s just interesting enough to keep you going . " Greg Kasavin of GameSpot gave it a rating of 6 @.@ 7 out of 10 and wrote , " not only does it bring you exactly the same sort of repetitive hack @-@ and @-@ slash gameplay , but it 's also similarly short and simple and once again offers little in the way of plot or character development . " Nutt found the second game to be more addictive than the first , despite its numerous shortcomings such as obvious padding towards the end of the story . He praised the " mixture of cool story and viscerally engaging RPG gameplay " , the accelerating story , gameplay progression and memorable boss battles . Other reviewers were encouraged by the MMORPG @-@ oriented details that contribute to the game 's presentation and built excitement for the future of the series . IGN also named .hack / / Mutation as PlayStation 2 Game of the Month for May 2003 .
.hack / / Outbreak represented a shift in the critical reception of the series as reviewers grew tired of the incremental or nonexistent improvements between titles . Kasavin rated it 6 @.@ 4 out of 10 , and wrote that it " just doesn 't make for a satisfying experience " . Dunham gave it an overall rating of 8 @.@ 4 out of 10 , praised the battle system and wrote that there had been a great improvement in the artificial intelligence of ally characters and enemies , although he was disappointed by the lack of any other changes . Nutt awarded .hack / / Outbreak three stars out of five , writing that the game 's " extremely challenging enemies and lots of solo missions give the game an edge that keeps it from becoming boring " . However , he criticized the four @-@ part game structure , observing , " we are paying Bandai $ 200 for one game " and that " the extreme lack of improvements from volume to volume is ... downright exploitative of the fans " .
Some critics called the final game , .hack / / Quarantine , a satisfying conclusion to a mediocre series , while others said it is a confusing mess of poor pacing and plot holes . Dunham awarded the game 8 @.@ 3 out of 10 and called the plot twists " shocking and clever " . Kasavin rated it 6 @.@ 1 out of 10 and wrote that , " [ o ] n its own merits , Quarantine isn 't a bad game , and [ loyal players ] should find it to have a satisfying conclusion that , sure enough , leaves the possibility for further adventures in The World " . He also called Bandai 's decision to add 60 to 80 hours of padding to the game , split it into four full @-@ priced products , and release these as a series disappointing . Nutt was similarly disappointed with the final game , awarding it two stars out of five . He wrote that the story was well @-@ presented and excellent , but that it was only present in the game 's first and last quarters . He was satisfied by the game 's ending and loved its story , style , and characters , but grew tired of the game 's " endless chains of chambers , these easily @-@ defeated enemies , this total lack of strategy " . The Game Informer reviewer hoped to see a more effective implementation of .hack 's concept in the future . Japanese magazine Famitsu Weekly gave the .hack games scores in the 29 to 30 out of 40 range , indicating average reviews . However , the Japanese Computer Entertainment Supplier 's Association ( CESA ) honored the series for its combination of different fictional media including games , anime , radio , and manga into a compelling whole at the 2002 @-@ 2003 CESA Awards .
= = Related media and legacy = =
The .hack video games are part of a multimedia franchise that includes novels , manga , and anime series . Set before the events of the video games , .hack / / Sign is an anime television series that establishes The World as a setting . .hack / / Another Birth is a series of novels that retells the story of the games from BlackRose 's perspective . .hack / / XXXX is a manga adaptation of the games ' story with changes to some elements , such as Cubia acting as a player character . The first official sequel to the games is the manga and anime series .hack / / Legend of the Twilight , which began serializing on July 30 , 2002 . It tells the story of Shugo and Rena — regular players who win avatars of Kite and BlackRose in a contest — and their exploration of The World and its secrets . .hack / / G.U. is a series of video games also released in multiple parts that forms the centerpiece of .hack Conglomerate , a new project set seven years after the events of Project .hack with a new version of The World .
= = = Music = = =
The games ' soundtrack , titled .hack / / Game Music Perfect Collection , was released as a double album in Japan on April 23 , 2003 . It features 68 compositions by Chikayo Fukuda , Seizo Nakata , and Norikatsu Fukuda . A special edition of this soundtrack includes a third disc featuring sound effects and clips used in the games . The album was released with fewer tracks in North America as .hack / / Game Music Best Collection . Patrick Gann of RPGFan wrote that the second disc , which contains music for cutscenes and special events , was stronger than the first disc 's generic town and battle themes . He called the soundtrack " techno meets opera " , singled out the volume intro tracks for particular praise . Gann noted that the North American release functions as a " Best of " album , but felt that " a lot of solid music [ is ] missing " in this release . Other reviewers were less enthusiastic ; Paul Koehler of RPGamer called the music " particularly bland " and IGN 's Dunham lamented that the second installment did not introduce many new pieces . However , he concluded that " the melodious piano and oboe themes were still brawny enough to convince us that we needed to buy the soundtrack sometime in the near future " .
.hack / / Game Music Perfect Collection
.hack / / Game Music Best Collection
= = = .hack / / frägment = = =
.hack / / frägment is a multiplayer online game based on the fictional MMORPG , The World . It was released only in Japan on November 23 , 2005 and online service ended on January 18 , 2007 , after being extended two months because of its popularity . Famitsu Weekly gave .hack / / frägment a cumulative score of 29 out of 40 over four reviews , much like its reviews of the main series . Designer Hiroshi Matsuyama described the game as a way to see how players would react to online play . The game uses the same game engine as the .hack video game series and thus , its gameplay is identical , with the exception of online mode . Players explore areas and fight monsters in real time . A major difference is that during online play , the action does not pause when the menu is opened . Players may still use the skill " Data Drain " to weaken monsters and collect rare items . The user interface and control scheme are otherwise unchanged .
Players may create their characters based on a number of preset body shapes and color schemes and may choose a class ( such as Wavemaster or Twin Blade ) and character name . In online mode , players may enter a lobby and search for a maximum of two other players to join them on an adventure . The game includes an expanded communication interface that allows players to chat , send e @-@ mail , post to an in @-@ game Bulletin Board System , and receive server news updates . It is possible to establish ad @-@ hoc chat rooms separate from the public @-@ access ones . Guilds are permanent , exclusive chat rooms for members . In offline mode , players may level up , obtain items , and learn new skills as one of their online mode characters without the need for an Internet connection . Players may invite characters from the .hack games , .hack / / Sign , and .hack / / Legend of the Twilight into their party . The " story mode " of .hack / / frägment is identical to that of the .hack games , with the player 's created character replacing Kite . While offline , players may use a PC utility called " HackServer " to create areas and dungeons and release them online . The creators of the most popular areas are given the ability to add strong monsters for players to defeat .
|
= Who 's That Girl ( 1987 film ) =
Who 's That Girl is a 1987 American screwball comedy film written by Andrew Smith and Ken Finkleman , and directed by James Foley . It stars Madonna and Griffin Dunne , and depicts the story of a street @-@ smart girl who is falsely accused of murdering her boyfriend and is sent to jail . After getting released , she meets a man , who is supposed to make sure she gets on her bus back to Philadelphia , and convinces him to help her catch those responsible for her confinement . While searching for the embezzler , they fall in love with each other .
After the failure of her 1986 film Shanghai Surprise , Madonna decided to sign another comedy film titled Slammer , which was later renamed to Who 's That Girl . However , she had to convince both Warner Bros. and the producers of the film that she was ready for the project . Madonna enlisted her friend James Foley to direct the film . Shooting began in New York in October 1986 , and continued until March 1987 . Production was halted during December due to snowfall in New York . Madonna utilized the time to work on her next tour and the soundtrack of the film .
The film was released on August 7 , 1987 , and was a box office bomb , grossing only $ 2 @.@ 5 million in its first week , with its final domestic total being about $ 7 @.@ 3 million . Critics were highly disappointed with the film , and Foley 's direction . Some went on to call it one of the worst films to be released , while others found Madonna 's comic timing to be one of the highlights .
However , the Who 's That Girl World Tour went on to be a critical and commercial success , grossing a total of US $ 25 million , and playing in front of audiences totaling 1 @.@ 5 million people . And the soundtrack of the film , though not acclaimed by the critics , enjoyed commercial success . Three of Madonna 's songs , the title track , " Causing a Commotion " and " The Look of Love " , were released as singles with the title track becoming Madonna 's sixth number one single on the US Billboard Hot 100 . The soundtrack album went on to sell six million copies worldwide .
= = Plot = =
Nikki Finn is a carefree young woman , who is always dressed in a leather jacket and skirt , with fire @-@ red lips , platinum bob hair and speaking in a high @-@ pitched voice . One day , her boyfriend Johnny uncovers two men stealing money out of a trust fund and takes pictures of the theft . Johnny puts the pictures in a safety deposit box and gives Nikki the key for safekeeping . The thieves catch Johnny and murder him , then frame Nikki by putting his body into the trunk of her car . Nikki is sentenced to seven years in prison . This is seen during the animated opening credits of the movie .
After four years , the story presents tax attorney Loudon Trott ( Griffin Dunne ) on a busy day . He is getting married to the daughter of one of the richest men in New York , Simon Worthington . Loudon 's bride Wendy Worthington ( Haviland Morris ) is a selfish woman who is more consumed in her wedding plans than in the well @-@ being of her fiancé . Loudon , on the other hand , has a number of duties entrusted to him by his boss ( and future father @-@ in @-@ law ) , Mr. Worthington ( John McMartin ) . First he has to pick up a cougar for an exotic animal activist named Montgomery Bell ( John Mills ) , then to pick up Nikki , and lastly he has to make sure that Nikki catches the next bus to her hometown of Philadelphia .
Nikki , meanwhile , is determined to catch the actual thieves and bring forth the truth . After meeting Loudon , Nikki cons him into taking her shopping . After taking a Rolls Royce into Harlem to buy a gun – and nearly being arrested during a police raid – she explains her story to Loudon who believes that she is innocent , and decides to help her . She 's also on the run from a pimp named Raoul ( Coati Mundi ) and his lackey Benny ( Dennis Burkley ) , the people who killed Johnny . Only after dangling off a car smashed through the top floor of a parking garage , does he tell her the bank and the box number of Nikki 's slain boyfriend .
Afterward Nikki vanishes with the cougar ( whom she names " Murray " ) . Loudon visits Mr. Bell to apologize for losing the animal , to find Nikki had delivered Murray and was waiting for him at Mr. Bell 's home . He has created a Brazilian rainforest filled with animals on top of his roof . There Nikki and Loudon — who had become close with each other on their journey — express their love for each other , and Murray finds a partner . Loudon delivers Nikki to the bus station the next morning , but Nikki becomes broken @-@ hearted , realizing that she has to go back to Philadelphia , leaving Loudon , who is about to get married . While on the bus , she opens an envelope in the security box and finds the photographs that prove that Mr. Worthington is an embezzler and he was the mastermind behind the theft . Nikki gate @-@ crashes the wedding , gets Mr. Worthington arrested and proclaims her love for Loudon . The film ends with Nikki and Loudon riding off into the sunset on a bus to Philadelphia , with Murray and his partner chasing after them .
= = Production = =
= = = Development = = =
Madonna 's 1986 studio album True Blue was a critical and commercial success , spawning five top @-@ five singles , and selling over eight million copies worldwide , by the year @-@ end . However , her film career was not as successful as she had hoped it would be . Following the commercially successful Desperately Seeking Susan , her 1986 film Shanghai Surprise — where she starred with her then husband Sean Penn — was a critical and box @-@ office failure , prompting Madonna to comment that she " struggled to come to terms with her character in Shanghai Surprise , because the innocence and repressed personality I was required to portray was so at variance with my own character . " Continuing to struggle with her film career , Madonna was unsure about of her ability to choose a good script , and film producers were less sure about backing her up .
Madonna felt that comedy was more of her repertoire , and proceeded to sign a comedy film titled Slammer , written by Andrew Smith and Ken Finkleman . She wanted to play the part of a street smart girl called Nikki Finn , who was jailed for a crime she did not commit . However , in light of the bad publicity surrounding her and Penn , and also of the very public failure of Shanghai Surprise , Madonna had to persuade producers Rosilyn Heller and Bernard Williams , as well as Warner Brothers , that she was up for the part . In addition , she wanted an old friend , James Foley to direct the film . Foley had previously been Penn 's best man at his marriage to Madonna , and had also directed the music videos of Madonna 's singles " Live to Tell " ( 1986 ) and " Papa Don 't Preach " ( 1986 ) . He was ecstatic at having the opportunity to make a major feature film , as previously he had only directed the small @-@ budgeted film At Close Range , starring Penn . As author Andrew Morton pointed out in his biography on Madonna , " the combination of a dubiously talented movie star and a first @-@ time movie director hardly guaranteed a box @-@ office hit , but the film received the go @-@ ahead from Warner , who wanted to encache more on Madonna 's success . " Madonna plowed gamely on , saying : " All Warner 's executives were real positive about the project . It was a process — with the writers — of honing the script , making it better . "
= = = Casting = = =
Casting for the film began as soon as Madonna had signed up for it . Griffin Dunne was signed to play the part of Loudon Trott , a lawyer whose job was to help Nikki get on a bus , after she was released . Initially Madonna had thought of asking Penn to play the part of Detective Bellson , but Penn was serving a 60 @-@ day jail term , having violated the probation he received in 1986 , for assaulting a friend of Madonna and attacking an extra on the set of At Close Range . The part went to Robert Swan , followed by the signing of John McMartin , Haviland Morris and Bibi Besch as Trott 's father @-@ in @-@ law , fiancée , and mother @-@ in @-@ law respectively . Madonna herself commented that she had a lot in common with the character Nikki . " She 's courageous and sweet and funny and misunderstood . But she clears her name in the last , and that 's always good to do . I 'm continuously doing that with the public . I liked Nikki 's tough side and her sweet side . The toughness is only a mask for the vulnerability she feels inside . " Madonna was also offered the lead role in the Blake Edwards comedy film Blind Date opposite to Bruce Willis , but she refused it in favor of Slammer . She said , " The thing I had planned to do after Shanghai Surprise was Blind Date at Tri @-@ Star . I was supposed to have the approval of the director and the leading man , but they didn 't tell me they 'd already hired Bruce Willis . That ... just didn 't work out . But I was really excited about doing a real physical , screwball comedy , so when Jamie brought this up , it was like my reward . " Coati Mundi , member of Kid Creole and the Coconuts , and Madonna 's long @-@ time friend joined the cast to play the role of Raoul , Nikki 's enemy . Costume designer Deborah Scott was signed to create the wardrobe for the film . Madonna , who visualized the character of Nikki as a dizzy screwball blond , started watching the screwball comedies of the sixties , especially the work of actors like Cary Grant , Clark Gable , Carole Lombard and Judy Holiday . She asked Scott to create comical rah @-@ rah and ballet tutu skirts for the character , with fishnet tights and loud make @-@ up . Scott also designed a glamorous Monroe @-@ esque dress for the love scene between her and Dunne .
= = = Filming = = =
Filming began in New York in October 1986 . There was a huge crowd around the shooting location trying to get closer to her , whenever she stepped on the set . But Madonna was approachable , signing autographs for the children of the crew , joining in with the wisecracking and when not busy , she used to dance around a boom box with Mundi . When shooting commenced , Madonna would ask for five minutes to study the script and the scene they were shooting ; her idea of preparing for the part was not studied . For example , before a scene in which she needed to appear out of breath , she did a series of push @-@ ups before going on set . Always punctual and professional on the set , Madonna felt that her first takes were perfect and refused to appear for second or third takes . Dunne observed that " [ Madonna ] likes her first take best . I think my best is around fourth . She always says , ' You got it , you got it , ' and she was driving me crazy just like her character would . We had to make a compromise as to which take is the best . " Once Foley got down on one knee and kissed Madonna 's feet in order to encourage her to do a re @-@ take . Afterwards he noted , " She 's very instinctual , what comes out is unencumbered by analysis . "
Madonna was ready to take direction for her part , relying on Foley to give her all the cues . He , on the other hand , felt that in person , Madonna seemed to morph into a whole different body and self . He believed the process to be oddly elusive and commented that her persona morphing seemed to work most dramatically in Madonna 's music videos . " You 'd think that that would be the perfect attribute to have for screen acting . But although she ' acts ' very well sometimes , she doesn 't push the right buttons at the right times over the course of the film . The failure of Shanghai Surprise had left its mark " , said Foley . Regarding her acting abilities , Foley stressed on the fact that Madonna was very uptight and into every detail , determined to have the correct portrayal . " That 's probably why it wasn 't so good . In Desperately Seeking Susan , when she didn 't know what she was doing , she was being natural and at her best . "
As December arrived , production was halted for a few days due to snowfall in New York City . Madonna decided to utilize the time by working on the soundtrack of the film and also started to note ideas for her next concert tour . While recording the title track , Madonna decided to change the film 's name from Slammer to Who 's That Girl as she felt it to be a better title . Filming commenced in January 1987 , with a scene involving a cougar . But during the second take , the cougar accidentally escaped from the cage , resulting in shooting being paused for a few hours . Madonna remained calm , later noting the incident as " extremely frightening , but I did my best to have my composure . That freaked the others more . " Mundi felt that " she 's got a bit of that perfectionist thing in her . She doesn 't rest . She 's got the movie , and the soundtrack album , and also planning her Who 's That Girl Tour , doing all these stuff at the same time ! " By February 1987 , Madonna 's scenes were already shot although she proceeded to linger on the set to watch Foley and his team work . Foley commented , that having Madonna around the set and not acting was a " pain @-@ in @-@ the @-@ ass " as she " wont skimp especially on cost and she should know that Warner had a tight schedule and constraints on the budget . They still did not trust Madonna when it came to acting . Hell they even gave a greater percentage of the budget to the soundtrack . " Filming ended in March 1987 , with post @-@ production continuing till July 1987 . During the development of the starting credits , Madonna asked Foley if they could have a cartoon figure of her character introducing the film credits . Foley liked the idea , and Warner enlisted cartoonist April March to create the cartoon .
= = Release and promotion = =
The film was released on August 7 , 1987 , in United States to 944 theatres . Warner Bros. did not arrange for an advance screening , as they believed that Madonna 's appeal would draw moviegoers to come to the film . A pre @-@ release celebration was held on August 6 , 1987 , at Times Square in New York , where Madonna arrived to promote the film . A crowd of almost 10 @,@ 000 people assembled to watch Madonna . As an introduction to the day , the radio jockeys from New York 's WHTZ radio station played Madonna 's popular songs in the Square , atop a platform created for the event . The police closed off 43rd and 44th streets , but allowing the traffic to pass through Broadway and Seventh Avenue of Manhattan . Around 6 PM , limousines started to arrive at the Square , with celebrities and the actors of the film entering the fanfare . Madonna arrived in a low @-@ cut , low @-@ backed sequined evening gown and the short hair she had adopted for the film . Although she was late by about an hour , the crowd number continued increasing . Asking her fans good @-@ naturedly to " Shut up , so I can talk " , Madonna thanked everybody for coming to the opening of Who 's That Girl . She talked about her experience of arriving in Times Square eight years before , and said , " I was completely awestruck . Ten years later , I see all of you who have come to see me , and I 'm completely awestruck . Thank you , and I hope you like the movie . " Saying this Madonna departed from the platform , and walked to the National Theatre . Joseph A. Cincotti from The New York Times noted that most of the crowd were in their late teenage years and early 20 's . Some held up signs and photographs but he noticed the Madonna wannabes were absent , the adolescent girls who had imitated Madonna 's early lace @-@ and @-@ leather look . This was a result of Madonna 's more mature image from True Blue .
To further promote the film , Madonna embarked on the 1987 Who 's That Girl World Tour . It was Madonna 's first world tour , reaching Asia , North America and Europe . Musically and technically superior to her previous Virgin Tour , the Who 's That Girl tour incorporated multimedia components to make the show more appealing . Madonna trained herself physically with aerobics , jogging and weight @-@ lifting , to cope with the choreography and the dance routines . The stage was bigger than her previous tour , flanked with four video screens , multimedia projectors and a flight of stairs in the middle . Leonard became the music director and encouraged Madonna to go with the idea of rearranging her older songs and presenting them in a new format . Madonna named the tour as Who 's That Girl , when during rehearsals one @-@ day she looked at a gigantic image of herself , projected on a screen on the stage and mused about how much she has changed and " who was that girl on the screen ? " . The show consisted of seven costume changes , with song @-@ and @-@ dance routines , theatrics , addressing social causes — during " Papa Don 't Preach " — as well as an encore , consisting of the title song " Who 's That Girl " and " Holiday " . The tour was critically appreciated , who commented on the extravagant nature of the concert and complimented Madonna for her dancing , costume changes and dynamic pacing . Who 's That Girl was a commercial success , grossing in total of US $ 25 million by playing in front of 1 @.@ 5 million audience members . According to Pollstar , it was the second top selling female concert tour of 1987 , behind Tina Turner 's Break Every Rule Tour .
= = Reception = =
= = = Critical response = = =
The film received negative reviews from critics , and has a rating of 23 % on review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes . Vincent Canby from The New York Times noted that Madonna , left to her own devices and her own canny pace , is a very engaging comedian . " When Madonna 's no @-@ nonsense pragmatism isn 't being twisted into poses of lovable eccentricity , the actress is sexy and funny and never for a minute sentimental . At times she looks amazingly like Marilyn Monroe , but the personality is her own , more resilient and more knowing . As the WASP @-@ y sleeping prince , Mr. Dunne gives the most stylishly comic performance of a career that 's been largely underrated by the public . Though he seems to be Madonna 's foil , he provides the movie with its backbone , even in its most ludicrous moments . He may well be one of the most truly sophisticated straight men in the business today . " However , he ended the review by saying that the film was short on outright guffaws . Hal Hinson of The Washington Post gave to the film a mixed review , commenting that " you may not feel as if you 've seen a movie . You may not quite know what you 've seen " and that although he laughed too much , the film " is outrageously inept , but not in a routine manner " . Hinson also criticized the work of Foley , noting that he " doesn 't have the skill to sustain a cartoon style . " Philip Wuntch from The Dallas Morning News commented that the film is a deft and daffy comedy performance ; Madonna is great with the one @-@ liners . [ ... ] As a movie star , Madonna may be an acquired taste . But one thing is certain : acquiring this particular taste is going to be an enjoyable experience . " Jay Boyar from Orlando Sentinel gave a negative review saying , " Luckily for her , Madonna can sing , and use it to save herself from this disgrace of a movie . "
Jamie Waylett from The Advocate was more critical , saying " Madonna delivers the worst performance in recent memory as the heroine of an attempt at screwball comedy . Watching her try to look like Marilyn Monroe and sound like Betty Boop , though , is a sure sign that this film was a disaster in the making . At the same time , it seems inconceivable that anyone would sit down and plan something so dreadful . " Carole Kass from Richmond Times @-@ Dispatch felt that since " Madonna is the idol of teen @-@ agers . If they imitate her hair and her makeup , these ' wanna @-@ bes ' who want to be like Madonna and dress like Madonna may be cute . But , as a popular personality , Madonna has a responsibility to her fans . And shoplifting is something not to promote . Nor is smoking . " Dan Dinicola from The Schenectady Gazette felt that " Who 's That Girl is not simply an awful film , it is positively unbearable . It 's a movie without a head or a brain , a picture of such crass stupidity that it can 't even make you angry . Instead it numbs you to death with its moronic platitudes , its pretensions to comedy . [ ... ] It 's a vanity project which is so amateurly produced and conceived that it makes you want to cringe in shame . [ ... ] Madonna is no more than a novelty item . " Johanna Steinmetz from Chicago Tribune complimented Dunne 's acting and said : " Fortunately the film has Griffin Dunne . Dunne , working in a domain once ruled by Cary Grant , manages to be stuffy , naive and vulnerable but never undignified as Loudon Trott , the New York lawyer . " Jean Rosenbluth from Rolling Stone was harsh about the film , saying " The question posed by the film 's title was Who 's that girl ? The answer provided by the box @-@ office receipts was , alas , ' The same one who appeared in Shanghai Surprise and bored us to death ' . "
The picture was the recipient of five Razzie Award nominations , including Worst Director ( James Foley ) , Worst Original Song ( " El Coco Loco " ) , Worst Screenplay and Worst Picture , with Madonna winning Worst Actress .
= = = Box office = = =
The film was released to a total of 944 theatres , with an extra 66 being added later . In its opening weekend , the film grossed $ 2 @.@ 5 million ( $ 5 @,@ 207 @,@ 235 in 2016 dollars ) , becoming the tenth highest grossing film of that week . The next week it had a 60 % decline in sales . The film grossed a total of $ 7 @.@ 3 million ( $ 15 @,@ 205 @,@ 126 in 2016 dollars ) worldwide , and was a box office bomb . It was placed at 97 on the top 100 movies of 1987 list . Morton noted that although " Madonna 's comic talent was acknowledged , cinemagoers in the United States stayed away in droves . " The film was better accepted in the foreign released territories , prompting Madonna to defend herself , rather weakly , that her ideas were better accepted in Europe and Japan , rather than her home country . She added , " I think the movie did badly in America because I upstaged it with my tour . People were confused about the connection between the record , the tour and the movie because they all had the same title . I also think there are people who don 't want me to do well in both fields . I had to really fight to get any respect from the music business and now I guess there are some people who feel that I ought to be grateful for that respect and stick to music . " Nevertheless , Warner Bros. decided to release the film in home media in VHS on November 11 , 1987 , a decision not approved by Madonna .
Foley accepted the failure of the film saying , " I knew it was doomed before even filming started . The day before the first shoot , I sat in my hotel and looked to the script thinking , ' Damn , wish I could re @-@ write this whole thing . ' After the film released , my dad called me up saying ' you know The New York Times are calling it the worst film of the year . " He recalled that both he and Madonna chose to overlook the failure of the film , and remembered one incident when he met Madonna at a hotel lobby . " She just looked to me once and said , ' So it 's a flop right ? ' That 's the only time she ever mentioned the film . Even Sean also never mentioned it in front of her . " In another article in The New York Times , Vincent Canby noted that Madonna 's real personality is of a " knowing , shrewd , pragmatic young woman , a performer of invigorating energy who still looks a lot like Marilyn Monroe , even with short hair , but who has much more in common with the enthusiastic , unembarrassed , comic tartness of Jean Harlow , somehow let loose on the streets of New York in the 80 's . " However , he felt that Who 's That Girl failed to portray that image , leading to its failure . The first half of the film showed a different personality of Madonna , trying to be comical , which was not accepted by the public .
= = Soundtrack = =
The soundtrack from the film was released on July 21 , 1987 , by Sire Records , and contains four songs by Madonna , and others by her label mates Scritti Politti , Duncan Faure , Club Nouveau , Coati Mundi and Michael Davidson . It is considered a Madonna album by Warner Bros. Records since the majority of the songs are sung by her . Madonna began working on the soundtrack in December 1986 , and contacted Patrick Leonard and Stephen Bray , both producers of her third studio album True Blue ( 1986 ) . She needed uptempo and downtempo songs for the soundtrack . The uptempo song , composed by Leonard , ended up being the title track for the film ; together , Madonna and Leonard also developed the downtempo ballad " The Look of Love " . Two more songs were composed for the film with Bray , the first being the dance @-@ y tune " Causing a Commotion " , and the other being " Can 't Stop " , a track inspired by Sixties Motown and the group Martha and the Vandellas .
After its release , Who 's That Girl soundtrack received mostly negative reviews from critics , who called it plain and incomplete , although citing the title track and " The Look of Love " as its highlights . The soundtrack was a commercial success , reaching the top ten of the album charts of the United States , Austria , Canada , France , Italy , New Zealand , Sweden and the United Kingdom , while topping the charts of Germany , and Billboard 's European Album chart . Worldwide , the album went on to sell six million copies . Three of the Madonna tracks were released as singles . The title track became her sixth number one single on the Billboard Hot 100 , making her the first artist to accumulate six number @-@ one singles in the 1980s , and the first female performer to get that many number @-@ ones as a solo act . " Causing a Commotion " was the second single , and it reached number two on the Hot 100 , and the top ten of the charts of other nations . " The Look of Love " was a European market @-@ only release , reaching the top ten in United Kingdom . Another track , " Turn It Up " was a promotional release in United States , reaching the number 15 on the dance charts .
|
= Man of Science , Man of Faith =
" Man of Science , Man of Faith " is the first episode of the second season of Lost and the 26th episode overall . The episode was directed by Jack Bender and written by Damon Lindelof . It first aired on September 21 , 2005 , on ABC . The flashbacks focus on Jack Shephard 's struggle to heal Sarah , who would later become his wife . In real time , John Locke and Kate Austen decide to enter the now @-@ open hatch shaft .
While writing the season premiere , the producers decided to pick up the hatch storyline which was left hanging after season one 's finale " Exodus " , leaving the raft events to be explained in the following episode , " Adrift " . " Man of Science , Man of Faith " received positive reviews , and stands as the most @-@ watched episode of the series in North America , with 23 @.@ 47 million viewers .
= = Plot = =
= = = Introduction = = =
A man ( Henry Ian Cusick ) wakes up from his bunk bed and immediately presses a few keys on what appears to be a late 1970s @-@ era computer . He then gets dressed , and begins his day as the camera moves about the surrounding rooms , which contain an assortment of objects from the 1960s to the present . He puts on some music , begins an exercise routine , has a shower , makes himself some breakfast , and injects himself with a vaccine . He is interrupted by an explosion , spurring the man to arm himself before using a telescope @-@ and @-@ mirror system . His gaze reveals the faces of Jack Shephard ( Matthew Fox ) and John Locke ( Terry O 'Quinn ) standing around the now @-@ open Hatch shaft .
= = = Flashbacks = = =
Jack encounters his future wife , Sarah ( Julie Bowen ) , who has arrived in his emergency room after a car crash . Jack saves Sarah 's life , but goes on to tell her that due to spinal cord injury , it is unlikely that Sarah will regain the ability to walk .
After being chastised by his father ( John Terry ) about his pessimistic bedside manner , Jack operates on Sarah , and goes running a Tour de stade . While running he falls , and meets another runner named Desmond , who tells him that he is training for a race around the world . Jack shares with Desmond how he failed Sarah , and Desmond advises him about his need to feel and provide more hope . When Jack returns to Sarah 's room , he discovers that she has experienced a miraculous recovery .
= = = On the island = = =
At the Hatch entry , Locke says that they should not wait for the sun to come up to enter the Hatch . Jack , on the other hand , feels that their entry should be delayed . At the same time , at the caves , Shannon Rutherford ( Maggie Grace ) and Sayid Jarrah ( Naveen Andrews ) search the jungle for Walt 's ( Malcolm David Kelley ) dog , Vincent . During the search , Shannon has a vision of Walt , dripping wet and speaking incoherently . She talks about this with the rest of the survivors , but no one believes her .
Upon reaching the caves , Jack explains the situation to the survivors , promising them they will be all right along with Kate , as long as they stay together . Locke then appears , carrying cable and saying he is going into the hatch . Soon after , Kate Austen ( Evangeline Lilly ) follows behind him . While Locke is easing her down the shaft , Kate realizes and mysteriously disappears during a sudden burst of light from within the Hatch .
Back at the caves , after informing the survivors why they went into the jungle and that Dr. Arzt ( Daniel Roebuck ) is dead , Jack decides that he is going after Kate and Locke . Upon reaching the Hatch , he finds no one there and rappels down the shaft on his own . While exploring , he comes across a painted mural , and a wall where the key hanging around his neck is pulled by a strong magnetic force . Finally , after being surprised by a bright light and loud music , he enters what appears to be an underground geodesic dome with computer equipment , including an Apple II Plus computer with its prompt glowing and its shift key relabeled execute . As Jack is about to use it , Locke appears and tells Jack not to touch it . After Jack raises the gun and asks where Kate is , Locke is revealed to be at gunpoint . The gunman threatens that he will shoot Locke if Jack does not surrender . Jack refuses , instead taunting Locke about his destiny . Finally , the gunman steps out and Jack seems to recognize him . The gunman is Desmond .
= = Production = =
While " Man of Science , Man of Faith " alludes to a quote in the previous episode where Locke describes himself as a man of faith and Jack as a man of science , writer Damon Lindelof stated that the episode has the title to imply that Jack is both , with the flashback making the empiricist " man of science " facing a miracle while treating a patient . The episode was written to focus on the opening of the hatch , so the other cliffhanger left in " Exodus " , the destruction of Michael 's boat and the kidnapping of his son Walt by the Others , would be explained in the second episode , " Adrift " . The cliffhanger also influenced the tone : the protagonists are expecting an attack by the Others , but the audience knows the Others are not coming since they were going for the boat instead . To make the episode accessible to new viewers , many instances of dialogue recap events of the first season .
The producers decided to start the episode inside The Swan because they considered the audience would expect to pick up from Locke and Jack looking into the hatch shaft , so the opening instead is filmed in a place that does not reveal its location or period - Jack Bender stated it made him remember a San Francisco apartment - until the explosion of the hatch . For the flashbacks , director Jack Bender decided to avoid making the hospital scenes similar to ER , filming mostly with handheld cameras to give a " spontaneous feel " to the scene . Sarah 's operation was filmed in an actual surgery room in Oahu , while Aloha Stadium in Honolulu is used for Jack and Desmond 's tour de stade .
Starting in this episode , the castaways start abandoning the caves , which the producers considered a location hard to film and " not aesthetically good " . The Swan would become a centerpiece location because of its mysteries and the commodities given to the protagonists , such as electricity and food . The station was designed to invoke modernism of the 1970s , similar to how Disneyland 's Tomorrowland evokes what was modern in the 1960s , but with an appearance that decayed after decades without maintenance . Foreshadowing the fact that the station is used for dangerous means , the design added the concrete wall with a magnetic force . The hatch shaft was completely computer generated with shots filmed using a greenscreen .
This is the first episode to feature the song " Make Your Own Kind of Music " by Mama Cass , which is heard in many later episodes . Lindelof picked the song as it reminded him of his childhood , as his mother " used to listen to on Sunday mornings , when she ’ d put on music , vacuum and cry . " Lindelof also declared that the song " lyrically felt right " , and had a haunting feeling due to Mama Cass ' personal history .
= = Reception = =
The season premiere hit a ratings high for the series , with 23 @.@ 47 million American viewers . The episode was third in the weekly audience ranking , behind CSI : Crime Scene Investigation and Desperate Housewives , and stands as the most watched episode of Lost .
Critical reviews were positive . Jeff Jensen of Entertainment Weekly was frustrated at the episode not revealing what happened to the raft characters and unveiling of so many new mysteries , but liked the writing and symbolism considering that " the whole enigmatic enterprise seemed grounded in rich layers of meaning " . TV Squad 's Keith McDuffee said he was " held in suspense " throughout the episode . Chris Carabott of IGN rated " Man of Science , Man of Faith " 9 @.@ 3 out of 10 , praising the flashbacks for being " edited incredibly well with the on island content " and Julie Bowen 's performance as Sarah . The Chicago Tribune 's Maureen Ryan described the episode as " a wonderfully paced , terrific return to form " . Ryan Mcgee of Zap2it considered the introduction in the hatch and Desmond 's scene with Jack at the stadium to be the highlights of the season premiere .
Director of photography Michael Bonvillain was nominated for a Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Cinematography for a Single @-@ Camera Series for this episode . IGN ranked " Man of Science , Man of Faith " the 18th best episode of Lost , while a similar list by Los Angeles Times ranked the episode 11th , saying it had the best Jack flashback and demonstrated " a show confident in itself and at the height of its powers " .
|
= Mumbai =
Mumbai ( / mʊmˈbaɪ / ; also known as Bombay , the official name until 1995 ) is the capital city of the Indian state of Maharashtra . It is the most populous city in India and the ninth most populous agglomeration in the world , with an estimated city population of 18 @.@ 4 million . Along with the neighbouring regions of the Mumbai Metropolitan Region , it is one of the most populous urban regions in the world and the seсond most populous metropolitan area in India , with a population of 20 @.@ 7 million as of 2011 . Mumbai lies on the west coast of India and has a deep natural harbour . In 2009 , Mumbai was named an alpha world city . It is also the wealthiest city in India , and has the highest GDP of any city in South , West , or Central Asia . Mumbai has the highest number of billionaires and millionaires among all cities in India .
The seven islands that came to constitute Mumbai were home to communities of fishing colonies . For centuries , the islands were under the control of successive indigenous empires before being ceded to the Portuguese and subsequently to the British East India Company when in 1661 King Charles II married the Portuguese Catherine of Braganza , and as part of her dowry Charles received the ports of Tangier and seven islands of Bombay . During the mid @-@ 18th century , Bombay was reshaped by the Hornby Vellard project , which undertook reclamation of the area between the seven islands from the sea . Along with construction of major roads and railways , the reclamation project , completed in 1845 , transformed Bombay into a major seaport on the Arabian Sea . Bombay in the 19th century was characterised by economic and educational development . During the early 20th century it became a strong base for the Indian independence movement . Upon India 's independence in 1947 the city was incorporated into Bombay State . In 1960 , following the Samyukta Maharashtra movement , a new state of Maharashtra was created with Bombay as the capital .
Mumbai is the financial , commercial and entertainment capital of India . It is also one of the world 's top ten centres of commerce in terms of global financial flow , generating 6 @.@ 16 % of India 's GDP and accounting for 25 % of industrial output , 70 % of maritime trade in India ( Mumbai Port Trust and JNPT ) , and 70 % of capital transactions to India 's economy . The city houses important financial institutions such as the Reserve Bank of India , the Bombay Stock Exchange , the National Stock Exchange of India , the SEBI and the corporate headquarters of numerous Indian companies and multinational corporations . It is also home to some of India 's premier scientific and nuclear institutes like BARC , NPCL , IREL , TIFR , AERB , AECI , and the Department of Atomic Energy . The city also houses India 's Hindi ( Bollywood ) and Marathi film and television industry . Mumbai 's business opportunities , as well as its potential to offer a higher standard of living , attract migrants from all over India , making the city a melting pot of many communities and cultures .
= = Etymology = =
The name Mumbai is derived from Mumbā or Mahā @-@ Ambā — the name of the patron goddess ( Kuladevi ) Mumbadevi of the native Agri , Koli and Somvanshi Kshatriya communities — and ā 'ī meaning " mother " in the Marathi language , which is the mother tongue of the kolis and the official language of Maharashtra .
The oldest known names for the city are Kakamuchee and Galajunkja ; these are sometimes still used . Ali Muhammad Khan , in the Mirat @-@ i @-@ Ahmedi ( 1507 ) referred to the city as Manbai . In 1508 , Portuguese writer Gaspar Correia used the name Bombaim , in his Lendas da Índia ( " Legends of India " ) . This name possibly originated as the Old Portuguese phrase bom baim , meaning " good little bay " , and Bombaim is still commonly used in Portuguese . In 1516 , Portuguese explorer Duarte Barbosa used the name Tana @-@ Maiambu : Tana appears to refer to the adjoining town of Thane and Maiambu to Mumbadevi .
Other variations recorded in the 16th and the 17th centuries include : Mombayn ( 1525 ) , Bombay ( 1538 ) , Bombain ( 1552 ) , Bombaym ( 1552 ) , Monbaym ( 1554 ) , Mombaim ( 1563 ) , Mombaym ( 1644 ) , Bambaye ( 1666 ) , Bombaiim ( 1666 ) , Bombeye ( 1676 ) , Boon Bay ( 1690 ) , and Bon Bahia . After the English gained possession of the city in the 17th century , the Portuguese name was anglicised as Bombay .
By the late 20th century , the city was referred to as Mumbai or Mambai in the Indian statewise official languages of Marathi , Konkani , Gujarati , Kannada and Sindhi , and as Bambai in Hindi . The Government of India officially changed the English name to Mumbai in November 1995 . This came at the insistence of the Marathi nationalist Shiv Sena party , which had just won the Maharashtra state elections , and mirrored similar name changes across the country and particularly in Maharashtra . According to Slate magazine , " they argued that ' Bombay ' was a corrupted English version of ' Mumbai ' and an unwanted legacy of British colonial rule . " Slate also said " The push to rename Bombay was part of a larger movement to strengthen Marathi identity in the Maharashtra region . " While the city is still referred to as Bombay by some of its residents and by Indians from other regions , mention of the city by a name other than Mumbai has been controversial , resulting in emotional outbursts sometimes of a violently political nature .
A resident of Mumbai is called mumbaikar in the Marathi language , in which the suffix kar means resident of . The term has been in use for quite some time but it gained popularity after the official name change to Mumbai .
= = History = =
= = = Early history = = =
Mumbai is built on what was once an archipelago of seven islands : Bombay Island , Parel , Mazagaon , Mahim , Colaba , Worli , and Old Woman 's Island ( also known as Little Colaba ) . It is not exactly known when these islands were first inhabited . Pleistocene sediments found along the coastal areas around Kandivali in northern Mumbai suggest that the islands were inhabited since the Stone Age . Perhaps at the beginning of the Common era ( 2 @,@ 000 years ago ) , or possibly earlier , they came to be occupied by the Koli fishing community .
In the third century BCE , the islands formed part of the Maurya Empire , during its expansion in the south , ruled by the Buddhist emperor , Ashoka of Magadha . The Kanheri Caves in Borivali were excavated in the mid @-@ third century BCE , and served as an important centre of Buddhism in Western India during ancient Times . The city then was known as Heptanesia ( Ancient Greek : A Cluster of Seven Islands ) to the Greek geographer Ptolemy in 150 CE . The Mahakali Caves in Andheri were built between the 1st century BCE and the 6th century CE .
Between the second century BCE and ninth century CE , the islands came under the control of successive indigenous dynasties : Satavahanas , Western Kshatrapas , Abhiras , Vakatakas , Kalachuris , Konkan Mauryas , Chalukyas and Rashtrakutas , before being ruled by the Silhara dynasty from 810 to 1260 . Some of the oldest edifices in the city built during this period are , Jogeshwari Caves ( between 520 and 525 ) , Elephanta Caves ( between the sixth to seventh century ) , Walkeshwar Temple ( 10th century ) , and Banganga Tank ( 12th century ) .
King Bhimdev founded his kingdom in the region in the late 13th century and established his capital in Mahikawati ( present day Mahim ) . The Pathare Prabhus , among the earliest known settlers of the city , were brought to Mahikawati from Saurashtra in Gujarat around 1298 by Bhimdev . The Delhi Sultanate annexed the islands in 1347 – 48 and controlled it until 1407 . During this time , the islands were administered by the Muslim Governors of Gujarat , who were appointed by the Delhi Sultanate .
The islands were later governed by the independent Gujarat Sultanate , which was established in 1407 . The Sultanate 's patronage led to the construction of many mosques , prominent being the Haji Ali Dargah in Worli , built in honour of the Muslim saint Haji Ali in 1431 . From 1429 to 1431 , the islands were a source of contention between the Gujarat Sultanate and the Bahamani Sultanate of Deccan . In 1493 , Bahadur Khan Gilani of the Bahamani Sultanate attempted to conquer the islands but was defeated .
= = = Portuguese and British rule = = =
The Mughal Empire , founded in 1526 , was the dominant power in the Indian subcontinent during the mid @-@ 16th century . Growing apprehensive of the power of the Mughal emperor Humayun , Sultan Bahadur Shah of the Gujarat Sultanate was obliged to sign the Treaty of Bassein with the Portuguese Empire on 23 December 1534 . According to the treaty , the seven islands of Bombay , the nearby strategic town of Bassein and its dependencies were offered to the Portuguese . The territories were later surrendered on 25 October 1535 .
The Portuguese were actively involved in the foundation and growth of their Roman Catholic religious orders in Bombay . They called the islands by various names , which finally took the written form Bombaim . The islands were leased to several Portuguese officers during their regime . The Portuguese Franciscans and Jesuits built several churches in the city , prominent being the St. Michael 's Church at Mahim ( 1534 ) , St. John the Baptist Church at Andheri ( 1579 ) , St. Andrew 's Church at Bandra ( 1580 ) , and Gloria Church at Byculla ( 1632 ) . The Portuguese also built several fortifications around the city like the Bombay Castle , Castella de Aguada ( Castelo da Aguada or Bandra Fort ) , and Madh Fort . The English were in constant struggle with the Portuguese vying for hegemony over Bombay , as they recognised its strategic natural harbour and its natural isolation from land @-@ attacks . By the middle of the 17th century the growing power of the Dutch Empire forced the English to acquire a station in western India . On 11 May 1661 , the marriage treaty of Charles II of England and Catherine of Braganza , daughter of King John IV of Portugal , placed the islands in possession of the English Empire , as part of Catherine 's dowry to Charles . However , Salsette , Bassein , Mazagaon , Parel , Worli , Sion , Dharavi , and Wadala still remained under Portuguese possession . From 1665 to 1666 , the English managed to acquire Mahim , Sion , Dharavi , and Wadala .
In accordance with the Royal Charter of 27 March 1668 , England leased these islands to the English East India Company in 1668 for a sum of £ 10 per annum . The population quickly rose from 10 @,@ 000 in 1661 , to 60 @,@ 000 in 1675 . The islands were subsequently attacked by Yakut Khan , the Siddi admiral of the Mughal Empire , in October 1672 , Rickloffe van Goen , the Governor @-@ General of Dutch India on 20 February 1673 , and Siddi admiral Sambal on 10 October 1673 .
In 1687 , the English East India Company transferred its headquarters from Surat to Bombay . The city eventually became the headquarters of the Bombay Presidency . Following the transfer , Bombay was placed at the head of all the Company 's establishments in India . Towards the end of the 17th century , the islands again suffered incursions from Yakut Khan in 1689 – 90 . The Portuguese presence ended in Bombay when the Marathas under Peshwa Baji Rao I captured Salsette in 1737 , and Bassein in 1739 . By the middle of the 18th century , Bombay began to grow into a major trading town , and received a huge influx of migrants from across India . Later , the British occupied Salsette on 28 December 1774 . With the Treaty of Surat ( 1775 ) , the British formally gained control of Salsette and Bassein , resulting in the First Anglo @-@ Maratha War . The British were able to secure Salsette from the Marathas without violence through the Treaty of Purandar ( 1776 ) , and later through the Treaty of Salbai ( 1782 ) , signed to settle the outcome of the First Anglo @-@ Maratha War .
From 1782 onwards , the city was reshaped with large @-@ scale civil engineering projects aimed at merging all the seven islands into a single amalgamated mass . This project , known as Hornby Vellard , was completed by 1784 . In 1817 , the British East India Company under Mountstuart Elphinstone defeated Baji Rao II , the last of the Maratha Peshwa in the Battle of Khadki . Following his defeat , almost the whole of the Deccan came under British suzerainty , and was incorporated into the Bombay Presidency . The success of the British campaign in the Deccan marked the liberation of Bombay from all attacks by native powers .
By 1845 , the seven islands coalesced into a single landmass by the Hornby Vellard project via large scale land reclamation . On 16 April 1853 , India 's first passenger railway line was established , connecting Bombay to the neighbouring town of Thana ( now Thane ) . During the American Civil War ( 1861 – 1865 ) , the city became the world 's chief cotton @-@ trading market , resulting in a boom in the economy that subsequently enhanced the city 's stature .
The opening of the Suez Canal in 1869 transformed Bombay into one of the largest seaports on the Arabian Sea . In September 1896 , Bombay was hit by a bubonic plague epidemic where the death toll was estimated at 1 @,@ 900 people per week . About 850 @,@ 000 people fled Bombay and the textile industry was adversely affected . As the capital of the Bombay Presidency , the city witnessed the Indian independence movement , with the Quit India Movement in 1942 and The Royal Indian Navy Mutiny in 1946 being its most notable events .
= = = Independent India = = =
After India 's independence in 1947 , the territory of the Bombay Presidency retained by India was restructured into Bombay State . The area of Bombay State increased , after several erstwhile princely states that joined the Indian union were integrated into the state . Subsequently , the city became the capital of Bombay State . On April 1950 , Municipal limits of Bombay were expanded by merging the Bombay Suburban District and Bombay City to form the Greater Bombay Municipal Corporation .
The Samyukta Maharashtra movement to create a separate Maharashtra state including Bombay was at its height in the 1950s . In the Lok Sabha discussions in 1955 , the Congress party demanded that the city be constituted as an autonomous city @-@ state . The States Reorganisation Committee recommended a bilingual state for Maharashtra – Gujarat with Bombay as its capital in its 1955 report . Bombay Citizens ' Committee , an advocacy group of leading Gujarati industrialists lobbied for Bombay 's independent status .
Following protests during the movement in which 105 people lost their lives in clashes with the police , Bombay State was reorganised on linguistic lines on 1 May 1960 . Gujarati @-@ speaking areas of Bombay State were partitioned into the state of Gujarat . Maharashtra State with Bombay as its capital was formed with the merger of Marathi @-@ speaking areas of Bombay State , eight districts from Central Provinces and Berar , five districts from Hyderabad State , and numerous princely states enclosed between them . As a memorial to the martyrs of the Samyukta Maharashtra movement , Flora Fountain was renamed as Hutatma Chowk ( Martyr 's Square ) , and a memorial was erected .
The following decades saw massive expansion of the city and its suburbs . In the late 1960s , Nariman Point and Cuffe Parade were reclaimed and developed . The Bombay Metropolitan Region Development Authority ( BMRDA ) was established on 26 January 1975 by the Government of Maharashtra as an apex body for planning and co @-@ ordination of development activities in the Bombay metropolitan region . In August 1979 , a sister township of New Bombay was founded by the City and Industrial Development Corporation ( CIDCO ) across the Thane and Raigad districts to help the dispersal and control of Bombay 's population . The textile industry in Bombay largely disappeared after the widespread 1982 Great Bombay Textile Strike , in which nearly 250 @,@ 000 workers in more than 50 textile mills went on strike . Mumbai 's defunct cotton mills have since become the focus of intense redevelopment .
The Jawaharlal Nehru Port , which currently handles 55 – 60 % of India 's containerised cargo , was commissioned on 26 May 1989 across the creek at Nhava Sheva with a view to de @-@ congest Bombay Harbour and to serve as a hub port for the city . The geographical limits of Greater Bombay were coextensive with municipal limits of Greater Bombay . On 1 October 1990 , the Greater Bombay district was bifurcated to form two revenue districts namely , Bombay City and Bombay Suburban , though they continued to be administered by same Municipal Administration .
From 1990 to 2010 , there has been an increase in violence in the hitherto largely peaceful city . Following the demolition of the Babri Masjid in Ayodhya , the city was rocked by the Hindu @-@ Muslim riots of 1992 – 93 in which more than 1 @,@ 000 people were killed . On 12 March 1993 , a series of 13 co @-@ ordinated bombings at several city landmarks by Islamic extremists and the Bombay underworld resulted in 257 deaths and over 700 injuries . In 2006 , 209 people were killed and over 700 injured when seven bombs exploded on the city 's commuter trains . In 2008 , a series of ten coordinated attacks by armed terrorists for three days resulted in 173 deaths , 308 injuries , and severe damage to several heritage landmarks and prestigious hotels . The blasts that occurred at the Opera House , Zaveri Bazaar , and Dadar on 13 July 2011 were the latest in the series of terrorist attacks in Mumbai .
Mumbai is the commercial capital of India and has evolved into a global financial hub . For several decades it has been the home of India 's main financial services , and a focus for both infrastructure development and private investment . From being an ancient fishing community and a colonial centre of trade , Mumbai has become South Asia 's largest city and home of the world 's most prolific film industry .
= = Geography = =
Mumbai consists of two distinct regions : Mumbai City district and Mumbai Suburban district , which form two separate revenue districts of Maharashtra . The city district region is also commonly referred to as the Island City or South Mumbai . The total area of Mumbai is 603 @.@ 4 km2 ( 233 sq mi ) . Of this , the island city spans 67 @.@ 79 km2 ( 26 sq mi ) , while the suburban district spans 370 km2 ( 143 sq mi ) , together accounting for 437 @.@ 71 km2 ( 169 sq mi ) under the administration of Municipal Corporation of Greater Mumbai ( MCGM ) . The remaining areas belong to various Defence establishments , the Mumbai Port Trust , the Atomic Energy Commission and the Borivali National Park , which are out of the jurisdiction of the MCGM .
Mumbai lies at the mouth of the Ulhas River on the western coast of India , in the coastal region known as the Konkan . It sits on Salsette Island ( Sashti Island ) , which it partially shares with the Thane district . Mumbai is bounded by the Arabian Sea to the west . Many parts of the city lie just above sea level , with elevations ranging from 10 m ( 33 ft ) to 15 m ( 49 ft ) ; the city has an average elevation of 14 m ( 46 ft ) . Northern Mumbai ( Salsette ) is hilly , and the highest point in the city is 450 m ( 1 @,@ 476 ft ) at Salsette in the Powai – Kanheri ranges . The Sanjay Gandhi National Park ( Borivali National Park ) is located partly in the Mumbai suburban district , and partly in the Thane district , and it extends over an area of 103 @.@ 09 km2 ( 39 @.@ 80 sq mi ) .
Apart from the Bhatsa Dam , there are six major lakes that supply water to the city : Vihar , Lower Vaitarna , Upper Vaitarna , Tulsi , Tansa and Powai . Tulsi Lake and Vihar Lake are located in Borivili National Park , within the city 's limits . The supply from Powai lake , also within the city limits , is used only for agricultural and industrial purposes . Three small rivers , the Dahisar River , Poinsar ( or Poisar ) and Ohiwara ( or Oshiwara ) originate within the park , while the polluted Mithi River originates from Tulsi Lake and gathers water overflowing from Vihar and Powai Lakes . The coastline of the city is indented with numerous creeks and bays , stretching from the Thane creek on the eastern to Madh Marve on the western front . The eastern coast of Salsette Island is covered with large mangrove swamps , rich in biodiversity , while the western coast is mostly sandy and rocky .
Soil cover in the city region is predominantly sandy due to its proximity to the sea . In the suburbs , the soil cover is largely alluvial and loamy . The underlying rock of the region is composed of black Deccan basalt flows , and their acidic and basic variants dating back to the late Cretaceous and early Eocene eras . Mumbai sits on a seismically active zone owing to the presence of 23 fault lines in the vicinity . The area is classified as a Seismic Zone III region , which means an earthquake of up to magnitude 6 @.@ 5 on the Richter scale may be expected .
= = = Climate = = =
Mumbai has a tropical climate , specifically a tropical wet and dry climate ( Aw ) under the Köppen climate classification , with seven months of dryness and peak of rains in July . The cooler season from December to February is followed by the summer season from March to June . The period from June to about the end of September constitutes the south @-@ west monsoon season , and October and November form the post @-@ monsoon season .
Between June and September , the south west monsoon rains lash the city . Pre @-@ monsoon showers are received in May . Occasionally , north @-@ east monsoon showers occur in October and November . The maximum annual rainfall ever recorded was 3 @,@ 452 mm ( 136 in ) for 1954 . The highest rainfall recorded in a single day was 944 mm ( 37 in ) on 26 July 2005 . The average total annual rainfall is 2 @,@ 146 @.@ 6 mm ( 85 in ) for the Island City , and 2 @,@ 457 mm ( 97 in ) for the suburbs .
The average annual temperature is 27 @.@ 2 ° C ( 81 ° F ) , and the average annual precipitation is 2 @,@ 167 mm ( 85 in ) . In the Island City , the average maximum temperature is 31 @.@ 2 ° C ( 88 ° F ) , while the average minimum temperature is 23 @.@ 7 ° C ( 75 ° F ) . In the suburbs , the daily mean maximum temperature range from 29 @.@ 1 ° C ( 84 ° F ) to 33 @.@ 3 ° C ( 92 ° F ) , while the daily mean minimum temperature ranges from 16 @.@ 3 ° C ( 61 ° F ) to 26 @.@ 2 ° C ( 79 ° F ) . The record high is 42 @.@ 2 ° C ( 108 ° F ) set on 14 April 1952 , and the record low is 7 @.@ 4 ° C ( 45 ° F ) set on 27 January 1962 .
= = Economy = =
Mumbai is India 's largest city ( by population ) and is the financial and commercial capital of the country as it generates 6 @.@ 16 % of the total GDP . It serves as an economic hub of India , contributing 10 % of factory employment , 25 % of industrial output , 33 % of income tax collections , 60 % of customs duty collections , 20 % of central excise tax collections , 40 % of India 's foreign trade and ₹ 4 @,@ 000 crore ( US $ 590 million ) in corporate taxes . Along with the rest of India , Mumbai has witnessed an economic boom since the liberalisation of 1991 , the finance boom in the mid @-@ nineties and the IT , export , services and outsourcing boom in 2000s . Although Mumbai had prominently figured as the hub of economic activity of India in the 1990s , the Mumbai Metropolitan Region is presently witnessing a reduction in its contribution to India 's GDP .
As of October 2015 , Mumbai 's GDP is $ 278 billion ( from 2014 ) . and its per @-@ capita ( PPP ) income in 2009 was ₹ 486 @,@ 000 ( US $ 7 @,@ 200 ) , which is almost three times the national average . Its nominal per capita income is ₹ 125 @,@ 000 ( US $ 1 @,@ 900 ) , ( US $ 2 @,@ 094 ) . Many of India 's numerous conglomerates ( including Larsen and Toubro , State Bank of India ( SBI ) , Life Insurance Corporation of India ( LIC ) , Tata Group , Godrej and Reliance ) , and five of the Fortune Global 500 companies are based in Mumbai . This is facilitated by the presence of the Reserve Bank of India ( RBI ) , the Bombay Stock Exchange ( BSE ) , the National Stock Exchange of India ( NSE ) , and financial sector regulators such as the Securities and Exchange Board of India ( SEBI ) .
Until the 1970s , Mumbai owed its prosperity largely to textile mills and the seaport , but the local economy has since then diversified to include finance , engineering , diamond @-@ polishing , healthcare and information technology . The key sectors contributing to the city 's economy are : finance , gems & jewellery , leather processing , IT and ITES , textiles , and entertainment . Nariman Point and Bandra Kurla Complex ( BKC ) are Mumbai 's major financial centres . Despite competition from Bangalore , Hyderabad and Pune , Mumbai has carved a niche for itself in the information technology industry . The Santacruz Electronic Export Processing Zone ( SEEPZ ) and the International Infotech Park ( Navi Mumbai ) offer excellent facilities to IT companies .
State and central government employees make up a large percentage of the city 's workforce . Mumbai also has a large unskilled and semi @-@ skilled self @-@ employed population , who primarily earn their livelihood as hawkers , taxi drivers , mechanics and other such blue collar professions . The port and shipping industry is well established , with Mumbai Port being one of the oldest and most significant ports in India . Dharavi , in central Mumbai , has an increasingly large recycling industry , processing recyclable waste from other parts of the city ; the district has an estimated 15 @,@ 000 single @-@ room factories .
Mumbai has been ranked sixth among top ten global cities on the billionaire count , 48th on the Worldwide Centres of Commerce Index 2008 , seventh in the list of " Top Ten Cities for Billionaires " by Forbes magazine ( April 2008 ) , and first in terms of those billionaires ' average wealth . As of 2008 , the Globalization and World Cities Study Group ( GaWC ) has ranked Mumbai as an " Alpha world city " , third in its categories of Global cities . Mumbai is the third most expensive office market in the world , and was ranked among the fastest cities in the country for business startup in 2009 .
= = Civic administration = =
Greater Mumbai , an area of 603 square kilometres ( 233 sq mi ) , consisting of the Mumbai City and Mumbai Suburban districts , extends from Colaba in the south , to Mulund and Dahisar in the north , and Mankhurd in the east . Its population as per the 2011 census was 12 @,@ 442 @,@ 373 .
It is administered by the Municipal Corporation of Greater Mumbai ( MCGM ) ( sometimes referred to as the Brihanmumbai Municipal Corporation ) , formerly known as the Bombay Municipal Corporation ( BMC ) . The MCGM is in charge of the civic and infrastructure needs of the metropolis . The Mayor is chosen through indirect election by the councillors from among themselves for a term of two and half years .
The Municipal Commissioner is the chief Executive Officer and head of the executive arm of the Municipal Corporation . All executive powers are vested in the Municipal Commissioner who is an Indian Administrative Service ( IAS ) officer appointed by the state government . Although the Municipal Corporation is the legislative body that lays down policies for the governance of the city , it is the Commissioner who is responsible for the execution of the policies . The Commissioner is appointed for a fixed term as defined by state statute . The powers of the Commissioner are those provided by statute and those delegated by the Corporation or the Standing Committee .
The Municipal Corporation of Greater Mumbai was ranked 9th out of 21 Cities for best governance & administrative practices in India in 2014 . It scored 3 @.@ 5 on 10 compared to the national average of 3 @.@ 3 .
The two revenue districts of Mumbai come under the jurisdiction of a District Collector . The Collectors are in charge of property records and revenue collection for the Central Government , and oversee the national elections held in the city .
The Mumbai Police is headed by a Police Commissioner , who is an Indian Police Service ( IPS ) officer . The Mumbai Police is a division of the Maharashtra Police , under the state Home Ministry . The city is divided into seven police zones and seventeen traffic police zones , each headed by a Deputy Commissioner of Police . The Traffic Police is a semi @-@ autonomous body under the Mumbai Police . The Mumbai Fire Brigade , under the jurisdiction of the Municipal Corporation , is headed by the Chief Fire Officer , who is assisted by four Deputy Chief Fire Officers and six Divisional Officers .
Mumbai is the seat of the Bombay High Court , which exercises jurisdiction over the states of Maharashtra and Goa , and the Union Territories of Daman and Diu and Dadra and Nagar Haveli . Mumbai also has two lower courts , the Small Causes Court for civil matters , and the Sessions Court for criminal cases . Mumbai also has a special Terrorist and Disruptive Activities ( TADA ) court for people accused of conspiring and abetting acts of terrorism in the city .
= = Politics = =
Mumbai had been a traditional stronghold and birthplace of the Indian National Congress , also known as the Congress Party . The first session of the Indian National Congress was held in Bombay from 28 – 31 December 1885 . The city played host to the Indian National Congress six times during its first 50 years , and became a strong base for the Indian independence movement during the 20th century .
The 1960s saw the rise of regionalist politics in Bombay , with the formation of the Shiv Sena on 19 June 1966 , out of a feeling of resentment about the relative marginalisation of the native Marathi people in Bombay . Shiv Sena switched from ' Marathi Cause ' to larger ' Hindutva Cause ' in 1985 and joined hands with Bhartiya Janata Party ( BJP ) in same year . The Congress had dominated the politics of Bombay from independence until the early 1980s , when the Shiv Sena won the 1985 Bombay Municipal Corporation elections .
In 1989 , the Bharatiya Janata Party ( BJP ) , a major national political party , forged an electoral alliance with the Shiv Sena to dislodge the Congress in the Maharashtra Legislative Assembly elections . In 1999 , several members left the Congress to form the Nationalist Congress Party ( NCP ) but later allied with the Congress as part of an alliance known as the Democratic Front . Currently , other parties such as Maharashtra Navnirman Sena ( MNS ) , Samajwadi Party ( SP ) , Bahujan Samaj Party ( BSP ) , and several independent candidates also contest elections in the city .
In the Indian national elections held every five years , Mumbai is represented by six parliamentary constituencies : North , North West , North East , North Central , South Central , and South . A Member of parliament ( MP ) to the Lok Sabha , the lower house of the Indian Parliament , is elected from each of the parliamentary constituencies . In the 2014 national elections , all six parliamentary constituencies were won by the BJP and Shiv Sena in alliance , with both parties winning three seats each .
In the Maharashtra state assembly elections held every five years , Mumbai is represented by 36 assembly constituencies . A Member of the Legislative Assembly ( MLA ) to the Maharashtra Vidhan Sabha ( Legislative Assembly ) is elected from each of the assembly constituencies . In the 2014 state assembly elections , out of the 36 assembly constituencies , 15 were won by the BJP , 14 by the Shiv Sena and 5 by the Congress .
Elections are also held every five years to elect corporators to power in the MCGM . The Corporation comprises 227 directly elected Councillors representing the 24 municipal wards , five nominated Councillors having special knowledge or experience in municipal administration , and a Mayor whose role is mostly ceremonial . In the 2012 municipal corporation elections , out of the 227 seats , the Shiv Sena @-@ BJP alliance secured 107 seats , holding power with the support of independent candidates in the MCGM , while the Congress @-@ NCP alliance bagged 64 seats . The tenure of the Mayor , Deputy Mayor , and Municipal Commissioner is two and a half years .
= = Transport = =
= = = Public transport = = =
Public transport systems in Mumbai include the Mumbai Suburban Railway , Monorail , Metro , Brihanmumbai Electric Supply and Transport ( BEST ) buses , black @-@ and @-@ yellow meter taxis , auto rickshaws and ferries . Suburban railway and BEST bus services together accounted for about 88 % of the passenger traffic in 2008 . Auto rickshaws are allowed to operate only in the suburban areas of Mumbai , while taxis are allowed to operate throughout Mumbai , but generally operate in South Mumbai . Taxis and rickshaws in Mumbai are required by law to run on compressed natural gas ( CNG ) , and are a convenient , economical , and easily available means of transport .
= = = = Rail = = = =
The Mumbai Suburban Railway , popularly referred to as Locals forms the backbone of the city 's transport system . It is operated by the Central Railway and Western Railway zones of the Indian Railways . Mumbai 's suburban rail systems carried a total of 6 @.@ 3 million passengers every day in 2007 , which is more than half of the Indian Railways daily carrying capacity . Trains are overcrowded during peak hours , with nine @-@ car trains of rated capacity 1 @,@ 700 passengers , actually carrying around 4 @,@ 500 passengers at peak hours . The Mumbai rail network is spread at an expanse of 319 route kilometres . 191 rakes ( train @-@ sets ) of 9 car and 12 car composition are utilised to run a total of 2 @,@ 226 train services in the city .
The Mumbai Monorail and Mumbai Metro have been built and are being extended in phases to relieve overcrowding on the existing network . The Monorail opened in early February 2014 . The first line of the Mumbai Metro opened in early June 2014 .
Mumbai is the headquarters of two zones of the Indian Railways : the Central Railway ( CR ) headquartered at Chhatrapati Shivaji Terminus ( formerly Victoria Terminus ) , and the Western Railway ( WR ) headquartered at Churchgate . Mumbai is also well connected to most parts of India by the Indian Railways . Long @-@ distance trains originate from Chhatrapati Shivaji Terminus , Dadar , Lokmanya Tilak Terminus , Mumbai Central , Bandra Terminus , Andheri and Borivali .
= = = = Bus = = = =
Mumbai 's bus services carried over 5 @.@ 5 million passengers per day in 2008 , which dropped to 2 @.@ 8 million in 2015 . Public buses run by BEST cover almost all parts of the metropolis , as well as parts of Navi Mumbai , Mira @-@ Bhayandar and Thane . The BEST operates a total of 4 @,@ 608 buses with CCTV cameras installed , ferrying 4 @.@ 5 million passengers daily over 390 routes . Its fleet consists of single @-@ decker , double @-@ decker , vestibule , low @-@ floor , disabled @-@ friendly , air @-@ conditioned and Euro III compliant diesel and compressed natural gas powered buses . BEST introduced air @-@ conditioned buses in 1998 . BEST buses are red in colour , based originally on the Routemaster buses of London . Maharashtra State Road Transport Corporation ( MSRTC , also known as ST ) buses provide intercity transport connecting Mumbai with other towns and cities of Maharashtra and nearby states . The Navi Mumbai Municipal Transport ( NMMT ) and Thane Municipal Transport ( TMT ) also operate their buses in Mumbai , connecting various nodes of Navi Mumbai and Thane to parts of Mumbai .
Buses are generally favoured for commuting short to medium distances , while train fares are more economical for longer distance commutes .
The Mumbai Darshan is a tourist bus service which explores numerous tourist attractions in Mumbai . Bus Rapid Transit System ( BRTS ) lanes have been planned throughout Mumbai . Though 88 % of the city 's commuters travel by public transport , Mumbai still continues to struggle with traffic congestion . Mumbai 's transport system has been categorised as one of the most congested in the world .
= = = = Water = = = =
Water transport in Mumbai consists of ferries , hovercrafts and catamarans . Services are provided by both government agencies as well as private partners . Hovercraft services plied briefly in the late 1990s between the Gateway of India and CBD Belapur in Navi Mumbai . They were subsequently scrapped due to lack of adequate infrastructure .
= = = Road = = =
Mumbai is served by National Highway 3 , National Highway 4 , National Highway 8 , National Highway 17 and National Highway 222 of India 's National Highways system . The Mumbai @-@ Pune Expressway was the first expressway built in India . The Eastern Freeway was opened in 2013 . The Mumbai Nashik Expressway , Mumbai @-@ Vadodara Expressway , are under construction . The Bandra @-@ Worli Sea Link bridge , along with Mahim Causeway , links the island city to the western suburbs . The three major road arteries of the city are the Eastern Express Highway from Sion to Thane , the Sion Panvel Expressway from Sion to Panvel and the Western Express Highway from Bandra to Dahisar . Mumbai has approximately 1 @,@ 900 km ( 1 @,@ 181 mi ) of roads . There are five tolled entry points to the city by road .
Mumbai had about 721 @,@ 000 private vehicles as of March 2014 , 56 @,@ 459 black and yellow taxis as of 2005 , and 106 @,@ 000 auto rickshaws , as of May 2013 .
= = = Air = = =
The Chhatrapati Shivaji International Airport ( formerly Sahar International Airport ) is the main aviation hub in the city and the second busiest airport in India in terms of passenger traffic . It handled 36 @.@ 6 million passengers and 694 @,@ 300 tonnes of cargo during FY 2014 – 2015 . An upgrade plan was initiated in 2006 , targeted at increasing the capacity of the airport to handle up to 40 million passengers annually and the new terminal T2 was opened in February 2014 .
The proposed Navi Mumbai International Airport to be built in the Kopra @-@ Panvel area has been sanctioned by the Indian Government and will help relieve the increasing traffic burden on the existing airport .
The Juhu Aerodrome was India 's first airport , and now hosts the Bombay Flying Club and a heliport operated by state @-@ owned Pawan Hans .
= = = Sea = = =
Mumbai is served by two major ports , Mumbai Port Trust and Jawaharlal Nehru Port Trust , which lies just across the creek in Navi Mumbai . Mumbai Port has one of the best natural harbours in the world , and has extensive wet and dry dock accommodation facilities . Jawaharlal Nehru Port , commissioned on 26 May 1989 , is the busiest and most modern major port in India . It handles 55 – 60 % of the country 's total containerised cargo . Ferries from Ferry Wharf in Mazagaon allow access to islands near the city .
The city is also the headquarters of the Western Naval Command , and also an important base for the Indian Navy .
= = Utility services = =
Under colonial rule , tanks were the only source of water in Mumbai , with many localities having been named after them . The MCGM supplies potable water to the city from six lakes , most of which comes from the Tulsi and Vihar lakes . The Tansa lake supplies water to the western suburbs and parts of the island city along the Western Railway . The water is filtered at Bhandup , which is Asia 's largest water filtration plant . India 's first underground water tunnel was completed in Mumbai to supply water to the Bhandup filtration plant .
About 700 million litres of water , out of a daily supply of 3500 million litres , is lost by way of water thefts , illegal connections and leakages , per day in Mumbai . Almost all of Mumbai 's daily refuse of 7 @,@ 800 metric tonnes , of which 40 metric tonnes is plastic waste , is transported to dumping grounds in Gorai in the northwest , Mulund in the northeast , and to the Deonar dumping ground in the east . Sewage treatment is carried out at Worli and Bandra , and disposed of by two independent marine outfalls of 3 @.@ 4 km ( 2 @.@ 1 mi ) and 3 @.@ 7 km ( 2 @.@ 3 mi ) at Bandra and Worli respectively .
Electricity is distributed by the Brihanmumbai Electric Supply and Transport ( BEST ) undertaking in the island city , and by Reliance Energy , Tata Power , and the Maharashtra State Electricity Distribution Co . Ltd ( Mahavitaran ) in the suburbs . Consumption of electricity is growing faster than production capacity . Power supply cables are underground , which reduces pilferage , thefts and other losses .
Cooking gas is supplied in the form of liquefied petroleum gas cylinders sold by state @-@ owned oil companies , as well as through piped natural gas supplied by Mahanagar Gas Limited .
The largest telephone service provider is the state @-@ owned MTNL , which held a monopoly over fixed line and cellular services up until 2000 , and provides fixed line as well as mobile WLL services . Mobile phone coverage is extensive , and the main service providers are Vodafone Essar , Airtel , MTNL , Loop Mobile , Reliance Communications , Idea Cellular and Tata Indicom . Both GSM and CDMA services are available in the city . Mumbai , along with the area served by telephone exchanges in Navi Mumbai and Kalyan is classified as a Metro telecom circle . Many of the above service providers also provide broadband internet and wireless internet access in Mumbai . As of 2014 , Mumbai had the highest number of internet users in India with 16 @.@ 4 million users .
= = Architecture = =
The architecture of the city is a blend of Gothic Revival , Indo @-@ Saracenic , Art Deco , and other contemporary styles . Most of the buildings during the British period , such as the Victoria Terminus and Bombay University , were built in Gothic Revival style . Their architectural features include a variety of European influences such as German gables , Dutch roofs , Swiss timbering , Romance arches , Tudor casements , and traditional Indian features . There are also a few Indo @-@ Saracenic styled buildings such as the Gateway of India . Art Deco styled landmarks can be found along the Marine Drive and west of the Oval Maidan . Mumbai has the second largest number of Art Deco buildings in the world after Miami . In the newer suburbs , modern buildings dominate the landscape . Mumbai has by far the largest number of skyscrapers in India , with 956 existing buildings and 272 under construction as of 2009 .
The Mumbai Heritage Conservation Committee ( MHCC ) , established in 1995 , formulates special regulations and by @-@ laws to assist in the conservation of the city 's heritage structures . Mumbai has two UNESCO World Heritage Sites , the Chhatrapati Shivaji Terminus and the Elephanta Caves . In the south of Mumbai , there are colonial @-@ era buildings and Soviet @-@ style offices . In the east are factories and some slums . On the West coast are former @-@ textile mills being demolished and skyscrapers built on top . There are 31 buildings taller than 100m , compared with 200 in Shanghai , 500 in Hong Kong and 500 in New York .
= = Demographics = =
According to the 2011 census , the population of Mumbai was 12 @,@ 479 @,@ 608 . The population density is estimated to be about 20 @,@ 482 persons per square kilometre . The living space is 4.5sq metre per person . As Per 2011 census , Greater Mumbai , the area under the administration of the MCGM , has a literacy rate of 94 @.@ 7 % , higher than the national average of 86 @.@ 7 % . The number of slum @-@ dwellers is estimated to be 9 million , up from 6 million in 2001 , that is , 62 % of all Mumbaikars live in informal slums .
The sex ratio in 2011 was 838 females per 1 @,@ 000 males in the island city , 857 in the suburbs , and 848 as a whole in Greater Mumbai , all numbers lower than the national average of 914 females per 1 @,@ 000 males . The low sex ratio is partly because of the large number of male migrants who come to the city to work .
Residents of Mumbai call themselves Mumbaikar , Mumbaiite , Bombayite or Bombaiite . Mumbai has a large polyglot population like any other metropolitan city of India . Sixteen major languages of India are also spoken in Mumbai , most common being Marathi , Hindi , Gujarati and English . English is extensively spoken and is the principal language of the city 's white collar workforce . A colloquial form of Hindi , known as Bambaiya – a blend of Marathi , Hindi , Gujarati , Konkani , Urdu , Indian English and some invented words – is spoken on the streets .
Mumbai suffers from the same major urbanisation problems seen in many fast growing cities in developing countries : widespread poverty and unemployment , poor public health and poor civic and educational standards for a large section of the population . With available land at a premium , Mumbai residents often reside in cramped , relatively expensive housing , usually far from workplaces , and therefore requiring long commutes on crowded mass transit , or clogged roadways . Many of them live in close proximity to bus or train stations although suburban residents spend significant time travelling southward to the main commercial district . Dharavi , Asia 's second largest slum ( if Karachi 's Orangi Town is counted as a single slum ) is located in central Mumbai and houses between 800 @,@ 000 and one million people in 2 @.@ 39 square kilometres ( 0 @.@ 92 sq mi ) , making it one of the most densely populated areas on Earth with a population density of at least 334 @,@ 728 persons per square kilometre . With a literacy rate of 69 % , the slums in Mumbai are the most literate in India .
The number of migrants to Mumbai from outside Maharashtra during the 1991 – 2001 decade was 1 @.@ 12 million , which amounted to 54 @.@ 8 % of the net addition to the population of Mumbai .
The number of households in Mumbai is forecast to rise from 4 @.@ 2 million in 2008 to 6 @.@ 6 million in 2020 . The number of households with annual incomes of 2 million rupees will increase from 4 % to 10 % by 2020 , amounting to 660 @,@ 000 families . The number of households with incomes from 1 – 2 million rupees is also estimated to increase from 4 % to 15 % by 2020 . According to Report of Central Pollution Control Board ( CPCB ) 2016 Mumbai is the noisiest city in India before Lucknow , Hyderabad and Delhi .
= = = Ethnic groups and religion = = =
The religious groups represented in Mumbai as of 2011 include Hindus ( 65 @.@ 99 % ) , Muslims ( 20 @.@ 65 % ) , Buddhists ( 4 @.@ 85 % ) , Jains ( 4 @.@ 10 % ) , Christians ( 3 @.@ 27 % ) , Sikhs ( 0 @.@ 58 % ) , with Parsis and Jews making up the rest of the population . The linguistic / ethnic demographics are : Maharashtrians ( 42 % ) , Gujaratis ( 19 % ) , with the rest hailing from other parts of India .
Native Christians include East Indian Catholics , who were converted by the Portuguese during the 16th century , while Goan and Mangalorean Catholics also constitute a significant portion of the Christian community of the city . Jews settled in Bombay during the 18th century . The Bene Israeli Jewish community of Bombay , who migrated from the Konkan villages , south of Bombay , are believed to be the descendants of the Jews of Israel who were shipwrecked off the Konkan coast , probably in the year 175 BCE , during the reign of the Greek ruler , Antiochus IV Epiphanes . Mumbai is also home to the largest population of Parsi Zoroastrians in the world , numbering about 80 @,@ 000 . Parsis migrated to India from Pars ( Persia / Iran ) following the Muslim conquest of Persia in the seventh century . The oldest Muslim communities in Mumbai include the Dawoodi Bohras , Ismaili Khojas , and Konkani Muslims .
= = Culture = =
Mumbai 's culture is a blend of traditional festivals , food , music , and theatres . The city offers a cosmopolitan and diverse lifestyle with a variety of food , entertainment , and night life , available in a form and abundance comparable to that in other world capitals . Mumbai 's history as a major trading centre has led to a diverse range of cultures , religions , and cuisines coexisting in the city . This unique blend of cultures is due to the migration of people from all over India since the British period .
Mumbai is the birthplace of Indian cinema — Dadasaheb Phalke laid the foundations with silent movies followed by Marathi talkies — and the oldest film broadcast took place in the early 20th century . Mumbai also has a large number of cinema halls that feature Bollywood , Marathi and Hollywood movies . The Mumbai International Film Festival and the award ceremony of the Filmfare Awards , the oldest and prominent film awards given for Hindi film industry in India , are held in Mumbai . Despite most of the professional theatre groups that formed during the British Raj having disbanded by the 1950s , Mumbai has developed a thriving " theatre movement " tradition in Marathi , Hindi , English , and other regional languages .
Contemporary art is featured in both government @-@ funded art spaces and private commercial galleries . The government @-@ funded institutions include the Jehangir Art Gallery and the National Gallery of Modern Art . Built in 1833 , the Asiatic Society of Bombay is one of the oldest public libraries in the city . The Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj Vastu Sangrahalaya ( formerly The Prince of Wales Museum ) is a renowned museum in South Mumbai which houses rare ancient exhibits of Indian history .
Mumbai has a zoo named Jijamata Udyaan ( formerly Victoria Gardens ) , which also harbours a garden . The rich literary traditions of the city have been highlighted internationally by Booker Prize winners Salman Rushdie , Aravind Adiga . Marathi literature has been modernised in the works of Mumbai @-@ based authors such as Mohan Apte , Anant Kanekar , and Gangadhar Gadgil , and is promoted through an annual Sahitya Akademi Award , a literary honour bestowed by India 's National Academy of Letters .
Mumbai residents celebrate both Western and Indian festivals . Diwali , Holi , Eid , Christmas , Navratri , Good Friday , Dussera , Moharram , Ganesh Chaturthi , Durga Puja and Maha Shivratri are some of the popular festivals in the city . The Kala Ghoda Arts Festival is an exhibition of a world of arts that encapsulates works of artists in the fields of music , dance , theatre , and films . A week @-@ long annual fair known as Bandra Fair , starting on the following Sunday after 8 September , is celebrated by people of all faiths , to commemorate the Nativity of Mary , mother of Jesus , on 8 September .
The Banganga Festival is a two @-@ day music festival , held annually in the month of January , which is organised by the Maharashtra Tourism Development Corporation ( MTDC ) at the historic Banganga Tank in Mumbai . The Elephanta Festival — celebrated every February on the Elephanta Islands — is dedicated to classical Indian dance and music and attracts performers from across the country . Public holidays specific to the city and the state include Maharashtra Day on 1 May , to celebrate the formation of Maharashtra state on 1 May 1960 , and Gudi Padwa which is the New Year 's Day for Marathi people .
Beaches are a major tourist attraction in the city . The major beaches in Mumbai are Girgaum Chowpatty , Juhu Beach , Dadar Chowpatty , Gorai Beach , Marve Beach , Versova Beach , Madh Beach , Aksa Beach , and Manori Beach . Most of the beaches are unfit for swimming , except Girgaum Chowpatty and Juhu Beach . Essel World is a theme park and amusement centre situated close to Gorai Beach , and includes Asia 's largest theme water park , Water Kingdom . Adlabs Imagica opened in April 2013 is located near the city of Khopoli off the Mumbai @-@ Pune Expressway .
= = Media = =
Mumbai has numerous newspaper publications , television and radio stations . Marathi dailies enjoy the maximum readership share in the city and the top Marathi language newspapers are Maharashtra Times , Navakaal , Lokmat , Loksatta , Mumbai Chaufer , Saamana and Sakaal . Popular Marathi language magazines are Saptahik Sakaal , Grihashobhika , Lokrajya , Lokprabha & Chitralekha . Popular English language newspapers published and sold in Mumbai include The Times of India , Mid @-@ day , Hindustan Times , DNA India , and The Indian Express . Newspapers are also printed in other Indian languages . Mumbai is home to Asia 's oldest newspaper , Bombay Samachar , which has been published in Gujarati since 1822 . Bombay Durpan , the first Marathi newspaper , was started by Balshastri Jambhekar in Mumbai in 1832 .
Numerous Indian and international television channels can be watched in Mumbai through one of the Pay TV companies or the local cable television provider . The metropolis is also the hub of many international media corporations , with many news channels and print publications having a major presence . The national television broadcaster , Doordarshan , provides two free terrestrial channels , while three main cable networks serve most households .
The wide range of cable channels available includes Zee Marathi , Zee Talkies , ETV Marathi , Star Pravah , Mi Marathi , DD Sahyadri ( All Marathi channels ) , news channels such as ABP Majha , IBN @-@ Lokmat , Zee 24 Taas , sports channels like ESPN , Star Sports , National entertainment channels like Colors , Sony , Zee TV and Star Plus , business news channels like CNBC Awaaz , Zee Business , ET Now and Bloomberg UTV . News channels entirely dedicated to Mumbai include Sahara Samay Mumbai . Zing a popular Bollywood gossip channel is also based out of Mumbai . Satellite television ( DTH ) has yet to gain mass acceptance , due to high installation costs . Prominent DTH entertainment services in Mumbai include Dish TV and Tata Sky .
There are twelve radio stations in Mumbai , with nine broadcasting on the FM band , and three All India Radio stations broadcasting on the AM band . Mumbai also has access to Commercial radio providers such as Sirius . The Conditional Access System ( CAS ) started by the Union Government in 2006 met a poor response in Mumbai due to competition from its sister technology Direct @-@ to @-@ Home ( DTH ) transmission service .
Bollywood , the Hindi film industry based in Mumbai , produces around 150 – 200 films every year . The name Bollywood is a blend of Bombay and Hollywood . The 2000s saw a growth in Bollywood 's popularity overseas . This led filmmaking to new heights in terms of quality , cinematography and innovative story lines as well as technical advances such as special effects and animation . Studios in Goregaon , including Film City , are the location for most movie sets . The city also hosts the Marathi film industry which has seen increased popularity in recent years , and TV production companies .
= = Education = =
= = = Schools = = =
Schools in Mumbai are either " municipal schools " ( run by the MCGM ) or private schools ( run by trusts or individuals ) , which in some cases receive financial aid from the government . The schools are affiliated with either of the following boards
Maharashtra State Board ( MSBSHSE )
The All @-@ India Council for the Indian School Certificate Examinations ( CISCE )
The National Institute of Open Schooling ( NIOS )
The Central Board for Secondary Education ( CBSE )
The International Baccalaureate ( IB )
The International General Certificate of Secondary Education ( IGCSE ) . Marathi or English is the usual language of instruction . The government @-@ run public schools lack many facilities , but are the only option for poor residents who cannot afford the more expensive private schools .
The primary education system of the MCGM is the largest urban primary education system in Asia . The MCGM operates 1 @,@ 188 primary schools imparting primary education to 485 @,@ 531 students in eight languages ( Marathi , Hindi , Gujarati , Urdu , English , Tamil , Telugu , and Kannada ) . The MCGM also imparts secondary education to 55 @,@ 576 students through its 49 secondary schools .
= = = Higher education = = =
Under the 10 + 2 + 3 / 4 plan , students complete ten years of schooling and then enroll for two years in junior college , where they select one of three streams : arts , commerce , or science . This is followed by either a general degree course in a chosen field of study , or a professional degree course , such as law , engineering and medicine . Most colleges in the city are affiliated with the University of Mumbai , one of the largest universities in the world in terms of the number of graduates .
The University Of Mumbai is one of the premier universities in India . It was ranked 41 among the Top 50 Engineering Schools of the world by America 's news broadcasting firm Business Insider in 2012 and was the only university in the list from the five emerging BRICS nations viz Brazil , Russia , India , China and South Africa . Moreover , the University of Mumbai was ranked 5th in the list of best Universities in India by India Today in 2013 and ranked at 62 in the QS BRICS University rankings for 2013 , a ranking of leading universities in the five BRICS countries ( Brazil , Russia , India , China and South Africa ) . Its strongest scores in the QS University Rankings : BRICS are for papers per faculty ( 8th ) , employer reputation ( 20th ) and citations per paper ( 28th ) . It was ranked 10th among the top Universities of India by QS in 2013 . With 7 of the top ten Indian Universities being purely science and technology universities , it was India 's 3rd best Multi Disciplinary University in the QS University ranking .
The Indian Institute of Technology ( Bombay ) , Veermata Jijabai Technological Institute ( VJTI ) , University Institute of Chemical Technology ( UICT ) which are India 's premier engineering and technology schools , and SNDT Women 's University are the other autonomous universities in Mumbai . Thadomal Shahani Engineering College is the first and the oldest private engineering college affiliated to the federal University of Mumbai and is also pioneered to be the first institute in the city 's university to offer undergraduate level courses in Computer Engineering , Information Technology , Biomedical Engineering and Biotechnology . Grant Medical College established in 1845 and Seth G.S. Medical College are the leading medical institutes affiliated with Sir Jamshedjee Jeejeebhoy Group of Hospitals and KEM Hospital respectively . Mumbai is also home to National Institute of Industrial Engineering ( NITIE ) , Jamnalal Bajaj Institute of Management Studies ( JBIMS ) , Narsee Monjee Institute of Management Studies ( NMIMS ) , S P Jain Institute of Management and Research , Tata Institute of Social Sciences ( TISS ) and several other management schools . Government Law College and Sydenham College , respectively the oldest law and commerce colleges in India , are based in Mumbai . The Sir J. J. School of Art is Mumbai 's oldest art institution .
Mumbai is home to two prominent research institutions : the Tata Institute of Fundamental Research ( TIFR ) , and the Bhabha Atomic Research Centre ( BARC ) . The BARC operates CIRUS , a 40 MW nuclear research reactor at their facility in Trombay .
= = Sports = =
Cricket is more popular than any other sport in the city . Due to a shortage of grounds , various modified versions ( generally referred to as gully cricket ) are played everywhere . Mumbai is also home to the Board of Control for Cricket in India ( BCCI ) and Indian Premier League ( IPL ) . The Mumbai cricket team represents the city in the Ranji Trophy and has won 40 titles , the most by any team . The city is also represented by the Mumbai Indians in the Indian Premier League . The city has two international cricket grounds , the Wankhede Stadium and the Brabourne Stadium . The first cricket test match in India was played in Mumbai at the Bombay Gymkhana . The biggest cricketing event to be staged in the city so far is the final of the 2011 ICC Cricket World Cup which was played at the Wankhede Stadium . Mumbai and London are the only two cities to have hosted both a World Cup final and the final of an ICC Champions Trophy which was played at the Brabourne Stadium in 2006 .
Football is another popular sport in the city , with the FIFA World Cup and the English Premier League being followed widely . In the Indian Super League , Mumbai City FC represents the city ; while in the I @-@ League ( matches in the city are played at the Cooperage Ground ) , the city is represented by two teams : Mumbai FC and Air @-@ India . When the Elite Football League of India was introduced in August 2011 , Mumbai was noted as one of eight cities to be awarded a team for the inaugural season . Named the Mumbai Gladiators , the team 's first season was played in Pune in late 2012 , and it will be Mumbai 's first professional American football franchise . In Hockey , Mumbai is home to the Mumbai Marines and Mumbai Magicians in the World Series Hockey and Hockey India League respectively . Matches in the city are played at the Mahindra Hockey Stadium .
Rugby is another growing sport in Mumbai with league matches being held at the Bombay Gymkhana from June to November .
Every February , Mumbai holds derby races at the Mahalaxmi Racecourse . Mcdowell 's Derby is also held in February at the Turf Club in Mumbai . In March 2004 , the Mumbai Grand Prix was part of the F1 powerboat world championship , and the Force India F1 team car was unveiled in the city , in 2008 . The city is planning to build its own F1 track and various sites in the city were being chalked out , of which the authorities have planned to zero down on Marve @-@ Malad or Panvel @-@ Kalyan land . If approved , the track will be clubbed with a theme park and will spread over an area of some 160 to 200 ha ( 400 to 500 acres ) . In 2004 , the annual Mumbai Marathon was established as a part of " The Greatest Race on Earth " . Mumbai has also played host to the Kingfisher Airlines Tennis Open , an International Series tournament of the ATP World Tour , in 2006 and 2007 .
|
= Dennis Rodman =
Dennis Keith Rodman ( born May 13 , 1961 ) is an American retired professional basketball player , who played for the Detroit Pistons , San Antonio Spurs , Chicago Bulls , Los Angeles Lakers , and Dallas Mavericks in the National Basketball Association ( NBA ) . He was nicknamed " The Worm " and was known for his fierce defensive and rebounding abilities .
Rodman played at the small forward position in his early years before becoming a power forward . He earned NBA All @-@ Defensive First Team honors seven times and won the NBA Defensive Player of the Year Award twice . He also led the NBA in rebounds per game for a record seven consecutive years and won five NBA championships . His biography at NBA.com states that he is " arguably the best rebounding forward in NBA history " . On April 1 , 2011 , the Pistons retired Rodman 's No. 10 jersey , and he was inducted into the Naismith Memorial Basketball Hall of Fame later that year .
Rodman experienced an unhappy childhood and was shy and introverted in his early years . After aborting a suicide attempt in 1993 , he reinvented himself as a " bad boy " and became notorious for numerous controversial antics . He repeatedly dyed his hair in artificial colors , had many piercings and tattoos , and regularly disrupted games by clashing with opposing players and officials . He famously wore a wedding dress to promote his 1996 autobiography Bad As I Wanna Be . Rodman pursued a high @-@ profile affair with singer Madonna and was briefly married to actress Carmen Electra . Rodman also attracted international attention for his visits to North Korea and his subsequent befriending of North Korean leader Kim Jong @-@ un in 2013 .
Apart from basketball , Rodman is a retired part @-@ time professional wrestler and actor . He was a member of the nWo and fought alongside Hulk Hogan at two Bash at the Beach events . He had his own TV show The Rodman World Tour , and had lead roles in the action films Double Team ( 1997 ) and Simon Sez ( 1999 ) . Both films were critically panned , with the former earning Rodman a triple Razzie Award . He appeared in several reality TV series and was the winner of the $ 222 @,@ 000 main prize of the 2004 edition of Celebrity Mole . Rodman won the first ever Celebrity Championship Wrestling tournament .
= = Early life and education = =
Rodman was born in Trenton , New Jersey , the son of Shirley and Philander Rodman , Jr . , an Air Force enlisted member , who later fought in the Vietnam War . When he was young , his father left his family , eventually settling in the Philippines . Rodman has many brothers and sisters : according to his father , he has either 26 or 28 siblings on his father 's side . However , Rodman himself has stated that he is the oldest of a total of 47 children .
After his father left , Shirley took many odd jobs to support the family , up to four at the same time . In his 1997 biography Bad As I Wanna Be , he expresses his feelings for his father : " I haven 't seen my father in more than 30 years , so what 's there to miss ... I just look at it like this : Some man brought me into this world . That doesn 't mean I have a father " . ( He would not meet his father again until 2012 . )
Rodman and his two sisters , Debra and Kim , grew up in the Oak Cliff section of Dallas , Texas , at the time one of the most impoverished areas of the city . Rodman was so attached to his mother that he refused to move when she sent him to a nursery when he was four years old . According to Rodman , his mom was more interested in his two sisters , who were both considered more talented than he was in basketball , and made him a laughing stock whenever he tagged along with them . He felt generally " overwhelmed " by the all @-@ female household . Debra and Kim would go on to become All @-@ Americans at Louisiana Tech and Stephen F. Austin , respectively . Debra won two national titles with the Lady Techsters .
While attending South Oak Cliff High School , Rodman was a gym class student of future Texas A & M basketball coach Gary Blair . Blair coached Rodman 's sisters Debra and Kim , winning three state championships . However , Rodman was not considered an athletic standout . According to Rodman , he was " unable to hit a layup " and was listed in the high school basketball teams , but was either benched or cut from the squads . Measuring only 5 ft 6 in ( 1 @.@ 68 m ) as a freshman in high school , he also failed to make the football teams and was " totally devastated " . After finishing school , Rodman worked as an overnight janitor at Dallas Fort Worth International Airport . He then experienced a sudden growth spurt and decided to try basketball again despite becoming even more withdrawn because he felt odd in his own body .
A family friend tipped off the head coach of Cooke County College ( now North Central Texas College ) in Gainesville , Texas . In his single semester there , he averaged 17 @.@ 6 points and 13 @.@ 3 rebounds , before flunking out due to poor academic performance . After his short stint in Gainesville , he transferred to Southeastern Oklahoma State University , an NAIA school . There , Rodman was a three @-@ time NAIA All @-@ American and led the NAIA in rebounding in both the 1984 – 1985 and 1985 – 1986 seasons . In three seasons there , 1983 – 1984 through 1985 – 1986 , he averaged 25 @.@ 7 points and 15 @.@ 7 rebounds , led the NAIA in rebounding twice and registered a .637 field goal percentage . At the Portsmouth Invitational Tournament , a pre @-@ draft camp for NBA hopefuls , he won Most Valuable Player honors and caught the attention of the Detroit Pistons .
During college Rodman worked at a summer youth basketball camp , where he befriended camper Bryne Rich , who was shy and withdrawn due to a hunting accident in which he mistakenly shot and killed his best friend . The two became almost inseparable and formed a close bond . Rich invited Rodman to his rural Oklahoma home ; at first , Rodman was not well @-@ received by the Riches because he was black . But the Riches were so grateful to him for bringing their son out of his shell that they were able to set aside their prejudices . Although Rodman had severe family and personal issues himself , he " adopted " the Riches as his own in 1982 and went from the city life to " driving a tractor and messing with cows " . Though Rodman credited the Riches as his " surrogate family " that helped him through college , as of 2013 he had stopped communicating with the Rich family for reasons unknown to them .
= = Basketball career = =
= = = Detroit Pistons = = =
= = = = 1986 – 1989 = = = =
Rodman made himself eligible for the 1986 NBA draft . He was drafted by the Detroit Pistons as the 3rd pick in the second round ( 27th overall ) , joining the rugged team of coach Chuck Daly that was called " Bad Boys " for their hard @-@ nosed approach to basketball . The squad featured Isiah Thomas and Joe Dumars at the guard positions , Adrian Dantley and Sidney Green at forward , and center Bill Laimbeer . Bench players who played more than 15 minutes per game were sixth man Vinnie Johnson and the backup forwards Rick Mahorn and John Salley . Rodman fit well into this ensemble , providing 6 @.@ 5 points , 4 @.@ 7 rebounds and some tough defense in 15 @.@ 0 minutes of playing time per game .
Winning 52 games , the Pistons comfortably entered the 1987 NBA Playoffs . They swept the Washington Bullets and soundly beat the Atlanta Hawks in five games , but bowed out in seven matches against the archrival Boston Celtics in what was called one of the physically and mentally toughest series ever . Rodman feuded with Celtics guard Dennis Johnson and taunted Johnson in the closing seconds when he waved his right hand over his own head . When the Celtics took Game Seven , Johnson went back at Rodman in the last moments of the game and mimicked his taunting gesture .
After the loss , Rodman made headlines by directly accusing Celtics star Larry Bird of being overrated because he was white : " Larry Bird is overrated in a lot of areas . ... Why does he get so much publicity ? Because he 's white . You never hear about a black player being the greatest " . Although teammate Thomas supported him , he endured harsh criticism , but avoided being called a racist because , according to him , his own girlfriend Anicka " Annie " Bakes was white .
In the following 1987 – 1988 season , Rodman steadily improved his stats , averaging 11 @.@ 6 points and 8 @.@ 7 rebounds and starting in 32 of 82 regular season games . The Pistons fought their way into the 1988 NBA Finals , and took a 3 – 2 lead , but lost in seven games against the Los Angeles Lakers . In Game Six , the Pistons were down by one point with eight seconds to go ; Dumars missed a shot , and Rodman just fell short of an offensive rebound and a putback which could have won the title . In Game Seven , L.A. led by 15 points in the fourth quarter , but Rodman ’ s defense helped cut down the lead to six with 3 : 52 minutes to go and to two with one minute to go . But then , he fouled Magic Johnson , who hit a free throw , missed an ill @-@ advised shot with 39 seconds to go , and the Pistons never recovered . In that year , he and his girlfriend Annie had a daughter they named Alexis .
Rodman remained a bench player during the 1988 – 1989 season , averaging 9 @.@ 0 points and 9 @.@ 4 rebounds in 27 minutes , yet providing such effective defense that he was voted into the All @-@ Defensive Team , the first of eight times in his career . He also began seeing more playing time after Adrian Dantley was traded at midseason to Dallas for Mark Aguirre . In that season , the Pistons finally vanquished their playoffs bane by sweeping the Boston Celtics , then winning in six games versus the Chicago Bulls — including scoring champion Michael Jordan — and easily defeating the Lakers 4 – 0 in the 1989 NBA Finals . Although he was hampered by back spasms , Rodman dominated the boards , grabbing 19 rebounds in Game 3 and providing tough interior defense .
= = = = 1989 @-@ 1993 = = = =
In the 1989 – 1990 season , Detroit lost perennial defensive forward Rick Mahorn when he was taken by the Minnesota Timberwolves in that year 's expansion draft and ended up on the Philadelphia 76ers when the Pistons could not reacquire him . It was feared that the loss of Mahorn – average in talent , but high on hustle and widely considered a vital cog of the " Bad Boys " teams – would diminish the Pistons ’ spirit , but Rodman seamlessly took over his role . He went on to win his first big individual accolade . Averaging 8 @.@ 8 points and 9 @.@ 7 rebounds while starting in the last 43 regular season games , he established himself as the best defensive player in the game ; during this period , the Pistons won 59 games , and Rodman was lauded by the NBA " for his defense and rebounding skills , which were unparalleled in the league " . For his feats , he won the NBA Defensive Player of the Year Award ; he also connected on a .595 field goal percentage , which made him the most precise shooter of the league . In the 1990 NBA Playoffs , the Pistons beat the Bulls again , and in the 1990 NBA Finals , Detroit met the Portland Trail Blazers . Rodman suffered from an injured ankle and was often replaced by Mark Aguirre , but even without his defensive hustle , Detroit beat Portland in five games and claimed their second title .
During the 1990 – 1991 season , Rodman finally established himself as the starting small forward of the Pistons . He played such strong defense that the NBA stated he " could shut down any opposing player , from point guard to center " . After coming off the bench for most of his earlier years , he finally started in 77 of the 82 regular season games , averaged 8 @.@ 2 points and 12 @.@ 5 rebounds and won his second Defensive Player of the Year Award . In the 1991 NBA Playoffs , however , the Pistons were swept by the championship @-@ winning Chicago Bulls in the Eastern Conference Finals . It was the 1991 – 1992 season where Rodman made a remarkable leap in his rebounding , collecting an astounding 18 @.@ 7 rebounds per game ( 1 @,@ 530 in total ) , winning his first of seven consecutive rebounding crowns , along with scoring 9 @.@ 8 points per game , and making his first All @-@ NBA Team . His 1 @,@ 530 rebounds ( the most since Wilt Chamberlain 's 1 @,@ 572 in the 1971 – 1972 season ) have never been surpassed since then ; the best mark not set by Rodman is by Kevin Willis , who grabbed 1 @,@ 258 boards that same season . Willis lamented that Rodman had an advantage in winning the rebounding title with his lack of offensive responsibilities . In a March 1992 game , Rodman totaled a career high 34 rebounds . However , the aging Pistons were eliminated by the upcoming New York Knicks in the First round of the 1992 NBA Playoffs .
Rodman experienced a tough loss when coach Chuck Daly , whom he had admired as a surrogate father , resigned in May ; Rodman skipped the preseason camp and was fined $ 68 @,@ 000 . The following 1992 – 1993 season was even more tumultuous . Rodman and Annie Bakes , the mother of his daughter Alexis , were divorcing after a short marriage , an experience which left him traumatized . The Pistons won only 40 games and missed the 1993 NBA Playoffs entirely . One night in February 1993 , Rodman was found asleep in his car with a loaded rifle . Four years later in his biography As Bad As I Wanna Be , he confessed having thought about suicide and described that night as an epiphany : " I decided that instead [ of killing myself ] I was gonna kill the impostor that was leading Dennis Rodman to a place he didn 't want to go ... So I just said , ' I 'm going to live my life the way I want to live it and be happy doing it . ' At that moment I tamed [ sic ] my whole life around . I killed the person I didn 't want to be . " The book was later adapted for a TV movie Bad As I Wanna Be : The Dennis Rodman Story . Although he had three years and $ 11 @.@ 8 million remaining on his contract , Rodman demanded a trade . On October 1 , 1993 , the Pistons dealt him to the San Antonio Spurs .
= = = San Antonio Spurs = = =
In the 1993 – 1994 NBA season , Rodman joined a Spurs team which was built around perennial All @-@ Star center David Robinson , with a supporting cast of forwards Dale Ellis , Willie Anderson and guard Vinny Del Negro . On the hardwood , Rodman now was played as a power forward and won his third straight rebounding title , averaging 17 @.@ 3 boards per game , along with another All @-@ Defensive Team call @-@ up . Living up to his promise of killing the " shy imposter " and " being himself " instead , Rodman began to show first signs of unconventional behavior : before the first game , he shaved his hair and dyed it blonde , which was followed up by stints with red , purple , blue hair and a look inspired from the film Demolition Man . During the season , he headbutted Stacey King and John Stockton , refused to leave the hardwood once after being ejected , and had a highly publicized two @-@ month affair with Madonna . The only player to whom Rodman related was reserve center Jack Haley , who earned his trust by not being shocked after a visit to a gay bar . However , despite a 55 @-@ win season , Rodman and the Spurs did not survive the first round of the 1994 NBA Playoffs and bowed out against the Utah Jazz in four games .
In the following 1994 – 1995 NBA season , Rodman clashed with the Spurs front office . He was suspended for the first three games , took a leave of absence on November 11 , and was suspended again on December 7 . He finally returned on December 10 after missing 19 games . After joining the team , he suffered a shoulder separation in a motorcycle accident , limiting his season to 49 games . Normally , he would not have qualified for any season records for missing so many games , but by grabbing 823 rebounds , he just surpassed the 800 @-@ rebound limit for listing players and won his fourth straight rebounding title by averaging 16 @.@ 8 boards per game and made the All @-@ NBA Team . In the 1995 NBA Playoffs , the 62 @-@ win Spurs with reigning NBA Most Valuable Player Award winner Robinson entered the Western Conference Finals and were considered favorites against the reigning champions Houston Rockets who had only won 47 games . It was thought that Rockets center Hakeem Olajuwon would have a hard time asserting himself versus Robinson and Rodman , who had both been voted into the NBA All @-@ Defensive Teams . However , neither Robinson nor Rodman , who had disrupted a playoff game against the Lakers by sitting down on the court , could stop Olajuwon , who averaged 35 @.@ 3 points against the elite defensive Spurs frontcourt , and helped eliminate the Spurs in six games .
Rodman admitted his frequent transgressions , but asserted that he lived his own life and thus a more honest life than most other people :
" I just took the chance to be my own man ... I just said : ' If you don 't like it , kiss my ass . ' ... Most people around the country , or around the world , are basically working people who want to be free , who want to be themselves . They look at me and see someone trying to do that ... I 'm the guy who 's showing people , hey , it 's all right to be different . And I think they feel : ' Let 's go and see this guy entertain us . ' "
= = = Chicago Bulls = = =
Prior to the 1995 – 1996 NBA season , Rodman was traded to the Chicago Bulls of perennial scoring champion Michael Jordan for center Will Perdue and cash considerations to fill a large void at power forward left by Horace Grant , who left the Bulls prior to the 1994 – 1995 season . Given Rodman could not use the 10 jersey as the Bulls had retired it for Bob Love , and the NBA denied him the reversion 01 , Rodman instead picked the number 91 , whose digits add up to 10 . Although the trade for the already 34 @-@ year @-@ old and volatile Rodman was considered a gamble at that time , the power forward quickly adapted to his new environment , helped by the fact that his best friend Jack Haley was also traded to the Bulls . Under coach Phil Jackson , he averaged 5 @.@ 5 points and 14 @.@ 9 rebounds per game , winning yet another rebounding title , and was part of the great Bulls team that won 72 of 82 regular season games , an NBA record at the time . About playing next to iconic Jordan and hard @-@ working Scottie Pippen , Rodman said :
" On the court , me and Michael are pretty calm and we can handle conversation . But as far as our lives go , I think he is moving in one direction and I 'm going in the other . I mean , he 's goin ' north , I 'm goin ' south . And then you 've got Scottie Pippen right in the middle . He 's sort of the equator . "
Although struggling with calf problems early in the season , Rodman grabbed 20 or more rebounds 11 times and had his first triple @-@ double against the Philadelphia 76ers on January 16 , 1996 scoring 10 points and adding 21 rebounds and 10 assists ; by playing his trademark tough defense , he joined Jordan and Pippen in the All @-@ NBA Defense First Team . Ever controversial , Rodman made negative headlines after a head butt of referee Ted Bernhardt during a game in New Jersey on March 16 , 1996 ; he was suspended for six games and fined $ 20 @,@ 000 , a punishment that was criticized as too lenient by the local press .
In the 1996 NBA Playoffs , Rodman scored 7 @.@ 5 points and grabbed 13 @.@ 7 rebounds per game and had a large part in the six @-@ game victory against the Seattle SuperSonics in the 1996 NBA Finals : in Game Two at home in the Bulls ' United Center , he grabbed 20 rebounds , among them a record @-@ tying 11 offensive boards , and in Game Six , again at the United Center , the power forward secured 19 rebounds and again 11 offensive boards , scored five points in a decisive 12 – 2 Bulls run , unnerved opposing power forward Shawn Kemp and caused Seattle coach George Karl to say : " As you evaluate the series , Dennis Rodman won two basketball games . We controlled Dennis Rodman for four games . But Game 2 and tonight , he was the reason they were successful . " His two games with 11 offensive rebounds each tied the NBA Finals record of Elvin Hayes .
In the 1996 – 1997 NBA season , Rodman won his sixth rebounding title in a row with 16 @.@ 7 boards per game , along with 5 @.@ 7 points per game , but failed to rank another All @-@ Defensive Team call @-@ up . However , he made more headlines for his notorious behavior . On January 15 , 1997 , he was involved in an incident during a game against the Minnesota Timberwolves . After tripping over cameraman Eugene Amos , Rodman kicked Amos in the groin . Though he was not assessed a technical foul at the time , he ultimately paid Amos a $ 200 @,@ 000 settlement , and the league suspended Rodman for 11 games without pay . Thus , he effectively lost $ 1 million . Missing another three games to suspensions , often getting technical fouls early in games and missing an additional 13 matches due to knee problems , Rodman was not as effective in the 1997 NBA Playoffs , in which the Bulls reached the 1997 NBA Finals against the Utah Jazz . He struggled to slow down Jazz power forward Karl Malone , but did his share to complete the six @-@ game Bulls victory .
The regular season of the 1997 – 1998 NBA season ended with Rodman winning his seventh consecutive rebounding title with 15 @.@ 0 boards per game , along with 4 @.@ 7 points per game . He grabbed 20 or more rebounds 11 times , among them a 29 @-@ board outburst against the Atlanta Hawks and 15 offensive boards ( along with ten defensive ) versus the Los Angeles Clippers . Led by the aging Jordan and Rodman ( respectively 35 and 37 years old ) , the Bulls reached the 1998 NBA Finals , again versus the Jazz . After playing strong defense on Malone in the first three games , he caused major consternation when he left his team prior to Game Four to go wrestling with Hulk Hogan . He was fined $ 20 @,@ 000 , but it was not even ten percent of what he earned with this stint . However , Rodman ’ s on @-@ court performance remained top @-@ notch , again shutting down Malone in Game Four until the latter scored 39 points in a Jazz Game Five win , bringing the series to 3 – 2 from the Bulls perspective . In Game Six , Jordan hit the decisive basket after a memorable drive on Jazz forward Bryon Russell , the Bulls won their third title in a row and Rodman his fifth ring .
Rodman garnered as much publicity for his public antics . He dated Madonna and claimed she tried to conceive a child with him . Shortly after , Rodman famously wore a wedding dress to promote his autobiography Bad As I Wanna Be , claiming that he was bisexual and that he was marrying himself .
= = = Twilight years = = =
After the 1997 – 1998 NBA season , the Bulls started a massive rebuilding phase , largely at the behest of then @-@ general manager Jerry Krause . Head coach Phil Jackson and several members of the team left via free agency or retirement , including Michael Jordan , Scottie Pippen , Steve Kerr and Jud Buechler . Rodman was released by the Bulls on January 21 , 1999 , before the start of the lockout @-@ shortened 1998 @-@ 99 NBA season . With his sister acting as his agent at the time , Rodman joined the Los Angeles Lakers , for a pro @-@ rated salary for the remainder of the 1998 – 1999 season . With the Lakers he only played in 23 games and was released .
In the 1999 – 2000 NBA season , the then @-@ 38 @-@ year @-@ old power forward was signed by the Dallas Mavericks , meaning that Rodman returned to the place where he grew up . For the Mavericks , he played 12 games , was ejected twice and alienated the franchise with his erratic behavior until he was waived again ; Dallas guard Steve Nash commented that Rodman " never wanted to be [ a Maverick ] " and therefore was unmotivated . Despite the negative feedback , Rodman averaged 14 @.@ 3 rebounds per game . This would have been enough to lead the league had he played enough games to qualify .
= = NBA career statistics = =
= = = Regular season = = =
= = = Playoffs = = =
= = Post @-@ NBA years = =
After his NBA career , Rodman took a long break from basketball and concentrated on his film career and on wrestling .
After a longer hiatus , Rodman returned to play basketball for the Long Beach Jam of the newly formed American Basketball Association during the 2003 – 2004 season , with hopes of being called up to the NBA midseason . In the following 2004 – 2005 season , he signed with the ABA 's Orange County Crush and the following season with the league 's Tijuana Dragons . After retiring from wrestling , Rodman became Commissioner of the Lingerie Football League in 2005 .
The return to the NBA never materialized , but on January 26 , 2006 , it was announced that Rodman had signed a one @-@ game " experiment " deal for the UK basketball team Brighton Bears of the British Basketball League to play Guildford Heat on January 28 , and went on to play three games for the Bears . In spring 2006 , he played two exhibition games in the Philippines along with NBA ex @-@ stars Darryl Dawkins , Kevin Willis , Calvin Murphy , Otis Birdsong and Alex English . On April 27 , they defeated a team of former Philippine Basketball Association stars in Mandaue City , Cebu and Rodman scored five points and grabbed 18 rebounds . On May 1 , 2006 , Rodman 's team played their second game and lost to the Philippine national basketball team 110 – 102 at the Araneta Coliseum , where he scored three points and recorded 16 rebounds .
In 2005 , Rodman made two visits to Finland . At first , he was present at Sonkajärvi in July in a wife @-@ carrying contest . However , he resigned from the contest due to health problems . In November , he played one match for Torpan Pojat of the Finland 's basketball league , Korisliiga .
That same year , Rodman published his second autobiography , I Should Be Dead By Now ; he promoted the book by sitting in a coffin .
On April 4 , 2011 , it was announced that Rodman would be inducted into the Naismith Memorial Basketball Hall of Fame .
In March 2013 , Rodman arrived at the Vatican City during voting in the papal conclave for the selection of a new pope . The trip was organized by an Irish gambling company . " I 'm just promoting this website . It 's a gambling website , and it 's about people who are going to bet on the new pope , and if he 's black , you get your money back " , said Rodman .
In July 2013 , Rodman joined Premier Brands to launch and promote Bad Boy Vodka .
On July 24 , 2015 , Rodman publicly endorsed Donald Trump 's 2016 presidential campaign . Rodman and Trump had previously appeared together on Celebrity Apprentice .
= = = North Korea visits = = =
On February 26 , 2013 , Rodman made a trip to North Korea with Vice Media correspondent Ryan Duffy to host basketball exhibitions . He met North Korean leader Kim Jong @-@ un . Rodman and his travel party were the first known Americans to have met Kim . He later said Kim was " a friend for life " and suggested that President Barack Obama " pick up the phone and call " Kim since the two leaders were basketball fans . On May 7 , after reading an article from The Seattle Times , Rodman sent out a tweet asking Kim to release American prisoner Kenneth Bae , who had been sentenced to 15 years of hard labor in North Korea .
On September 3 , 2013 , Rodman flew to Pyongyang for another meeting with Kim Jong @-@ un . Rodman said that Kim has a daughter named Kim Ju @-@ ae , and that he is a " great dad " . Rodman also noted that he planned to train the North Korean national basketball team . Rodman stated that he is " trying to open Obama 's and everyone 's minds " and encouraged Obama to reach out to Kim Jong @-@ un .
In December 2013 , Rodman announced he would visit North Korea again . He also said he has plans to bring a number of former NBA players with him for an exhibition basketball tour . According to Rory Scott , a spokesman for the exhibitions ' sponsoring organization , Rodman planned to visit December 18 – 21 and train the North Korean team in preparation for January games . The matchups were scheduled for January 8 ( Kim Jong @-@ un ’ s birthday ) and January 10 , 2014 . Included on the U.S. exhibition team were Kenny Anderson , Cliff Robinson , Vin Baker , Craig Hodges , Doug Christie , Sleepy Floyd , Charles D. Smith , and four streetballers . Rodman departed from Beijing on January 6 . Organised by Paddy Power , among his entourage was the Irish media personality Matt Cooper , who had interviewed Rodman a number of times on radio .
On January 7 , 2014 , in North Korea prior to the exhibition games , Rodman made comments during a CNN interview implying that Kenneth Bae was at fault for his imprisonment . The remarks were widely reported in other media outlets and provoked a storm of criticism . Two days later , Rodman apologized for his comments , saying that he had been drinking and under pressure . He added that he " should know better than to make political statements " . Some members of the U.S. Congress , the NBA and human rights groups suggested that Rodman had become a public relations stunt for the North Korean government . On May 2 , 2016 , Kenneth Bae credited Rodman with his early release . He said that Rodman 's rant raised awareness of his case and that he wanted to personally thank him for his expedited release .
The U.S. Department of the Treasury is reportedly investigating whether Rodman broke the law by bringing Kim Jong @-@ un thousands of dollars in luxury gifts on his most recent trip to North Korea .
Rodman 's " hoops diplomacy " inspired a 20th Century Fox comedy , Diplomats . Tim Story and Peter Chernin are set to produce the film while Jonathan Abrams is reportedly writing the script .
= = Awards , records and achievements = =
= = Legacy = =
From the beginning of his career Rodman was known for his defensive hustle , which was later accompanied by his rebounding prowess . In Detroit , he was mainly played as a small forward , and his usual assignment was to neutralize the opponent 's best player ; Rodman was so versatile that he could guard centers , forwards or guards equally well and won two NBA Defensive Player of the Year Awards . From 1991 on , he established himself as one of the best rebounders of all time , averaging at least 15 rebounds per game in six of the next seven years . Playing power forward as member of the Spurs and the Bulls , he had a historical outburst in the 1996 NBA Finals : he twice snared 11 offensive rebounds , equalling an all @-@ time NBA record . In addition , he had a career @-@ high 34 @-@ rebound game on March 4 , 1992 . Rodman 's rebounding prowess with Detroit and San Antonio was also aided by his decreased attention to defensive positioning and helping teammates on defense . Daly said Rodman was selfish about rebounding , but deemed him a hard worker and coachable . Rodman 's defensive intensity returned while with Chicago .
On offense , Rodman 's output was mediocre . He averaged 11 @.@ 6 points per game in his second season , but his average steadily dropped : in the three championship seasons with the Bulls , he averaged five points per game and connected on less than half of his field goal attempts . His free throw shooting ( lifetime average : .584 ) was considered a big liability : on December 29 , 1997 , Bubba Wells of the Dallas Mavericks committed six intentional fouls against him in only three minutes , setting the record for the fastest foul out in NBA history . The intention was to force him to attempt free throws , which in theory would mean frequent misses and easy ball possession without giving up too many points . However , this plan backfired , as Rodman hit 9 of the 12 attempts . This was Dallas coach Don Nelson 's early version of what would later develop into the famous " Hack @-@ a @-@ Shaq " method that would be implemented against Shaquille O 'Neal , Dwight Howard and other poor free throw shooters .
In 14 NBA seasons , Rodman played in 911 games , scored 6 @,@ 683 points and grabbed 11 @,@ 954 rebounds , translating to 7 @.@ 3 points and 13 @.@ 1 rebounds per game in only 31 @.@ 7 minutes played per game . NBA.com lauds Rodman as " arguably the best rebounding forward in NBA history and one of the most recognized athletes in the world " but adds " enigmatic and individualistic , Rodman has caught the public eye for his ever @-@ changing hair color , tattoos and unorthodox lifestyle " . On the hardwood , he was recognized as one of the most successful defensive players ever , winning the NBA championship five times in six NBA Finals appearances ( 1989 , 1990 , 1996 – 1998 ; only loss 1988 ) , being crowned NBA Defensive Player of the Year twice ( 1990 – 1991 ) and making seven NBA All @-@ Defensive First Teams ( 1989 – 1993 , 1995 – 1996 ) and NBA All @-@ Defensive Second Teams ( 1994 ) . He additionally made two All @-@ NBA Third Teams ( 1992 , 1995 ) , two NBA All @-@ Star Teams ( 1990 , 1992 ) and won seven straight rebounding crowns ( 1992 – 1998 ) and finally led the league once in field goal percentage ( 1989 ) .
Rodman was recognized as the prototype bizarre player , stunning basketball fans with his artificial hair colors , numerous tattoos and body piercings , multiple verbal and physical assaults on officials , frequent ejections , and his tumultuous private life . He was ranked No. 48 on the 2009 revision of SLAM Magazine 's Top 50 Players of All @-@ Time . Metta World Peace played one year with the 91 jersey number in homage to Rodman , who he described as a player who he liked " on the court as a hustler , not when he kicked the cameraman . "
= = Professional wrestling career = =
= = = World Championship Wrestling ( 1997 – 1999 ) = = =
After getting suspended for the rest of the 1996 – 1997 NBA season , Rodman seriously took up his hobby of professional wrestling and appeared on the edition of March 10 of Monday Nitro with his friend Hollywood Hulk Hogan in World Championship Wrestling ( WCW ) . At the March 1997 Uncensored event , he appeared as a member of the nWo . His first match was at the July 1997 Bash at the Beach event , where he teamed with Hogan in a loss to Lex Luger and The Giant . At the August 1997 Road Wild event , Rodman appeared as the Impostor Sting hitting Luger with a baseball bat to help Hogan win the WCW World Heavyweight Championship .
After the 1997 – 98 NBA season , where Rodman and the Chicago Bulls defeated Karl Malone and the Utah Jazz in the 1998 NBA Finals , Rodman and Malone squared off again , this time in a tag team match at the July 1998 Bash at the Beach event . He fought alongside Hulk Hogan , and Malone tagged along with Diamond Dallas Page . In a poorly received match , the two power forwards exchanged " rudimentary headlocks , slams and clotheslines " for 23 minutes . Rodman bested Malone again as he and Hogan picked up the win .
= = = i @-@ Generation Superstars of Wrestling and retirement ( 2000 ) = = =
On July 30 , 2000 , for the i @-@ Generation Superstars of Wrestling pay @-@ per @-@ view event , he fought against i @-@ Generation Champion Curt Hennig in an Australian Outback match . The event was subtitled Rodman Down Under . Hennig won the match by disqualification . Rodman refrained from wrestling at the top level and retired .
= = = Hulk Hogan 's Celebrity Championship Wrestling ( 2008 ) = = =
Rodman came out of retirement to appear as a contestant on Hulk Hogan 's Celebrity Championship Wrestling , broadcast on CMT . Rodman was the winner of the series , defeating other challengers such as Butterbean and Dustin Diamond .
= = = In wrestling = = =
= = Media appearances = =
In 1996 , Rodman had his own MTV reality talk show called The Rodman World Tour , which featured him in a series of odd @-@ ball situations . This show was produced by Patrick Byrnes and written by Tom Cohen and Matt Price .
A year later , he made his feature film debut in the action film Double Team alongside Jean @-@ Claude Van Damme and Mickey Rourke . The film was critically panned and his performance earned him three Golden Raspberry Awards : Worst New Star , Worst Supporting Actor and Worst Screen Couple ( shared with Van Damme ) . Rodman starred in Simon Sez , a 1999 action / comedy and co @-@ starred with Tom Berenger in a 2000 action film about skydiving titled Cutaway . In 1998 , he joined the cast of the syndicated TV show Special Ops Force , playing ' Deke ' Reynolds , a flamboyant but skilled ex @-@ Army helo pilot and demolitions expert .
In 2005 , Rodman became the first man to pose naked for PETA 's advertisement campaign " Rather Go Naked Than Wear Fur " .
Since then he has appeared in few acting roles outside of playing himself . Rodman has made an appearance in an episode of 3rd Rock from the Sun playing the character of himself , except being a fellow alien with the Solomon family . He voiced an animated version of himself in the Simpsons episode " Treehouse of Horror XVI " .
Rodman has also appeared in several reality soaps : in January 2006 , Rodman appeared on the fourth version of Celebrity Big Brother in the UK , and on July 26 , 2006 , in the UK series Love Island as a houseguest contracted to stay for a week . Finally , he appeared on the show Celebrity Mole on ABC . He wound up winning the $ 222 @,@ 000 grand prize .
Rodman was the winner of Hulk Hogan 's Celebrity Championship Wrestling title defeating other challengers such as Butterbean and Dustin Diamond .
In 2008 , Rodman joined as a spokesman for a sports website OPENSports.com , the brainchild of Mike Levy founder and former CEO of CBS Sportsline.com. Rodman also writes a blog and occasionally answers members ' questions for OPEN Sports .
In 2009 , he appeared as a contestant on Celebrity Apprentice . Throughout the season , each celebrity raised money for a charity of their choice ; Rodman selected the Court Appointed Special Advocates of New Orleans . He was the fifth contestant eliminated , on March 29 , 2009 .
= = Personal life = =
= = = Marriages = = =
Rodman 's first wife was Annie Bakes , with whom he had a daughter named Alexis ( born 1988 ) . They divorced in the early 1990s . Rodman married model Carmen Electra in November 1998 at the Little Chapel of the Flowers in Las Vegas , Nevada . Electra filed for divorce in April 1999 .
In 1999 Rodman met Michelle Moyer , with whom he had a son , D.J. ( born 2000 ) and a daughter , Trinity ( born 2001 ) . Moyer and Rodman married in 2003 on his 42nd birthday . Michelle Rodman filed for divorce in 2004 , although the couple spent several years attempting to reconcile . The marriage was officially dissolved in 2012 when Michelle Rodman again petitioned the court to grant a divorce . It was reported that Rodman owed $ 860 @,@ 376 in child and spousal support .
= = = Alcohol issues = = =
Rodman entered an outpatient rehab center in Florida in May 2008 . In May 2009 , his behavior on Celebrity Apprentice led to an intervention which included Phil Jackson as well as Rodman 's family and other friends . Rodman initially refused to enter rehabilitation because he wanted to attend the Celebrity Apprentice reunion show . In 2009 , Rodman agreed to appear on the third season of Celebrity Rehab with Dr. Drew . Rodman remained a patient at the Pasadena Recovery Center for the 21 @-@ day treatment cycle . A week after completion he entered a sober @-@ living facility in the Hollywood Hills , which was filmed for the second season of Sober House . During episode seven of Sober House , Rodman was shown being reunited with his mother Shirley , from whom he had been estranged for seven years . During this same visit Shirley also met Rodman 's two children for the first time . On January 10 , 2010 , on the same day that Celebrity Rehab premiered , Rodman was removed from an Orange County , California restaurant for disruptive behavior . In March 2012 , Rodman 's financial advisor said , " In all honesty , Dennis , although a very sweet person , is an alcoholic . His sickness impacts his ability to get work . "
On January 15 , 2014 , Rodman again entered a rehabilitation facility to seek treatment for alcohol abuse . This came on the heels of a well @-@ publicized trip to North Korea where his agent , Darren Prince , reported he had been drinking heavily and to an extent " that none of us had seen before . "
= = = Legal troubles = = =
On November 5 , 1999 , Rodman and his then @-@ wife , Carmen Electra , were charged with misdemeanors after police were notified of a domestic disturbance . Each posted $ 2 @,@ 500 in bail and were released with a temporary restraining order placed on them .
In December 1999 Rodman was arrested for drunken driving and driving without a valid license . In July 2000 , Rodman pleaded guilty to both charges and was ordered to pay $ 2 @,@ 000 in fines and was required to attend a three @-@ month treatment program .
He was arrested in 2002 for interfering with police investigating a code violation at a restaurant he owned ; the charges were eventually dropped . After settling down in Newport Beach , California , the police appeared over 70 times at his home because of loud parties . In early 2003 , Rodman was arrested and charged with domestic violence at his home in Newport Beach for allegedly assaulting his then @-@ fiancee .
In April 2004 , Rodman pleaded nolo contendere to drunk driving in Las Vegas and was fined $ 1 @,@ 000 and served 30 days of home detention . On April 30 , 2008 , Rodman was arrested following a domestic violence incident at a Los Angeles hotel . On June 24 , 2008 , he pleaded no contest to the misdemeanor spousal battery charges and was sentenced to one year of domestic violence counseling and three years probation . He received 45 hours of community service , which were to involve some physical labor activities .
= = Publications = =
Rodman , Dennis ( 1994 ) . Rebound : The Dennis Rodman Story . ISBN 0 @-@ 517 @-@ 59294 @-@ 0 .
Rodman , Dennis ( 1996 ) . Bad as I Wanna Be . ISBN 0 @-@ 440 @-@ 22266 @-@ 4 .
Rodman , Dennis ( 1997 ) . Walk on the Wild Side . ISBN 0 @-@ 385 @-@ 31897 @-@ 9 .
Rodman , Dennis ( 2005 ) . I Should Be Dead by Now . ISBN 1 @-@ 59670 @-@ 016 @-@ 5 .
Rodman , Dennis ( 2013 ) . Dennis the Wild Bull . ISBN 0 @-@ 61575 @-@ 249 @-@ 7 .
|
= History of FC Barcelona =
The history of Futbol Club Barcelona goes from the football club 's founding in 1899 and up to current time . FC Barcelona , also known simply as Barcelona and familiarly as Barça , is based in Barcelona , Catalonia , Spain . The team was founded in 1899 by a group of Swiss , English and Spanish footballers led by Joan Gamper . The club played amateur football until 1910 in various regional competitions . In 1910 , the club participated in their first of many European competitions , and has since amassed ten UEFA trophies and a sextuple . In 1928 , Barcelona co @-@ founded La Liga , the top @-@ tier in Spanish football , along with a string of other clubs . As of 2016 , Barcelona has never been relegated from La Liga , a record they share with Athletic Bilbao and arch @-@ rival Real Madrid .
The history of Barcelona has often been politically . Though it is a club created and run by foreigners , Barcelona gradually became a club associated with Catalan values . In Spain 's transition to autocracy in 1925 , Catalonia became increasingly hostile towards the central government in Madrid . The hostility enhanced Barcelona 's image as a focal point for Catalonism , and when Francisco Franco banned the use of the Catalan language , the stadium of Barcelona became one of the few places the people could express their dissatisfaction . The Spanish transition to democracy in 1978 has not dampened the club 's image of Catalan pride . In the 2000s – a period of sporting success in the club and an increased focus on Catalan players – club officials have openly called for Catalonia to become an independent state .
= = Beginnings of Football Club Barcelona ( 1899 – 1922 ) = =
On 22 October 1899 , Joan Gamper placed an advertisement in Los Deportes declaring his wish to form a football club ; a positive response resulted in a meeting at the Gimnasio Solé on 29 November . Eleven players attended : Walter Wild ( the first director of the club ) , Lluís d 'Ossó , Bartomeu Terradas , Otto Kunzle , Otto Maier , Enric Ducal , Pere Cabot , Josep Llobet , John Parsons and William Parsons . As a result , Football Club Barcelona was born . The blue and red colours of the shirt were first worn in a match against Hispania in 1900 ; the prevailing Catalonia conception is that the colours were chosen by Joan Gamper and are those of his home team , Crystal Palace .
FC Barcelona quickly emerged as one of the leading clubs in Spain , competing in the Campeonato de Cataluña and the Copa del Rey . In 1902 , the club won its first trophy , the Copa Macaya , and also played in the first Copa del Rey final , losing 2 – 1 to Bizcaya .
In 1908 , Joan Gamper became club president for the first time to save the club from bankruptcy . The club had not won since the Campeonato de Cataluña in 1905 ; this caused their financial trouble . One of his main achievements was to help Barcelona acquire its own stadium and thus achieve a stable income .
On 14 March 1909 , the team moved into the Camp de la Indústria , a stadium with a capacity of 8 @,@ 000 . To celebrate their new surroundings , a logo contest was held the following year . Carles Comamala won the contest , and his suggestion became the crest that the club still wears as of 2012 , with some minor changes .
With the new stadium , Barcelona participated in the inaugural version of the Pyrenees Cup , which , at the time , consisted of the best teams of Languedoc , MIDI and Aquitaine ( Southern France ) , the Basque Country and Catalonia ; all were former members of the Marca Hispanica region . The contest was generally considered the most prestigious in that era . From the inaugural year in 1910 to 1913 , Barcelona won the competition four consecutive times . Carles Comamala played an integral part of the four @-@ time champion , managing the side along with Amechazurra and Jack Greenwell . The latter became the club 's first full @-@ time coach in 1917 . The last edition was held in 1914 in the city of Barcelona , which local rivals Espanyol won .
During the same period , the club changed its official language from Castilian to Catalan and gradually evolved into an important symbol of Catalan identity . For many fans , participating in the club had less to do with the game itself and more with being a part of the club 's collective identity . On 4 February 1917 , the club held its first testimonial match to honour Ramón Torralba who played from 1913 to 1928 . The match was against local side Terrassa , which Barcelona won 6 – 2 .
Gamper simultaneously launched a campaign to recruit more club @-@ members , and , by 1922 , the club had more than 20 @,@ 000 , who helped finance a new stadium . The club then moved to the new Les Cortes , which they inaugurated the same year . Les Cortes had an initial capacity of 22 @,@ 000 , and was later expanded to 60 @,@ 000 .
Gamper recruited Jack Greenwell as the first full @-@ time manager in Barcelona 's history . After he was hired , the club 's fortunes began to improve on the field . During the Gamper @-@ led era , Barcelona won eleven Campeonato de Cataluña , six Copa del Rey and four Pyrenees Cups and enjoyed its first " golden age " .
= = Rivera , Republic and Civil War ( 1923 – 1957 ) = =
On 14 June 1925 , in a spontaneous reaction against Primo de Rivera 's dictatorship , the crowd in the stadium jeered the Royal March . As a reprisal , the ground was closed for six months and Gamper was forced to relinquish the presidency of the club . This coincided with the transition to professional football , and , in 1926 , the directors of Barcelona publicly claimed , for the first time , to operate a professional football club . On 3 July 1927 , the club held a second testimonial match for Paulino Alcántara , against the Spanish national team . To kick off the match , local journalist and pilot Josep Canudas dropped the ball onto the pitch from his airplane . In 1928 , victory in the Spanish Cup was celebrated with a poem titled " Oda a Platko " , which was written by a member of the Generation of ' 27 , Rafael Alberti , inspired by the heroic performance of the Barcelona goalkeeper , Franz Platko . Two years after the victory , on 30 July 1930 , Gamper committed suicide after a period of depression brought on by personal and financial problems .
Although they continued to have players of the standing of Josep Escolà , the club now entered a period of decline , in which political conflict overshadowed sports throughout society . Attendance at matches dropped as the citizens of Barcelona were occupied with discussing political matters . Although the team won the Campionat de Catalunya in 1930 , 1931 , 1932 , 1934 , 1936 and 1938 , success at a national level ( with the exception of the 1937 disputed title ) evaded them .
A month after the Spanish Civil War began in 1936 , several players from Barcelona enlisted in the ranks of those who fought against the military uprising , along with players from Athletic Bilbao . On 6 August , Falangist soldiers near Guadarrama murdered club president Josep Sunyol , a representative of the pro @-@ independence political party . He was dubbed the martyr of barcelonisme , and his murder was a defining moment in the history of FC Barcelona and Catalan identity . In the summer of 1937 , the squad was on tour in Mexico and the United States , where it was received as an ambassador of the Second Spanish Republic . The tour led to the financial security of the club , but also resulted in half of the team seeking asylum in Mexico and France , making it harder for the remaining team to contest for trophies .
On 16 March 1938 , Barcelona came under aerial bombardment from the Italian Air Force , causing more than 3 @,@ 000 deaths , with one of the bombs hitting the club 's offices . A few months later , Catalonia came under occupation and as a symbol of the " undisciplined " Catalanism , the club , now down to just 3 @,@ 486 members , faced a number of restrictions . All signs of regional nationalism , including language , flag and other signs of separatism were banned throughout Spain . The Catalan flag was banned and the club were prohibited from using non @-@ Spanish names . These measures forced the club to change its name to Club de Fútbol Barcelona and to remove the Catalan flag from its crest .
In 1943 , Barcelona faced rivals Real Madrid in the semi @-@ finals of Copa del Generalísimo . The first match at Les Corts was won by Barcelona 3 – 0 . Before the second leg , Franco 's director of state security visited Barcelona 's players in the changing room . He reminded them that they were only playing due to the " generosity of the regime " . Real Madrid comfortably won the match , beating Barcelona 11 – 1 .
Despite the difficult political situation , CF Barcelona enjoyed considerable success during the 1940s and 1950s . In 1945 , with Josep Samitier as coach and players like César , Ramallets and Velasco , they won La Liga for the first time since 1929 . They added two more titles in 1948 and 1949 . In 1949 , they also won the first Copa Latina . In June 1950 , Barcelona signed Ladislao Kubala , who was to be an important figure at the club .
On a rainy Sunday of 1951 , the crowd left Les Corts stadium after a 2 – 1 win against Santander by foot , refusing to catch any trams , and surprising the Francoist authorities . The reason was simple : at the same time , a tram strike was taking place in Barcelona , receiving the support of blaugrana fans . Events like this made CF Barcelona represent much more than just Catalonia and many progressive Spaniards saw the club as a staunch defender of rights and freedoms .
Coach Fernando Daučík and player László Kubala , regarded by many as the club 's best , inspired the team to several different trophies in 1952 , including La Liga , the Copa del Generalísimo , the Copa Latina , the Copa Eva Duarte and the Copa Martini Rossi . In 1953 , they helped the club win La Liga and the Copa del Generalísimo again .
= = Club de Fútbol Barcelona ( 1957 – 1978 ) = =
With Helenio Herrera as coach , a young Luis Suárez , the European Footballer of the Year in 1960 , and two influential Hungarians recommended by László Kubala , Sándor Kocsis and Zoltán Czibor , the team won another national double in 1959 and a La Liga and Fairs Cup double in 1960 . In 1961 , they became the first club to beat Real Madrid in a European Cup play @-@ off . However , they lost 2 – 3 to Benfica in the final .
The 1960s were less successful for the club , with Real Madrid monopolising La Liga . The completion of the Camp Nou , finished in 1957 , meant the club had little money to spend on new players . The 1960s saw the emergence of Josep Maria Fusté and Carles Rexach , and the club won the Copa del Generalísimo in 1963 and the Fairs Cup in 1966 . Barcelona restored some pride by beating Real Madrid 1 – 0 in the 1968 Copa del Generalísimo final at the Santiago Bernabéu – in front of Francisco Franco – with their coach Salvador Artigas , a former republican pilot in the civil war . With the end of Franco 's dictatorship in 1974 , the club changed its official name back to Futbol Club Barcelona and reverted the crest to its original design , including the original letters once again .
The 1973 – 74 season saw the arrival of a new player in Johan Cruyff , who was bought for a world record £ 920 @,@ 000 from Ajax . Already an established player with Ajax , Cruyff quickly won over the Barcelona fans when he told the European press that he chose Barcelona over Real Madrid because he could not play for a club associated with Franco . He further endeared himself when he named his son Jordi , after the local Catalan Saint George . Next to champions like Juan Manuel Asensi , Carles Rexach and Hugo Sotil , he helped the club win the 1973 – 74 season for the first time since 1960 , defeating Real Madrid 5 – 0 at the Santiago Bernabéu along the way . He was crowned European Footballer of the Year in 1973 during his first season with Barcelona ( his second Ballon d 'Or win ; he won his first while playing for Ajax in 1971 ) . Cruyff received this prestigious award a third time ( the first player to do so ) in 1974 , while he was still with Barcelona .
= = Núñez and the stabilization years ( 1978 – 2000 ) = =
In 1978 , Josep Lluís Núñez became the first elected president of FC Barcelona , and , since then , the members of Barcelona have elected the club president . The process of electing a president of Barcelona was closely tied to Spain 's transition to democracy in 1974 and the end of Franco 's dictatorship . The new president 's main objective was to develop Barcelona into a world @-@ class club by giving it stability both on and off the pitch . His presidency was to last for 22 years , and it deeply affected the image of Barcelona , as Núñez held to a strict policy regarding wages and discipline , letting go of such world @-@ class players as Diego Maradona , Romário and Ronaldo rather than meeting their demands .
On 16 May 1979 , the club won its first UEFA Cup Winners ' Cup by beating Fortuna Düsseldorf 4 – 3 in Basel in a final watched by more than 30 @,@ 000 travelling blaugrana fans . The same year , Núñez began to invest in the club 's youth program by converting La Masia to a dormitory for young academy players from abroad . The name of the dormitory would later become synonymous with the youth program of Barcelona .
In June 1982 , Diego Maradona was signed for a world record fee of £ 5 million from Boca Juniors . In the following season , under coach César Luis Menotti , Barcelona won the Copa del Rey , beating Real Madrid . Maradona 's time with Barcelona , however , was short @-@ lived and he soon left for Napoli . At the start of the 1984 – 85 season , Terry Venables was hired as manager and he won La Liga with noteworthy displays by German midfielder Bernd Schuster . The next season , he took the team to their second European Cup final , only to lose on penalties to Steaua București during a dramatic evening in Seville .
Around this time , tensions began to arise between what was perceived as president Núñez 's dictatorial rule and the nationalistic support group , Boixos Nois . The group , identified with a left @-@ wing separatism , repeatedly demanded the resignation of Núñez and openly defied him through chants and banners at matches . At the same time , Barcelona experienced an eruption in skinheads , who often identified with a right @-@ wing separatism . The skinheads slowly transferred the Boixos Nois ' ideology from liberalism to fascism , which caused division within the group and a sudden support for Núñez 's presidency . Inspired by British hooligans , the remaining Boixos Nois became violent , causing havoc leading to large @-@ scale arrests .
After the 1986 FIFA World Cup , Barcelona signed the English top @-@ scorer Gary Lineker , along with goalkeeper Andoni Zubizarreta , but the team could not achieve success , as Schuster was excluded from the team . Terry Venables was subsequently fired at the beginning of the 1987 – 88 season and replaced with Luis Aragonés . The season finished with the players rebelling against president Núñez , in an event known as the Hesperia mutiny , and a 1 – 0 victory at the Copa del Rey final against Real Sociedad .
In 1988 , Johan Cruyff returned to the club as manager and he assembled the so @-@ called " Dream Team " . He used a mix of Spanish players like Pep Guardiola , José Mari Bakero and Txiki Begiristain while signing international players such as Ronald Koeman , Michael Laudrup , Romário and Hristo Stoichkov .
It was ten years after the inception of the youth program , La Masia , when the young players began to graduate and play for their first team . One of the first graduates who would later earn international acclaim was Pep Guardiola . Under Cruyff 's guidance , Barcelona won four consecutive La Liga titles from 1991 to 1994 . They beat Sampdoria in both the 1989 UEFA Cup Winners ' Cup final and the 1992 European Cup final at Wembley Stadium , with a free @-@ kick goal from Dutch international Ronald Koeman . They also won a Copa del Rey in 1990 , the European Super Cup in 1992 and three Supercopa de España . With 11 trophies , Cruyff became the club 's most successful manager to date . He also became the club 's longest consecutive serving manager , serving eight years . Cruyff 's fortune was to change , however , and in his final two seasons , after he failed to win any trophies , he fell @-@ out with president Núñez , resulting in his departure .
Reacting to Cruyff 's departure , an independent protest group was organised by Armand Caraben , Joan Laporta and Alfons Godall . The objective of the group , called L 'Elefant Blau was to oppose the presidency of Núñez , which they regarded as a corruption of the club 's traditional values . Laporta would later take over the presidency of Barcelona in 2003 .
Cruyff was briefly replaced by Bobby Robson , who took charge of the club for a single season in 1996 – 97 . He recruited Ronaldo from his previous club , PSV and delivered a cup treble , winning the Copa del Rey , UEFA Cup Winners Cup and the Supercopa de España . Despite his success , Robson was only ever seen as a short @-@ term solution while the club waited for Louis van Gaal to become available .
Like Maradona , Ronaldo only stayed a short time before he left for Internazionale . New stars emerged , however , such as Luís Figo , Patrick Kluivert , Luis Enrique and Rivaldo , and the team won a Copa del Rey and La Liga double in 1998 . In 1999 , the club celebrated its centenari , winning the Lile title and where Rivaldo became the fourth Barcelona player to be awarded European Footballer of the Year . Despite this domestic success , the failure to emulate Real Madrid in the Champions League led to van Gaal and Núñez resigning in 2000 .
= = The Laporta years ( 2000 – 2010 ) = =
The departures of Núñez and Louis van Gaal were hardly noticed by the fans when compared to that of Luís Figo , then club vice @-@ captain . Figo had become a cult hero and was considered by Catalans to be one of their own . Barcelona fans , however , were distraught by Figo 's decision to join arch @-@ rivals Real Madrid , and , during subsequent visits to the Camp Nou with Madrid , Figo was given an extremely hostile reception . Upon his first return , a piglet 's head and a full bottle of whiskey were thrown at him from the crowd . The next three years saw the club in decline , and managers came and went . Van Gaal was replaced by Llorenç Serra Ferrer who , despite an extensive investment in players in the summer of 2000 , presided over a mediocre league campaign and a humiliating first @-@ round Champions League exit , and was eventually dismissed late in the season .
Long @-@ serving coach Carles Rexach was appointed as his replacement , initially on a temporary basis , and managed to at least steer the club to the last Champions League spot on the final day of the season . Despite better form in La Liga and a good run to the semi @-@ finals of the Champions League , Rexach was never viewed as a long @-@ term solution and that summer Van Gaal returned to the club for a second spell as manager . What followed , despite another decent Champions League performance , was one of the worst La Liga campaigns in the club 's history , with the team as low as 15th in February 2003 . This led to Van Gaal 's resignation and replacement for the rest of the campaign by Radomir Antić , though a sixth @-@ place finish was the best that he could manage . At the end of the season , Antić 's short @-@ term contract was not renewed , and club president Joan Gaspart resigned , his position having been made completely untenable by such a disastrous season on top of the club 's overall decline in fortunes since he became president three years prior .
After the disappointment of the Gaspart era , the combination of a new young president , Joan Laporta , and a young new manager , former Dutch and Milan star Frank Rijkaard , saw the club bounce back . On the field , an influx of international players , including Ronaldinho , Deco , Henrik Larsson , Ludovic Giuly , Samuel Eto 'o and Rafael Márquez , combined with homegrown Spanish players Carles Puyol , Andrés Iniesta , Xavi and Víctor Valdés , led to the club 's return to success . Barcelona won La Liga and the Supercopa de España in 2004 – 05 , and Ronaldinho and Eto 'o were voted first and third , respectively , in the FIFA World Player of the Year awards .
In the 2005 – 06 season , Barcelona repeated their Liga and Supercupa successes . The pinnacle of the league season arrived at the Santiago Bernabéu Stadium in a 3 – 0 win over Real Madrid . It was Rijkaard 's second victory at the Bernabéu , making him the first Barcelona manager to win there twice . Ronaldinho 's performance was so impressive that after his second goal , which was Barcelona 's third , some Real Madrid fans gave him a standing ovation . In the Champions League , Barcelona beat Arsenal 2 – 1 in the final . Trailing 1 – 0 to a ten @-@ man Arsenal and with less than 15 minutes remaining , they came back to win 2 – 1 , with substitute Henrik Larsson , in his final appearance for the club , setting up goals for Samuel Eto 'o and fellow substitute Juliano Belletti , for the club 's first European Cup victory in 14 years .
Despite being the favourites and starting strongly , Barcelona finished the 2006 – 07 season without any trophies won . A pre @-@ season United States tour was later blamed for a string of injuries to key players , including leading scorer Samuel Eto 'o and rising star Lionel Messi . There was open feuding as Eto 'o publicly criticized coach Rijkaard and Ronaldinho . Ronaldinho also admitted that a lack of fitness affected his form . In La Liga , Barcelona were in first place for much of the season , but inconsistency in the New Year saw Real Madrid overtake them to become champions . Barcelona advanced to the semi @-@ finals of the Copa del Rey , winning the first leg against Getafe 5 – 2 , with a goal from Messi bringing comparison to Diego Maradona 's goal of the century , but then lost the second leg 4 – 0 . They took part in the 2006 FIFA Club World Cup , but were beaten by a late goal in the final against Brazilian side Internacional . In the Champions League , Barcelona were knocked out of the competition in the last 16 by eventual runners @-@ up Liverpool on the away goals rule .
Barcelona finished the 2007 – 08 season third in La Liga and reached the semi @-@ finals of the Champions League and Copa del Rey , both times losing to the eventual champions , Manchester United and Valencia , respectively . The day after a 4 – 1 defeat to Real Madrid , Joan Laporta announced that Barcelona B coach Pep Guardiola would take over Rijkaard 's duties on 30 June 2008 .
In the pre @-@ season of 2008 – 09 , a motion of no confidence was raised against club president Joan Laporta . This motion received 60 percent support , just short of the 66 percent required to oust him , prompting eight of the directors to resign . Continuing as president , Laporta made large changes to the playing staff , spending nearly € 90 million rebuilding the squad .
For the second time that season , Barcelona played Real Madrid in El Clásico , this time at the Santiago Bernabéu . Barcelona won the historic match 2 – 6 , which was the largest margin of victory by which Barcelona had won in Madrid since the 1970s , when Johan Cruyff led Barcelona to win 0 – 5 . On 6 May 2009 , Barcelona played against Chelsea in the second leg of the Champions League semi @-@ finals . Following a goalless first leg , Chelsea led the second leg at Stamford Bridge 1 – 0 , from the eighth minute until injury time , when Andrés Iniesta scored an equaliser in the 93rd minute from the edge of the penalty area , sending Barcelona through to the final on the away goals rule . On 13 May , Barcelona beat Athletic Bilbao 4 – 1 to win the Copa del Rey for a record 25th time . Three days later , Real Madrid lost a league match and Barcelona was crowned La Liga champions for the 2008 – 09 season .
With a largely homegrown squad , in which seven players of the starting 11 were products of their youth academy , La Masia , Barcelona defeated the defending champions Manchester United 2 – 0 at the Stadio Olimpico in Rome on 27 May 2009 , to earn their third Champions League title . This completed the first ever treble won by a Spanish side , having already won the La Liga and Copa del Rey in that season .
Barcelona went on to win the 2009 Supercopa de España against Athletic Bilbao , and the 2009 UEFA Super Cup against Shakhtar Donetsk , becoming the first European club to win both domestic and European Super Cups following a treble . In December 2009 , Barcelona won the 2009 Club World Cup , thus becoming the first team ever to accomplish the sextuple . In May 2010 , Barcelona won La Liga for the second consecutive time with a record Spanish league tally of 99 points out of 114 possible . In August , Barcelona won their ninth Supercup , beating the previous record of eight , which they shared with Real Madrid .
= = 2011 – present = =
Barcelona begin start off the season with the traditional curtain raiser , the Supercopa de España , against Sevilla , losing the first leg 3 – 1 at the Ramón Sánchez Pizjuán Stadium . In the return leg at the Camp Nou , however , the team would win 4 – 0 , thus claiming the Supercopa 5 – 3 on aggregate . In the 2010 – 11 season , Barcelona would endure a slow start to the campaign , despite a victory over Racing de Santander ( 3 – 0 ) on the opening day of the season ; they would go on to be defeated 2 – 0 at the Camp Nou by newly promoted minnows Hércules . Nevertheless , Barça would recover and go on to magnificent 5 – 0 win over Real Madrid at home . In the Champions League semi @-@ finals against Madrid at the Santiago Bernabéu , Lionel Messi scored two goals to ensure a 0 – 2 win for Barcelona , with the second leg at home ending in a 1 – 1 draw , sending Barça through to the Final to take on Manchester United . In the Copa del Rey Final at the Mestalla Stadium against Real Madrid , Cristiano Ronaldo would convert a header on the 100th minute to win the Copa for Madrid , 1 – 0 . Barça , however , would end up beating Manchester United 3 – 1 with goals from Pedro , Messi and David Villa to win them the Champions League for the fourth time in club history . Barcelona would also claim La Liga with 96 points to Real Madrid 's 92 for the third time in a row to round off a very successful season .
The 2011 – 12 season would kick off with the Supercopa de España , this time against reigning Copa del Rey champions Real Madrid . In Madrid , Barcelona would play to a 2 – 2 draw , but would seal the Supercup with a 3 – 2 win at the Camp Nou . The first kick of a ball in La Liga for Barça would be at the Camp Nou against Villarreal , with the Catalans easily winning 5 – 0 . In the first Liga Clásico of the season , Barcelona would win 1 – 3 in Madrid to level on points with Madrid heading into the Christmas break . Nevertheless , Barcelona would drop two points away to Espanyol , which ended 1 – 1 , to go two points behind their archrivals Madrid . In the Copa del Rey semi @-@ finals , in the first leg against Real Madrid , the Blaugrana would win 1 – 2 in Madrid , later sealing their place in the semi @-@ finals after a 2 – 2 draw at the Camp Nou . In the Round of 16 of the UEFA Champions League , the then @-@ defending champions would defeat Bayer Leverkusen 1 – 3 in Germany and rout them 7 – 1 at the Camp Nou . The quarter @-@ finals against Milan would begin slowly for the Catalan club , playing to a 0 – 0 draw in Milan , only to sweep the Italian club aside 3 – 1 at the Camp Nou with two strikes from Lionel Messi . In the semi @-@ finals against Chelsea , Barcelona would be defeated 1 – 0 in London after a Didier Drogba strike in the 45th minute . The second leg , meanwhile , at the Nou Camp finished 2 – 2 , thus eliminating Barcelona from European contention . In the penultimate game of the season at home to Real Madrid , perhaps the most important game of the Catalan club 's season , Barça would collapse 1 – 2 to Real Madrid with a strike each from Sami Khedira and Cristiano Ronaldo , winning Los Blancos the match . On 27 April , coach Pep Guardiola announced in a tearful press conference in Barcelona that he would be stepping down as coach of the Catalan club at the end of the season , citing that he needed a break from football ; he was to be replaced by Tito Vilanova . In Barcelona 's final game of the season , the Copa del Rey finals against Athletic Bilbao , Barça would win 3 – 0 with a brace from Pedro and a strike from Messi , winning the club the trophy . That season , Barça would also win the 2011 UEFA Super Cup , 2 – 0 against Porto and the 2011 FIFA Club World Cup , 4 – 0 against Santos .
Barça 's 2012 – 13 season yet again began with a Supercopa contention , this time another incarnation of El Clásico . Barcelona would win the first leg at home 3 – 2 with goals from Messi , Pedro and Xavi , but in the second leg , despite a wonderfully @-@ struck free kick from Messi from 35 yards out , Barcelona would succumb 2 – 1 to their fiercest foes with goals from Ronaldo and Gonzalo Higuaín . In La Liga , Barcelona would shoot straight up to the top of the league table with a 5 – 1 win over Real Sociedad . In the most @-@ hyped game of the season so far , Barcelona and Real Madrid would play out what many regard as the best Clásico in recent memory , ending in a 2 – 2 draw at the Camp Nou with both Messi and Ronaldo netting twice for their respective clubs . Barça would also kick of their Copa del Rey defence with a 3 – 0 win over Alavés . In the Champions League on 7 November 2012 , Barcelona would fall 2 – 1 to Celtic , with Messi grabbing his third Champions League goal of the 2012 – 13 season in the 90th minute in Glasgow . Barcelona were eliminated from Europe 0 – 7 on aggregate in the semi @-@ finals against eventual champions Bayern Munich , the worst @-@ ever aggregate loss in any European competition for the club .
On 22 July 2013 , Gerardo Martino was confirmed as manager of Barcelona for the 2013 – 14 season . Barcelona 's first official games under Martino were the home and away legs of the 2013 Supercopa de España , which Barça won 1 – 1 on away goals . On 23 January 2014 , Sandro Rosell resigned as president by the admissibility of the complaint for alleged misappropriation following the transfer of Neymar . Josep Maria Bartomeu replaced him to finish the term in 2016 .
In April 2014 , FIFA banned the club from buying players for the next two transfer windows following the violation of the FIFA 's rules about the transfer of footballers aged under 18 . A statement on FIFA 's website read , " With regard to the case in question , FC Barcelona has been found to be in breach of art . 19 of the Regulations in the case of ten minor players and to have committed several other concurrent infringements in the context of other players , including under Annexe 2 of the Regulations . The Disciplinary Committee regarded the infringements as serious and decided to sanction the club with a transfer ban at both national and international level for two complete and consecutive transfer periods , together with a fine of CHF 450 @,@ 000 . Additionally , the club was granted a period of 90 days in which to regularise the situation of all minor players concerned . " FIFA rejected an appeal in August but the pending appeal to the Court of Arbitration for Sport ( CAS ) allowed Barcelona to sign players during the summer of 2014 .
On 17 May , in a game where they needed to defeat Atlético Madrid ( who had eliminated them from the Champions League in the quarter @-@ finals earlier in the year ) to be crowned champions of La Liga for the 23rd time , they drew after Atlético defender Diego Godín headed in the equalizer in the 49th minute , giving Atlético the championship .
On 19 May 2014 , it was announced that Luis Enrique would return to Barcelona as head coach after he agreed to a two @-@ year deal . He was recommended by sporting director Andoni Zubizarreta , his former Spain national teammate . Following Luis Enrique 's arrival , Barcelona broke their transfer record when they paid Liverpool between € 81 to € 94 million for striker Luis Suárez , who at the time was serving a four @-@ month ban from all football @-@ related activity imposed by the FIFA Disciplinary Committee after biting Italian defender Giorgio Chiellini during his appearance for Uruguay in a World Cup group stage match .
In late December 2014 , Barcelona 's appeal to the CAS was unsuccessful and the original transfer ban was reinstated , leaving the club unable to utilise the 2015 winter and summer transfer windows . On 5 January 2015 , Zubizareta was sacked by the board after 4 years as director of football . On 12 February 2015 , Barcelona announced the formation of a new Football Area Technical Commission , made up of vice @-@ president Jordi Mestre , board member Javier Bordas , Carles Rexach and Ariedo Braida .
Barcelona won the treble in the 2014 – 15 season , winning La Liga , Copa del Rey and Champions League titles , and became the first European team to have won the treble twice . On 17 May , the club clinched their 23rd La Liga title after defeating Atlético Madrid . This was Barcelona 's seventh La Liga title in the last ten years . On 30 May , the club defeated Athletic Bilbao in the Copa del Rey final at Camp Nou . On 6 June , Barcelona won the Champions League final with a 3 – 1 win against Juventus , which completed the treble , the club 's second in six years .
|
= Sacagawea dollar =
The Sacagawea dollar ( also known as the " golden dollar " ) is a United States dollar coin that has been minted every year since 2000 , although not released for general circulation from 2002 through 2008 and again from 2012 onward due to its general unpopularity with the public and low business demand for the coin . These coins have a copper core clad by manganese brass , giving them a distinctive golden color . The coin features an obverse by Glenna Goodacre . From 2000 to 2008 , the reverse featured an eagle design by Thomas D. Rogers . Since 2009 , the reverse of the Sacagawea dollar has been changed yearly , with each design in the series depicting a different aspect of Native American cultures .
The coin was first suggested as a replacement for the Susan B. Anthony dollar , which proved useful for vending machine operators and mass transit systems despite being unpopular with the public . The Statue of Liberty was originally proposed as the design subject , but Sacagawea , the Shoshone guide of the Lewis and Clark expedition , was eventually chosen .
The new dollar coin was heavily marketed by the Mint in a series of print , radio , and television advertisements , as well as Mint partnerships with Walmart and Cheerios . However , the Sacagawea dollar did not prove popular with the public , and mintage dropped sharply in the second year of production . Production of Sacagawea dollars continued , since 2007 in parallel with the U.S. Presidential dollars . In 2012 , mintage numbers were reduced by over 90 % , in line with a similar reduction for the Presidential Dollars , due to large stockpiles of unused dollar coins .
The Mint planned to issue the Sacagawea design in 22 @-@ karat gold as well , but this idea was quickly abandoned after the Mint 's authority to strike the coins was questioned , and the Mint has retained ownership of the few such coins produced . Soon after initial production of the dollar , it was noticed that a few of the dollar coins were erroneously struck with the obverse of a state quarter and the normal reverse .
= = Background = =
Due to the limited circulation of the Eisenhower dollar , it was decided in the 1970s that a smaller dollar coin might prove more useful to the public . On September 26 , 1978 , Congress approved legislation to provide for a smaller dollar coin to be minted , which would depict Susan B. Anthony , a prominent American suffragette . These new dollars also proved unpopular , due in large part to their similarity in size and metallic composition to the quarter @-@ dollar . Since there was little interest in the coin as a circulating medium , most were placed in United States Mint and Federal Reserve vaults throughout the country , and mintage ceased after 1981 .
Despite their initial lack of popularity , by the late 1990s the Treasury 's supply of small dollar coins began to dwindle due to their widespread use in vending machines ( including more than 9 @,@ 000 stamp machines situated in post offices across the United States ) and mass transit turnstiles . Beginning in 1997 , several bills were introduced to Congress with the intent of resuming mintage of small @-@ sized dollar coins to keep up with demand . On March 20 of that year , Arizona Republican Representative Jim Kolbe introduced legislation calling for more dollar coins to be minted . Four months later , on July 24 , Republican Representative Michael Castle of Delaware , a member of the House Subcommittee on Domestic and International Monetary Policy , also introduced legislation , calling for the Statue of Liberty to be the subject of the design . On October 21 , Minnesota Republican Rod Grams introduced a bill in the Senate , also calling for the mintage of a newly designed dollar coin . The final legislation authorizing the design and production of a new dollar coin was based on Grams ' bill . Also on October 21 , in a hearing before the House Financial Services Subcommittee on Domestic and International Monetary Policy , Trade , and Technology , Treasury Department officials gave their support for a new dollar coin , recommending that it be gold @-@ colored with a distinctive edge , to make it easily distinguishable from the quarter @-@ dollar . During this hearing , Philip N. Diehl , then Director of the Mint , estimated that it would take thirty months to begin production of the new coin .
The United States Senate approved the necessary legislation on November 9 , 1997 , and the House of Representatives did the same on November 13 . On December 1 President Bill Clinton signed the 50 States Commemorative Coin Program Act , which became Public Law 105 @-@ 124 . Section four of the act , which is entitled " United States $ 1 Coin Act of 1997 " , provided for a new dollar coin to be struck , stating in part : " The dollar coin shall be golden in color , have a distinctive edge , have tactile and visual features that make the denomination of the coin readily discernible " . The act also gave authority to the Secretary of the Treasury to resume production of the Susan B. Anthony dollar until production could begin on the new dollar coin . In total , more than 41 million Susan B. Anthony dollars were struck bearing the date 1999 .
= = Design history = =
= = = Subject selection = = =
Though the United States $ 1 Coin Act of 1997 required a change in composition and edge , it did not dictate what was to appear on the coin . To determine this , Treasury Secretary Robert Rubin appointed a nine @-@ member Dollar Coin Design Advisory Committee . Rubin , who had the authority to select the coin 's design as Secretary of the Treasury , specified that the coin should depict a representation of one or more women and could not depict a living person . The committee was chaired by Philip N. Diehl , a role that did not include a vote on the designs . They met in Philadelphia in June 1998 , listening to seventeen concepts submitted by members of the public , and reviewing many more suggestions received by telephone , mail and email . On June 9 , 1998 , the committee recommended Sacagawea , the Shoshone guide of the Lewis and Clark Expedition , for the design of the new coin . Despite the committee 's choice of Sacagawea , Castle advocated that the Statue of Liberty be depicted , as per his earlier legislation . In a letter to the House of Representatives , Castle explained his objection , stating that the " goal in creating a new dollar coin is to make it more distinctive with a popular design that would encourage its wider use by the public . " Between November 18 and 22 , 1998 , the General Accounting Office conducted a poll on behalf of Castle . The object of the poll was to determine which design the public would find more desirable . In total , 65 percent preferred the Statue of Liberty , 27 percent preferred Sacagawea , two percent believed that either was acceptable , three percent said neither was acceptable , and an additional three percent had no opinion . Despite Castle 's objection , Sacagawea was ultimately chosen as the subject of the coin .
= = = Initial design selection = = =
Invitations were sent to 23 artists with guidelines as to what their designs should depict . The obverse was to depict a representation of Sacagawea , and the reverse an eagle symbolizing peace and freedom . Another guideline requested artists " be sensitive to cultural authenticity , and try to avoid creating a representation of a classical European face in Native American headdress . " In November and December 1998 , members of the Native American community , teachers , numismatists , historians , members of Congress , various government officials and others were invited by the United States Mint to review the submitted proposed designs . Six obverse and seven reverse designs were originally selected for further consideration .
After the Mint conducted a series of polls and focus groups , three obverse and four reverse designs were selected as finalists . The Mint received approximately 90 @,@ 000 e @-@ mails in reference to the design selection process . In response to the large amount of feedback generated , Diehl stated that the internet has " allowed us to conduct a public outreach program of unprecedented scope to measure opinions of the designs . " All seven of the selected designs were forwarded to the United States Commission of Fine Arts ; the Commission chose an obverse design depicting Sacagawea with her infant son , Jean Baptiste Charbonneau , as designed by sculptor Glenna Goodacre . Goodacre chose Randy 'L He @-@ dow Teton to model for Sacagawea , of whom there are no known contemporary portraits , to help the artist capture the features of a young Native American woman . The chosen reverse , designed by Mint sculptor @-@ engraver Thomas D. Rogers , depicted a soaring eagle .
= = = Native American redesign = = =
On September 20 , 2007 , Pub.L. 110 – 82 , known as the Native American $ 1 Coin Act , was signed by president George W. Bush . The act specified in part that the one dollar coin shall depict " images celebrating the important contributions made by Indian tribes and individual Native Americans to the development of the United States and the history of the United States . " The act also called for the removal of the date from the obverse and " E PLURIBUS UNUM " from the reverse of the coin , opting instead to add them to the edge . At this time the mintmark was also moved to the edge .
The program requires that the reverse of the dollar depict a new design every year . In order to determine which design to depict on the coins , officials from the United States Senate Committee on Indian Affairs , the Native American Caucus and the National Congress of American Indians , the consulting organizations for the program , appoint a liaison to the United States Mint . Between twelve and fifteen themes are selected after consultation with the National Museum of the American Indian and the Smithsonian Institution . At this point , the consulting organizations supply the Mint with written comments regarding the themes . The suggestions are then sent to the Citizens Coinage Advisory Committee , where a theme is recommended . After reviewing the recommendations and input from the contributing organizations , the selected theme is finalized , at which point designs are produced that represent the theme . Once designs are created , the consulting organizations and the National Museum of the Native American are consulted , and the designs are sent to the Citizens Coinage Advisory Committee for approval . Based on all comments and recommendations received , the Mint selects a final design that is recommended to the Secretary of the Treasury for approval .
The first coin in the Native American series , issued in 2009 , was designed by Mint sculptor @-@ engraver Norman E. Nemeth , the subject being the spread of Three Sisters Agriculture . It depicts a Native American woman planting seeds in a field populated with corn , beans and squash . Above the woman is the inscription " UNITED STATES OF AMERICA " , and below is " $ 1 " .
The design selected for the 2010 reverse was designed by Artistic Infusion Program artist Thomas Cleveland and depicts the Hiawatha belt surrounding five stone @-@ tipped arrows , along with the inscriptions " UNITED STATES OF AMERICA " , " $ 1 " , " HAUDENOSAUNEE " and " GREAT LAW OF PEACE " . The subject of the design is the " Great Tree of Peace " .
The reverse of the 2011 dollar depicts the hands of the Supreme Sachem Ousamequin and Plymouth Colony Governor John Carver holding a ceremonial pipe , along with the inscriptions " UNITED STATES OF AMERICA " , " $ 1 " , and " WAMPANOAG TREATY 1621 " . The coin was designed by Artistic Infusion Program artist Richard Masters and engraved by Mint sculptor – engraver Joseph Menna . The design subject is treaties with tribal nations .
The theme for the reverse of the 2012 dollar is " Trade Routes of the 17th Century " and the design depicts the profile of a Native American man and a horse in the foreground and a group of galloping horses in the background . This reverse design was created by Thomas Cleveland as part of the Artistic Infusion Program and engraved by Mint sculptor – engraver Phebe Hemphill .
The 2013 dollar commemorates the Treaty with the Lenape in 1778 , the first formal treaty between the United States and a Native American tribe . The coin depicts a turkey , a howling wolf , and a turtle — symbols of the Lenape . Its design was created by Susan Gamble as part of the Artistic Infusion Program , and engraved by Phebe Hemphill .
The 2014 dollar depicts a Native American man clasping a ceremonial pipe while his wife holds a plate of provisions , including fish , corn , roots and gourds . In the background is the stylized image of the face of William Clark 's compass , displaying " NW " for " northwest . " It bears the inscriptions " UNITED STATES OF AMERICA " and " $ 1 , " as required by law .
The reverse design of the 2015 dollar depicts Mohawk ironworkers . According to the U.S. Mint , the coin commemorates Kahnawake and Akwesasne Mohawk ironworkers who contributed to the building of New York City skyscrapers . The inscriptions on the reverse read " UNITED STATES OF AMERICA , " " $ 1 " and " MOHAWK IRONWORKERS . " It was designed by artist Ronald D. Sanders .
According to an August 29 , 2014 , U.S. Mint press release , the design selected for use on the 2016 coins commemorates Code talkers from World Wars I and II . Designed by Thomas D. Rogers , it includes the inscriptions " UNITED STATES OF AMERICA , " $ 1 " , " WWI " and " WWII " and depicts two helmets used by American fighting forces in the 20th century — the Brodie helmet of World War I , and the M1 helmet of World War II — along with two feathers which combine to form a V , " symbolizing victory , unity , and the important role that these code talkers played . "
On October 7 , 2015 , the Citizens Coinage Advisory Committee recommended new designs for 2017 and 2018 . These were , respectively , Sequoyah and Jim Thorpe , the latter over an outline of his ancestor Chief Black Hawk .
= = Production and release = =
After her obverse design was approved , Goodacre visited the Philadelphia Mint engraving department six times in order to finalize the designs . Rogers ' reverse design was also modified before production began . In his original proposal , mountainous scenery was depicted beneath the flying eagle ; this was removed and the positions of other reverse design features were altered before Rubin gave final approval . The composition selected for the new coin included a cladding of manganese brass ( containing about 77 % copper , 12 % zinc , 7 % manganese , and 4 % nickel ) over a pure copper core . This composition was chosen because it would give the coin a distinctive golden color while being electromagnetically identical to its predecessor , the copper @-@ nickel Susan B. Anthony dollar . The first official striking of the Sacagawea dollar took place on November 18 , 1999 , during a ceremony in which dignitaries and other invited guests each struck individual examples of the coins . Because the coins were struck before 2000 , it was not legal to release them during the first strike ceremonies . Instead , the coins were saved and later sent to the dignitaries who struck them . Full @-@ scale production began shortly after the ceremonial strikings .
For her work creating the obverse of the Sacagawea dollar , Goodacre received a $ 5 @,@ 000 commission ; she requested that it be paid in dollar coins . The coins paid to Goodacre were struck on specially burnished blanks to give them a finish unique to that striking . Diehl and other Mint dignitaries personally delivered the coins to Goodacre on April 5 , 2000 . A similar specially burnished finish was used on the 75 @,@ 000 2000 @-@ D dollars included in the Millennium Coin & Currency sets . Soon after release of the new coins , it was discovered that they tarnished quickly once in circulation . In April 2001 the Mint began testing an experimental rinse that would inhibit the tarnishing ; however , the rinse was used only in that year .
= = = Marketing = = =
The act authorizing the dollar coin also provided for the Secretary of the Treasury to " adopt a program to promote the use of such coins by commercial enterprises , mass transit authorities , and Federal , State , and local government agencies . " The Mint 's initial advertising campaign , consisting of an estimated 1 @,@ 600 television , radio and print advertisements and partnerships with the national retail chain Wal @-@ Mart and the General Mills company , cost approximately $ 41 million . The television ads consisted of the head of George Washington superimposed upon a body , voiced by actor Michael Keaton , discussing the merits of the new dollar coin .
Beginning in January 2000 , the Mint began sending dollar coins to Wal @-@ Mart and Sam 's Club stores across the United States in order to help promote and circulate the coins . In total , $ 100 million worth of the dollars were shipped to the stores as part of the promotion . Some store owners criticized the Mint 's partnership with Wal @-@ Mart and Sam 's Club as being unfair to smaller retailers . In response , Diehl noted that " every retailer and commercial establishment has the right to carry the Golden Dollar . The Mint 's agreement with Wal @-@ Mart is designed to encourage all retailers and commercial businesses in the nation to use the new Golden Dollar in everyday transactions . "
During this time , the Mint began a partnership with the General Mills company , in which 10 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 boxes of Cheerios cereal would contain a 2000 @-@ dated Lincoln cent as a prize , one in every 2 @,@ 000 boxes would contain a new Sacagawea dollar and one in every 4 @,@ 400 would hold a certificate redeemable for 100 Sacagawea dollars . It was later discovered that the dollars included in every 2 @,@ 000 boxes were in fact early strikes , differing from those ultimately issued for circulation by the number of tail feathers on the eagle . Approximately 5 @,@ 500 of the coins were included in the boxes of cereal .
= = = Gold dollars = = =
In 1999 , the Mint struck a number of Sacagawea dollars in .9167 fine ( 22 @-@ karat ) gold . During the initial production of the coins , they were denominated at five dollars in order to help the public distinguish them from their circulating counterparts . The plan was to sell gold versions of the coins to collectors . On March 20 , this plan was halted when some Congressmen questioned the authority of Mint officials to strike the coins in a composition different from what had already been authorized . Full @-@ scale coin production never took place even though the Mint maintained that it did have authority to do so , as the coins would be considered numismatic items and not regular @-@ issue coins . Similar gold coins were also struck , this time bearing the denomination of one dollar and a " W " mint mark , signifying that the coins were struck at the West Point Mint . In total , 39 such coins were struck , twelve of which were found to be of adequate quality , while the rest were eventually destroyed . Unlike those denominated at five dollars , the one dollar pieces were " struck to commemorate the historic flight of the Space Shuttle Columbia in July 1999 " , according to Former Mint Director Ed Moy . The twelve surviving gold dollars were sent into space aboard Columbia on mission STS @-@ 93 in July 1999 . Following the return of the shuttle , the coins were placed in storage at Fort Knox , where they remained until 2007 , when they were exhibited at the American Numismatic Association World 's Fair of Money in Milwaukee , Wisconsin . After the event , the coins were returned to Fort Knox ; however , the Mint is currently planning to loan the coins to various museums throughout the country .
= = = Mule error = = =
In May 2000 , an error coin bearing the George Washington obverse design of a U.S. state quarter and the eagle reverse of a Sacagawea dollar was discovered in a roll of dollar coins purchased from a bank in Mountain Home , Arkansas . The undated coin , known as a double @-@ denomination mule , was the first of eleven discovered and authenticated . Mint officials estimate that the coins , which bear the ' P ' mint mark for Philadelphia , were struck from late April to early May 2000 . They were produced on dollar @-@ coin planchets clad with manganese bronze , not quarter planchets with copper @-@ nickel cladding .
Following the initial discovery , a bin containing several thousand of the error coins was impounded at the Philadelphia Mint , and all such coins within it were ordered melted . Some of the coins that had been released were eventually tracked back to a coin @-@ wrapping facility near Philadelphia . Employees at the wrapping facility were instructed to watch for any of the coins ; those discovered were turned over to the Mint .
A subsequent federal investigation into the incident found that the error coins had been struck accidentally , but two former Mint employees were guilty of selling some of the dollars , resulting in imprisonment and fines for both individuals . In 2002 , Mint officials announced that two of the ten coins then reported had entered circulation through legal channels , but the other eight were of dubious origins and might be seized . However , as of 2011 , the federal government has not attempted to seize the eight examples considered of dubious origin .
As of August 2011 , eight of the eleven error coins , including the one initially discovered in Arkansas , are owned by a New Mexico collector who purchased them between 2000 and 2003 , paying as high as $ 75 @,@ 000 for a single specimen . Of the other three documented mules , one is owned by its discoverer , a Missouri collector , another was purchased by an unnamed collector , and the third , first reported in 2011 , was purchased in 2011 by a Chicago dealer from an individual who had owned the coin for about ten years . Sale prices as high as $ 200 @,@ 000 have been reported . Three different die combinations have been identified among the eleven available error coins .
= = Reception = =
The coin received mixed reviews from the nation 's senators . In an interview with Associated Press columnist Suzanne Gamboa , Republican Senator Phil Gramm of Texas described United States currency as " crummy " . Gramm , who was one of the senators who voted for the bill containing the legislation that authorized it , praised the design of the Sacagawea dollar as being an improvement over the other coin designs then in production . Despite his praise of the design , Gramm condemned the Mint 's approach to marketing the coin , stating that if the United States Mint were the Franklin Mint , they would be " sued for deceptive advertisement . " He also noted his belief that the Mint had repeated the earlier mistakes of the Susan B. Anthony dollar by issuing a coin that was tailored to the requests of the vending machine industry rather than the average consumer . Texas Republican Senator Kay Bailey Hutchison criticized both the Sacagawea design as well the coin 's size in relation to the other coins in circulation at the time . Hutchison felt that the new coin lacked the necessary heft to easily distinguish it from the lower denominations , and that the dollar , as well as the other coins and currency then in circulation " looks like play money . " Senators Mike DeWine of Ohio and Byron Dorgan of North Dakota , Republican and Democrat respectively , praised the design and the distinctiveness of the golden color .
The series proved unpopular in everyday commerce . Mintage dropped by 90 % the following year . From 2002 through 2008 , Sacagawea dollars were only struck for sale to collectors . The Federal Reserve Bank ordered none of the Native American series after their issuance beginning in 2009 . In December 2009 , it was noted by a Federal Reserve official that there were currently 857 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 @-@ dollar coins ( including Presidential dollars ) in government storage vaults , an amount estimated to satisfy the demand for twelve years .
Despite their unpopularity in the United States , the coins proved popular for commerce in El Salvador and Ecuador , nations that use the United States dollar .
= = Mintage figures = =
= = Coin and Currency Sets = =
Besides the annual proof and uncirculated sets , Sacagawea dollars with special finishes have also been inserted into several mint packages . These include the following :
|
= Quatermass and the Pit =
Quatermass and the Pit is a British television science @-@ fiction serial transmitted live by BBC Television in December 1958 and January 1959 . It was the third and last of the BBC 's Quatermass serials , although the chief character , Professor Bernard Quatermass , reappeared in a 1979 ITV production called Quatermass . Like its predecessors , Quatermass and the Pit was written by Nigel Kneale .
The serial continues the loose chronology of the Quatermass adventures . Workmen excavating a site in Knightsbridge , London , discover a strange skull and what at first appears to be an unexploded bomb . Quatermass and his newly appointed military superior at the British Experimental Rocket Group , Colonel Breen , become involved in the investigation when it becomes apparent that the object is an alien spacecraft . The ship and its contents have a powerful and malign influence over many of those who come in contact with it , including Quatermass . It becomes obvious to him that the aliens , probably from Mars , had been abducting pre @-@ humans and modifying them to give them psychic abilities much like their own before returning them to Earth , a genetic legacy responsible for much of the war and strife in the world .
The serial has been cited as having influenced Stephen King and the film director John Carpenter . It featured in the 100 Greatest British Television Programmes compiled by the British Film Institute in 2000 , which described it as " completely gripping " .
= = Background = =
The Quatermass Experiment ( 1953 ) and Quatermass II ( 1955 ) , both written by Nigel Kneale , had been critical and popular successes for the BBC , and in early 1957 the corporation decided to commission a third serial . Kneale had left the BBC shortly before , but was hired to write the new scripts on a freelance basis .
The British Empire had been in transition since the 1920s , and the pace accelerated in the wake of the Second World War . More and more member states demanded independence , and a series of crises erupted during the 1950s , including the 1952 Mau Mau Uprising in Kenya and the Suez Crisis of 1956 . During the same period immigration into Britain from the Indian subcontinent and the Caribbean was on the increase , causing some resentment among elements of the native population . At the time Kneale was working on his scripts black communities in Nottingham and London came under attack from mobs of white Britons ; Kneale became keen to develop the serial as an allegory for the emerging racial tensions that culminated in the Notting Hill race riots of August and September 1958 .
= = Plot = =
Workmen discover a pre @-@ human skull while building in the fictional Hobbs Lane ( formerly Hob 's Lane , Hob being an antiquated name for the Devil ) in Knightsbridge , London . Dr Matthew Roney , a paleontologist , examines the remains and reconstructs a dwarf @-@ like humanoid with a large brain volume , which he believes to be a primitive man . As further excavation is undertaken , something that looks like a missile is unearthed ; further work by Roney 's group is halted because the military believe it to be an unexploded Second World War bomb .
Roney calls in his friend Professor Bernard Quatermass of the British Rocket Group to prevent the military from disturbing what he believes to be an archaeological find . Quatermass and Colonel Breen , recently appointed to lead the Rocket Group over Quatermass 's objections , become intrigued by the site . As more of the artefact is uncovered additional fossils are found , which Roney dates to five million years , suggesting that the object is at least that old . The interior is empty , and a symbol of five intersecting circles , which Roney identifies as the occult pentacle , is etched on a wall that appears to conceal an inner chamber .
The shell of the object is so hard that even a boron nitride drill makes no impression , and when the attempt is made , vibrations cause severe distress in people around the object . Quatermass interviews local residents and discovers ghosts and poltergeists have been common in the area for decades . A hysterical soldier is carried out of the object , claiming to have seen a dwarf @-@ like apparition walk through the wall of the artefact , a description that matches a 1927 newspaper account of a ghost .
Following the drilling , a hole opens up in the object 's interior wall . Inside , Quatermass and the others find the remains of insect @-@ like aliens resembling giant three @-@ legged locusts , with stubby antennae on their heads giving the impression of horns . As Quatermass and Roney examine the remains , they theorise the aliens may have come from a planet habitable five million years ago – Mars .
While clearing his equipment from the craft the drill operator triggers more poltergeist activity , and runs through the streets in a panic until he finds sanctuary in a church . Quatermass and Roney find him there , and he describes visions of the insect aliens killing each other . As Quatermass investigates the history of the area , he finds accounts dating back to medieval times about devils and ghosts , all centred on incidents where the ground was disturbed . He suspects a psychic projection of these beings has remained on the alien ship and is being seen by those who come into contact with it .
Quatermass decides to use Roney 's optic @-@ encephalogram , a device that records impressions from the optical centres of the brain , and see the visions for himself . Roney 's assistant , Barbara Judd , is most sensitive ; placing the device on her , they record a violent purge of the Martian hive to root out unwanted mutations . Quatermass concludes that in its most primitive phase mankind was visited by this race of Martians . Some apes and primitive pre @-@ humans were taken away and genetically altered to give them abilities such as telepathy , telekinesis and other psychic powers . They were then returned to Earth , and the buried artefact is one of the ships that had crashed at the end of its journey . With their home world dying , the aliens had tried to change humanity 's ancestors to have minds and abilities similar to their own , but with a bodily form adapted to life on Earth .
But the aliens became extinct before completing their work . As the human race bred and evolved , only a percentage retained their psychic abilities , which surfaced only sporadically . For centuries the buried ship had occasionally triggered those dormant abilities , which explained the reports of poltergeists ; people were unknowingly using their own telekinesis to move objects around , and the ghost sightings were traces of a racial memory . The authorities , and Breen in particular , find this explanation preposterous despite being shown the recording of Barbara 's vision . They believe that the craft is a Nazi propaganda weapon and the alien bodies fakes designed to create exactly the impressions that Quatermass has succumbed to , and decide to hold a media event to stem the rumours that are already spreading .
Quatermass warns that if implanted psychic powers survive in the human race , there could also still be an ingrained compulsion to enact the " Wild Hunt " of a race purge , but the media event goes ahead regardless . The power cables that string into the craft fully activate it for the first time , and glowing and humming like a living thing it starts to draw upon this energy source and awaken the ancient racial programming . Those Londoners in whom the alien admixture remains strong fall under the ship 's influence ; they merge into a group mind and begin a telekinetic mass murder of those without the alien genes , an ethnic cleansing of those the alien race mind considers to be impure and weak .
Breen stands transfixed and is eventually consumed by the energies from the craft as it slowly melts away and an image of a Martian " devil " floats in the sky above London . Fires and riots erupt , and after Quatermass succumbs to the mass psychosis he attempts to kill Roney , who does not have the alien gene and is therefore immune to the alien influence . Roney manages to shake Quatermass out of his trance , and remembering the legends of demons and their aversion to iron and water , he proposes that a sufficient mass of iron connected to wet earth may be sufficient to short @-@ circuit the apparition . Quatermass acquires a length of iron chain and tries to reach the " devil " but succumbs to its psychic pressure . Roney manages to walk up to the apparition and hurls the chain at it , resulting in him and the spacecraft being reduced to ashes .
At the conclusion of the final episode Quatermass gives a television broadcast , at the end of which he delivers a warning directly to camera : " If we cannot control the inheritance within us , this will be their [ the Martians ' ] second dead planet . "
= = Cast = =
For the third time in as many serials the title role was played by a different actor , this time by André Morell ; the part had initially been offered to Alec Clunes , but he declined it . Morell had a reputation for playing authority figures , such as Colonel Green in The Bridge on the River Kwai ( 1957 ) , and had previously worked with Kneale and Cartier when he appeared as O 'Brien in their BBC television adaptation of Nineteen Eighty @-@ Four ( 1954 ) . He had been the first actor offered the part of Quatermass , for the original serial The Quatermass Experiment in 1953 ; he turned the part down . Morell 's portrayal of Quatermass has been described as the definitive interpretation of the character .
Colonel Breen was played by Anthony Bushell , who was known for various similar military roles – including another bomb disposal officer in The Small Back Room ( 1949 ) – and preferred to be addressed as " Major Bushell " , the rank he held during the Second World War . Roney was played by Canadian actor Cec Linder , John Stratton played Captain Potter , and Christine Finn played the other main character , Barbara Judd . She went on to provide the voices for various characters in the popular 1960s children 's television series Thunderbirds .
For the first time , Kneale used a character from a previous serial other than Quatermass himself , the journalist James Fullalove from The Quatermass Experiment . The production team had hoped that Paul Whitsun @-@ Jones would be able to reprise the part ; he was unavailable and Brian Worth was cast instead . Michael Ripper appeared as an army sergeant ; he had been in Hammer Film Productions ' adaptation of the second Quatermass serial , Quatermass 2 , the previous year . The drama also featured future Dad 's Army actress Nan Braunton as Miss Dobson .
= = Production = =
= = = Filming = = =
The director assigned was Rudolph Cartier , with whom Kneale had a good working relationship ; the two had collaborated on the previous Quatermass serials , as well as the literary adaptations Wuthering Heights ( 1953 ) and Nineteen Eighty @-@ Four ( 1954 ) . The budget of £ 17 @,@ 500 allocated for Quatermass and the Pit was larger than that of the previous Quatermass productions . Pre @-@ production began in September 1958 , while Cartier was still working on A Tale of Two Cities and A Midsummer Night 's Dream for the BBC . As the two previous Quatermass serials had been scheduled in half @-@ hour slots but , performed live , had overrun , Cartier requested 35 @-@ minute slots for the six episodes of Quatermass and the Pit . This was agreed in November 1958 , just before the start of production on 24 November . The six episodes – " The Halfmen " , " The Ghosts " , " Imps and Demons " , " The Enchanted " , " The Wild Hunt " and " Hob " – were broadcast on Monday nights at 8 pm from 22 December 1958 to 26 January 1959 .
Each episode was predominantly live from Studio 1 of the BBC 's Riverside Studios in Hammersmith , London . The episodes were rehearsed from Tuesday to Saturday , usually at the Mary Wood Settlement in Tavistock Place , London , with camera rehearsals in the morning and afternoon of transmission . Not every scene was live ; a significant amount of material was on 35 mm film and inserted during the performance . Most filming involved scenes set on location or those too technically complex or expansive to achieve live . The latter were shot at Ealing Studios , acquired by the BBC in 1955 , where Cartier worked with the cinematographer A. A. Englander . Pre @-@ filming was also used to show the passage of time in the second episode ; the archaeological dig at Ealing was shown to have dug deeper into the ground than the equivalent set at Riverside , enabling a sense of time having elapsed that would not have been possible in an all @-@ live production .
Made just before videotape became general at the BBC , all six episodes of Quatermass and the Pit were preserved for a possible repeat by being telerecorded on 35 mm film . This was achieved with a specially @-@ synchronised film camera capturing the output of a video monitor ; the process had been refined throughout the 1950s and recordings of Quatermass and the Pit are of high technical quality . The serial was repeated in edited form as two 90 @-@ minute episodes , entitled " 5 Million Years Old " and " Hob " , on 26 December 1959 and 2 January 1960 . The third episode , " Imps and Demons " , was re @-@ shown on BBC Two on 7 November 1986 as part of the " TV50 " season , celebrating 50 years of BBC television .
Quatermass and the Pit was the last original production on which Kneale collaborated with Rudolph Cartier .
= = = Special effects = = =
Special effects were handled by the BBC Visual Effects Department , formed by Bernard Wilkie and Jack Kine in 1954 . Kine or Wilkie oversaw effects on a production ; due to the number of effects , both worked on Quatermass and the Pit . The team pre @-@ filmed most of their effects for use during the live broadcasts . They also oversaw practical effects for the Ealing filming and Riverside transmission , and constructed the bodies of the Martian creatures .
= = = Music = = =
The music was credited to Trevor Duncan , a pseudonym used by BBC radio producer Leonard Trebilco , whose music was obtained from stock discs . Quatermass and the Pit also used sound effects and electronic music to create a disturbing atmosphere . These tracks were created for the serial by the BBC Radiophonic Workshop , overseen by Desmond Briscoe ; Quatermass and the Pit was one of the productions for which Briscoe and the workshop became most renowned . It was the first time electronic music had been used in a science @-@ fiction television production .
= = Reception = =
Quatermass and the Pit was watched by an average audience of 9 @.@ 6 million viewers , peaking at 11 million for the final episode . The Times ' television reviewer praised the opening episode the day after its transmission . Pointing out that " Professor Bernard Quatermass ... like all science fiction heroes , has to keep running hard if he is not to be overtaken by the world of fact " , the anonymous reviewer went on to state how much he had enjoyed the episode as " an excellent example of Mr. Kneale 's ability to hold an audience with promises alone ; smooth , leisurely , and without any sensational incident " .
Kneale went on to use the Martian " Wild Hunt " as an allegory for the recent Notting Hill race riots , but some Black British leaders were upset by the depiction of racial tensions in the first episode . " Leaders of coloured minorities here to @-@ day criticized the BBC for allowing a report that ' race riots are continuing in Birmingham , ' to be included in a fictional news bulletin during the first instalment of the new Quatermass television play last night " , reported The Times ' Birmingham correspondent .
These themes and subtexts were highlighted by the British Film Institute 's review of the serial when it was included in their TV 100 list in 2000 , in 75th position – 20th out of the dramas featured : " In a story which mined mythology and folklore ... under the guise of genre it tackled serious themes of man 's hostile nature and the military 's perversion of science for its own ends . " The theme of military takeover of peaceful scientific research was also considered favourably by Patrick Stoddart , writing for The Sunday Times in 1988 : " Last week I watched a BBC drama in which a scientist fought against smirking government ministers and power @-@ crazed army officers to stop his peaceful rocket research group being turned into a Star Wars vehicle to put missiles on the moon . They won . "
= = Influence = =
In a 2006 Guardian article Mark Gatiss wrote " What sci @-@ fi piece of the past 50 years doesn 't owe Kneale a huge debt ? ... The ' ancient invasion ' of Quatermass and the Pit cast a huge shadow ... its brilliant blending of superstition , witchcraft and ghosts into the story of a five @-@ million @-@ year @-@ old Martian invasion is copper @-@ bottomed genius . " Gatiss was a scriptwriter for Doctor Who , a programme that had been particularly strongly influenced by the Quatermass serials throughout its history . Derrick Sherwin , the producer of Doctor Who in 1969 , acknowledged Quatermass and the Pit 's influence on the programme 's move towards more realism and away from " wobbly jellies in outer space " . The 1971 and 1977 Doctor Who serials The Dæmons and Image of the Fendahl share many elements with Quatermass and the Pit : the unearthing of an extraterrestrial spaceship , an alien race that has interfered with human evolution and is the basis for legends of devils , demons and witchcraft , and an alien influence over human evolution .
The writer and critic Kim Newman , speaking about Kneale 's career in a 2003 television documentary , cited Quatermass and the Pit as perfecting " the notion of the science @-@ fictional detective story " . Newman also discussed the programme as an influence on the horror fiction writer Stephen King , claiming that King had " more or less rewritten Quatermass and the Pit in The Tommyknockers " .
After Quatermass and the Pit Kneale felt that it was time to rest the character . By the early 1970s he had decided there were new avenues to explore , and the BBC planned a fourth Quatermass serial in 1972 . The BBC did not proceed with the project , and Kneale 's scripts were produced in 1979 as a four @-@ part serial for Thames Television titled Quatermass .
= = Other media = =
As with the previous two Quatermass serials , the rights to adapt Quatermass and the Pit for the cinema were purchased by Hammer Film Productions . Their adaptation was released with the same title as the original in 1967 , directed by Roy Ward Baker and scripted by Kneale . Scottish actor Andrew Keir starred as Quatermass , the role for which he was best remembered and regarded particularly highly in comparison to the previous film Quatermass , Brian Donlevy . The film , made in colour , is regarded by many commentators as a classic of the genre for the way it blends science fiction with the supernatural . In the United States the film was retitled Five Million Years to Earth .
A script book of Quatermass and the Pit was released by Penguin Books in April 1960 , with a cover by Kneale 's artist brother Bryan Kneale . In 1979 this was re @-@ published by Arrow Books to coincide with the transmission of the fourth and final Quatermass serial on ITV ; this edition featured a new introduction by Kneale . The theatrical company Creation Productions staged a live adaptation of Quatermass and the Pit in a quarry near Nottingham in August 1997 .
The BBC made Quatermass and the Pit available to buy on VHS videotape in 1988 , edited into a two @-@ part compilation format . This was a new compilation made from the episodic film recordings , which had optical sound and telecined film inserts . This was re @-@ released on VHS by Paradox Films , Total Home Entertainment and Revelation Films in 1995 , and subsequently on DVD by Revelation Films in 2000 . The full , unedited , episodic version of the serial was released on DVD by BBC Worldwide in 2005 , as part of The Quatermass Collection box set . Also included were the surviving two episodes of The Quatermass Experiment , all of Quatermass II and various extra features .
For the box set release , Quatermass and the Pit was extensively restored . A process called VidFIRE was applied to all of the scenes originally broadcast live , restoring the fluid interlaced video look they would have had on transmission , but which was lost during the telerecording process . For the pre @-@ filmed scenes , most of the high @-@ quality original 35 mm film inserts still existed , as they had been spliced into the 1959 – 60 compilation repeat version in place of the lower @-@ quality telerecorded versions of the same sequences . As this compilation also survived in the BBC archives , these film sequences were able to be digitally remastered and inserted into the newly restored episodic version for the DVD release . The compilation used a separate magnetic soundtrack , and although the original had decayed a safety copy had survived . This yielded better sound quality than the optical soundtracks accompanying the original episodes , and was therefore the main source for the audio remastering except in the case of scenes that were not in the compilation , and in a few cases where faults on the magnetic tracks necessitated their replacement by the optical versions .
= = Parodies = =
A 1959 episode of the BBC radio comedy series The Goon Show parodied Quatermass and the Pit . The episode , " The Scarlet Capsule " , was written by Spike Milligan , and used the original BBC Radiophonic Workshop sound effects made for the television serial . The episode has been released on several LP and CD compilations by EMI , but owing to copyright restrictions the show 's musical interludes have been removed and the closing playout heavily abridged . A more complete version has been broadcast on BBC Radio 4 Extra ( formerly BBC7 ) .
The serial was also parodied by the BBC television comedy series Hancock 's Half Hour in an episode entitled " The Horror Serial " , transmitted the week following the final episode . In it , Tony Hancock has just finished watching the final episode of Quatermass and the Pit , and becomes convinced that there is a crashed Martian space ship buried at the end of his garden . ( It is in fact an unexploded bomb , although Hancock claims that the warning " Achtung ! " is really the Martian for Acton . ) This episode no longer exists in the BBC 's archives but a private collector 's audio @-@ only recording has been discovered .
It was parodied a third time in a sketch from the final series of The Two Ronnies in 1986 : the sketch featured a guest appearance from Joanna Lumley .
|
= Nycticebus kayan =
The Kayan River slow loris ( Nycticebus kayan ) is a strepsirrhine primate and a species of slow loris that is native to the northern and central highland region of the island of Borneo . The species was originally thought to be a part of the Bornean slow loris ( N. menagensis ) population until 2013 , when a study of museum specimens and photographs identified distinct facial markings , which helped to differentiate it . It is distinguished by the high contrast of its black and white facial features , as well as the shape and width of the stripes of its facial markings .
The species is named after the Kayan River , which runs through its native habitat . As with other slow lorises , this arboreal and nocturnal species primarily eats insects , tree gum , nectar , and fruit and has a toxic bite , a unique feature among primates . Although not yet evaluated by the International Union for Conservation of Nature ( IUCN ) , it is likely to be listed as " Vulnerable " or placed in a higher @-@ risk category when its conservation status is assessed . It is primarily threatened by habitat loss and the illegal wildlife trade .
= = Taxonomy and phylogeny = =
N. kayan is a strepsirrhine primate , and species of slow loris ( genus Nycticebus ) within the family Lorisidae . Museum specimens of this animal had previously been identified as the Bornean slow loris ( Nycticebus menagensis ) , first described by the English naturalist Richard Lydekker in 1893 as Lemur menagensis . In 1953 , all of the slow lorises were lumped together into a single species , the Sunda slow loris ( Nycticebus coucang ) . In 1971 , that view was refined by distinguishing the pygmy slow loris ( N. pygmaeus ) as a species , and by further identifying four subspecies , including N. coucang menagensis , the Bornean slow loris . The Bornean slow loris was elevated to the species level ( as N. menagensis ) in 2006 , when molecular analysis showed it to be genetically distinct from N. coucang .
A 2013 review of museum specimens and photographs attributed to N. menagensis resulted in elevating two of its former subspecies to the species N. bancanus and N. borneanus . Additionally , N. kayan was recognized as a new species , distinct from the nominate subspecies , N. menagensis . All newly recognized or elevated species showed significant differences in their " facemask " — the coloration patterns on their face . Analysis of the facemask patterns suggests that N. kayan diverged from N. menagensis and N. borneanus through sympatric speciation ( divergent evolution of organisms living in the same geographic region ) , while geographic barriers may account for its divergence with N. bancanus ( allopatric speciation ) .
N. kayan is named after the Kayan River , which runs through its native habitat and near Peleben , the type locality of the original specimen . The holotype , AMNH 106012 , was originally collected on 8 October 1935 by Baron V. von Plessen near Peleben in the province of East Kalimantan in Borneo and is housed in the American Museum of Natural History in New York . It consists of a male skin and skull , with a head @-@ body length of 257 @.@ 3 mm ( 10 @.@ 1 in ) .
= = Physical description = =
Like other slow lorises , it has a vestigial tail , round head , and short ears . It has a rhinarium ( the moist , naked surface around the nostrils of the nose ) and a broad , flat face with large eyes . Like N. menagensis , this and all other Bornean species lack a second upper incisor , which distinguishes them from other slow lorises . On its front feet , the second digit is smaller than the rest ; the big toe on its hind foot opposes the other toes , which enhances its gripping power . Its second toe on the hind foot has a curved grooming claw that it uses for scratching and grooming , while the other nails are straight . It also possesses a specialized arrangement of lower front teeth , called a toothcomb , which is also used for grooming , as with other lemuriform primates . On the ventral side of its elbow , it has a small swelling called the brachial gland , which secretes a pungent , clear oily toxin that the animal uses defensively by wiping it on its toothcomb .
The face mask of N. kayan differs from those of other Bornean lorises in several ways . First , the top of the dark ring around its eyes is either rounded or pointed ( not diffuse at the edges ) and the bottom stretches below the zygomatic arch , and sometimes extends as far down as the jaw . Second , the stripe between the eyes is occasionally bulb @-@ shaped , compared to the rectangular stripe seen in the neighboring species . Also , a light band of fur in front of the ears is usually intermediate in width compared to the narrow and wide bands seen in the other Bornean species . Compared to N. menagensis , the facemask of N. kayan has more contrast between its dark black and white features , and its ears are always covered in hair , whereas those of N. menagensis are generally naked . Overall , its fur is generally longer and fluffier compared to N. menagensis . Based on a limited number of specimens , the species is about 273 @.@ 4 mm ( 10 @.@ 8 in ) long , and weighs about 410 @.@ 5 g ( 0 @.@ 9 lb ) .
= = Distribution = =
N. kayan is found in central and northern Borneo . Its range extends south to the Mahakam and Rajang Rivers in the Indonesian province of East Kalimantan and the Malaysian province of Sarawak , respectively , and north to southern side of Mount Kinabalu in the Malaysian province of Sabah . Although it is not found along the coast , its range spans Borneo from east to west . Its range overlaps that of N. menagensis in East Kalimantan and Sabah , and N. borneanus is a neighboring species .
= = Habitat and ecology = =
Like other slow lorises , N. kayan is arboreal , nocturnal , and omnivorous , eating primarily insects , tree gum , nectar , and fruit . Likewise , this species has a toxic bite , a unique feature found only in slow lorises among primates . The toxin is produced by licking a brachial gland ( a gland by its elbow ) , and the secretion mixes with its saliva to activate . The toxic bite is a deterrent to predators , and the toxin is also applied to the fur during grooming as a form of protection for infants . When threatened , slow lorises may also lick their brachial glands and bite the aggressors , delivering the toxin into the wound . Slow lorises can be reluctant to release their bite , which is likely to maximize the transfer of toxins .
The face mask may help the species identify potential mates by distinguishing species , and may serve as an anti @-@ predator strategy by making its eyes appear larger than they really are .
= = Conservation = =
While Nycticebus kayan has yet to be assessed by the IUCN , N. menagensis was listed as " Vulnerable " as of 2012 . Because that species has been divided into four distinct species , each of the new species faces a higher risk of extinction . Accordingly , each of them are expected to be listed as " Vulnerable " at least , with some of them likely to be assigned to a higher @-@ risk category .
Between 1987 and 2012 , one @-@ third of Borneo 's forests were lost , making habitat loss one of the greatest threats to the survival of N. kayan . The illegal wildlife trade is also a major factor , with loris parts commonly sold for traditional medicine . Further , viral videos on YouTube promote the exotic pet trade . However , all slow loris species are protected from commercial trade under Appendix I of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora ( CITES ) .
|
= Home ( Glee ) =
" Home " is the sixteenth episode of the American television series Glee . The episode premiered on the Fox network on April 27 , 2010 . It was directed by Paris Barclay and written by series creator Brad Falchuk . " Home " sees new cheerleader Mercedes Jones ( Amber Riley ) deal with body image issues , while Kurt Hummel ( Chris Colfer ) sets his dad and Finn Hudson 's mom together , in an attempt to get closer to Finn ( Cory Monteith ) , and club director Will Schuester ( Matthew Morrison ) is reunited with his friend April Rhodes ( Kristin Chenoweth ) . Chenoweth first appeared in Glee in the episode " The Rhodes Not Taken " . She enjoyed the role of April so much that she agreed to return for " Home " , and has expressed an interest in reappearing in the future .
The episode features cover versions of five songs , all of which were released as singles , available for digital download , and four of which are included on the soundtrack album Glee : The Music , Volume 3 – Showstoppers . " Home " was watched by 12 @.@ 18 million American viewers and received mixed reviews from critics . Both Gerrick D. Kennedy of the Los Angeles Times and Tim Stack of Entertainment Weekly recommended that Chenoweth receive an Emmy nomination for her performance , and Mark A. Perigard of the Boston Herald opined that the episode itself should be submitted for Emmy consideration . Jean Bentley of MTV felt that Chenoweth was overused in the episode , however , and criticized the songs performed as being unrecognizable to younger viewers . Todd VanDerWerff of The A. V. Club felt that the episode was poorly balanced , and Bobby Hankinson of the Houston Chronicle deemed " Home " the weakest episode of Glee thus far .
= = Plot = =
In preparation for an interview with Splits Magazine , cheerleading coach Sue Sylvester ( Jane Lynch ) demands that new cheerleader Mercedes Jones ( Amber Riley ) lose ten pounds in a week . She reserves the school auditorium for cheer practice , so glee club director Will Schuester ( Matthew Morrison ) has to find the club a new rehearsal space . He visits a local roller rink where he finds former glee club member April Rhodes ( Kristin Chenoweth ) , who tells him that she is the mistress of the wealthy eighty @-@ year @-@ old tycoon who owns the rink . Upon learning that Will is looking to sublet his apartment , April invites herself to visit . After spending the night sharing a bed , Will forbids April from staying over again and tells her she is worth more than being a mistress . April says she will break up with her tycoon .
Mercedes struggles to eat healthily and her mid @-@ week weigh @-@ in shows that she has gained two pounds . She begins extreme dieting and faints in the school cafeteria . Former cheerleading captain Quinn Fabray ( Dianna Agron ) sympathizes with Mercedes , commending her for being so comfortable in her own body and advising her not to let being a cheerleader detract from that . Though Mercedes is embarrassed , Quinn tells her that she is beautiful . On the day of the pep rally , Mercedes abandons the planned routine , and instead sings " Beautiful " . The journalist from Splits Magazine assumes that Sue engineered the performance and expresses his admiration for her , promising her positive publicity from his article .
Glee club member Kurt Hummel ( Chris Colfer ) sets up his widower father Burt ( Mike O 'Malley ) with Finn Hudson 's ( Cory Monteith ) widowed mother Carole ( Romy Rosemont ) . He believes that it will help him become closer to Finn , for whom he has feelings . Finn is upset when Carole sells their old furniture , and stops his late father 's recliner from being sold . He is initially hostile to her dating someone new , but begins to bond with Burt over sports at a group dinner . Kurt feels left out , and later asks Finn to help him break up their parents . Finn initially agrees , but relents after Burt tells him that he loves Carole and would never hurt her . They watch a basketball game together and Finn allows Burt to sit in his father 's recliner , while Kurt watches on sadly through the window .
When April attempts to break up with her tycoon , he has a stroke and dies . His wife gives April $ 2 million in hush money , and April uses some of it to buy the auditorium for the glee club . She plans to go to Broadway to launch the first all @-@ white production of The Wiz . The episode ends with April and the glee club performing " Home " from The Wiz .
= = Production = =
" Home " was directed by Paris Barclay , who also directed " Wheels " , Glee 's ninth episode . It was written by series co @-@ creator Brad Falchuk , who deemed the episode potentially the best of the series so far . " Home " sees the return of guest star Kristin Chenoweth , who first appeared in episode five , " The Rhodes Not Taken " , as former glee club member April Rhodes . Prior to her first appearance , Chenoweth was already acquainted with Glee creator Ryan Murphy , having appeared in his 2006 film Running with Scissors . Murphy commented that he loves writing for Chenoweth , and both he and Chenoweth expressed their desire for April to return to Glee in the future , with Chenoweth stating : " This part is like nothing I 've had the chance to do on TV . " It was confirmed in October 2009 that Chenoweth would reprise the role of April later in the first season , and on March 14 , 2010 that her return would occur in " Home " .
While Glee also features Chenoweth 's former Wicked co @-@ star Idina Menzel as recurring character Shelby Corcoran , the producers declined to give the two scenes together , explaining that the series is story @-@ driven , and as re @-@ uniting the two on @-@ screen did not work for storytelling purposes , it was deemed unnecessary . Of Chenoweth 's future with Glee beyond " Home " , Falchuk commented that the producers want to " have her around as much as possible " , and although no plans have been solidified , she may return in the second season . He expanded : " [ When ] you have talents like that , it 's very hard to not want them back . The one advantage we have , I think , is that we have so many incredibly talented people in our … cast that … we don 't need [ guest actors ] as much . But there are certain very special people that , of course , you 'd always be interested in . "
The episode features a cover version of " A House Is Not a Home " , performed by Colfer and Monteith , as well as a mash @-@ up of " A House Is Not a Home " and " One Less Bell to Answer " , performed by Chenoweth and Morrison . Morrison and Chenoweth also duet on The Pointer Sisters ' version of " Fire " . In keeping with the " home " theme of the episode , Mötley Crüe 's ballad " Home Sweet Home " ( and also " Heart of Glass " by Blondie , although this isn 't about home ) can be heard in the roller rink scene , but was not covered by the cast . Chenoweth performs " Home " from The Wiz , and Riley sings " Beautiful " by Christina Aguilera . The songs performed were all released as singles , available for digital download . Each track except " Fire " and " Home Sweet Home " is also included on the album Glee : The Music , Volume 3 – Showstoppers .
= = Reception = =
= = = Ratings = = =
In its original broadcast , " Home " was watched by 12 @.@ 18 million American viewers and attained a 5 @.@ 2 / 13 rating / share in the 18 @-@ 49 demographic . In the United Kingdom , the episode was watched by 1 @.@ 91 million viewers and was the second most @-@ watched show of the week on the non @-@ terrestrial channels , beaten only by Britain 's Got More Talent . In Canada , Glee was watched by 2 @.@ 16 million viewers , making Glee the tenth most @-@ viewed program of the week . In Australia , the episode lead in its timeslot in all key demographics , and was watched by 1 @.@ 3 million viewers , making Glee the 16th most @-@ viewed show of the week .
= = = Critical response = = =
" Home " received mixed reviews from critics . Gerrick D. Kennedy of the Los Angeles Times deemed it the series ' most emotional episode , and his favorite next to " Wheels " . Kennedy praised O 'Malley 's performance as " nothing short of perfection " and recommended that Chenoweth receive an Emmy nomination for her performance . Tim Stack of Entertainment Weekly concurred that Chenoweth 's performance was Emmy @-@ worthy , though felt she may have been slightly overused in the episode . Stack noted that he did not love " Home " upon his first viewing , but praised it for adding depth to the characters and tackling body image and sexuality issues . Rick Bentley of McClatchy Newspapers called the episode " as perfect as television can get " , praising Colfer 's performance and also deeming him deserving of an Emmy nomination . Mark A. Perigard of the Boston Herald similarly assessed that " Home " is : " the strongest episode of the season to date , the one Fox should submit for Emmy consideration . " Perigard was impressed by the range shown by O 'Malley , and opined that the episode as a whole had no low @-@ points .
In contrast , Jean Bentley of MTV described " Home " as " an hour of television better suited for Internet surfing than actually paying attention . " She criticized the songs as being unrecognizable to younger viewers , and called the main plots " emotional doozies , with not much comic relief in between . " Bentley felt that Chenoweth was overused , and called her appearance in the episode " nonsensical and unnecessary " . Todd VanDerWerff of The A.V. Club graded the episode " C " . He felt that the three main plot strands were poorly balanced , resulting in an episode with " powerful moments that drown as they 're nearly subsumed by everything else going on . " VanDerWerff criticized Mercedes ' storyline as being too abrupt , and deemed her performance of " Beautiful " : " so forced that it loses any power it might have from what 's a genuinely nice arrangement of the song . " Finally , he expressed his concern that the prevalence of songs in Glee may detract from the quality of the show . Bobby Hankinson of the Houston Chronicle also criticized the episode , deeming it the weakest of the series so far , and one that left him underwhelmed .
|
= Saint @-@ Sylvestre coup d 'état =
The Saint @-@ Sylvestre coup d 'état was a coup d 'état staged by Jean @-@ Bédel Bokassa , leader of the Central African Republic ( CAR ) army , and his military officers against the government of President David Dacko on 31 December 1965 and 1 January 1966 . Dacko , Bokassa 's cousin , took over the country in 1960 , and Bokassa , a military officer in the French army , joined the CAR army in 1962 . By 1965 , the country was in turmoil — plagued by corruption and slow economic growth , while its borders were breached by rebels from neighboring countries . Dacko obtained financial aid from the communist People 's Republic of China , but despite this support , the country 's problems persisted . Bokassa made plans to take over the government ; Dacko was made aware of this , and attempted to counter by forming the gendarmerie headed by Jean Izamo , who quickly became Dacko 's closest adviser .
With the aid of Captain Alexandre Banza , Bokassa started the coup New Year 's Eve night in 1965 . First , Bokassa and his men captured Jean Izamo , locking him in a cellar at Camp de Roux . Bokassa 's men then occupied the capital , Bangui , and overpowered the gendarmerie and other resistance . After midnight , Dacko headed back to the capital , where he was promptly arrested , forced to resign from office and then imprisoned at Camp Kassaï . According to official reports , eight people were killed for resisting the coup . By the end of January 1966 , Izamo was tortured to death , but Dacko 's life was spared because of a request from the French government , which Bokassa was trying to satisfy . Bokassa justified the coup by claiming he had to save the country from falling under the influence of communism , and cut off diplomatic relations with China . In the early days of his government , Bokassa dissolved the National Assembly , abolished the Constitution and issued a number of decrees , banning begging , female circumcision , and polygamy , among other things . Bokassa initially struggled to obtain international recognition for the new government . However , after a successful meeting with the president of Chad , Bokassa obtained recognition of the regime from other African nations , and eventually from France , the former colonial power .
Bokassa 's right @-@ hand man Banza attempted his own coup in April 1969 , but one of his co @-@ conspirators informed the president of the plan . Banza was put in front of a military tribunal and sentenced to death by firing squad . Dacko , who remained in isolation at Camp de Roux , sent a letter to the Chinese ambassador in Brazzaville in June 1969 , which Bokassa intercepted . Bokassa charged Dacko with threatening state security and transferred him to the infamous Ngaragba Prison , where many prisoners taken captive during the coup were still being held . A local judge convinced Bokassa that there was a lack of evidence to convict Dacko , who was instead placed under house arrest . In September 1976 , Dacko was named personal adviser to the president ; the French government later convinced him to take part in a coup to overthrow Bokassa , who was under heavy criticism for his ruthless dictatorial rule . This coup was carried out on 20 and 21 September 1979 , when Dacko became president again , only to be overthrown in another coup two years later .
= = Background = =
In 1958 , after the French Fourth Republic began to consider granting independence to most of its African colonies , nationalist leader Barthélemy Boganda met with Prime Minister Charles de Gaulle to discuss terms for the independence of Oubangui @-@ Chari , a French colonial territory which later became the Central African Republic ( CAR ) . De Gaulle accepted his request , and on 1 December 1958 , Boganda declared the establishment of the autonomous CAR , with full independence to follow soon . He became the autonomous territory 's first Prime Minister and intended to serve as the first President of the independent CAR . However , he was killed in a plane crash on 29 March 1959 , while en route to the capital , Bangui .
Boganda 's right @-@ hand man Abel Goumba , described as " intelligent , honest , and strongly nationalistic " by author Brian Titley in Dark Age : The Political Odyssey of Emperor Bokassa , succeeded him as the leader of the CAR . In May 1959 , a month into Goumba 's term , David Dacko took control of the government . Dacko , a former member of Boganda 's cabinet and party leader of the Movement for the Social Evolution of Black Africa ( MESAN ) , had the support of the French high commissioner Roger Barberot , the Bangui chamber of commerce and Boganda 's widow Michelle Jourdain . Two months later , Dacko dismissed Goumba from his new post as minister of finance . Goumba and Pierre Maleombho , the former president of the National Assembly who was ousted by Dacko , left the MESAN party and organized their own opposition party , Democratic Evolution Movement of Central Africa ( MEDAC ) , on 25 June 1960 . Meanwhile , on August 13 , 1960 , Boganda 's dream was realized when the Central African Republic ( CAR ) attained formal independence from France .
MEDAC became moderately popular , was approved by Etienne Ngounio ( the Dacko @-@ appointed president of MESAN ) , and received significant support in by @-@ elections on 20 September . Dacko viewed MEDAC as a dissident party and sought to disestablish it — he soon received power from the National Assembly to deal with his opponents in any way he saw fit . In December 1960 , Dacko dissolved MEDAC and Goumba was arrested for " fomenting disorder by questioning Dacko 's assumption of power " . Goumba was eventually sentenced to life in prison , but fled into exile in France .
On 1 January 1962 , Dacko 's cousin , Jean @-@ Bédel Bokassa , left the French Army and joined the military forces of the CAR with the rank of battalion commandant . Over a year later , Bokassa became commander @-@ in @-@ chief of the 500 soldiers in the Central African army . Due to his relation to Dacko and experience abroad in the French military , Bokassa was able to quickly rise through the ranks of the army , becoming the Central African army 's first colonel on 1 December 1964 .
Bokassa sought recognition for his status as the army 's leader ; he frequently appeared in public wearing all his military decorations , and in ceremonies often tried to sit next to President Dacko to hint at his importance in the government . Bokassa constantly involved himself in heated arguments with Jean @-@ Paul Douate , the government 's chief of protocol , who admonished him for not following the correct order of seating at presidential tables . At first , Dacko found his cousin 's antics for power and recognition amusing . Despite the recent rash of African military coups , Dacko publicly dismissed the possibility that Bokassa would someday try to take control of the country . At a state dinner , he said , " Colonel Bokassa only wants to collect medals and he is too stupid to pull off a coup d 'état " . Other members of Dacko 's cabinet saw Bokassa as a major threat to the regime . Jean @-@ Arthur Bandio , the minister of interior , recommended that Bokassa be brought into the cabinet , which he hoped would both satisfy the colonel 's desire for recognition and break his connections with the army . To prevent the possibility of a military coup , Dacko created the gendarmerie , an armed police force of 500 , headed by Jean Izamo , and a 120 @-@ member presidential security guard , led by Prosper Mounoumbaye .
= = Origins = =
Dacko 's government faced a number of problems during 1964 and 1965 : the economy experienced stagnation , the bureaucracy started to fall apart , and the country 's boundaries were constantly breached by Lumumbists from the south and the rebel Sudan People 's Liberation Army from the east . Under pressure from radicals in MESAN and in an attempt to cultivate alternative sources of support and display his independence in foreign policy , Dacko established diplomatic relations with the People 's Republic of China ( PRC ) in September 1964 . A delegation led by Meng Yieng and agents of the Chinese government toured the country , showing Communist propaganda films . Soon after , the PRC gave the CAR an interest @-@ free loan of one billion CFA francs ( 20 million French francs ) ; however , the aid failed to prevent the prospect of a financial collapse for the country . Another problem which plagued the government was widespread corruption . Bokassa felt that he needed to take over the CAR government to remove the influence of Communism and solve all the country 's problems . According to Samuel Decalo , a scholar on African government , Bokassa 's personal ambitions most likely played the most important role in his decision to launch a coup against the government .
Dacko sent Bokassa to Paris as part of a delegation for the Bastille Day celebrations in July 1965 . After attending a 23 July ceremony to mark the closing of a military officer training school he had attended decades earlier , Bokassa planned to return to the CAR . However , Dacko had forbidden his return , and Bokassa spent the next few months trying to obtain the support of friends in the French and Central African armed forces . Dacko eventually yielded to pressure and allowed Bokassa back in October .
Tensions between Dacko and Bokassa increased . In December , Dacko approved a budget increase for Izamo 's gendarmerie , but rejected the budget proposal for Bokassa 's army . At this point , Bokassa told friends he was annoyed by Dacko 's treatment and was " going for a coup d 'état " . Dacko planned to replace Bokassa with Izamo as his personal military adviser , and wanted to promote army officers loyal to the government , while demoting Bokassa and his close associates . Dacko was not silent about his plans ; he hinted at his intentions to elders of the Bobangui village , who informed Bokassa of the plan in turn . Bokassa realized he had to act against Dacko quickly , and worried that his 500 @-@ man army would be no match for the gendarmerie and the presidential guard . He was also concerned the French would intervene to aid Dacko , as had occurred after the 23 February 1964 coup d 'état in Gabon against President Léon M 'ba . After receiving word of the coup from the country 's vice president , officials in Paris sent paratroopers to Gabon in a matter of hours and M 'ba was quickly restored to power .
Bokassa found substantive support from his co @-@ conspirator , Captain Alexandre Banza , who was commander of the Camp Kassaï military base in northeast Bangui , and , like Bokassa , had served in the French army in posts around the world . Banza was an intelligent , ambitious and capable man who played a major role in planning the coup . By December , many people began to anticipate the potential turmoil that would result . Dacko 's personal advisers alerted him that Bokassa " showed signs of mental instability " and needed to be arrested before he sought to bring down the government , but Dacko failed to heed these warnings .
= = Coup d 'état on 31 December and 1 January = =
Early in the evening of 31 December 1965 , Dacko left the Palais de la Renaissance to visit one of his ministers ' plantations southwest of the capital . At 22 : 30 WAT ( UTC 21 : 30 ) , Captain Banza gave orders to his officers to begin the coup : one of his captains was to subdue the security guard in the presidential palace , while the other was to take control of Radio @-@ Bangui to prevent communication between Dacko and his followers . Bokassa called Izamo at his headquarters , asking him to come to Camp de Roux to sign some papers that needed his immediate attention . Izamo , who was at a New Year 's Eve celebration with friends , reluctantly agreed and traveled in his wife 's car to the camp . Upon arrival , he was confronted by Banza and Bokassa , who informed him of the coup in progress . When asked if he would support the coup , Izamo said no , leading Bokassa and Banza to overpower him and hold him in a cellar .
Shortly after midnight , in the first minutes of 1 January 1966 , Bokassa and Banza organized their troops and told them of their plan to take over the government . Bokassa claimed that Dacko had resigned from the presidency and given the position to his close advisor Izamo , then told the soldiers that the gendarmerie would take over the CAR army , which had to act now to keep its position . He then asked the soldiers if they would support his course of action ; the men who refused were locked up . At 00 : 30 WAT , Bokassa and his supporters left Camp de Roux to take over the capital . They encountered little resistance and were able to take Bangui . Bokassa and Banza then rushed to the Palais de la Renaissance , where they tried to arrest Dacko , who was nowhere to be found . Bokassa began to panic , as he believed the president had been warned of the coup in advance , and immediately ordered his soldiers to search for Dacko in the countryside until he was found .
Dacko was not aware of the events taking place in the capital . After leaving his minister 's plantation near midnight , he headed to Simon Samba 's house to ask the Aka Pygmy leader to conduct a year @-@ end ritual . After an hour at Samba 's house , he was informed of the coup in Bangui . According to Titley , Dacko then left for the capital , in hopes of stopping the coup with the help of loyal members of the gendarmerie and French paratroopers . Others like Thomas E. O 'Toole , professor of sociology and anthropology at St. Cloud State University , believe that Dacko was not trying to mount a resistance — instead , he was planning on resigning and handing his power over to Izamo . In any case , Dacko was arrested by soldiers patrolling Pétévo Junction , on the western border of the capital . He was taken back to the presidential palace , where Bokassa hugged the president and told him , " I tried to warn you — but now it 's too late " . President Dacko was taken to Ngaragba Prison in east Bangui at around 02 : 00 WAT . In a move that he thought would boost his popularity in the country , Bokassa ordered prison director Otto Sacher to release all prisoners in the jail . Bokassa then took Dacko to Camp Kassaï at 03 : 20 WAT , where the president was forced to resign from office . Later , Bokassa 's officers announced on Radio @-@ Bangui that the Dacko government had been toppled and Bokassa had taken over control . In the morning , Bokassa addressed the public via Radio @-@ Bangui :
Central Africans ! Central Africans ! This is Colonel Bokassa speaking to you . Since 3 : 00 AM this morning your army has taken control of the government . The Dacko government has resigned . The hour of justice is at hand . The bourgeoisie is abolished . A new era of equality among all has begun . Central Africans , wherever you may be , be assured that the army will defend you and your property ... Long live the Central African Republic !
= = Aftermath = =
Officially , eight people died trying to resist the coup . Afterwards , Bokassa 's officers went around the country , arresting Dacko 's political allies and close friends , including Simon Samba , Jean @-@ Paul Douate and more than 60 presidential security guards , who were all taken to Ngaragba Prison . Prosper Mounoumbaye , the director of the presidential security , fled the country . Weeks later , he was detained by the Congolese and handed over to Bokassa on 23 January 1966 . At Camp Kassaï , he was beaten and tortured to death , in full view of Bokassa , Banza and Dacko . Jean Izamo met a similar fate : he was transferred to Ngaragba Prison on 10 January , but was tortured to death by the month 's end . President Dacko 's life was spared , as Bokassa wanted international recognition for his government and France had threatened to cut off aid to the CAR if Dacko was killed . Bokassa had Dacko detained in a small room at Camp Kassaï , where he was cut off from communication with the outside world and placed on a highly restrictive diet . On 3 February , he was taken to Camp de Roux , where he remained in isolation .
In the meantime , Bokassa engaged in self @-@ promotion before the media , showing his countrymen his French army medals , and displaying his strength , fearlessness and masculinity . He formed a new government called the Revolutionary Council , invalidated the constitution and dissolved the National Assembly , calling it " a lifeless organ no longer representing the people " . In his address to the nation , Bokassa claimed that the government would hold elections in the future , a new assembly would be formed , and a new constitution would be written . He also told his countrymen that he would give up his power after the communist threat had been eliminated , the economy stabilized , and corruption rooted out . President Bokassa allowed MESAN to continue functioning , but barred all other political organizations from the country . In the coming months , Bokassa imposed a number of new rules and regulations : men and women between the ages of 18 to 55 had to provide proof that they had jobs , or else they would be fined or imprisoned ; begging was banned ; tom @-@ tom playing was allowed during the nights and weekends ; and a " morality brigade " was formed in the capital to monitor bars and dance halls . Polygamy , dowries and female circumcision were all abolished . Bokassa also opened a public transport system in Bangui and subsidized the creation of two national orchestras .
Despite the positive changes in the country , Bokassa had difficulty obtaining international recognition for his new government . He tried to justify the coup by explaining that Izamo and communist Chinese agents were trying to take over the government and that he had to intervene to save the CAR from the influence of communism . He alleged that Chinese agents in the countryside had been training and arming locals to start a revolution , and on 6 January 1966 , he dismissed the communist agents from the country and cut off diplomatic relations with China . Bokassa also believed that the coup was necessary in order to prevent further corruption in the government .
Bokassa first secured diplomatic recognition from President François Tombalbaye of neighboring Chad , whom he met in Bouca , Ouham . After Bokassa reciprocated by meeting Tombalbaye on 2 April 1966 along the southern border of Chad at Fort Archambault , the two decided to help one another if either was in danger of losing power . Soon after , other African countries began to diplomatically recognize the new government . At first , the French government was reluctant to support the Bokassa regime , so Banza went to Paris to meet with French officials to convince them that the coup was necessary to save the country from turmoil . Bokassa met with Prime Minister Georges Pompidou on 7 July 1966 , but the French remained noncommittal in offering their support . After Bokassa threatened to withdraw from the franc monetary zone , President Charles de Gaulle decided to make an official visit to the CAR on 17 November 1966 . To the Bokassa regime , this visit meant that the French had finally accepted the new changes in the country .
= = = Banza and Dacko = = =
Alexandre Banza , who stood by Bokassa throughout the planning and execution of the coup , served as minister of finance and minister of state in the new government . Banza was successful in his efforts at building the government 's reputation abroad ; many believed that the natural @-@ born leader would no longer accept serving as Bokassa 's right @-@ hand man . In 1967 , Banza and Bokassa had a major argument regarding the country 's budget , as Banza adamantly opposed Bokassa 's extravagance at government events . Bokassa moved to Camp de Roux , where he felt he could safely run the government without having to worry about Banza 's thirst for power . On 13 April 1968 , Bokassa demoted Banza from minister of finance to minister of health , but let him remain in his position as minister of state . The following year , Banza made a number of remarks highly critical of Bokassa and his management of the economy . At this point , Bokassa realized that his minister would soon attempt to take over power in the country , so he removed him as his minister of state .
Banza revealed his intention to start a coup to Lieutenant Jean @-@ Claude Mandaba , the commanding officer of Camp Kassaï , who promptly informed Bokassa . When he entered Camp Kassaï on 9 April 1969 ( the coup was planned for that evening ) , Banza was ambushed , thrown into the trunk of a Mercedes and taken directly to Bokassa by Mandaba and his soldiers . At his house in Berengo , Bokassa nearly beat Banza to death before Mandaba suggested that Banza be put on trial for appearance 's sake . On 12 April , Banza presented his case before a military tribunal at Camp de Roux , where he admitted to his plan , but stated that he had not planned to kill Bokassa . Nevertheless , he was sentenced to death by firing squad , taken to an open field behind Camp Kassaï , executed and buried in an unmarked grave .
Ex @-@ President Dacko remained in isolation at Camp de Roux , where the French government , which expressed concern for his well @-@ being , sent a military attaché to visit him . Dacko told the attaché that he had not been given anything to read for more than two years ; the attaché negotiated with the prison head to get Dacko some books . However , Dacko 's living conditions failed to improve , and in June 1969 , Dacko sent a letter to the Chinese ambassador in Brazzaville , asking that he offer financial support to his family . The message was intercepted and handed over to Bokassa , who thought the letter was ample reason for him to get rid of Dacko . Dacko was charged with threatening state security and transferred to Ngaragba Prison . However , Bokassa dropped the charges on 14 July , after Judge Albert Kouda convinced him that there was insufficient evidence to get a conviction . Dacko stayed at the Palais de la Renaissance until his health improved , after which he was sent to live in Mokinda , Lobaye under house arrest . It was not until October 1969 — almost four years after the coup — that Bokassa began releasing other prisoners from Ngaragba .
Dacko remained under house arrest until he was named private adviser to President Bokassa on 17 September 1976 . Bokassa dissolved the government and formed the Central African Empire , which led to increasing international criticism in the late 1970s . Dacko managed to leave for Paris , where the French convinced him to cooperate in a coup to remove Bokassa from power and restore him to the presidency . Dacko was installed as president on 21 September 1979 , but was once again removed from power by his army chief of staff , André Kolingba , in a bloodless coup d 'état on 1 September 1981 . Bokassa lived in exile in Paris and was sentenced to death in absentia in December 1980 . Upon returning to the CAR in October 1986 , he was arrested and charged with treason , murder , cannibalism and embezzlement . He was cleared on the cannibalism charges , but was convicted on the rest and sentenced to death on 12 June 1987 . Kolingba commuted his sentence to life imprisonment in February 1988 , and then commuted it again to 20 years in prison . Kolingba later declared amnesty for all prisoners , so Bokassa was released from prison on 1 August 1993 .
|
= The King 's Speech =
The King 's Speech is a 2010 British biographical drama film directed by Tom Hooper and written by David Seidler . Colin Firth plays King George VI who , to cope with a stammer , sees Lionel Logue , an Australian speech and language therapist played by Geoffrey Rush . The men become friends as they work together , and after his brother abdicates the throne , the new king relies on Logue to help him make his first wartime radio broadcast on Britain 's declaration of war on Germany in 1939 .
Seidler read about George VI 's life after overcoming a stuttering condition he endured during his youth . He started writing about the relationship between the monarch and his therapist as early as the 1980s , but at the request of the King 's widow , Queen Elizabeth The Queen Mother , postponed work until her death in 2002 . He later rewrote his screenplay for the stage to focus on the essential relationship between the two protagonists . Nine weeks before filming began , Logue 's notebooks were discovered and quotations from them were incorporated into the script .
Principal photography took place in London and around Britain from November 2009 to January 2010 . The opening scenes were filmed at Elland Road , Leeds , and Odsal Stadium , Bradford , both locations standing in for the old Wembley Stadium . For indoor scenes , Lancaster House substituted for Buckingham Palace , and Ely Cathedral stood in for Westminster Abbey , while the weaving mill scene was filmed at the Queen Street Mill in Burnley . The cinematography differs from that of other historical dramas : hard light was used to give the story a greater resonance and wider than normal lenses were employed to recreate the King 's feelings of constriction . A third technique Hooper employed was the off @-@ centre framing of characters : in his first consultation with Logue , George VI is captured hunched on the side of a couch at the edge of the frame .
Released in the United Kingdom on 7 January 2011 , The King 's Speech was a major box office and critical success . Censors initially gave it adult ratings due to profanity , though these were later revised downwards after criticism by the makers and distributors in the UK and some instances of swearing were muted in the US . On a budget of £ 8 million , it earned over £ 250 million internationally ( $ 400 million ) . It was widely praised by film critics for its visual style , art direction , and acting . Other commentators discussed the film 's representation of historical detail , especially the reversal of Winston Churchill 's opposition to abdication . The film received many awards and nominations , particularly for Colin Firth 's performance ; his Golden Globe Award for Best Actor was the sole win at that ceremony from seven nominations . The King 's Speech won seven British Academy Film Awards , including Best Film , Best Actor ( Firth ) , Best Supporting Actor ( Rush ) , and Best Supporting Actress ( Helena Bonham Carter ) . The film also won four Academy Awards : Best Picture , Best Director ( Hooper ) , Best Actor ( Firth ) , and Best Original Screenplay ( Seidler ) .
= = Plot = =
Prince Albert , Duke of York , the second son of King George V , stammers through his speech closing the British Empire Exhibition at Wembley Stadium . The Duke has given up hope of a cure , but his wife Elizabeth persuades him to see Lionel Logue , an Australian speech therapist living in London . During their first session , Logue insists on being called Lionel by his patient and on breaching royal etiquette by calling the Prince " Bertie " , a name used only by his family . When the Duke decides Logue 's treatment is unsuitable , Logue bets him that he can recite Hamlet 's " To be , or not to be " soliloquy without trouble and distracts him by playing music through headphones while recording his performance on an acetate record . Prince Albert leaves in anger but Logue offers him the recording as a keepsake .
After King George V makes his 1934 Christmas radio address , he explains to his son the importance of broadcasting to a modern monarchy and demands that Albert train himself , starting with a reading of his father 's speech . His attempt to do so is a failure . Later , the Duke plays Logue 's recording and hears himself reciting unhesitatingly . He therefore returns to Logue , where he and his wife both insist that Logue focus only on physical exercises , not therapy . Logue teaches his patient muscle relaxation and breath control but continues to probe gently and persistently at the psychological roots of the stutter . Albert eventually reveals some of the pressures of his childhood and the two men start to become friends .
With George V ’ s death in 1936 , his eldest son David ascends the throne as King Edward VIII , but causes a constitutional crisis with his determination to marry Wallis Simpson , an American socialite divorcée who is still legally married to her second husband . It is pointed out that Edward , as head of the Church of England , cannot marry her , even if she receives her second divorce , because both her previous husbands are alive .
At his next session , Albert expresses his frustration that while his speech has improved when talking to most people , he still stammers when talking to his own brother and reveals the extent of Edward VIII 's folly with Simpson . When Logue insists that Albert could be a good king instead , the latter labels such a suggestion as treason and dismisses Logue . When King Edward decides to abdicate in order to marry Simpson , Albert reluctantly succeeds as King George VI . The new king and queen visit Logue to make up the quarrel , startling Mrs. Logue , who was unaware that the new King had been her husband 's patient .
During preparations for his coronation in Westminster Abbey , George learns that Logue has no formal qualifications . When confronted , Logue explains how he was asked to help shell @-@ shocked Australian soldiers returning from The Great War . Since George remains unconvinced of his own fitness for the throne , Logue sits in King Edward 's Chair and dismisses the underlying Stone of Scone as a trifle . Goaded by Logue 's seeming disrespect , the King surprises himself with his own sudden burst of outraged eloquence and allows Logue to rehearse him for the ceremony .
Upon Britain 's declaration of war with Nazi Germany in 1939 , King George summons Logue to Buckingham Palace to prepare for his upcoming radio address to Britain and the Empire . Knowing the challenge that lies before him , the Archbishop of Canterbury , Winston Churchill and Prime Minister Neville Chamberlain are present to offer support . George and Logue are then left in the broadcasting room . He delivers his speech with Logue conducting him , but by end is speaking freely . Preparing to leave the room for the congratulations of those present in the palace , Logue mentions to the King that he still had difficulty enunciating ' w ' and the King jokes back , " I had to throw in a few so they 'd know it was me " .
After the King and his family step onto the balcony of the palace and are applauded by the crowd , a title card explains that Logue was always present at King George VI 's speeches during the war and that they remained friends for the rest of their lives .
= = Cast = =
Colin Firth as King George VI
Geoffrey Rush as Lionel Logue
Helena Bonham Carter as Queen Elizabeth
Guy Pearce as King Edward VIII
Timothy Spall as Winston Churchill
Derek Jacobi as Archbishop Cosmo Lang
Jennifer Ehle as Myrtle Logue
Anthony Andrews as Stanley Baldwin
Claire Bloom as Queen Mary
Eve Best as Wallis Simpson
Freya Wilson as Princess Elizabeth
Tim Downie as the Duke of Gloucester
Roger Hammond as Dr. Blandine Bentham
Ramona Marquez as Princess Margaret
Michael Gambon as King George V
Roger Parrott as Neville Chamberlain
Richard Dixon as the King 's Private Secretary
= = Production = =
= = = Development = = =
As a child , David Seidler developed a stammer , which he believes was caused by the emotional trauma of World War II and the murder of his grandparents during the Holocaust . King George VI 's success in overcoming his stammer inspired the young Seidler , " Here was a stutterer who was a king and had to give radio speeches where everyone was listening to every syllable he uttered , and yet did so with passion and intensity . " When Seidler became an adult , he resolved to write about King George VI . During the late 1970s and 1980s he voraciously researched the King , but found a dearth of information on Logue . Eventually Seidler contacted Dr. Valentine Logue , who agreed to discuss his father and make his notebooks available if the Queen Mother gave her permission . She asked him not to do so in her lifetime , and Seidler halted the project .
The Queen Mother died in 2002 . Three years later , Seidler returned to the story during a bout of creative work inspired by a recovery from cancer . His research , including a chance encounter with an uncle whom Logue had treated , indicated he used mechanical breathing exercises combined with psychological counselling to probe the underlying causes of the condition . Thus prepared , Seidler imagined the sessions . He showed the finished screenplay to his wife , who liked it , but pronounced it too " seduced by cinematic technique " . She suggested he rewrite it as a stage play to focus on the essential relationship between the King and Logue . After he had completed it , he sent it to a few friends who worked in theatre in London and New York for feedback .
In 2005 , Joan Lane of Wilde Thyme , a production company in London , received the script . Lane started talking with Simon Egan and Gareth Unwin of Bedlam Productions , and they invited Seidler to London to rewrite the play again , this time for the screen . Together , Lane and Bedlam Productions organised a reading of the play in Pleasance Theatre , a small house in north London , to a group of Australian expatriates , among whom was Tom Hooper 's mother . She called her son and said , " I 've found your next project " .
Instead of trying to contact his agent , Lane asked an Australian staff member to hand @-@ deliver the script to Geoffrey Rush 's house , not far away from hers in Melbourne . Unwin reports that he received a four @-@ page e @-@ mail from Rush 's manager admonishing them for the breach of etiquette , but ending with an invitation to discuss the project further . Iain Canning from See @-@ Saw Films became involved and , in Gareth Unwin 's words : " We worked with ex @-@ chair of BAFTA Richard Price , and started turning this story about two grumpy men sitting in a room into something bigger . " Hooper liked the story , but thought that the original ending needed to be changed to reflect events more closely : " Originally , it had a Hollywood ending ... If you hear the real speech , he 's clearly coping with his stammer . But it 's not a perfect performance . He 's managing it . "
The production team learned — some nine weeks prior to the start of filming — of a diary containing Logue 's original notes on his treatment of the Duke . They then went back and re @-@ worked the script to reflect what was in the notes . Hooper said some of the film 's most memorable lines , such as at the climax , when Logue smiles , " You still stammered on the W " to the King , who replies , " I had to throw in a few so they would know it was me " were direct quotations from Logue 's notes . Changes from the script to reflect the historical record included Michael Gambon improvising the ramblings of George V as he signed away authority , and the decision to dress the Duke in an overcoat rather than regal finery in the opening scene .
Seidler thought Paul Bettany would be a good choice to play King George VI , Tom Hooper preferred Hugh Grant , though both actors refused the offer . Once they met with Firth and heard him read for the part , Seidler and Hooper were convinced of his suitability for the role .
The UK Film Council awarded the production £ 1 million in June 2009 . Filming began in December 2009 , and lasted 39 days . Most was shot in the three weeks before Christmas because Rush would be performing in a play in January . The schedule was further complicated by Bonham Carter 's availability : she worked on Harry Potter during the week , so her scenes had to be filmed during the weekend .
= = = Location and design = = =
The set design presented a challenge for the film @-@ makers : period dramas rely to an extent on the quality of production , but their budget was a relatively limited £ 8 million . The film had to be authentic — combining regal opulence with scruffy , depression @-@ era London . On 25 November 2009 , the crew took over the Pullens buildings in Southwark . The entire street was transformed into 1930s London . Large advertisements , for ( among other things ) Bovril and fascism were placed on the walls ; streets were sprayed with grit and buildings with grime . A neighbour of Hooper 's had told him the smog in London at the time was so thick that cars had to be guided by someone walking in front . To create this scene the crew pumped in so much artificial smoke that the fire alarms in a nearby boutique sounded . According to Hooper , the scene was a good opportunity to show Logue 's socio @-@ economic background .
On 26 November , a week 's filming with Firth , Rush , and Jacobi began at Ely Cathedral , the location used for Westminster Abbey . The production had asked for permission to film in the Abbey but were denied due to the demands of tourism . Though Lincoln Cathedral is architecturally a closer match to the Abbey , they preferred Ely , a favoured filming location . Its size allowed them to build sets showing not just the coronation , but the preparations before it .
Lancaster House , an opulent , government @-@ owned period house in London , was used for the interiors of Buckingham Palace that the King walks through prior to making his speech and for the official photograph afterwards ; it cost £ 20 @,@ 000 a day to rent . The 1936 Accession Council at St. James 's Palace , where George VI swore an oath , was filmed in February in the Livery Hall of Drapers ' Hall , after principal photography had been completed . The room , ornate and vast , met the occasion : the daunting nature of the new King 's responsibilities was shown by surrounding him with rich detail , flags and royal portraiture .
The crew investigated Logue 's former consultation rooms , but they were too small to film in . Instead , they found a high , vaulted room not far away in 33 Portland Place . Eve Stewart , the production designer , liked the mottled , peeling wallpaper there so much that she recreated the effect throughout the entire room . In his DVD commentary , Hooper said he liked Portland Place as a set because it felt " lived @-@ in " , unlike other period houses in London . The scenes of the Duke of York at home with his family were also filmed here ; showing the Prince living in a townhouse " subverted " expectations of a royal drama .
The opening scene , set at the closing ceremony of the 1925 British Empire Exhibition at Wembley Stadium , was filmed on location at Elland Road , home of Leeds United , and Odsal Stadium , home of Bradford RLFC . Elland Road was used for the speech elements of the prince stammering his way through his first public address , and Odsal Stadium was selected because of the resemblance of its curved ends to Wembley Stadium in 1925 . The crew had access to the stadium only at 10 pm , after a football game . They filled the terraces with inflatable dummies and over 250 extras dressed in period costumes . Live actors were interspersed to give the impression of a crowd . Additional people , as well as more ranks of soldiers on the pitch , were added in post @-@ production with visual effects .
Other locations include Cumberland Lodge , Harley Street , Knebworth , Hatfield House , the Old Royal Naval College in Greenwich , Queen Street Mill Textile Museum in Burnley , and Battersea Power Station , which doubled as a BBC wireless control room . The final cut of the film was completed on 31 August 2010 .
= = = Dialogue = = =
In developing his portrayal of George VI 's stammer , Firth worked with Neil Swain , the voice coach for the film . His sister , Kate Firth , also a professional voice coach to actors , proposed exercises the King might have done with Logue , and made suggestions on how to imagine Logue 's mix of physical and psychological coaching for the film . In addition , Firth watched archive footage of the King speaking . In an interview with Allan Tyrer published by the British Stammering Association , Swain said : " [ It ] was very interesting while we were working on the film just to think tonally how far we could go and should go with the strength of George 's stammer . I think a less courageous director than Tom [ Hooper ] – and indeed a less courageous actor than Colin [ Firth ] – might have felt the need to slightly sanitise the degree and authenticity of that stammer , and I 'm really really pleased that neither of them did . " In May 2011 Firth said he was finding traces of the stammer difficult to eliminate : " You can probably hear even from this interview , there are moments when it ’ s quite infectious , " he said . " You find yourself doing it and if I start thinking about it the worse it gets . If nothing else it ’ s an insight into what it feels like . "
= = Soundtrack = =
The film 's original score was composed by Alexandre Desplat . In a film about a man struggling to articulate himself , Desplat was wary of overshadowing the dramaturgy : " This is a film about the sound of the voice . Music has to deal with that . Music has to deal with silence . Music has to deal with time . " The score is a sparse arrangement of strings and piano ( with the addition of oboe and harp in one cut ) , intended to convey the sadness of the King 's muteness , and then the growing warmth of friendship between him and Logue . The minimalist approach emphasises the protagonist 's struggle for control . Desplat used the repetition of a single note to represent the stickiness of the King 's speech . As the film progresses , growing banks of warm strings swaddle the deepening friendship between the two leads . The music rises to a climax in the coronation scene . Hooper originally wanted to film the scene without music , but Desplat argued that it was the real climax of the story — the point when the friendship was ratified by their decision to trust each other . " That is really rare " , said Desplat , " mostly you have love stories " .
To create a dated sound , the score was recorded on old microphones extracted from the EMI archives which had been specially made for the royal family . The music played during the broadcast of the 1939 radio speech at the climax of the film is from the 2nd movement ( Allegretto ) of Beethoven 's 7th Symphony ; it was added by Tariq Anwar , the editor . When Desplat later joined the team to write the music , he praised and defended Anwar 's suggestion . Hooper further remarked that the stature of the piece helps elevate the status of the speech to a public event .
The score was nominated for several awards , including Best Original Score at the Oscars , Golden Globes , and BAFTAs , winning the latter award . The score also won a Grammy at the 54th Grammy Awards .
= = = Track listing = = =
All songs written and composed by Alexandre Desplat , except where noted .
= = Visual style = =
Hooper employed a number of cinematic techniques to evoke the King 's feelings of constriction . He and cinematographer Danny Cohen used wider than normal lenses to photograph the film , typically 14mm , 18mm , 21mm , 25mm and 27mm , where the subtle distortion of the picture helps to convey the King 's discomfort . For instance , the subjective point of view shot during the Empire exhibition speech used a close up of the microphone with a wider lens , similar to the filming technique used for one of the Duke 's early consultations with a physician . In The New York Times , Manohla Dargis wrote that the feeling of entrapment inside the King 's head was rendered overly literal with what she believed to be a fisheye lens , though in these scenes the wider lenses were used . Hooper also discussed using the 18mm lens , one he likes " because it puts human beings in their context " .
Roger Ebert noted that the majority of the film was shot indoors , where oblong sets , corridors , and small spaces manifest constriction and tightness , in contrast to the usual emphasis on sweep and majesty in historical dramas . Hooper used wide shots to capture the actors ' body language , particularly Geoffrey Rush , who trained at L 'École Internationale de Théâtre Jacques Lecoq in Paris and " is consequently brilliant in the way he carries his body " . Hooper widened his scope first to capture Rush 's gestures , then full body movements and silhouettes . The approach carried over to Firth as well . In the first consultation scene , the Duke is squeezed against the end of a long couch framed against a large wall , " as if to use the arm of the sofa as a kind of friend , as a security blanket ? " Martin Filler praised the " low @-@ wattage " cinematography of Danny Cohen , as making everything look like it has been " steeped in strong tea " .
At other times , the camera was positioned very close to the actors to catch the emotion in their faces : " If you put a lens 6 inches from somebody 's face , you get more emotion than if you 're on a long lens 20 feet away , " Cohen said in an interview . Hooper sought a second subtlety while filming the first consultation room scene between the two men , having placed the camera 18 inches from Colin Firth 's face : " I wanted the nervousness of the first day to percolate into his performances . "
Historical dramas traditionally tend to use " soft light " , but Hooper wanted to use a harsher glare , which gives a more contemporary feel , and thus a greater emotional resonance . To achieve the effect , the lighting team erected huge blackout tents over the Georgian buildings , and used large lights filtered through Egyptian cotton .
= = Historical accuracy = =
The filmmakers not only tightened the chronology of the events to just a few years but even shifted the actual timeline of treatment : the Duke of York actually began work with Logue in October 1926 , ten years before the abdication crisis , and the improvement in his speech was apparent in months rather than years , as is suggested by the film . In a 1952 newspaper interview with John Gordon , Logue said that " Resonantly and without stuttering , he opened the Australian parliament in Canberra in 1927 " ; this was just seven months after the Duke began to work with Logue .
Hugo Vickers , an adviser on the film , agreed that the alteration of historical details to preserve the essence of the dramatic story was sometimes necessary . The high @-@ ranking officials , for instance , would not have been present when the King made his speech , nor would Churchill have been involved at any level , " but the average viewer knows who Churchill is ; he doesn 't know who Lord Halifax and Lord Hoare are . "
Robert Logue , a grandson of Lionel , doubted the film 's depiction of the speech therapist , stating " I don 't think he ever swore in front of the King and he certainly never called him ' Bertie ' " . Andrew Roberts , an English historian , states that the severity of the King 's stammer was exaggerated and the characters of Edward VIII , Wallis Simpson , and George V made more antagonistic than they really were , to increase the dramatic effect .
Christopher Hitchens and Isaac Chotiner challenged the film 's portrayal of Winston Churchill 's role in the abdication crisis . It is well established that Churchill encouraged Edward VIII to resist pressure to abdicate , whereas he is portrayed in the film as strongly supportive of Prince Albert and not opposed to the abdication . Hitchens attributes this treatment to the " cult " surrounding Churchill 's legacy . In a smart , well @-@ made film " would the true story not have been fractionally more interesting for the audience ? " he wondered . They also criticised the film for failing to indict the appeasement of the era . While the film never directly mentions the issue , Hitchens and Chotiner argue that it implies that George VI was against appeasement , especially in the final scene portraying " Churchill and the King at Buckingham Palace and a speech of unity and resistance being readied for delivery " . Far from distancing himself from Chamberlain 's appeasement policy , King George VI dispatched a car to meet Neville Chamberlain when he returned from signing the Munich Agreement with Hitler in September 1938 . The King and Chamberlain then stood on the balcony of Buckingham Palace , acclaimed by cheering crowds . This led historian Steven Runciman to write that by acting as he did to endorse Chamberlain 's foreign policy , King George VI perpetrated " the biggest constitutional blunder that has been made by any sovereign this century . " The Guardian corrected the portrayal of Stanley Baldwin as having resigned due to his refusal to order Britain 's re @-@ armament , when he in fact stepped down as " a national hero , exhausted by more than a decade at the top " .
Martin Filler acknowledged that the film legitimately used artistic licence to make valid dramatic points , such as in the probably imagined scene when George V lectures his son on the importance of broadcasting . Filler cautions that George VI would never have tolerated Logue addressing him casually , nor swearing , and the King almost certainly would have understood a newsreel of Hitler speaking in German . Filler makes the larger point that both the King and his wife were , in reality , lukewarm towards Churchill because of the latter 's support for his brother during the abdication crisis . They only warmed to Churchill later in the war , because of his performance as a wartime leader .
Commenting on the film 's final scene on the balcony of Buckingham Palace , Andrew Roberts has written , " The scene is fairly absurd from a historical point of view – Neville Chamberlain and Winston Churchill were not present and there were no cheering crowds outside Buckingham Palace . " Overall , Roberts praises the film as a sympathetic portrayal of the King 's " quiet , unassuming heroism " , and he states : " The portrayals by Firth and Bonham Carter are sympathetic and acute , and the movie ’ s occasional factual bêtises should not detract from that . "
= = Release = =
= = = Cinema release = = =
The film had its world première on 6 September 2010 at the Telluride Film Festival in the United States . It was screened at the 2010 Toronto International Film Festival , on Firth 's 50th birthday , where it received a standing ovation and won the People 's Choice Award . The cinema release poster was re @-@ designed to show an extreme close @-@ up of Firth 's jaw and a microphone after Hooper criticised the first design as a " train smash " . Tim Appelo called the original , air @-@ brushed effort , which showed the three leads , " shockingly awful " though the new one " really is worthwhile " .
The film was distributed by Transmission Films in Australia and by Momentum Pictures in the United Kingdom . The Weinstein Company distributed it in North America , Germany , Benelux , Scandinavia , China , Hong Kong , and Latin America . The film was released in France on 2 February 2011 , under the title Le discours d 'un roi . It was distributed by Wild Bunch Distribution .
= = = Ratings controversy = = =
The film was initially given a 15 certificate by the British Board of Film Classification , due to a scene where Logue encourages the King to shout profanities , which he could do so without stuttering . At the London Film Festival , Hooper criticised the decision , questioning how the board could certify the film " 15 " for bad language but allow films such as Salt ( 2010 ) and Casino Royale ( 2006 ) to have " 12A " ratings , despite their graphic torture scenes . Following Hooper 's criticism , the board lowered the rating to " 12A " , allowing children under 12 years of age to see the film if they are accompanied by an adult . Hooper levelled the same criticism at the Motion Picture Association of America , which gave the film an " R " rating , preventing anyone under the age of 17 from seeing the film without an adult . In his review , Roger Ebert criticised the " R " rating , calling it " utterly inexplicable " , and wrote , " This is an excellent film for teenagers . "
In January 2011 Harvey Weinstein , the executive producer and distributor , said he was considering having the film re @-@ edited to remove some profanity , so that it would receive a lower classification and reach a larger audience . Hooper , however , refused to cut the film , though he considered covering the swear words with bleeps . Helena Bonham Carter also defended the film , saying , " [ The film ] is not violent . It 's full of humanity and wit . [ It 's ] for people not with just a speech impediment , but who have got confidence [ doubts ] . " After receiving his Academy Award , Colin Firth noted that he does not support re @-@ editing the film ; while he does not condone the use of profanity , he maintains that its use was not offensive in this context . " The scene serves a purpose " , Firth states . An alternate version , with some of the profanities muted out , was classified as " PG @-@ 13 " in the United States ; this version was released to cinemas on 1 April 2011 , replacing the R @-@ rated one . The PG @-@ 13 version of this film is not available on DVD and Blu @-@ ray .
= = Reception = =
= = = Box office = = =
In Great Britain and Ireland , the film was the highest earning film on its opening weekend . It took in £ 3 @,@ 510 @,@ 000 from 395 cinemas . The Guardian said that it was one of the biggest takes in recent memory , and compared it to Slumdog Millionaire ( 2008 ) , which , two years earlier , earned £ 1 @.@ 5 million less . The King 's Speech continued a " stunning three weeks " atop the UK Box office , and earned over £ 3 million for four consecutive weekends , the first film to do so since Toy Story 3 ( 2010 ) . After five weeks on UK release , it was hailed as the most successful independent British film ever .
In the United States The King 's Speech opened with $ 355 @,@ 450 ( £ 220 @,@ 000 ) in four cinemas . It holds the record for the highest per @-@ cinema gross of 2010 . It was widened to 700 screens on Christmas Day and 1 @,@ 543 screens on 14 January 2011 . It eventually made $ 138 million in North America overall .
In Australia The King 's Speech made more than A $ 6 @,@ 281 @,@ 686 ( £ 4 million ) in the first two weeks , according to figures collected by the Motion Picture Distributors Association of Australia . The executive director of Palace Cinemas , Benjamin Zeccola , said customer feedback on the film was spectacular . " It 's our No.1 for all the period , all throughout the country . ... I think this is more successful than Slumdog Millionaire and a more uplifting film . It 's a good example of a film that started out in the independent cinemas and then spread to the mainstream cinemas . "
Of the film 's net profit , estimated to amount to $ 30 – 40 million ( £ 20 – 25 million ) from the cinema release alone , roughly 20 % will be split between Geoffrey Rush ( as executive producer ) , Tom Hooper and Colin Firth , who receive their bonuses before the other stakeholders . The remaining profit is to be split equally between the producers and the equity investors . The UK Film Council invested £ 1 million of public funds from the United Kingdom lottery into the film . In March 2011 Variety estimated that the return could be between fifteen and twenty times that . The Council 's merger into the British Film Institute means that the profits are to be returned to that body .
= = = Critical response = = =
The King 's Speech has received widespread critical acclaim , with Firth 's performance receiving strong acclaim . Rotten Tomatoes gives the film a score of 95 % based on reviews from 261 critics ; their average rating was calculated as 8 @.@ 6 / 10 . It summarised the critical consensus as : " Colin Firth gives a masterful performance in The King 's Speech , a predictable but stylishly produced and rousing period drama . " Metacritic gave the film a weighted score of 88 / 100 , based on 41 critiques , which it ranks as " universal acclaim " . CinemaScore reported that audiences gave the film a rare " A + " grade . Empire gave the film five stars out of five , commenting , " You 'll be lost for words . " Lisa Kennedy of the Denver Post gave the film full marks for its humane qualities and craftsmanship : " It is an intelligent , winning drama fit for a king – and the rest of us " , she said . Roger Ebert of the Chicago Sun @-@ Times awarded the film a full four stars , commenting that " what we have here is a superior historical drama and a powerful personal one . " Peter Bradshaw of The Guardian gave four stars out of five , stating , " Tom Hooper 's richly enjoyable and handsomely produced movie ... is a massively confident crowd @-@ pleaser . "
Manohla Dargis , whilst generally ambivalent towards the film , called the lead performances one of its principal attractions . " With their volume turned up , the appealing , impeccably professional Mr. Firth and Mr. Rush rise to the acting occasion by twinkling and growling as their characters warily circle each other before settling into the therapeutic swing of things and unknowingly preparing for the big speech that partly gives the film its title , " she wrote . The Daily Telegraph called Guy Pearce 's performance as Edward VIII " formidable ... with glamour , charisma and utter self @-@ absorption " . Empire said he played the role well as " a flash harry flinty enough to shed a nation for a wife . " The New York Times thought he was able to create " a thorny tangle of complications in only a few abbreviated scenes " . Hooper praised the actor in the DVD commentary , saying he " nailed " the 1930s royal accent . Richard Corliss of Time magazine named Colin Firth 's performance one of the Top 10 Movie Performances of 2010 .
The British Stammering Association welcomed the release of The King 's Speech , congratulating the film makers on their " realistic depiction of the frustration and the fear of speaking faced by people who stammer on a daily basis . " It said that " Colin Firth 's portrayal of the King 's stammer in particular strikes us as very authentic and accurate . " The Royal College of Speech and Language Therapists welcomed the film , and launched their " Giving Voice " campaign around the time of its commercial release .
Allociné , a French cinema website , gave the film an average of four out of five stars , based on a survey of 21 reviews . Le Monde , which characterised the film as the " latest manifestation of British narcissism " and summarised it as " We are ugly and boring , but , By Jove ! , we are right ! " , nevertheless admired the performances of Firth , Rush , and Bonham Carter . It said that , though the film swept British appeasement under the carpet , it was still enjoyable .
Slovenian Marxist philosopher and cultural critic Slavoj Žižek has incorporated the film into his critique of ideology by describing it as " reactionary , " interpreting the king 's stutter as evidence that he " displays a minimum of common sense , experiencing the stupidity of seriously accepting that one is king by divine will " and claiming that " the task of the Australian voice @-@ coach is to render him stupid enough to accept his being a king as his natural property . " Žižek thus interprets the king 's stutter as a case of what is referred to in Lacanian psychoanalysis as " symbolic castration . "
Queen Elizabeth II , the daughter and successor of King George VI , was sent two copies of the film before Christmas 2010 . The Sun newspaper reported she had watched the film in a private screening at Sandringham House . A palace source described her reaction as being " touched by a moving portrayal of her father " . Seidler called the reports " the highest honour " the film could receive .
= = = Awards and nominations = = =
At the 83rd Academy Awards , The King 's Speech won the Academy Award for Best Picture , Best Director ( Hooper ) , Best Actor ( Firth ) , and Best Original Screenplay ( Seidler ) . The film had received 12 Oscar nominations , more than any other film in that year . Besides the four categories it won , the film received nominations for Best Cinematography ( Danny Cohen ) and two for the supporting actors ( Bonham Carter and Rush ) , as well as two for its mise @-@ en @-@ scène : Art Direction and Costumes .
At the 64th British Academy Film Awards , it won seven awards , including Best Film , Outstanding British Film , Best Actor for Firth , Best Supporting Actor for Rush , Best Supporting Actress for Bonham Carter , Best Original Screenplay for Seidler , and Best Music for Alexandre Desplat . The film had been nominated for 14 BAFTAs , more than any other film . At the 68th Golden Globe Awards , Firth won for Best Actor . The film won no other Golden Globes , despite earning seven nominations , more than any other film .
It is also the first Weinstein film to win the Oscar for Best Picture .
At the 17th Screen Actors Guild Awards , Firth won the Best Actor award and the entire cast won Best Ensemble , meaning Firth went home with two acting awards in one evening . Hooper won the Directors Guild of America Awards 2010 for Best Director . The film won the Darryl F. Zanuck Award for Best Theatrical Motion Picture at the Producers Guild of America Awards 2010 .
The King 's Speech won the People 's Choice Award at the 2010 Toronto International Film Festival , Best British Independent Film at the 2010 British Independent Film Awards , and the 2011 Goya Award for Best European Film from the Academia de las Artes y las Ciencias Cinematográficas de España ( Spanish Academy of Cinematic Art and Science ) .
|
= Tang Da Wu =
Tang Da Wu ( Chinese : 唐大雾 ; pinyin : Táng Dàwù , pronounced [ tʰɑ ̌ ŋ tâ.û ] ; born 1943 ) is a Singaporean artist who works in a variety of media , including drawing , painting , sculpture , installation art and performance art . Educated at Birmingham Polytechnic and Goldsmiths ' College , University of London , Tang gave his first solo exhibition , consisting of drawings and paintings , in 1970 at the Singapore Chinese Chamber of Commerce and Industry . He began engaging in performance art upon returning to Singapore in 1979 following his undergraduate studies .
In 1988 , Tang founded The Artists Village . The first art colony to be established in Singapore , it aimed to encourage artists to create experimental art . Members of the Village were among the first contemporary artists in Singapore , and also among the first to begin practising installation art and performance art . There , Tang mentored younger artists and informed them about artistic developments in other parts of the world . He also organized exhibitions and symposia at the Village , and arranged for it to collaborate with the National Museum Art Gallery and the National Arts Council 's 1992 Singapore Festival of the Arts .
In January 1994 , the National Arts Council ( NAC ) stopped funding unscripted performance art following a controversial performance by Josef Ng that was regarded as obscene by many members of the public . From that time , Tang and other performance artists mostly practised their art abroad , although some performances were presented in Singapore as dance or theatre . For his originality and influence in performance art in Southeast Asia , among other things , Tang won the Arts and Culture Prize in 1999 at the 10th Fukuoka Asian Culture Prizes . The NAC eventually reversed its no @-@ funding rule on performance art in September 2003 . Tang was one of four artists who represented Singapore at the 2007 Venice Biennale . Tang 's work is part of the collection of the Singapore Art Museum , Queensland Art Gallery and the Solomon R. Guggenheim Museum .
Tang has expressed concern about environmental and social issues through his art , such as the works They Poach the Rhino , Chop Off His Horn and Make This Drink ( 1989 ) and Tiger 's Whip ( 1991 ) . He believes in the potential of the individual and collective to effect social changes , and his art deals with national and cultural identities . Tang has participated in numerous community and public art projects , workshops and performances .
= = Education and personal life = =
Tang Da Wu was born Thang Kian Hiong in Singapore in 1943 , the eldest of four sons . His second brother Thang Kiang How is himself a visual artist based in Singapore . His father was a journalist with the Chinese daily newspaper Sin Chew Jit Poh . He studied at a Chinese @-@ medium school , but disliked English and mathematics and was often scolded by his teachers . He preferred playing after school with neighbourhood children and learned to speak Malay and Chinese from them . He also enjoyed drawing , and gained confidence when his secondary school paintings were accepted in art competitions .
In 1968 , Tang was awarded a diploma in youth and community works from the National Youth Leadership Institute . Two years later , in 1970 , his first solo exhibition of drawings and paintings sponsored by the Singapore Art Society was staged at the Singapore Chinese Chamber of Commerce and Industry . Subsequently , he went to the United Kingdom to study , majoring in sculpture . He graduated with a Bachelor of Fine Arts ( BFA ) , with first class honours , from the School of Fine Art , Birmingham Polytechnic , in 1974 . While abroad he changed his name to Da Wu , which is Mandarin for " big mist " . Tang later returned to the UK and attended advanced courses at the Saint Martins School of Art . He received a Master of Fine Arts ( MFA ) in 1985 from Goldsmiths ' College , University of London , and a doctorate in 1988 .
Tang is married to an Englishwoman , Hazel McIntosh . They have a son , Ben Zai , known professionally as Zai Tang , who is a sound artist living in the UK .
= = Career = =
= = = Early career and founding of The Artists Village = = =
Returning to Singapore in 1979 after completing his undergraduate studies , Tang engaged in performance art , works of art that are composed of actions performed by the artist at a certain place and time . The following year , he staged a work of installation art called Earthworks at the National Museum Art Gallery . This comprised two works , The Product of the Sun and Me and The Product of the Rain and Me , which were made up of dishes of earth , lumps of soil , and pieces of soiled and water @-@ stained linen which he had hung in gullies at Ang Mo Kio , a construction site in the process of being turned into a public housing estate . Installation art uses sculptural materials , and sometimes other media such as sound , video and performance , to modify the way a particular space is experienced .
In 1988 , Tang founded The Artists Village , originally located at 61B Lorong Gambas in rural Ulu Sembawang , in the north part of Singapore . The first art colony to be established in Singapore , its goal was to inspire artists to create experimental art . Tang described the Artists Village as :
... [ an ] alternative venue dedicated to the promotion and encouragement of experimental and alternative arts in Singapore . It endeavors to establish an open space for artists to mature at their own pace , and to provide a conducive environment which allows them to experiment , experience and exchange ideas .
T.K. Sabapathy noted : " The Village was a beacon , and Da Wu both a catalyst and mentor . " Among the artists who moved to the Village were Ahmad Mashadi , Faizal Fadil , Amanda Heng , Ho Soon Yeen , Lim Poh Teck , Tang Mun Kit , Wong Shih Yaw , Julian Yasin and Zai Kuning . They were among the first contemporary artists in Singapore , and also among the first to begin practising installation art and performance art . Tang mentored younger artists and exposed them to artistic developments in other parts of the world . He also organized exhibitions and symposia at the Village , and arranged for collaborations with the National Museum Art Gallery and the National Arts Council 's 1992 Singapore Festival of the Arts . Although The Artists Village lost its original site in 1990 due to land development , it was registered as a non @-@ profit society in February 1992 and now stages events in various public spaces .
= = = Difficulties with performance art = = =
In January 1994 , artist Josef Ng cut off his pubic hair with his back to the audience during a performance protesting the media 's coverage of gay issues . The event was reported by The New Paper , and the resulting public outcry over its perceived obscenity led the National Arts Council ( NAC ) to cease funding unscripted performance art . After that , Tang and other performance artists practised their art mostly abroad , although some performances were presented in Singapore as dance or theatre . Interviewed in August 2001 , T. Sasitharan , co @-@ director of the Practice Performing Arts School , said that a review of the NAC 's policy was " long overdue " and noted that although Tang had received the Fukuoka Asian Culture Prize in 1999 , " the art form he practises is de facto banned in Singapore " . The NAC eventually reversed its no @-@ funding rule on performance art in September 2003 .
In August 1995 , the President of Singapore Ong Teng Cheong visited Singapore Art ' 95 , an exhibition and sale of artworks by Singapore artists . Tang wore a black jacket emblazoned on the back with " Don 't give money to the arts " in yellow and handed a note to the President that read , " I am an artist . I am important . " Although Tang was prevented from speaking to the President by an aide @-@ de @-@ camp , he later told the media he wished to tell the President that artists are important and that public money funded the " wrong kind of art " , art that was too commercial and had no taste .
= = = Recent activities = = =
Tang was the subject of one episode of artist Ho Tzu Nyen 's documentary television series 4x4 Episodes of Singapore Art , which was broadcast on Arts Central in October 2005 . He was also one of the four artists representing Singapore at the 2007 Venice Biennale . He presented an installation , Untitled , consisting of two beds positioned upright , the trunks of plantain trees , a portable ancestral altar , a handmade album of drawings and photographs , and other found objects . Drawings of people and faces were strapped to the beds and wrapped around the tree trunks . The installation was accompanied by a recording by Tang 's son , Zai Tang , of sounds captured in Venice during a single day . The work was described by the National Arts Council as suggestive of " the restlessness , rootlessness , spiritual wandering and emotional estrangement that mark the travelling life " . In 2007 , a work by Tang consisting of ink paintings around a well , and representing the erosion of village communities by urban development , was acquired by the Queensland Art Gallery for its Gallery of Modern Art . From January to June 2016 , Tang presented Earth Work 1979 at the National Gallery Singapore , a re @-@ staging of his 1979 exhibition , the first recorded instance of Singapore land art . The exhibition includes " Gully Curtains " , where Tang placed large pieces of fabric between gullies and let the rain and sun mark the fabric . His work Tiger 's Whip ( 1991 ) is also displayed at the National Gallery 's DBS Singapore Gallery .
Known for his reticence , Tang remains an enigmatic person . In an August 2008 interview with the Straits Times , fellow artist Vincent Leow said of Tang : " He 's a very hands @-@ on person , very improvisational and has good ideas . But he doesn 't really talk much . You can 't really tell who he is . "
= = Art = =
Tang has expressed concern about environmental and social issues through his art , such as the works They Poach the Rhino , Chop Off His Horn and Make This Drink ( 1989 ) , Under the Table All Going One Direction ( 1992 ) and Tiger 's Whip . He first presented the latter work , an installation and performance piece , in 1991 in Singapore 's Chinatown . It consisted of ten life @-@ sized tigers made from wire mesh covered with white linen . Tang , wearing a sleeveless white garment , dragged one of the tigers behind him . A modified version of the installation is in the Singapore Art Museum . It features a tiger with its front paws resting on the back of a rocking chair , which is draped with a piece of red cloth and with a phallus painted on it in red . The work highlights how the tiger is being hunted to extinction for its penis , which some Chinese believe has aphrodisiac qualities . In February 1995 , the Museum chose Tiger 's Whip to represent Singapore at the Africus International Biennale in Johannesburg , South Africa . Another of Tang 's works in the Singapore Art Museum is an untitled sculpture often called Axe ( 1991 ) , which is an axe with a plant growing out of its wooden handle . It is regarded as an early example of found art in Singapore .
A focus of Tang 's art is the theme of national and cultural identities , I Was Born Japanese ( 1995 ) being an example . Tang notes that he has had four nationalities . He was issued with a Japanese birth certificate as he was born during the Japanese Occupation of Singapore . He became a British national after World War II , a Malaysian citizen when Singapore joined the Federation of Malaysia in 1963 , and a Singaporean citizen when Singapore gained full independence in 1965 . While living in the UK he was conscious of his Chinese identity , but later on he took the view that he might not be fully Chinese since China had been occupied by the Mongols and Manchurians : " I 'm not sure if I 'm 100 % Chinese blood . I 'm sure my ancestor has got mixture of Mongolian and even Thai and Miao people [ sic ] . We are all mixed , and this is true . But I always like to think that there is only one race in the world . We are all one human race . " Another of Tang 's performances , Jantung Pisang – Heart of a Tree , Heart of a People , centres around the banana tree . He was inspired by the fact that the banana is used widely in Southeast Asia as an offering to bring blessings , but is also feared as it is associated with ghosts and spirits . He also sees banana trees as a reminder of the lack of democracy in certain parts of the world : " Democracy in many Asian countries and Third World countries is as shallow as the roots of a banana tree . We need to deepen [ democracy ] . "
Tang has participated in numerous community and public art projects , workshops and performances , as he believes in the potential of the individual and collective to effect social changes . He has said : " An artist should introduce to others what he sees and learns of something . His works should provoke thoughts , not to please the eyes or to entertain , much less for decoration . "
= = Awards = =
Tang received a Singapore International Foundation art grant to participate in the International Art Symposium in Meiho , Japan , in October 1994 . In March the following year , he received a trophy and S $ 20 @,@ 000 from the Japanese Chamber of Commerce and Industry Foundation . For his originality and influence in performance art in Southeast Asia , among other contributions , Tang won the Arts and Culture Prize in 1999 at the 10th Fukuoka Asian Culture Prizes which were established by Fukuoka and Yokatopia Foundation to honour outstanding work of individuals or organizations to preserve and create the unique and diverse culture of Asia .
= = Major exhibitions and performances = =
Some of the information in the table above was obtained from [ Tang Da Wu : Artist CV ] , Valentine Willie Fine Art , 2006 , archived from the original on 10 February 2008 , retrieved 18 October 2008 .
= = = Articles and websites = = =
Masahiro , Ushiroshoji , interviewer ( 1999 ) , Fast moving Asian contemporary art : Tang Da Wu and his works ( PDF ) , Asian Month , retrieved 20 October 2008 .
Yeo , Alicia Kay Ling ( 7 August 2008 ) , Information on Singapore artist Tang Da Wu , Reference Point Enquiries Bank , National Library , Singapore , retrieved 20 October 2008 .
= = = Books = = =
Sabapathy , T.K. ( 1993 ) , " Contemporary Art in Singapore : An Introduction " , in Turner , Caroline , Tradition and Change : Contemporary Art of Asia and the Pacific , Queensland : University of Queensland Press , pp. 83 – 92 , ISBN 0 @-@ 7022 @-@ 2583 @-@ 5 .
Sabapathy , T.K. , ed . ( 1998 ) , Trimurti and Ten Years After , Singapore : Singapore Art Museum .
Singapore Art Museum ( 2007 ) , Telah Terbit ( Out Now ) : Southeast Asian Contemporary Art Practices during the 1960s to 1980s , Singapore : National Heritage Board , ISBN 978 @-@ 981 @-@ 05 @-@ 7623 @-@ 3 .
タン ・ ダ @-@ ウ展 = Tang Da @-@ Wu , Fukuoka : Fukuoka @-@ shi Bijutsukan , 1991 ( in Japanese ) .
van Fenema , Joyce , ed . ( 1996 ) , Southeast Asian Art Today , Singapore : Roeder Publications , ISBN 981 @-@ 00 @-@ 6002 @-@ 5 .
= = = News reports = = =
" Art therapy helps people express their frustrations " , The Straits Times , 16 June 1994 .
Leow , Jason ( 14 June 1996 ) , " Art taken for a ride at HDB estates – around your place " , The Straits Times .
" Through the artists ' eyes " , Business Times ( Singapore ) , 28 October 2000 .
Sreshthaputra , Wanphen ( 3 January 2002 ) , " Art fest a big hit with Singaporeans : A diverse range of media is employed but the quality of the works on display is mixed " , Bangkok Post .
|
= Mahan @-@ class destroyer =
The Mahan @-@ class destroyers of the United States Navy were a series of 18 destroyers of which the first 16 were laid down in 1934 . The last two of the 18 , Dunlap and Fanning ( this pair laid down in 1935 ) , are sometimes considered as a separate ship class . All 18 were commissioned in 1936 and 1937 . Mahan was the lead ship , named for Rear Admiral Alfred Thayer Mahan , an influential historian and theorist on sea power .
The Mahans featured improvements over previous destroyers , with 12 torpedo tubes , superimposed gun shelters , and generators for emergency use . Standard displacement increased from 1 @,@ 365 tons to 1 @,@ 500 tons . The class introduced a new steam propulsion system that combined increases in pressure and temperature with a new type of lightweight steam turbine , proving simpler and more efficient than the Mahans ' predecessors — so much so that it was used on many subsequent wartime US destroyers .
All 18 ships saw action in World War II , entirely in the Pacific Theater , including during the Guadalcanal Campaign , and the battles of the Santa Cruz Islands , Leyte Gulf , and Iwo Jima . Their participation in major and secondary campaigns included the bombardment of beachheads , amphibious landings , task force screening , convoy and patrol duty , and anti @-@ aircraft and submarine warfare . Six ships were lost in combat and two were expended in the postwar Operation Crossroads nuclear tests . The remainder were decommissioned , sold , or scrapped after the war ; none remain today . Collectively , the ships received 111 battle stars for their World War II service .
= = Design = =
The Mahan @-@ class destroyers emerged as improved versions of the Farragut class , incorporating the most up @-@ to @-@ date machinery available . The Navy 's General Board had been wrestling with proposed design changes , first considering 12 torpedo tubes with one fewer 5 @-@ inch ( 127 mm ) / 38 caliber gun , and then proposing to retain all five guns with the twelve torpedo tubes , but configuring those guns only for surface targets , not air targets . The Chief of Naval Operations objected , recommending against " subordinating the gun to the torpedo " , and a compromise was struck that included a new engineering plant and a new battery arrangement for the Mahan class and others . In the final design , No. 3 gun was moved to the aft deckhouse ( just ahead of No. 4 ) to make room for the third quadruple torpedo tube ; the two middle torpedo tubes were moved to the sides , releasing the centerline space for extension of the aft deckhouse . All five 5 in / 38s were kept and remained dual purpose guns , able to target aircraft as well as ships , but only No. 1 and No. 2 had gun shields . The traditional destroyer machinery was replaced with a new generation of land @-@ based machinery . This change ushered in a new steam propulsion system that combined increases in pressure and temperature with a new type of lightweight steam turbine , which proved simpler and more efficient to operate . Double reduction gearing also reduced the size of the faster @-@ turning turbines and allowed cruising turbines to be added . These changes led to a ten percent increase in displacement over the Farraguts .
The Mahans typically had a tripod foremast with a pole mainmast . To improve the anti @-@ aircraft field of fire , their tripod foremast was constructed without nautical rigging . In silhouette , they were similar to the larger Porter @-@ class destroyers that immediately preceded them . The Mahans were fitted with the first emergency generators , replacing the storage batteries of earlier classes . Gun crew shelters were built for the superimposed weapons , one shelter before the bridge and one atop the shelter deck aft .
The Mahans displaced 1 @,@ 500 long tons ( 1 @,@ 524 t ) at standard load and 1 @,@ 725 long tons ( 1 @,@ 753 t ) at deep load . The overall length of the class was 341 feet 3 inches ( 104 @.@ 0 m ) , the beam was 35 feet 6 inches ( 10 @.@ 8 m ) , and the draft 10 feet 7 inches ( 3 @.@ 2 m ) . They were powered by General Electric geared steam turbines , driving two shafts that developed a total of 46 @,@ 000 shaft horsepower ( 34 @,@ 000 kW ) for a maximum speed of 37 knots ( 69 km / h ; 43 mph ) . Four Babcock & Wilcox or four Foster Wheeler water @-@ tube boilers generated the superheated steam needed for the turbines . The Mahans carried a maximum of 523 long tons ( 531 t ) of fuel oil , with a range of 6 @,@ 940 nautical miles ( 12 @,@ 850 km ; 7 @,@ 990 mi ) at 12 knots ( 22 km / h ; 14 mph ) . Their peacetime complement was 158 officers and enlisted men . The wartime complement increased to approximately 250 officers and enlisted men .
= = = Engineering = = =
The Mahans ' propulsion plant was considerably improved over that of the Farraguts . Steam pressure was raised from 400 psi ( 2 @,@ 800 kPa ) to 465 psi ( 3 @,@ 210 kPa ) in some ships , and superheated steam temperature was raised from 648 ° F ( 342 ° C ) to 700 ° F ( 371 ° C ) in all ships . Double reduction gearing replaced single reduction gearing , allowing smaller , faster @-@ turning turbines to be used ; this saved enough space and weight to allow cruising turbines to be fitted , which greatly improved fuel economy at moderate speeds . Boiler economizers , as in previous ships , further improved fuel economy . The ships ' range was extended to 6 @,@ 940 nmi ( 12 @,@ 850 km ; 7 @,@ 990 mi ) at 12 knots ( 22 km / h ; 14 mph ) , 1 @,@ 000 nmi ( 1 @,@ 900 km ; 1 @,@ 200 mi ) farther than the Farraguts . Design shaft horsepower was increased from 42 @,@ 800 shp ( 31 @,@ 900 kW ) to 48 @,@ 000 shp ( 36 @,@ 000 kW ) in the same space and weight as in the Farraguts . The relatively compact power plant contributed to the Mahans ' ability to carry 12 torpedo tubes instead of eight with only 150 tons extra displacement . The main turbines were manufactured by General Electric and were impulse @-@ type , also called Curtis turbines . Each main turbine was divided into a high @-@ pressure ( HP ) and a low @-@ pressure ( LP ) turbine feeding into a common reduction gear to drive a shaft , in a similar manner to the machinery illustrated at the following reference . Steam from the boilers was supplied to the HP turbine , which exhausted to the LP turbine , which exhausted to a condenser . The cruising turbines were geared to the HP turbines and could be engaged or disengaged as needed ; at low speeds they were operated in series with the HP turbines to improve the efficiency of the overall turbine arrangement , thus improving fuel economy . This general arrangement with double reduction gearing became standard for most subsequent steam @-@ powered surface ships of the US Navy , although not all of these had cruising turbines .
= = = Armament = = =
The main battery of the Mahan class consisted of five dual purpose 5 @-@ inch ( 127 mm ) / 38 caliber guns , equipped with the Mark 33 gun fire @-@ control system . The anti @-@ aircraft battery had four water @-@ cooled .50 caliber machine guns ( 12 @.@ 7 mm ) . The class was fitted with three quadruple torpedo tube mounts for twelve 21 @-@ inch ( 533 mm ) torpedo tubes , guided by the Mark 27 torpedo fire control system . The class was initially equipped with the Mark 11 torpedo or Mark 12 torpedo , which were replaced by the Mark 15 torpedo beginning in 1938 . Depth charge roll @-@ off racks were rigged on the stern .
In early 1942 , the Mahan @-@ class destroyers began a wartime armament refitting process , but most of the class was not fully refitted until 1944 . The notable refits to the Mahan class included the removal of one 5 @-@ inch / 38 gun , typically replaced with two twin Bofors 40 mm guns ( 1 @.@ 6 in ) and between four and six 20 mm Oerlikon ( 0 @.@ 9 in ) guns to increase the ships ' light anti @-@ aircraft ( AA ) armament .
In January 1945 , removal of two quadruple torpedo tubes was authorized to permit substitution of two 40 mm quad mounts . In June , removal of the third centerline tube was authorized to make way for two 40 mm twin mounts abreast of the aft stack . All ships receiving these AA modifications were to have directors installed with their new 40 mm mounts ; these Mark 51s were to be replaced by new blind @-@ firing GFFC Mark 63 installations with radar .
= = Dunlap class = =
The Dunlap class was a two @-@ ship destroyer class based on the Mahan design , listed as a separate class in some sources . The ships were USS Dunlap ( DD @-@ 384 ) and USS Fanning ( DD @-@ 385 ) , the last two Mahans . Unlike the Mahans , the Dunlaps had the new Mark 25 enclosed mounts for the two forward 5 @-@ inch / 38 caliber guns , with base rings housing projectile hoists that rotated with each of the guns ; their ammunition was fed from a handling room below each mount . Dunlap and Fanning were the first US destroyers to use enclosed forward gun mounts rather than shields ; their light pole foremast and lack of a mainmast visibly distinguished them from the Mahans .
= = Construction = =
The building of the first sixteen vessels was all authorised under the NIRA Executive Order on 16 June 1933 ; the last two were authorised under the Vinson @-@ Trammell Act on 27 March 1934 ( as part of a batch of 95 destroyers authorised on that date - covering DD @-@ 380 to DD @-@ 436 and DD @-@ 445 to DD @-@ 482 ) . Contracts for the first six Mahans were awarded to three shipbuilders , but none of the builders had what the US Navy judged as an acceptable in @-@ house design structure . On the strength of their reputation , the New York firm of Gibbs & Cox was named as the design agent . The firm had no experience in the design of warships , but had successfully designed passenger @-@ cargo liners with better propulsion systems than any available to the US Navy . The decision was made to design the Mahan class and future classes around a new generation of machinery , including a cheaper , faster and more efficient propulsion system that combined increases in steam pressure and temperature with a new type of lightweight , fast @-@ running turbine and double reduction gears .
= = Ships in class = =
= = Service history = =
= = = Mahan = = =
USS Mahan was commissioned on the east coast in September 1936 and served in the Atlantic area until July 1937 . She sailed to the Southern California coast for fleet training before moving on to Pearl Harbor . At sea when the Japanese attacked Pearl Harbor on 7 December 1941 , Mahan participated in the initial post @-@ attack efforts in search of the strike force . The ship joined Task Force 17 in February 1942 , which conducted raids on several atolls in the Marshall and Gilbert Islands . Late in March , she returned to Pearl Harbor and proceeded to the west coast for overhaul . By August 1942 , Mahan was back operating out of Pearl Harbor .
In October 1942 , Mahan was assigned to Task Force 61 and took part in the Battle of the Santa Cruz Islands . The engagement cost the Navy 74 aircraft , the aircraft carrier Hornet , and one destroyer . While en route to Nouméa , New Caledonia , Mahan and the battleship South Dakota collided , causing severe damage to both ships . Temporary repairs were made to Mahan and she steamed to Pearl Harbor for a new bow . She pulled out of Pearl Harbor in January 1943 . In the months to follow , Mahan escorted convoys between New Hebrides and the Fiji Islands , performed patrol assignments off New Caledonia and engaged in operations in Australian waters . Assigned to the amphibious force of Rear Admiral Daniel E. Barbey , Mahan participated in a succession of wide @-@ ranging amphibious campaigns in New Guinea and New Britain . In February and March 1944 , she saw action with the 7th Fleet in the Admiralty Islands . After that the ship was ordered back to the west coast for an overhaul , leaving the yard in July 1944 for Pearl Harbor .
Returning to New Guinea , Mahan began to escort convoys between Hollandia , in Indonesia and Leyte , in the Philippine Islands . By November 1944 , she was doing anti @-@ submarine patrols off Leyte . On 7 December 1944 while patrolling the channel between Leyte and Ponson Island , a group of Japanese suicide aircraft overwhelmed Mahan at Ormoc Bay . She was disabled by the attack , then abandoned and sunk by a US destroyer . Mahan received five battle stars for her World War II service .
= = = Cummings = = =
USS Cummings served in the Pacific Fleet in the late 1930s , participating in numerous individual and fleet training exercises . In 1940 , she served on security patrols off the west coast . Cummings went on a goodwill visit to several ports in the South Pacific , including Auckland , New Zealand , and Tahiti . The destroyer was hit by fragments while docked in Pearl Harbor during the Japanese attack , and suffered a few casualties . She escorted convoys between Pearl Harbor and the west coast for the first six months of World War II . In June 1942 , she was transferred to convoy escort duties in the South Pacific until August , when she had an overhaul in San Francisco , and then returned to her role as a convoy escort in the South Pacific .
In January 1944 , Cummings joined the screen for the Fast Carrier Strike Force while it raided Japanese positions in the Central Pacific . In March , Cummings sailed for Trincomalee , Ceylon , where she rendezvoused with British ships for exercises . In April , the ship joined a British force to screen during air strikes on Sabang , Indonesia . She returned to Ceylon in May and then moved on to Exmouth Gulf , Australia . With a British force , Cummings sortied for air strikes on Soerabaja , Java , before leaving for Pearl Harbor .
By July she was back in San Francisco to escort the heavy cruiser Baltimore , the ship that carried President Franklin D. Roosevelt to Pearl Harbor . Cummings joined the US 3rd Fleet for the Battle of Leyte Gulf in October 1944 . The next month , she bombarded Iwo Jima in preparation for the amphibious assault on the island . The ship operated off Okinawa during its invasion . After the war , Cummings returned to the United States and was decommissioned in December 1945 and sold for scrap in July 1947 . She received seven battle stars for her World War II service .
= = = Drayton = = =
USS Drayton made her shakedown cruise to Europe late in 1936 , and finished her final trials in the United States . She left Norfolk , Virginia , in June 1937 for San Diego , California , to join the Scouting Force . In July , Drayton participated in the search for the lost American pilot , Amelia Earhart . For the next two years , she exercised along the west coast , the Hawaiian Islands , and the Caribbean . When the Japanese attacked Pearl Harbor , Drayton was at sea but able to participate in the post @-@ attack efforts in search of the enemy force . During the succeeding three months , she escorted a convoy to Christmas Island ( Kiritimati ) , screened a carrier in an airstrike on Bougainville Island , and screened a tanker to Suva Harbor , Fiji Islands . In late November 1942 Drayton became part of Task Force 67 , which intercepted a Japanese naval force guarding transports en route to resupply Guadalcanal . The Battle of Tassafaronga followed .
Throughout June , July and August 1943 , Drayton escorted Australian troop carriers from Townsville , Australia , to Milne Bay , New Guinea . In early September , the ship supported the amphibious landing at Lae , New Guinea . Later in September , she participated in the amphibious landing at Finschhafen , New Guinea . After escorting troops to Arawe , New Britain , in December 1943 , Drayton participated in the landings there and at Borgen Bay , near Cape Gloucester , New Britain . The destroyer took part in the invasion of Los Negros Island in the Admiralty Islands during February 1944 . She reported to the 7th Fleet in October and performed patrol and escort duty in Leyte Gulf . In December 1944 , while screening a convoy to San Pedro Bay in the Philippines , a Japanese bomber attacked the ship , killing two men and wounding seven . The next day , she fought off enemy fighters ; one crashed into a 5 " / 38 caliber gun mount , killing six men and wounding twelve . By August 1945 she was on her way to New York , arriving in September . Drayton was decommissioned in October 1945 and sold for scrap in December 1946 . She received 11 battle stars for her World War II service .
= = = Lamson = = =
USS Lamson shipped out of Norfolk , Virginia , in June 1937 for San Diego , California , less than a year after her naval service began . She engaged in exercises and tactical training until sailing for Pearl Harbor in October 1939 . For the next two years , Lamson continued training from her base in Hawaii . Following the attack on Pearl Harbor , she joined the post @-@ attack efforts to search for the Japanese strike force . In February 1942 she became part of the newly formed ANZAC Squadron , consisting of Australian , New Zealand , and American warships in Suva , Fiji Islands . In March , she operated with the squadron as a cover group southeast of Papua New Guinea . In late November 1942 , Lamson was assigned to Task Force 67 and took part in the Battle of Tassafaronga .
For the next eight months , Lamson screened convoys en route to Guadalcanal . By August 1943 , she had moved on to Milne Bay , New Guinea , and participated in the September amphibious landings at Lae and Finschhafen . In December , the ship engaged in the pre @-@ invasion bombardment of Arawe and landings at Cape Gloucester , New Britain . After an overhaul and training at Pearl Harbor , Lamson joined the 7th Fleet in October 1944 . In early December 1944 , she took part in the amphibious landing at Ormoc Bay , Leyte , Philippine Islands . There she was struck by a kamikaze that set fire to the ship , killing 21 men and injuring 50 . The fires were extinguished by a rescue tug and Lamson was saved . After extensive repairs in the Puget Sound Naval Shipyard , she returned to the Pacific and operated off Iwo Jima , then sailed to the United States in November 1945 . In May 1946 , she participated in the Able nuclear test of Operation Crossroads ; she was sunk in the Baker test in July 1946 . Lamson received five battle stars for her World War II service .
= = = Flusser = = =
USS Flusser steamed her way to San Diego , California , in July 1937 , after spending the first months of her naval service in the Atlantic and Mediterranean . She was based in San Diego until 1939 , then reassigned to Pearl Harbor . Flusser was at sea when the Japanese struck Pearl Harbor , but took part in the post @-@ attack search . For the next six months , she carried out convoy duty between Pearl Harbor and the west coast , and engaged in escort and patrol duty out of southwest Pacific ports . From July 1942 to February 1943 , Flusser was in overhaul status at Pearl Harbor . She returned to escort and training operations in the Solomon Islands and was later based at Milne Bay , New Guinea . During September , Flusser was part of the amphibious landing forces at Lae and Finschhafen , New Guinea . In December 1943 , the destroyer participated in the bombardment and landings at Arawe and Cape Gloucester , New Britain . While attached to the 7th Fleet in February , she supported the landing of troops at Los Negros Island in the Admiralty Islands . Between April and June 1944 , the ship was in the Mare Island Naval Shipyard for overhaul .
After her overhaul , Flusser returned to Pearl Harbor . In August , she escorted a convoy to Eniwetok and moved on to Majuro in the Marshall Islands , where she patrolled bypassed Japanese @-@ held atolls . On a patrol off Wotje Atoll , the ship was fired on by a shore battery that left nine of her crew members wounded . In October , she sailed north to San Pedro Bay for duty in the Leyte Gulf and Surigao Strait . By early December 1944 , Flusser had escorted convoys from Hollandia Jayapura to Leyte and taken part in the amphibious landing at Ormoc Bay . In March 1945 , Flusser provided escort support for the landing near Cebu in the Philippines . During July she participated in the Balikpapan campaign in Borneo , escorting ships and covering the landing . After occupation duty in Okinawa during September and October , she sailed to San Diego , California , arriving in November 1945 . During 1946 , Flusser took part in the atomic weapons tests in the Marshall Islands . From there , she steamed to Pearl Harbor , then to Norfolk , Virginia . The destroyer was decommissioned there in December 1946 and sold in January 1948 . Flusser received eight battle stars for her World War II service .
= = = Reid = = =
USS Reid came into naval service in November 1936 . From 1937 until 1941 , she participated in training and fleet maneuvers in the Atlantic and Pacific . Reid was berthed at Pearl Harbor when the Japanese attacked , but escaped without damage while her gunners fired at the enemy attackers . After the attack , Reid did patrol duty in the Hawaiian waters , and later escorted convoys to San Francisco , California . Late in May 1942 , Reid steamed north from Pearl Harbor to bombard the Japanese positions in Kiska and supported landings at Adak , Alaska . While conducting an anti @-@ submarine patrol in August , she brought a Japanese submarine to the surface with a heavy depth charge barrage , and opened fire on it until it capsized and sank . Five of the submarine 's crew survived and were rescued by Reid . By October , she was patrolling the waters near New Caledonia , Samoa , and the Fiji Islands . In January 1943 , the ship bombarded several Japanese locations on Guadalcanal .
During September 1943 , Reid provided support for the landings at Lae and Finschhafen , New Guinea . In December , Reid escorted troop transports for the landings at Arawe , New Britain , and participated in the landings at Cape Gloucester , New Britain . In the following months she supported landings at Los Negros Island in the Admiralty Islands , Hollandia Jayapura , Wakde Island , Biak , and Noemfoor , New Guinea . Reid supported air strikes against Wake Island , and in November 1944 did patrol duty off Leyte in the Philippines .
On 11 December 1944 , Reid was operating with a convoy bound for Ormoc Bay , Leyte , to resupply land forces . Late that afternoon , a group of Japanese planes descended on the convoy and penetrated the defenses , taking aim at Reid and another destroyer . The destroyers put up an anti @-@ aircraft barrage that splashed some of the planes and damaged others , but Reid was hit by five suicide planes , causing powerful explosions . Within minutes , she went to the bottom , and over a hundred men perished . Reid received seven battle stars for her World War II service .
= = = Case = = =
USS Case began active duty in September 1936 and was assigned to the Pacific Fleet . In April 1940 , Pearl Harbor became her home base . The following year , she participated in fleet exercises to Midway Island , Johnston Island , Palmyra Atoll , Samoa , and Auckland . Case was berthed at Pearl Harbor when the Japanese struck , but sustained no damage . After the attack , she escorted convoys between the west coast and Pearl Harbor until late May 1942 . Case went north to support the pre @-@ invasion bombardment of Kiska and do patrol duty off Adak , Alaska . In October , the ship escorted a convoy to Pearl Harbor and then headed to the states for repair , returning to Pearl Harbor in November . In January 1943 , she sailed to Espiritu Santo for training and remained there until September . After overhaul in San Francisco , California , Case returned to Pearl Harbor in December 1943 . She proceeded to the Marshall Islands , taking part in attacks on Wotje Atoll and Maloelap Atoll in late January and Eniwetok in early February 1944 .
In April 1944 , Case took part in air raids on Hollandia , Truk ( Chuuk Lagoon ) , Satawan , and Ponape Island . Her next assignment was with Task Group 58 @.@ 4 , participating in strikes on Japanese airfields in the Bonin Islands . During June 1944 , Case engaged in raids on the Mariana Islands and Vulcan Islands . Following repair work at Eniwetok , the ship resumed operations with the task group , screening for air strikes in July and for attacks on the Bonin Islands in August and September . She took part in the bombardment of Marcus Island before joining Task Group 38 @.@ 1 for strikes on Luzon . While screening US cruisers bound for Saipan , Case rammed and sank a Japanese midget submarine . Undamaged , she sailed to Saipan for offshore patrol duty until early December 1944 . Afterward , Case became involved in a raid on Iwo Jima airfields and helped sink two Japanese ships . Following repairs at Saipan , she patrolled between there and Iwo Jima until the end of the war . She then left Iwo Jima for Norfolk , Virginia , where she was decommissioned in December 1945 and sold in December 1947 . Case received seven battle stars for her World War II service .
= = = Conyngham = = =
USS Conyngham made her maiden voyage to northern Europe in early 1937 , shortly after being commissioned . Following an overhaul in Boston , she sailed to San Diego , California . From October 1937 until April 1940 , Conyngham operated along the west coast , the Hawaiian Islands and the Caribbean , then made her way to Pearl Harbor . In March 1941 , Conyngham left Pearl Harbor on a goodwill tour to Samoa , Sydney and Brisbane in Australia , and Suva in Fiji , returning in April 1941 . Undamaged by the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor , she put to sea on patrol duty that continued through December . After a brief overhaul at the Mare Island Naval Shipyard , Conyngham performed escort duty between the west coast and New Hebrides . Her escort assignment was interrupted to screen carriers in the Battle of Midway Island in June 1942 .
During October 1942 , Conyngham participated in the Battle of the Santa Cruz Islands and supported the attack at the Matanikau River , Guadalcanal . In June 1943 she joined an amphibious force that later carried out landings at Lae and Finschhafen , New Guinea . In December , she took part in the landings at Arawe and Cape Gloucester , New Britain . The next month , Conyngham participated in the landing at Saidor , New Guinea , and sailed to San Francisco for overhaul . Returning to duty in May 1944 , she screened battleships in the Mariana Islands and remained there until August . Conyngham then joined a convoy screening ships to the Philippines Islands , arriving at Leyte Gulf in early November 1944 . There , a floatplane ( a type of seaplane ) strafed her , wounding 17 men yet causing slight damage to the ship . By early December , she had covered landings at Ormoc Bay and helped with reinforcements . Conygnham left the Philippines late in December for Manus Island , New Guinea , to replenish supplies . Later on , she helped screen a convoy to Leyte for the landings at Lingayen Gulf . The ship participated in bombardments at Lingayen Gulf and remained on patrol there after the landings in January 1945 . Conygham sailed to Subic Bay for overhaul in late July 1945 , and remained there until the end of the war . Decommissioned in December 1946 , Conyngham was used in the atomic weapons test at Bikini in 1946 , and was scuttled in July 1948 . She received 14 battle stars for her World War II service .
= = = Cassin = = =
USS Cassin began naval service in August 1936 , but alterations kept her from sea duty until March 1937 . The next year , she joined the forces at Pearl Harbor for annual fleet exercises . In April 1940 , Cassin was assigned to a Hawaiian unit . When the Japanese attacked Pearl Harbor , Cassin was in dry @-@ dock with the battleship Pennsylvania and the destroyer Downes . Both destroyers were at the southern end of the dock when an incendiary bomb struck Downes , starting unstoppable fires on both destroyers . Cassin slipped off her blocks and rolled over onto the burning Downes . She was salvaged and towed to the Mare Island Navy Yard and decommissioned .
Cassin was rebuilt and commissioned again in February 1944 . She reported to Pearl Harbor in April and pulled escort duty until August . In October , the ship took part in the shelling of Marcus Island to destroy enemy installations . After participating in the bombardment of Iwo Jima in November 1944 and January 1945 , she escorted an ammunition ship to the newly invaded Iwo Jima . There , Cassin did radar picket and air @-@ sea rescue duty .
With the war over , she took part in guarding the air evacuation of released prisoners of war from Japan . In November 1945 , the ship deployed to Norfolk , Virginia , and decommissioned there in December 1945 . She was sold for scrap in November 1947 . Cassin received six battle stars for her World War II service .
= = = Shaw = = =
USS Shaw crossed the Atlantic on her shakedown cruise in April 1937 , and returned to the Philadelphia Navy Yard in June . There , she began a year of yard work before completing acceptance trials . For the remainder of the year , the ship conducted training exercises in the Atlantic . Sailing to the west coast , she was at the Mare Island Navy Yard from January to April 1939 . By April 1940 , Shaw moved on to Hawaiian waters , then back to the west coast in November for overhaul . She returned to Hawaii in February 1941 , and later entered the Pearl Harbor Navy Yard for repairs . Shaw was still in dry dock when the Japanese attacked , with most of the ship 's crew ashore . She was hit by three bombs and severely damaged when her forward magazine exploded . Temporary repairs were made at Pearl Harbor , and in February 1942 the ship sailed to the west coast to complete them .
With repairs completed , Shaw returned to Pearl Harbor in August 1942 . She was then assigned to Task Force 61 , and took part in the Battle of Santa Cruz Islands in mid @-@ October . Reassigned to a unit of the 7th Amphibious Force , Shaw escorted reinforcements to Lae and Finschhafen , New Guinea , for the remainder of October and part of November . In late December , she escorted units engaged in the assault on Cape Gloucester , New Britain , and sustained casualties and damage . Thirty @-@ six men were injured ; three later died of their wounds . Temporary repairs were made at Milne Bay , New Guinea , and permanent repairs were completed at San Francisco in May 1944 . Shaw then returned to Pearl Harbor .
With Task Force 52 , she participated in the offensive to gain possession of the Japanese @-@ held Mariana Islands . In January 1945 , with the San Fabian Attack Force , Shaw saw action at Manila Bay in the Philippine Islands . She returned to the United States in April , stopping first at San Francisco for repairs , then routed to New York via Philadelphia for deactivation . The ship was decommissioned in October 1945 and sold for scrap in July 1946 . Shaw received 11 battle stars for her World War II service .
= = = Tucker = = =
USS Tucker was commissioned in July 1936 . After her shakedown cruise , she joined the destroyer forces attached to the US Battle Fleet based in San Diego , California . In February 1939 the ship took part in a naval exercise in the Caribbean , personally observed by President Franklin D. Roosevelt from the cruiser Houston . After exercises in Hawaiian waters in early 1940 , Tucker operated between the west coast and Hawaii until the end of the year . By February 1941 , she was back in Pearl Harbor . Tucker went on a goodwill tour that included Auckland , during March , before returning to Pearl Harbor . There , she participated in exercises at sea before sailing on to San Diego . By November 1941 , Tucker was once again in Pearl Harbor . When the Japanese attacked , the ship was berthed at East Loch undergoing tender overhaul . She was undamaged , and returned fire on the Japanese forces .
After the hostilities , Tucker patrolled off Pearl Harbor , then spent the next five months escorting convoys between the west coast and Hawaii . She later escorted the tender Wright to Tutuila in American Samoa , Suva in the Fiji Islands , and Nouméa in New Caledonia . The ship then escorted Wright back to Suva , arriving there in June 1942 . From Suva , she escorted the cargo ship Nira Luckenbach to Espiritu Santo , New Hebrides , in August . The ship entered the harbor by the western entrance and struck at least one mine . The crew abandoned ship and was rescued by nearby vessels . Efforts to save her were in vain ; she eventually jack @-@ knifed and went to the bottom . Tucker had steamed into a minefield placed by US forces , but she was never informed of its existence . Three men were killed and three more were listed as missing . She was removed from the Navy list in December 1944 . Tucker received one battle star for her World War II service .
= = = Downes = = =
USS Downes entered service in January 1937 . The following November , she sailed from Norfolk , Virginia , to San Diego , California . While based there , Downes participated in exercises along the west coast , in the Caribbean and in Hawaiian waters until April 1940 . Pearl Harbor then became her homeport . In early 1941 , Downes joined a cruise to Samoa , the Fiji Islands , and Australia , then visited the west coast later in the year . When the Japanese attacked Pearl Harbor , Downes was in dry @-@ dock with the battleship Pennsylvania and the destroyer Cassin . Both destroyers were at the southern end of the dock when an incendiary bomb struck Downes , setting unstoppable fires on both ships . Cassin slipped her blocks and rolled over onto the burning Downes , and Downes was later decommissioned .
Downes was rebuilt and recommissioned in November 1943 . During March of 1944 , she escorted a convoy to Pearl Harbor and on to Majuro in the Marshall Islands . By July , Downes began escort duty from Eniwetok to Saipan in support of the invasion of the Mariana Islands . Then she patrolled off Tinian during its invasion , and gave fire support during mop @-@ up operations there . Afterward , Downes took part in the bombardment of Marcus Island to create a diversion and destroy Japanese installations , an action that Admiral Halsey later commended . During the Battle of Leyte Gulf , the ship screened the Fast Carrier Task Force during the air strikes on Vice Admiral Jisaburō Ozawa 's Northern Force . Downes served in Iwo Jima from June 1944 until the end of the war , when the ship was ordered to return to the United States , arriving at Norfolk in November 1945 . She was decommissioned in December 1945 and sold in November 1947 . Downes received four battle stars for her World War II service .
= = = Cushing = = =
USS Cushing reported to the Pacific Fleet in August 1936 , soon after her Navy service began . She joined the unsuccessful search for the missing Earhart during the month of July 1937 . She moved on to San Diego for training exercises , continuing to operate along the west coast for the next several years . Cushing was under overhaul at the Mare Island Navy Yard when the Japanese struck Pearl Harbor . Following the attack , she did convoy duty between the west coast and Pearl Harbor , and later operated off Midway Island on anti @-@ submarine patrol . In August 1942 , Cushing sailed to Pearl Harbor for training exercises and later joined operations around Guadalcanal .
With Task Force 61 , Cushing took part in the bitterly contested Battle of Santa Cruz in October 1942 . Outnumbered , the force stalled the Japanese from their advance toward Guadalcanal . At the Battle of Guadalcanal , Cushing was perhaps the first US ship to strike the enemy on that November day in 1942 . In the fighting that followed , she sustained several hits amidships and slowly began to lose power , but was able to fire six torpedoes by local control at the Japanese battleship Hiei . In his book , Destroyer Operations in World War II ( 1953 ) , Theodore Roscoe said , “ Three of the “ fish ” seemed to hit the bulls @-@ eye ; if they did , it was with tack @-@ hammer thumps . They may have exploded prematurely . But Hiei 's lookouts must have seen them coming , for the big ship swung her bow to the left and lumbered westward , disappearing into the smoke @-@ haze . ” By this time , Cushing was dead in the water , an easy target for repeated enemy shelling . The results were disastrous and the order was given to abandon ship . Six officers and 53 men were lost . Of the survivors rescued , 56 had been wounded and ten of them suffered fatal injuries . The abandoned ship remained afloat until her magazines blew up . Cushing received three battle stars for her World War II service .
= = = Perkins = = =
USS Perkins was commissioned in September 1936 and San Diego , California , became her homeport . She operated in the eastern Pacific prior to World War II , and was at the Mare Island Navy Yard when the Japanese struck Pearl Harbor . In mid @-@ December , she escorted a convoy to Pearl Harbor , returned to Mare Island for new radar gear , and sailed back to Pearl Harbor the latter part of January 1942 . The following month , Perkins departed Pearl Harbor and joined Australian , New Zealand , and other US ships in the ANZAC Squadron , charged with protecting the eastern approaches to Australia and New Zealand . She continued operations with ANZAC until April . In May 1942 , Perkins participated in the Battle of the Coral Sea . After that , propeller problems took her to New Zealand and to Pearl Harbor , where repairs were completed . While at Pearl Harbor , additional radar gear and 40 mm guns were installed .
By November 1942 Perkins was with Task Force 67 , led by Rear Admiral Carleton H. Wright . In the nighttime Battle of Tassafaronga , the force intercepted the Japanese to stop them from supplying Guadalcanal . Undamaged in the encounter , Perkins headed for Tulagi where she bombarded the Guadalcanal coast and served on escort assignments until January 1943 . She joined Task Force 76 , an amphibious group , in March . In September 1943 , Perkins bombarded Lae , New Guinea , and supported the landings there . She took part in the successful landings at Finschhafen , New Guinea . Late in November , the ship was bound from Milne Bay to Buna , steaming independently , when Duntroon , an Australian troopship , accidentally collided with her . Perkins broke in two and quickly sank ; nine of the crew went down with her . Perkins received four battle stars for her World War II service .
= = = Smith = = =
USS Smith began her US naval service in September 1936 , and operated along the west coast of the United States for the next five years . From the start of World War II until April 1942 , she was based in San Francisco , California , attached to a destroyer squadron . In June , Smith was in Pearl Harbor , engaged in training exercises , then escorted a convoy back to San Francisco . After overhaul and sea trials in the bay area , Smith returned to Pearl Harbor in August . By October she was part of Task Force 61 , participating in the Battle of Santa Cruz . In the course of the battle , a Japanese torpedo plane crashed into her ; the explosion ignited the forward part of the ship . The crew eventually extinguished the fires , and Smith was able to retain her position in the screen . When the air cleared , 28 were dead and 23 wounded . She was patched up enough in New Caledonia to make her way to Pearl Harbor , where she was under overhaul until February 1943 . The next few months , Smith performed anti @-@ submarine patrols , did convoy duty , and participated in Navy exercises . In September and October , she was part of the amphibious landings at Lae and Finschhafen , New Guinea . In late December 1943 Smith was attached to Task Force 76 , and took part in landing the 1st Marine Division at Cape Gloucester , New Britain .
In January 1944 , Smith participated in the amphibious landing near Saidor , New Guinea , led by Barbey . In February , she bombarded designated targets in preparation for the landing at Los Negros in the Admiralty Islands . By the middle of March , Smith sailed to the west coast for overhaul . Completed in June , she returned to Pearl Harbor for training exercises and gunnery practice . Attached to the 7th Fleet in October , Smith sailed to Leyte Gulf in the Philippine Islands . There , she was positioned northeast of Ponson Island as a fighter director ship for the landing at Ormoc Bay in December 1944 . During January 1945 , Smith supported the landings in Lingayen Gulf , Philippine Islands . In late June , she bombarded Balikpapan , Borneo , in preparation for the landing by an Australian force . Smith departed the Philippines on 15 August 1945 for Buckner Bay , remaining there until steaming to Nagasaki Harbor , Kyushu , Japan , on 15 September , arriving there just 37 days after the nuclear bombing of Nagasaki on 9 August 1945 by US forces . There the ship boarded 80 US military ex @-@ prisoners of war , taking them to Okinawa for transfer to the United States . On 21 September Smith returned to Nagasaki and picked up 90 Allied prisoners of war , taking them to Bickner Bay . She arrived in Sasebo , Nagasaki , on 28 September and departed two days later for San Diego via Pearl Harbor . Docking at San Diego on 19 November , she remained there until ordered to Pearl Harbor on 28 December , arriving there on 3 January 1946 and assumed an inactive status . The ship was decommissioned on 28 June 1946 and struck from the Navy list on 25 February 1947 . Smith received six battle stars for her World War II service .
= = = Preston = = =
USS Preston was in service from October 1936 until November 1942 . Following shakedown , she served briefly under the Chief of Naval Operations , then joined the US Fleet . Preston did peacetime training exercises into the month of December 1941 , and performed patrol and escort duties along the west coast until June 1942 . After that , she screened the carrier Saratoga to Hawaii , followed by four months of patrol and escort work in Hawaiian waters .
In October she became part of Task Force 61 and participated in the Battle of Santa Cruz . In mid @-@ November 1942 , Preston sailed to the western end of Guadalcanal to intercept another run by the Japanese to bombard Henderson Field . In the ensuing skirmish , Preston was hit by a salvo from a Japanese cruiser that put both fire rooms out of commission and toppled the aft stack . Her fires made an easy target ; as they spread , the order was given to abandon ship . The ship rolled onto her side and sank , taking 116 of her crew with her . Preston received two battle stars for her World War II service .
= = = Dunlap = = =
USS Dunlap became part of the US Navy in June 1937 . A year later , she served as an escort at Philadelphia for the steamer SS Kungsholm , which carried Gustaf Adolf , the Crown Prince of Sweden . By April 1940 , Pearl Harbor was Dunlap 's homeport . When the Japanese attacked , Dunlap was at sea bound for Pearl Harbor ; she entered port the following day . In January , she sortied for air strikes on the Marshall Islands , and in February she took part in a raid on Wake Island . Afterward , Dunlap patrolled Hawaiian waters , escorted convoys between various ports on the west coast , and returned to Pearl Harbor in October 1942 . In December , the destroyer moved on to Noumea , New Caledonia , and operated from there until July 1943 . Dunlap saw action at Vella Gulf in the Solomon Islands in a nighttime torpedo clash . In United States Destroyer Operations in World War II ( 1953 ) , Theodore Roscoe wrote : " In the Battle of Vella Gulf , as this engagement was called , the enemy had not laid a hand on the American ships . "
After overhaul in San Diego , Dunlap performed patrol duty out of Adak , Alaska , in November and December 1943 and sailed to Pearl Harbor . From January until March 1944 , she screened carriers in strikes on the Marshall Islands with the 5th Fleet . After that , Dunlap took part in strikes on the Soerabaja area of Java in May and returned to Pearl Harbor in June . In July , she sailed to San Francisco to join the screen for the heavy cruiser Baltimore , which carried Roosevelt for conferences and inspections with top Pacific commanders of Pearl Harbor and Alaskan bases . In early September 1944 , Dunlap participated in the shelling of Wake Island . In October 1944 , she lent a hand in the bombardment of Marcus Island . By January 1945 , the ship was involved in the shelling of Iwo Jima , Haha @-@ jima , and Chichi @-@ jima . On 3 September 1945 , Commodore John H. Magruder accepted the surrender of the Bonin Islands by Lt. General Yoshio Tachibana on board the destroyer . Dunlap sailed to Norfolk , Virginia , in November 1945 , where she was decommissioned in December 1945 and sold in December 1947 . She received six battle stars for her World War II service .
= = = Fanning = = =
USS Fanning was occupied with sea trials and minor repairs for the first six months of her naval service . In April 1938 , she escorted the light cruiser Philadelphia from Annapolis , Maryland , to the Caribbean with Roosevelt aboard . Fanning sailed to New York for overhaul the following month ; in September she moved on to her new base in San Diego , California . Over the next three years , her duties took her to the east coast and eventually to Hawaii . The ship was at sea when the Japanese struck Pearl Harbor ; she returned the following day . Underway for Tutuila in January 1942 , Fanning encountered a blinding rainstorm and collided with Gridley . Both destroyers suffered bow damage and were forced to return to Pearl Harbor . In April 1942 Fanning became part of Task Force 16 , which supported the Doolittle Raid on the air strike against Tokyo . After the mission , she returned to Pearl Harbor .
For the first nine months of 1943 , Fanning deployed against the Japanese on Guadalcanal , supported an occupation force on the Russell Islands , participated in patrol duty , and assisted in the protection of troops occupying Munda , Solomon Islands . In September , she had an overhaul on the west coast , then finished the year operating off the Aleutian Islands . By January 1944 , Fanning was operating with Task Group 58 @.@ 4 in the Marshall Islands . In March she reported to the Eastern Fleet ( British units , reinforced with Australian , Dutch and French warships ) , participating in strikes against Sabang , Indonesia , the next month . Detached from the Eastern Fleet in May , Fanning sailed to the west coast . In July she left San Diego , escorting the heavy cruiser Baltimore to Alaska with Roosevelt on board . Her next assignment was with Task Group 30 @.@ 2 , shelling Marcus Island in October 1944 to create a diversion and destroy enemy installations . During January 1945 , Fanning took part in the shelling of Iwo Jima , Haha @-@ jima , and Chichi @-@ Jima . For the remainder of the war , she was occupied with patrol and escort activities . In September 1945 , she sailed for the United States , and was decommissioned at Norfolk , Virginia , in December 1945 ; she was sold for scrap in 1948 . Fanning received four battle stars for her World War II service .
|
= United States v. Ramsey ( 1926 ) =
United States v. Ramsey , 271 U.S. 467 ( 1926 ) , was a U.S. Supreme Court case in which the Court held that the government had the authority to prosecute crimes against Native Americans ( Indians ) on reservation land that was still designated Indian Country by federal law . The Osage Indian Tribe held mineral rights that were worth millions of dollars . A white rancher , William K. Hale , devised a plot to kill tribal members to allow his nephew , who was married to a tribal member , to inherit the mineral rights . The tribe requested the assistance of the federal government , which sent Bureau of Investigation agents to solve the murders . Hale and several others were arrested and tried for the murders , but they claimed that the federal government did not have jurisdiction . The district court quashed the indictments , but on appeal , the Supreme Court reversed , holding that the Osage lands were Indian Country and that the federal government therefore had jurisdiction . This put an end to the Osage Indian murders .
= = Background = =
= = = Federal law = = =
In 1834 , Congress passed the Indian Trade and Intercourse Act to regulate trade with the Indians and to provide the United States with criminal jurisdiction for crimes committed by or against Indians . This law provided for trial in a federal court for crimes committed by an Indian against a non @-@ Indian or vice versa . At the time of passage , federal jurisdiction over the Indian Territory was given to the U.S. court in Arkansas and , in 1851 , this was clarified as the western district court in Arkansas . In 1890 , this law was amended to create the Oklahoma Territory and to give the federal courts in western Arkansas , southern Kansas , and eastern Texas jurisdiction over the Indian Territory .
= = = Territory , statehood and allotment = = =
In 1870 , the federal government purchased the Kansas reservation from the Osage Nation . The tribe then purchased 1 @,@ 470 @,@ 559 acres of land in the Indian Territory from the Cherokee Nation . The land was not suited for farming , but had abundant game . In 1890 when Congress passed the Oklahoma Organic Act forming both the Oklahoma and Indian territories , the Osage Indian Reservation was part of the Oklahoma Territory . In 1887 , Congress passed the Dawes Act , which served to break up reservations and allot the land to tribal members . The act did not apply to the Five Civilized Tribes or other tribes in the Indian territory nor to the Osage tribe in the Oklahoma territory . In 1898 the Curtis Act applied allotment to the Five Civilized Tribes , leaving the Osage tribe as the only tribe with a reservation in Oklahoma .
Under the provisions that Congress had established , Oklahoma could not become a state until all reservations were eliminated . The Osage tribe , seeing the disastrous effects of allotment , resisted it until 1906 when they negotiated an allotment different in two major respects . First , no Osage land would be opened up for white settlement as surplus land because the tribe had purchased it , and second , mineral rights were retained by the tribe , and not in a trust status through the federal government . Even though the Osage reservation remained , this allotment was deemed sufficient and Oklahoma became a state in 1907 .
= = = Reign of terror = = =
This ownership of the land and mineral rights had another consequence . In 1896 , Edwin B. Foster signed an oil lease for the entire Osage reservation . By 1902 he was shipping 37 @,@ 000 barrels of oil and by 1906 his companies were producing over 5 million barrels annually . The Osage tribe was one of the wealthiest in the United States , but with the mineral rights transferring to the land owners in 1926 , their murder rates also became the highest in the United States . By 1925 , Osage families were earning about $ 65 @,@ 000 per year , compared to white families that were averaging $ 1 @,@ 000 . Congress also passed a law providing that an Osage Indian who was less than half blood , as determined by the Secretary of the Interior , did not have to wait to sell his or her land .
In the early 1920s , Osage Indians who owned headrights , or land where they would obtain mineral rights , began to be murdered — the first two were Charles Whitehorn and Anna Brown , both Osage Indians but killed separately . In February 1923 , Henry Roan , another Osage , was found in his car , shot once in the back of the head with a .45 caliber pistol . Less than a month later , an explosion in an Osage home killed Reta Smith , an Osage , her white husband W.E. Smith , and their white maid . Reta Smith was Brown 's sister and the daughter of Lizzie Q. Kyle ( also known as Lizzie Que ) , who had died and was thought to have been poisoned . Roan was Reta Smith 's cousin . Que had three headrights and both daughters had a full headright and a fractional headright , worth a considerable amount of money . These would be inherited by a third daughter , Molly Burkhart , who was married to a white man , Ernie Burkhart . Ernie Burkhart was the nephew of a wealthy Texas rancher , William K. Hale , who had moved to the Osage area .
= = = Federal investigation = = =
Following these deaths and several others , the Osage Tribal Council requested federal assistance since local authorities were apparently making no effort to solve the crimes . The U.S. Bureau of Investigation ( BOI ) , which later became the Federal Bureau of Investigation ( FBI ) , was assigned to conduct the investigation . The BOI responded by sending in undercover agents disguised as cattle buyers and cowhands and , through their investigation , determined that the murders had been planned and executed at the direction of Hale . Hale was implicated in the murder of Brown when Kelsie Morrison confessed in court . The BOI also discovered that Hale held a $ 25 @,@ 000 insurance policy on Roan and noted that his nephew 's wife had inherited all of the Kyle headrights . Hale and John Ramsey were charged in federal court with the murder of Roan ; Ernie Burkhart was charged in state court with arranging the Smith bombing .
= = = The trials = = =
Ernie Burkhart was tried first . Two weeks into the trial , realizing that he could not win , he changed his plea to guilty and became a witness for the state in exchange for a life sentence . Burkhart testified that Hale was behind the scheme , that Asa " Ace " Kirby was the bomber , and that Henry Grammer was the go @-@ between .
Hale and Ramsey were transferred to Guthrie , Oklahoma in 1926 , where they stood trial in state court for the murder of Roan . The trial resulted in a hung jury and a mistrial . The United States Attorney then transferred the case to Oklahoma City and indicted Hale and Ramsey for murder on federal land for the death of Roan . On being indicted , both demurrered on the grounds that the federal government did not have jurisdiction . The U.S. District Court sustained the defendants ' motion and the government made a direct appeal to the U.S. Supreme Court .
= = Opinion of the court = =
Justice George Sutherland delivered the opinion of the court . He noted that the indictment was drawn under Revised Statute § 2145 , which provides for federal jurisdiction of crimes committed in " Indian Country " . This section was no longer applicable to general crimes in Oklahoma after statehood . Crimes committed by or against Indians could still be prosecuted under § 2145 if the crime occurred in Indian Country . The question before the court was whether allotted land , with a restriction on sale by the Indian it was allotted to , was still Indian Country . Since the government controlled whether the land could be sold or otherwise alienated , it was no different from land held in trust and was therefore still Indian Country . The judgment of the district court was in error and was reversed .
= = Subsequent developments = =
= = = Trial in U.S. District Court = = =
Following the decision of the Supreme Court , Hale , Burkhart , and Ramsey were tried in federal court . Ernie Burkhart testified that Hale hired Ramsey to kill Roan . Burkhart also testified to Hale 's involvement in the Smith bombing , while Hale testified that he was in Fort Worth , Texas at the time of the killings . All three defendants were convicted and sentenced to life in prison ; within days , both Hale and Ramsey appealed .
= = = Appeal = = =
Hale 's appeal was heard first in 1928 . It was based on improper procedure in admitting Burkhart 's testimony as to the Smith bombing and again on the contention that the federal government did not have jurisdiction to try the case . The Eighth Circuit Court denied the plea to the jurisdiction , noting that the Supreme Court had ruled on that very issue earlier in the case . The court did find that the testimony as to the Smith bombing was not relevant to the Roan murder , was prejudicial against Hale , and required that the case be remanded for retrial . Ramsey 's appeal was likewise successful on the same grounds in 1929 .
= = = Retrial = = =
In 1929 , both Hale and Ramsey were retried for the murder . Ramsey testified in court and explained how Hale hired him to kill Roan , but later changed his story to claim another person killed Roan . Hale again testified that he had nothing to do with the crime . Both were convicted and again sentenced to 99 years in prison .
= = = Aftermath = = =
Hale entered the Fort Leavenworth Federal Prison on May 30 , 1929 , and , over the protests of the Osage tribe , was paroled on July 31 , 1947 . Ramsey was paroled four months later . Burkhart was released in October 1959 . Morrison was sentenced to life in prison in 1926 for Brown 's murder . In 1965 , Governor Henry Bellmon granted Burkhart a full pardon .
|
= Effects of Hurricane Katrina in New Orleans =
As the center of Hurricane Katrina passed southeast of New Orleans on August 29 , 2005 , winds downtown were in the Category 1 range with frequent intense gusts and tidal surge . Hurricane @-@ force winds were experienced throughout the city , although the most severe portion of Katrina missed the city , hitting nearby St. Bernard and Plaquemines parishes . Hurricane Katrina made its final landfall in eastern St. Tammany Parish . The western eye wall passed directly over St. Tammany Parish , Louisiana as a Category 3 hurricane at about 9 : 45 am CST , August 29 , 2005 . The communities of Slidell , Avery Estates , Lakeshore Estates , Oak Harbor , Eden Isles and Northshore Beach were inundated by the storm surge that extended over six miles inland . The storm surge affected all 57 miles ( 92 km ) of St. Tammany Parish ’ s coastline , including Lacombe , Mandeville and Madisonville . The storm surge in the area of the Rigolets Pass was estimated to be 16 feet , not including wave action , declining to 7 feet ( 2 @.@ 1 m ) at Madisonville . The surge had a second peak in eastern St. Tammany as the westerly winds from the southern eye wall pushed the surge to the east , backing up at the bottleneck of the Rigolets Pass .
In the City of New Orleans , the storm surge caused approximately 23 breaches in drainage canal and navigational canal levees and floodwalls . The failures of structures are considered by experts to be the worst engineering disaster in the history of the United States . By August 31 , 2005 , 80 % of New Orleans was flooded , with some parts under 15 feet ( 4 @.@ 6 m ) of water . The famous French Quarter and Garden District escaped flooding because those areas are above sea level . Responsibility for the performance of the city 's levees belongs to the United States Army Corps of Engineers . The major breaches included the 17th Street Canal levee , the Industrial Canal levee , and the London Avenue Canal floodwall . These breaches caused the majority of the flooding , according to a June 2007 report by the American Society of Civil Engineers.The flood disaster halted oil production and refining which increased oil prices worldwide .
Between 80 and 90 percent of the residents of New Orleans were evacuated before the hurricane struck , testifying to some of the success of the evacuation measures . Despite this , many remained in the city , mainly those who did not have access to personal vehicles or who were isolated from the dissemination of news from the local governments . The Louisiana Superdome was used to house and support some of those who were unable to evacuate . Television shots frequently focused on the Superdome as a symbol of the flooding occurring in New Orleans .
The disaster had major implications for a large segment of the population , economy , and politics of the entire United States . It has prompted a Congressional review of the Army Corps of Engineers and the failure of portions of the federally built flood protection system which experts agree should have protected the city 's inhabitants from Katrina 's surge . Katrina has also stimulated significant research in the academic community into urban planning , real estate finance , and economic issues in the wake of a natural disaster .
= = Background = =
New Orleans was settled on a natural high ground along the Mississippi River . Later developments that eventually extended to nearby Lake Pontchartrain were built on fill to bring them above the average lake level . Navigable commercial waterways extended from the lake into the interior of the city to promote waterborne commerce . After the construction of the Inner Harbor Navigation Canal in 1940 , the state closed these waterways causing the town 's water table to lower drastically .
In 1965 , heavy flooding caused by Hurricane Betsy brought concerns regarding flooding from hurricanes to the forefront . That year Congress passed the Flood Control Act of 1965 which , among other issues , gave authority for design and construction of the flood protection in the New Orleans metropolitan area to the United States Army Corps of Engineers subject to cost sharing principles , some of which were waived by later legislation . The local municipalities were charged with maintenance once the projects were completed . After 1965 , the corps built a levee system around a much larger geographic footprint that included previous marshland and swamp . Many new subdivisions were developed to cater to those who preferred a more suburban lifestyle but were open to remaining within the city limits of New Orleans . Historians question why the area farthest east was developed , since it was viable wetlands and because ringing this region with levees did nothing significant toward protecting the city . What expansion accomplished was to increase the amount of land that could be developed , and it was a reason for the Army Corps to expand the size of its project . In addition the structures caused subsidence of up to 8 feet ( 2 @.@ 4 m ) in some areas due to the consolidation of the underlying organic soils .
A 1999 – 2001 study Richard Camapanella , Tulane School of Architecture , using LIDAR technology found that 51 % of the terrestrial surface of the contiguous urbanized portions of Orleans , Jefferson , and St. Bernard parishes lie at or above sea level , with the highest neighborhoods at 10 – 12 feet ( 3 @.@ 0 – 3 @.@ 7 m ) above mean sea level . Forty nine percent lies below sea level , in places to equivalent depths .
When authorized , the flood control design and construction were projected to take 13 years to complete . When Katrina made landfall in 2005 , the project was between 60 – 90 % complete with a projected date of completion estimated for 2015 , nearly 50 years after authorization . Moreover , another major hurricane flooding had long been predicted , and while the close call of Hurricane Georges in September 1998 galvanized some scientists , engineers and politicians into collective planning , as at October 2001 , Scientific American declared that " New Orleans is a disaster waiting to happen " . However , even the most insistent calls to evacuate before Katrina , did not warn that the levees could breach .
On August 29 , 2005 , flood walls and levees catastrophically failed throughout the metro area . Many collapsed well below design thresholds ( 17th Street and London Canals ) . Others collapsed after a brief period of overtopping ( Industrial Canal ) caused “ scouring ” or erosion of the earthen levee walls . In eastern New Orleans , levees along the Gulf Intracoastal Waterway failed in several places because they were built with sand and erodible materials instead of clay , an obvious construction flaw .
= = Pre @-@ Katrina preparations = =
The eye of Hurricane Katrina was forecast to pass through the city of New Orleans . In that event , the wind was predicted to come from the north as the storm passed , forcing large volumes of water from Lake Pontchartrain against the levees and possibly into the city . It was also forecast that the storm surge in Lake Pontchartrain would reach 14 – 18 feet ( 4 @.@ 3 – 5 @.@ 5 m ) , with waves reaching 7 feet ( 2 m ) above the storm surge .
On August 28 , at 10 : 00 a.m. CDT , the National Weather Service ( NWS ) field office in New Orleans issued a bulletin predicting catastrophic damage to New Orleans and the surrounding region . Anticipated effects included , at the very least , the partial destruction of half of the well @-@ constructed houses in the city , severe damage to most industrial buildings , rendering them inoperable , the " total destruction " of all wood @-@ framed low @-@ rise apartment buildings , all windows blowing out in high @-@ rise office buildings , and the creation of a huge debris field of trees , telephone poles , cars , and collapsed buildings . Lack of clean water was predicted to " make human suffering incredible by modern standards . "
It was also predicted that the standing water caused by the storm surge would render most of the city uninhabitable for weeks and that the destruction of oil and petrochemical refineries in the surrounding area would spill waste into the flooding . The resulting mess would coat every surface , converting the city into a toxic marsh until water could be drained . Some experts said that it could take six months or longer to pump all the water out of the city .
= = = Evacuation order = = =
On Saturday night , Max Mayfield , director of the National Hurricane Center , did something he had done only once before . He called the governors of Alabama , Louisiana , and Mississippi to warn them of the severity of the coming storm . He issued a special warning to Mayor Ray Nagin , telling him that some levees in the greater New Orleans area could be overtopped . Later , Mr. Mayfield would tell Brian Williams with NBC Nightly News that he went to bed that night believing he had done what he could . On Sunday , he made a video call to U.S. President George W. Bush at his farm in Crawford , Texas about the severity of the storm .
Many New Orleans residents took precautions to secure their homes and prepare for possible evacuation on Friday the 26th and Saturday the 27th . On August 27 the state of Louisiana was declared an emergency area by the Federal Government , and by mid morning of that day , many local gas stations which were not yet out of gas had long lines . Nagin first called for a voluntary evacuation of the city at 5 : 00 p.m. on August 27 and subsequently ordered a citywide mandatory evacuation at 9 : 30 a.m. on August 28 , the first such order in the city 's history . In a live news conference , Mayor Nagin predicted that , " the storm surge most likely will topple our levee system " , and warned that oil production in the Gulf of Mexico would be shut down .
Many neighboring areas and parishes also called for evacuations . By mid @-@ afternoon , officials in Plaquemines , St. Bernard , St. Charles , Lafourche , Terrebonne , Jefferson , St. Tammany , and Washington parishes had called for voluntary or mandatory evacuations . "
Although Mayor Ray Nagin ordered a mandatory evacuation of the city , many people refused to leave or were unable to do so . In Plaquemines Parish , an official described those remaining behind as " gambling with their own lives . " Reasons were numerous , including a belief that their homes or the buildings in which they planned to stay offered sufficient protection , lack of financial resources or access to transportation , or a feeling of obligation to protect their property . These reasons were complicated by the fact that an evacuation the previous year for Hurricane Ivan had resulted in gridlocked traffic for six to ten hours . The fact that Katrina occurred at the end of the month , before pay checks were in the hands of many was also significant . A " refuge of last resort " was designated at the Louisiana Superdome . Beginning at noon on August 28 and running for several hours , city buses were redeployed to shuttle local residents from 12 pickup points throughout the city to the " shelters of last resort . "
By the time Hurricane Katrina came ashore early the next morning , Mayor Nagin estimated that approximately one million people had fled the city and its surrounding suburbs . By the evening of August 28 , over 100 @,@ 000 people remained in the city , with 20 @,@ 000 taking shelter at the Louisiana Superdome , along with 300 National Guard troops . The Superdome had been used as a shelter in the past , such as during 1998 's Hurricane Georges , because it was estimated to be able to withstand winds of up to 200 miles per hour ( 320 km / h ) and water levels of 35 feet ( 11 m ) . While supplies of MREs ( Meals ready to eat ) and bottled water were available at the Superdome , Nagin told survivors to bring blankets and enough food for several days , warning that it would be a very uncomfortable place .
= = Direct Effects = =
Hurricane Katrina made its second and third landfalls in the Gulf Coast region on August 29 , 2005 as a Category 3 hurricane .
On Monday August 29 area affiliates of local television station WDSU reported New Orleans was experiencing widespread flooding due to several Army Corps @-@ built levee breaches , was without power , and that there were several instances of catastrophic damage in residential and business areas . Entire neighborhoods on the south shore of Lake Pontchartrain were flooded .
The extensive flooding stranded many residents , who remained so long after Hurricane Katrina had passed . Stranded survivors dotted the tops of houses citywide . Some were trapped inside attics , unable to escape . Many people chopped their way onto their roofs with hatchets and sledge hammers , which Mayor Nagin had residents urged to store in their attics in case of such events . Clean water was unavailable , and power outages were expected to last for weeks .
By 11 : 00 p.m. August 29 , Mayor Nagin described the loss of life as " significant " with reports of bodies floating on the water throughout the city , though primarily in the eastern portions . Some hotels and hospitals reported diesel fuel shortages . The National Guard began setting up temporary morgues in select locations .
= = = Communications failures = = =
Coordination of rescue efforts August 29 and August 30 were made difficult by disruption of the communications infrastructure . Many telephones , including most cell phones , and Internet access were not working because of line breaks , destruction of base stations , or power failures , even though some base stations had their own back @-@ up generators . In a number of cases , reporters were asked to brief public officials on the conditions in areas where information was not reaching them any other way .
All local television stations were disrupted . Local television stations , and newspapers , moved quickly to sister locations in nearby cities . New Orleans CBS @-@ affiliate WWL @-@ TV was the only local station to remain on the air during and after the storm , broadcasting from Baton Rouge . Broadcasting and publishing on the Internet became an important means of distributing information to evacuees and the rest of the world , with news networks citing blogs like Interdictor and Gulfsails for reports of what was happening in the city . Amateur radio provided tactical and emergency communications and handled health @-@ and @-@ welfare enquiries . By September 4 , a temporary communications hub was set up at the Hyatt Hotel in downtown New Orleans .
The first television pictures out of New Orleans shown on national TV were from Houston 's ABC owned and operated KTRK which flew its helicopter to New Orleans in the days after the storm .
= = = Damage to buildings and roads = = =
Most of the city 's major roads were damaged . The only route out of the city was east to the east bank of New Orleans on the Crescent City Connection bridge . The I @-@ 10 Twin Span Bridge traveling east towards Slidell , suffered severe damage ; 473 spans were separated from their supports and 64 spans dropped into the lake . The 24 @-@ mile ( 39 km ) long Lake Pontchartrain Causeway escaped unscathed but was only carrying emergency traffic . On August 29 , at 7 : 40 a.m. CDT , it was reported that most of the windows on the north side of the Hyatt Regency New Orleans had been blown out , and many other high rise buildings had extensive window damage . The Hyatt was the most severely damaged hotel in the city , with beds reported to be flying out of the windows . Insulation tubes were exposed as the hotel 's glass exterior was completely sheared off .
Louis Armstrong New Orleans International Airport was closed before the storm but reported no flooding in airplane movement areas or inside of the building itself . By August 30 , it was reopened to humanitarian and rescue operations . Commercial cargo flights resumed on September 10 , and commercial passenger service resumed on September 13 .
The Superdome sustained significant damage , including two sections of the roof when waterproof membrane had essentially been peeled off by wind . On August 30 , Louisiana governor Kathleen Blanco ordered the complete evacuation of the remaining people that sought shelter in the Superdome . They were then transported to the Astrodome in Houston , Texas .
= = = Levee failures = = =
As of mid @-@ day Monday , August 29 , the eye of Hurricane Katrina passed east of the City subjecting it to hurricane wind conditions , but sparing New Orleans the worst impact . The City seemed to have escaped most of the catastrophic wind damage and heavy rain that had been predicted . Most buildings came through well structurally .
However , the city 's levee and flood walls designed and built by the US Army Corps of Engineers breached in over fifty locations . Storm surge breached the levees of the Mississippi River @-@ Gulf Outlet Canal ( " MR @-@ GO " ) in approximately 20 places and flooded all of Saint Bernard Parish , the east bank of Plaquemines Parish and the historic Lower Ninth Ward . The major levee breaches in the city included breaches at the 17th Street Canal levee , the London Avenue Canal , and the wide , navigable Inner Harbor Navigation Canal , which left approximately 80 % of New Orleans flooded . There were three major breaches at the Industrial Canal ; one on the upper side near the junction with MR @-@ GO , and two on the lower side along the Lower Ninth Ward , between Florida Avenue and Claiborne Avenue . The 17th Street Canal levee was breached on the lower ( New Orleans West End ) side inland from the Old Hammond Highway Bridge , and the London Avenue Canal breached in two places , on the upper side just back from Robert E. Lee Boulevard , and on the lower side a block in from the Mirabeau Avenue Bridge . Flooding from the breaches put the majority of the city under water for days , in many places for weeks . Many roads and buildings were damaged by Hurricane Katrina .
In a June 2006 report on the disaster , the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers admitted that faulty design specifications , incomplete sections , and substandard construction of levee segments , contributed to the damage done to New Orleans by Hurricane Katrina . A report released by the American Society of Civil Engineers in June 2007 concluded that two @-@ thirds of the flooding in the city could have been avoided if the levees had held .
The failure of the Hurricane Protection Project of New Orleans has prompted many government officials to call for many congressional committee hearings and investigations . The group Levees.org led by Sandy Rosenthal called for 8 / 29 Commission to investigate both the engineering and decision @-@ making behind the collapse of a flood protection system that should have held against Katrina 's storm surge .
= = = Loss of life = = =
Final reports indicate that the official death toll , according to the Louisiana Department of Health , was 1 @,@ 464 people . The first deaths were reported shortly before midnight on August 28 , 2005 , as three nursing home patients died during an evacuation to Baton Rouge . On September 4 , Mayor Nagin speculated that the death toll could rise as high as ten thousand after the clean @-@ up was completed . Some survivors and evacuees reported seeing bodies lying in city streets and floating in still @-@ flooded sections , especially in the east of the city . The advanced state of decomposition of many corpses , some of which were left in the water or sun for days before being collected , hindered efforts by coroners to identify many of the dead .
There were six deaths confirmed at the Superdome . Four of these were from natural causes , one was the result of a drug overdose , and one was a suicide . At the Convention Center , four bodies were recovered . One of these four is believed to be the result of a homicide . Body collection throughout the city began on approximately September 9 . Prior to that date , the locations of corpses were recorded , but most were not retrieved .
Later studies determined that most of New Orleans ' Katrina dead were elderly persons living near levee breaches in the Lower Ninth Ward and Lakeview neighborhoods of New Orleans .
= = Aftermath = =
= = = Civil disturbances = = =
The aftermath of Hurricane Katrina was characterized by extensive reporting of looting , violence , shooting against rescuers , murder and rape . While some criminal acts did occur , such as the emptying of an entire Walmart , many reports were also exaggerated , inflated , or simply fabricated . Several news organizations went on to issue retractions .
There were reports of snipers taking potshots at rescue helicopters ; these were false . Reports of gangs roving the city shooting police officers and survivors were also false , as only one policeman was shot in the aftermath of Katrina and no indictments were brought forward against the supposed gang members .
While looting was indeed widespread , many reported instances of " looting " were in fact stranded survivors scavenging necessary supplies such as food , water , clothing , and shelter . Some instances of looting were later found out to have been carried out by a small number of NOPD officers .
Rebecca Solnit , writing in The Nation , reported that “ Several weeks after Hurricane Katrina , community organizer and former Black Panther Malik Rahim had told Amy Goodman on her nationally syndicated program DemocracyNow ! , " During the aftermath , directly after the flooding , in New Orleans hunting season began on young African American men . In Algiers , I believe , approximately around 18 African American males were killed . No one really know [ s ] what 's the overall count . " ”
These investigations led to at least one indictment by the Department of Justice .
Civil disturbances in post @-@ Hurricane Katrina were consistent with all existing research on disaster sociology , which concludes that “ [ post @-@ disaster ] widespread looting [ is ] a myth ” , and were vastly overstated by the media , ultimately fueling a climate of suspicion and paranoia which greatly hampered rescue efforts and further worsened the conditions of the survivors .
Some initial reports of mass chaos , particularly in stories about the Superdome , were later found to be exaggerated or rumor . In the Superdome for example , the New Orleans sex crimes unit investigated every report of rape or atrocity and found only two verifiable incidents , both of sexual assault . The department head told reporters , " I think it was urban myth . Any time you put 25 @,@ 000 people under one roof , with no running water , no electricity and no information , stories get told . " Based on these reports , government officials expected hundreds of dead to be found in the Superdome , but instead found only 6 dead ( of which there were 4 natural deaths , one drug overdose and one suicide ) . In a case of reported sniper fire , the " sniper " turned out to be the relief valve of a gas tank popping every few minutes .
Additional acts of unrest occurred following the storm , particularly with the New Orleans Police Department . In the aftermath , a tourist asked a police officer for assistance , and got the response , " Go to hell , it 's every man for himself . " Also , one @-@ third of New Orleans police officers deserted the city in the days before the storm , many of them escaping in their department @-@ owned patrol cars . This added to the chaos by stretching law enforcement thin . Additionally , several NOPD officers were arrested weeks after Katrina for suspicion of vehicle theft .
= = = Gretna controversy = = =
The City of Gretna on the West Bank of the Mississippi River received considerable press coverage when , in the aftermath of Hurricane Katrina ( late August 2005 ) , displaced and dehydrated survivors who attempted to escape from New Orleans by walking over the Crescent City Connection bridge over the Mississippi River were turned back at gunpoint by City of Gretna Police , along with Crescent City Connection Police and Jefferson Parish Sheriff 's deputies , who set up a roadblock on the bridge in the days following the hurricane .
= = = Re @-@ establishing governance = = =
On August 31 , New Orleans 's 1 @,@ 500 @-@ member police force was ordered to abandon search and rescue missions and turn its attention toward controlling the widespread looting . The city also ordered a mandatory curfew . Mayor Nagin called for increased federal assistance in a " desperate S.O.S. " , following the city 's inability to control looting . He was often misquoted as declaring " martial law " in the city , despite there being no such term in Louisiana state law ( a declaration of a state of emergency was instead made ) . On the same day , Governor Kathleen Blanco announced the arrival of a military presence , stating that " they have M @-@ 16s and are locked and loaded . These troops know how to shoot and kill and I expect they will . " Despite the increased law enforcement presence , crime continued to be a problem .
Relief efforts were constantly disrupted by violence , and there were reports of groups of armed men running rampant through the streets , looting and pillaging unattended buildings and stores . Charity Hospital , one of several facilities attempting to evacuate patients , was forced to halt the effort after coming under gunfire . By September 1 , 6 @,@ 500 National Guard troops had arrived in New Orleans , and on September 2 Blanco requested a total of 40 @,@ 000 for assistance in evacuation and security efforts in Louisiana . In addition , the Louisiana State Guard and state defense forces from several states were activated to aid the National Guard in sheltering the large number of refugees leaving Louisiana and assist in other disaster recovery operations .
Some concern over the availability and readiness of the Louisiana National Guard to help stabilize the security situation was raised . Guardsman Lieutenant Colonel Pete had commented that " dozens of high water vehicles , humvees , refuelers , and generators were abroad . " At the time of the hurricane , approximately 3 @,@ 000 members of the Guard were serving a tour of duty in Iraq . With total personnel strength of 11 @,@ 000 , this meant that 27 % of the Louisiana National Guard was abroad . However , both the White House and the Pentagon argued that the depletion of personnel and equipment did not impact the ability of the Guard to perform its mission — rather , impassable roads and flooded areas were the major factors impeding the Guardsmen from securing the situation in New Orleans .
Before Hurricane Katrina , the murder rate in New Orleans was ten times higher than the U.S. average . After the situation in New Orleans was brought under control , criminal activity in New Orleans dropped significantly .
In response to the increase in criminal activity in New Orleans , makeshift prisons were constructed to house prisoners for short periods of time . Camp Greyhound was a temporary prison that housed more than 200 suspected looters in New Orleans until they could be transferred to other institutions . With room for 700 prisoners , the facility was guarded by officers from one of the United States ' toughest prisons , the Louisiana State Penitentiary at Angola . The station 's bus terminals were converted into chain @-@ link prison cells that could hold up to fifteen prisoners each . These prisoners were kept in conditions that included a portable toilet and military issued meals , but excluded a mattress or cot .
This camp demonstrated the reaction time and resourcefulness of the law enforcement of Louisiana . Several prisons were uninhabitable due to flooding , and the officers were forced to be flexible and work with the tools available to them . Law enforcement constructed the necessary offices of a police station in the general areas of the bus station , which included the offices of the District Attorney and the Justice Department . Camp Greyhound did have several issues with police records due to flooding , and prisoners who had committed minor infractions were kept in the same areas as those with more serious allegations . The facility was run on backup generators and outdated fingerprinting methods were used , which added to the confusion of the facility .
= = = The Superdome = = =
As one of the largest structures in the city , evacuees were brought to the Superdome to wait out the storm or to await further evacuation . Many others made their way to the Superdome on their own , hoping to find food , water , shelter , or transport out of town . On August 29 , Katrina passed over New Orleans with such force that it ripped two holes in the Superdome roof . On the evening of August 30 , Maj. Gen. Bennett C. Landreneau , of the Louisiana National Guard , said that the number of people taking shelter in the Superdome had risen to around 15 @,@ 000 to 20 @,@ 000 as search and rescue teams brought more people to the Superdome from areas hard @-@ hit by the flooding . As conditions worsened and flood waters continued to rise , on August 31 , Governor Blanco ordered that all of New Orleans , including the Superdome , be evacuated . The area outside the Superdome was flooded to a depth of 3 feet ( 0 @.@ 91 m ) , with a possibility of 7 feet ( 2 @.@ 1 m ) if the area equalized with Lake Pontchartrain . Governor Blanco had the state send in 68 school buses on Monday to begin evacuating people .
Despite increasingly squalid conditions , the population inside continued to grow . The situation inside the building was described as chaotic ; reports of rampant drug use , fights , rape , and filthy living conditions were widespread . At the time , as many as 100 were reported to have died in the Superdome , with most deaths resulting from heat exhaustion , but other reported incidents included an accused rapist who was beaten to death by a crowd and an apparent suicide . Despite these reports , though , the final official death toll was significantly less : six people inside ( 4 of natural causes , one overdose , and an apparent suicide ) and a few more in the general area outside the stadium .
FEMA had announced that , in conjunction with Greyhound , the National Guard , and Houston Metro , the 25 @,@ 000 people at the Superdome would be relocated across state lines to the Houston Astrodome . Roughly 475 buses were promised by FEMA to ferry evacuees with the entire evacuation expected to take two days . By September 4 , the Superdome had been completely evacuated .
Although the Superdome suffered damage by water and wind to the overall interior and exterior structures , as well as interior damage from human waste and trash , the facility was repaired at a cost of US $ 140 million and was ready for games by the autumn of 2006 .
= = = New Orleans Convention Center = = =
Because of Hurricane Katrina , the Ernest N. Morial Convention Center suffered a loss of water pressure and electricity , and one of its convention halls had a large hole in its ceiling . The center was otherwise only lightly damaged .
On August 29 , as people were being turned away at the Superdome and rescues continued , rescuers began dropping people off at the Convention Center , which , at 8 feet ( 2 m ) above sea level , easily escaped the flood . Captain M.A. Pfeiffer of the NOPD was quoted as saying , " It was supposed to be a bus stop where they dropped people off for transportation . The problem was , the transportation never came . " By the afternoon of the 29th , the crowd had grown to about 1 @,@ 000 people . The convention center 's president ( who was there with a small group of convention center employees at this time ) addressed the crowd near dark , informing them that there was no food , water , medical care , or other services . By late on the evening of the 29th , the convention center had been broken into , and evacuees began occupying the inside of the convention center .
A contingent of 250 National Guard engineering units occupied one part of the convention center beginning August 30 and remained there until September 1 , at times barricaded in their location . The units were never given orders to control the crowd , and were not expected to be prepared for such a task , as engineering units . The number of people at the convention center continued to grow over the next three days by some estimates to as many as 20 @,@ 000 people . Reasons for arriving included being sent to the convention center from the overwhelmed Superdome , being dropped off there by rescuers , or hearing about the convention center as a shelter via word of mouth . No checking for weapons was done among the crowd as was done at the Superdome , and a large store of alcohol kept at the Convention Center was looted . Reports of robberies , murder , and rape began to surface . In general , those who died , regardless of cause of death , were not moved or removed and were left to decompose .
By September 1 , the facility , like the Superdome , was completely overwhelmed and declared unsafe and unsanitary . However , even though there were thousands of people who were evacuating at the center , along with network newscasters , pleading desperately for help on CNN , FOX , and other broadcast outlets , FEMA head Michael Brown and Homeland Security Secretary Michael Chertoff both claimed to have no knowledge of the use of the Convention Center as a shelter until the afternoon of September 1 .
A sizable contingent of National Guard arrived on September 2 to establish order and provide essential provisions , and on September 3 , buses began arriving at the convention center to pick up the refugees there . The Convention Center was completely evacuated by September 4 .
= = = Evacuation efforts = = =
On August 31 , a public health emergency was declared for the entire Gulf Coast , and Louisiana Governor Kathleen Blanco ordered a mandatory evacuation of all those remaining in New Orleans . Relief organizations scrambled to locate suitable areas for relocating evacuees on a large scale . Many of the survivors in the Superdome were bussed to the Reliant Astrodome in Houston , Texas . Houston agreed to shelter an additional 25 @,@ 000 evacuees beyond those admitted to the Astrodome , including one " renegade bus " that was commandeered by private citizen Jabbar Gibson , who had been released on bond from the Orleans Parish Prison just days before the storm hit , and had a previous criminal conviction . By September 1 , the Astrodome was declared full and could not accept any more evacuees . The George R. Brown Convention Center nearby was opened to house additional evacuees . San Antonio , Texas also agreed to house 25 @,@ 000 refugees , beginning relocation efforts in vacant office buildings on the grounds of KellyUSA , a former air force base , and Reunion Arena in Dallas , Texas was mobilized to house incoming evacuees , and smaller shelters were established in towns across Texas and Oklahoma . Arkansas also opened various shelters and state parks throughout the state for evacuees .
Expected to last only two days , the evacuation of remaining evacuees proved more difficult than rescue organizations anticipated as transportation convoys struggled with damaged infrastructure and a growing number of evacuees . By the morning of September 1 , Governor Blanco reported that the number of evacuees in the Superdome was down to 2 @,@ 500 . However , by evening , eleven hours after evacuation efforts began , the Superdome held 10 @,@ 000 more people than it did at dawn . Evacuees from across the city swelled the crowd to about 30 @,@ 000 , believing the arena was the best place to get a ride out of town .
Evacuation efforts were hastened on September 2 by the wider dispersal of evacuees among newly opened shelters . Louis Armstrong International Airport was reopened to allow flights related to relief efforts , and began to load evacuees onto planes as well .
Elements of the 82nd Airborne Division arrived in New Orleans September 3 . The flooding was a challenge for the paratroopers when they first arrived . The division had just four boats at the time , however , the division quickly started getting Coast Guard , Navy and Marine assets placed under their control . Army Maj. Gen. William B. Caldwell IV , the 82nd 's commanding general , noted : " We eventually became the 82nd ' Waterborne ' Division , " the general said , " and that really was our forte " during search @-@ and @-@ rescue and security missions in flooded sections of the city .
Task Force Katrina Commander Army Lt. Gen. Russel Honore also charged the paratroopers to straighten out the evacuation situations at Louis Armstrong New Orleans International Airport , the New Orleans Convention Center and the Superdome . In all , 3 @,@ 600 of the division 's paratroopers were deployed to New Orleans to participate in Task Force All @-@ American . The unit worked in tandem with state , local and other federal authorities to feed , process and transport evacuees to other accommodations ; the division 's soldiers helped evacuate 6 @,@ 000 New Orleans residents . By September 18 , the 82nd Division medical personnel had treated 1 @,@ 352 people and given 2 @,@ 047 immunizations , according to unit documents . By September 19 , 82nd Division military engineers had cleared 185 city blocks of debris , cleared 113 streets , and removed 218 trees , according to unit documents .
On September 3 , some 42 @,@ 000 evacuees were evacuated from New Orleans , including those remaining in the Superdome and Convention Center . Efforts turned to the hundreds of people still trapped in area hotels , hospitals , schools and private homes .
On September 6 , Mayor Ray Nagin ordered a forced evacuation of everyone from the city who was not involved in clean up work , citing safety and health concerns . The order was given not only as an attempt to restore law and order , but also out of concern about the hazardous living conditions in the city . Eviction efforts escalated three days later , when door @-@ to @-@ door searches were conducted to advise remaining residents to leave the city . Despite this , a number of residents defied the eviction order . While initially lax in enforcing evictions , National Guard troops eventually began to remove residents by force .
= = = Health effects = = =
There was a concern that the prolonged flooding would lead to an outbreak of health problems for those who remained in the city . In addition to dehydration and food poisoning , there was also potential for the spread of hepatitis A , cholera , tuberculosis , and typhoid fever , all related to the growing contamination of food and drinking water supplies in the city compounded by the city 's characteristic heat and stifling humidity . Survivors could also face long @-@ term health risks due to prolonged exposure to the petrochemical tainted flood waters and mosquito @-@ borne diseases such as yellow fever , malaria and West Nile Virus .
On September 2 , an emergency triage center was set up at the airport . A steady stream of helicopters and ambulances brought in the elderly , sick , and injured . Baggage equipment was used as gurneys to transport people from the flight line to the hospital , which was set up in the airport terminal . The scene could be described as , " organized chaos " , but efficient . By September 3 , the situation started to stabilize . Up to 5 @,@ 000 people had been triaged and fewer than 200 remained at the medical unit .
Hospital evacuations continued from other area hospitals that were flooded or damaged . Reports from the Methodist Hospital indicated that people were dying of dehydration and exhaustion while the staff worked unendingly in horrendous conditions . The first floor of the hospital flooded and the dead were stacked in a second floor operating room . Patients requiring ventilators were kept alive with hand @-@ powered resuscitation bags .
Among the many hospitals shut down by damage related to the hurricane was the public hospital serving New Orleans , Charity Hospital , which was also the only trauma center serving that region . The destruction of the hospital 's structure has forced the continued closure as funding for a new building is sought out .
On September 6 , E. coli was detected in the water supply . According to the CDC , five people died from bacterial infections caused by the toxic waters . The deaths appear to have been caused by Vibrio vulnificus bacteria , of the Cholera family .
= = = Economy = = =
Before Katrina ’ s landfall in 2005 , the economy of New Orleans relied heavily on its usefulness and income derived from being a port city . The population grew and the economy peaked in the late 19th century . However , in the recent years , after rapid industrialization and the development of faster methods of transporting goods , the economy of New Orleans has been in a steady decline . As a result , New Orleans came to rely on three major industries for economic revenue : transportation , entertainment , and public services . However , after Katrina ’ s landfall , these sectors , including the overall economy , were reduced and heavily affected by the natural disaster .
After the hurricane , the labor force diminished and wages decreased by staggering amounts . In July 2005 , 9 @,@ 592 people applied for unemployment services and the payroll of metropolitan firms declined by 13 @.@ 6 % between July 2005 and July 2007 , indicating an estimated loss of 70 @,@ 000 jobs . The sectors most affected were service @-@ related industries , fluctuating with the population . The only sector to truly thrive after landfall was construction , which was in high demand to make needed repairs and rebuild destroyed homes .
In the first initial months following Katrina , the labor force reduced faster than the demand and unemployment rates skyrocketed . However , as of September 2006 , the unemployment rates have never fallen below national average , indicating improvement . In the second quarters of both 2005 and 2007 , the firms ' wages were increased by 21 % , twice more than national increases , indicating even further improvement , although the gains were varied across the sectors .
There have been some suggestions concerning the usage of natural capital to further aid New Orleans ’ s economy . One such is that , as opposed to rebuilding on flooded lands , restoring acres of wetlands to profit from the economic wealth . The Mississippi delta provides the United States with one of the largest fisheries and the most important flyway terminus , enabling New Orleans to profit from these ecological industries . Furthermore , by increasing the wetlands , it would help create a natural barrier that could aid New Orleans in future storms . It is estimated that if New Orleans were to restore 1 @,@ 700 square miles ( 4 @,@ 400 km2 ) of wetland lost before 2005 , the natural capital would be worth an estimated $ 6 billion / year , or $ 200 billion at the present value . While New Orleans has made numerous efforts in rebuilding their economy , and has been successful with tourist @-@ attracting events such as Mardi Gras , the natural capital provided could further assist the city in returning to its pre @-@ Katrina wealth and economy .
= = Claims of differential racial effects = =
Following Katrina there were widespread claims that the effect of the hurricane was much greater on black and less economically advanced people , and that it had relatively less impact on predominantly white , and wealthier people . " The city ’ s remarkable recovery has , to a troubling degree , left behind the African @-@ Americans who still make up the majority of its population , " according to FiveThirtyEight . This claim is based on statistics showing that black residents of New Orleans are more likely to be unemployed than when the storm hit , and more likely to be living in poverty . Household incomes of blacks have also fallen , and the wage gap between black and whites has grown . All these changes are attributed in some way to Katrina .
About 175 @,@ 000 black residents departed New Orleans over the year following the storm , while only 100 @,@ 000 returned , pushing the African American population to 59 percent , from 66 percent previously . The biggest impact has been on the middle @-@ class blacks , given that most black professionals are older and more advanced in their careers , and the majority of the affluent and middle class are white .
These setbacks to the black population in New Orleans corresponded with a large number of educated white arrivals , contributing to a high rate of business formation in the city . These newcomers have had the effect of driving up housing prices , making rent less affordable for the majority black residents .
The influence of blacks in the city receded politically , too : in 2010 New Orleans elected its first white mayor in 32 years , a white majority ( 5 @-@ 2 ) took control of the City Council , which had previously been black , and a white police chief and district attorney were elected . Lance Hill of Tulane University said : " The perception among most African @-@ Americans is that they are living politically as a defeated group in their own city . "
|
= Cornelius Gallagher ( Canadian politician ) =
Cornelius Gallagher ( December 31 , 1854 – October 27 , 1932 ) was a meat merchant and politician in Alberta , Canada . He served as a municipal councillor and briefly as the third mayor of Edmonton .
Gallagher was born in New Brunswick in 1854 , the son of an Irish immigrant father . After attending the schools of his birthplace , he moved west to Winnipeg with his family , and became involved in the family meat packing business , established by his father . He would soon move west again to what would later become the province of Saskatchewan , where he would continue his business , providing his product to the local police establishments and soldiers during the North @-@ West Rebellion . After his contracts expired there , Gallagher would move again further west , to Edmonton , where he would permanently settle .
In Edmonton he established the developing town 's largest meat packing business , upon land atop the banks of the North Saskatchewan River , overlooking the river valley . He would also get involved with the city 's local politics , sitting on the Edmonton Town Council in the 1890s and early 1900s . In 1896 , after the incumbent mayor had resigned , the town council selected Gallagher to briefly be the interim mayor until an election was held later that year . He served one more aldermanic term , but retired after defeat in the 1903 and 1907 elections . In 1911 , he would also retire from his meat business . In retirement , Gallagher lived on a lavish estate on land he owned atop the Edmonton River Valley until his death in 1932 .
= = Early life and career = =
Gallagher was born on December 31 , 1854 in Saint John , New Brunswick to Patrick and Katherine ( née Maher ) Gallagher . His father , Patrick came to Canada from Ireland at the age of 14 , and worked in the meat industry , being a wholesale meat merchant and meat packer . His mother was a native of Saint John . Cornelius Gallagher would attend schooling during the 1870s in his hometown ; later joining his father in his meat business . When his father relocated to Winnipeg in 1877 , he established a wholesale and retail meat distribution business , P. Gallagher and Son , which Cornelius and his brother , Edward would work in . Cornelius Gallagher in 1888 moved to Battleford , North @-@ West Territory ( today in Saskatchewan ) in 1888 , where he bought out his father 's firm 's interests . There , he was on a contract to supply troops stationed in the aftermath of the suppression of the North @-@ West Rebellion . In 1889 , he moved south to Regina , where his business , Childs & Gallagher , supplied meat to the North @-@ West Mounted Police . He remained there for two years , until 1891 , when his contract with the Mounties expired .
= = Career in Edmonton = =
In 1891 , Gallagher relocated , this time to Edmonton , also located in the then @-@ Northwest Territories . He had been intrigued with the fact that majority of the territory 's wheat and vegetable crops came from the Edmonton area , and scenting a business opportunity , decided to settle there . Purchasing a lot for his business less than 24 hours after arriving in Edmonton , Gallagher established with Calgary based businessman , William Roper Hull , the Gallagher @-@ Hull Meat Company , a wholesale and retail butcher . Incorporated on January 6 , 1900 , the establishment was a two @-@ storey brick building located on the banks of the North Saskatchewan River , from which the establishment relied on for its freshwater supply . It contained rooms for slaughtering the animals , storage , butchering and preparation of the meat . Offering a variety of different proteins , such as veal , beef , lamb , turkey , chicken , goose , and pork , the business rose to become the largest of its kind in the developing city of Edmonton , producing over 200 @,@ 000 pounds ( 91 @,@ 000 kg ) of meat per year by the turn of the century . He would operate the establishment until his retirement in 1911 . He also had interests in the brick industry , founding and serving as president of a local brick company .
= = = Civic politics = = =
Gallagher first sought public office in 1893 , when he was elected to Edmonton Town Council . In an aldermanic race in which the top six candidates were elected , he gained the final spot . On his first term on council he sat on the Licensing , and Health & Relief committees . He was re @-@ elected in 1894 , again placing sixth of nine candidates . Once this term expired in 1896 , Gallagher stayed out of politics for several months until mayor Herbert Charles Wilson resigned over a dispute involving town funds . It fell to the council to fill the mayor 's position . Gallagher was nominated by John Cameron and John Kelly ; as there were no rival candidates , he won by acclamation . He was the first mayor of Edmonton never to be elected to that position ; ( Frederick John Mitchell and Terry Cavanagh would later join him in that distinction ) . He was sworn in at the town council meeting on October 27 , 1896 .
During his brief term as mayor , Gallagher oversaw the town during a time when many prospectors headed to the Klondike Gold Rush saw Edmonton as a stopover point . He also become the inaugural president of the Edmonton Hockey Club when it was founded on November 20 , 1896 .
In the ensuing election , Gallagher chose to run for alderman rather than seeking a full term as mayor . This remains the only time in the city 's history that a sitting mayor has run for alderman . He was elected , placing fifth of nine candidates . During this term he sat on committees involved in issues relating to finance , police and utilities ( fire , water and light ) . He did not seek re @-@ election in the election in December 1897 . In December 1898 Gallagher ran for mayor , but was defeated by William S. Edmiston . He stayed out of politics until 1901 , when he was elected to a two @-@ year term as alderman . He was defeated in his re @-@ election bid in 1903 , placing fifth of nine candidates ( the staggered two year aldermanic terms meant that only three of the council 's six aldermen were elected each election ) . His last bid for office took place during the 1907 election , when he placed eleventh of twelve candidates in the aldermanic race .
= = Personal life = =
In Edmonton , Gallagher resided in a " grand house " at 9902 111 Street , overlooking Edmonton 's river valley . He also owned land referred to as Gallagher 's Flats , later renamed Cloverdale . In 1888 , he married Exilda Bourre , and with her adopted two children , Mary and Marie . Avidly involved in community affairs , Gallagher was a member and president of both the Edmonton Board of Trade ( 1898 ) and Edmonton Exhibition Association . He was a member of the Conservative Party of Alberta and president of the Liberal @-@ Conservative Association of Strathcona , and was of the Roman Catholic faith . He was also a member of the Swine Breeders ' Association , Edmonton Club , and Old Timers ' Association . Upon his retirement from his meat business , he embarked on a 6 @-@ month trip to South America with his wife .
= = = Death and legacy = = =
Gallagher died at Edmonton on October 27 , 1932 . He was 77 years old , and was buried at the Edmonton Roman Catholic Cemetery after his funeral at St. Joachim 's Church , where he was a parishioner . He was survived by his wife , one daughter and seven siblings .
Known as one of the most prominent men in Western Canada , Gallagher was widely praised for his successful business career . The 1912 publication , History of the province of Alberta , states the following :
In view of success to which Cornelius Gallagher has attained , it is but just to enter somewhat in detail concerning the plans and methods he has followed and the characteristics which he has manifested in an industrial and commercial career marked by consecutive progress . His business connections from the beginning continually broadened in their scope and importance and force of character and well developed talents have made in a power in the field of commercial , industrial and financial activity . In business affairs he is energetic , prompt , and notably reliable , while his social qualities have rendered him very popular . Tireless energy , keen perception , honesty of purpose , a genius for devising and executing the right thing at the right time , joined every @-@ day common sense , are his chief characteristics .
Gallagher Park ( formerly named Grassy Hill ) , in the Cloverdale area in Edmonton is named in his honour . The park is known for hosting the annual Edmonton Folk Music Festival .
|
= Bigeye sand tiger =
The bigeye sand tiger ( Odontaspis noronhai ) is an extremely rare species of mackerel shark in the family Odontaspididae , with a possible worldwide distribution . A large , bulky species reaching at least 3 @.@ 6 m ( 12 ft ) in length , the bigeye sand tiger has a long bulbous snout , large orange eyes without nictitating membranes , and a capacious mouth with the narrow teeth prominently exposed . It can be distinguished from the similar smalltooth sand tiger ( O. ferox ) by its teeth , which have only one lateral cusplet on each side , and by its uniformly dark brown color .
Inhabiting continental margins and oceanic waters at depths of 60 – 1 @,@ 000 m ( 200 – 3 @,@ 280 ft ) , the bigeye sand tiger may make vertical and horizontal migratory movements . It feeds on bony fishes and squid , and its sizable eyes and dark coloration suggest that it may spend most of its time in the mesopelagic zone . Reproduction is probably viviparous with oophagous embryos like in other mackerel shark species . This shark is caught incidentally by commercial fisheries , though so infrequently that the International Union for Conservation of Nature ( IUCN ) cannot yet determine its conservation status .
= = Taxonomy and phylogeny = =
The first known bigeye sand tiger was a female 1 @.@ 7 m ( 5 @.@ 6 ft ) long caught off Madeira in April 1941 , on a longline set for black scabbardfish ( Aphanopus carbo ) . The specimen was mounted and later formed the basis for a scientific description authored by German ichthyologist Günther Maul in a 1955 article for Notulae Naturae . He named the species noronhai in honor of Adolfo César de Noronha , the late Director of the Funchal Museum . Maul assigned his new species to the genus Carcharias , which at the time was used for all members of the sand tiger shark family . When the Odontaspis came to be recognized as a valid genus separate from Carcharias , the bigeye sand tiger was reassigned as well given its resemblance to the smalltooth sand tiger ( O. ferox ) . Until more specimens were examined in the 1980s , some authors speculated that this species represented an extreme variant of the smalltooth sand tiger . Other names for this shark include black sand tiger , oceanic sand tiger , and bigeye ragged @-@ tooth shark .
Whether the bigeye and smalltooth sand tigers belong in the same family as the superficially similar sand tiger shark ( C. taurus ) has been debated among systematists , with morphological and dentitional studies giving inconsistent results . A 2012 molecular phylogenetic analysis , based on mitochondrial DNA , supported a sister species relationship between O. noronhai and O. ferox but not a clade consisting of Odontaspis and Carcharias . Instead , Odontaspis was found to be closer to the crocodile shark ( Pseudocarcharias kamoharai ) , suggesting that it and Carcharias should be placed in separate families .
= = Description = =
With its heavyset body , conical bulbous snout , and large mouth filled with protruding teeth , the bigeye sand tiger looks much like the better @-@ known sand tiger shark . The large eyes lack nictitating membranes , and behind them are small spiracles . The corner of the mouth extends to behind the level of the eyes , and the jaws are highly protrusible . There are 34 – 43 upper and 37 – 46 lower tooth rows ; these include zero to two rows of small teeth at the upper symphysis ( jaw midpoint ) and two to four more rows at the lower symphysis . In each half of the upper jaw , the teeth in the first and second rows are large , those in the third and sometimes fourth rows are small , and those in the rows after are large again . Each tooth has a narrow , awl @-@ like central cusp flanked by one smaller cusplet on each side ; this contrasts with the smalltooth sand tiger , which has two or three lateral cusplets on each side . There are five pairs of gill slits .
The pectoral fins are medium @-@ sized and broad with rounded tips . The large first dorsal fin has a rounded apex and is positioned closer to the pectoral than the pelvic fins . The second dorsal fin is about half the size of the first and originates over the rear tips of the pelvic fins . The pelvic fins are almost as large as the first dorsal fin . The anal fin is smaller than the second dorsal fin and positioned behind it . The caudal peduncle has a crescent @-@ shaped notch at the dorsal origin of the caudal fin . The lower lobe of the caudal fin is short but distinct , while the upper lobe is long and has a deep notch in the trailing margin near the tip . The skin is covered by overlapping dermal denticles , each with three horizontal ridges leading to marginal teeth . This species is plain dark reddish brown to chocolate brown , sometimes with black trailing margins on the fins or a white @-@ tipped first dorsal fin . The eyes are dark orange with vertically oval , green @-@ tinted pupils . There are several black patches inside the mouth , such as around the jaws , on the floor of the mouth , and on the gill arches . The largest male and female specimens measured 3 @.@ 6 and 3 @.@ 3 m ( 12 and 11 ft ) long respectively .
= = Distribution and habitat = =
Though extremely rare , the bigeye sand tiger has been reported from scattered locations around the world , suggesting a wide and possibly disjunct global distribution in tropical and warm @-@ temperate oceanic waters . Most known specimens have come from the Atlantic , where it has been found off Madeira , southern Brazil , Texas , eastern Florida , and the Mid @-@ Atlantic Ridge . The only evidence for its presence in the Indian Ocean is a set of jaws that may have originated from the Seychelles , though the South China Sea is another possibility . The existence of this species in the Pacific Ocean was first suspected in 1970 from teeth recovered from bottom sediments , which was confirmed over a decade later by captures from the Marshall Islands and Hawaii .
The bigeye sand tiger has been caught between the depths of 60 and 1 @,@ 000 m ( 200 and 3 @,@ 280 ft ) . Some were recorded over continental and insular shelves , both from near the sea floor and in mid @-@ water . Others were fished from parts of the open ocean that were 4 @.@ 5 – 5 @.@ 3 km ( 2 @.@ 8 – 3 @.@ 3 mi ) deep , where they were swimming in the upper levels of the water column . Nighttime captures from relatively shallow depths suggest that this species may make a diel vertical migration , rising from the mesopelagic zone to the epipelagic zone at night to feed . In Brazilian waters , bigeye sand tigers are only captured in spring , hinting at some type of seasonal migratory movement .
= = Biology and ecology = =
One account of a bigeye sand tiger that had been caught alive noted that it behaved very aggressively , thrashing and snapping violently in and out of the water . Its large eyes and uniformly dark coloration are characteristic traits of a mesopelagic fish . The bigeye sand tiger feeds on bony fishes and squid . Its reproduction is little @-@ known but probably similar to that of other mackerel sharks , which are viviparous with embryos that feed on unfertilized eggs during gestation ( oophagy ) . Adult females have a single functional ovary , on the right , and two functional uteruses . Males mature sexually at somewhere between 2 @.@ 2 and 3 @.@ 2 m ( 7 @.@ 2 and 10 @.@ 5 ft ) long , while females mature at around 3 @.@ 2 m ( 10 ft ) long . No information is available on growth or aging .
= = Human interactions = =
Because the bigeye sand tiger is encountered so infrequently , it has no commercial importance . It is caught incidentally on longlines and in gillnets and purse seines , though the paucity of captures suggest that it mostly lives in waters too deep for commercial fisheries . The International Union for Conservation of Nature ( IUCN ) has listed this species as Data Deficient , citing a lack of biological and population data . Since 1997 , the National Marine Fisheries Service ( NMFS ) has prohibited the taking of this species in United States waters .
|
= Hurricane Liza ( 1976 ) =
Hurricane Liza is considered the worst natural disaster in the history of Baja California Sur . The seventeenth tropical cyclone , thirteenth named storm , and eighth hurricane of the 1976 Pacific hurricane season , Liza developed from an area of disturbed weather southwest of the Mexican coast on September 25 . Slowly intensifying , the system attained tropical storm strength the following day . In favorable conditions , Liza continued to intensify , reaching hurricane strength on September 28 after developing an eye . The hurricane peaked in intensity as a Category 4 hurricane on the Saffir – Simpson hurricane scale on September 30 , with winds of 140 mph ( 225 km / h ) and a minimum barometric pressure of 948 mbar ( hPa ; 28 @.@ 00 inHg ) . Liza weakened as it moved northward into the Gulf of California . Shortly thereafter , the hurricane made its second landfall north of Los Mochis , Sinaloa with winds of 115 mph ( 185 km / h ) , making it one of 13 storms to make landfall as major hurricanes in the basin . Inland , the hurricane rapidly weakened and dissipated on October 2 .
Prior to the arrival of Liza , residents along the Gulf of California coastline were evacuated , although some refused to leave their homes . Radio stations warned all nearby ships to remain at harbor . Liza brought heavy rainfall to the area , which caused significant flash flooding . Following a dam burst by the El Cajoncito Creek along the outskirts of La Paz , hundreds of people were swept away by flood waters . In La Paz , the capital of the state , 412 people died and 20 @,@ 000 were left homeless . Nearly one @-@ third of the homes in the town were destroyed . Throughout the state , a variety of death tolls were reported , but officials estimated that 1 @,@ 000 people had perished . In the states of Sinaloa and Sonora , Liza caused moderate damage and left 30 @,@ 000 to 54 @,@ 000 homeless . Along the Gulf of California , 108 people were presumed dead after 12 boats were lost . The remnants of the storm later affected the United States , bringing moderate rainfall
In the aftermath of the storm , rescue workers spent days digging through mud to find victims of the hurricane until the search was disbanded on October 6 . The government received criticism for the tragedy , citing that the dam that broke had been poorly built . Overall , at least 1 @,@ 108 fatalities and $ 100 million ( 1976 USD ) in damage are attributed to the hurricane , making it one of the deadliest tropical cyclones on record in the eastern Pacific , as well as one of the few Pacific hurricanes to kill more than 1 @,@ 000 people .
= = Meteorological history = =
Hurricane Liza originated from a very large area of intense thunderstorms that developed about 400 mi ( 645 km ) southwest of the Mexican coast on September 25 . Later that day , satellite imagery indicated that the system had developed a cyclonic circulation . It is estimated that a tropical depression developed at 1800 UTC on September 25 , centered about 485 mi ( 780 km ) east @-@ northeast of Zihuatanejo , Guerrero . The depression gradually intensified as it tracked west @-@ northwestward , and became Tropical Storm Liza at 1800 UTC on the following day . Thereafter , Liza turned to the north at 7 mph ( 11 km / h ) and began to strengthen while moving through sea surface temperatures of 85 ° F ( 29 ° C ) . Within 48 hours of the storm 's formation , the Eastern Pacific Hurricane Center ( EPHC ) reported winds of 65 mph ( 105 km / h ) , and Liza intensified into a hurricane early on September 28 . Around this time , the hurricane had developed an eye that was 17 mi ( 27 km ) in diameter , though it was initially not visible on satellite imagery . Operationally , however , Liza was not upgraded to a hurricane until 18 hours later .
During the afternoon hours of September 28 , a Hurricane Hunters aircraft made its first flight into Liza , recording a minimum barometric pressure of 971 mbar ( 28 @.@ 7 inHg ) ; despite the low pressure , maximum sustained winds of just 45 mph ( 70 km / h ) were reported . Hours later , a second flight into the hurricane revealed winds of 75 mph ( 120 km / h ) and slightly lower pressures . Liza continued to intensify , attaining winds of 80 mph ( 130 km / h ) by early September 29 . Later that morning , the hurricane reached Category 2 intensity on the Saffir @-@ Simpson Hurricane Wind Scale ( SSHWS ) . By midday , Hurricane Hunters recorded a pressure of 948 mb ( 28 @.@ 0 inHg ) as the eye became visible on infrared satellite imagery , prompting the EPHC to upgrade Liza to a major hurricane , a Category 3 or higher on the SSHWS .
Liza continued to rapidly intensify and attained winds of 140 mph ( 220 km / h ) late on September 29 , making it a mid @-@ level Category 4 hurricane . Though Liza encountered warm sea surface temperatures of 88 ° F ( 31 ° C ) , it did not strengthen further the following day . Late on September 30 , Liza brushed the Baja California Peninsula , passing about 65 mi ( 105 km ) east of Cabo San Lucas while still at peak intensity . Early on October 1 , Liza entered the Gulf of California exactly 52 mi ( 84 km ) east of La Paz , Baja California Sur . By 1300 UTC that day , Liza made landfall about 50 mi ( 80 km ) north of Los Mochis , Sinaloa with winds of 115 mph ( 185 km / h ) , still a Category 3 storm . Operationally , however , Hurricane Liza was estimated to have made landfall with winds of 100 mph ( 185 km / h ) and gusts up to 150 mph ( 230 km / h ) . The storm continued quickly inland while weakening , dissipating the following day . The remnants of Hurricane Liza later entered the United States near El Paso , Texas .
= = Preparations = =
Prior to the arrival of the hurricane , many residents in shanty towns failed to hear tropical cyclone warnings and watches . Some did hear the warnings , but they did not believe them as the same warning had been issued several weeks before and nothing had happened . In addition , city officials warned the residents living near the dam to take shelter in public buildings though most refused to leave . The government ignored all requests to shore up an earthen dam , as they did not believe Liza would pose a significant threat of damage to the Baja California Peninsula . Along the Gulf Coast , troops evacuated residents , and radio stations warned all nearby ships to remain at harbor . During the afternoon hours of September 29 , the education department suspended classes as it began to rain .
As the remnants of Liza moved across the western United States , National Weather Service posted flash flood watches for much of deserts of California , southern Utah , and a portion of Colorado . For the higher areas of Colorado , a snow watch was in effect . In addition , motorists were warned of very hazards driving conditions within 100 mi ( 160 km ) of the border .
= = Impact = =
In all , Liza brought a total of $ 100 million in damage in Baja California Sur , which receives catastrophic flooding from hurricanes every 50 years or so . The hurricane was considered the worst natural disaster in the history of the peninsula , which at the time held 130 @,@ 000 occupants . Furthermore , Liza was at that time considered the worst hurricane to affect the entire country in the 20th century .
= = = Baja California Sur = = =
Hurricane Liza caused extensive damage and loss of life in the Mexican state of Baja California Sur . Although the Hydrometeorological Prediction Center ( HPC ) suggests that Liza brought only light to moderate rains to the area , peaking at around 1 in ( 25 mm ) , newspaper accounts claim that 11 @.@ 8 in ( 300 mm ) fell ( more than a year 's worth of rainfall ) in some areas in a mere 3 hours . Moreover , 22 in ( 559 mm ) was measured in El Triunfo and San Antonio , along the southern portion of the peninsula . In La Paz , Baja California , a storm surge of 8 ft ( 2 @.@ 4 m ) was reported .
The El Cajoncito Creek along the extreme southeast portion of the state grew into a raging torrent . During night of October 1 , waters burst a three @-@ year @-@ old and 30 ft ( 9 @.@ 1 m ) dike . A 5 ft ( 1 @.@ 5 m ) wall of water spilled over a small shanty town of 10 @,@ 000 , thousands of which lived in cardboard shacks . Some shacks were swept 6 mi ( 9 @.@ 7 km ) away from their initial location . The ensuing mudslide is regarded as the worst in the History of Mexico . Most of the deaths from the hurricane were due to the dam failure ; streets also received flooding from the dam burst .
Initially , government officials denied that the dam was poorly built ; many politicians and an engineer for the nation 's water company blamed the dam 's poor construction as the source of the extreme death toll . Prior to the arrival of the storm , many residents had repeatedly requested that a stone wall be built to protect their homes . After the storm , they said that the deaths could have be prevented . According to one account , two master planned communities were situated in the middle of the drainage and were thus deluged by the storm . The water department head took the blame for the construction , but also said that the disaster was a natural phenomenon .
" Dozens " of people were also swept away into the Gulf of California when Hurricane Liza destroyed a 600 ft ( 185 m ) sea wall , which , ironically , had been built to prevent flooding from such storms . Nine children got swept under mud . The highway that connected Baja California with California was also destroyed in many places , more than originally anticipated . In fact , there were holes in the asphalt pavement . Bridges up to 600 ft ( 185 m ) long were twisted .
Due to flooding , troops evacuated dozens of communities along the Gulf coast . Many desert communities throughout the state were left without any telephone or electrical service ; wood , tarpaper , and cardboard were all scattered . Dozens of scores of huts were destroyed . Many humans were swept into the gulf . Sixteen people died inside the remains of a building . Moreover , the Piojillo river overflowed its banks , killing many people and resulting in considerable damage . Elsewhere , destruction was reported in San Jose del Cabo , Cabo San Lucas , San Lucas , and Puntas Arena ; Pichilinague also received moderate damage . However , there are no known reports of any casualties in all four of those places . Hurricane Liza was also one of six hurricane to directly impact Los Cabos .
South of La Paz , communications and telephone services were cut off to 13 smaller communities . A highway that extends as far south as Cabo San Lucas was blocked . Further north , a highway that links La Paz to places along the northern part of the peninsula such as Mexicali were badly damaged in four places . Offshore , officials reported that 75 boats including nine owned by Americans had sunk during the hurricane . Most notably , the ship Salvatierra ' s cabin and most of its upper deck were ripped off while its hull rolled over . Multiple trucks smashed the ship ; however , they were later salvaged . In addition , a 88 ft ( 27 m ) vessel sunk during the storm , in which the owner had to pay for the damage , but later earned $ 50 @,@ 000 settlement . Overall , several ports along the coast were destroyed by the storm .
In La Paz , a town that at that time had a population of around 85 @,@ 000 , 20 @,@ 000 were left homeless ( nearly one third of the towns population ) , and an additional 4 @,@ 000 were injured . It is estimated that one out of five homes were destroyed in the city . Widespread flooding was reported throughout the city with mud filling up the first floor of many houses . This flash flooding led to many homes and automobiles being destroyed . Several roofs fell off of homes and landed deep in the mud . Many roads were blocked due to fallen trees while numerous homes were pushed off their foundation ; some cars were also abandoned when Hurricane Liza struck . Some cars were reportedly piled against damaged building and debris . Nine people died when a car was swept away in the floodwaters .
Also , electrical lines and drinking water supplies were cut in La Paz . Also , communication lines were extensively damaged . The La Paz airport received damage during the hurricane ; however , by the afternoon of October 1 , the airport re @-@ opened , thus allowing the military to provide much @-@ needed aid to victims . Wood , tarpaper , and cardboard were all scattered throughout La Paz . By October 2 , rescue teams had covered 38 sq mi ( 100 sq km ) to configure the damage . Throughout the city , a total of 412 people had been killed , 150 were missing people within the resort city , five of which were later presumed dead . Overall , nearly a third of the houses in La Paz were leveled .
A wide variety of death tolls were reported by many different sources . Then @-@ Mexico president Luis Echeverria as well as the HPC and EPHC claimed that 435 people died during the hurricane . It was initially stated that 630 people had died during the storm ; however , this total does not include victims discovered by the Mexican army . During the afternoon of October 2 , the local government had placed the confirmed death toll at 397 . Two days later , the Bangor Daily News reported that the number of bodies found dead ranged from 400 to 750 . By late October 3 , Mexican officials and a Red Cross spokesperson reported that 650 bodies had been found . Meanwhile , a military search operation claimed that the death toll of the hurricane was 1 @,@ 050 . By October 6 , local officials had abandoned efforts to retrieve additional bodies , citing safety reasons . Even though 650 people were confirmed to have died during Hurricane Liza , officials estimated that at least 1 @,@ 000 people died . Within a week after Hurricane Liza , some feared 10 @,@ 000 people perished . In addition , some modern estimates suggest that the toll could have been as high as 7 @,@ 000 .
The Red Cross estimated that 75 % of the deaths from the storm were children under 12 . At first , most of the bodies found by the army were buried normally though due to the high death toll , some were just buried under debris . Some dead bodies were later burned to prevent disease . According to preliminary estimates by officials , 40 @,@ 000 people were made homeless and an addition 20 @,@ 000 were injured , 126 of which were considered significant . Within another day , the homeless total rose to 70 @,@ 000 . Total damage from the hurricane was estimated at $ 100 million ( 1976 USD ) .
= = = Sinaloa = = =
In the state of Sinaloa , heavy rainfall was recorded along the northern portion of the state near the Sonoran border . A peak total of 4 @.@ 61 in ( 0 @.@ 117 m ) was measured in both Hults and Choix . Upon making landfall in the state , Liza became one of six tropical system to making landfall in the state at tropical storm intensity during the 1968 @-@ 1995 time frame . Offshore Topolobampo , 12 ship boats were reported missing , and the 108 crewman were feared dead . On the mainland , some damage was reported . Some flooding was recorded and at least 1 @,@ 000 homes were evacuated . Along the southern portion of the state , in Yavaros , 155 people died , mostly adults . Roughly 80 % of the town was flooded ; it would take three years for the town to recover fully . In Los Mochis alone , 4 @,@ 000 people were left without a home . Damage in the city totaled $ 300 @,@ 000 .
= = = Sonora = = =
Across Sonora , many homes were wrecked due to flooding . Light rainfall up to 1 in ( 25 mm ) was recorded along the southeastern region of the state which led to reports of damage . In Navojoa , heavy damage was reported . Numerous faculty homes , as well as the school barn and dining hall lost their homes at the College of Pacific . Damage totaled to $ 300 @,@ 000 .
About 30 @,@ 000 people were left homeless statewide though other authorities estimated that 24 @,@ 000 people were left homeless in both Sonora and Sinaloa combined . Throughout the mainland , 12 communities sustained heavy damage . In all , all , there are no reports of major damage in the mainland .
= = = Southwestern United States = = =
During its demise , Liza brought heavy rains and flooding to much of the Southwestern United States . In Arizona , the tropical system brought light to moderate rain throughout the state , with maximum being 1 @.@ 48 inches ( 38 mm ) at Willow Beach , Arizona . Further east , Liza 's remnants dropped light rainfall in New Mexico ( peaking at 0 @.@ 47 in ( 12 mm ) in White Sands National Monument ) , as well as in southwestern Texas . Across Death Valley , flooding was recorded .
= = Aftermath = =
During the aftermath of the storm , rescue workers searched the La Paz harbor , but had little hope in finding any victims . Other rescue workers endured 100 ° F ( 38 ° C ) heat while frantically searching for bodies floating on the ocean or sunk under mud . Six bulldozers worked all day and night to extract cars , some of which were upside down while others were submerged into the flood waters . Officials estimated that it would take eight days to repair down power lines in La Paz and completely restore electrical services ; within 72 hours following the passage of Liza , there was no electricity or fresh water access to survivors . Emergency facilitates were used to provide the city with drinking water . Food was rationed at hotels and restaurants . Drinking water was supplied , but water supplies rapidly went short .
Some survivors of Hurricane Liza complained that they had only received one ration of food and water within 3 days of the passage of Liza . Subsequently , armed troops guarded gangs of looters that damaged additional homes . An effort was made to cure people who were suffering from sickness , but by midday on October 3 , after treating more than 5 @,@ 000 persons , the effort had been halted due to a lack of sterile cotton vital for administrating the shots . Medical workers attempted to vaccinate all survivors for typhoid fever and tetanus , but the supply of syringes ran short . A large memorial service was held on October 2 in a nearby church .
Supplies had been brought in through the air and via the Mexican navy containing food , blankets , and medicine early on October 2 . However , additional bad weather initially prevented further supplies from coming in . Around that time , President Echeverria ordered emergency aid to be sent La Paz , Los Mochis , and Ciudad Obregon , as well as three coastal Sonoran ports . In addition , officials set up tents to house 40 @,@ 000 homeless persons . Meanwhile , city officials appealed for additional food , medicine , and construction materials . Gerald Ford , who was then the U.S. president , agreed to provide aid for victims of Hurricane Liza ; the first of which arrived late on October 2 , containing food and construction materials . The next day , power had been restored to hospitals , government centers , and gas stations . The government said that it was rushing in 100 @,@ 000 meals as well as 40 @,@ 000 temporary shelters the first of which started to arrive on October 5 @.@ within a week after the storm , however , one survivor of the storm noted that plenty of food had arrived from many places .
Baja California Sur governor , Ceaser Mendoza Arambrue , ordered a permanent evacuation of all low @-@ lying residents to prevent more destruction during future floods , saying " I never want to see this city menaced in this way again " . He also believed that it would take two years to completely re @-@ build La Paz . Mexican officials arranged a meeting on October 3 to make a plan to reconstruct the devastated area . The nation 's president ordered a plan to prevent a recurrence of Hurricane Liza , saying that La Paz would be built a different way . In February 1977 , houses were donated to the needy in La Paz . Many residents were upset at their government for failing to protect the dam . In the mainland , $ 50 @,@ 000 of relief materials as well as $ 20 @,@ 000 of cash was supplied to the Los Mochis area .
Months after the hurricane , the Mexican government launched an investigation into the dam failure . In the end , La Paz recovered , though the town had to be almost entirely re @-@ built . In 1997 , Hurricane Pauline struck southern Mexico , becoming the deadliest tropical cyclone to hit the country since Liza . As of 2006 , no hurricane in Baja California Sur has been as bad as Liza .
|
= Arsenal F.C. in European football =
Arsenal Football Club is an English professional football club based in Holloway , North London . The club 's first European football match was played against Copenhagen XI on 25 September 1963 , and it has since participated in European club competitions on several occasions , most of which organised by the Union of European Football Associations ( UEFA ) . Arsenal has won two European honours : the Inter @-@ Cities Fairs Cup in 1970 and the Cup Winners ' Cup in 1994 – the latter title recognised by the European confederation . The club played the 1994 European Super Cup and repeated its presence in the following year 's Cup Winners ' Cup final . Arsenal also reached the final of the UEFA Cup in 2000 , and became the first London team to appear in a UEFA Champions League final , in 2006 .
Qualification for European club competitions is determined by a team 's position in its domestic league , as well as how successfully a team fares in domestic cup competitions in the previous season . Following the Heysel Stadium disaster in 1985 , UEFA placed an indefinite ban on all English teams from competing in Europe ; the ban was lifted in the 1991 – 92 season , giving Arsenal the opportunity to play in the European Cup . Between 1998 – 99 and 2016 – 17 , Arsenal qualified in nineteen successive UEFA Champions League seasons , an English football record , and is only surpassed in Europe by Real Madrid .
French striker Thierry Henry holds the club record for most appearances with 89 , and is the club 's record goalscorer in European competitions with 42 goals . Arsenal 's biggest winning margin in Europe is a 7 – 0 scoreline , a feat achieved twice : firstly away at Standard Liège , during their successful Cup Winners ' Cup campaign , and secondly at home against Slavia Prague , for the 2007 – 08 UEFA Champions League . Arsenal hold the European club competition record for the most consecutive clean sheets with ten , set between September 2005 and May 2006 .
= = Background = =
Club competitions between teams from different European countries can trace their origins as far back as 1897 , when the Challenge Cup was created for clubs in the Austro @-@ Hungarian Empire , who did not meet under normal circumstances . The Sir Thomas Lipton Trophy , named after entrepreneur and sportsman Thomas Lipton , was established in 1909 and was contested between clubs from Italy , Great Britain , Germany and Switzerland ; the competition lasted for two years . The earliest attempt to create a cup for national champion clubs of Europe was made by Swiss club FC Servette . Founded in 1930 , the Coupe des Nations featured clubs of ten major European football leagues and was deemed a success . Due to financial reasons , the competition was abandoned .
In December 1954 , French sports magazine L 'Equipe published an article by journalist and former professional footballer Gabriel Hanot , who proposed the introduction of a European club competition . He initially suggested that each country should nominate a club to play in a mid @-@ week European league ; many clubs favoured a cup competition , which required less matches to play . A year later , L 'Equipe sent out invitations to 18 clubs , selected by Hanot , Jacques Ferran and Jacques Goddet , with UEFA agreeing to administrate the competition named as the European Champion Clubs ' Cup . The European Cup Winners ' Cup , later retitled the UEFA Cup Winners ' Cup , was founded in 1960 and involved the winning clubs of national cup competitions in Europe . Arsenal , in the First Division at the time , were ineligible for both competitions , given that the club did not win a league championship or domestic cup for almost two decades . They however were invited to participate in the Inter @-@ Cities Fairs Cup , an annual European club competition which was set up to promote international trade fairs ; where a club finished in their domestic league had no relevance to qualification as teams were selected from cities holding trade fairs . The Inter @-@ Cities Fairs Cup was regarded as the predecessor to the UEFA Cup , rebranded as the UEFA Europa League in 2008 . Each competition round was staged over a two @-@ legged tie , with the winner determined by the aggregate score . The away goals rule is activated if the aggregate score is equal .
To reinvigorate the European Champion Clubs ' Cup , the competition was expanded and rebranded as the UEFA Champions League in 1992 . From the 1997 – 98 season , it was further expanded to include eight domestic league runners @-@ up selected by a UEFA coefficient and preliminary spots the following season were awarded to the third placed team ; in some leagues fourth from 2002 – 03 . The expansion and constant growth of the competition led to the decline of the Cup Winners ' Cup , abolished in 1999 and by which point instigated proposals for a European Super League . Arsène Wenger has , on numerous occasions predicted the latter , arguing the pressure of television companies will force it to happen : " It 's all about money . More games equal more money through TV revenue and I think the next few years will see not just two , but three or four teams from the top countries competing against each other . It 's what television wants – big teams in big matches . That is why the Champions ' League was introduced . " Although Arsenal qualified for a fifteenth successive season of Champions League football in May 2012 , this coincided with the club not winning a domestic honour since 2005 , which led to open criticism over the competition 's present format . Wenger however has gone on to defend the club policy , stating a trophy for Arsenal is winning the Premier League or the Champions League ; " Would you like to finish tenth in the league but win the League Cup and say you have won a trophy ? Certainly not . "
= = History = =
= = = Early years : 1963 – 1978 = = =
Arsenal first participated in European football during the 1963 – 64 season , via the Inter @-@ Cities Fairs Cup . The competition was set up to promote international trade fairs in European cities , featuring clubs from cities playing in matches that hosted trade fairs . As London 's representative , Arsenal was paired with Copenhagen team Copenhagen XI in the first round , played over two matches . The first match ended in a 7 – 1 victory for Arsenal , with Geoff Strong and Joe Baker both scoring hat @-@ tricks . Copenhagen XI won the second match 3 – 2 , but lost 9 – 4 on aggregate . Arsenal faced Royal Football Club de Liège in the second round ; the Belgian club won 4 – 2 on aggregate to progress into the quarter @-@ finals .
In the 1969 – 70 season , Arsenal again participated in the Inter @-@ Cities Fairs Cup , after a six @-@ year absence . Having beaten Glentoran of Northern Ireland , Portugal 's Sporting Lisbon and Rouen of France , Arsenal played Romanian club Dinamo Bacău in the quarter @-@ finals . A 1 – 9 victory on aggregate saw the club progress into the last four , where they faced Ajax of Amsterdam . The pairing of both clubs pleased Arsenal manager Bertie Mee , who wanted to play Ajax in the semi @-@ finals to set up a possibility of meeting Internazionale in the final . At Highbury in the first leg , Arsenal won 3 – 0 and restricted Ajax to a 1 – 0 win at the Olympisch Stadion to reach the final of the Fairs Cup . It was the fourth successive year the final featured an English club and the first for a London club . Arsenal played Belgian opposition Anderlecht in the 1970 Inter @-@ Cities Fairs Cup Final , played in the space of a week . Anderlecht won the first leg 3 – 1 , with Arsenal midfielder Ray Kennedy scoring a crucial away goal , seven minutes from the final whistle . An early goal scored by Eddie Kelly helped Arsenal to what earlier looked to be an improbable victory ; John Radford and Jon Sammels overturned Anderlecht 's advantage to win 3 – 0 on the night and 4 – 3 on aggregate . The result ended Arsenal 's 17 @-@ year wait for a trophy and ensured the club became the third successive English club to win the honour .
Arsenal entered the Inter @-@ Cities Fairs Cup the following season as holders of the competition , but did not progress further than the semi @-@ finals , losing on away goals to 1 . FC Köln of Germany . The club did however win the league championship for the first time in 18 years , ensuring qualification for the European Champions Clubs ' Cup in the 1971 – 72 season . Arsenal reached the quarter @-@ finals , where the team lost to holders Ajax , who went on to retain the trophy . In subsequent seasons , the departure of Mee and lack of domestic honours meant that the club did not contest in European football .
= = = Cup Winners ' Cup finalists , winners : 1978 – 1995 = = =
Mee was succeeded by Terry Neill in July 1976 . Arsenal returned to European club football in the 1978 – 79 season , having finished fifth in the previous league campaign . The club contested in the UEFA Cup for the first time and won their opening leg 3 – 0 against 1 . FC Lokomotive Leipzig ; a commanding performance away from home in the second leg allowed Arsenal to win 1 – 4 at the Bruno @-@ Plache @-@ Stadion and 7 – 1 on aggregate . Arsenal progressed past the third round , winning on aggregate against Hajduk Split but were eliminated by Red Star Belgrade in the third round after striker Dušan Savić scored an away goal , two minutes from the end of the match .
As winners of the 1979 FA Cup Final , Arsenal entered the European Cup Winners ' Cup in the 1979 – 80 season . The club defeated Fenerbahçe , 1 . FC Magdeburg and IFK Göteborg , before facing Juventus in the semi @-@ finals . After conceding an early penalty scored by Antonio Cabrini , Arsenal defender David O 'Leary was injured and substituted in the 20th minute , when Juventus striker Roberto Bettega tackled him . Marco Tardelli was later sent off for a foul on Liam Brady and in the 85th minute , Arsenal managed to score an equaliser through a mix @-@ up between Frank Stapleton and Bettega ; the Italian put the ball into his goal net . Neill in his post @-@ match comments expressed his anger over Bettega 's tackle after the game : " I was shocked by a most vicious foul . I was shocked because I have always had the greatest admiration for him . " A headed goal by substitute Paul Vaessen two minutes from the end , in the second leg was enough to take Arsenal into the 1980 European Cup Winners ' Cup Final , where they faced Valencia in Brussels . A goalless draw after normal and extra time meant the final was to be decided on a penalty shootout , with Valencia winning 5 – 4 .
Arsenal competed in the UEFA Cup in the 1981 – 82 and 1982 – 83 seasons and departed in the first and second round to FC Winterslag and Spartak Moscow respectively . The Heysel Stadium disaster of May 1985 , during the 1985 European Cup Final between Liverpool and Juventus resulted in UEFA , and later FIFA , imposing a ' worldwide ' ban on English teams from participating in European club competitions , initially for an indefinite period . Under George Graham , Arsenal returned to the European Cup in the 1991 – 92 season , having won the league championship a season earlier . They went out in the second round to Portuguese team Benfica in November 1991 . The ban arising from the Heysel disaster had prevented Arsenal from competing in the European Cup when they won the league title two years previously , as well as preventing them from competing in the UEFA Cup on two occasions .
In the 1993 – 94 season , Arsenal contested in the European Cup Winners ' Cup , having won the 1993 FA Cup Final . The club beat Odense BK and Standard Liège to reach the quarter @-@ finals , with the latter described as a " breathtaking performance " by Graham , after winning 7 – 0 at the Stade Maurice Dufrasne . Arsenal defeated Torino of Italy and French representative Paris Saint @-@ Germain to reach the 1994 European Cup Winners ' Cup Final alongside Parma , staged at Copenhagen . Without top goalscorer Ian Wright and markers John Jensen and Martin Keown , Arsenal went into the final as outsiders . Although Parma began the match the strongest of both teams , Arsenal opened the scoring through a well taken volley by striker Alan Smith . Defending in numbers , the team held on to record an improbable victory and win the club 's second European trophy , after a 24 @-@ year wait . After the match Graham praised his team 's performance and defended his pragmatic approach ; " Sometimes we could go forward a little bit more and entertain a bit more , but we play to our strengths , like we did in this match . There 's nothing wrong with having a very , very good defence , believe me . We 've proved it , and it 's a big plus . "
As holders of the competition , Arsenal was admitted into the Cup Winners ' Cup for the 1994 – 95 season . They moreover contested in the 1994 European Super Cup , losing to Milan 2 – 0 on aggregate . In February 1995 , Graham was sacked by Arsenal after it emerged he accepted an illegal £ 425 @,@ 000 payment from Norwegian agent Rune Hauge for two of his clients : Jensen and Pål Lydersen . He was replaced by caretaker manager Stewart Houston ( Bruce Rioch in the close season ) , who managed to take Arsenal into the 1995 UEFA Cup Winners ' Cup Final after beating Sampdoria on penalties in the semi @-@ finals . They however , did not retain the trophy after Real Zaragoza midfielder Nayim scored an extra @-@ time goal , lobbing Arsenal goalkeeper David Seaman .
= = = Arrival of Wenger : 1996 – 2005 = = =
In August 1996 , Rioch was dismissed by Arsenal . He was replaced by Arsène Wenger , who became the club 's first manager born outside the British Isles . Wenger had creditable experience in UEFA club competitions ; at Monaco he reached the final of the Cup Winners ' Cup in 1992 , losing 2 – 0 to Werder Bremen and took the club into the semi @-@ finals of the European Cup in 1993 – 94 . Wenger wanted Arsenal to become one of the biggest clubs in Europe , emphasising on buying talent from all over the world and patience shown by the club 's board and supporters . His first involvement in a European match for Arsenal was against Borussia Mönchengladbach on 26 September 1996 in the UEFA Cup ; Arsenal lost 6 – 4 on aggregate . Having watched the game from the stands in the first half , he assumed control in the second , suggesting the formation should accommodate four defenders instead of five .
Arsenal finished third in the 1996 – 97 league season , missing out on qualification for the UEFA Champions League by goal difference . They , however qualified for the UEFA Cup first round , but lost to PAOK Salonika of Greece over two legs in September 1997 . Arsenal completed the double in the 1997 – 98 season , and winning the league ensured the club participated in the Champions League for the first time since its rebranding in 1992 . To benefit from increased revenue and higher attendances , Arsenal was granted permission from the Football Association and UEFA to host their home Champions League matches at Wembley Stadium .
The club faced French champions Lens , Ukraine 's Dynamo Kiev and Panathinaikos of Greece in the group stages of the competition . Although they began the campaign in good stead , with two draws and a win , Arsenal lost 3 – 1 to Dynamo Kiev and at home to Lens – watched by a record crowd of 73 @,@ 707 , meaning the club could not reach higher than third place , failing to make the quarter @-@ finals . Arsenal ended the 1998 – 99 league season as runners @-@ up , qualifying for the group stages of the Champions League for the second successive year . Again , Arsenal finished in third spot in their group , this time behind Barcelona and Fiorentina . The team , however advanced into the UEFA Cup third round and Arsenal chose to revert to playing their home matches at Highbury , on the advice of the players . Arsenal beat Nantes and Deportivo de La Coruña over two legs and defeated Werder Bremen in the quarter @-@ final ; midfielder Ray Parlour scored a hat @-@ trick in the second leg . In the semi @-@ final against Lens , Arsenal secured a 3 – 1 aggregate win to face Turkish opposition Galatasaray in the final , who beat Leeds United .
At Copenhagen , the venue for the 2000 UEFA Cup Final , both Arsenal and Galatasaray played out to a goalless draw in normal and in extra time . Arsenal lost 4 – 1 in a penalty shootout , with striker Davor Šuker and midfielder Patrick Vieira hitting the post and underside of the crossbar respectively . Wenger reflected on the defeat by saying , " We did not play well in the first half , but we were much better afterwards . It is very disappointing . " The final was overshadowed by events at the city centre , where Arsenal supporter Paul Dineen was stabbed in the back . Referred to as the " Battle of Copenhagen " , the incident escalated into a riot between English and Turkish fans , forcing the Danish police to use tear gas in order to restore calm .
Arsenal qualified for the group stages of the Champions League in the 2000 – 01 season , having ended the previous league season in second . The club won their first three matches in Group B , against Sparta Prague , Shakhtar Donetsk and Lazio . A draw away to Lazio at the Stadio Olimpico ensured qualification into the second group stage , where they were partnered with Bayern Munich , Lyon and Spartak Moscow . In spite of defender Sylvinho scoring an early goal in their opening game against Spartak Moscow , Arsenal plummeted to a 4 – 1 defeat , leaving Wenger to assess that " as a team , we didn 't look as solid as we are used to . " Wins at Lyon and at home to Spartak Moscow helped Arsenal to qualify for the quarter @-@ finals as the French club failed to capitalise on Arsenal 's defeat at Bayern Munich . They faced Spanish club Valencia , winning 2 – 1 at Highbury but the team were beaten 1 – 0 at the Estadio Mestalla , knocked @-@ out on aggregate .
In the 2001 – 02 season , Arsenal played in the Champions League . The club qualified for the second group stage on goal difference but did not reach the quarter @-@ finals , losing their final two matches against Deportivo La Coruña and Juventus . Having won the domestic league for the first time in four years , Wenger revealed the club 's and his own intent to win the Champions League , telling French newspaper L 'Equipe " I can 't imagine finishing my life without winning the European Cup " . Arsenal began the following season impressively , winning 0 – 4 at PSV Eindhoven . The match set a new club record , as midfielder Gilberto Silva scored the fastest goal , in 20 @.@ 07 seconds . Although Arsenal lost their last two matches against Borussia Dortmund and Auxerre , coinciding with a blip in form domestically , they qualified for the second group stage for the third consecutive season . Striker Thierry Henry scored his first hat @-@ trick in Europe for Arsenal against Roma on 27 November 2002 with the player stating ; " It 's wonderful to score a hat @-@ trick but it 's even more important that I did so in a game we 've won . " Arsenal failed to replicate their form at Roma , drawing their next four matches and losing to Valencia in the final match to finish third in their group and thus , out of the competition .
Arsenal entered the Champions League group stage in the 2003 – 04 season and faced Dynamo Kiev , Internazionale and Lokomotiv Moscow . Without a win in their first three matches , Arsenal faced an early exit from the competition but managed a victory against Dynamo Kiev , after defender Ashley Cole scored via a header . At the San Siro , Arsenal beat Internazionale 1 – 5 , in a performance described as " one of the greatest results in [ the club 's ] history " . A win in their final group game against Lokomotiv Moscow was enough for Arsenal to top their group and play an unseeded team in the last 16 . Arsenal eliminated Celta Vigo and faced fellow English club Chelsea at the quarter @-@ final stage . Going into the first leg , Arsenal were favourites , having played their London rivals three times during the course the season , winning each occasion . Former Dutch international Johan Cruyff backed Arsenal to win the competition , saying " If Arsenal win it playing football the way only they know how then Europe would be proud to have such champions " . In spite of Robert Pirès scoring a vital away goal at Stamford Bridge , Chelsea beat Arsenal 1 – 2 at Highbury to progress into the semi @-@ finals . A year later , Arsenal exited the Champions League after losing 2 – 3 to Bayern Munich on aggregate , in the last 16 stage .
= = = Regular qualification : 2005 to present = = =
Arsenal qualified for the group stages of the Champions League in the 2005 – 06 season , finishing first in a group containing Ajax , Sparta Prague and Thun . The club faced Real Madrid in the last 16 ; a solo goal by Henry at the Estadio Santiago Bernabéu in the first leg inflicted the home team 's first defeat in 18 Champions League matches . Arsenal produced a disciplined display at home a fortnight after to reach the quarter @-@ finals and become the sole English representative left in the competition . At home to Juventus , Arsenal won 2 – 0 , and a goalless draw at the Stadio delle Alpi meant the club progressed into the semi @-@ finals against Villarreal . In the club 's final European match at Higbhury , Kolo Touré scored a first @-@ half winner to give Arsenal a 1 – 0 win . A late penalty save by goalkeeper Jens Lehmann in the second leg sent Arsenal into the 2006 UEFA Champions League Final , staged at the Stade de France , Paris . The result , another goalless draw , was Arsenal 's tenth clean sheet in a row – a new competition record . Defender Sol Campbell , returning from injury praised the team performance in his post @-@ match interview : " It 's brilliant for us . It 's also great for the manager Arsène Wenger to get to the final in France – I 'm sure he will get a great reception . "
In the final against Barcelona , Lehmann was sent off in 18th minute for a professional foul on striker Samuel Eto 'o . Wenger reacted by substituting Robert Pirès for goalkeeper Manuel Almunia , thus altering the formation . In spite of the disadvantage , Arsenal took the lead in the 37th minute , after Henry 's free kick was headed in by Campbell . Henry missed a chance in the second half to give Arsenal a two @-@ nil lead before Eto 'o equalised with 14 minutes left . Substitute Henrik Larsson set up Juliano Belletti to score the winner for Barcelona . Wenger criticised referee Terje Hauge for sending off Lehmann , a view shared by club captain Henry and FIFA president Sepp Blatter .
As Arsenal finished fourth in the league , in the following season the club needed to play a third qualifying round , against Dinamo Zagreb in order to participate in the Champions League group stages . The team won 1 – 5 on aggregate , including a 3 – 0 victory in the first European match at the Emirates Stadium . Arsenal was eliminated in the Round of 16 stage , losing on the away goal ruling to PSV Eindhoven . In the 2007 – 08 season , Arsenal equalled their biggest home win in European football , scoring seven against Slavia Prague . The club beat holders Milan in the subsequent round , earning critical acclaim for their style of football , not least from Marcello Lippi : " It would be good for football if Arsenal could win . They play on the ground , they manoeuvre the ball , very , very well . It 's very fast and very technical . " At the quarter @-@ final stage , Liverpool defeated Arsenal 5 – 3 on aggregate to set up a semi @-@ final tie against Chelsea .
Arsenal progressed past the group stages of the 2008 – 09 Champions League season and beat Roma and Villarreal to face Manchester United in the semi @-@ finals . A 1 – 0 defeat at Old Trafford meant Arsenal needed to win by two clear goals to progress , but goals from Park Ji @-@ Sung and Cristiano Ronaldo in the first eleven minutes ended the club 's chances of reaching the 2009 UEFA Champions League Final . Wenger in his post @-@ match press conference described the match as " the most disappointing night of my career " , adding " I felt the fans were really up for a big night and to disappoint people who stand behind the team so much hurts . " Arsenal lost to holders Barcelona 5 – 3 on aggregate in the quarter @-@ finals the following season , and in spite of beating the Spanish club 2 – 1 at the Emirates Stadium in 2010 – 11 , Arsenal again were eliminated , this time at the Round of 16 . Arsenal exited at the same stage of the competition for the second consecutive season , against Milan . Having lost the away leg 4 – 0 , the team gave a valiant performance in the second leg at home , winning 3 – 0 on the night , but unable to find the final goal that would have taken the game to extra time .
In the 2012 – 13 season , Arsenal fell at the last 16 stage for the third time in three years , losing 3 – 1 to Bayern Munich at home , but managing to win 2 – 0 in the return leg , meaning they went out on the away goals rule . They were once again eliminated by Bayern Munich in the 2013 @-@ 14 season after losing 2 @-@ 0 at home , and drawing 1 @-@ 1 away at Munich . Monaco eliminated it in Round of 16 in the 2014 @-@ 15 season , and again by Barcelona in 2015 @-@ 16 .
= = Records = =
Arsenal was the first British side to defeat Real Madrid and Juventus away from home . The club was also the first to win against both Milanese teams : Internazionale and Milan at the San Siro . Goalkeeper Jens Lehmann kept ten consecutive clean sheets in the run @-@ in to the 2006 UEFA Champions League Final ; the defence went 995 minutes until conceding a goal . Against Hamburg in the UEFA Champions League group stage on 13 September 2006 , Arsenal became the first team in the competition 's history to field a first eleven of different nationalities .
Most appearances in European competition : Thierry Henry , 78
Most goals in European competition : Thierry Henry , 41
First European match : Copenhagen XI 1 – 7 Arsenal , Inter @-@ Cities Fairs Cup , first round , 25 September 1963
First goal scored in Europe : Johnny MacLeod , against Copenhagen XI
Biggest win :
Standard Liège 0 @-@ 7 Arsenal , in the Cup Winners Cup , 2 November 1993
Arsenal 7 – 0 Slavia Prague , in the UEFA Champions League , 23 October 2007
Biggest defeat : FC Bayern Munich 5 – 1 Arsenal , in the UEFA Champions League , 4 November 2015
Highest European home attendance : 73 @,@ 707 , against Lens in the UEFA Champions League
= = = By season = = =
Information correct as of 16 March 2016 .
Key
= = = By competition = = =
Information correct as of 16 March 2016 .
= = = By country = = =
Information correct as of 20 March 2015 .
= = Honours = =
|
= Frank McNamara ( VC ) =
Air Vice Marshal Francis Hubert ( Frank ) McNamara , VC , CB , CBE ( 4 April 1894 – 2 November 1961 ) was an Australian recipient of the Victoria Cross , the highest decoration for valour in the face of the enemy that can be awarded to a member of the British and Commonwealth forces . Serving with the Australian Flying Corps , he was honoured for his actions on 20 March 1917 , when he rescued a fellow pilot who had been forced down behind enemy lines . McNamara was the first Australian aviator — and the only one in World War I — to receive the Victoria Cross . He later became a senior commander in the Royal Australian Air Force ( RAAF ) .
Born and educated in Victoria , McNamara was a teacher when he joined the militia prior to World War I. In 1915 , he was selected for pilot training at Central Flying School , Point Cook , and transferred to the Australian Flying Corps the following year . He was based in the Middle Eastern Theatre with No. 1 Squadron when he earned the Victoria Cross . In 1921 , McNamara enlisted as a flying officer in the newly formed RAAF , rising to the rank of air vice marshal by 1942 . He held senior posts in England and Aden during World War II . Retiring from the Air Force in 1946 , McNamara continued to live in Britain until his death from heart failure in 1961 .
= = Early life = =
Born in Rushworth , Victoria , McNamara was the first of eight children to William Francis McNamara , a State Lands Department officer , and his wife Rosanna . He began his schooling in Rushworth , and completed his secondary education at Shepparton Agricultural High School , which he had entered via a scholarship . The family moved to Melbourne in 1910 .
McNamara joined the school cadets in 1911 , and was commissioned a second lieutenant in the 49th Battalion ( Brighton Rifles ) , a militia unit , in July 1913 . He became a teacher after graduating from Melbourne Teachers ' Training College in 1914 , and taught at various schools in Victoria . He also enrolled in the University of Melbourne , but his studies were interrupted by the outbreak of World War I.
= = World War I = =
= = = Militia to Australian Flying Corps = = =
As a militia officer , McNamara was mobilised for service in Australia when war was declared in August 1914 . After serving briefly at bases in Queenscliff and Point Nepean , Victoria , McNamara passed through Officers Training School at Broadmeadows in December . He began instructing at the Australian Imperial Force Training Depot , Broadmeadows , in February 1915 . Promoted to lieutenant in July , he immediately volunteered for a military aeronautics course at the Central Flying School , Point Cook .
Selected for flying training at Point Cook in August 1915 , McNamara made his first solo flight in a Bristol Boxkite on 18 September , and graduated as a pilot in October . On 6 January 1916 , he was assigned as adjutant to No. 1 Squadron , Australian Flying Corps ( also known until 1918 as No. 67 Squadron , Royal Flying Corps ) . In March , McNamara departed Melbourne for Egypt aboard HMAT Orsova , arriving in Suez the following month . He was seconded to No. 42 Squadron RFC in May to attend the Central Flying School at Upavon , England ; his secondment to the RFC was gazetted on 5 July 1916 .
Completing his course at Upavon , McNamara was posted back to Egypt in August , but was hospitalised on 8 September with orchitis . Discharged on 6 October , he served briefly as a flying instructor with No. 22 Squadron RFC , before returning to No. 1 Squadron . McNamara flew with C Flight , commanded by Captain ( later Air Marshal Sir ) Richard Williams . On his first sortie , a reconnaissance mission over Sinai , McNamara was unaware that his plane had been hit by anti @-@ aircraft fire ; he returned to base with his engine 's oil supply almost exhausted . Flying B.E.2s and Martinsydes , he undertook further scouting and bombing missions in the ensuing months .
= = = Victoria Cross = = =
On 20 March 1917 , McNamara , flying a Martinsyde , was one of four No. 1 Squadron pilots taking part in a raid against a Turkish railway junction near Gaza . Owing to a shortage of bombs , the aircraft were each armed with six specially modified 4 @.@ 5 @-@ inch howitzer shells . McNamara had successfully dropped three of his shells when the fourth exploded prematurely , badly wounded him in the leg with shrapnel , an effect he likened to being " hit with a sledgehammer " . Having turned to head back to base , he spotted a fellow squadron member from the same mission , Captain David Rutherford , on the ground beside his crashlanded B.E.2. Allied airmen had been hacked to death by enemy troops in similar situations , and McNamara saw that a company of Turkish cavalry was fast approaching Rutherford 's position . Despite the rough terrain and the gash in his leg , McNamara landed near Rutherford in an attempt to rescue him .
As there was no spare cockpit in the single @-@ seat Martinsyde , the downed pilot jumped onto McNamara 's wing and held the struts . McNamara crashed while attempting to take off because of the effects of his leg wound and Rutherford 's weight overbalancing the aircraft . The two men , who had escaped further injury in the accident , set fire to the Martinsyde and dashed back to Rutherford 's B.E.2. Rutherford repaired the engine while McNamara used his revolver against the attacking cavalry , who had opened fire on them . Two other No. 1 Squadron pilots overhead , Lieutenant ( later Air Marshal Sir ) Roy " Peter " Drummond and Lieutenant Alfred Ellis , also began strafing the enemy troops . McNamara managed to start the B.E.2 's engine and take off , with Rutherford in the observer 's cockpit . In severe pain and close to blacking out from loss of blood , McNamara flew the damaged aircraft 70 miles ( 110 km ) back to base at El Arish .
Having effected what was described in the Australian official history of the war as " a brilliant escape in the very nick of time and under hot fire " , McNamara " could only emit exhausted expletives " before he lost consciousness shortly after landing . Evacuated to hospital , he almost died following an allergic reaction to a routine tetanus injection . McNamara had to be given artificial respiration and stimulants to keep him alive , but recovered quickly . A contemporary news report declared that he was " soon sitting up , eating chicken and drinking champagne " . On 26 March , McNamara was recommended for the Victoria Cross by Brigadier General Geoffrey Salmond , General Officer Commanding Middle East Brigade , RFC . Drummond , Ellis , and Rutherford all wrote statements on 3 – 4 April attesting to their comrade 's actions , Rutherford declaring that " the risk of Lieut . MacNamara being killed or captured was so great that even had he not been wounded he would have been justified in not attempting my rescue – the fact of his already being wounded makes his action one of outstanding gallantry – his determination and resource and utter disregard of danger throughout the operation was worthy of the highest praise " . The first and only VC awarded to an Australian airman in World War I , McNamara 's decoration was promulgated in the London Gazette on 8 June 1917 :
Lt. Frank Hubert McNamara , Aus . Forces , R.F.C.
For most conspicuous bravery and devotion to duty during an aerial bomb attack upon a hostile construction train , when one of our pilots was forced to land behind the enemy 's lines .
Lt. McNamara , observing this pilot 's predicament and the fact that hostile cavalry were approaching , descended to his rescue . He did this under heavy rifle fire and in spite of the fact that he himself had been severely wounded in the thigh .
He landed about 200 yards from the damaged machine , the pilot of which climbed onto Lt. McNamara 's machine , and an attempt was made to rise . Owing , however , to his disabled leg , Lt. McNamara was unable to keep his machine straight , and it turned over . The two officers , having extricated themselves , immediately set fire to the machine and made their way across to the damaged machine , which they succeeded in starting .
Finally Lt. McNamara , although weak from loss of blood , flew this machine back to the aerodrome , a distance of seventy miles , and thus completed his comrade 's rescue .
Promoted to captain on 10 April 1917 , McNamara became a flight commander in No. 4 Squadron AFC ( also known until 1918 as No. 71 Squadron RFC ) , but was unable to continue flying due to the leg wound he suffered on 20 March . He was invalided back to Australia in August aboard HT Boorara , and given a hero 's welcome on arrival in Melbourne . Found to be medically unfit for active service , McNamara was discharged from the Australian Flying Corps on 31 January 1918 . Panic caused by the intrusion into Australian waters of the German raider Wolf resulted in him being recalled to the AFC and put in charge of an aerial reconnaissance unit based in South Gippsland , Victoria , flying a Royal Aircraft Factory F.E.2B and later a Maurice Farman Shorthorn . In September 1918 , he was posted as a flying instructor to Point Cook , where he saw out the remainder of the war .
= = Between the wars = =
Following the disbandment of the AFC , McNamara transferred to the Australian Air Corps ( AAC ) in April 1920 . He was not offered an appointment in the AAC initially , however , and secured one only after Captain Roy King protested the situation by giving up his own place in the new service in favour of McNamara , whom he described as " this very good and gallant officer " . McNamara was invested with his Victoria Cross by the Prince of Wales at Government House , Melbourne , on 26 May . He enlisted in the newly established Royal Australian Air Force ( RAAF ) in 1921 . Ranked flying officer ( honorary flight lieutenant ) , he was one of the original twenty @-@ one officers on the Air Force 's strength at its formation that March . Posted to RAAF Headquarters in Melbourne as Staff Officer Operations and Intelligence , McNamara was given command of No. 1 Flying Training School ( No. 1 FTS ) at Point Cook in July 1922 . He was promoted squadron leader in March 1924 and the following month married Hélène Bluntschli , a Belgian national he had met in Cairo during the war , at St Patrick 's Cathedral ; his best man was fellow officer Frank Lukis .
McNamara travelled to England in 1925 for two years exchange with the Royal Air Force , serving at No. 5 Flying Training School , RAF Sealand , and the Directorate of Training at the Air Ministry , London . Returning to Australia in November 1927 , he was appointed Second @-@ in @-@ Command No. 1 FTS . In 1928 , McNamara resumed his studies at the University of Melbourne , having earlier failed to pass the necessary exams to enter the RAF Staff College , Andover . A part @-@ time student at the university , he graduated with a Bachelor of Arts in International Relations ( second @-@ class honours ) in 1933 . McNamara became Commanding Officer No. 1 FTS in October 1930 , and was promoted to wing commander one year later . He was placed in charge of RAAF Station Laverton , Victoria , including No. 1 Aircraft Depot , in February 1933 . McNamara was raised to group captain in 1936 , and attended the Imperial Defence College , London , the following year . He was appointed a Commander of the Order of the British Empire ( CBE ) in the 1938 New Year Honours .
= = World War II = =
When World War II broke out in September 1939 , McNamara was serving as Air Liaison Officer at Australia House in London , a position he had held since January 1938 . Shortly before being promoted air commodore in December , he advocated establishing a reception base to act as a headquarters for the RAAF in England and " generally to watch the interests of Australian personnel " who were stationed there . By November 1940 he had reversed his position , in favour of an Air Ministry proposal to process personnel of all nationalities in one RAF base camp . In the event , RAAF Overseas Headquarters was formed on 1 December 1941 , with Air Marshal Richard Williams appointed Air Officer Commanding ( AOC ) , and McNamara Deputy AOC . McNamara became acting air vice marshal and acting AOC of RAAF Overseas Headquarters when Williams returned to Australia in January 1942 for what was expected to be a temporary visit ; Williams was subsequently posted to Washington , D.C. and McNamara retained command of the headquarters until the end of the year .
McNamara was appointed AOC British Forces Aden in late 1942 , and arrived to take up the posting on 9 January 1943 . Described in the official history of Australia in the war as a " backwater " , British Forces Aden 's main functions were conducting anti @-@ submarine patrols and escorting convoys . McNamara flew on these missions whenever he could , generally as an observer , but enemy contact was rare . He was appointed a Companion of the Order of the Bath ( CB ) in the 1945 New Year Honours , and returned to London in March . That month McNamara was deeply affected by the loss of his close friend Peter Drummond , who had helped keep attacking cavalry at bay during his Victoria Cross action in 1917 . Drummond 's Consolidated B @-@ 24 Liberator disappeared near the Azores en route to Canada and all aboard were presumed killed ; McNamara had to break the news to his widow , Isabel . McNamara 's health had also suffered from exposure to the desert dust in Aden , and he was unable to take up his next position as the RAAF 's representative at the Ministry of Defence until September . His entire war was spent outside Australia .
= = Retirement and legacy = =
McNamara was summarily retired from the RAAF in 1946 , along with several other senior commanders and veterans of World War I , officially to make way for the advancement of younger and equally capable officers . In any case , his role overseas had become redundant . He was discharged from the Air Force on 11 July . In May 1946 , the British government offered McNamara the position of Senior Education Control Officer in Westphalia , Germany , under the auspices of the Allied Control Commission . He later became Deputy Director of Education for the British Zone of Occupation . McNamara continued to live in England after completing his work with the Commission in October 1947 , and served on the National Coal Board in London from 1947 to 1959 . He died of hypertensive heart failure on 2 November 1961 , aged 67 , after suffering a fall at his home in Buckinghamshire . Survived by his wife and two children , he was buried at St Joseph 's Priory , Austin Wood , Gerrards Cross , following a large funeral .
Embittered by his dismissal from the RAAF and the meagre severance he received from the Australian Government , McNamara insisted that his Victoria Cross not be returned to Australia after his death ; his family donated it to the RAF Museum , London . A fellow No. 1 Squadron pilot , Lieutenant ( later Air Vice Marshal ) Adrian Cole , described McNamara as " quiet , scholarly , loyal and beloved by all ... the last Officer for whom that high honour would have been predicted " . He was one of the few Victoria Cross recipients to subsequently attain senior rank in the armed services , though RAAF historian Alan Stephens considered that his appointments were " in the main routine " and that his one great deed led to " a degree of fame that he perhaps found burdensome " . Biographer Chris Coulthard @-@ Clark summed up McNamara 's " dilemma " as that of " an essentially ordinary man " thrust into the limelight by one " truly amazing episode " . His name is borne by Frank McNamara Park in Shepparton , Victoria , and the Frank McNamara VC Club at Oakey Army Aviation Centre , Queensland .
|
= 89th Military Police Brigade ( United States ) =
The 89th Military Police Brigade is a military police brigade of the United States Army based at Fort Hood , Texas . It is a subordinate unit of III Corps .
Activated in Vietnam in the midst of the Vietnam War , the unit provided military police services for two corp @-@ sized forces operating in the region . It played a supporting role throughout the entire conflict , staying in theater for the entire war and earning fifteen campaign streamers .
Since then , the brigade has seen duty in numerous areas of operation throughout the world and performed numerous duties including disaster relief for Hurricane Hugo as well as service in Guantanamo Bay . It also played a supporting role in the Gulf War . Recently the brigade served two tours of duty in support of Operation Iraqi Freedom .
= = Organization = =
The brigade is subordinate to III Corps . It is headquartered at Fort Hood , Texas . Almost 1 @,@ 000 soldiers of the brigade are stationed there .
The Brigade contains five subordinate battalions of military police :
93D Military Police Battalion , at Fort Bliss
720th Military Police Battalion , at Fort Hood
97th Military Police Battalion ( Formerly 924th ) , at Fort Riley
759th Military Police Battalion , at Fort Carson
= = History = =
= = = Vietnam War = = =
The 89th Military Police Brigade was originally activated as a " group " , roughly the size of a modern regiment . The 89th Military Police Group was constituted in the Regular Army on 19 February 1966 and activated on 15 March of that year in the Republic of Vietnam . The mission of the 89th Military Police Group was to provide general military police support for the III Corps and IV Corps Tactical Zones . The group stayed in Vietnam in support of the two corps ' areas of operation . As the group was a supporting unit , it never saw front line combat . However , it did receive all 15 campaign streamers that could be earned for Vietnam service . With the removal of US forces from Vietnam , the organization was inactivated on 21 December 1971 .
On 13 September 1972 the unit was activated at Fort Lewis , Washington . The 89th Military Police Group was designed to command and control the operations of three to five military police battalions and other assigned or attached units . Additionally , it provided a Provost Marshal staff section to the corps headquarters while assigned as their senior military police organization .
The 89th Military Police Group remained at Fort Lewis until 21 February 1976 when the colors were transferred to Fort Hood , Texas . On 16 July 1981 the 89th Military Police Group was reorganized as the 89th Military Police Brigade .
= = = Vietnam War = = =
The 89th Military Police Brigade was originally activated as a " group " , roughly the size of a modern regiment . The 89th Military Police Group was constituted in the Regular Army on 19 February 1966 and activated on 15 March of that year in the Republic of Vietnam . The mission of the 89th Military Police Group was to provide general military police support for the III Corps and IV Corps Tactical Zones . The group stayed in Vietnam in support of the two corps ' areas of operation . As the group was a supporting unit , it never saw front line combat . However , it did receive all 15 campaign streamers that could be earned for Vietnam service . With the removal of US forces from Vietnam , the organization was inactivated on 21 December 1971 .
On 13 September 1972 the unit was activated at Fort Lewis , Washington . The 89th Military Police Group was designed to command and control the operations of three to five military police battalions and other assigned or attached units . Additionally , it provided a Provost Marshal staff section to the corps headquarters while assigned as their senior military police organization .
The 89th Military Police Group remained at Fort Lewis until 21 February 1976 when the colors were transferred to Fort Hood , Texas . On 16 July 1981 the 89th Military Police Group was reorganized as the 89th Military Police Brigade . 1973 & 1974 special members of the 89th PM Group were covertly assigned to Yakima base in Eastern Washington , for special assignments on CID Trafficking via the ASA / NSA center located under ground . PFC Scott Barnes was one member working under orders from MG Gard of Ft . Lewis and Captain Colbert of the MP unit to investigate narcotics trafficking . Source Cited US Congressional Hearings 1986 thru 1989 . Classified Hearing as well as in the Book BOHICA 1987 by Scott Barnes and Kiss the Boy 's Goodbye by Monika Jensen 2014
= = = Operation Iraqi Freedom = = =
The 89th Military Police Brigade deployed to Iraq in support of Operation Iraqi Freedom early 2004 , where it took over the mission previously tasked to the 18th Military Police Brigade on 31 January 2004 . At that time the brigade assumed responsibility for the Iraqi Police training mission as well as the majority of all the Military Police Units in Iraq at that time . The unit returned to Fort Hood in December 2004 .
The 89th Military Police Brigade deployed for a second tour in August 2006 to the Iraqi theater of operation in support of Operation Iraqi Freedom 2006 – 2008 . During the deployment , it was composed of over 5 @,@ 000 military police soldiers in the theater . Brigade responsibilities included corrections and security operations . It deployed K @-@ 9 units during some operations . The brigade 's primary responsibility , though , was the training of Iraqi police units . The brigade focused on local police units throughout the country , as another MP brigade handled the national police . The brigade commander would brief US Department of Defense officials in The Pentagon on the current situation , live from Iraq . It suffered several casualties , including a soldier killed by sniper fire , a soldier killed by a suicide car bomb , and two soldiers who died of non @-@ combat related causes . The brigade returned home in October 2007 , replaced again by the 18th Military Police Brigade . After this , the brigade resumed its policing roles at Fort Hood .
During its second deployment , one of the unit commanders , William H. Steele , became infamous for being accused of breaching military law by aiding the enemy . He was acquitted of the charges , though he was convicted of other charges and subsequently dismissed from the military .
= = = Operation Enduring Freedom = = =
The 410th Military Police Company deployed to Afghanistan in May 2009 and returned in May 2010 . The 116th Military Police Company , 97th MP BN , 89TH MP BDE deployed to FOB Shinwar , Nangarhar Province , Afghanistan from May 2010 to May 2011 . The 401st and 64th Military Police Companies deployed to Afghanistan in May 2010 and returned in April of 2011 . The 411th Military Police Company deployed to Kandahar Province in May 2011 and returned to Fort Hood in May 2012 . HHD , 720th Military Police Battalion deployed in December 2011 and returned in December 2012 .
= = Honors = =
= = = Unit decorations = = =
= = = Campaign streamers = = =
|
= 253 Mathilde =
253 Mathilde / məˈtɪldə / is a main @-@ belt asteroid about 50 km in diameter that was discovered by Johann Palisa in 1885 . It has a relatively elliptical orbit that requires more than four years to circle the Sun . This asteroid has an unusually slow rate of rotation , requiring 17 @.@ 4 days to complete a 360 ° revolution about its axis . It is a primitive C @-@ type asteroid , which means the surface has a high proportion of carbon ; giving it a dark surface that reflects only 4 % of the light that falls on it .
This asteroid was visited by the NEAR Shoemaker spacecraft during June 1997 , on its way to asteroid 433 Eros . During the flyby , the spacecraft imaged a hemisphere of the asteroid , revealing many large craters that have gouged out depressions in the surface . It was the first C @-@ type asteroid to be explored and , until 21 Lutetia was visited in 2010 , it was the largest asteroid to be visited by a spacecraft .
= = Observation history = =
In 1880 , Johann Palisa , the director of the Austrian Naval Observatory , was offered a position as an assistant at the newly completed Vienna Observatory . Although the job represented a demotion for Johann , it gave him access to the new 27 @-@ inch ( 690 mm ) refractor , the largest telescope in the world at that time . By this point Johann had already discovered 27 asteroids , and he would employ the Vienna 27 @-@ inch ( 690 mm ) and 12 @-@ inch ( 300 mm ) instruments to find an additional 94 asteroids before he retired .
Among his discoveries was the asteroid 253 Mathilde , found on November 12 , 1885 . The initial orbital elements of the asteroid were then computed by V. A. Lebeuf , another Austrian astronomer working at the observatory . The name of the asteroid was suggested by Lebeuf , after Mathilde , the wife of Moritz Leowy — who was the vice director of the Paris Observatory .
In 1995 , ground @-@ based observations determined that 253 Mathilde is a C @-@ type asteroid . It was also found to have an unusually long period of rotation .
On June 27 , 1997 , the NEAR Shoemaker spacecraft passed within 1 @,@ 212 km of 253 Mathilde while moving at a velocity of 9 @.@ 93 km / s . This close approach allowed the spacecraft to capture over 500 images of the surface , and provided data for more accurate determinations of the asteroid 's dimensions and mass ( based on gravitational perturbation of the spacecraft ) . However , only one hemisphere of 253 Mathilde was imaged during the fly @-@ by . This was only the third asteroid to be imaged from a nearby distance , following 951 Gaspra and 243 Ida .
= = Description = =
253 Mathilde is very dark , with an albedo comparable to fresh asphalt , and is thought to share the same composition as CI1 or CM2 carbonaceous chondrite meteorites , with a surface dominated by phyllosilicate minerals . The asteroid has a number of extremely large craters , with the individual craters being named for coal fields and basins around the world . The two largest craters , Ishikari ( 29 @.@ 3 km ) and Karoo ( 33 @.@ 4 km ) , are as wide as the asteroid 's average radius . The impacts appear to have spalled large volumes off the asteroid , as suggested by the angular edges of the craters . No differences in brightness or colour were visible in the craters and there was no appearance of layering , so the asteroid 's interior must be very homogeneous . There are indications of material movement along the downslope direction .
The density measured by NEAR Shoemaker , 1 @,@ 300 kg / m ³ , is less than half that of a typical carbonaceous chondrite ; this may indicate that the asteroid is very loosely packed rubble pile . The same is true of several C @-@ type asteroids studied by ground @-@ based telescopes equipped with adaptive optics systems ( 45 Eugenia , 90 Antiope , 87 Sylvia and 121 Hermione ) . Up to 50 % of the interior volume of 253 Mathilde consists of open space . However , the existence of a 20 @-@ km @-@ long scarp may indicate that the asteroid does have some structural strength , so it could contain some large internal components . The low interior density is an inefficient transmitter of impact shock through the asteroid , which also helps to preserve the surface features to a high degree .
Mathilde 's orbit is eccentric , taking it to the outer reaches of the main belt . Nonetheless , the orbit lies entirely between the orbits of Mars and Jupiter ; it does not cross the planetary orbits . It also has one of the slowest rotation periods of the known asteroids — most asteroids have a rotation period in the range of 2 – 24 hours . Because of the slow rotation rate , NEAR Shoemaker was only able to photograph 60 % of the asteroid 's surface . The slow rate of rotation may be accounted for by a satellite orbiting the asteroid , but a search of the NEAR images revealed none larger than 10 km in diameter out to 20 times the radius of 253 Mathilde .
|
= Gary Johnson =
Gary Earl Johnson ( born January 1 , 1953 ) is an American businessman , politician and the Libertarian Party nominee for President of the United States in the 2016 election . He served as the 29th Governor of New Mexico from 1995 to 2003 as a member of the Republican Party . He was the Libertarian Party 's nominee for President of the United States in the 2012 election .
Johnson announced his candidacy for president on April 21 , 2011 , as a Republican , on a libertarian platform emphasizing the United States public debt and a balanced budget through a 43 % reduction of all federal government spending , protection of civil liberties , an immediate end to the War in Afghanistan and his advocacy of the FairTax .
On December 28 , 2011 , after being excluded from the majority of the Republican Party 's presidential debates and failing to gain traction while campaigning for the New Hampshire primary , he withdrew his candidacy for the Republican nomination and announced that he would continue his presidential campaign as a candidate for the nomination of the Libertarian Party . He won the Libertarian Party nomination on May 5 , 2012 . His chosen running mate Judge James P. Gray of California won the vice @-@ presidential nomination . The Johnson / Gray ticket received 0 @.@ 99 % of the popular vote , amounting to 1 @.@ 27 million votes , more than all other minor candidates combined . It was the best showing in the Libertarian Party 's history by vote count .
On January 6 , 2016 , Johnson announced his candidacy for the Libertarian nomination once again in 2016 , and in May he selected former Republican Governor of Massachusetts William Weld as his running mate . On May 29 , 2016 , Johnson won the Libertarian nomination on the second ballot with 55 @.@ 8 % of the delegates .
= = Early life and career = =
Johnson was born on January 1 , 1953 , in Minot , North Dakota , the son of Lorraine B. ( née Bostow ) , who worked for the Bureau of Indian Affairs , and Earl W. Johnson , a public school teacher . Johnson graduated from Sandia High School in Albuquerque in 1971 , where he was on the school track team . He attended the University of New Mexico from 1971 to 1975 and graduated with a Bachelor of Science in political science . While at UNM , he joined the Sigma Alpha Epsilon fraternity . It was there that he met his future wife , Denise " Dee " Simms . While in college , Johnson earned money as a door @-@ to @-@ door handyman . His success in that industry encouraged him to start his own business , Big J Enterprises , in 1976 . When he started the business , which focused on mechanical contracting , Johnson was its only employee . His major break with the firm was receiving a large contract from Intel 's expansion in Rio Rancho , which increased Big J 's revenue to $ 38 million . Over @-@ burdened by his success , Johnson enrolled in a time management course at night school , which he credits with making him heavily goal @-@ driven . He eventually grew Big J into a multimillion @-@ dollar corporation with over 1 @,@ 000 employees . By the time he sold the company in 1999 , it was one of New Mexico 's leading construction companies .
He entered politics for the first time by running for Governor of New Mexico in 1994 on a fiscally conservative , low @-@ tax and anti @-@ crime platform . Johnson won the Republican Party of New Mexico 's gubernatorial nomination , and defeated incumbent Democratic governor Bruce King . During his tenure as governor , Johnson became known for his low @-@ tax libertarian views , adhering to policies of tax and bureaucracy reduction supported by a cost – benefit analysis rationale . He cut the 10 % annual growth in the budget : in part , due to his use of the gubernatorial veto 200 times during his first six months in office . Johnson set state and national records for his use of veto and line @-@ item veto powers : estimated to have been more than the other 49 contemporary governors combined , which gained him the nicknames " Veto Johnson " and " Governor Veto " .
Johnson successfully sought re @-@ election in 1998 . In his second term , he concentrated on the issue of school voucher reforms , as well as campaigning for marijuana decriminalization and legalization , and opposition to the War on Drugs . Term limited , Johnson could not run for re @-@ election at the end of his second term . After leaving office , Johnson founded the non @-@ profit Our America Initiative in 2009 , a political advocacy committee seeking to promote policies such as free enterprise , foreign non @-@ interventionism , limited government and privatization . He endorsed the Republican presidential candidacy of Congressman Ron Paul in the 2008 election .
= = Governor of New Mexico = =
= = = First term = = =
Johnson entered politics in 1994 , with the intention of running for governor and was advised by " Republican Elders " to run for the State Legislature instead . Despite their advice , Johnson spent $ 500 @,@ 000 of his own money and entered the race with the intent of bringing a " common sense business approach " to the office . Johnson 's campaign slogan was " People before Politics " . His platform emphasized tax cuts , job creation , state government spending growth restraint , and law and order . He won the Republican nomination , defeating state legislator Richard P. Cheney by 34 % to 33 % , with John Dendahl and former governor David F. Cargo in third and fourth . Johnson subsequently won the general election , defeating the incumbent Democratic Governor Bruce King by 50 % to 40 % . Johnson was elected in a nationally Republican year , although party registration in the state of New Mexico at the time was 2 @-@ to @-@ 1 Democratic .
As governor , Johnson followed a strict small government approach . According to former New Mexico Republican National Committee member Mickey D. Barnett , " Any time someone approached him about legislation for some purpose , his first response always was to ask if government should be involved in that to begin with . " He vetoed 200 of 424 bills in his first six months in office — a national record of 47 % of all legislation — and used the line @-@ item veto on most remaining bills . In office , Johnson fulfilled his campaign promise to reduce the 10 % annual growth of the state budget . In his first budget , Johnson proposed a wide range of tax cuts , including a repeal of the prescription drug tax , a $ 47 million income tax cut , and a 6 cents per gallon gasoline tax cut . However , of these , only the gasoline tax cut was passed . During the November 1995 federal government shutdown , he joined 20 other Republican governors who called on the Republican leadership in Congress to stand firm in negotiations against the Clinton administration in budget negotiations ; in the article reporting on the letter and concomitant news conference he was quoted as calling for eliminating the budget deficit through proportional cuts across the budget . Although Johnson worked to reduce overall state spending , in his first term , he raised education spending by nearly a third . When drop @-@ out rates and test scores showed little improvement , Johnson changed his tactics and began advocating for school vouchers — a key issue in budget battles of his second term as governor .
= = = Second term = = =
In 1998 , Johnson ran for re @-@ election as governor against Democratic Albuquerque Mayor Martin Chavez . In his campaign , Johnson promised to continue the policies of his first term : improving schools ; cutting state spending , taxes , and bureaucracy ; and frequent use of his veto and line @-@ item veto power . Fielding a strong Hispanic candidate in a 40 % Hispanic state , the Democrats were expected to oust Johnson , but Johnson won by a 55 % -to @-@ 45 % margin : making him the first Governor of New Mexico to serve two successive four @-@ year terms after term limits were expanded to two terms in 1991 . Johnson made the promotion of a school voucher system a " hallmark issue " of his second term . In 1999 , he proposed the first statewide voucher system in America , which would have enrolled 100 @,@ 000 students in its first year . That year , he vetoed two budgets that failed to include a voucher program and a government shutdown was threatened , but ultimately yielded to Democratic majorities in both houses of the New Mexico Legislature , who opposed the plan . Johnson signed the budget , but line @-@ item vetoed a further $ 21m , or 0 @.@ 5 % , from the legislative plan . In 1999 , Johnson became one of the highest @-@ ranking elected officials in the US to advocate the legalization of marijuana . Saying the War on Drugs was " an expensive bust " , he advocated the decriminalization of marijuana use and concentration on harm @-@ reduction measures for all other illegal drugs . " He compared attempts to enforce the nation 's drug laws with the failed attempt at alcohol prohibition . Half of what government spends on police , courts and prisons is to deal with drug offenders . " He suggested that drug abuse be treated as a health issue , not as a criminal issue . His approach to the issue garnered supportive notice from conservative icon William F. Buckley , as well as the Cato Institute and Rolling Stone .
In 2000 , Johnson proposed a more ambitious voucher program than he had proposed the year before , under which each parent would receive $ 3 @,@ 500 per child for education at any private or parochial school . The Democrats sought $ 90m extra school funding without school vouchers , and questioned Johnson 's request for more funding for state @-@ run prisons , having opposed his opening of two private prisons . Negotiations between the governor and the legislature were contentious , again nearly leading to a government shutdown . In 2000 , New Mexico was devastated by the Cerro Grande Fire . Johnson 's handling of the disaster earned him accolades from The Denver Post , which observed that :
Johnson ..... was all over the Cerro Grande Fire last week . He helped reporters understand where the fire was headed when low @-@ level Forest Service officials couldn 't , ran herd over the bureaucratic process of getting state and federal agencies and the National Guard involved , and even helped put out some of the fire with his feet . On a tour of Los Alamos last Wednesday , when he saw small flames spreading across a lawn , he had his driver stop his car . He jumped out and stomped on the flames , as did his wife and some of his staffers .
Johnson 's leadership during the fire was praised by Democratic Congressman Tom Udall , who said : " I think the real test of leadership is when you have circumstances like this . He 's called on his reserves of energy and has just been a really excellent leader under very difficult circumstances here . " Johnson rebuffed efforts by the Libertarian Party to draft him in the 2000 presidential election , stating himself to be a Republican with no interest in running for president .
= = = Reception = = =
Commentator Andrew Sullivan quoted a claim that Johnson " is highly regarded in the state for his outstanding leadership during two terms as governor . He slashed the size of state government during his term and left the state with a large budget surplus . " In an interview in Reason magazine in January 2001 , Johnson 's accomplishments in office were described as follows : " no tax increases in six years , a major road building program , shifting Medicaid to managed care , constructing two new private prisons , canning 1 @,@ 200 state employees , and vetoing a record number of bills " . According to one New Mexico paper , " Johnson left the state fiscally solid " , and was " arguably the most popular governor of the decade … leaving the state with a $ 1 billion budget surplus . " The Washington Times reported that when Johnson left office , " the size of state government had been substantially reduced and New Mexico was enjoying a large budget surplus . "
According to a profile of Johnson in the National Review , " During his tenure , he vetoed more bills than the other 49 governors combined — 750 in total , one third of which had been introduced by Republican legislators . Johnson also used his line @-@ item @-@ veto power thousands of times . He credits his heavy veto pen for eliminating New Mexico 's budget deficit and cutting the growth rate of New Mexico 's government in half . " According to the Myrtle Beach Sun News , Johnson " said his numerous vetoes , only two of which were overridden , stemmed from his philosophy of looking at all things for their cost – benefit ratio and his axe fell on Republicans as well as Democrats " .
While in office , Johnson was criticized for opposing funding for an independent study of private prisons after a series of riots and killings at the facilities . Martin Chavez , his opponent in the 1998 New Mexico gubernatorial race , criticized Johnson for his frequent vetoing of programs , suggesting that it resulted in New Mexico 's low economic and social standing nationally . Journalist Mark Ames described Johnson as " a hard @-@ core conservative " who " ruled the state like a right @-@ wing authoritarian " and only embraced marijuana legalization in his second term for populist gain . This was mainly in reference to a commercial from Johnson 's reelection campaign , featuring Johnson saying that a felon in New Mexico would serve " every lousy second " of their prison sentence . Johnson insisted however that the commercial was directed at " the guy who 's got his gun out " rather than non @-@ violent drug offenders .
= = = Post governorship = = =
Johnson was term limited and could not run for a third consecutive term as governor in 2002 . In the 2008 presidential election campaign , Johnson endorsed Ron Paul for the Republican nomination , " because of his commitment to less government , greater liberty , and lasting prosperity for America . " Johnson spoke at Paul 's " Rally for the Republic " on September 2 , 2008 .
Johnson serves on the Advisory Council of Students for Sensible Drug Policy , a student nonprofit organization which advocates for drug policy reform .
As of April 2011 , he serves on the board of directors of Students For Liberty , a nonprofit libertarian organization . His first book , Seven Principles of Good Government , was published on August 1 , 2012 .
= = 2012 presidential campaign = =
In the 2012 United States presidential election , Johnson received 0 @.@ 99 % of the popular vote , a total of 1 @,@ 275 @,@ 971 votes . This was the best result in the Libertarian Party 's history by raw vote number , though under the 1 @.@ 1 percentage of the vote won by Ed Clark in 1980 .
= = = Early history = = =
In 2009 , Johnson began indicating interest in running for president in the 2012 election . In the April 20 , 2009 edition of The American Conservative magazine , Bill Kauffman told readers to " keep an eye out " for a Johnson presidential campaign in 2012 , reporting that Johnson had told him that " he was keeping his options open for 2012 " and that " he may take a shot at the Republican presidential nomination in 2012 as an antiwar , anti @-@ Fed , pro @-@ personal liberties , slash @-@ government @-@ spending candidate — in other words , a Ron Paul libertarian " . During a June 24 , 2009 appearance on Fox News 's Freedom Watch , host Judge Andrew Napolitano asked Johnson if he would run for president in 2012 , to which Johnson responded that he thought it would be inappropriate to openly express his desires before President Obama is given the opportunity to prove himself , but he followed up that statement by saying " it appears personal freedoms are being shoveled out the window more and more . "
In an October 26 , 2009 interview with the Santa Fe New Mexican 's Steve Terrell , Johnson announced his decision to form an advocacy committee called the Our America Initiative to help him raise funds and promote small government ideas . In December 2009 , Johnson asked strategist Ron Nielson of NSON Opinion Strategy , who has worked with Johnson since 1993 when he ran his successful gubernatorial campaign , to organize the Our American Initiative as a 501 ( c ) ( 4 ) committee . Nielson serves as a senior advisor to Our America Initiative . The stated focus of the organization is to " speak out on issues regarding topics such as government efficiency , lowering taxes , ending the war on drugs , protecting civil liberties , revitalizing the economy and promoting entrepreneurship and privatization " . The move prompted speculation among media pundits and Johnson 's supporters that he might be laying the groundwork for a 2012 presidential run . Throughout 2010 , Johnson repeatedly deflected questions about a 2012 presidential bid by saying his 501 ( c ) ( 4 ) status prevented him from expressing a desire to run for federal office on politics . However , he was outspoken about the issues affecting the country , particularly " the size and cost of government " and the " deficits and debt that truly threaten to consume the U.S. economy , and which represent the single greatest threat to our national security . "
In February 2011 , Johnson was a featured speaker at both the Conservative Political Action Conference ( CPAC ) and the Republican Liberty Caucus . At CPAC , " the crowd liked him — even as he pushed some of his more controversial points . " Johnson tied with New Jersey Governor Chris Christie for third in the CPAC Straw Poll , trailing only Ron Paul and Mitt Romney ( and ahead of such notables as former Speaker of the House Newt Gingrich , former Minnesota Governor Tim Pawlenty , Indiana Governor Mitch Daniels and former Alaska Governor and 2008 vice presidential candidate Sarah Palin ) . David Weigel of Slate called Johnson the second @-@ biggest winner of the conference , writing that his " third @-@ place showing in the straw poll gave Johnson his first real media hook … He met tons of reporters , commanded a small scrum after the vote , and is a slightly lighter shade of dark horse now . "
= = = Republican presidential candidacy = = =
On April 21 , 2011 Johnson announced via Twitter , " I am running for president . " He followed this announcement with a speech at the New Hampshire State House in Concord , New Hampshire . He was the first of an eventually large field to announce his candidacy for the Republican presidential nomination . Johnson again chose Ron Nielson of NSON Opinion Strategy a director for both of his New Mexico gubernatorial campaigns , as his presidential campaign manager and senior advisor . The campaign was headquartered in Salt Lake City , Utah where Nielson 's offices are located . Johnson 's economics advisor was Harvard economics professor Jeffrey Miron . Initially , Johnson hoped Ron Paul would not run for president so that Johnson could galvanize Paul 's network of libertarian @-@ minded voters , and he even traveled to Houston to tell Paul of his decision to run in person , but Paul announced his candidacy on May 13 , 2011 .
Johnson participated in the first of the Republican presidential debates , hosted by Fox News in South Carolina on May 5 , 2011 , appearing on stage with Herman Cain , Ron Paul , Tim Pawlenty , and Rick Santorum . Mitt Romney and Michele Bachmann both declined to debate . Johnson was excluded from the next three debates on June 13 ( hosted by CNN in New Hampshire ) , August 11 ( hosted by Fox News in Iowa ) , and September 7 ( hosted by CNN in California ) . After the first exclusion , Johnson made a 43 @-@ minute video responding to each of the debate questions , which he posted on YouTube . The first exclusion , which was widely publicized , gave Johnson " a little bump " in name recognition and produced " a small uptick " in donations . But " the long term consequences were dismal . " For the financial quarter ending June 30 , Johnson raised a mere $ 180 @,@ 000 . Fox News decided that because Johnson polled at least 2 % in five recent polls , he could participate in a September 22 debate in Florida , which it co @-@ hosted with the Florida Republican Party ( the party objected to Johnson 's inclusion ) . Johnson participated , appearing on stage with Michele Bachmann , Herman Cain , Newt Gingrich , Jon Huntsman , Ron Paul , Rick Perry , Mitt Romney , and Rick Santorum . During the debate , Johnson delivered what many media outlets , including the Los Angeles Times , and Time , called the best line of the night : " My next @-@ door neighbor 's two dogs have created more shovel ready jobs than this administration . " Entertainment Weekly opined that Johnson had won the debate .
= = = Libertarian presidential nomination and campaign = = =
Although Johnson had focused the majority of his campaign activities on the New Hampshire primary , he announced on November 29 , 2011 that he would no longer campaign there due to his inability to gain traction with less than a month until the primary . There was speculation in the media that he might run as a Libertarian Party candidate instead . Johnson acknowledged that he was considering such a move . In December , Politico reported that Johnson would quit the Republican primaries and announce his intention to seek the Libertarian Party nomination at a December 28 press conference . He also encouraged his supporters to vote for Ron Paul in 2012 Republican presidential primaries .
On December 28 , 2011 , Johnson formally withdrew his candidacy for the Republican presidential nomination , and declared his candidacy for the 2012 presidential nomination of the Libertarian Party in Santa Fe , New Mexico . On May 5 , 2012 , at the 2012 Libertarian National Convention , Johnson received the Libertarian Party 's official nomination for president in the 2012 election , by a vote of 419 votes to 152 votes for second @-@ place candidate R. Lee Wrights . In his acceptance speech , Johnson asked the convention 's delegates to nominate as his running mate Judge Jim Gray of California . Gray subsequently received the party 's vice @-@ presidential nomination on the first ballot .
Johnson spent the early months of his campaign making media appearances on television programs such as The Daily Show with Jon Stewart and Red Eye w / Greg Gutfeld . Starting in September 2012 , Johnson embarked on a three @-@ week tour of college campuses throughout the US . On October 23 , 2012 , Gary Johnson participated in a third party debate that was aired on C @-@ SPAN , RT America , and Al Jazeera English . A post @-@ debate online election allowed people to choose two candidates from the debate they thought had won to face each other head to head in a run @-@ off debate . Gary Johnson and Jill Stein won the poll . They debated in Washington , D.C. , on November 5 , 2012 .
Johnson stated that his goal was to win at least 5 percent of the vote , as winning 5 percent would allow Libertarian Party candidates equal ballot access and federal funding during the next election cycle . In a national Gallup poll of likely registered voters conducted June 7 through June 10 , 2012 , Johnson took 3 % of the vote , while a Gallup poll conducted September 6 through September 9 , 2012 , showed Johnson taking 1 % of likely voters . A Zogby poll released July 13 , 2012 , revealed Johnson took 5 @.@ 3 % of likely voters , while a Zogby poll released September 23 , 2012 , showed Johnson taking 2 % of likely voters . The final results showed Johnson polling nearly 1 @.@ 3 million votes and 1 @.@ 0 % of the popular vote . This established a Libertarian Party record for total votes won in a presidential election and the second @-@ highest Libertarian percentage ever , behind Ed Clark 's 1 @.@ 1 % in 1980 . Despite falling short of his stated goal of 5 % , Johnson stated , " Ours is a mission accomplished " . In regards to a future presidential bid , he said " it is too soon to be talking about 2016 " .
= = Post @-@ 2012 elections = =
Since the 2012 elections , Johnson has continued to criticize the Obama administration on various issues . In an article for The Guardian , Johnson called on United States Attorney General Eric Holder to let individual states legalize marijuana . In a Google Hangout hosted by Johnson in June 2013 , he criticized the US government 's lack of transparency and due process in regards to the NSA 's domestic surveillance programs . He also said that he would not rule out running as a Republican again in the future .
= = = Our America Initiative PAC = = =
In December 2013 , Johnson announced the founding of his own Super PAC , Our America Initiative PAC . The Super PAC is intended to support libertarian @-@ minded causes . “ From the realities of government @-@ run healthcare setting in to the continuing disclosures of the breadth of NSA ’ s domestic spying , more Americans than ever are ready to take a serious look at candidates who offer real alternatives to business @-@ as @-@ usual , ” the release announcing the PAC said .
= = = CEO of Cannabis Sativa Inc . = = =
In July 2014 , Johnson was named president and CEO of Cannabis Sativa Inc . , a Nevada @-@ based company that aims primarily to sell medical cannabis products in states where medicinal and / or recreational cannabis is legal .
= = 2016 presidential campaign = =
In an April 2014 , Reddit " Ask Me Anything " session , Johnson stated that he hoped to run for president again in 2016 . On whether he would run as a Libertarian or a Republican , he stated that " I would love running as a Libertarian because I would have the least amount of explaining to do . "
In November 2014 , Johnson affirmed his intention to run for the 2016 Libertarian nomination . In July 2015 , Johnson reiterated his intentions for a presidential campaign but stated he was not announcing anything imminently : " I just think there are more downsides than upsides to announcing at this point , and , look , I don ’ t have any delusions about the process . In retrospect , 90 percent of the time I spent [ trying to become president ] ended up to be wasted time . "
In January 2016 , Johnson resigned from his post as CEO of Cannabis Sativa , Inc . , to pursue political opportunities , hinting to a 2016 presidential run .
On January 6 , 2016 , Johnson declared that he would seek the Libertarian nomination for the presidency . On May 18 , Johnson named former Massachusetts Governor William Weld as his running mate .
On May 29 , 2016 , Johnson received the Libertarian nomination on the second ballot .
= = Political positions = =
Johnson 's views have been described as fiscally conservative and socially liberal with a philosophy of limited government and military non @-@ interventionism . He has identified as a classical liberal . Johnson has said he favors simplifying and reducing taxes . During his governorship , Johnson cut taxes fourteen times and never increased them . Due to his stance on taxes , political pundit David Weigel described him as " the original Tea Party candidate . " Johnson has advocated for the FairTax , a proposal which would abolish all federal income , corporate and capital gains taxes , and replace them with a 23 % tax on consumption of all non @-@ essential goods , while providing a regressive rebate to households according to income level . He has argued that this would assure transparency in the tax system and incentivize the private sector to create " tens of millions of jobs . " In June 2016 , Johnson said that he supported the Trans @-@ Pacific Partnership .
Johnson has said that he supports balancing the federal budget immediately . He has stated he supports " slashing government spending " , including Medicare , Medicaid , and Social Security , which would involve cutting Medicare and Medicaid by 43 percent and turning them into block grant programs , with control of spending in the hands of the states to create , in his words , " fifty laboratories of innovation . " He has advocated passing a law allowing for state bankruptcy and expressly ruling out a federal bailout of any states . Johnson has expressed opposition to the Federal Reserve System , which he has cited as massively devaluing the strength of the U.S. dollar , and would sign legislation to eliminate it . He has also supported an audit of the central bank , and urged Members of Congress in July 2012 to vote in favor of Ron Paul 's Federal Reserve Transparency Act .
In his campaign for the Libertarian Party nomination , he stated he opposed foreign wars and pledged to cut the military budget by 43 percent in his first term as president . He would cut the military 's overseas bases , uniformed and civilian personnel , research and development , intelligence , and nuclear weapons programs . He has stated his opposition to US involvement in the War in Afghanistan and opposed the US involvement in the Libyan Civil War . He has stated that he does not believe Iran is a military threat , would use his presidential power to prevent Israel from attacking Iran , and would not follow Israel , or any other ally , into a war that it had initiated .
Johnson is a strong supporter of civil liberties and received the highest score of any candidate from the American Civil Liberties Union for supporting drug decriminalization while opposing censorship and regulation of the Internet , the Patriot Act , enhanced airport screenings , and the indefinite detention of prisoners . He has spoken in favor of the separation of church and state , and has said that he does not " seek the counsel of God " when determining his political agenda . Johnson endorsed same @-@ sex marriage in 2011 ; he has since called for a constitutional amendment protecting equal marriage rights , and criticized Obama 's position on the issue as having " thrown this question back to the states . " On the other hand , Johnson opposes Roe v. Wade , believing states should decide the matter . He has been a longtime advocate of legalizing marijuana and has said that if he were president , he would remove it from Schedule I of the Controlled Substances Act as well as issue an executive order pardoning non @-@ violent marijuana offenders .
Johnson has stated his opposition to gun control and has said , " I 'm a firm believer in the Second Amendment and so I would not have signed legislation banning assault weapons or automatic weapons . "
= = Personal life = =
Johnson was married to Dee Johnson ( née Simms ; 1952 – 2006 ) from 1977 to 2005 . As First Lady of New Mexico , she engaged in campaigns against smoking and breast cancer , and oversaw the expansion of the Governor 's Mansion . He initiated a separation in May 2005 and four months later he announced that they would divorce . At the age of 54 , Dee Johnson died unexpectedly on December 22 , 2006 , her cause of death later attributed to hypertensive heart disease . Johnson became engaged to Santa Fe real estate agent Kate Prusack in 2009 a year after meeting her at a bike race in Sante Fe . Prusack has stated that the reason they have not yet married is because " My fiance ’ s always on the road . "
Johnson lives in Taos , New Mexico , in a home that he built himself . He is an avid triathlete who bikes extensively . During his term in office , he competed in several triathlons , marathons and bike races . He competed three times ( 1993 , 1997 , 1999 ) as a celebrity invitee at the Ironman World Championship in Hawaii , registering his best time for the 2 @.@ 4 @-@ mile ( 3 @.@ 9 km ) swim , 112 @-@ mile ( 180 km ) bike ride , and 26 @.@ 2 @-@ mile ( 42 @.@ 2 km ) marathon run in 1999 with 10 hours , 39 minutes , and 16 seconds . He once ran 100 miles ( 160 km ) in 30 consecutive hours in the Rocky Mountains . On May 30 , 2003 , he reached the summit of Mount Everest " despite toes blackened with frostbite . " He has climbed all seven of the Seven Summits : Mount Everest , Mount Elbrus , Denali , Mount Kilimanjaro , Aconcagua , Mount Vinson , and Carstensz Pyramid — the tallest peaks in Asia , Europe , North America , Africa , South America , Antarctica , and Oceania respectively . He completed the Bataan Memorial Death March at White Sands Missile Range in New Mexico , in which participants traverse a 26 @.@ 2 mile course through the desert , many of them in combat boots and wearing 35 @-@ pound packs .
On October 12 , 2005 , Johnson was involved in a near @-@ fatal paragliding accident when his wing caught in a tree and he fell approximately 50 feet to the ground . Johnson suffered multiple bone fractures , including a burst fracture to his twelfth thoracic vertebra , a broken rib , and a broken knee ; this accident left him 1 @.@ 5 inches ( 3 @.@ 8 cm ) shorter . He used medicinal marijuana for pain control from 2005 @-@ 08 .
Johnson is a Lutheran and has stated that his belief in God has given him " a very fundamental belief that we should do unto others as we would have others do unto us . "
= = Electoral history = =
= = Books = =
Seven Principles of Good Government : Gary Johnson on liberty , people and politics . 2012 . Aberdeen , WA : Silver Lake Publishing . ISBN 978 @-@ 1563439131 . OCLC 809701081
|
= Stage Struck ( 1911 film ) =
Stage Struck is an American silent short drama film produced by the Thanhouser Company . The film focuses on a country girl who joins a traveling production after the company performs in her home town . She runs away from her home to join them and is hired , but the hard life soon takes it toll and she is unable to continue on with them . A traveling sales man buys her a ticket home and she goes home to her father . Several weeks later she receives a letter offering her a position in a New York theater production and a letter requesting her marriage from the salesman . She decides to accept his offer and become his wife . The film was released on March 3 , 1911 and was met with good reviews , but the film 's intended daydream sequence was not understood by critics . The film is presumed lost .
= = Plot = =
The official summary synopsis of the film was published in The Moving Picture World . It states , " A country girl becomes hopelessly stage struck when a company of barnstorming actors , presenting Shakespearean plays , appears in her home town . She applies for an engagement to the star of the organization and is finally offered a small part . Forbidden by her father to follow the career of her choice , she runs away and joins the company . Disillusionment soon follows . The stars dissatisfied with her attempts at acting , and the hard work and bad hotels soon tax her strength . While playing a one @-@ night stand in a little town , the company is treated to a square meal by a prosperous young drummer [ Slang : for a traveling salesman ] who is greatly attracted by the country girl 's youth and beauty . The company get into financial straits , and have their baggage seized . Entirely without funds they start to walk to the next town . ' Walking the ties ' is as new form of exercise for our heroine , and halfway on the journey she begs the company to go on without her , as she is too weary and sick to continue . Sitting alone and weeping bitterly on the steps of a forlorn little railway station , the girl is surprised to see , getting off the train , her new acquaintance , the drummer . He insists upon buying her a ticket for home and starting her off at once . The girl is welcomed back home by her father and when a few weeks later she receives together an offer of a New York engagement and an offer of marriage from the young drummer - she decides to accept the latter , and to appear in the future as - just a wife . "
= = Production = =
The only credit in the production is that of Marie Eline in an unknown role . A review of the film in The Moving Picture World would state the representation of the standard theatrical company was extremely good . This was not by chance , for many key persons at the Thanhouser company , including Edwin Thanhouser himself , had experience on the stage . Edwin Thanhouser knew the stage represented a great pool of acting talent , but many actors were regular citizenry , yet anonymity was the rule until towards 1912 and so on until the " star system " would come to force around 1914 .
= = Release and reception = =
The single reel drama , approximately 1 @,@ 000 feet long , was released on March 3 , 1911 . The Billboard 's reviewer gave a positive review and asserted , " Any motion picture in which the views of ' back on the stage ' are shown possesses a certain degree of interest . The ever @-@ curious public is fascinated by the alluring stories of the stage world , and any peep it is given into this realm is welcomed . Because of this , Stage Struck derives the interest it has . As far as the story is concerned there is no special recommendation for it . ... The theatre settings are about as faithful depictions of stage scenes as are found in motion pictures . The player portraying the role of the leading actor very much exaggerates in makeup . The photography is very good . " Both the The Morning Telegraph and The New York Dramatic Mirror thought the conclusion was impossible turn of events . The Telegraph 's reviewer wrote , " An excellent opportunity was sadly missed for the exposition of a strong lesson to the uninitiated girl or boy who dreams of a career before the footlights . How any author or producer could permit such an impossible ending is a wonder . Can any sensible person imagine a New York manager offering an inexperienced amateur a leading part in a Broadway production ? Yet this is what occurs in this tale of a stage @-@ struck miss who joins a repertoire company , is stranded , gets home through the generosity of a traveling salesman and then , with no lapse of time or experience noted , receives a letter with such an offer ! Most of the play was well put on and ably acted . The ' star ' of the theatrical company wore an abominable wig , which could be distinguished as false . More care and thought would have made this an admirable offering . " The Mirror ' reviewer stated , " The production leaves the impression of being exceedingly well done , but to the average actor the New York engagement , after forsaking her barnstorming company of players , seems somewhat of a dream . It was also startling to see her playing Ophelia after such a flat failure at the previous rehearsal where another took her place . " According to the synopsis , it is likely that this New York production in which she foresees herself on stage as Ophelia is a dream because it is prompted by the two letters she received at home .
The film is presumed lost because the film is not known to be held in any archive or by any collector .
|
= Why Don 't You Love Me ( Beyoncé song ) =
" Why Don 't You Love Me " is a song recorded by American singer Beyoncé for her third studio album , I Am ... Sasha Fierce ( 2008 ) . It was written by Knowles , Angela Beyincé , Solange Knowles and the Bama Boyz and produced by the Bama Boyz and Knowles . " Why Don 't You Love Me " is an R & B and dance @-@ pop song that is set in a retro style . According to its lyrics , Knowles questions her love interest about why he does not value her fabulousness . Its 1950s @-@ styled music video was directed by Melina Matsoukas and Knowles under the alias Bee @-@ Z , and it stars the latter as " B.B. Homemaker " . Knowles pays homage to Bettie Page in the video , which critics universally commended for its 1950 's style sets and costumes . They also complimented Knowles for her acting skills .
" Why Don 't You Love Me " was well received by critics . It topped the United States Hot Dance Club Songs chart for one week in February 2010 , a little over one year after the original release of I Am ... Sasha Fierce . On August 27 , 2010 , the song was released as a single in the United Kingdom . It eventually charted at number 51 on the UK Singles Chart and at number 14 on its R & B Singles Chart . Although not being released elsewhere , " Why Don 't You Love Me " garnered some attention in Australia , where it charted at number 73 ; it bubbled under the main charts of Belgium and reached number 44 on Slovakia Airplay Chart . In the US , it emerged as the nineteenth most played track in dance clubs in 2010 . " Why Don 't You Love Me " was a part of Knowles ' set list for the 2011 Glastonbury Festival , the Revel Presents : Beyoncé Live revue and the Mrs Carter Show World Tour .
= = Development and production = =
" Why Don 't You Love Me " was written by Beyoncé Knowles , Solange Knowles , Angie Beyincé and produced as well as co @-@ written by The Bama Boyz . Jonathan Wells of Bama Boyz said that they decided to try something different from what they usually do , by mixing several genres for " Why Don 't You Love Me " . The song 's inspiration came from the time they spent in London at the end of Beyoncé Knowles ' The Beyoncé Experience tour in promotion of her second studio album B 'Day ( 2006 ) . The writing and production of the song began in London and was finished stateside in early 2008 . They admitted that the song 's structure was unusual , however they were happy that it ended up in the Knowles ' hands . After The Bama Boyz produced two tracks on Solange Knowles ' second studio album Sol @-@ Angel and the Hadley St. Dreams ( 2008 ) , she asked them to put instrumentals together for her to write for her sister Beyoncé .
The Bama Boyz almost intentionally left the instrumental for " Why Don 't You Love Me " out , since they thought that the song did not sound like the tracks Beyoncé was recording for her upcoming album , at that particular time . However , Jesse Rankins explained that they later decided to put the instrumental for " Why Don 't You Love Me " in the email because they knew that Solange likes weird records , but , they made sure to send it last . Out of all the mainstream @-@ inspired attempts The Bama Boyz sent to Solange , she eventually chose that last and most unexpected track and penned " Why Don 't You Love Me " . Jonathan Wells commented : " When they heard Solange 's demo , we were excited because that track was more our true sound than any of the others [ sent ] , but we still kinda didn 't believe Beyoncé would cut it ... but we hoped ! "
Beyoncé came to Houston 's Music World Studios for a recording session a few months after Solange had cut the demo . Knowles invited The Bama Boyz into her session at the Houston 's Music World Studios to listen to the early versions of I Am ... Sasha Fierce . Unexpectedly , after Beyoncé played " Halo " , " Why Don 't You Love Me " came blasting through the speakers with Knowles singing the song . The Bama Boyz were thrilled that she recorded it and loved the song . According to " Anti @-@ Music " , the song was nearly discarded twice ; the first time was when EMI Music prepared a demo of the song to send to other artists without knowing that Knowles had already recorded the song , and the second came during the track selection of I Am ... Sasha Fierce 's track listing , where executives felt that the song did not fit in with the other records .
= = Composition = =
" Why Don 't You Love Me " is different from Knowles ' previous dance @-@ pop songs as it makes use of a retro style . It is an upbeat track that draws from the genre of R & B. The song also contains elements of up @-@ tempo disco and funk music . It consists of energetic tribal beats , a drum loop , funky guitars and a bassline that was designed to make it a groovy and dance song . According to the lyrics of " Why Don 't You Love Me " , Knowles impersonates a woman who questions her love interest about the reason for which he does not value her fabulousness , convincing him she 's the best thing for him as she sings : " Why don 't you love me ... when I make me so damn easy to love ? ... I got beauty ... I got class ... I got style and I got ass ... " . The singer further tells her love interest that the decision not to choose her is " entirely foolish " .
= = Release and reception = =
Originally released as a pre @-@ order bonus track on the deluxe edition of I Am ... Sasha Fierce , the song was later released as a new song on the platinum edition of the album , and finally as a bonus track along with " Poison " and a remixed version of " Video Phone " featuring pop singer Lady Gaga on a digital EP titled I Am ... Sasha Fierce – The Bonus Tracks . On July 2 , 2010 , " Why Don 't You Love Me " was digitally released in Germany while its music video was included on a separate digital EP that went on sale the same date . Two remixes of the song were later made available for download in the United Kingdom on August 29 , 2009 .
Chris Ryan of MTV called " Why Don 't You Love Me " a " dirty , disco @-@ funk track . " Maura Johnston of The Village Voice called " Why Do You Love Me " " the stankface tour de force bonus track from I Am ... Sasha Fierce in which Beyoncé reminds a dude that she 's pretty much the greatest thing around and his choice to not be with her is an entirely foolish one . " She further praised the song , writing , " It 's one of the best songs in her catalog , being as it is a four @-@ minute summation of why she 's one of pop 's premier stylists right now ; her vocals are equal parts pleading and snarling , the twitchy disco @-@ funk beat gets hips shaking , and the declarations of confused self @-@ love throughout can cause the listener to both root for her and realize that they 've been in similar situations . " On The Village Voice ' 2010 year @-@ end Pazz & Jop singles list , " Why Don 't You Love Me " was ranked at number 549 .
= = Chart performance = =
Although " Why Don 't You Love Me " was not released as a formal single , it managed to top the US Billboard Hot Dance Club Play chart for the week of February 13 , 2010 . It became Knowles ' twelfth number @-@ one hit on that chart and it was also the fifth consecutive song from I Am ... Sasha Fierce to reach number one on the same chart . On June 11 , 2010 , " Why Don 't You Love Me " debuted at number 73 on the Australian Singles Chart . However the following week , the song fell down to the position number 91 , before dropping out of the chart the following week . " Why Don 't You Love Me " stayed under the main charts in Belgium , reaching number 10 on the Flemish Ultratip chart .
On August 14 , 2010 , " Why Don 't You Love Me " debuted at number 142 on the UK Singles chart , and it moved from number seventy @-@ one to number 40 on the R & B chart . After the digital release of remixes , the song rose to number 71 on the UK Singles chart , becoming the ninth consecutive single off I Am ... Sasha Fierce to peak within the top 75 . It also moved from number 44 to number 25 on its R & B chart on September 11 , 2010 . The following week , on September 18 , 2010 , " Why Don 't You Love Me " moved up twenty places on the UK Singles to land at number 51 and ascended to number 14 on its R & B chart .
= = Music video = =
= = = Filming and concept = = =
The music video for the song was directed by long @-@ time collaborator Melina Matsoukas and Knowles under the alias Bee @-@ Z. The video took two @-@ three weeks of preparation and one day to film in Los Angeles on Mount Olympus . The main set of the video was a house owned by a wealthy 95 @-@ year @-@ old man who allowed Knowles and Matsoukas to use his house and collectible cars for the video shoot . During an interview with USA Today on January 28 , 2010 , Knowles announced that she would be taking a break from her music career saying " to live life , to be inspired by things again " . She was then inspired to shoot a music video for the bonus track . In an interview with People magazine in August 2010 , Knowles explained : " I came up with the concept for that video because lately I decided to take a break , and I ’ ve been home , being a wife . I figured it could be nice to give a little wink toward the things that I ’ ve been doing , so that ’ s why I ’ m a housewife in the video . " However , she explained that the video is " an exaggerated , over @-@ the @-@ top version " of what she was doing right then , just living her life , being a woman at home , relaxing and trying to enjoy her life other than performing and creating music . For instance , dusting off her Grammys and getting under the hood of a car while wearing six @-@ inch heels are not regular occurrences for Knowles .
= = = Release = = =
" Why Don 't You Love Me " is the ninth video to be lifted from Knowles ' I Am ... Sasha Fierce era . On May 1 , 2010 , a forty @-@ second clip starring Knowles as B.B. Homemaker , was posted on Vimeo . In the sneak peek , she is seen wearing an unbuttoned blue shirt with a pair of short denim shorts and a red handkerchief on her headwears while trying to fix a broken @-@ car . The complete video premiered on May 4 , 2010 , and it is nearly five minutes long . The music video was officially released to iTunes Stores in the United States on May 18 , 2010 , two weeks after its original premiere . In May 2010 , the media reported that Knowles ' decision to release one more video from her album I Am ... Sasha Fierce just before Kelly Rowland released " Commander " was unfair on Rowland . These claims would be denied by Rowland who said that despite the clip for " Why Don 't You Love Me " airing several days before " Commander " , the media was " making too much of a big deal of release schedules and trying to create a feud where it doesn 't exist . " She also told Hip Hop Hollywood :
" We all came out at the same time and it really doesn 't matter ... I think there 's room for everybody ... There 's B [ eyoncé ] , there 's Ciara putting something out and [ Lady ] GaGa putting something out , but , because we started out together , people are going to say things like that . But I really don 't care , I love her [ un ] til our dying days and that 's all that counts .
= = = Synopsis and analysis = = =
The video begins with a tribute and sample of the opening credits of Leave It to Beaver which is overdubbed to introduce Knowles as " B.B. Homemaker " in a Daisy Dukes style outfit . The song begins once she goes inside a house and brings along a board saying " Why Don 't You Love Me " . Throughout the video , Knowles is seen crying , with mascara running down her cheeks while talking on the phone to her love interest , drinking a dry martini and smoking a cigarette . This projects an image of Beyoncé paying homage to Bettie Page just as she did in the music videos for " Telephone " and " Video Phone " , where she collaborated with Lady Gaga . In this scene , Knowles impersonates Betty Draper . According to Melanie Bertoldi of Billboard magazine , Knowles contends to her deadbeat lover while sipping a cocktail and French @-@ inhaling a cigarette in the music video . The fantasy @-@ laden imagery hardly ends there though , as it is followed by shots of sequences of Beyoncé gardening , washing dishes , scrubbing floors , and baking cookies . Rap @-@ Up commented on what happens in the video , saying that she is also reading during some scenes , in which she sings " Keep my head in them books , I 'm sharp ... " In the middle of the video , Knowles dusts off her mantlepiece , which is covered by her 16 Grammy awards she earned when she was with Destiny 's Child and after the debut of her solo career . The video closes on her falling to the floor after hanging up the phone and finishing her martini , and says the final word " ... dumb ! " in a scene in which she is dressed in a dominatrix @-@ type outfit while holding a whip .
= = = Reception = = =
The music video received general acclaim from critics . Jon Caramanica of The New York Times described the video as one of Knowles ' best and most vivid . Brad Wete of Entertainment Weekly described Knowles as " one hot housewife in the [ Why Don 't You Love Me ] video " . This was echoed by Tray Hova of Vibe magazine who stated that " Beyoncé makes a mighty fine housewife " . Jayson Rodriguez of MTV News said that she did her best impersonation of Betty Draper . The Music Network complimented the production of the video while simultaneously making reference to Christina Aguilera and criticising the latter for her new video for her single " Not Myself Tonight " , writing : " ... housework has never looked so good ... Proving you don 't have to wear bondage gear and a ball @-@ gag to be sexy ( hello Christina ! ) , the [ 19 ] 50s @-@ style video sees the R & B queen [ Knowles ] getting dirty in a different way : dusting her Grammys , watering the plants and scrubbing the shower in vintage lingerie ... She can come over to our house anytime . " Melanie Bertoldi of Billboard magazine commented on Knowles ' " dominatrix costume " at the end to Rihanna 's Rated R era . She finally complimented the music video by saying that " Beyoncé 's shamelessly campy performance — complete with boatloads of running mascara — is generously refreshing . " Chris Ryan of MTV Buzzworthy noted that the video was " kind of a tour de force " and compared it with the one for " Telephone " ( 2010 ) . He also noted that it showed " Beyoncé on the edge of a nervous breakdown . "
Amy Odell of New York magazine praised the video and noted that " the crazy twitchy behavior she exhibited in ' Telephone ' returns to much delight , but with a wardrobe that 's pure housewife instead of cold @-@ blooded drag @-@ queen murderer . " Odell also praised the playsuits in the video , which according to here were " a classier , more mature version of ' tards . " In another review , Odell concluded " It would be easy to credit the look of Beyoncé 's new video to Lady Gaga 's influence . " Francesca Stabile of The Village Voice gave a positive review for the video , writing , " The retro @-@ glam outfits , the oversized martini glass , the rolling around on the bed sobbing with eye makeup running down her face ... this is our favorite Bey [ oncé ] video ever . No one else can make doing household chores ( dusting Grammys ! ) simultaneously look this good and this sad . " Gordon Smart of The Sun praised Knowles ' " strong look " completed by lumberjack shirt , bandana and denim hotpants in the video further comparing it with Amy Winehouse 's . Daniel Kreps of Rolling Stone magazine described the video as a " Douglas Sirk film through the eyes of David LaChapelle " and noted that several scenes looked like Knowles was being photographed for Vogue magazine on the set of The Brady Bunch . He concluded that " If Beyoncé was lobbying for a temptress role on Mad Men , ' Why Don 't You Love Me , ' ... would make the perfect audition reel . "
= = = Recognition = = =
Becky Bain of Idolator described Knowles as " adorable and funny " in the nostalgic , 60s @-@ inspired video for " Why Don 't You Love Me " . She also said that her retro @-@ style is " supercute " and charming . On August 3 , 2010 , Bain claimed that " Why Don 't You Love Me " is one of the videos that should have been nominated for Video of the Year at the 2010 MTV Video Music Awards , and she later said on September 8 , 2010 , that the clip for " Why Don 't You Love Me " should have been nominated instead that of " Video Phone " , in the category for Best Female Video at the 2010 MTV Video Music Awards . " Why Don 't You Love Me " also made number nine in Rap @-@ Up 's Best Videos of 2010 . In February 2012 , Kat George of VH1 placed the video at number one on her list of " The 6 Best Sets of Devastated Raccoon Eyes in Music Video History " , writing , " Beyoncé wins best panda eyes on the strength of melodrama ... and because she looks really hot in vintage style lingerie . Clearly tortured , Beyoncé 's panda eyes are paired with martinis , cigarettes , and just the right amount of crazy to make the whole thing unbearably sexy . " In 2013 , John Boone and Jennifer Cady of E ! Online placed the video at number three on their list of Knowles ' ten best music videos , writing , " It 's like a trip back in time . Except with sexier outfits , which were definitely missing from the ' 60s . So good call , Beyoncé ! You can even upgrade history ! " . In January 2010 , the video garnered a nomination in the category of Outstanding Music Video at the 42nd NAACP Image Award .
= = = Lawsuit = = =
Philip Markowitz , a neighbor of the man on whose property the video was filmed , filed a lawsuit on May 28 , 2010 , in Los Angeles seeking $ 25 @,@ 000 . He sued Knowles , the companies " Klener & Company " and " Bags and Boards " , and Dina Ciccotello , for the video shoot for " Why Don 't You Love Me " . Markowitz complained that during the morning , every time he tried leaving his house , the crew was blocking his driveway . Markowitz claims that he " missed several business calls while arguing calmly in his driveway " . According to him : " [ He ] demanded compensation for the trespass on his property and the inconvenience and delay he had already suffered . " The case was later dismissed by a superior court judge in September .
= = Live performances = =
Beyoncé performed " Why Don 't You Love Me " live for the first time the 2011 Glastonbury Festival on June 26 , 2011 . During the performance she danced with her male backup dancers and the official video of the song was played on a screen behind them . Later , in May 2012 , Beyoncé performed a funky version of the song as a part of her revue show Revel Presents : Beyoncé Live in Atlantic City , New Jersey at Revel . While reviewing the show , Ben Ratliff of The New York Times wrote : " Then she makes some of the most thorough and gold @-@ plated declarations of self @-@ worth ever rendered in pop . ' There ’ s nothing not to love about me , ' she sang ... without needing to make a joke out of it . " Maura Johnston of The Village Voice was also positive about the performance of the song , saying , " Live , she threw herself into the track , from tsk @-@ tsk @-@ tsk opening to impassioned ending ; after that , the song 's frenetic beat got transformed into an extended outro that showcased her band 's prowess in such a convincing way , she took off her shoes to dance along with it . " " Why Don 't You Love Me " was included in the set list of Beyoncé 's The Mrs. Carter Show World Tour ( 2013 @-@ 2014 ) .
The song was performed during Beyoncé and Jay @-@ Z 's co @-@ headlining On the Run Tour ( 2014 ) . Throughout the performance of the song , Beyoncé stopped performing several times watching the crowd while fans were blowing her hair . Rebecca Thomas of the MTV News felt that the performance of the song " seemed to reopen old wounds " . Kat Bein from the Miami New Times described the performance as one of the most dramatic moments of the concert further hailing it as " one of the rawest things we 've ever seen at a stadium show " .
= = Use in visual media and Grace Potter 's cover = =
In her second commercial for HDTV manufacturer Vizio , Knowles is shown battling herself for a guy 's attention . The mini video was set to " Why Don 't You Love Me " and it was directed by Jake Nava , who previously directed music videos for Knowles ' " Crazy in Love " ( 2003 ) and " Single Ladies " ( 2008 ) amongst others . Knowles explained the concept of the commercial to Rap @-@ Up , " The concept today is basically someone 's watching the television and I 've decided to step in their living room and perform especially for them . The TV looks so wonderful , they 're ignoring me so I 'm stepping it up and I 'm trying to perform harder and it doesn 't matter , the TV is better . " The spot premiered on Thanksgiving Day on November 24 , 2010 . A writer of Rap @-@ Up commented that Knowles " [ brought ] her alter ego Sasha Fierce back from the dead " , and that she faces her " toughest competition yet — herself . "
In late April 2011 , Grace Potter from the American rock band Grace Potter and the Nocturnals sang a rootsy acoustic rendition of " Why Don 't You Love Me " along with strategic handclaps and drummer Matthew Burr 's backbeat . Potter said that choosing to cover " Why Don 't You Love Me " was easy because she is " big @-@ voiced " . She elaborated : " As I was watching the video , I was watching for the visual candy . Then I slowly began falling in love with the song . " Jessica Letkemann of Billboard magazine complimented the cover , writing : " [ the band ] may usually rock with a 60s feel while Texas @-@ born Beyoncé is a queen of R & B , but one thing the two women undoubtedly have in common is an amazing set of pipes . "
= = Formats and track listings = =
German Digital Single
" Why Don 't You Love Me " – 3 : 37
" Why Don 't You Love Me " ( Jump Smokers Club Remix ) – 3 : 57
German Digital EP
" Why Don 't You Love Me " – 3 : 37
" Why Don 't You Love Me " ( Jump Smokers Club Remix ) – 3 : 57
" Why Don 't You Love Me " ( Video ) – 4 : 50
UK Digital Remixes
" Why Don 't You Love Me " ( MK Ultras Remix – Radio Edit ) – 3 : 34
" Why Don 't You Love Me " ( Starsmith Remix – Radio Edit ) – 3 : 33
= = Personnel = =
Credits are taken from I Am ... Sasha Fierce 's liner notes .
Vocals – Beyoncé Knowles
Producers and recorded by – Bama Boyz , Beyoncé Knowles
Vocal production – Beyoncé Knowles
Writers – Beyoncé Knowles , Solange Knowles , Angela Beyince , Eddie Smith III , Jesse Rankins and Jonathan Wells
= = Charts = =
= = Release history = =
|
= Aage Bohr =
Aage Niels Bohr ( Danish : [ ˈɔːʊ ̯ ə ˌnels ˈboɐ ̯ ˀ ] ; 19 June 1922 – 9 September 2009 ) was a Danish nuclear physicist who shared the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1975 with Ben Mottelson and James Rainwater " for the discovery of the connection between collective motion and particle motion in atomic nuclei and the development of the theory of the structure of the atomic nucleus based on this connection " . Starting from Rainwater 's concept of an irregular @-@ shaped liquid drop model of the nucleus , Bohr and Mottelson developed a detailed theory that was in close agreement with experiments . Since his father , Niels Bohr , had won the prize in 1922 , he and his father were one of the six pairs of fathers and sons who have both won the Nobel Prize and one of the four pairs who have both won the Nobel Prize in Physics .
= = Early life = =
Aage Niels Bohr was born in Copenhagen on 19 June 1922 , the fourth of six sons of the physicist Niels Bohr and his wife Margrethe Bohr ( née Nørlund ) . His oldest brother , Christian , died in a boating accident in 1934 , and his youngest , Harald , from childhood meningitis . Of the others , Hans became a physician ; Erik , a chemical engineer ; and Ernest , a lawyer and an Olympic athlete who played field hockey for Denmark at the 1948 Summer Olympics in London . The family lived at the Institute of Theoretical Physics at the University of Copenhagen , now known as the Niels Bohr Institute , where he grew up surrounded by physicists who were working with his father , such as Hans Kramers , Oskar Klein , Yoshio Nishina , Wolfgang Pauli and Werner Heisenberg . In 1932 , the family moved to the Carlsberg Æresbolig , a mansion donated by Carl Jacobsen , the heir to Carlsberg breweries , to be used as an honorary residence by the Dane who had made the most prominent contribution to science , literature or the arts .
Bohr went to high school at Sortedam Gymnasium in Copenhagen . In 1940 , shortly after the German occupation of Denmark in April , he entered the University of Copenhagen , where he studied physics . He assisted his father , helping draft correspondence and articles related to epistemology and physics . In September 1943 , word reached his family that the Nazis considered them to be Jewish , because Aage 's grandmother , Ellen Adler Bohr , had been Jewish , and that they therefore were in danger of being arrested . The Danish resistance helped the family escape by sea to Sweden . Bohr arrived there in October 1943 , and then flew to Britain on a de Havilland Mosquito operated by British Overseas Airways Corporation . The Mosquitoes were unarmed high @-@ speed bomber aircraft that had been converted to carry small , valuable cargoes or important passengers . By flying at high speed and high altitude , they could cross German @-@ occupied Norway , and yet avoid German fighters . Bohr , equipped with parachute , flying suit and oxygen mask , spent the three @-@ hour flight lying on a mattress in the aircraft 's bomb bay .
On arrival in London , Bohr rejoined his father , who had flown to Britain the week before . He officially became a junior researcher at the Department of Scientific and Industrial Research , but actually served as personal assistant and secretary to his father . The two worked on Tube Alloys , the British atomic bomb project . On 30 December 1943 , they made the first of a number of visits to the United States , where his father was a consultant to the Manhattan Project . Due to his father 's fame , they were given false names ; Bohr became James Baker , and his father , Nicholas Baker . In 1945 , the director of the Los Alamos Laboratory , Robert Oppenheimer , asked them to review the design of the modulated neutron initiator . They reported that it would work . That they had reached this conclusion put Enrico Fermi 's concerns about the viability of the design to rest . The initiators performed flawlessly in the bombs used in the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki in August 1945 .
= = Physics = =
In August 1945 , with the war ended , Bohr returned to Denmark , where he resumed his university education , graduating with a master 's degree in 1946 , with a thesis concerned with some aspects of atomic stopping power problems . In early 1948 , Bohr became a member of the Institute for Advanced Study in Princeton , New Jersey . While paying a visit to Columbia University , he met Isidor Isaac Rabi , who sparked an interest in recent discoveries related to the hyperfine structure of deuterium . This led to Bohr becoming a visiting fellow at Columbia from January 1949 to August 1950 . While in the United States , Bohr married Marietta Soffer on 11 March 1950 . They had three children : Vilhelm , Tomas and Margrethe .
By the late 1940s it was known that the properties of atomic nuclei could not be explained by the then @-@ current models such as the liquid drop model developed by Niels Bohr amongst others . The shell model , developed in 1949 by Maria Goeppert @-@ Mayer and others , allowed some additional features to be explained , in particular the so @-@ called magic numbers . However , there were also properties that could not be explained , including the non @-@ spherical distribution of charge in certain nuclei . In a 1950 paper , James Rainwater of Columbia University suggested a variant of the drop model of the nucleus that could explain a non @-@ spherical charge distribution . Rainwater 's model postulated a nucleus like a balloon with balls inside that distort the surface as they move about . He discussed the idea with Bohr , who was visiting Columbia at the time , and had independently conceived the same idea , and had , about a month after Rainwater 's submission , submitted for publication a paper that discussed the same problem , but along more general lines . Bohr imagined a rotating , irregular @-@ shaped nucleus with a form of surface tension . Bohr developed the idea further , in 1951 publishing a paper that comprehensively treated the relationship between oscillations of the surface of the nucleus and the movement of the individual nucleons .
Upon his return to Copenhagen in 1950 , Bohr began working with Ben Mottelson to compare the theoretical work with experimental data . In three papers , that were published in 1952 and 1953 , Bohr and Mottelson demonstrated close agreement between theory and experiment ; for example , showing that the energy levels of certain nuclei could be described by a rotation spectrum . They were thereby able to reconcile the shell model with Rainwater 's concept . This work stimulated many new theoretical and experimental studies . Bohr , Mottelson and Rainwater were jointly awarded the 1975 Nobel Prize in Physics " for the discovery of the connection between collective motion and particle motion in atomic nuclei and the development of the theory of the structure of the atomic nucleus based on this connection " . Because his father had been awarded the prize in 1922 , Bohr became one of only four pairs of fathers and sons to win the Nobel Prize in Physics . He married Marietta Soffer in 1950 . They had two sons , Vilhelm and Tomas , and a daughter , Margrethe .
Only after doing his Nobel Prize @-@ winning research did Bohr receive his doctorate from the University of Copenhagen , in 1954 , writing his thesis on " Rotational States of Atomic Nuclei " . Bohr became a professor at the University of Copenhagen in 1956 , and , following his father 's death in 1962 , succeeded him as director of the Niels Bohr Institute , a position he held until 1970 . He remained active there until he retired in 1992 . He was also a member of the board of the Nordic Institute for Theoretical Physics ( Nordita ) from its inception in 1957 , and was its director from 1975 to 1981 . In addition to the Nobel Prize , he won the Dannie Heineman Prize for Mathematical Physics in 1960 , the Atoms for Peace Award in 1969 , H.C. Ørsted Medal in 1970 , Rutherford Medal and Prize in 1972 , John Price Wetherill Medal in 1974 , and the Ole Rømer medal in 1976 . Bohr and Mottelson continued to work together , publishing a two @-@ volume monograph , Nuclear Structure . The first volume , Single @-@ Particle Motion , appeared in 1969 ; the second , Nuclear Deformations , in 1975 .
In 1972 he was awarded an honorary degree , doctor philos. honoris causa , at the Norwegian Institute of Technology , later part of Norwegian University of Science and Technology .
His wife Marietta died on 2 October 1978 . In 1981 , he married Bente Scharff Meyer . His son , Tomas Bohr , is a Professor of Physics at the Technical University of Denmark , working in the area of fluid dynamics . Aage Bohr died in Copenhagen on 9 September 2009 . He was survived by his second wife and children .
|
= Running ( No Doubt song ) =
" Running " is a song written by Tony Kanal and Gwen Stefani for No Doubt 's fifth studio album Rock Steady ( 2001 ) and was released worldwide as the album 's fourth and final single on July 1 , 2003 . The song was also used on the last episode of the TV series Sabrina , the Teenage Witch in 2003 .
The song received mixed reviews from music critics and was compared to Depeche Mode @-@ style songs . The song only charted on the official charts of the United States , where it became the band 's lowest charting single , and in Germany , where it had longest charting period . The song was accompanied by a music video which was directed by Chris Hafner , which featured many old and new pictures as well as clippings of the band members .
= = Background = =
The song was written by Stefani and bassist Tony Kanal in Kanal 's living room . They used an old Yamaha keyboard that Kanal 's father had purchased for him when he was in eighth grade and developed the song 's harmony first and then wrote the lyrics . The band worked on the track to give it a " spacier sound " but were displeased with the result so they took the song to producer Nellee Hooper , who stripped Running down to the basics.The song was then produced by him , with whom Stefani collaborated again for her solo project two years later . Whatever the intent , the result was a track that resonated with catchy " Mario Bros. " background instrumentation throughout the entire song .
= = Reception = =
= = = Critical = = =
Running received mixed reviews from music critics . Blender characterized the song as " twenty @-@ first @-@ century Blondie " and compared its synthesizers and restrained vocal to the work of Depeche Mode . Rolling Stone also made the comparison to Depeche Mode and compared the song 's " two @-@ finger synth riff " to the work of Yazoo and Erasure . PopMatters , however , stated that the song fell short and was more appropriate for " some Britney clone " . Stylus Magazine agreed , calling Running sophomoric , and commented that " this is the kind of song that makes Gwen so popular with the pre @-@ teen girlies . " Slant Magazine described the song as a " super @-@ polished Saturn leftover " , and Entertainment Weekly portrayed the song as a paean in which No Doubt performed inside a music box , remarking that " it could be a contender for the coolest wedding song ever . "
= = = Commercial = = =
Running was commercially unsuccessful in the United States , while the previous singles from the album reached the top 15 on the Billboard Hot 100 , The song debuted at number 62 and stayed there for two weeks and was unable to reach a higher position , becoming the band 's lowest charting single on the chart . It dropped off the chart after six weeks . The single was more successful in mainstream and adult contemporary markets , reaching number 20 on the Adult Top 40 and Top 40 Mainstream charts . It followed a similar charting pattern on the German Singles Chart where it debuted as well , peaking at number 55 before falling off the chart after seven weeks . " Running " was played heavily on the final episode of Sabrina the Teenage Witch .
= = Music video = =
The song was accompanied by a music video which was directed by Chris Hafner . The video opens with a scene of the band members walking on the beach in which Stefani is seen wearing a polka @-@ dot gown and the other members are seen in casual clothes . The scene is interrupted by various pictures of the band members in their early years with old pictures of Stefani in which she has her original brunette hair . The scene then again shifts to the beach where the band members are shown playing frisbee and are shown having fun while burying drummist Adrian Young in the beach sand . Later Stefani is shown sitting on a rock by the sea and singing to the camera . There are many other pictures of the band holding platinum and gold records and Adrian shown playing the guitar nude . There are also several clippings of the band making music in the recording studio and performing on stage during the Rock Steady Live Tour . The video ends with the band members running into the sea water .
= = Formats and track listing = =
These are the formats and track listings of major single releases of Running .
German / U.S. CD single
" Running " ( album version ) – 4 : 02
" Hella Good " ( live ) – 5 : 41
" Underneath It All " ( live ) – 4 : 40
" Hey Baby " ( live ) – 3 : 44
= = Charts = =
|
= Coffin ray =
Hypnos monopterygius also known as the Coffin ray is a species of electric ray endemic to Australia , where it is common in inshore waters shallower than 80 m ( 260 ft ) . It is the sole member of its family Hypnidae . This small species typically reaches 40 cm ( 16 in ) in length . Greatly enlarged pectoral fins and an extremely short tail , coupled with diminutive dorsal and caudal fins all concentrated towards the rear , give the coffin ray a distinctive pear @-@ like shape . It is a varying shade of brown in color above , and has tiny eyes and a large , highly distensible mouth .
The sluggish and nocturnal coffin ray frequents sandy or muddy habitats , where it can bury itself during daytime . It can produce a powerful electric shock reaching 200 volts for attack and defense . This species is a voracious predator that feeds mainly on benthic bony fishes , often tackling fish approaching or exceeding itself in size . On occasion , it may also consume invertebrates and even small penguins and rats . Reproduction is aplacental viviparous , in which the developing embryos are nourished by yolk and maternally produced histotroph ( " uterine milk " ) . The female gives birth to 4 – 8 pups during summer . The coffin ray can deliver a severe , albeit non @-@ fatal , shock to a human . Not valued commercially , it is very hardy and can usually survive being captured and discarded . The International Union for Conservation of Nature ( IUCN ) has listed this species under Least Concern , as its population does not seem threatened by human activity .
= = Taxonomy and phylogeny = =
The first scientific reference to the coffin ray was written by English zoologist and botanist George Shaw to accompany Frederick Polydore Nodder 's illustrations of a beached fish , published in their 1795 work The Naturalist 's Miscellany . Shaw interpreted the specimen as a goosefish , calling it the " single @-@ finned Lophius " or Lophius monopterygius in Latin . Independently , French zoologist Auguste Duméril described a new electric ray in an 1852 volume of the journal Revue et Magasin de Zoologie , based on two specimens collected off New South Wales . He named it Hypnos subnigrum ; the genus name is derived from the Greek word for " sleep " , referring to the ray 's ability to induce numbness . Eventually , Gilbert Percy Whitley recognized that Nodder had illustrated the same species that Duméril had described , and thus the proper binomial name became Hypnos monopterygius . In 1902 , Edgar Ravenswood Waite proposed Hypnarce as a replacement name for Hypnos , which he believed was preoccupied by the butterfly genus Hypna . However , the International Code of Zoological Nomenclature ( ICZN ) does not seem to require the change , and thus Hypnarce is regarded as a junior synonym .
The common name " coffin ray " comes from the coffin @-@ like shape of beached specimens , which become bloated after death . This species may also be referred to as crampfish , electric ray , numbfish , numbie , short @-@ tail electric ray , or torpedo . Phylogenetic studies , based on morphology , have found that Hypnos is most closely related to the genus Torpedo . Hence , some taxonomists classify it with Torpedo in the family Torpedinidae ( in its own subfamily , Hypninae ) . On the other hand , there are also taxonomists who believe Hypnos to be distinctive enough to merit its own separate family , Hypnidae .
= = Distribution and habitat = =
The coffin ray has a wide but disjunct distribution in tropical and warm @-@ temperate Australian waters . The western part of its range extends from Gulf St Vincent in South Australia to Broome in Western Australia , and the eastern part from Eden in New South Wales to Heron Island in Queensland . It does not occur off Victoria or Tasmania . This common , bottom @-@ dwelling species is typically found close to shore , no deeper than 80 m ( 260 ft ) , though it has been recorded from as deep as 240 m ( 790 ft ) . It favors habitats with sandy or muddy bottoms , including beaches , estuaries , and bays , and can also be found over seagrass as well as on and around rocky and coral reefs .
= = Description = =
The unusual pear @-@ like shape of the coffin ray distinguishes it from all other rays . Its body is flabby , with two large , kidney @-@ shaped electric organs visible on both sides of the head . The pectoral fins form a greatly enlarged disc about as wide as long , that is thick at the center and thin at the margins . The leading margin of the disc is straight to gently concave . The eyes are minute and can be elevated on short stalks . Close behind the eyes and slightly larger are the spiracles , which are rimmed by small papillae in some individuals . The nostrils are located just ahead of the mouth , and are connected to it by a pair of broad grooves . Between the nostrils is a short curtain of skin that overlaps the mouth . The capacious mouth forms a very long , wide arch ; the slender jaws can be distended dramatically , though are not particularly protrusible . Adults have over 60 rows of small teeth in either jaw ; each tooth has three long cusps . The five pairs of gill slits are small and placed beneath the disc .
The pelvic fins are relatively large and merged with the pectoral fin disc at the front to form a roughly circular secondary disc . The two dorsal fins are shaped like rounded lobes and are located very close to the caudal fin , which is of similar size with a nearly symmetrical , rounded margin . The tail is extremely short , such as that the caudal fin barely extends past the pelvic fin disc . The skin is entirely devoid of dermal denticles , and may be creased in areas . The dorsal coloration ranges from dark to reddish brown , to grayish , pinkish , or yellowish , and may be plain or sparsely patterned with irregular darker and lighter markings . The underside is pale , as are the spiracle papillae . This species grows to a length of 70 cm ( 28 in ) , or possibly even 92 cm ( 36 in ) , though most are only around 40 cm ( 16 in ) long .
= = Biology and ecology = =
The coffin ray is a slow and weak swimmer that moves forward with a jerky , fluttery motion . It is nocturnal and spends most of the day buried in sediment with only its spiracles showing . When disturbed , it has been observed performing a possible defense behavior , wherein it erupts from the bottom and swims in a loop with its mouth agape . This species is sometimes stranded on land by the ebbing tide , but can survive out of water for hours . Like in other electric rays , the coffin ray 's electric organs are derived from muscle tissue and consist of numerous vertical columns , each formed from a stack of jelly @-@ filled " electric plates " that essentially acts as a battery . It is capable of generating up to 200 volts of electricity and delivering 50 shocks over span of ten minutes , with each successive shock weakening . The coffin ray employs electricity both to subdue prey and deter predators .
The diet of the coffin ray consists mostly of benthic bony fishes , but also includes cephalopods and on occasion crustaceans and polychaete worms . Penguins and rats have also been recorded from the stomachs of this species . The coffin ray ambushes prey from the substrate , and swallows them whole head @-@ first before re @-@ burying . It often takes extremely large prey relative to its size ; one observed individual 60 cm ( 24 in ) long had swallowed a flathead ( Platycephalus sp . ) 70 cm ( 28 in ) long , and the tail of the prey fish was still protruding from its mouth . Dead specimens have been recovered that had apparently choked trying to swallow too @-@ large prey . The coffin ray is aplacental viviparous , in which the developing embryos are nourished by yolk , later supplemented by histotroph ( " uterine milk " ) secreted by the mother . Females give birth to litters of 4 – 8 pups in summer ; the newborns measure approximately 8 – 11 cm ( 3 @.@ 1 – 4 @.@ 3 in ) long . Males and females both attain sexual maturity around 40 – 48 cm ( 16 – 19 in ) long . This species is known to be parasitized by the tapeworms Acanthobothrium angelae and Lacistorhynchus dollfusi , and the nematode Echinocephalus overstreeti .
= = Human interactions = =
When approached , the coffin ray tends to keep still in its place of concealment on the sea floor . As a result , many divers , swimmers , and bathers have been shocked after accidentally contacting it . While not life @-@ threatening , the shock can be quite severe . The shock can still be perceived by a person pouring a stream of seawater on the ray . The coffin ray has no economic value . In 1883 , Edward Pierson Ramsay noted that it was the only ray native to Port Jackson that was inedible . It is caught incidentally by commercial trawlers , but is hardy enough to usually be returned to the water alive . It is also caught in lobster traps and infrequently taken by spear fishers . As it remains common and widespread , the International Union for Conservation of Nature ( IUCN ) has assessed this species as Least Concern . It has been kept in public aquariums , but requires moving food .
|
= The Fame =
The Fame is the debut studio album by American singer Lady Gaga . It was released on August 19 , 2008 through Interscope Records . After joining Kon Live Distribution and Cherrytree Records in 2008 , Gaga began working on the album with different producers , primarily RedOne , Martin Kierszenbaum and Rob Fusari . Musically , The Fame is a synthpop and dance @-@ pop album that has influences of pop music from the 1980s . Lyrically , the album visualizes Gaga 's love of fame in general while also dealing with subjects such as love , sex , money , drugs and sexual identity . Promotion was primarily through The Fame Ball Tour and multiple television appearances . The Fame was included as a bonus disc on the deluxe edition of the extended play , The Fame Monster ( 2009 ) .
The album received generally favorable reviews from music critics , who commended the album 's lyrical content and Gaga 's musicianship and vocal ability . The album was a commercial success , topping the charts in different countries worldwide , including the United Kingdom , Canada , Germany , Ireland , Poland and Switzerland . In the United States , it peaked at number two on the Billboard 200 , while topping the Dance / Electronic Albums chart for 106 non @-@ consecutive weeks . The Fame became the fifth best @-@ selling album of 2009 . It has sold 4 @.@ 7 million copies in the United States as of April 2016 and is the seventh best @-@ selling digital album in history . The album sold 15 million copies worldwide as of November 2010 .
The first two singles from The Fame — " Just Dance " and " Poker Face " — gained international success , topping the charts in several countries worldwide , including the United States , United Kingdom and Australia . Subsequent single " LoveGame " and " Paparazzi " , were commercial successes as well , charting within the top ten of more than ten countries worldwide . " Eh , Eh ( Nothing Else I Can Say ) " had a limited release , while " Beautiful , Dirty , Rich " was a promotional single .
The Fame has won multiple awards since its release . It was nominated for a total of five Grammy Awards at the 52nd Grammy Awards , including the Grammy Award for Album of the Year . It won the Grammy Award for Best Electronic / Dance Album and the Best Dance Recording for the single " Poker Face " . It also won Best International Album at the 2010 BRIT Awards . In 2013 , Rolling Stone named The Fame as one of the " 100 Greatest Debut Albums of All @-@ Time " .
= = Background and development = =
While establishing herself as an artist and working her way up through the New York underground club scene , Gaga released her debut studio album , The Fame . Speaking about the title and concept of the album , Gaga explained : " The Fame is about how anyone can feel famous . [ ... ] Pop culture is art . It doesn 't make you cool to hate pop culture , so I embraced it and you hear it all over The Fame . But , it 's a sharable fame . I want to invite you all to the party . I want people to feel a part of this lifestyle . " Gaga stated in an interview with MTV UK that she had been working on the album for two and a half years and completed half of it during the first week of January 2008 . As well as writing the lyrics , Gaga worked on the melodies and synth work of the album , with record producer RedOne . According to Gaga , the first track " Just Dance " is a joyous , heart @-@ themed song , which appeals to people going through tough times in their life . " LoveGame " , the second track , was inspired by Gaga 's sexual crush on a stranger in a night club to whom she said , " I wanna ride on your disco stick " . It was written in four minutes based on the disco stick hook . " Paparazzi " has been interpreted with different meanings . However Gaga explained in an interview with About.com , that the song was inspired by her struggles and hunger for fame and love . Essentially a love song , " Paparazzi " dealt with enticing the media and asked the question , whether one can have both fame and love .
" Poker Face " was inspired by Gaga 's boyfriends who enjoyed gambling , and also dealt with her personal experience of bisexuality ; her fantasies about women while having sex with men , thus representing her ' poker face ' . " " Boys , Boys , Boys " was inspired by the similarly titled Mötley Crüe song " Girls , Girls , Girls " . Gaga explained that she wanted a female version of the song that rockers would like too . " Beautiful , Dirty , Rich " summed up her time of self @-@ discovery , living in the Lower East Side and dabbling in drugs and the party scene . " Eh , Eh ( Nothing Else I Can Say ) " was about breaking up with a boyfriend and finding someone new . " Brown Eyes " was inspired by the British rock band Queen and , according to Gaga , is the most vulnerable song on the album .
Gaga further clarified the ideas behind The Fame , and her inspirations and visions for the album . She believed that the most important thing missing from contemporary pop music was the combination of the visual imagery of the artist with the music . Gaga incorporated theatrics in her live performances of the songs from the album . Hence she hoped that people would take notice of the performance art , which she was trying to bring back with the album and its music ; according to her , the music put the lifestyle in front of it .
" I just feel like this record is really different- you [ ' ] ve got club bangers to more 70s glam to more singer @-@ songwriter records to rock music . [ ... ] The Fame is not about who you are — it 's about how everybody wants to know who you are ! Buy it and listen to it before you go out or in the car . [ ... ] I think you 've really got to allow artists ' creativity to marinate . It took me a while but really delving into myself I finally got it . I couldn 't be more proud of it . It 's not just a record [ , ] it 's a whole pop art movement [ . ] It 's not just about one song . "
= = Composition = =
Musically , the album drew influences from late 1970s glam rock musicians such as David Bowie and Queen . Gaga incorporated their glam @-@ rock sound while devising catchy pop melodies and hooks to create what she has dubbed , " theatrical pop " . Songs like " Poker Face " , " Just Dance " and " LoveGame " are uptempo dance songs , with " Poker Face " carrying a dark sound with clear vocals on the chorus and a pop hook . " Just Dance " is synth @-@ based while " LoveGame " has a more dance @-@ oriented beat , and " Money Honey " has a moderate techno groove . All of them combined synths of clipped marching beats , sawing electronics and contained mild R & B @-@ infused beats . " Paparazzi " carried a sultry beat while " Summerboy " had influences of the music of Blondie . " Eh , Eh ( Nothing Else I Can Say ) " is credited as a ballad compared to the rest of the dance @-@ fueled tracks from The Fame . The song has a 1980s synthpop feeling in it , while incorporating the " Eh , Eh " hook from Rihanna 's single " Umbrella " ( 2007 ) .
Lyrically , the songs on The Fame talk about being famous and achieving popularity ; " Poker Face " is about sexual innuendo and teasing . Gaga explained in an interview with the Daily Star that the lyrics carry a bit of an undertone of confusion about love and sex . According to the BBC , the " Mum @-@ mum @-@ mum @-@ mah " hook used in the song is copied from Boney M 's 1977 hit " Ma Baker " . " Just Dance " talks about being intoxicated in a party , with lyrics like " What 's going on on the floor ? / I love this record , baby but I can 't see straight anymore " . " LoveGame " portrays a message about love , fame and sexuality which is akin to the central theme of album . " Paparazzi " portrays a stalker who is following somebody being his or her biggest fan . The lyrics also portray the desire of capturing the attention of the camera as well as achieving fame . Gaga explained that ,
" This idea of The Fame runs through and through . Basically , if you have nothing — no money , no fame — you can still feel beautiful and dirty rich . It 's about making choices , and having references — things you pull from your life that you believe in . It 's about self @-@ discovery and being creative . The record is slightly focused , but it 's also eclectic . [ ... ] The music is intended to inspire people to feel a certain way about themselves , so they 'll be able to encompass , in their own lives , a sense of inner fame that they can project to the world , and the carefree nature of the album is a reflection of that aura . I like to funnel interesting ideas to the rest of the world through a pop lens . "
= = Critical reception = =
The Fame received generally positive reviews from music critics . At Metacritic , which assigns a normalized rating out of 100 to reviews from mainstream critics , the album received an average score of 71 , based on 13 reviews . Matthew Chisling from Allmusic called the album " a well @-@ crafted sampling of feisty anti @-@ pop in high quality " , and wrote that it " fails to come up short on funky sounds to amuse fans of this dance genre . " Nicole Powers of URB complimented its " irony @-@ laden lyrics , delivered in a style that owes a little something to Gwen Stefani , " as well as the album 's " deluxe ditties " . Mikael Wood of Entertainment Weekly called it " remarkably ( and exhaustingly ) pure in its vision of a world in which nothing trumps being beautiful , dirty , and rich . In this economy , though , her high @-@ times escapism has its charms " . Alexis Petridis of The Guardian found it " packing an immensely addictive melody or an inescapable hook , virtually everything sounds like another hit single " , and predicted that it " certainly sounds like it could be big . " Daniel Brockman from The Phoenix wrote that " Gaga ups the ante in terms of catchy songwriting and sheer high @-@ in @-@ the @-@ club @-@ banging @-@ to @-@ the @-@ beat abandon . " Ben Hogwood of musicOMH praised Gaga 's " blend of sassy attitude , metallic beats and sharp , incisive songwriting " , elements which he felt are integral to " creating pop music " .
Although he panned " Eh Eh ( Nothing Else I Can Say ) " , " Paper Gangsta " , and " Brown Eyes " , Evan Sawdey of PopMatters called The Fame " a solid dance album " and wrote that " much of the album ’ s success can be attributed to rising club producer RedOne . " Joey Guerra from the Houston Chronicle felt that although the songs present in the album are not innovative , Gaga deserved credit for bringing real dance music to the mass . Genevieve Koski of The A.V. Club felt that the " whole point " of the album is " glitter @-@ laced , dance @-@ inciting energy that bodes well for extended club play " . Slant Magazine 's Sal Cinquemani viewed that Gaga 's lyrics veer between " cheap " and " nonsensical drivel " , while her singing is " uneven at best " . He added that the highlights such as " Poker Face " , " Starstruck " , " Paper Gangsta " , and " Summerboy " rely " almost solely on their snappy production and sing @-@ along hooks . " Freedom du Lac from The Washington Post criticized the album for lacking originality . MSN Music 's Robert Christgau gave the album an " honorable mention " and quippedly referred to it as " shallowness at its most principled . " The Fame garnered five Grammy nominations at the 52nd Grammy Awards on December 2 , 2009 . The album itself was nominated for Album of the Year and won Best Electronic / Dance Album .
= = Chart performance = =
In the United States , The Fame debuted at number seventeen on the Billboard 200 with sales of 24 @,@ 000 on the issue dated November 15 , 2008 . After fluctuating down the charts , the album reached number ten on the issue dated March 7 , 2009 . It then reached a peak of number two on the chart . The album also topped Billboard 's Dance / Electronic Albums chart ; it stayed at the number @-@ one spot for 106 non @-@ consecutive weeks . In March 2010 , the album was certified three @-@ times platinum for shipments of three million copies , by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) . With the release of The Fame Monster , which was also combined with The Fame as a deluxe edition , the album jumped from 34 to 6 on the Billboard 200 with sales of 151 @,@ 000 . It reached its highest sales week on the issue dated January 9 , 2010 with 169 @,@ 000 copies sold . On the issue dated January 16 , 2010 , The Fame moved to a new peak of two on the Billboard 200 after being on the charts for 62 weeks . By the end of 2009 , The Fame became the fifth best @-@ selling album of the year . The Fame has sold 4 @.@ 7 million copies in the United States as of April 2016 and is the seventh best @-@ selling digital album , selling 1 @.@ 086 million digital copies .
In Canada , the album reached number @-@ one , and has been certified seven times platinum by the Canadian Recording Industry Association ( CRIA ) for shipment of 560 @,@ 000 copies , and sold 476 @,@ 000 copies as of March 2011 . The album debuted at number six , and peaked at number two in New Zealand as well as being certified double platinum . In Australia , the album debuted at number twelve and peaked at number three . The album has been certified three times platinum in Australia , by the Australian Recording Industry Association ( ARIA ) for shipments of 210 @,@ 000 copies .
The Fame debuted in the United Kingdom at number three with first week sales of 25 @,@ 228 copies . After spending ten weeks in the top ten , it replaced Ronan Keating 's Songs for My Mother at the top position . Since then , the album spent four consecutive weeks at the number @-@ one spot . It has since been certified nine @-@ times platinum by the British Phonographic Industry ( BPI ) , and has sold 2 @,@ 896 @,@ 724 copies as of September 2014 . It has also become the first album to reach the platinum certification based on digital sales after selling 300 @,@ 000 units in the UK . The album is the ninth best @-@ selling album in the UK of the 21st century .
In France , The Fame debuted at number @-@ seventy @-@ three and reached a peak at number @-@ two for five weeks . It has been certified diamond status by the Syndicat National de l 'Édition Phonographique and , as of February 2012 , has sold 630 @,@ 000 copies . In Ireland , the album entered the charts at number @-@ eight , and in its fifth week climbed to number @-@ one for two consecutive weeks . In mainland Europe , the album peaked at number one on the European Top 100 Albums , the Austrian Albums Chart and the German Album Chart . In Germany , it became the fourth most downloaded album ever . It also reached the top twenty in Mexico , Belgium , the Czech Republic , Denmark , Finland , Greece , Hungary , Italy , the Netherlands , Norway , Poland , Russia , and Switzerland and the album has sold more than 15 million copies worldwide .
= = Promotion = =
To promote the album , Gaga did several performances worldwide . Her first televised appearance was on Logo 's NewNowNext Awards on June 7 , 2008 . She also performed on Michalsky StyleNite at Berlin Fashion Week , So You Think You Can Dance , Jimmy Kimmel Live ! , The Tonight Show with Jay Leno , as well as in Vietnam for the 57th Miss Universe beauty pageant during the swimsuit competition . On January 31 , 2009 , she performed on television in Ireland on RTÉ One 's show Tubridy Tonight . Three songs from The Fame were used in the second season of The CW 's series Gossip Girl : " Paparazzi " in the episode " Summer , Kind of Wonderful " , " Poker Face " in " The Serena Also Rises " , and " Money Honey " in " Remains of the J " . Gaga also performed " Poker Face " on American Idol on April 1 , 2009 . To celebrate the launch of the show Dirty Sexy Money , ABC created a music video of Gaga 's song " Beautiful , Dirty , Rich " , directed by Melina Matsoukas . It was initially announced as Gaga 's second single , but " Poker Face " was chosen instead . There were two videos released for the song – the first was composed of clips from Dirty Sexy Money , and the second was the actual music video . The song charted on the UK Singles Chart due to digital downloads and peaked at number eighty @-@ three .
The album received further promotion from her first headlining concert tour The Fame Ball Tour , which started on March 12 , 2009 in San Diego , California . It was Gaga 's first concert tour with North American shows in March , followed by dates in Oceania and a solo trek through Europe . Dates in Asia soon followed , as well as two performances at England 's V Festival and two shows in North America that had been postponed from April . Gaga described the tour as a traveling museum show incorporating artist Andy Warhol 's pop @-@ performance art concept . Tickets were distributed for charity also . Alternate versions of the show with minimal variations were planned by Gaga to accommodate different venues .
The show consisted of four segments , with each segment being followed by a video interlude to the next segment , and it ended with an encore . The set list consisted of songs from The Fame only . Gaga appeared on the stage in new costumes including an innovative dress made entirely of bubbles and premiered an unreleased song called " Future Love " . An alternate set list with minor changes was performed for European dates . The show received positive critical appreciation with critics complimenting her vocal clarity and fashion sense as well as her ability to pull off theatrics like a professional artist . Gaga 's second headlining tour , The Monster Ball Tour was also heavily consistent with songs from The Fame album , besides tracks from the follow @-@ up EP , The Fame Monster . Her 3rd concert tour , " The Born This Way Ball " had 4 songs off The Fame as well .
= = Singles = =
" Just Dance " was released as the album 's lead single commercially worldwide on June 17 , 2008 , through digital distribution . The song was critically acclaimed with reviewers complimenting its club anthem @-@ like nature and the synthpop associated with it . It achieved commercial success by topping charts in the United States , Australia , Canada , the Republic of Ireland , the Netherlands and the United Kingdom , as well as reaching the top ten in sixteen other countries . The song received a Grammy nomination in the Best Dance Recording category but lost to electronic duo Daft Punk for their song " Harder , Better , Faster , Stronger " .
" Poker Face " was released as the second single from the album . It was also well received by the critics , most of whom have praised the robotic hook and the chorus . The single achieved greater success than " Just Dance " by topping the charts in almost all the countries it was released to . " Poker Face " became Gaga 's second consecutive number one on the Hot 100 . On December 2 , 2009 , " Poker Face " received three Grammy nominations in the categories of Song of the Year , Record of the Year , and won for Best Dance Recording .
" Eh , Eh ( Nothing Else I Can Say ) " was the album 's third single in Australia , New Zealand , Sweden and Denmark and fourth in France . The song received mixed reviews . Some critics compared it to nineties Europop while the others criticized it for bringing the party @-@ like nature of the album to a halt and thus being an embarrassment to the album . It failed to match the success of the previous singles in Australia and New Zealand by reaching fifteen and nine respectively . It peaked at two in Sweden and at seven in France .
" LoveGame " was released as the third single in the United States , Canada and some European nations . It was the fourth single in Australia , New Zealand , and the United Kingdom . The song was critically appreciated for its catchy tune and the " I wanna take a ride on your disco stick " hook . The song has reached the top ten in countries such as the United States , Australia and Canada and the top twenty in others .
" Paparazzi " was announced as the third single in the United Kingdom and Ireland with a release date of July 6 , 2009 , the fourth single in the United States , and the fifth single overall . The song has reached the top five in Australia , Canada , Ireland and the United Kingdom . It has also reached the top ten in the United States . The song has received critical acclaim for its fun @-@ filled , club @-@ friendly nature and is deemed the most memorable and telling song from the album . The associated music video for the song was shot as a mini @-@ movie with Gaga starring as a doomed starlet who is almost killed by her boyfriend , but in the end takes her revenge and reclaims her fame and popularity .
= = The Fame Monster = =
Originally intended to be a re @-@ release of The Fame with eight additional tracks , The Fame Monster was announced by Gaga and her record label as a standalone album containing the eight new songs . The deluxe edition of the album contains The Fame in its entirety along with The Fame Monster . The album deals with the darker side of fame , as experienced by Gaga over the course of 2008 – 09 while travelling around the world , and are expressed through a monster metaphor . Gaga compared the feel of her debut album and The Fame Monster with the Yin and yang concept . Cover artwork was done by Hedi Slimane and has a gothic look which Gaga had to convince her record company to allow her to shoot . The composition takes its inspiration from Gothic music and fashion shows . Contemporary critics gave a positive review of the album , with the majority of them complimenting the songs " Bad Romance " , " Telephone " , and " Dance in the Dark " . In some countries the album charted together with The Fame while in others like the United States , Canada and Japan , it charted as a separate album . It has reached top ten in most of the major markets . She announced The Monster Ball Tour supporting the album , which started on November 27 , 2009 , and continued through until Spring 2011 .
= = Track listing and formats = =
Notes
^ a signifies an additional co @-@ producer
= = Credits and personnel = =
Management
Recorded at Record Plant and Chalice Recording Studios , Los Angeles ; Cherrytree Recording Studios , Santa Monica ; 150 Studios , Parsippany ; Poe Boy Studios , Miami ; 333 Studios and Dojo Studios , New York ; New Road Studios
Personnel
Credits and personnel adapted from The Fame liner notes .
= = Charts = =
= = Certifications = =
= = Release history = =
|
= Pittsburgh Town =
" Pittsburgh Town " , sometimes titled as " Pittsburgh " or " Pittsburgh is a Great Old Town " , is a folk song written by Woody Guthrie and originally recorded by Pete Seeger . The song was written during a Pittsburgh , Pennsylvania stop on an Almanac Singers ' tour ; both Seeger and Gutherie were members of the band at this time . The song speaks of the labor and environmental problems that the city was facing in 1941 , when the song was written . In the time since , environmental legislation has reduced the pollution problem that plagued Pittsburgh ; because of this , the song 's mentions of pollution in Pittsburgh have been sometimes been replaced with verses extolling the city .
= = Creation = =
There are several stories behind the origin of the song . Several historians trace " Pittsburgh Town " to the Almanac Singers ' 1941 national tour . According to the liner notes of Pete Seeger 's American Industrial Ballads , originally released in 1956 , on July 7 , 1941 , the group recorded fourteen songs for a small record label in New Jersey . The $ 250 that they were paid was used to purchase a 1932 Buick in which they traveled on their subsequent tour . While stopped in Pittsburgh , Pennsylvania , the group decided to play for steel workers who were in the process of unionizing . They played two nights of concerts a steel patch , sleeping in between in a cockroach @-@ infested hotel . During the second concert , Woody Guthrie impulsively started to improvise lyrics to the tune of the folk song " Crawdad Hole " . The song 's entire body came out of this jam session . Millard Lampell continued improving and created the second verse of the song from that point .
The liner notes of Seeger 's Songs of Struggle and Protest , 1930 – 50 tell a different story of the song 's creation ; they state that Guthrie wrote the song while airborne on a flight into Pittsburgh . While looking out the window at the smoky skies , he quickly jotted down the lyrics .
= = Lyrics and themes = =
The song 's verses alternate between ones that speak of the environmental problems of Pittsburgh and ones that speak of its labor problems .
The first verse refers to Pittsburgh as a " smoky ol ' town " , and the third complains that the speaker does nothing more than " cough and choke " because of the steel industry 's output . The smoke was an ever @-@ present part of life in Pittsburgh at the time of the song 's writing ; steel mills on the banks of the city 's three rivers made the sky glow red and continually released smoke . Modern environmentalist reviewers of the song believe that the pollution @-@ oriented verses show that the song was written to protest the environmental conditions in which workers were forced to live .
The second and fourth verses focus on the labor disputes that the city was experiencing at the time . The second verse uses a pun on the name of Jones and Laughlin Steel to ask what the company stole from its workers ( " What did Jones and Laughlin steal ? " ) , while the fourth and final verse ends with the statement that all of the mill workers are " joining up with the CIO . "
= = Recordings and adaptations = =
The song has been covered by several artists and community groups . Pete Seeger Released a studio version on his 1956 album American Industrial Ballads and a live version of the song on his 1964 album Songs of Struggle and Protest , 1930 – 50 . Both versions by Seeger feature him singing and playing the banjo without any additional accompaniment . In the live version , the crowd 's clapping and singing along can be heard . Folk bands in the Pittsburgh area , such as the NewLanders , have both recorded and performed Seeger 's version of the song .
In 1959 , Vivien Richman released an adaptation of the song on her album Vivien Richman Sings Folk Songs of West Pennsylvania ; her version of the song includes several additional verses about the landscape and geography of the region . The song has also been covered by students at Pittsburgh Public Schools , using verses that are less political than the original Guthrie composition and closer to the Richman version than the Seeger version . Thechange in verses was partly because by the middle of the 1950s , enforcement of the Smoke Control Ordinance of 1941 cleaned up the air . Lyrics about the smokiness of the town were replaced with the line " Pittsburgh town is a great old town . "
= = Links = =
|
= 2015 Belgian Grand Prix =
The 2015 Belgian Grand Prix ( formally the 2015 Formula 1 Shell Belgian Grand Prix ) was a Formula One motor race held on 23 August 2015 at the Circuit de Spa @-@ Francorchamps in Spa , Belgium . It was the eleventh round of the 2015 Formula One season , and the 71st Belgian Grand Prix .
Lewis Hamilton of Mercedes entered the event as the overall Drivers ' Championship leader , 21 points ahead of his teammate Nico Rosberg and 42 points ahead of Ferrari 's Sebastian Vettel . Mercedes led the Constructors ' Championship by 147 points over Ferrari , while Williams entered the event in third , a further 85 points adrift . Having won the 2014 edition , Daniel Ricciardo was the defending race winner .
Lewis Hamilton won the race for Mercedes , extending his championship lead over Rosberg , who finished second , to 28 points . Romain Grosjean and Lotus secured a podium finish for the first time since the 2013 United States Grand Prix , benefitting from a controversial tyre failure on Sebastian Vettel 's Ferrari late in the race .
The race marked Scuderia Ferrari 's 900th Grand Prix entry , while McLaren was handed a record 105 @-@ place grid penalty for a multitude of changes to their Honda power units .
= = Report = =
= = = Background = = =
Pirelli , Formula One 's sole tyre supplier since 2011 , supplied the ten teams with four compounds of tyres for the event . The two dry selections were the white @-@ banded medium compound as the " prime " tyre , while the yellow @-@ banded soft compound was provided as the softer " option " choice . The green @-@ banded intermediate weather tyre and the blue @-@ banded full wet compounds were brought to all events . As a consequence of Konstantin Tereshchenko 's crash in a GP3 Series race in 2014 , new asphalt was laid down on the inside of the final corner , replacing the patch of grass that was there before . In addition , a new kerb was added at the exit of the famous Eau Rouge corner , on the apex of turn four . The kerb was however removed on Saturday after the FIA discussed the matter with the drivers . At turn one , the La Source hairpin , the exit kerb was shortened to make it easier to rejoin the track in the event of a driver running wide .
The race marked the 900th Grand Prix entered by Scuderia Ferrari . Driving for the Scuderia was Kimi Räikkönen , the most successful active driver at Spa , who extended his contract with the team for an additional year in the week prior to the race . Mercedes introduced a new low @-@ downforce rear wing for Spa , featuring a spoon @-@ shaped design , similar to that of the McLaren MP4 @-@ 21 in 2006 . The aim was to find a balance between low @-@ downforce for the long straights on the Spa circuit while at the same time retaining enough downforce for the more twisting second sector of the track . Red Bull on the other hand tested two different rear wings during Friday 's free practice sessions . While Daniel Ricciardo ran with a very low @-@ downforce wing , Daniil Kvyat tested a " more Spa @-@ specific set @-@ up " , which was ultimately used by both drivers in qualifying and the race to prevent tyre degradation . McLaren came to Spa with a new specification power unit , aiming to reach the level of Ferrari 's unit with the introduced changes . However , the team 's racing director Éric Boullier warned that it might take until Singapore until the gains could be visible and expected a " difficult " Belgian Grand Prix . In suit with the new power unit the team introduced a new engine cover . Further updates to the McLaren MP4 @-@ 30 included an " unprecedented " tray design for the front of the floor , as well as lower sidepods and a new position for the radiator that cools the electronic recovery system .
Going into the weekend , Lewis Hamilton led the Drivers ' Championship with 202 points , 21 ahead of second placed Nico Rosberg . Sebastian Vettel for Ferrari was a further 21 points behind Rosberg , having closed the gap by winning the previous round in Hungary . In the Constructors ' Championship , Mercedes with 383 points were leading Ferrari by 147 points , while third placed Williams were a further 85 points behind .
= = = = Regulation changes = = = =
In an attempt to limit the influence of pit walls on their drivers during race starts , new regulations were introduced for the start procedure from the Belgian Grand Prix onwards . Drivers were now only allowed to adjust one clutch level after leaving the pit garage for the starting grid . The response from drivers was mixed , with Nico Rosberg commenting that the new start procedures would be challenging , while Fernando Alonso opined that the changes were not significant , and Daniel Ricciardo hoped the new procedure might help his team .
= = = = Lotus legal troubles = = = =
The Lotus team experienced legal difficulties over the Spa weekend , as a legal battle with former test driver Charles Pic , concerning the time the team had granted Pic at the wheel of their 2014 car . With the case in arbitration court , Lotus faced the threat of their cars being impounded and unable to move following the conclusion of the Grand Prix weekend . The bailiffs returned the cars to Lotus and the team was eventually able to travel to Italy , after Bernie Ecclestone , chief executive of the Formula One Group , " stepped in to ensure staff were paid " , while their financial problems continued to question the team 's future .
= = = Free practice = = =
Per the regulations for the 2015 season , three practice sessions were held , two 90 @-@ minute sessions on Friday and another one @-@ hour session before qualifying on Saturday . In the first practice session on Friday morning , Nico Rosberg was fastest after initial trouble with his power unit , a quarter of a second ahead of his Mercedes teammate Lewis Hamilton . Daniel Ricciardo ( Red Bull ) was third , just five hundredths of a second slower than Hamilton , with Kimi Räikkönen another tenth down in fourth . Fifty minutes into the session , a red flag came out when Pastor Maldonado lost traction at the rear end of his Lotus E23 Hybrid at the exit of Les Combes corner and crashed into the tyre barriers , damaging the front @-@ right of his car . The session was stopped for ten minutes for the track marshals to repair the barriers . Speaking about his accident , Maldonado said : " It was very unlucky because I nearly saved the car . But anyway , it happened . This track is always very difficult when you have a moment or whatever , especially at that point where the second sector is quite narrow . But this can happen . Now we can 't change that . We need to look forward . " In the second Lotus , Romain Grosjean was again replaced by Jolyon Palmer , who finished practice 17th .
Another accident marred the second practice session on Friday afternoon , when a rear tyre on Nico Rosberg 's Mercedes blew , causing him to spin in the run @-@ up to Blanchimont corner . Rosberg was able to avoid hitting the tyre barriers , but the session was nevertheless red @-@ flagged in order to clear the track of the car . Prior to this incident , Rosberg had set the fastest time of the session with 1 : 49 @.@ 687 , three @-@ tenths of a second faster than teammate Hamilton , in second . Ricciardo was again third , a further 0 @.@ 4 seconds adrift , ahead of fellow Red Bull driver Daniil Kvyat , one second behind Rosberg . The Williams cars of Valtteri Bottas and Felipe Massa were 14th and 16th respectively , ahead of the two McLarens , who were faster only than the two Manor Marussias . Rosberg 's tyre failure was later deemed the result of an " external cut " , excluding the possibility of " any structural integrity issues " . Rosberg however remained worried about the reliability of the tyres for Sunday 's race , saying : " The problem is that we don 't really understand it . There are theories but there is no real evidence , so that 's a bit worrying for sure . "
World champion Lewis Hamilton bounced back in the third session on Saturday morning , being quickest , almost half a second faster than Rosberg . In " an uneventful session " , the two Ferraris were third and fourth , with Vettel leading Räikkönen . Meanwhile , the Force India drivers Sergio Pérez and Nico Hülkenberg ended the session in fifth and eighth respectively , separated by the Red Bull drivers . The only nuisance in third practice occurred when Romain Grosjean almost spun having to go around Kimi Räikkönen in turn 16 , complaining to his team about a " very , very dangerous " manoeuvre .
= = = Qualifying = = =
Qualifying consisted of three parts , 18 , 15 and 12 minutes in length respectively , with five drivers eliminated from competing after each of the first two sessions . Valtteri Bottas was first and last out on track during the first part of qualifying ( Q1 ) , starting the lap that saved him from elimination in the very last moments of the session . Excluded from further participation were both Manor Marussias , both McLarens and Sauber 's Felipe Nasr . Max Verstappen succeeded in progressing into Q2 despite complaining about a loss of power on his car .
The second part of qualifying saw Kimi Räikkönen come to a halt on track due to a loss of oil pressure . The session was briefly red @-@ flagged to clear the track and when it resumed , both Mercedes drivers decided not to head out again , since their first times where sufficient to advance to Q3 . Max Verstappen did not compete in Q2 at all due to the problems on his car , leaving him in provisional 14th ( bar his penalty ) and Räikkönen in 15th on the grid . The other three drivers to be eliminated were Marcus Ericsson for Sauber , Daniil Kvyat and Nico Hülkenberg . Hülkenberg 's time was just three @-@ tenths of a second slower than that of Sebastian Vettel in tenth and he became the only driver of a Mercedes @-@ powered car not to compete for pole position .
Lewis Hamilton was the first Mercedes driver to set a timed lap in Q3 , being almost half a second faster than Rosberg in Q2 . While Rosberg succeeded in bettering his times as well , he nevertheless ended up 0 @.@ 458 seconds behind his teammate and second on the grid . This handed Lewis Hamilton his tenth pole position in eleven races , meaning that he secured the FIA Pole Position Trophy at this early stage of the season . The next fastest car , Valtteri Bottas for Williams was 1 @.@ 3 seconds off Hamilton 's time of 1 : 47 @.@ 197 . Fourth fastest was Grosjean , who delivered what the BBC called a " stunningly impressive " lap . Sergio Pérez put in a surprising effort as well , finishing fifth for Force India . Meanwhile , Sebastian Vettel , who had won the previous race in Hungary , managed only ninth fastest after a mistake at the final chicane .
After qualifying , Hamilton stated his performance was mainly due to improvements he made in the middle sector of the lap , saying : " Sector two has been probably in the past a bit of a weak point . I knew the lines but could never really put the corners together . Definitely on those last two laps that was a very , very strong area for me . " Indeed , he gained most of his time on Rosberg in this sector , containing the majority of the circuit 's corners . He became the first driver since Michael Schumacher – who achieved the feat in 2000 – 2001 – to secure six consecutive pole positions , while the last driver to score six consecutive poles in one season was Mika Häkkinen in 1999 . Following their poor qualifying performance and grid penalties , Jenson Button expected a " lonely race " for McLaren , saying : " I actually enjoyed driving the car , and when you cross the finishing line and you see the time you think ' That 's not bad ' . But then when you see where you are , a second off the guy in front of you , it 's a massive margin , it hurts . "
= = = Penalties = = =
McLaren , who were expected to benefit from the start changes , were set to start the race from the back of the grid . After they had already been allowed to use one additional power unit in the 2015 season , the team had used their sixth power unit for the Hungarian Grand Prix , and now equipped both cars with a seventh , heavily revised version of their power unit for Belgium on Friday . McLaren made another power unit change on Saturday , since a mid @-@ season change in regulations meant that penalties could no longer result in in @-@ race time penalties . The cumulated 105 @-@ place grid penalty set a new record in Formula One .
Max Verstappen received a ten @-@ place grid penalty after he equipped his sixth power unit on Friday . After Lotus changed the gearbox on Romain Grosjean 's car on Saturday , Grosjean was handed a five @-@ place grid penalty , moving him from fourth to ninth on the grid . For the same reason , Kimi Räikkönen received a five @-@ place grid penalty , which only set him back two places due to penalties of other drivers .
= = = Race = = =
Prior to the race start , Nico Hülkenberg returned to the pit garage after reporting a loss of power on his Force India , but he eventually made it to the grid . His problem returned during the formation lap and when his car stalled on the starting grid , the starting procedure was aborted and another formation lap commenced . Carlos Sainz , Jr. experienced a similar problem during the second formation lap and was called into the pits . He was eventually sent out after the race started . The race distance was therefore shortened to 43 laps .
At the start , Nico Rosberg did not get away well , falling back to fifth behind Pérez , Ricciardo and Bottas , but overtook the latter for fourth by the end of the lap . Fernando Alonso did also start well for McLaren , moving up to twelfth , while Lewis Hamilton retained his lead , pulling clear of Pérez 's Force India early on . On lap two , Pastor Maldonado became the second retirement of the race when he stopped his car due to a power failure . On lap six , Daniil Kvyat took eighth place from Felipe Massa , while Romain Grosjean had quick first laps as well , overtaking the second Williams of Bottas for sixth on lap eight .
An early pit stop by Ricciardo on lap eight forced the hand of Force India , who brought in Pérez one lap later , but Pérez still came out behind the Red Bull . Several more drivers came in over the next couple of laps , including Bottas and Grosjean , with the Williams taking back his position during the stops only to be overtaken again on lap ten . Bottas was also set for a penalty , as his team had simultaneously equipped him with two different types of tyre compounds . He would later serve a drive through penalty . Lap eleven saw a risky overtaking manoeuvre by Max Verstappen , who went around the outside of Nasr at Blanchimont to take eleventh place . Following these first stops , the order at the front was Hamilton , Rosberg , Vettel , Räikkönen and Ricciardo , with the first four yet to stop . Rosberg was the first to do so on lap 13 , coming out slightly ahead of Pérez , who had overtaken Ricciardo a lap earlier . Pérez carried his momentum into Eau Rouge and up to turn seven , but ultimately failed to get the better of the Mercedes . Hamilton and Vettel pitted for new tyres on laps 14 and 15 respectively .
Over the next laps , Rosberg steadily closed on Hamilton in front without being able to catch his teammate . Lap 18 saw Romain Grosjean gain another position at Ricciardo 's expense , moving into fourth . Just two laps later , a DRS aided move on Pérez handed him third place . On lap 21 , Daniel Ricciardo 's Red Bull came to a sudden stop at the exit of the ' Bus Stop ' chicane , leading to a Virtual Safety Car period , during which many drivers pitted for new tyres , among them Grosjean , Massa and Verstappen . By lap 29 , Kvyat had pitted for new soft tyres , being able to go fast until the end of the race , while Vettel decided to try and finish the race without pitting for new tyres a second time . Kvyat 's newer tyres allowed him to overtake Bottas , Räikkönen , Massa and Pérez to eventually finish fourth . Sainz , Jr. eventually retired from the race on lap 34 . Vettel 's strategy however did not work out . By lap 42 , less than two laps from the finish , his right rear tyre exploded while on the Kemmel straight , handing Grosjean the final podium position . Vettel ended his race in the pits , but was classified down in twelfth place . Unchallenged by his teammate in second , Lewis Hamilton finished the race to take his 39th Grand Prix victory .
= = = Post @-@ race = = =
At the podium interviews , conducted by former Formula One driver David Coulthard , Lewis Hamilton said that he felt " fairly relaxed at the front " , naming looking after the tyre wear as his only concern during the race . Nico Rosberg conceded that he " just completely messed up the start " and added that Hamilton " did a great job , so deserved to win " . Romain Grosjean was delighted with his tenth career podium , speaking of " an incredible weekend " and claimed that the podium " has the feel of a race win " . Asked about his title aspirations , Hamilton insisted that it was " definitely way too early " to speak about winning the world title . During the post @-@ race press conference , Grosjean described the moment of Vettel 's tyre failure as " a bit of a scary moment " , saying that it was " very unfortunate he had that puncture " .
Following the race , Sebastian Vettel voiced harsh criticism of tyre supplier Pirelli , concerning not only his own but also Nico Rosberg 's tyre failure on Friday . He was quoted saying : " I think it is a sort of thing that keeps going around and no @-@ one mentions . It it is unacceptable . If Nico tells us he did not go off the track , he didn 't go off the track , why should he lie to us ? It is the same with me , I didn 't go off the track – it is out of the blue the tyre exploded [ ... ] . " He saw the safety of the drivers at risks , asserting that " [ i ] f it happens 200 metres earlier , I am not standing here now . " Pirelli 's Motorsport Director Paul Hembery reacted to Vettel 's accusations by saying : " I am not going to criticise Sebastian . It is a hot moment and I don 't want to enter into a war of words over that – it is pointless for everybody . We were concerned when we saw the number of laps that were going to be done . Nobody really suggested they were going to do a one @-@ stop race and it was a bit of a surprise – if anything people were talking about doing three stops rather than two . " Nico Rosberg however backed up his compatriot Vettel , telling the press : " The exploding tyres is poor . It shouldn 't happen . That it keeps on happening in other categories as well and with me on Friday . Both of us were so lucky . If it had happened a couple of metres later or earlier , we would have one of the biggest shunts ever . They need to figure out something to make it safer . " He also called for immediate action considering the Italian Grand Prix – the race following Spa @-@ Francorchamps – due to its nature as the fastest race of the year . Pirelli reacted by demanding a maximum stint length for their tyres , a suggestion the company had already put in at the end of 2013 . The day after the race , Pirelli announced that they had found cuts on other tyres from other teams , mainly on the rear tyres , and that they were still searching for the cause of the damages . However , the company reasserted their stance that while Rosberg 's failure was caused by external damage , Vettel 's was due to " pure wear " . Vettel received additional support from Coulthard , who wrote that Vettel was " right to tackle Pirelli " over the issue of tyres , as well as Coulthard 's former teammate Mika Häkkinen . Vettel once again defended the team 's decision to try a one @-@ stop race on the Tuesday after the race , saying : " Our strategy was never risky , at any point . The team is not to blame . " When the tyre supplier released the findings of their own investigation into the matter , the company needed to overturn their claim that the failure was caused by wear , since the report proved that the damage to Vettel 's tyre was caused by debris .
Max Verstappen received particular praise for his overtake on Felipe Nasr through Blanchimont . Former driver Allan McNish wrote : " This is the first time in my life I have seen someone go around the outside of someone at Blanchimont . That was big [ . ] " At the FIA Prize Giving ceremony on 4 December 2015 , Verstappen received an award for Action of the Year , acknowledging his manoeuvre . Jenson Button on the other hand called McLaren 's race an " embarrassment " , after he had suffered from a lack of battery power throughout the race , finishing only ahead of the two Manor Marussia drivers . Lotus disclosed that Maldonado 's retirement was in part caused by " heavy contact with the kerbs " , with the intensity of impact being as high as 17 g0 ( 170 m / s2 ) . Technical director Nick Chester felt it was " a big shame " that Maldonado , who had been running ahead of eventual third placed Grosjean when he retired , was unable to contribute to a " strong result " for the team . Lotus later revealed that the retirement was caused by damage to the clutch control system sustained when he went off the track at Eau Rouge . At the same time , the team applauded Grosjean for a " faultless " drive . Additional praise for Grosjean came from motorsport journalist Mark Hughes , who felt that Grosjean was " still seriously under @-@ rated " in Formula One . Williams launched an internal investigation into the tyre mix @-@ up at Valtteri Bottas 's first pit stop , feeling that it might have cost him a podium position .
As a result of the race , Lewis Hamilton extended his championship lead over Rosberg to 28 points , the biggest margin it had been all season up to that point . Vettel 's tyre failure cost him points as he was now 67 points off the lead in the standings . In the Constructors ' Championship , Mercedes extended their lead over Ferrari to 184 points , while Lotus moved into fifth place at the expense of Force India .
= = Classification = =
= = = Qualifying = = =
Notes
^ 1 – Romain Grosjean received a five @-@ place grid penalty for a gearbox change . ^ 2 – Kimi Räikkönen received a five @-@ place grid penalty for a gearbox change . ^ 3 – Max Verstappen received a ten @-@ place grid penalty for using his sixth power unit during the season . ^ 4 – Jenson Button received a fifty @-@ place grid penalty for a variety of changes made to his power unit . ^ 5 – Fernando Alonso received a fifty @-@ five @-@ place grid penalty for a variety of changes made to his power unit .
= = = Race = = =
Notes
^ 1 – Sebastian Vettel was classified because he completed over 90 % of the race distance .
= = = Championship standings after the race = = =
Note : Only the top five positions are included for both sets of standings .
|
= 4 Intimate Nights with Beyoncé =
4 Intimate Nights with Beyoncé was the second residency show by American recording artist Beyoncé . Held during four non @-@ consecutive nights in August 2011 at the Roseland Ballroom in New York City , the concerts were part of Beyoncé 's campaign in support of her fourth studio album 4 ( 2011 ) . All the songs on the standard version of the album , excluding " Start Over " , were performed by her to a standing room @-@ only audience of 3 @,@ 200 . Beyoncé also sang some of her previous hits from her three prior studio albums as well as songs she recorded with former girl group Destiny 's Child in the 1990s and early 2000s . Wearing a linky gold sparkling mini @-@ dress , she was backed by four female dancers and a 20 @-@ piece female band including a horn and orchestra section .
Tickets to the four concerts sold out in one minute . The first show , on August 14 , 2011 , received critical acclaim ; Beyoncé 's ability to perform under the circumstances of a smaller stage and a larger band was commended by contemporary music critics . A DVD of the show titled Live at Roseland : Elements of 4 , which features performances from the concert , and never before seen personal footage from Beyoncé , including her times with Destiny 's Child , traveling and partying with family , Beyoncé 's rehearsal of " 1 + 1 " backstage at American Idol , other live performances and a sneak peek at her wedding dress , was released on November 21 , 2011 .
= = Background = =
On August 5 , 2011 , Beyoncé 's official website announced that she would be performing at New York City 's Roseland Ballroom for four nights in the third week of August . The set on each night would be the entire collection of her fourth studio album , 4 . Tickets for all four shows were available on August 10 on Ticketmaster . The first date went on sale to the general public at 1 p.m. EST , followed by the second show at 2 p.m. EST , third at 3 p.m. EST , and the final concert at 4 p.m. EST . Citi card @-@ members were able to order tickets early with a pre @-@ sale beginning at noon EST on August 10 , 2011 through the Citi Private Pass Program . When tickets went on sale to the general public on August 10 , 2011 for the first show of 4 Intimate Nights with Beyoncé on August 14 , 2011 , the date sold out in 22 seconds . Within the minute following the first sold out date , Columbia Records reported via Twitter that all four shows had sold out , stating " It 's official @ Beyonce ’ s 4th & final show at Roseland Ballroom is SOLD OUT ! Thats a total of 4 sold out shows next week ! " .
In a radio interview with Philadelphia 's Power 99FM , Beyoncé 's husband Jay @-@ Z spoke in depth about the upcoming intimate shows and compared her to Michael Jackson stating , " I know that 's blasphemy to compare the two because Mike was such an innovator , but I think she 's like the second coming . You know , the hard work and dedication that she puts into her shows . It just makes you want to work harder at your own craft . She 's like a machine . "
= = Development = =
On August 19 , 2011 , the first part of a concert 's behind the scenes video was released . In the behind the scenes special , lead guitarist Bibi stated " She ’ s listening to her inner voice right now and doing what she wants to do . I think she took risks . I think she 's being more authentic and doing what she wants to do instead of doing what people expect , which is good . " Kim , the show 's musical director described the idea of the intimate concert , " This project is the most mature project for Beyoncé , because to be able to be in an intimate setting like this like the Roseland , which is a historic place , it 's an amazing thing . I think the challenge of it is to be able to present your whole album as its own concept , as its own piece and it 's a great way to educate the people about what this album means to her ; It 's for her , it 's for the fans , it 's for anybody . "
The second part to the show 's behind the scenes look was released on August 30 , 2011 . In the second part of the behind the scenes special , Beyoncé is shown calling the shots and rehearsing with her band , leading up to the sold @-@ out shows and clips of fans waiting in line show appreciation and dedication for Beyoncé . The third part to the behind the scenes look was revealed on September 10 , 2011 . The behind the scenes third part showed the orchestra and back up dancers preparing for the performance as the instrumental to " I Was Here " plays in the background . Before Beyoncé takes to the stage , a clip of her praying with everyone involved in the concert is shown . On her way to the stage , Beyoncé describes in depth what she hopes to achieve during these 4 Intimate Nights stating , " I just want to give them everything I have . I 'm so excited about performing the album , and it 's just such a beautiful vibe inside people are just ready to dance and enjoy the music . — It 's all good . " The third part to the behind the scenes look ends with Beyoncé taking to the stage addressing the crowd with " Hello Roseland ! " The fourth , and final , behind the scenes look into the intimate show was released exclusively through Citibank 's Facebook page on September 14 , 2011 . The final part of the behind the scenes look was the commercial for the concerts ' DVD release .
= = About the show = =
= = = Fashion and stage = = =
During the show , Beyoncé performed in a gold lamé mini @-@ dress courtesy of her mother , Tina , and shoes by Stuart Weitzman . She wore the slinky gold sparkling mini @-@ dress throughout the entire show . Beyoncé was assisted on stage by four female dancers clad in shimmering black leotards . Marcus Barnes of Daily Mail described Beyoncé 's fashion choice as " fab " as she strutted on stage . Georgette Cline of AOL 's The Boombox stated that the metallic dress showed off her curves during the concert .
While on stage , Beyoncé was backed by a 20 @-@ piece all @-@ female band and orchestra . The band consisted of a drummer , keyboarder , and guitarist and for the first time in Beyoncé 's touring history , a horn section and an orchestra . The band additionally included , among others , two saxophonists , a guitar player , a seven @-@ piece string section , a pianist and a conductor . Jon Caramanica of The New York Times noted that the all @-@ female band plays an important spectacle to Beyoncé 's performance , as she is both a part and in charge of the " army " . Usually known for performing in arenas that hold 20 @,@ 000 or more people , Beyoncé performed in standing @-@ room @-@ only Roseland , which holds a maximum capacity of 3 @,@ 200 people .
During a behind the scenes look into the show , lighting designer Nick stated that the big moments of the album will be accompanied by big lighting from behind Beyoncé for the " epic big scenes " , as opposed to performances such as " 1 + 1 " , where Beyoncé is bathed in a single spotlight above a piano . In the second part of a behind the scenes look of 4 Intimate Nights with Beyoncé , it is revealed that Beyoncé was in charge of the orchestra 's design and stage set @-@ up , stating that a three level stage would be needed , allowing the back @-@ up singers to be at the top and the orchestra to be on the same level as Beyoncé herself , as to allow viewers to see them .
= = = Concert synopsis = = =
The show begins with Beyoncé taking the stage stating " This is going to be a little different , y 'all . It 'll be more intimate " before she begins revealing multiple stories from her musical history including before — auditions with Destiny 's Child starting at age nine , her father 's early and frequent involvement managing his daughter 's career and getting dropped by Elektra . After delving into her musical history , Beyoncé states " I just want to have a good time with y 'all " before she begins the concert with her rendition of Michael Jackson 's " I Wanna Be Where You Are " . Following her rendition of " I Wanna Be Where You Are " , Beyoncé begins a medley of past Destiny 's Child songs , stopping each track to discuss her life and mindset during each stage of her career . During her performance of " Independent Women " she reveals how her father , Mathew Knowles , submitted the track to the Charlie 's Angels ( 2000 ) soundtrack without permission , reveals that she wants to write a song " that celebrates a woman 's curves " inspired by Stevie Nicks ' guitar riff in " Edge of Seventeen " ( 1982 ) for " Bootylicious " and states " With a lot of success comes a lot of negativity ... they were being nasty but it inspired me " before performing " Survivor " .
After " ' 03 Bonnie & Clyde " , the final song in the medley , Beyoncé began to tell the story of how her first album came to be , stating " [ The label ] told me I didn ’ t have one hit song on my album . I guess they were kinda right . I had five ! " . Beyoncé then continued with a slowed @-@ down , jazzier version of " Crazy in Love " allowing the orchestra to augment rather than transform the tracks . During the Ne @-@ Yo penned " Irreplaceable , " Beyoncé has the crowd assist her in her performance . After stating " On April 4 , 2008 , somebody put a ring on it , " Beyoncé has the audience , which contained both men and women fliping their hands to " Single Ladies ( Put a Ring on It ) " .
Beyoncé than begins to perform virtually all of 4 , beginning with " 1 + 1 " , where she is found kneeling atop a piano wrapped up in smoke and red hued lights , reminiscent to her performance on the American Idol finale . Beyoncé then continues down the original track listing of 4 , following " 1 + 1 " with a rendition of " I Care " where she whipped her hair to the " brooding " brass and " ominous " beat of the song , while " bringing the song to life with an immaculate vocals " . " I Miss You " begins with Beyoncé performing while seated , only to later be brought to her feet while altering the song 's ending with additional vocals and instrumentation . " Best Thing I Never Had " follows afterwards , with a slight alteration in its melody . Beyoncé then sang " Party " as the crowd swayed their arms back and forth and stretched out the " y " to every other verse . Beyoncé than began harmonizing with the back @-@ up singers for " Rather Die Young " , before performing an up @-@ tempo version of " Love on Top " . Beyoncé would begin the countdown of " Countdown " later allowing the audience to finish the countdown from nine @-@ to @-@ one . " End of Time " and " Run the World ( Girls ) " had Beyoncé utilizing flamboyant light displays bringing elaborate routines to a smaller stage . The show ends with the last song — the self @-@ empowering ballad " I Was Here " — with Beyoncé rephrasing the song 's final chorus to say " Roseland , we were here . "
= = Critical response = =
Jason Newman of Rap @-@ Up began his review , " For a singer long accustomed to stadiums , Sunday 's show was the most intimate performance most fans would see from the ubiquitous superstar . " He highlighted how she " split the difference between hushed torch singer and stadium belter " , and favored her ability to display both " stamina and vigor , which make for a stadium @-@ perfect show " . Newman concluded , " The medley combined the quick blasts of a Las Vegas revue with the emotional candor of a singer @-@ songwriter performing to a near @-@ empty room . It was an odd , yet effective juxtaposition ; a global superstar who could effortlessly shuffle between slick , bombastic R & B and awkwardly honest confessions of a tumultuous career . By the end of the set though , humility , as one expects from a singer with 16 Grammy awards and more than 75 million records sold worldwide , turned to sly confidence . " Jon Caramanica of The New York Times was impressed by the show , complimenting Beyoncé 's performances of " underdog tracks " such as " Party " and " Love on Top " . He wrote :
In her performance it 's always clear that a finely tuned engine is at work , but what was refreshing here was that it was in service of a surprisingly casual manner . She made funny , exaggerated faces ; twirled her hair ( when it was not floating ) ; and spoke to the crowd like a knowing buddy . She was working off a teleprompter for her between @-@ song patter , but improvising frequently , and for the better ... Beyoncé persevere [ s ] , with a voice that skips up octaves and still gains power , with words that are as compelling as they are straightforward , with legs that treat the stage floor like an enemy in need of a thorough stomping . Even in moments of uncertainty , these are her constants . They survive her missteps .
Erika Ramirez of Billboard magazine wrote , " There aren 't many artists in the world that can pull off a 90 @-@ minute set in Stuart Weitzman heels and leave a beyond packed audience satisfied to the point of not needing an encore . But that 's Beyoncé . " Daily Mail 's Marcus Barnes noted that Beyoncé " dazzles " , " looked fab " , and " sparkled " , later agreeing with Jay @-@ Z 's affirmation that Beyoncé is the " second coming of Michael Jackson " . Nekesa Mumbi Moody of ABC News wrote that though Beyoncé has nothing to prove at this point in her career , " even queens need to show what it means to be royalty " , making reference to her performances on 4 Intimate Nights with Beyoncé . He added that the show was a " dazzling rebuttal " to all negative chatter revolving 4 . Moody concluded , " She put her track record up for display along with her new material with a subtle but undeniable message that she is not to be doubted , or counted against . " Mike Wass of Idolator began his review by writing that " Beyonce never fails to amaze . " He continued to praise her for " raising the bar for live entertainment with a flawless display " , further writing , " The worldly pop icon ’ s ability to bring new depth and texture to quality material is almost as impressive as her uncanny knack for connecting with the audience on an emotional level " . Wass finished his review by making reference to Beyoncé performance of " I Was Here " - which lyrically revolves around leaving a mark on the world - by writing , " But the pop veteran can sleep easy . Mission well and truly accomplished . "
Entertainment Weekly 's Brad Wete wrote that the concerts proved that " Beyoncé 's bigger than any ballroom . " He continued , " [ Beyoncé 's ] excellence is undeniable . Her quaking vocals beat her contemporaries and competes with legends ’ , as does her dancing " , and concluded , " I ’ m looking forward to seeing her in a bigger venue , where there ’ s more space for her voice to soar , elbow room for her band to play , and room for her wild @-@ child fans to dance . " Dan Aquilante of the New York Post stated that after the Beyoncé 's performances of the songs on 4 at the concerts , the album was to be rated a 10 out of 10 . He further wrote , " Where tunes felt lackluster and flabby on the recording , Beyoncé injected a vibrancy in the new songs that boosted the material to be almost the equal to some of her best and biggest radio hits . " Yolanda Sangweni of Essence magazine viewed the concert as a chance for Beyoncé to remind people that her " vocal chops " are what got her where she stands today as an artist , and concluded that Michael Jackson and Diana Ross would be very proud of Beyoncé 's accomplishments and performances on 4 Intimate Nights with Beyoncé .
Jocelyn Vena of MTV News praised Beyoncé for her " never @-@ miss @-@ a @-@ note voice " and " razzle @-@ dazzle dance moves " , and for matching the crowd 's energy with her enthusiasm during live performances . Jozen Cummings of The Wall Street Journal described the show as Beyoncé 's " most intimate work to date " , adding that it was an intimate night between " Beyoncé and her fans , one in which there need not be a specific stand @-@ out moment " . Gavin DeGraw of VH1 noted that " there ’ s no doubting Beyoncé ’ s talent as a performer ; her undeniable vocal ability , show ( wo ) manship , and charm " which infused the room the entire evening . " By contrast , Jody Rosen of Rolling Stone gave the show a mixed review , writing " a Beyoncé concert is a big , blowsy affair , a bit like a Las Vegas floor show crossed with a typhoon . ' Intimate ' is not the adjective that leaps to mind " . However , he described Beyoncé as " a woman who can make a club feel like a coliseum " . Rosen coined the live performance of " I Was Here " as " a hollow exercise in self @-@ mythologizing " . Maura Johnston of The Village Voice placed 4 Intimate Nights with Beyoncé on her list of The 10 Best Live Shows of 2011 . In a review of the show , she commented " The serenity at her core is borne from a supreme amount of confidence ; that it comes off as something generously given is a testament to her prodigious talents as a performer on every level . Plus , I mean , have you heard her sing ? Nobody has pipes like her right now . Not a single person out there . At the very least , we can all learn breath control from her . "
= = Broadcasts and recordings = =
To promote the show , photographer Myrna Suarez photographed Beyoncé on stage during the first and second nights of the concert . The photos were then published and used in reviews by Rap @-@ Up , The Wall Street Journal , Daily Mail , Entertainment Weekly , Rolling Stone , and Billboard magazine .
A DVD of the show titled , Live at Roseland , was released exclusively to Walmart in the United States on November 21 , 2011 , and a two @-@ disc DVD deluxe package re @-@ titled , Live at Roseland : Elements Of 4 , was released worldwide on November 29 , 2011 worldwide . The collection features the full concert , bonus offstage personal footage by Beyoncé , a 20 @-@ page booklet and a video anthology that includes seven music videos from 4 . The DVD was directed by Beyoncé , Ed Burke and Anthony Green , and was executively produced by Beyoncé . It features performances from the 4 Intimate Nights with Beyoncé concert . The album was commercially successful , debuting at number two on the Billboard Top Music Videos chart in the US on November 27 , 2011 which also became its peak position . The standard edition of the album was certified gold while the deluxe edition was certified platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) . It became the second best @-@ selling DVD of 2011 in the US . It was also the second best @-@ selling DVD worldwide in 2011 .
In September 2011 , Beyoncé posted several previews of the behind @-@ the @-@ scenes footage of the concert online . The live performances for " End of Time " and " I Was Here " , which were added on the DVD , premiered online on November 16 , 2011 . The performances for " I Miss You " and " Independent Women " , premiered online the next day via BET.com. The complete concert film premiered exclusively on Vevo on November 20 at 5 : 00 p.m. The live performance of " I Care " from the DVD was posted online on December 21 , 2011 . As part of the promotion , the concert was also aired on network televisions , being broadcast on December 25 , 2011 on British television channel 4Music and on December 30 on Channel 4 . The video for " Love on Top " premiered online in January 2012 and was released on the iTunes Store on January 11 , 2012 .
= = Set list = =
" I Wanna Be Where You Are "
Destiny 's Child Medley :
" No , No , No ( Part 1 ) "
" No , No , No ( Part 2 ) "
" Bug a Boo "
" Bills , Bills , Bills "
" Say My Name "
" Jumpin ' , Jumpin ' "
" Independent Women "
" Bootylicious "
" Survivor "
" ' 03 Bonnie & Clyde "
" Crazy in Love "
" Dreamgirls "
" Irreplaceable "
" Single Ladies ( Put a Ring on It ) "
" 1 + 1 "
" I Care "
" I Miss You "
" Best Thing I Never Had "
" Party "
" Rather Die Young "
" Love on Top "
" Countdown "
" End of Time "
" Run the World ( Girls ) "
" I Was Here "
Source ( s ) :
Additional notes
Although set to showcase Beyoncé 's fourth album 4 , " Start Over " was missing from the show 's set list .
" Bug a Boo " was added to the " Destiny 's Child Medley " after the second concert on August 16 .
|
= Battle of Moore 's Creek Bridge =
The Battle of Moore 's Creek Bridge was a battle of the American Revolutionary War fought near Wilmington in present @-@ day Pender County , North Carolina on February 27 , 1776 . The victory of North Carolina Revolutionary forces over Southern Loyalists helped build political support for the revolution and increased recruitment of additional soldiers into their forces .
Loyalist recruitment efforts in the interior of North Carolina began in earnest with news of the Battles of Lexington and Concord , and Patriots in the province also began organizing Continental Army and militia units . When word arrived in January 1776 of a planned British Army expedition to the area , Josiah Martin , the royal governor , ordered the Loyalist militia to muster in anticipation of their arrival . Revolutionary militia and Continental units mobilized to prevent the junction , blockading several routes until the poorly armed Loyalists were forced to confront them at Moore 's Creek Bridge , about 18 miles ( 29 km ) north of Wilmington .
In a brief early @-@ morning engagement , a charge across the bridge by sword @-@ wielding Loyalist Scotsmen was met by a barrage of musket fire . One Loyalist leader was killed , another captured , and the whole force was scattered . In the following days , many Loyalists were arrested , putting a damper on further recruiting efforts . North Carolina was not militarily threatened again until 1780 , and memories of the battle and its aftermath negated efforts by Charles Cornwallis to recruit Loyalists in the area in 1781 .
= = Background = =
= = = British recruiting = = =
In early 1775 , with political and military tensions rising in the Thirteen Colonies , North Carolina 's royal governor , Josiah Martin , hoped to combine the recruiting of Scots settlers in the North Carolina interior with that of sympathetic former Regulators ( a group originally opposed to corrupt colonial administration ) and disaffected Loyalists in the coastal areas to build a large Loyalist force to counteract Patriot sympathies in the province . His petition to London to recruit 1 @,@ 000 men had been rejected , but he continued efforts to rally Loyalist support .
At about the same time , Scotsman Allan Maclean successfully lobbied King George III for permission to recruit Loyalist Scots throughout North America . In April , he received royal permission to raise a regiment known as the Royal Highland Emigrants by recruiting retired Scottish soldiers living in North America . One battalion was to be recruited in the northern provinces , including New York , Quebec and Nova Scotia , while a second battalion was to be raised in North Carolina and other southern provinces , where a large number of these soldiers had been given land . After receiving his commissions from General Thomas Gage in June , Maclean sent Donald MacLeod and Donald MacDonald , two veterans of the June 17 Battle of Bunker Hill , south to lead the recruitment drive there . These recruiters were also aware that Allan MacDonald , husband of the famous Jacobite heroine Flora MacDonald was already actively recruiting in North Carolina . Their arrival at New Bern was cause for suspicion by members of North Carolina 's Committee of Safety , but they were not arrested .
On January 3 , 1776 , Martin learned that an expedition of more than 2 @,@ 000 troops under the command of General Henry Clinton was planned for the southern colonies and that their arrival was expected in mid @-@ February . He sent word to the recruiters that he expected them to deliver recruits to the coast by February 15 , and dispatched Alexander Maclean to Cross Creek ( present @-@ day Fayetteville ) to coordinate activities in that area . Mclean optimistically reported to Martin that he would raise and equip 5 @,@ 000 Regulators and 1 @,@ 000 Scots . Martin is reported to have said " This is the moment when this country may be delivered from anarchy " , expecting a North Carolina Loyalist victory .
In a meeting of Scots and Regulator leaders at Cross Creek on February 5 , there was disagreement on how to proceed . The Scots wanted to wait until the British troops had actually arrived before mustering , while the Regulators wanted to move immediately . The views of the latter prevailed since they claimed to be able to raise 5 @,@ 000 men , while the Scots expected to raise only 700 to 800 . When the forces mustered on February 15 , there were about 3 @,@ 500 men , but the number rapidly dwindled over the next few days . Many men had expected to be met and escorted by British troops and did not relish the possibility of having to fight their way to the coast . When they marched three days later , Brigadier General Donald MacDonald led between 1 @,@ 400 and 1 @,@ 600 men , predominantly Scots . This number was further reduced over the coming days as more men deserted the column .
= = = Revolutionary reaction = = =
With the reaction of the revolutionary war , word of the Cross Creek meeting reached members of the Revolutionary North Carolina Provincial Congress a few days after it happened . The colonies were broadly prosperous on the eve of the American Revolution . Pursuant to resolutions of the Second Continental Congress , the provincial congress had raised the 1st North Carolina Regiment of the Continental Army in fall 1775 , and given command to Colonel James Moore . Local committees of safety in Wilmington and New Bern also had active militia organizations , led by Alexander Lillington and Richard Caswell respectively . On February 15 the Patriot forces began to mobilize .
Moore led 650 Continentals out of Wilmington with the objective of preventing the Loyalists from reaching the coast . They camped on the southern shore of Rockfish Creek on February 15 , about 7 miles ( 11 km ) from the Loyalist camp . General MacDonald learned of their arrival , and sent Moore a copy of a proclamation issued by Governor Martin and a letter calling on the rebels to lay down their arms . Moore responded with his own call that the Loyalists lay down their arms and support the cause of Congress . In the meantime , Caswell led 800 New Bern militiamen toward the area .
= = = Loyalist march = = =
Macdonald , his preferred road blocked by Moore , chose an alternate route that would eventually bring his force to the Widow Moore 's Creek Bridge , about 18 miles ( 29 km ) from Wilmington . On February 20 he crossed the Cape Fear River at Cross Creek and destroyed the boats in order to deny Moore their use . His forces then crossed the South River , heading for Corbett 's Ferry , a crossing of the Black River . On orders from Moore , Caswell reached the ferry first , and set up a blockade there . Moore , as a precaution against Caswell being defeated or circumvented , detached Lillington with 150 Wilmington militia and 100 men under Colonel John Ashe from the New Hanover Volunteer Company of Rangers to take up a position at the Widow Moore 's Creek Bridge . These men , moving by forced marches , traveled down the southern bank of the Cape Fear River to Elizabethtown , where they crossed to the north bank . From there they marched down to the confluence of the Black River and Moore 's Creek , and began entrenching on the east bank of the creek . Moore detached other militia companies to occupy Cross Creek , and followed Lillington and Ashe with the slower Continentals . They followed the same route , but did not arrive until after the battle .
When MacDonald and his force reached Corbett 's Ferry , they found the crossing blocked by Caswell and his men . MacDonald prepared for battle , but was informed by a local slave that there was a second crossing a few miles up the Black River that they could use . On February 26 , he ordered his rearguard to make a demonstration as if they were planning to cross while he led his main body up to this second crossing and headed for the bridge at Moore 's Creek . Caswell , once he realized that MacDonald had given him the slip , hurried his men the 10 miles ( 16 km ) to Moore 's Creek , and beat MacDonald there by only a few hours . MacDonald sent one of his men into the Patriot camp under a flag of truce to demand their surrender , and to examine the defenses . Caswell refused , and the envoy returned with a detailed plan of the Patriot fortifications .
Caswell had thrown up some entrenchments on the west side of the bridge , but these were not located to Patriot advantage . Their position required the Patriots to defend a position whose only line of retreat was across the narrow bridge , a distinct disadvantage that MacDonald recognized when he saw the plans . In a council held that night , the Loyalists decided to attack , since the alternative of finding another crossing might give Moore time to reach the area . During the night , Caswell decided to abandon that position and instead take up a position on the far side of the creek . To further complicate the Loyalists ' use of the bridge , the militia took up its planking and greased the support rails .
= = Battle = =
By the time of their arrival at Moore 's Creek , the Loyalist contingent had shrunk to between 700 and 800 men . About 600 of these were Scots and the remainder were Regulators . Furthermore , the marching had taken its toll on the elderly MacDonald ; he fell ill and turned command over to Lieutenant Colonel Donald MacLeod . The Loyalists broke camp at 1 am on February 27 and marched the few miles from their camp to the bridge . Arriving shortly before dawn , they found the defenses on the west side of the bridge unoccupied . MacLeod ordered his men to adopt a defensive line behind nearby trees when a Revolutionary sentry across the river fired his musket to warn Caswell of the Loyalist arrival . Hearing this , MacLeod immediately ordered the attack .
In the pre @-@ dawn mist , a company of Scots approached the bridge . In response to a call for identification shouted across the creek , Captain Alexander Mclean identified himself as a friend of the King , and responded with his own challenge in Gaelic . Hearing no answer , he ordered his company to open fire , beginning an exchange of gunfire with the Patriot sentries . Colonel MacLeod and Captain John Campbell then led a picked company of swordsmen on a charge across the bridge .
During the night , Caswell and his men had established a semicircular earthworks around the bridge end , and armed them with two small pieces of field artillery . When the Scots were within 30 paces of the earthworks , the Patriots opened fire to devastating effect . MacLeod and Campbell both went down in a hail of gunfire ; Colonel Moore reported that MacLeod had been struck by upwards of 20 musket balls . Armed only with swords and faced with overwhelming firepower from muskets and artillery , the Scots could do little else other than retreat . The surviving elements of Campbell 's company got back over the bridge , and the Loyalist force dissolved and retreated .
Capitalizing on the success , the Revolutionary forces quickly replaced the bridge planking and gave chase . One enterprising company led by one of Caswell 's lieutenants forded the creek above the bridge , flanking the retreating Loyalists . Colonel Moore arrived on the scene a few hours after the battle . He stated in his report that 30 Loyalists were killed or wounded , " but as numbers of them must have fallen into the creek , besides more that were carried off , I suppose their loss may be estimated at fifty . " The Revolutionary leaders reported one killed and one wounded .
= = Aftermath = =
Over the next several days , the Patriot forces mopped up the fleeing Loyalists . In all , about 850 men were arrested . Most of these were released on parole , but the ringleaders were sent to Philadelphia as prisoners . Combined with the capture of the Loyalist camp at Cross Creek , the Patriots confiscated 1 @,@ 500 muskets , 300 rifles , and $ 15 @,@ 000 ( as valued at the time ) of Spanish gold . Many of the weapons were probably hunting equipment , and may have been taken from people not directly involved in the Loyalist uprising . The action had a galvanizing effect on Patriot recruiting , and the arrests of many Loyalist leaders throughout North Carolina cemented Patriot control of the state . A pro @-@ Patriot newspaper reported after the battle , " This , we think , will effectually put a stop to loyalists in North Carolina " . Despite the hard feelings on both sides , the prisoners were treated with respect . This helped convince many not to take up arms against the Patriots again .
The battle had significant effects within the Scots community of North Carolina , where Loyalists refused to turn out when calls to arms were made later in the war , and many were routed out of their homes by the pillaging activities of their Patriot neighbors . Flora MacDonald ended up returning to her native Skye in 1779 , and when General Charles Cornwallis passed through the Cross Creek area in 1781 , he reported that " [ m ] any of the inhabitants rode into camp , shook me by the hand , said they were glad to see us and that we had beat Greene and then rode home . "
When news of the battle reached London , it received mixed commentary . One news report minimized the defeat since it did not involve any regular army troops , while another noted that an " inferior " Patriot force had defeated the Loyalists . Lord George Germain , the British official responsible for managing the war in London , remained convinced in spite of the resounding defeat that Loyalists were still a substantial force to be tapped .
The expedition that the Loyalists had been planning to meet was significantly delayed , and did not depart Cork , Ireland until mid @-@ February . The convoy was further delayed and split apart by bad weather , so the full force did not arrive off Cape Fear until May . As the fleet gathered , North Carolina 's provincial congress met at Halifax , and in early April passed the Halifax Resolves , authorizing the colony 's delegates to the Continental Congress to vote for independence from Great Britain . General Clinton used the force in an attempt to take Charleston , South Carolina . His attempt failed ; it represented the end of significant British attempts to control the southern colonies until late 1778 .
The battlefield site was preserved in the late 19th century through private efforts that eventually received state financial support . The Federal government took over the battle site as a National Military Park operated by the War Department in 1926 . The War Department operated the park until 1933 , when the National Park Service began managing the site as the Moores Creek National Battlefield . It was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1966 . The battle is commemorated every year during the last full weekend of February .
= = Troop numbers = =
Early accounts of the battle often misstated the size of both forces involved in the battle , typically reporting that 1 @,@ 600 Loyalists faced 1 @,@ 000 Patriots . These numbers are still used by the National Park Service . Historian David Wilson , however , points out that the large Loyalist size is attributed to reports by General MacDonald and Colonel Caswell . MacDonald gave that figure to Caswell , and it represents a reasonable estimate of the number of men starting the march at Cross Creek . Alexander Mclean , who was present at both Cross Creek and the battle , reported that only 800 Loyalists were present at the battle , as did Governor Martin . The Patriot forces were also underreported since Caswell apparently casually grouped the ranger forces of John Ashe as part of Lillington 's company in his report .
|
= Great Notch ( NJT station ) =
The Great Notch train station , formerly known as Caldwell Junction , was a small New Jersey Transit facility in the Great Notch section of Little Falls , New Jersey . The station was served seven times a day , three inbound morning trains to Hoboken Terminal and four outbound evening trains from Hoboken by the Montclair @-@ Boonton Line from Monday to Friday . Located at the intersection of Notch Road and Long Hill Road , it was the second of three stations in Little Falls , the other two being Montclair State University and Little Falls , and was the first on the line to be strictly served by diesel trains . However , most trains bypassed this station and continued on to Little Falls ( westbound ) and Montclair State University ( eastbound ) . The station was served by a single track with an unused side track . The last trains stopped at the station on January 15 , 2010 , at 7 : 41pm .
Train service at Great Notch originated in 1891 , when the Caldwell Railway opened , serving Great Notch , Overbrook Hospital , Verona , and Caldwell . The station at Great Notch was first constructed in 1905 as a double station building for the Erie Railroad . The station was a green and red building serving the New York and Greenwood Lake Railway , along with the Caldwell Branch . The station also used an old boxcar as a tool shed for maintenance . By the early 1970s , the station had fallen into disrepair , and by 1974 , was repainted Erie Railroad @-@ style red with the tool shed box car removed . The station was abandoned when the Erie @-@ Lackawanna Railroad went out of business and was later picked up by New Jersey Transit . After making deals with the mayor of Little Falls , New Jersey Transit gave the station a one @-@ year " trial " to attract ridership . Ridership went down , however , and so the trial was canceled on December 18 , 2009 . The town of Little Falls was contacted by New Jersey Transit at that time , reporting that the Great Notch Station would be closed on January 17 , 2010 due to the " anemic " ridership at the station .
= = History = =
Train service at Great Notch originated with the introduction of the Caldwell Railway , a service that went from the community of Caldwell , New Jersey to the New York & Greenwood Lake Railway . Twelve trains a day served Caldwell , Verona and Overbrook Hospital . The station at Great Notch was deemed Caldwell Junction , inferring the junction between the two railways . The Great Notch station depot was built in 1905 for the New York & Greenwood Lake Railway , a subsidiary of the Erie Railroad . The station was built as a green @-@ red " type five " frame structure . While the main building was 12 ' × 28 ' × 18 ' in size , the station also included an old boxcar used as a tool house . The box car was only 12 ' × 45 ' and served the station for several decades . The station was just east of the " GA " signal tower , which was built in 1900 to serve the junction of the Greenwood Lake Railway and its Caldwell Branch , heading eastward for the communities of Cedar Grove , Verona , Caldwell and Essex Fells . The station also served a local yard for train storage for the branch line via a wye . At Essex Fells , connections could be made for train service to Morristown via the Morristown and Erie Railroad . The Caldwell Railroad diverged from the current New Jersey Transit line about 1 / 4 mile west of the New Jersey Transit Great Notch station and followed its own route to Caldwell . The station at Great Notch was more than just a building for people at the railroad . The station had a large water tower next to GA Signal and a potbelly stove . The station was tended by a husband and wife combination , serving the locals their daily newspapers and their mail . Great Notch did not receive mail delivery until the mid @-@ 1950s .
By the early 1970s , the Great Notch station , which was falling into disrepair , received a new paint job , changed from the red @-@ green colors for the Erie Lackawanna to a new all red Erie Railroad paint scheme . The abandoned tool shed made out of the old wooden boxcar was also removed . Due to the removal of the tool boxcar , the propane tanks that heated the station building were also made visible . After the ending of the Erie @-@ Lackawanna Railroad in 1976 , the Great Notch station lay abandoned . In June 1979 , the State of New Jersey began to remove the tracks for the Caldwell Branch , which also lay abandoned at Great Notch . Currently , what was the track leading to the Caldwell Branch is a siding . On January 20 , 1988 , the newly rehabilitated station building was destroyed by fire . During the construction of the Montclair Connection in 2001 , the adjacent Great Notch Yard received a major upgrade , becoming a new state @-@ of @-@ the @-@ art yard with new trains storage facilities .
= = Closure = =
When Montclair State University station opened in 2004 and the Wayne Route 23 Transit Center 's train platform opened in 2008 , this made Great Notch one of three stations in Little Falls , and it did not nearly have the ridership either of the other two stations had . The opening of Montclair State University Station helped to pull away commuters from Great Notch due to its location very near it . The small parking lot facing the station had very little room for cars and a parking lot on the opposite side of the single tracked station was isolated from it by fencing . Further exacerbating the problem was that the small lot abutting Notch Road was not marked specifically for train passengers only . Great Notch had ( and still has ) a bus stop on the corner of Notch and Long Hill Roads that serves buses headed for Port Authority Bus Terminal , and commuters using the bus would park in the train station 's parking lot ( and still do , as it was never blocked off ) and catch the bus up the street .
In January 2008 , without knowledge of the township council , New Jersey Transit announced further and drastic service cuts at Great Notch . The only train to serve outbound customers was a train leaving for Hoboken Terminal in the morning , and two trains from Hoboken would serve the station at night .
The future of the 103 @-@ year @-@ old station was placed into further jeopardy on August 12 , 2008 , when New Jersey Transit announced to the community of Little Falls that they would possibly close the station as early as October 2008 . A few days after the announcement , rebuttal by the community began to appear , with a public hearing was announced for September 3 to work on plans for Great Notch . The service with only one inbound train ( to Hoboken ) and two outbound trains ( from Hoboken ) was canceled on April 1 , 2009 . On that day , New Jersey Transit announced it would add two more trains in each direction on April 16 as a " one @-@ year trial " for station ridership . The town hoped to get the then 67 @-@ person a day average to 100 people using the station by April 1 , 2010 , when the trial was set to expire . The mayor of Little Falls , Michael DeFrancisci , urged people to use the station more . However , by December 2009 , ridership had declined to 9 per day .
On December 18 , 2009 , New Jersey Transit contacted Little Falls and said that the station would close in January 2010 , three months before the year @-@ long trial period to build ridership was set to end . The transit authority cited continued low ridership , as on average nine passengers a day boarded the train at Great Notch . On December 21 , 2009 , New Jersey Transit announced the closure stating that the " anemic " ridership had remained at Great Notch , with only an average of 9 boardings a day , compared to 203 at the local Little Falls station and 597 at the Montclair State University Station . The last train to depart Great Notch was the 6 : 51pm train from Hoboken Terminal on January 15 leaving Great Notch at 7 : 41pm , as weekend trains do not run on this portion of the Montclair @-@ Boonton Line .
|
= Battle of Noordhorn =
The Battle of Noordhorn , fought on 30 September 1581 , was a pitched battle of the Dutch Revolt , fought between a Spanish army commanded by Colonel Francisco Verdugo – consisting of Walloon , German , Spanish and Albanian soldiers – and a Dutch States rebel army under the Englishman John Norreys – comprising English , Scottish , Dutch and Walloon troops – in the province of Friesland . In 1580 , the Dutch stadtholder of Friesland , George van Lalaing , Count of Rennenberg , had shifted its allegiance from the Dutch to the Spanish side . This opened a new front at the back door of the Dutch Republic , forcing the States @-@ General to dispatch forces to the north . That year the Dutch , under the leadership of John Norreys , succeeded in relieving the town of Steenwijk . In July 1581 , Rennenberg died and was replaced by the Spaniard Francisco Verdugo , whose arrival in Friesland with reinforcements changed the situation . On 30 September Verdugo forced Norreys to give battle using a strategy of attrition .
The battle was fought on a rough , marshy ground very favourable to the Spanish army . Norrey 's initial assault on the Spanish right wing was successful , but the Spanish cavalry , led by Verdugo , routed the Dutch cavalry under William Louis , Count of Nassau @-@ Dillenburg and broke the States ' infantry . The English left was then cut off from the rest of the States ' army and destroyed . During the pursuit of the States ' troops Verdugo was nearly captured , but left unharmed in the end . Both Norreys and Count William Louis were wounded , and their army suffered a heavy death toll , losing many flags and all five of its guns . Verdugo could not capitalize on his victory because of a mutiny the following day by his German regiments and heavy flooding . The military situation in Friesland , however , had reached a turning point , and in 1582 the Spanish made great advances , even taking Steenwijk on 17 November 1582 .
= = Background = =
In 1580 , during the Eighty Years ' War , the Dutch stadtholder of Friesland , George van Lalaing , Count of Rennenberg , though having been appointed by the rebellious States @-@ General , shifted his allegiance to the Spanish government , held at that time by Don Alexander Farnese , Prince of Parma . In July 1581 after being defeated by John Norreys and Diederik Sonoy at Kollum , Lalaing fell ill and died in the city of Groningen . Parma sent one of his most accomplished officers , the Spaniard Francisco Verdugo , to take the place of the deceased stadtholder . Verdugo , born in Talavera but raised amongst the Flemish and married to a daughter of the later governor @-@ general of the Netherlands , Peter Ernst von Mansfeld , began his career as a simple soldier , but rose through the ranks to become a colonel . He was considered by the historian Charles Maurice Davies " a leader of eminent skill and ability " , and was promoted to the post over other candidates such as Colonel Maarten Schenck van Nydeggen , whom Farnese had earlier sent to relieve Rennenberg and had dealt a serious defeat to a Dutch army at the Battle of Hardenberg , on 17 June 1580 .
Verdugo , having been forced by the Union of Arras – formed by the Dutch provinces loyal to Spanish King Philip II , who wanted the foreign troops out the Netherlands – to hand over his regiment to his brother @-@ in @-@ law Charles von Mansfeld , recruited a regiment of 2 @,@ 000 Walloon arquebusiers and made his way to Friesland . While mustering his infantry in the village of Kerpen , Verdugo learned that the Dutch rebels were leving a company of German reiters – a type of armoured cavalry armed with pistols – in Cologne under a rittmeister called Adam von Langen . As he lacked cavalry or pikemen and it was reported by Spanish agents that von Langen was angry because he had been paid by the Dutch with false coins , Verdugo managed to convince the rittmeister to escort his arquebusiers to Groningen . Passing through Bredevoort and Coevorden , Verdugo and his regiment reached Groningen . There , Verdugo was met with a mutiny , which he ended by distributing 40 @,@ 000 escudos amongst the mutineers , disbanding an undisciplined German regiment and giving license to two companies of men @-@ at @-@ arms to join Farnese 's army in Hainault . With the loyal troops , meanwhile , he took two Dutch forts , one at the mouth of the Emden and another near Groningen .
Verdugo 's arrival quickly altered the situation in Friesland , which had until then been favourable to the Dutch . During 1580 , the Dutch forces fighting Rennenberg in Friesland had failed to prevent him from taking the towns of Oldenzaal and Coevorden , but in December , under the leadership of the English Colonel John Norreys , a veteran soldier with experience in the Netherlands and Ireland , they had succeeded in relieving Steenwijk from a Spanish siege . Norreys , appointed " Master of the Camp " by the Dutch States @-@ General , harassed the Spanish army during the winter of 1580 – 1581 , forcing Rennenberg to lift the siege and withdrew in February . The most effective force of the Dutch army in Friesland was Norreys ' English regiment . Though England was not officially at war against Spain , Queen Elizabeth I was playing a complex diplomatic role to keep the Dutch revolt alive , and this included sending troops to the Netherlands under the guise of " volunteers " , but factually maintained by the English crown .
In June 1581 , the States @-@ General appointed Norreys General of all the States ' troops beyond the Meuse . In August , the Dutch local council , assembled in Leeuwarden , tasked Norreys with preventing Verdugo from penetrating further into the country , for which his 30 companies of infantry were reinforced by five cavalry companies under William Louis , Count of Nassau @-@ Dillenburg . He was expected to besiege the Spanish forts around Groningen , but he lacked the artillery to do so , having been given only four small guns . Moreover , Norreys ' Dutch and Walloon soldiers were unhappy with being under the command of a foreigner . Norreys spent the summer months attempting in vain to blockade Groningen , while Verdugo , who was aware of the dissent amongst the Dutch army , patiently waited in his fortified posts despite being urged by the local authorities to confront Norreys . In early September , after a failed raid on his camp , Verdugo was sure of Norreys ' intentions of giving battle , and thus he advanced his army to near Norreys ' camp near the village of Noordhorn . Shortly thereafter , determined to fight , Norreys ' Anglo @-@ Dutch army was deployed over the dike of Niezijl .
= = Order of battle = =
The Spanish army , led by Francisco Verdugo , with Lieutenant @-@ Colonel Johann Baptista von Taxis as second in command , was deployed before the village of Noordhorn and behind broken ground with only one access point that was covered by a wide ravine and flanked on its left by a series of muddy ditches . Aiming to create a trap for Norreys ' army , the Spanish had smoothed the ground on their right in order to funnel English units and draw Norrey 's troops into an engagement area where a crossfire effect could be created . Verdugo himself drove two stakes into the ground to mark the point that his cavalry was to charge upon the English vanguard .
The Spanish army was organized into three infantry battalions with two cavalry companies at each wing : the right wing was taken by the Walloon harquebusiers under Monsieur de Villers and Verdugo 's Spanish lances under Corporal Alonso Mendo , plus a battalion formed by half of Verdugo 's foot regiment . 200 arquebusiers were detached later in a house nearby . The centre was made up by one battalion formed by the German foot regiments of Rennenberg , under Lieutenant Colonel Mocean , and Caspar de Robles , who was serving Farnese and had left the command to Lieutenant Colonel Johann Baptista von Taxis . The left consisted of two cavalry companies ( Famiano Strada names German reiters under Wolfgang Prengier , while Alonso Vázquez mentions Albanian horse under Captain Tomas Frate and Walloons under Baron de Bievres ) plus a battalion formed by the second half of Verdugo 's foot regiment . Verdugo also deployed a forlorn hope of 200 musketeers into a ditch covering the way , 300 steps ahead of his three foot battalions .
The Anglo @-@ Dutch army under John Norreys and Count William Louis of Nassau @-@ Dillenburg was formed by 30 companies of foot – 11 English and Scottish flags from the regiments of Norreys and Colonel Thomas Morgan , and 19 Dutch , Frisian and Walloon flags – plus four cavalry companies under Captains Hendrik van Eck , Goor , Elleborn and Roger Williams , the latter of English cuirassiers . There existed a certain hostility between Norreys and Morgan , as Prince William of Orange favored Norreys despite Morgan 's longer experience in the Netherlands , having served since 1572 . When Queen Elizabeth 's secretary and advisor Francis Walsingham requested Orange appoint Morgan as a colonel , he refused , and Morgan attributed this to Norreys ' " hard dealings " .
= = Battle = =
Having instructed his troops to hold their positions until he ordered them to attack , Verdugo sent 200 musketeers to occupy a house on his right flank , near the Villers ' position and that of his own companies of horse , to cut off the Anglo @-@ Dutch vanguard with musketry fire as they advanced towards the Spanish positions . After that , Spanish and English armies began to skirmish . Verdugo aimed to take over a hill in the middle of both armies in order to force Norreys to order a general advance . The Englishman fired over the Spanish battalions with his five guns , but the fire was ineffective because of the broken ground : Spanish sources state that only Verdugo 's drummer was killed . Seeing the ineffectiveness of the bombardment , Norreys ordered a general advance . As the way was narrow , the Dutch cavalry went in advance , flanked by the English infantry . Monsieur de Villers ' harquebusiers and Verdugo 's lances under Corporal Mendo ignored their general 's orders , and charged against the Dutch cavalry , which drove back them " broken and disrupted " . The English infantry , upon Norreys ' order , charged the Spanish foot on the right , gaining more ground despite the difficult advance , and pushing back Verdugo 's Walloons to Noordhorn .
On the left , on the other hand , Count William Louis of Nassau advanced with the remaining Dutch cavalry but was halted by the musketry fire of the 200 men standing on the advanced ditch . Aiming to disrupt the Dutch right , Verdugo then charged ahead of Frate 's Albanian company and that of Baron de Bievres . The Dutch horse , disorganized by the musketry fire , could not resist Verdugo 's rush and turned back , breaking the order , in turn , of the English foot standing behind . To capitalize on this success , Verdugo ordered his foot to follow up the victory . Unaware of the Spanish success on the other side of the field , the English infantry continued pressing back the Spanish right flank until they reached the Spanish camp . When they realized what had happened , however , the Englishmen turned back in a vain attempt to escape . The Spanish centre and left were blocking the way , and thus the English attempted to save themselves fleeing across the bogged ditches , only to be killed in large numbers .
In the meantime , Verdugo aimed to block Niezijl 's dike with Frate 's and Bievres ' companies , but as these troops lagged behind , he found himself alone on the dike when Norreys and his officers attempted to retreat back to their camp . Alone , Verdugo fought desperately against them . Twice the Spanish commander was taken prisoner , but in the end , as he killed or wounded many of his foes , Norreys preferred to let him go free rather than risk allowing the pursuing Spanish troops to capture himself or his remaining men . Once he had recovered , Verdugo massed some cavalry and completed the Anglo @-@ Dutch defeat by destroying an English troop which , trying to save the flags , fled across a field towards the Niezijl canal . Most of the English flags and all of their artillery were lost . As the night was falling , Verdugo collected his troops and returned to Noordhorn , where they formed into squadron formation and , kneeling down , prayed to thank God for their victory .
= = Aftermath = =
The battle was " a very greate overthrowe " for the English , as noted by the affluent English trader Sir Christopher Hoddesdon in a letter written in Antwerp on 15 October . The Frenchman Gillaume Baudart noted that half of the States ' infantry and a large number of cavalry were lost . Verdugo claimed between 2 @,@ 000 and 3 @,@ 000 casualties in Norrey 's army , asserting that " Few times is true the number of dead that in such cases is said , but the common [ number ] for those who saw it was this " . Many English and Dutch officers were killed , mostly of foot : Charles van Wijngaerden , George Robert , Schul , Wynaert van Ommeren , Rets , Gerard Entens , Corneille Loevesschen and , for the English , captains Cotton , Bishop , Fitzwilliams and Nisbeth , who died of a wound on the head . Amongst the cavalry Hendrik van Eck and Lieutenant Bellewijn of Elleborn 's company were killed . Both States ' commanders were wounded : Norreys on one hand and Count William Louis in a leg . The Spanish army 's exact losses are unknown . Alonso Vázquez , a contemporaneuos chronicler and soldier with direct access to the Spanish contendats , wrote that " of the Catholics died no more than Verdugo 's drummer , but there were some wounded " . Charles Maurice Davies noted that " Scarcely any one of note fell on the side of the royalists " .
The day after the battle , the Spanish army 's German regiments , induced by Captain Jean van der Cloester , mutinied again in their quarters , claiming that they had not received their monthly pay . Verdugo sent Captain Pedrosa to take news of the Spanish victory to Farnese and , having refreshed his troops , aimed to capture the Niezijl fort with his Walloon regiment , his four cavalry companies and a few volunteers from among the German mutineers . As the season changed and a furious rain started , Verdugo was forced to abandon the project of seizing the fort and returned to Noordhorn . The autumnal floods made the Frisian land impassable for the armies , and thus Verdugo moved with his troops to the dry and gritty land of Drenthe , while Norreys kept the remains of his army behind the IJssel river . A group of 400 Dutchmen in Norreys ' army lodged themselves in the town of Keppel , in Gelderland . In January 1582 , Verdugo destroyed them and seized Keppel and the castle of Bronckhorst , achieving great success in Gelderland .
Over the following months many English soldiers , who were unpaid and decimated by disease and disappointed by the progress of the war , amongst them Captain Roger Williams , deserted the States @-@ General army and went to serve in Francis , Duke of Anjou 's French army . By the Treaty of Plessis @-@ les @-@ Tours , Francis had been recognized by the States @-@ General as the sovereign of the Netherlands instead of Philip II of Spain . Even Norreys , in the end , left the States ' service and put himself under Anjou 's command . Thus , in command of the English infantry , he found himself at the Battle of Steenbergen in 1583 , when he covered the rearguard of the defeated French army .
|
= Harvard Extension School =
Harvard University Extension School , in Cambridge , Massachusetts , is one of the twelve degree @-@ granting schools of Harvard University , offering graduate and undergraduate liberal arts @-@ based degree programs as well as professional and continuing education in 60 fields . Approximately 150 bachelor 's and 550 master 's degrees are awarded each year .
The school also has a long history of offering professional and distance education , and provides a variety of amenities and opportunities to students and degree earning alumni . Since its establishment in 1910 , it is estimated that 500 @,@ 000 students have taken a course at the Extension School . The majority of these students are not degree seekers but take one of the 715 on @-@ campus and distance @-@ learning based courses offered for professional development or personal enrichment . Such students are not granted the same privileges as degree @-@ seeking students .
= = History = =
Founded in 1910 by President A. Lawrence Lowell , the Harvard Extension School grew out of the Lowell Institute , which was created according to the terms of a bequest by John Lowell , Jr . It was designed to serve the educational interests and needs of the greater Boston community , particularly those " who had the ability and desire to attend college , but also had other obligations that kept them from traditional schools . " It has since extended its " academic resources to the public , locally , nationally , and internationally . "
During the 1920s professors from Boston and Harvard Universities left the confines of their campuses and traveled to teach courses offsite . While they were primarily aimed at teachers , courses were offered wherever 40 or more students expressed an interest . Professors traveled on a weekly basis to places around New England and as far away as Yonkers , New York , some 200 miles away .
Despite falling revenue due to the Great Depression , A. Lawrence Lowell insisted in 1931 that the bequest from John Lowell prevented courses from costing more than two bushels of wheat . As a result , a half @-@ year course cost could no more than $ 5 , and a full course no more than $ 10 . Some courses cost as little as $ 2 @.@ 50 .
University Extension courses were to be taught by " the most experienced teachers that can be secured " who all received " excellent pay . " In the early years courses were run by a commission composed of several Boston area schools , though it was largely a Harvard @-@ run program . In 1938 there were 28 professors from Commission faculties , including 11 full professors . Early faculty included Charles Townsend Copeland , William Yandell Elliot , William Langer , Oscar Handlin , Perry Miller , John Kenneth Galbraith , and Frank M. Carpenter . In 1953 there was a similar number of professors .
In his will , John Lowell asked his successors to set up courses " more erudite and particular corresponding to the age and wants of the age . " By the 50th anniversary of the University Extension in 1960 , more than 1 @,@ 400 courses had been offered and there had been more than 85 @,@ 000 enrollments . While the vast majority of classes were held on the Harvard campus , a few in the late 1960s were offered at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology and Boston University , as well as at the Old South Meeting House . At this time non @-@ credit courses cost between $ 15 and $ 25 , and courses for credit cost between $ 20 and $ 35 .
After 100 years , an estimated 500 @,@ 000 students have taken courses at the Extension School . While there has never been an entrance exam and fees were kept as low as possible to allow as many as possible to enroll , only .18 % have ever earned a degree . Including certificate earners , 2 @.@ 5 % have graduated . Today more degrees are awarded each year than were awarded in the first 50 years combined .
Several years after retiring , President Lowell wrote that the Extension courses " have given a service to the public ... which seems to me of the utmost importance . " In 2013 , more than 100 years after its founding , the Extension School 's classes were described as " surprisingly affordable " and the school itself was said to be a " thriving institution . "
= = = Degree development = = =
Harvard University currently offers two degrees in Extension Studies , the Bachelor of Liberal Arts and the Master of Liberal Arts ( ALM ) . From 1911 to 1933 , the university offered an Associate in Arts , and from 1933 to 1960 they offered an Adjunct in Arts . Both were considered the equivalent of a bachelor 's degree . From 1971 to 2014 , the University offered an Associate of Arts in Extension Studies ( AA ) , the equivalent of a two @-@ year degree . A Master 's in Liberal Arts was added in 1979 .
A proposal before the Faculty of Arts and Science in 2009 and 2010 to rename the school and the degrees offered was not accepted . A committee , led by Professor of Computer Science Harry R. Lewis , proposed renaming the school the " Harvard School of Continuing and Professional Studies , " and to drop the words " in Extension Studies " from degrees , so that the School would offer Bachelor of Arts and Master of Arts degrees . Some faculty objected , saying that those degrees were already offered by the College and the Graduate School of Arts and Sciences .
In 2016 , a student group calling itself the Harvard Extension Degree Change Initiative rallied in front of University Hall to call for removing “ Extension Studies ” from the degree name and adding a student 's concentration instead . The Harvard Crimson editorialized in favor saying that they " urge [ d ] Harvard to consider changing the title of Extension School degrees to include the field of study rather than the ambiguous ' Extension Studies . ' "
In 2014 , Harvard University conferred four certificates on behalf of the Extension School , as well as the following academic degrees : five Associate in the Arts , 152 Bachelor of Liberal Arts in Extension Studies , and 539 Master of Liberal Arts in Extension Studies .
= = = Deans = = =
There have been six deans in the School 's history :
James Hardy Ropes , Chairman of Commission on Extension Courses , Dean of University Extension , 1910 – 1922
Arthur F. Whittem , Chairman of Commission on Extension Courses , Director of University Extension , 1922 – 1946
George W. Adams , Chairman of Commission on Extension Courses , Director of University Extension , 1946 – 1949
Reginald H. Phelps , Chairman of Commission on Extension Courses , Director of University Extension , 1949 – 1975
Michael Shinagel , Director of Continuing Education and University Extension , 1975 – 1977 , and Dean of Continuing Education and University Extension , 1977 – 2013
Huntington D. Lambert , Dean of Continuing Education and University Extension , 2013 – present
= = Academics = =
As a part of the Harvard Faculty of Arts and Sciences , the Harvard Extension School offers more than six @-@ hundred on @-@ campus and online courses . Students take courses with Harvard professors , including Nobel laureates , as well as faculty from Boston @-@ area universities , business professionals , and community leaders in various fields .
Most of the courses at the Extension School are " virtually identical " to courses offered to the traditional students at Harvard College , with " the only significant difference " being that the classes are taught at night instead of during the day . This has remained constant over time , as Ropes , the first dean , said that " our aim will be to give the young people of Boston who have heretofore been prevented from securing a college education the same instruction they would receive were they undergraduates at Harvard . " In 1953 , it was said that the " format of the classes is exactly the same . "
Many daytime Harvard College courses are videotaped , and offered to Extension students online . Extension degree candidates who meet required criteria may also apply for " Special Student status " in order to take classes that are offered only to Harvard College students . Students may enroll full or part @-@ time , and classes may be taken on campus , via distance @-@ learning , or both . In order to earn an academic degree , students must complete a minimum number of on @-@ campus @-@ only credits at Harvard .
Non @-@ degree seeking students have access to resources through Harvard 's Grossman Library , electronic resources through the Harvard Libraries Portal and select computer facilities . A professor at both the Extension School and Harvard College has opined that the open enrollment system " ' give [ s ] a lot ' to the institution by permitting an atmosphere of valuable diversity that does not exist at any of Harvard 's other schools . "
= = = Accreditation and partnerships = = =
Harvard Extension School is accredited by the New England Association of Schools and Colleges as one of the twelve degree @-@ granting schools of Harvard University .
The Extension School and Harvard Business School have together created the the HBX Credential of Readiness ( CORe ) program . Having begun in 2014 , This program allows undergraduate students at the Extension School to take courses with Business School professors for credit . Students at other institutions may be able to take the courses for transfer credit as well .
The graduate program in Museum Studies has also developed a partnership with the Smithsonian Institution . The new courses include two active learning weekends in Washington , D.C.
= = = Pre @-@ medical program = = =
A pre @-@ med program was established at the Extension School in 1980 . Two years later , in 1982 , five students applied to medical school , and 3 were accepted at the University of Massachusetts , Tufts University , and New York University . Of the 19 students who applied to medical schools in 1985 , 15 were admitted , including two women to Harvard Medical School .
All 27 graduates who applied to medical school in 1989 were accepted , including three to Harvard Medical School and nine to the University of Massachusetts . Five years later , 90 % of students were accepted to medical school , including 5 to Harvard . Only one in three were accepted nationwide . The Health Careers Program has sponsored nearly 1 @,@ 000 students for admission to medical school since it was started in 1979 – 80 , and more than 845 were accepted . This 85 % success rate far exceeds the national acceptance rate of 35 % .
Students who successfully complete the pre @-@ medical program are eligible for sponsorship through the program and a committee letter of support in their applications to medical school .
= = = Distance education = = =
= = = = History = = = =
Harvard Extension was a pioneer in distance education . Beginning on December 5 , 1949 , courses were offered on the Lowell Institute 's new radio station . New Englanders could go to college six nights a week at 7 : 30 in their living rooms simply by tuning into courses on psychology , world history , and economics . The first course on radio was by Peter A. Bertocci of Boston University . For 30 years he taught Extension courses , with never fewer than 100 students . He often taught over 300 students per course and once had over 400 . Over the years Bertocci had at least 7 @,@ 000 Extension students , " surely a record in the annals of Extension at Harvard . "
The radio courses proved to be so successful that when the television station WGBH went on the air in October 1951 they began broadcasting an Extension class every weekday at 3 : 30 and 7 : 30 . The first course , offered by Robert G. Albion , was on European Imperialism on Monday and Thursday evenings . In the late 1960s , three of the televised courses were offered in the Deer Island Prison . Students who watched the courses on television could attend six " conferences " and take a mid @-@ term and a final exam at Harvard in order to gain credit for the class .
= = = = Modern = = = =
As of 2014 , distance @-@ learning courses at Harvard Extension School are offered in two formats : asynchronous video courses ( lectures are recorded and uploaded within 24 hours of on @-@ campus class meetings ) ; and live web @-@ conference courses ( courses are streamed live , and typically allow for synchronous participation from students via a secondary online platform ) .
= = = Awards and honors = = =
The Dean 's Prize for Outstanding Master of Liberal Arts thesis is awarded during commencement ceremonies , and includes a medal , a certificate , and a monetary award . It is awarded to a student whose graduate thesis " embodies the highest level of imaginative scholarship . " In addition to the Dean 's Prize for Outstanding ALM Thesis , there are several other academic prizes :
The Academy of American Poets is awarded to an ALB candidate or an undergraduate student at the college for the best poem or group of poems .
The Santo J. Aurelio Prize , named for Santo J. Aurelio , ALB ' 83 , ALM ' 85 , is awarded annually on the basis of " academic achievement and character . " It is normally given to Extension School undergraduate degree recipients who — as did Mr. Aurelio — complete their academic work with distinction after age 50 .
The Derek Bok Public Service Prizes are awards presented at Commencement . They consist of a cash prize along with a citation and a medal given to two graduating Extension School students . The award recognizes creative initiatives in community service or long @-@ standing records of civic achievement .
The Commencement Speaker Prize is awarded to either an ALB or ALM graduate who delivers the student Commencement speech at the Extension School diploma awarding ceremony .
The Annamae and Allan R. Crite prizes are awarded for a mother and son who are Extension School alumni . Annamae faithfully attended Extension courses for more than 50 years . Allan , who is widely recognized as the dean of African @-@ American artists in the Greater Boston area , received a bachelor 's degree in 1968 . The prize is awarded to Extension School degree recipients who demonstrate " singular dedication to learning and the arts " .
The Klein Family History Prize recognizes the thesis in the field of history that represents superior achievement in historical scholarship .
The Harold Langlois Award recognizes a Certificate of Special Studies graduate who has demonstrated exceptional academic accomplishment and promise as a manager . It was established in 2003 .
The Patrick Lee Award in Drama is an annual award given to the student who shows the best promise in the field of dramatic arts .
The Reginald H. Phelps Prize , named for the former dean , is awarded annually on the basis of " academic achievement and character " to outstanding graduating students receiving bachelor 's degrees .
The Emanuel and Lilly Shinagel prize , named in honor of Dean Michael Shinagel in honor of his parents , supports deserving and needy students in the Extension School 's Institute for English Language Programs . The prizes are awarded by the Institute for English Language . The Programs to outstanding students based on an essay writing contest .
The John Osborne Sargent Prize for a Latin Translation is offered for the best metrical translation [ students may choose meter ] of a lyric poem of Horace , to be selected each year by the Department of the Classics . In addition to ALB candidates , it is also open to undergraduates at the College and visiting undergraduate sunder the Faculty of Arts and Sciences .
The Thomas Small Prize is named for a Lithuanian immigrant who , at the age of 89 , became the oldest earned graduate degree recipient in the history of Harvard University . Two prizes are awarded annually on the basis " academic achievement and character " to two outstanding Master of Liberal Arts in Extension Studies degree recipients .
The Judith Wood Memorial Prizes are awarded during Commencement Week to Harvard Extension School students who , while compiling honors academic records at the School , also contended with disabilities of a serious nature . It was established in honor of a blind Extension Student student who had cystic fibrosis and diabetes to recognize students who must travel a singularly difficult path to degree or certificate completion .
The Katie Y. F. Yang Prize Fund was established to promote East Asian culture , grant scholarships to exceptional students , and provide charitable assistance to those in need . Mrs. Yang was a leading Chinese opera singer under the stage name Fong Yim Fun . Her daughter , Simmone Yang , received her Certificate of Special Studies ( CSS ) from the Extension School . The purpose of the Prize is " to recognize the initiative , character , and outstanding academic achievement of foreign students graduating from the CSS Program " in the Extension School . The award is generally given to the foreign student with the highest academic standing in the CSS program .
= = Academic degrees = =
Extension offers open enrollment courses , but its degree programs are not " open admission " . Students are " presumed capable " but then must " prove that presumption with actual performance . " The " democratic admissions policy for its degree programs ... is based on proof that a student is capable of Harvard @-@ level work , giving degree and certificate candidates the chance to prove themselves . " The " most relevant predictor " of success for students is a students ' " ability to do honors @-@ level work at Harvard . "
ALB students may graduate with the Latin honors , cum laude , but magna- and summa- cum laude are not offered . ALM students may , upon graduation , be included in the ALM Dean 's list for Academic achievement , based on strict GPA requirements .
Students who wish to earn degrees must be formally admitted to the Extension School by the Admissions Committee . Admitted degree candidates are granted full privileges to Harvard 's libraries , facilities , student resources , as well as access to Harvard 's museums and academic workshops .
An Extension School professor asserts that undergraduate HES students " are brilliantly milking the cow of Harvard University , " as they " get a very similar experience and then have the Harvard name on [ their ] résumé . " A professor at both the Extension School and Harvard College has opined that the open enrolment system " ' give [ s ] a lot ' to the institution by permitting an atmosphere of valuable diversity that does not exist at any of Harvard 's other schools . "
= = = Bachelor of Liberal Arts = = =
Undergraduate degree programs are based upon the curriculum for Harvard College students ; degree requirements include expository writing , quantitative reasoning , foreign language , moral reasoning , writing @-@ intensive classes , and courses in the student 's area of concentration . The expository writing class is known as a " gatekeeper course " as it will typically " determine whether [ students ] are prepared for the intensive and demanding curriculum . "
Once admitted as an ALB degree candidate , students must successfully complete 128 credits ( Harvard courses are typically 4 credits each ) and maintain good academic standing ( 3 @.@ 0 GPA ) to meet graduation requirements . Upon admission into the ALB program , students may petition to transfer up to a maximum of 64 credits from other accredited post @-@ secondary institutions , but 64 credits must be completed at Harvard University ( Extension School , Summer School , or the Faculty of Arts and Sciences ) . Students must also select one of three ' areas of concentration ' including : Sciences ; Social Sciences ; or Humanities . Students must earn 40 credits with at least a B – in their areas of concentration .
ALB degree candidates are also required to complete a minimum of 16 on @-@ campus @-@ only credits at Harvard ; students must also complete a minimum of 12 credits in " Writing intensive " courses , and earn a minimum of 52 credits in courses that are taught by Harvard instructors . In addition to a concentration , degree candidates have the option to pursue one of twenty ' Fields of study ' , ( akin to a traditional major ) . In order to successfully complete a field of study , students must earn a B – or higher in 32 Harvard credits in one field , and maintain a B average in the field . Students may also complement their field of study with a maximum of one liberal arts minor .
= = = = Undergraduate admissions = = = =
Undergraduate degree programs require pre @-@ admission courses as well as a formal application process . Students applying for degree candidacy must first complete three 4 @-@ credit liberal arts courses at Harvard ( Extension School , Summer School , or the Faculty of Arts and Sciences ) with at least a B grade in each , and maintain a minimum 3 @.@ 0 cumulative GPA . One of these three pre @-@ admission courses must be EXPO E @-@ 25 , the equivalent of Harvard College 's mandatory and " notoriously difficult " expository writing course . To enroll in this course , students must pass a placement test , which measures critical reading and writing skills . Students failing to earn at least a B in a class can retake it once . Students who meet all these criteria are then eligible for admission in the Extension School 's undergraduate degree programs .
= = = Master of Liberal Arts = = =
The Master of Liberal Arts in Extension Studies ( ALM ) includes 19 liberal arts fields of study and seven professional degree programs ( Biotechnology , Information Technology , Journalism , Management , Mathematics for Teaching , Museum Studies , & Sustainability and Environmental Management ) . ALM candidates must complete 10 to 12 courses including a thesis or capstone project depending on their degree program , which must be crafted under the direction of an instructor or Harvard faculty member holding a teaching appointment in the Harvard Faculty of Arts and Sciences .
= = = = Graduate admissions = = = =
Generally , admission into a graduate degree program at Harvard Extension School requires a minimum of an accredited bachelor 's degree ( or foreign equivalent ) , as well as completion of three pre @-@ admission courses with grades of B or higher and a minimum of 3 @.@ 0 overall GPA . One of the three pre @-@ admission courses must be the " Proseminar " course for the intended area of study , which is akin to a traditional research methods course , and prior to registering for a proseminar students must pass a qualification test to assess graduate @-@ level critical reading and writing skills . Certain disciplines have other specified pre @-@ admission coursework , while some have specific coursework that is required before submitting a master 's thesis proposal ( e.g. biology and psychology fields must take a specific graduate statistics course ) . Students who meet these criteria are then eligible to submit an application for admission into the graduate degree programs .
Once a student has met the three course requirement , he or she is then eligible to formally apply to the ALM program . Typically applicants must submit a completed application , proof of an accredited bachelor 's degree ( or foreign equivalent ) plus transcripts , resume , two essays , and a nonrefundable application fee . Some programs require additional specific classes to be part of the initial three before formal admission . Students will be denied admission indefinitely if they fail to earn a grade of B after twice enrolling in the Proseminar course .
Some programs have additional requirements , including specific pre @-@ admission courses and supplemental application materials . For instance , the Literature and Creative writing candidates must submit original manuscripts .
= = Student life = =
Beginning in the 1960s , the university began providing additional facilities for Extension students . Study spaces , conferences rooms , library facilities , and a dining hall were set up in Lehman Hall for students in 1964 . In addition , there was a television lounge were students could watch the WGBH programs .
Today , admitted degree candidates are granted access to Harvard 's athletic facilities , dining services , on and off campus apartment housing , career services and student life organizations . Students have " nearly unfettered access to some of Harvard 's most prized resources — world @-@ renowned libraries , a distinguished faculty , and an impressive body of speakers . "
ALB candidates are eligible for membership in the Harvard Extension Student Association ( HESA ) . Established in 2001 , the HESA 's mission is to build and maintain a sense of community among Extension students . In partnership with many other organizations on campus , HESA provides a variety of social activities , educational events , and forums that enrich student life and experience . All degree and diploma candidates in good standing at Harvard Extension School are voting members of HESA . Alpha Sigma Lambda , a national honors society for nontraditional students , established the Phi Beta chapter in 2002 – 03 . The Harvard Extension School Pre @-@ Health Society offers advising , events , and networking for students who wish to go to medical school or to pursue a career in the health care industry .
President Faust said that " the Extension School is a critical part of the University " and " students increasingly should come to see themselves as full @-@ fledged members of not just an individual school but Harvard as a university . "
= = Student demographics = =
The graduating class of 2016 , the largest class to date , had 801 students receiving degrees . Of them , the youngest was 16 and the oldest was 70 with an average age of 36 . They were nearly equally split between the genders , with 52 % being male , and came from 36 countries and 42 states .
In 2000 there were 14 @,@ 216 students , with the youngest in their early teens and the oldest in their late 80s . There is often a span of 60 years between the oldest and youngest students , and students as young as 11 years old have taken courses alongside those old enough to be their parents or grandparents . Of the students enrolled at the turn of the century , 75 % had a bachelor 's degree , and 20 % had a graduate degree . More than 1 @,@ 700 were staff members using the Tuition Assistance Program , and an estimated 10 % -15 % were exclusively online students . Of the 255 Certificate of Special Studies graduates that year , 163 were international students hailing from 39 countries .
In the early 2000s there were 208 students under the age of 18 . Most attended local high schools , but a growing number of them were home @-@ schooled . Professor Paul Bamberg taught a class with both Extension and Harvard College students , and the top two students were from the Extension School , with the top student being a home @-@ schooled teenager .
Harvard Extension School accepts international students . To be admitted to courses or degrees , a student must prove proficiency in the English language . If English is not a student 's native language then he or she must submit an official TOEFL or IELTS score with a minimum score of 100 for the TOEFL or a minimum score of 7 @.@ 0 for the IELTS . International students must also meet the on @-@ campus @-@ only course requirements as outlined above . The Extension School does not issue I @-@ 20s for the F @-@ 1 visa but the Summer School does . In 2007 – 08 , more than 2 @,@ 500 international students and nearly 2 @,@ 000 Harvard University employees were enrolled in classes . In 2013 , students came from 118 countries and 46 states .
= = Alumni = =
Upon graduation , students are eligible for membership in the Harvard Alumni Association ( HAA ) and the Harvard Extension Alumni Association ( HEAA ) . Graduates also take part in the commencement ceremonies with all other schools of Harvard .
The HEAA was founded in 1967 – 68 by Ella Smith and Edgar Grossman , both members of the class of 1966 . Extension School alumni have been admitted to all of the graduate schools at Harvard .
= = = Notable alumni = = =
Both the oldest and youngest graduates in the more than 375 @-@ year history of Harvard University received their degrees from the Extension School . In 1997 Mary Fasano became the oldest undergraduate degree recipient , and in 1983 Thomas Small became the oldest student to ever earn a master 's degree . Both were in their 90th year . The youngest degree earner in Harvard history was 18 @-@ year @-@ old Amit Chatterjee who earned an ALB in 2002 .
One of Small 's classmates , Christopher Lohse , was selected to give the graduate commencement address . His speech , " The 10 @,@ 000 Ghosts of Harvard " , was a play on both the university 's fight song and the fact that classes are taught after dark . In 1989 another ALM graduate gave the commencement address . Joseph R. Paolino , Jr. began his studies as a Providence city councilor , and at the time of his speech he was the Mayor of Providence . He went on to become Ambassador to Malta .
In 1936 , one person had taken courses for 26 consecutive years . Two others that same year had been students for 24 years .
= = Coat of arms = =
The coat of arms for the Extension School was approved in 1983 . At the top of the shield the three books spelling out Veritas ( Latin for " truth " ) represent graduate education , as the same device is found on the arms of the other graduate schools . Instead of a straight line separating it from the rest of the shield , as is found in the other schools , a line with six arcs pointing up was used instead . A silver chevron was used to represent undergraduate education , a device used in the shield of Harvard College in the 17th to 19th centuries . Two bushels of wheat are included to represent John Lowell 's stipulation that courses should not cost more than two bushels of wheat . A golden lamp is included to represent both learning and the fact that classes are taught at night .
|
= Roy Conacher =
Roy Gordon Conacher ( October 5 , 1916 – December 29 , 1984 ) was a Canadian professional ice hockey left winger who played 11 seasons in the National Hockey League ( NHL ) for the Boston Bruins , Detroit Red Wings and Chicago Black Hawks . He was the NHL 's leading goal @-@ scorer in 1938 – 39 , his first season in the league . Conacher was a member of two Stanley Cup winning teams with the Bruins and scored the championship winning goal in 1939 . He won the Art Ross Trophy in 1948 – 49 season as the NHL 's leading point scorer and was named a first team All @-@ Star .
Conacher was a member of the Memorial Cup winning West Toronto Nationals in 1935 as Canadian junior champions and was a member of the Ontario Hockey Association senior champion Toronto Dominions in 1937 . Playing in the shadow of his more famous brothers Charlie and Lionel , Roy was known as the " forgotten Conacher " . He was posthumously inducted into the Hockey Hall of Fame in 1998 , following his brothers to become the only trio of siblings so enshrined .
= = Early life = =
Roy Conacher was born October 5 , 1916 , along with his twin brother Bert . They were the youngest children to Benjamin and Elizabeth Conacher and two of ten siblings : five boys and five girls . The family grew up in the Toronto neighourhood of Davenport , which his brother Charlie described as " one of Toronto 's higher class slums " . His father was a teamster , and struggled to earn enough money to support the family . In the winter , he ploughed the snow off outdoor skating rinks to earn additional money .
All ten children were encouraged to participate in sports by the principal of Jesse Ketchum School , who felt that such pursuits would keep his students from getting into trouble . Roy joined his elder brothers in playing hockey , and having started younger than they had , was regarded as a better skater . Roy went on to join his brothers Lionel and Charlie in professional hockey . Bert was also an aspiring hockey player but his professional hopes were ended when lost an eye in his late teens to a freak accident while the brothers were playing street hockey in front of their home .
= = Playing career = =
= = = Amateur = = =
Conacher played his minor hockey with the Toronto Marlboro organization and was a member of Ontario provincial championship winning teams at the bantam and midget age groups . He next played junior hockey with the West Toronto Nationals in the Ontario Hockey Association ( OHA ) junior league between 1933 and 1936 . In his third season , 1935 – 36 , Conacher led the OHA junior league in scoring with 12 goals in 10 games . The Nationals , led by Roy and Bert Conacher , won the OHA title and reached the 1936 Memorial Cup final against the Saskatoon Wesleys . In 12 Memorial Cup playoff games , Roy Conacher recorded eight goals and five assists . West Toronto won the best @-@ of @-@ three final in two consecutive games , 5 – 1 and 4 – 2 , to capture the Dominion junior championship . Conacher played two seasons of senior hockey , first with the Toronto Dominions of the OHA senior league in 1936 – 37 where he was an all @-@ star for the OHA senior championship winning squad . He then played with then the Kirkland Lake Hargreaves of the Northern Ontario Hockey Association .
= = = Boston Bruins = = =
The Boston Bruins invited Conacher to their amateur camp in 1935 where the then 17 @-@ year @-@ old made a good impression on manager Art Ross . Following his two seasons of senior hockey , the Bruins signed Conacher to a contract on October 23 , 1938 . He made his National Hockey League ( NHL ) debut in the 1938 – 39 season and recorded 37 points in 47 games . His 26 goals were the most in the league ; it would be 54 years before another rookie , Teemu Selänne , would lead the league . Conacher added ten points in 12 playoff games , including both goals in a 2 – 0 victory over the Toronto Maple Leafs in the fourth game of the 1939 Stanley Cup Final , and he scored the Stanley Cup @-@ winning goal in the deciding contest .
Conacher remained a leading offensive threat throughout his tenure with Boston ; he was one of the NHL 's top ten scorers in his first four seasons , including the 1939 – 40 season despite missing 16 games due to a broken wrist . He also finished second in goals in both 1940 – 41 and 1941 – 42 with 24 goals in each campaign . By 1941 , he had joined with Eddie Wiseman and Bill Cowley to form the " Three Gun Line " , so named because all three players were considered top scoring threats . Conacher had only one goal during the 1941 Stanley Cup playoffs , but the Bruins were the NHL 's dominant team and swept the Detroit Red Wings in the Final to win their second Stanley Cup in three years .
In 1942 , Conacher left the Bruins to enlist in the Royal Canadian Air Force for the duration of the Second World War where he served as a physical training instructor . He continued to play hockey in the Canadian military leagues , playing first for the Saskatoon RCAF team in 1942 – 43 , then with the Dartmouth RCAF for the following two seasons . He led the Halifax city league with nine goals in 1943 – 44 . Toward the end of the war , Conacher was deployed to England where he continued to play with military teams , but the deployment also meant he was unavailable to return to the Bruins at the start of the 1945 – 46 season like many of his teammates did . He appeared in only four games late in the season following his discharge from the military .
= = = Detroit and Chicago = = =
Art Ross feared that Conacher would not be able to return to his previous form due to losing four seasons to military service when he was in his physical prime and opted to trade him . Prior to the 1946 – 47 season , Ross sent Conacher to the Detroit Red Wings in exchange for Joe Carveth . Conacher excelled with Detroit . He led the team with 30 goals and 54 points , seventh best in the league , and scored four goals in one game that were all assisted by Billy Taylor on a night where the latter player set an NHL record with seven assists . Art Ross , once asked what his biggest mistake as a general manager was , replied " trading Roy Conacher " .
Conacher became embroiled in a bitter contract dispute with Detroit manager Jack Adams following the season . Adams offered $ 7 @,@ 600 for the season , but Conacher refused to sign for less than $ 8 @,@ 500 . Refusing to bow to his demands , Adams traded Conacher to the New York Rangers on October 22 , 1947 , in exchange for Edward Slowinski and a player to be named later . Conacher , however , refused to report to the Rangers . He announced instead that he planned to retire from hockey , a decision he claimed to have been mulling over for a couple years . The trade to New York was nullified as a result of Conacher 's failure to report . Bill Tobin of the Chicago Black Hawks received permission from Detroit to speak with Conacher and successfully negotiated a deal with the player . Tobin claimed the negotiation was easy : " It wasn 't hard to sign Roy . I offered him so much money he couldn 't refuse . " Tobin did not reveal what he was paying Conacher , but admitted that he spent $ 25 @,@ 000 combined on the contract and to purchase him from Detroit .
Conacher averaged nearly a point per game in 1947 – 48 with 48 points in 52 games . His best statistical season came in 1948 – 49 when he won the Art Ross Trophy as the NHL 's leading point scorer playing on a line with Bill Mosienko and Doug Bentley on a team that was coached by his brother Charlie . Conacher recorded 68 points while his 26 goals were good enough for second in the league . Additionally , he was named to the first All @-@ Star team at left wing and played in the 1949 All @-@ Star Game . He remained among the league 's scoring leaders in 1949 – 50 as his 56 points were sixth @-@ best in the league . He followed that up by leading the Black Hawks in goals ( 26 ) and points ( 50 ) in 1950 – 51 . Conacher scored his 200th career goal during the season , at the time a rare feat for an NHL player . However , the physical toll of the sport caught up to him ; after playing 12 games of the 1951 – 52 season , he opted to retire from the NHL . Chicago replaced him with his nephew , Pete Conacher .
= = Personal life = =
During his final four seasons in the NHL , Conacher lived in Midland , Ontario . He remained in the community with his wife Fran and children Roy Jr . , Mark and Candace . Keeping active in hockey , he coached Midland 's junior C team to a provincial championship and regularly played with oldtimers teams . Conacher later moved to Victoria , British Columbia where , after an eight @-@ year battle with cancer , he died in 1984 .
Roy was one of several members of the Conacher family to play in the NHL . Three of his nephews , Pete and Brian Conacher , and Murray Henderson all followed . Cory Conacher is also a distant relative of his . Roy was relatively anonymous compared to his more famous brothers Lionel and Charlie , and was often referred to as the " forgotten Conacher " . Roy 's career was recognized by the Hockey Hall of Fame in 1998 when he was posthumously inducted by the veterans committee . He joined Charlie ( 1961 ) and Lionel ( 1994 ) as the only trio of brothers to be so honoured .
= = Career statistics = =
= = Awards and honours = =
|
= Alexander Novikov =
Alexander Alexandrovich Novikov ( Russian : Алекса ́ ндр Алекса ́ ндрович Но ́ виков ; November 19 [ O.S. November 6 ] 1900 – December 3 , 1976 ) was the Chief marshal of the aviation for the Soviet Air Force during Russia 's involvement in the Second World War . Lauded as " the man who has piloted the Red Air Force through the dark days into the present limelight " and a " master of tactical air power " , he was twice given the title of Hero of the Soviet Union , as well as a number of other Soviet decorations .
A gifted air force commander and one of the leading men of the Soviet armed forces , Novikov was involved in nearly all exploits of the air force during World War II and was at the forefront of developments in command and control and of air combat techniques . After the war , Novikov was arrested by order of the Politburo , and was forced by NKVD chief Lavrentiy Beria into a " confession " which implicated Marshal Zhukov in a conspiracy . Novikov was then imprisoned until the death of Joseph Stalin in 1953 , whereupon he became an avionics teacher and writer until his death .
= = Early life and career = =
Novikov was born in Kryukovo , a village in Nerekhta , in Kostroma Oblast . In 1919 he became an infantryman in the Red Army , and in 1920 became a party member .
He served in the 384th regiment of the Russian 7th Army , helped put down the Kronstadt uprising in March 1921 , and he served as a platoon commander during anti @-@ guerrilla fighting in the Caucasus in 1922 . Having graduated from the Frunze Military Academy in 1930 , Novikov moved to the air force in 1933 , and served as chief of operations until 1935 , when he took command of a light bomber squadron .
Novikov was expelled from the party and the armed forces in 1937 ; however he was re @-@ admitted by the Commissioner of the Belarussian Military District , A. I. Mezis , who was in turn arrested . Novikov served as chief of the air force staff of the Leningrad Military District prior to serving in the Soviet @-@ Finnish War during 1939 and 1940 . For his service in the conflict he was promoted to Major General and earned the Order of Lenin . He continued to command the Air Forces of the Leningrad Military District until the outbreak of World War II .
= = Second World War = =
During the early setbacks of the Russian army at the hand of Nazi Germany , Novikov and the Leningrad air forces took part in a number of strikes against the advancing German armies , including the first Soviet air operation of the war , from June 25 – 30 , 1941 , which cost the Germans 130 aircraft . During this time , Novikov was noted for his skill in command and for his innovation , particularly the then unknown use of radio to coordinate bomber flights . In July 1941 , Novikov expanded his command from Leningrad to include air forces of the Northern Front , Northwestern Front and the Baltic Fleet , and as the Germans approached Leningrad , Novikov and his forces flew 16 @,@ 567 sorties .
Novikov briefly held the position of First Deputy to the Air Force Commander from February until April 11 , 1942 . He then became Commander of the Red Army Air Force – Deputy to the People 's Commissar of Defense of the USSR for Aviation , a position from which he began to reorganize the Soviet air force . He worked specifically for the creation of separate divisions and air corps , as well as the improvement of front line coordination . During the siege of Stalingrad , Novikov successfully persuaded Marshal Zhukov and in turn , Joseph Stalin that the air force was not ready for a planned counter @-@ offensive , an argument to which both commanders eventually conceded . After a substantial period of development , Novikov was able to provide Zhukov with an aerial blockade of the German forces at Stalingrad , along with the destruction of 1 @,@ 200 enemy planes . Later operations over Kuban destroyed another 1 @,@ 100 planes .
At the Battle of Kursk , Novikov introduced new innovations such as shaped @-@ charge bombs , night fighters and ground @-@ attack aircraft . The Battle of Königsberg saw 2 @,@ 500 combat aircraft under Novikov being made available to the besieging armies , with the Soviet air marshal recommending low level heavy night bombers being used . 514 of these dropped 4 @,@ 440 tons of bombs on the beleaguered city . For his part in the operation Novikov was made Hero of the Soviet Union , and on June 24 , 1944 the United States awarded him a Legion of Merit . Novikov then transferred to the Pacific Theatre to fight against Japan , where he was made Hero of the Soviet Union a second time for his work in forming large air armies to bomb Japanese forces in China and Korea .
= = Post @-@ war career = =
On January 16 , 1946 Novikov submitted to Stalin plans that would lay the groundwork for the modern Soviet air force and the industry that would supply it . On April 22 , 1946 however , before these could be enacted , Novikov was stripped of his rank and titles and then arrested . The reason for this was that at the Potsdam conference it was discovered that the United States had better spy planes than the Soviet Union . He was interrogated and tortured the next day and again between May 4 and May 8 , 1946 by Lavrentiy Beria before being forced to read a confession to the Politburo implicating Marshal Zhukov . Novikov was tried by the Military Collegium and sentenced to fifteen years in a labor camp .
Novikov was released six years into his sentence following Stalin 's death on June 29 , 1953 , and reinstated as Chief Marshal of Aviation , where he was able to put his ideas into practice . A plan for using newly available jet aircraft and nuclear weapons to wage a possible future war with the United States was laid out by Novikov and shown to Nikita Khrushchev , who turned the proposal down in favor of ballistic missiles .
Following his retirement in 1958 , Novikov accepted an offer to become head of the Higher Civil Aviation School in Leningrad , where he worked for ten years . He became a professor , and was awarded the Order of the Red Banner in 1961 .
In retirement , Novikov wrote a number of works on aviation and warfare , which were used to educate new Soviet air force pilots . He died , aged 74 , on December 3 , 1976 .
= = Honours and awards = =
Twice Hero of the Soviet Union
Three Orders of Lenin
Three Orders of the Red Banner
Three Orders of Suvorov 1st class
Order of Kutuzov 1st class
Order of the Red Banner of Labour
Two Orders of the Red Star
Jubilee Medal " For MIlitary Valour – In Commemoration of the 100th Anniversary since the Birth of Vladimir Il 'ich Lenin "
Medal " For the Defence of Leningrad "
Medal " For the Defence of Stalingrad "
Medal " For the Victory over Germany in the Great Patriotic War 1941 – 1945 "
Jubilee Medal " Twenty Years of Victory in the Great Patriotic War 1941 @-@ 1945 "
Jubilee Medal " Thirty Years of Victory in the Great Patriotic War 1941 @-@ 1945 "
Medal " For the Victory over Japan "
Medal " For the Capture of Königsberg "
Medal " For the Capture of Berlin "
Medal " Veteran of the Armed Forces of the USSR "
Jubilee Medal " XX Years of the Workers ' and Peasants ' Red Army "
Jubilee Medal " 30 Years of the Soviet Army and Navy "
Jubilee Medal " 40 Years of the Armed Forces of the USSR "
Jubilee Medal " 50 Years of the Armed Forces of the USSR "
Medal " In Commemoration of the 250th Anniversary of Leningrad "
Chief Commander of the Legion of Merit ( USA )
Grand Cross of the Order of the Legion of Honour ( France )
Order of Red Banner ( Mongolia )
Order of the Polar Star ( Mongolia )
|
= Roger Gale ( antiquary ) =
Roger Gale ( 27 September 1672 – 25 June 1744 ) was an English scholar and antiquary as well as a member of Parliament for Northallerton . His father was an ecclesiastic and professor at Cambridge , which the younger Gale also attended . After his graduation , Gale briefly served as a diplomat in France , as well as holding a position as a reader at Oxford University 's Bodleian Library . On his father 's death in 1702 , Gale retired to his family estate , but was elected to Parliament in 1705 , where he served until 1713 . He then continued in public service until 1735 , when he once more retired to his estates .
Besides his governmental career , Gale was a member of the Society of Antiquaries and the Royal Society , where he served as treasurer . Gale was known as a collector of manuscripts and other antiquarian items , writing a few published works on those subjects . He donated his manuscript collection to his alma mater in 1738 , and died in 1744 . Although contemporaries felt he was one of the foremost scholars of his age , later historians have been less convinced , contrasting his learning unfavourably with his father 's .
= = Early life = =
Roger Gale was the eldest son of Thomas Gale and Barbara Pepys . His father was Dean of York as well as a professor of Greek at Cambridge University , while his mother was a cousin of the diarist Samuel Pepys . Roger was born on 27 September 1672 at Impington , Cambridgeshire . Thomas and Barbara had a younger son , Samuel Gale , who also became an antiquary , and a daughter , Elizabeth , who became William Stukeley 's as second wife .
Gale was educated at St Paul 's School in London , where his father was in charge from 1672 to 1697 . He then went on to attend Trinity College starting in 1691 , earning his Bachelor of Arts in 1695 and a Master of Arts in 1698 . He then became a reader at the Bodleian Library at Oxford University on 6 March 1699 . Soon after this , probably in the later part of 1699 , he went with Charles Montagu , then the Earl of Manchester , on a diplomatic mission to France . His father died in 1702 , and Gale retired to his newly inherited estates at Scruton , Yorkshire .
= = Public service = =
In 1705 he was elected a member of Parliament ( MP ) for Northallerton in a by @-@ election . He remained an MP until 1713 , usually voting with the Whigs and working on committees concerned with regulating servant wages and the naturalisation of foreigners . After leaving Parliament , he was appointed to a commission dealing with stamp duties , then later was a commissioner of excise . He remained in that position until 1735 , when Robert Walpole had him removed to free the post for one of Walpole 's friends .
Gale also served as the first vice @-@ president of the Society of Antiquaries , and was the treasurer of the Royal Society for a number of years . In 1736 he returned to his estates and retired from public life .
= = Antiquary and writer = =
Gale inherited his father 's library of manuscripts and books , which he eventually donated to his alma mater , Trinity College , in 1738 . Included in Gale 's donation was one of only two complete manuscripts of the Liber Eliensis , now known as Trinity College MS O.2.1. Gale also collected coins , and donated his collection to Cambridge University .
In 1697 Gale translated Louis Jobert 's La science des medailles into English , with the title of The Knowledge of Medals . This was designed as an instruction to the beginning coin collector , and also contained information to protect the new collector from fraud . Gale then in 1709 published his father 's work on the Antonine Itinerary , which Gale supplemented with his own notes and commentary . His last major published work was as the editor of a 12th @-@ century manuscript register of the Honour of Richmond that was contained in the Cotton library . He also contributed a number of essays on antiquarian topics to the Philosopical Transactions journal put out by the Royal Society .
Gale 's letters survive , and some were first published in the third volume of John Nichols 's Bibliotheca Topographica Britannica in 1790 . Later more appeared in Nichols ' Literary Anecdotes , and then finally his complete letters were published in three volumes by the Surtees Society along with letters from his brother Samuel and brother @-@ in @-@ law William Stukeley . Nichols in 1781 declared that Gale was " one of the most learned men of his age " , but later scholars have been less full of praise . D. C. Douglas , writing in the 1950s , contrasted Gale with his father , and felt that the younger Gale was given a greater reputation than he deserved . Notwithstanding Douglas ' opinion , Gale 's work did much to preserve important historical information , as he was a member of the new style of antiquary , who instead of working just with manuscripts , turned to the topography and other relics in the countryside . This group of antiquaries did much to record information that has since disappeared .
= = Death and family = =
Gale married Henrietta Roper , the daughter of Henry Roper of Cowling , Kent . She died in 1720 . They had one son , Roger Henry Gale , who was born in 1710 . Gale himself died on 25 June 1744 at his estates in Scruton , and was buried near the church there . There is no monument in the churchyard , as he stipulated in his will that he be buried in such a manner that no one would know exactly where he was buried .
|
= 1948 American League tie @-@ breaker game =
The 1948 American League tie @-@ breaker game was a one @-@ game extension to Major League Baseball 's ( MLB ) 1948 regular season , played between the Cleveland Indians and Boston Red Sox to determine the American League ( AL ) champion . The game was played on October 4 , 1948 , at Fenway Park in Boston , Massachusetts . It was necessary after both teams finished the season with identical win – loss records of 96 – 58 . This was the first @-@ ever one @-@ game playoff in the AL , and the only one prior to 1969 when the leagues were split into divisions .
The Indians defeated the Red Sox , 8 – 3 , as the Indians scored four runs in the fourth inning and limited the Red Sox to five hits . The Indians advanced to the 1948 World Series , where they defeated the Boston Braves , four games to two , giving them their second and most recent World Series championship . In baseball statistics , the tie @-@ breaker counted as the 155th regular season game by both teams , with all events in the game added to regular season statistics .
= = Background = =
The 1948 Major League Baseball season was predicted to be a close race between the Yankees and Red Sox . In a United Press poll conducted just before the season started , the majority of sportswriters chose the Yankees , who had won last year 's World Series , to face the Braves or St. Louis Cardinals that year , while others chose the Red Sox ; only one sportswriter chose the Indians to reach the World Series . Most of the American League managers had the Yankees finishing first , followed by the Red Sox , Indians , and Detroit Tigers . Tension and confidence was evident between the teams , as two months into the season , after defeating the Red Sox 7 – 0 , Yankees manager Bucky Harris declared that the Yankees would win the pennant , though they were currently at second place at the time .
The pennant race continued between the three teams throughout the entire season . On September 25 , after playing 147 games , with seven games left to play , all three teams had a record of 91 – 56 . After each team played four more games , the Indians were up two games , meaning the Yankees and Red Sox had to win their games on September 30 to stay in the pennant race . They did , and the month of October opened up with both teams 1 @.@ 5 games behind the Indians . The Indians ' last series was a three @-@ game stand against the Tigers , while the Red Sox and Yankees had a two @-@ game series against each other .
The Indians lost their first game 5 – 3 against the Tigers on October 1 , giving them a one @-@ game lead with two games left to play . As a result , speculation arose about the possibility of a three @-@ way tie . On October 2 , Cleveland beat Detroit to clinch at least a tie , and Boston beat New York 5 – 1 , ending the Yankees ' pennant run and bringing the race down to two teams . On the last day of the season , October 3 , Boston won their game and Cleveland lost , giving them identical 96 – 58 records and forcing a tiebreaker the following day at Boston . The Indians chose rookie Gene Bearden to start against Boston in the tie @-@ breaker , despite only having one day of rest , as he had beaten the Red Sox twice that season , and the Red Sox chose Denny Galehouse , passing on Mel Parnell , who had beaten the Indians on three separate occasions that season .
= = Game summary = =
Monday October 4 , 1948 – 1 @.@ 15 p.m. ( ET ) at Fenway Park in Boston , Massachusetts
Galehouse started off the game by quickly getting outs from Dale Mitchell and Allie Clark . American League MVP Lou Boudreau then hit a solo home run off Galehouse to make the score 1 – 0 . After another out , Bearden came on the mound in the bottom of the first . Johnny Pesky doubled , then scored on a hit by Vern Stephens to make the score 1 – 1 at the end of the first inning . Both pitchers allowed one baserunner the following inning ; Ken Keltner reached base for Cleveland and Birdie Tebbetts reached base for the Red Sox . Both pitchers then got three quick outs in the third inning .
In the fourth inning , the Indians opened up the game . Boudreau and Joe Gordon hit back @-@ to @-@ back singles , which brought Keltner to the plate . The Red Sox expected a bunt , but instead the third baseman hit his 31st home run of the season to put the Indians ahead , 4 – 1 . Galehouse was then replaced with Ellis Kinder , who was met with a double by Larry Doby . Kinder responded by getting the next three batters out , which brought the score to 5 – 1 as Doby also scored . After Bearden got three Red Sox out , the Indians started the fifth inning with the top of their lineup . Mitchell and Eddie Robinson , who came in for Clark , were out . Boudreau then stepped up to the plate and hit his second home run of the night to make the score 6 – 1 .
The rest of the fifth inning saw no more hits , and after a Keltner double , three Indians were out in the top of the sixth inning . The Red Sox began to fight back in the bottom of the sixth inning . After getting Pesky out , Ted Williams reached first base on an error by Gordon . Stephens struck out , and with two outs in the inning , Bobby Doerr hit his 27th home run of the season to make the score 6 – 3 . No runs were scored in the seventh inning , though Bearden and Mitchell both reached base . The Indians were able to score another run in the eighth inning after Jim Hegan was intentionally walked . Bearden then hit a fly ball to Williams , who dropped it , allowing Hegan to score and making it 7 – 3 in the Indians ' favor . The Indians were able to score one more run in the ninth when Robinson scored after Keltner grounded into a bases @-@ loaded double play . Bearden got the final three Red Sox out in the bottom of the ninth , finishing the game with an 8 – 3 Indians victory and giving Bearden a complete game .
= = Aftermath = =
With the victory , the Indians received their first playoff berth since the 1920 World Series . Indians ' Manager Lou Boudreau dedicated the victory to pitcher Don Black , who suffered a cerebral hemorrhage the previous month . The Indians went on to face the Boston Braves in the 1948 World Series , winning it four games to two . The Red Sox fans experienced disappointment when Boston mayor James M. Curley ordered the fire department sirens sounded when Boston won the pennant . The sirens did sound , but it was instead for a fire in the Boston navy yard .
The Red Sox 's defeat disappointed Boston fans , who had been rooting the entire season for an All @-@ Boston World Series . Prior to the October 4 game , the oddsmakers gave the Red Sox the advantage , meaning that an all @-@ Boston World Series was likely . The Red Sox did not make another playoff appearance until 1967 , when the St. Louis Cardinals defeated them in the 1967 World Series .
The game counted as a regular season game in baseball statistics . As a result , Dom DiMaggio and Vern Stephens led the league with 155 games played , which could not have been equaled by any team other than the Red Sox or Indians . DiMaggio 's four at @-@ bats in the game also gave him the league lead with 648 , four ahead of Bob Dillinger of the St. Louis Browns . Dale Mitchell 's one single also gave him the league lead in that statistics , beating out Dillinger by one . Gene Bearden 's nine inning , one earned run performance brought his earned run average ( ERA ) down to 2 @.@ 43 , which led the American League . Boudreau finished the season with a .355 batting average , 116 runs , 18 home runs , and 106 runs batted in , and won the Major League Baseball Most Valuable Player Award at the end of the season .
|
= Film career of Audie Murphy =
Audie Murphy ( 20 June 1925 – 28 May 1971 ) was a highly decorated American soldier and Medal of Honor recipient who turned actor . He portrayed himself in the film To Hell and Back , the account of his World War II experiences . During the 1950s and 1960s he was cast primarily in westerns . While often the hero , he proved his ability to portray a cold @-@ blooded hired gun in No Name on the Bullet . A notable exception to the westerns was The Quiet American in which he co @-@ starred with Michael Redgrave . Murphy made over 40 feature films and often worked with directors more than once . Jesse Hibbs who directed To Hell and Back worked with the star on six films , only half of which were westerns . When promoting his 1949 book To Hell and Back he appeared on the radio version of This Is Your Life . To promote the 1955 film of the same name , he appeared on Ed Sullivan 's Toast of the Town . He was a celebrity guest on television shows such as What 's My Line ? and appeared in a handful of television dramas . Murphy 's only television series Whispering Smith had a brief run in 1961 . For his cooperation in appearing in the United States Army 's Broken Bridge episode of The Big Picture television series he was awarded the Outstanding Civilian Service Medal .
= = Early career = =
Murphy became a national celebrity following his World War II military service when Life magazine proclaimed him America 's " most decorated soldier " in its 16 July 1945 issue cover story . That magazine cover brought him to the attention of veteran actor James Cagney who invited him to Hollywood . When Murphy arrived in California after his military discharge , Cagney cancelled the hotel reservations he 'd made for Murphy and instead took him into his own home , " I got the shock of my life . Audie was very thin . His complexion was bluish @-@ gray . " Commenting years later on his first impression , Cagney said , " [ Murphy was ] in such a nervous condition that I was afraid he might jump out of a window . I took him home and gave him my bed . " He spent three weeks as a guest of Cagney and then returned to Texas before finally agreeing to an offer from brothers James and William Cagney of $ 150 a week as a contract player with their production company . The Cagneys gave Murphy personal attention on acting techniques . He also took lessons at the Actors ' Lab on Sunset Boulevard . Murphy studied voice techniques , learned judo , and trained with choreographer John Boyle , Cagney 's dance coach for Yankee Doodle Dandy . A 1947 disagreement with William Cagney ended his association with the brothers without having been cast in a film production .
He moved into Terry Hunt 's Athletic Club and survived on his Army pension of $ 113 a month . In 1948 he became acquainted with writer David " Spec " McClure who got him a $ 500 bit part in Texas , Brooklyn and Heaven . He began dating actress Wanda Hendrix in 1946 . Her agent got Murphy a bit part in the 1948 Alan Ladd film Beyond Glory directed by John Farrow . Murphy and Hendrix married in 1949 and divorced in 1951 .
His 1949 film Bad Boy gave him his first leading role . Murphy became acquainted in Texas with Interstate Theatre executive James " Skipper " Cherry , who was best man at Murphy 's 1951 marriage to Pamela Archer and the namesake of the couple 's second son . Murphy 's association with Cherry brought him to the attention of Texas independent producer Paul Short . With financing from Texas theater owners and the children 's charitable organization Variety Clubs International , Short cast Murphy in Bad Boy to help promote the charity 's work with troubled children . Murphy performed well in the screen test , but Steve Broidy , president of the project 's production company Allied Artists did not want to cast someone in a major role with so little acting experience . Cherry , Short , and the theater owners refused to finance the film unless Murphy played the lead . The 1933 Thames Williamson novel The Woods Colt caught Murphy 's attention during this period of his career . He secured the rights to the story in the 1950s , and Marion Hargrove was hired to write the script . The film was never made .
Universal Studios signed Murphy to a seven @-@ year studio contract at $ 2 @,@ 500 a week . His first film for them in 1950 was as Billy the Kid in The Kid from Texas . He wrapped up that year making Sierra starring his wife Wanda Hendrix , and Kansas Raiders as outlaw Jesse James . He and director Budd Boetticher become acquainted through Terry Hunt 's Athletic Club where Murphy would request to be his boxing partner . Murphy appeared in the 1951 title role of Boetticher 's first westernThe Cimarron Kid .
The only film Murphy made in 1952 was Duel At Silver Creek with director Don Siegel . Murphy would team with Siegel one more time in 1958 for The Gun Runners . He only worked one time with director Frederick de Cordova , who later became producer of The Tonight Show Starring Johnny Carson . Murphy and de Cordova made Column South in 1953 . George Marshall directed Murphy in the 1954 Destry , based on a character created by author Max Brand . Two previous versions , one in 1932 with Tom Mix and one in 1939 with Jimmy Stewart and Marlene Dietrich , were both titled Destry Rides Again .
The only screenplay John Meredyth Lucas ever did for a Murphy film was the 1953 Tumbleweed , an adaptation of the Kenneth Perkins novel Three Were Renegades . Murphy played Jim Harvey , whose horse Tumbleweed displayed a talent for getting the hero out of any scrape . Director Nathan Juran oversaw Tumbleweed , as well as Gunsmoke and Drums Across the River .
As Murphy 's film career began to progress , so did his efforts to improve his skills . He continually practiced his fast draw with a gun . He took both private and classroom acting lessons from Estelle Harman , and honed his diction by reciting dialogue from William Shakespeare and William Saroyan .
= = The Red Badge of Courage = =
Murphy was lent to MGM at a salary of $ 25 @,@ 000 to appear in the 1951 The Red Badge of Courage directed by John Huston and adapted from the Stephen Crane novel . At the urging of Spec McClure and celebrity columnist Hedda Hopper , over the misgivings of producer Gottfried Reinhardt and studio executives Louis B. Mayer and Dore Schary , director Huston cast Murphy in the lead of The Youth ( Henry Fleming in the novel ) . The preview screening audiences were not enthusiastic , causing Schary to re @-@ edit Huston 's work , eliminating several scenes and adding narration by James Whitmore . MGM trimmed advertising efforts on what they believed was an unprofitable film . What eventually hit the theaters was not a commercial success , and it was also not the film both Murphy and Huston believed they had made . Murphy unsuccessfully tried to buy the rights to the film in 1955 in an attempt to re @-@ edit and re @-@ release it . Huston tried to buy it in 1957 , but was told the original negative of what he had filmed was destroyed .
= = To Hell and Back = =
Although Murphy was initially reluctant to appear as himself in To Hell and Back , the film version of his book , he eventually agreed to do so . Terry Murphy portrayed his brother Joseph Preston Murphy at age four . The film was directed by Jesse Hibbs with an on @-@ screen introduction by General Walter Bedell Smith . Susan Kohner , daughter of Murphy 's agent Paul Kohner , made her acting debut in the film . The finale shows Murphy being awarded the Medal of Honor while images of his unit 's casualties pass across the screen . It became the biggest hit in the history of Universal Studios at the time .
Both Murphy and Universal gave serious considerations to a follow @-@ up version of his post @-@ war life . Murphy rejected the Richard J. Collins script The Way Back which created the fictional scenario that filming To Hell and Back had been so therapeutic for Murphy that it cured him of his combat fatigue . Spec McClure scripted a second unused version of The Way Back that incorporated Murphy 's real @-@ life friends into the storyline and ended with the star living happily ever after with Pamela and their two sons . A third version by an unknown writer focused on the Murphy @-@ McClure friendship and was rejected by the threat of a lawsuit from McClure . Desi Arnaz offered to bankroll a 1965 project titled Helmets in the Dust . At Murphy 's request McClure wrote a film treatment , but the project never came to fruition .
= = Later films = =
The Hibbs @-@ Murphy team proved so successful in To Hell and Back that the two worked together on a total of five subsequent films . Hibbs directed Murphy in Ride Clear of Diablo in 1954 . The partnership resulted in the commercially unsuccessful non @-@ traditional 1956 western Walk the Proud Land . Hibbs and Murphy teamed with each other for non @-@ westerns Joe Butterfly and World in My Corner . They worked together a final time in the 1958 western Ride a Crooked Trail . Veteran character actor Dan Duryea who portrayed villain Whitey Kincaide in Ride Clear of Diablo played a second lead in two more Murphy vehicles , Night Passage and Six Black Horses . The Story of Charles Russell with Murphy as the lead was under development at Universal but shelved after the disappointing receipts of Walk the Proud Land . Murphy , however , was enthusiastic enough about a biopic of Charles Marion Russell to give serious consideration tor his own production that would star Guy Mitchell in the lead , but no such film was made .
Murphy was hired by Joseph L. Mankiewicz to play the role of The American ( Alden Pyle in the book ) in the 1958 version of The Quiet American , replacing Montgomery Clift when the latter dropped out . Michael Redgrave replaced Laurence Olivier who dropped out when Clift withdrew . The cold @-@ war drama filmed in Vietnam was a departure from the genre in which Murphy had normally been cast .
Murphy formed a partnership with Harry Joe Brown to make three films , the first of which was the 1957 The Guns of Fort Petticoat . The partnership fell into disagreement over the remaining two projects , and Brown filed suit against Murphy . Although Murphy was to co @-@ star with Robert Mitchum in the 1957 film Night Riders , scheduling conflicts prevented him from doing so . Springing from his skin diving hobby , Murphy hired diving expert Paul Kazear to write the script Skin Diver with a Heart . Murphy reneged on the deal and the film was never made . Kazear sued Murphy in 1958 .
The 1950s decade ended with Murphy doing three westerns . He co @-@ starred with 14 @-@ year @-@ old Sandra Dee in the 1959 film The Wild and the Innocent . The film 's cast was rounded out with respected talent of the era in Gilbert Roland , Joanne Dru and Jim Backus . His collaboration with Walter Mirisch on the black and white Cast a Long Shadow included an uncredited stint as co @-@ producer . The film co @-@ starred Terry Moore . His performance in No Name on the Bullet was well received . The storyline follows the cool , jaded hired gun as the townspeople are gripped with fear by his presence .
Murphy continued to make films in the 1960s . Murphy and Huston worked together one more time in the 1960 film The Unforgiven , in which Murphy took second billing as Burt Lancaster 's racist kid brother who was bent on the destruction of the Kiowa.Writer Clair Huffaker had success in a number of his works being adapted for the films , including his 1958 novel Flaming Lance being filmed as the Elvis Presley western Flaming Star . Two of his works retained their original titles when Huffaker wrote the screenplays for them as Murphy 's films in 1961 , Seven Ways from Sundown and Posse from Hell . Author Bob Herzberg deemed the scripts two of the best Murphy worked with in that decade . Herbert Coleman directed Posse from Hell as well as the black and white World War II drama Battle at Bloody Beach set in the Philippines .
Willard W. Willingham and his wife Mary Willingham were friends of Murphy 's from his earliest days in Hollywood and who worked with him on a number of projects . Williard was a producer on Murphy 's 1961 television series Whispering Smith . He additionally collaborated on Bullet for a Badman in 1964 and Arizona Raiders in 1965 . The latter was based on activities of Quantrill 's Raiders and a remake of the George Montgomery 1951 film The Texas Rangers . Moving the setting from Texas to Arizona , the film also featured veteran actor Buster Crabbe . Willard was a co @-@ writer on the screenplay for Battle at Bloody Beach . The Willinghams as a team wrote the screenplays for Gunpoint as well the script for Murphy 's last starring lead in a western 40 Guns to Apache Pass . Released through Columbia Pictures in May 1967 , the storyline centered around Murphy 's character retrieving a cache of stolen rifles sold to Apache leader Cochise .
Apache Rifles in 1964 was another formula Murphy western . He stayed at Universal for a few more years , then left to work at Columbia and Allied Artists before making several films in Europe . In 1966 , he made Trunk to Cairo in Israel . He felt the film was , " the worst James Bond parody I 've ever seen , " but was unable to get out of the commitment .
I feel like a prostitute who is a little over the hill . I get all kinds of promotional offers for movies . But instead of my usual price of $ 100 @,@ 000 per picture , they offer $ 20 @,@ 000 and a percentage of the profit you never see . When people find you need the money in this town , they cut their offer by 80 percent . And I keep turning down liquor and cigarette commercials . I don 't believe they 're good for kids . I guess it 's a matter of not being 100 percent prostitute .
His own company FIPCO Productions produced his last film A Time for Dying . He had a cameo role as Jesse James , and his sons Terry and James were given small roles . Willard W. Willingham played Frank James . Budd Boetticher wrote the script , and agreed to the production as a return favor for an earlier time when Murphy had bailed him out of financial setbacks . The production was beset with financial problems , and the set burned down twice . The film opened in France in 1971 , but was not shown in the United States until its limited release in 1982 . Two other projects that Murphy and Boetticher planned to produce , A Horse for Mr Barnum and When There 's Sumpthin ' to Do , never came to fruition . He made over 40 feature films in his career .
= = Films = =
= = Television = =
The only television series Murphy starred in was the 1961 Whispering Smith in which he played the title character . Based on the film of the same name , the show was about a 19th @-@ century Denver railroad investigator . Episodes were gleaned from real @-@ life cases of the Denver Police Department . The United States Senate Subcommittee on Juvenile Delinquency was concerned about the violent content in the show and leveled charges against the network . 26 episodes had been filmed , but not all of them aired .
The cooperation of the United States Army and the United States Defense Department was extended for Murphy 's media appearances to publicize the film To Hell and Back . Among the 1955 celebrity television shows on which Murphy appeared to promote the film was Toast of the Town hosted by Ed Sullivan .
The Man 1960 suspense episode of Startime was based on an original Broadway play written by Mel Dinelli . Murphy played a mentally unbalanced stranger who posed as a student and handyman and terrorized homeowner Thelma Ritter .
In 1960 , he was awarded the Outstanding Civilian Service Medal for his cooperation in the production of The Big Picture television series episode Broken Bridge .
= = Radio = =
= = Public Service Announcements = =
|
= Atlanta =
Atlanta is the capital of and the most populous city in the U.S. state of Georgia , with an estimated 2015 population of 463 @,@ 878 . Atlanta is the cultural and economic center of the Atlanta metropolitan area , home to 5 @,@ 522 @,@ 942 people and the ninth largest metropolitan area in the United States . Atlanta is the county seat of Fulton County , and a small portion of the city extends eastward into DeKalb County .
Atlanta was established in 1837 at the intersection of two railroad lines , and the city rose from the ashes of the American Civil War to become a national center of commerce . In the decades following the Civil Rights Movement , during which the city earned a reputation as " too busy to hate " for the progressive views of its citizens and leaders , Atlanta attained international prominence . Atlanta is the primary transportation hub of the Southeastern United States , via highway , railroad , and air , with Hartsfield – Jackson Atlanta International Airport being the world 's busiest airport since 1998 .
Atlanta is an " alpha- " or " world city " , exerting a significant impact upon commerce , finance , research , technology , education , media , art , and entertainment . It ranks 36th among world cities and 8th in the nation with a gross domestic product of $ 270 billion . Atlanta 's economy is considered diverse , with dominant sectors including logistics , professional and business services , media operations , and information technology . Topographically , Atlanta is marked by rolling hills and dense tree coverage . Revitalization of Atlanta 's neighborhoods , initially spurred by the 1996 Olympics in Atlanta , has intensified in the 21st century , altering the city 's demographics , politics , and culture .
= = History = =
Prior to the arrival of European settlers in north Georgia , Creek and Cherokee Indians inhabited the area . Standing Peachtree , a Creek village located where Peachtree Creek flows into the Chattahoochee River , was the closest Indian settlement to what is now Atlanta . As part of the systematic removal of Native Americans from northern Georgia from 1802 to 1825 , the Creek ceded the area in 1821 , and white settlers arrived the following year .
In 1836 , the Georgia General Assembly voted to build the Western and Atlantic Railroad in order to provide a link between the port of Savannah and the Midwest . The initial route was to run southward from Chattanooga to a terminus east of the Chattahoochee River , which would then be linked to Savannah . After engineers surveyed various possible locations for the terminus , the " zero milepost " was driven into the ground in what is now Five Points . A year later , the area around the milepost had developed into a settlement , first known as " Terminus " , and later as " Thrasherville " after a local merchant who built homes and a general store in the area . By 1842 , the town had six buildings and 30 residents , and was renamed " Marthasville " to honor the Governor 's daughter . J. Edgar Thomson , Chief Engineer of the Georgia Railroad , suggested the town be renamed " Atlantica @-@ Pacifica , " which was shortened to " Atlanta " . The residents approved , and the town was incorporated as Atlanta on December 29 , 1847 .
By 1860 , Atlanta 's population had grown to 9 @,@ 554 . During the Civil War , the nexus of multiple railroads in Atlanta made the city a hub for the distribution of military supplies . In 1864 , following the capture of Chattanooga , the Union Army moved southward and began its invasion of north Georgia . The region surrounding Atlanta was the location of several major army battles , culminating with the Battle of Atlanta and a four @-@ month @-@ long siege of the city by the Union Army under the command of General William Tecumseh Sherman . On September 1 , 1864 , Confederate General John Bell Hood made the decision to retreat from Atlanta , ordering all public buildings and possible assets to the Union Army destroyed . On the next day , Mayor James Calhoun surrendered Atlanta to the Union Army , and on September 7 , General Sherman ordered the city 's civilian population to evacuate . On November 11 , 1864 , in preparation of the Union Army 's march to Savannah , Sherman ordered Atlanta to be burned to the ground , sparing only the city 's churches and hospitals .
After the Civil War ended in 1865 , Atlanta was gradually rebuilt . Due to the city 's superior rail transportation network , the state capital was moved to Atlanta from Milledgeville in 1868 . In the 1880 Census , Atlanta surpassed Savannah as Georgia 's largest city . Beginning in the 1880s , Henry W. Grady , the editor of the Atlanta Constitution newspaper , promoted Atlanta to potential investors as a city of the " New South " that would be based upon a modern economy and less reliant on agriculture . By 1885 , the founding of the Georgia School of Technology ( now Georgia Tech ) and the city 's black colleges had established the city as a center for higher education . In 1895 , Atlanta hosted the Cotton States and International Exposition , which attracted nearly 800 @,@ 000 attendees and successfully promoted the New South 's development to the world .
During the first decades of the 20th century , Atlanta experienced a period of unprecedented growth . In three decades ' time , Atlanta 's population tripled as the city limits expanded to include nearby streetcar suburbs ; the city 's skyline emerged with the construction of the Equitable , Flatiron , Empire , and Candler buildings ; and Sweet Auburn emerged as a center of black commerce . However , the period was also marked by strife and tragedy . Increased racial tensions led to the Atlanta Race Riot of 1906 , which left at least 27 people dead and over 70 injured . In 1915 , Leo Frank , a Jewish @-@ American factory superintendent , convicted of murder , was hanged by a lynch mob , drawing attention to antisemitism in the United States . On May 21 , 1917 , the Great Atlanta Fire destroyed 1 @,@ 938 buildings in what is now the Old Fourth Ward , resulting in one fatality and the displacement of 10 @,@ 000 people .
On December 15 , 1939 , Atlanta hosted the film premiere of Gone with the Wind , the epic film based on the best @-@ selling novel by Atlanta 's Margaret Mitchell . The film 's legendary producer , David O. Selznick , as well as the film 's stars Clark Gable , Vivien Leigh , and Olivia de Havilland attended the gala event at Loew 's Grand Theatre , but Oscar winner Hattie McDaniel , an African American , was barred from the event due to racial segregation laws and policies .
Atlanta played a vital role in the Allied effort during World War II due the city 's war @-@ related manufacturing companies , railroad network , and military bases , leading to rapid growth in the city 's population and economy . In the 1950s , the city 's newly constructed freeway system allowed middle class Atlantans the ability to relocate to the suburbs . As a result , the city began to make up an ever smaller proportion of the metropolitan area 's population .
During the 1960s , Atlanta was a major organizing center of the Civil Rights Movement , with Dr. Martin Luther King , Jr . , Ralph David Abernathy , and students from Atlanta 's historically black colleges and universities playing major roles in the movement 's leadership . While minimal compared to other cities , Atlanta was not completely free of racial strife . In 1961 , the city attempted to thwart blockbusting by erecting road barriers in Cascade Heights , countering the efforts of civic and business leaders to foster Atlanta as the " city too busy to hate " . Desegregation of the public sphere came in stages , with public transportation desegregated by 1959 , the restaurant at Rich 's department store by 1961 , movie theaters by 1963 , and public schools by 1973 .
In 1960 , whites comprised 61 @.@ 7 % of the city 's population . By 1970 , African Americans were a majority of the city 's population and exercised new @-@ found political influence by electing Atlanta 's first black mayor , Maynard Jackson , in 1973 . Under Mayor Jackson 's tenure , Atlanta 's airport was modernized , solidifying the city 's role as a transportation center . The opening of the Georgia World Congress Center in 1976 heralded Atlanta 's rise as a convention city . Construction of the city 's subway system began in 1975 , with rail service commencing in 1979 . However , despite these improvements , Atlanta lost over 100 @,@ 000 residents between 1970 and 1990 , over 20 % of its population .
In 1990 , Atlanta was selected as the site for the 1996 Summer Olympic Games . Following the announcement , the city government undertook several major construction projects to improve Atlanta 's parks , sporting venues , and transportation infrastructure . While the games themselves were marred by numerous organizational inefficiencies , as well as the Centennial Olympic Park bombing , they were a watershed event in Atlanta 's history , initiating a fundamental transformation of the city in the decade that followed .
During the 2000s , Atlanta underwent a profound transformation demographically , physically , and culturally . Suburbanization , a booming economy , and new migrants decreased the city 's black percentage from a high of 67 % in 1990 to 54 % in 2010 . From 2000 to 2010 , Atlanta gained 22 @,@ 763 white residents , 5 @,@ 142 Asian residents , and 3 @,@ 095 Hispanic residents , while the city 's black population decreased by 31 @,@ 678 . Much of the city 's demographic change during the decade was driven by young , college @-@ educated professionals : from 2000 to 2009 , the three @-@ mile radius surrounding Downtown Atlanta gained 9 @,@ 722 residents aged 25 to 34 holding at least a four @-@ year degree , an increase of 61 % . Between the mid @-@ 1990s and 2010 , stimulated by funding from the HOPE VI program , Atlanta demolished nearly all of its public housing , a total of 17 @,@ 000 units and about 10 % of all housing units in the city . In 2005 , the $ 2 @.@ 8 billion BeltLine project was adopted , with the stated goals of converting a disused 22 @-@ mile freight railroad loop that surrounds the central city into an art @-@ filled multi @-@ use trail and increasing the city 's park space by 40 % . Lastly , Atlanta 's cultural offerings expanded during the 2000s : the High Museum of Art doubled in size ; the Alliance Theatre won a Tony Award ; and numerous art galleries were established on the once @-@ industrial Westside .
= = Geography = =
Atlanta encompasses 134 @.@ 0 square miles ( 347 @.@ 1 km2 ) , of which 133 @.@ 2 square miles ( 344 @.@ 9 km2 ) is land and 0 @.@ 85 square miles ( 2 @.@ 2 km2 ) is water . The city is situated among the foothills of the Appalachian Mountains , and at 1 @,@ 050 feet ( 320 m ) above mean sea level , Atlanta has the highest elevation of major cities east of the Mississippi River . Atlanta straddles the Eastern Continental Divide , such that rainwater that falls on the south and east side of the divide flows into the Atlantic Ocean , while rainwater on the north and west side of the divide flows into the Gulf of Mexico . Atlanta sits atop a ridge south of the Chattahoochee River , which is part of the ACF River Basin . Located at the far northwestern edge of the city , much of the river 's natural habitat is preserved , in part by the Chattahoochee River National Recreation Area .
= = = Cityscape = = =
Most of Atlanta was burned during the Civil War , depleting the city of a large stock of its historic architecture . Yet architecturally , the city had never been particularly " southern " — because Atlanta originated as a railroad town , rather than a patrician southern seaport like Savannah or Charleston , many of the city 's landmarks could have easily been erected in the Northeast or Midwest .
During the Cold War era , Atlanta embraced global modernist trends , especially regarding commercial and institutional architecture . Examples of modernist architecture include the Westin Peachtree Plaza ( 1976 ) , Georgia @-@ Pacific Tower ( 1982 ) , the State of Georgia Building ( 1966 ) , and the Atlanta Marriott Marquis ( 1985 ) . In the latter half of the 1980s , Atlanta became one of the early adopters of postmodern designs that reintroduced classical elements to the cityscape . Many of Atlanta 's tallest skyscrapers were built in the late 1980s and early 1990s , with most displaying tapering spires or otherwise ornamented crowns , such as One Atlantic Center ( 1987 ) , 191 Peachtree Tower ( 1991 ) , and the Four Seasons Hotel Atlanta ( 1992 ) . Also completed during the era is Atlanta 's tallest skyscraper , the Bank of America Plaza ( 1992 ) , which , at 1 @,@ 023 feet ( 312 m ) , is the 61st @-@ tallest building in the world and the 9th @-@ tallest building in the United States . The Bank of America Plaza is the tallest building outside of New York City and Chicago , and was the last building built in the United States to be in the top 10 tallest buildings in the world until One World Trade Center was completed externally in May 2013 . The city 's embrace of modern architecture , however , translated into an ambivalent approach toward historic preservation , leading to the destruction of notable architectural landmarks , including the Equitable Building ( 1892 – 1971 ) , Terminal Station ( 1905 – 1972 ) , and the Carnegie Library ( 1902 – 1977 ) . The Fox Theatre ( 1929 ) — Atlanta 's cultural icon — would have met the same fate had it not been for a grassroots effort to save it in the mid @-@ 1970s .
Atlanta is divided into 242 officially defined neighborhoods . The city contains three major high @-@ rise districts , which form a north @-@ south axis along Peachtree : Downtown , Midtown , and Buckhead . Surrounding these high @-@ density districts are leafy , low @-@ density neighborhoods , most of which are dominated by single @-@ family homes .
Downtown Atlanta contains the most office space in the metro area , much of it occupied by government entities . Downtown is also home to the city 's sporting venues and many of its tourist attractions . Midtown Atlanta is the city 's second @-@ largest business district , containing the offices of many of the region 's law firms . Midtown is also known for its art institutions , cultural attractions , institutions of higher education , and dense form . Buckhead , the city 's uptown district , is eight miles ( 13 km ) north of Downtown and the city 's third @-@ largest business district . The district is marked by an urbanized core along Peachtree Road , surrounded by suburban single @-@ family neighborhoods situated among dense forests and rolling hills .
Surrounding Atlanta 's three high @-@ rise districts are the city 's low- and medium @-@ density neighborhoods , where the craftsman bungalow single @-@ family home is dominant . The eastside is marked by historic streetcar suburbs built from the 1890s @-@ 1930s as havens for the upper middle class . These neighborhoods , many of which contain their own villages encircled by shaded , architecturally @-@ distinct residential streets , include the Victorian Inman Park , Bohemian East Atlanta , and eclectic Old Fourth Ward . On the westside , former warehouses and factories have been converted into housing , retail space , and art galleries , transforming the once @-@ industrial West Midtown into a model neighborhood for smart growth , historic rehabilitation , and infill construction . In southwest Atlanta , neighborhoods closer to downtown originated as streetcar suburbs , including the historic West End , while those farther from downtown retain a postwar suburban layout , including Collier Heights and Cascade Heights , home to much of the city 's affluent African American population . Northwest Atlanta contains the areas of the city to west of Marietta Boulevard and to the north of Martin Luther King , Jr . Drive , including those neighborhoods remote to downtown , such as Riverside , Bolton and Whittier Mill , which is one of Atlanta 's designated Landmark Historical Neighborhoods . Vine City , though technically Northwest , adjoins the city 's Downtown area and has recently been the target of community outreach programs and economic development initiatives .
Gentrification of the city 's neighborhoods is one of the more controversial and transformative forces shaping contemporary Atlanta . The gentrification of Atlanta has its origins in the 1970s , after many of Atlanta 's neighborhoods had undergone the urban decay that affected other major American cities in the mid @-@ 20th century . When neighborhood opposition successfully prevented two freeways from being built through city 's the east side in 1975 , the area became the starting point for Atlanta 's gentrification . After Atlanta was awarded the Olympic games in 1990 , gentrification expanded into other parts of the city , stimulated by infrastructure improvements undertaken in preparation for the games . Gentrification was also aided by the Atlanta Housing Authority 's eradication of the city 's public housing .
= = = Climate = = =
Under the Köppen classification , Atlanta has a humid subtropical climate ( Cfa ) with four distinct seasons and generous precipitation year @-@ round , typical for the inland South . Summers are hot and humid , with temperatures somewhat moderated by the city 's elevation . Winters are cool but variable , with an average of 48 freezing days per year and temperatures dropping to 0 ° F ( − 17 @.@ 8 ° C ) on rare occasions . Warm air from the Gulf of Mexico can bring spring @-@ like highs while strong Arctic air masses can push lows into the teens ( ≤ − 7 ° C ) .
July averages 80 @.@ 2 ° F ( 26 @.@ 8 ° C ) , with high temperatures reaching 90 ° F ( 32 ° C ) on an average 44 days per year , though 100 ° F ( 38 ° C ) readings are not seen most years . January averages 43 @.@ 5 ° F ( 6 @.@ 4 ° C ) , with temperatures in the suburbs slightly cooler due largely to the urban heat island effect . Lows at or below freezing can be expected 40 nights annually , but extended stretches with daily high temperatures below 40 ° F ( 4 ° C ) are very rare , with a recent exception in January 2014 . Extremes range from − 9 ° F ( − 23 ° C ) on February 13 , 1899 to 106 ° F ( 41 ° C ) on June 30 , 2012 . Dewpoints in the summer range from 63 @.@ 6 ° F ( 18 ° C ) in June to 67 @.@ 8 ° F ( 20 ° C ) in July .
Typical of the southeastern U.S. , Atlanta receives abundant rainfall that is relatively evenly distributed throughout the year , though spring and early fall are markedly drier . The average annual rainfall is 50 @.@ 2 inches ( 1 @,@ 280 mm ) , while snowfall is typically light at around 2 @.@ 1 inches ( 5 @.@ 3 cm ) per year . The heaviest single snowfall occurred on January 23 , 1940 , with around 10 inches ( 25 cm ) of snow . However , ice storms usually cause more problems than snowfall does , the most severe occurring on January 7 , 1973 . Tornadoes are rare in the city itself , but the March 15 , 2008 EF2 tornado damaged prominent structures in downtown Atlanta .
Note
= = Demographics = =
The 2010 United States Census reported that Atlanta had a population of 420 @,@ 003 . The population density was 3 @,@ 154 per square mile ( 1232 / km2 ) . The racial makeup and population of Atlanta was 54 @.@ 0 % Black or African American , 38 @.@ 4 % White , 3 @.@ 1 % Asian and 0 @.@ 2 % Native American . Those from some other race made up 2 @.@ 2 % of the city 's population , while those from two or more races made up 2 @.@ 0 % . Hispanics of any race made up 5 @.@ 2 % of the city 's population . The median income for a household in the city was $ 45 @,@ 171 . The per capita income for the city was $ 35 @,@ 453 . 22 @.@ 6 % percent of the population was living below the poverty line . However , compared to the rest of the country , Atlanta 's cost of living is 6 @.@ 00 % lower than the U.S. average . Atlanta has one of the highest LGBT populations per capita , ranking third among major American cities , behind San Francisco and slightly behind Seattle , with 12 @.@ 8 % of the city 's total population identifying as gay , lesbian , or bisexual . 7 @.@ 3 % of Atlantans were born abroad .
In the 2010 Census , Atlanta was recorded as the nation 's fourth @-@ largest majority @-@ black city . It has long been known as a center of African @-@ American political power , education , and culture , often called a black mecca . African @-@ American residents of Atlanta have followed whites to newer housing in the suburbs in the early 21st century . From 2000 to 2010 , the city 's black population decreased by 31 @,@ 678 people , shrinking from 61 @.@ 4 % of the city 's population in 2000 to 54 @.@ 0 % in 2010 .
At the same time , the white population of Atlanta has increased . Between 2000 and 2010 , the proportion of whites in the city 's population grew faster than that of any other U.S. city . In that decade , Atlanta 's white population grew from 31 % to 38 % of the city 's population , an absolute increase of 22 @,@ 753 people , more than triple the increase that occurred between 1990 and 2000 .
Out of the total population five years and older , 83 @.@ 3 % spoke only English at home , while 8 @.@ 8 % spoke Spanish , 3 @.@ 9 % another Indo @-@ European language , and 2 @.@ 8 % an Asian language . Atlanta 's dialect has traditionally been a variation of Southern American English . The Chattahoochee River long formed a border between the Coastal Southern and Southern Appalachian dialects . Because of the development of corporate headquarters in the region , attracting migrants from other areas of the country , by 2003 , Atlanta magazine concluded that Atlanta had become significantly " de @-@ Southernized . " A Southern accent was considered a handicap in some circumstances . In general , Southern accents are less prevalent among residents of the city and inner suburbs and among younger people ; they are more common in the outer suburbs and among older people . At the same time , residents of the city express Southern variations of African American Vernacular English .
Religion in Atlanta , while historically centered on Protestant Christianity , now involves many faiths as a result of the city and metro area 's increasingly international population . Protestant Christianity still maintains a strong presence in the city ( 63 % ) , but in recent decades the Catholic Church has increased in numbers and influence because of new migrants in the region . Metro Atlanta also has numerous ethnic or national Christian congregations , including Korean and Indian churches . The larger non @-@ Christian faiths are Judaism , Islam and Hinduism . Overall , there are over 1 @,@ 000 places of worship within Atlanta .
= = Economy = =
Encompassing $ 304 billion , the Atlanta metropolitan area is the eighth @-@ largest economy in the country and 17th @-@ largest in the world . Corporate operations comprise a large portion of the Atlanta 's economy , with the city serving as the regional , national , or global headquarters for many corporations . Atlanta contains the country 's third largest concentration of Fortune 500 companies , and the city is the global headquarters of corporations such as The Coca @-@ Cola Company , The Home Depot , Delta Air Lines , AT & T Mobility , Chick @-@ fil @-@ A , UPS , and Newell @-@ Rubbermaid . Over 75 percent of Fortune 1000 companies conduct business operations in the Atlanta metropolitan area , and the region hosts offices of about 1 @,@ 250 multinational corporations . Many corporations are drawn to Atlanta on account of the city 's educated workforce ; as of 2010 , nearly 43 % of adults in the city of Atlanta have college degrees , compared to 27 % in the nation as a whole .
Atlanta began as a railroad town and logistics has remained a major component of the city 's economy to this day . Atlanta is an important rail junction and contains major classification yards for Norfolk Southern and CSX . Since its construction in the 1950s , Hartsfield @-@ Jackson Atlanta International Airport has served as a key engine of Atlanta 's economic growth . Delta Air Lines , the city 's largest employer and the metro area 's third largest , operates the world 's largest airline hub at Hartsfield @-@ Jackson and has helped make it the world 's busiest airport , both in terms of passenger traffic and aircraft operations . Partly due to the airport , Atlanta has become a hub for diplomatic missions ; as of 2012 , the city contains 25 general consulates , the seventh @-@ highest concentration of diplomatic missions in the United States .
Media is also an important aspect of Atlanta 's economy . The city is a major cable television programming center . Ted Turner established the headquarters of both the Cable News Network ( CNN ) and the Turner Broadcasting System ( TBS ) in Atlanta . Cox Enterprises , the country 's third @-@ largest cable television service and the publisher of over a dozen major American newspapers , is headquartered in the city . The Weather Channel , owned by NBCUniversal , Bain Capital , and The Blackstone Group , is headquartered just outside Atlanta in Cobb County .
Information technology , an economic sector that includes publishing , software development , entertainment and data processing has garnered a larger percentage of Atlanta 's economic output . Indeed , Atlanta has been nicknamed the Silicon peach due to its burgeoning technology sector . As of 2013 , Atlanta contains the fourth @-@ largest concentration of information technology jobs in the United States , numbering 85 @,@ 000 . Atlanta also ranks as the sixth fastest @-@ growing city for information technology jobs , with an employment growth of 4 @.@ 8 % in 2012 and a three @-@ year growth near 9 % , or 16 @,@ 000 jobs . Information technology companies are drawn to Atlanta 's lower costs and educated workforce .
Largely due to a statewide tax incentive enacted in 2005 , the Georgia Entertainment Industry Investment Act , which awards qualified productions a transferable income tax credit of 20 % of all in @-@ state costs for film and television investments of $ 500 @,@ 000 or more , Atlanta has become a center for film and television production . Film and television production facilities in Atlanta include Turner Studios , Pinewood Studios ( Pinewood Atlanta ) , Tyler Perry Studios , Williams Street Productions , and the EUE / Screen Gems soundstages . Film and television production injected $ 6 billion into Georgia 's economy in 2015 , with Atlanta garnering most of the projects . Atlanta has gained recognition as a center of production of horror and zombie @-@ related productions , with Atlanta magazine dubbing the city the " Zombie Capital of the World " .
Compared to other American cities , Atlanta 's economy has been disproportionately affected by the 2008 financial crisis and subsequent recession , with the city 's economy earning a ranking of 68 among 100 American cities in a September 2014 report due to an elevated unemployment rate , declining real income levels , and a depressed housing market . From 2010 – 2011 , Atlanta saw a 0 @.@ 9 % contraction in employment and only a 0 @.@ 4 % rise in income . Though unemployment had dropped to 7 % by late 2014 , this was still higher than the national unemployment rate of 5 @.@ 8 % Atlanta 's housing market has also struggled , with home prices falling by 2 @.@ 1 % in January 2012 , reaching levels not seen since 1996 . Compared with a year earlier , the average home price in Atlanta fell 17 @.@ 3 % in February 2012 , the largest annual drop in the history of the index for any city . The collapse in home prices has led some economists to deem Atlanta the worst housing market in the country . Nevertheless , in August 2013 , Atlanta appeared on Forbes magazine 's list of the Best Places for Business and Careers .
= = Culture = =
Atlanta , while located in the South , has a culture that is no longer strictly Southern . This is due to a large population of migrants from other parts of the U.S. , in addition to many recent immigrants to the U.S. who have made the metropolitan area their home , establishing Atlanta as the cultural and economic hub of an increasingly multi @-@ cultural metropolitan area . Thus , although traditional Southern culture is part of Atlanta 's cultural fabric , it is mostly the backdrop to one of the nation 's most cosmopolitan cities . This unique cultural combination reveals itself in the arts district of Midtown , the quirky neighborhoods on the city 's eastside , and the multi @-@ ethnic enclaves found along Buford Highway .
= = = Arts and theater = = =
Atlanta is one of few United States cities with permanent , professional , resident companies in all major performing arts disciplines : opera ( Atlanta Opera ) , ballet ( Atlanta Ballet ) , orchestral music ( Atlanta Symphony Orchestra ) , and theater ( the Alliance Theatre ) . Atlanta also attracts many touring Broadway acts , concerts , shows , and exhibitions catering to a variety of interests . Atlanta 's performing arts district is concentrated in Midtown Atlanta at the Woodruff Arts Center , which is home to the Atlanta Symphony Orchestra and the Alliance Theatre . The city also frequently hosts touring Broadway acts , especially at The Fox Theatre , a historic landmark that is among the highest grossing theatres of its size .
As a national center for the arts , Atlanta is home to significant art museums and institutions . The renowned High Museum of Art is arguably the South 's leading art museum and among the most @-@ visited art museums in the world . The Museum of Design Atlanta ( MODA ) , a design museum , is the only such museum in the Southeast . Contemporary art museums include the Atlanta Contemporary Art Center and the Museum of Contemporary Art of Georgia . Institutions of higher education also contribute to Atlanta 's art scene , with the Savannah College of Art and Design 's Atlanta campus providing the city 's arts community with a steady stream of curators , and Emory University 's Michael C. Carlos Museum containing the largest collection of ancient art in the Southeast .
= = = Music = = =
Atlanta has played a major or contributing role in the development of various genres of American music at different points in the city 's history . Beginning as early as the 1920s , Atlanta emerged as a center for country music , which was brought to the city by migrants from Appalachia . During the countercultural 1960s , Atlanta hosted the Atlanta International Pop Festival , with the 1969 festival taking place more than a month before Woodstock and featuring many of the same bands . The city was also a center for Southern rock during its 1970s heyday : the Allman Brothers Band 's hit instrumental " Hot ' Lanta " is an ode to the city , while Lynyrd Skynyrd 's famous live rendition of " Free Bird " was recorded at the Fox Theatre in 1976 , with lead singer Ronnie Van Zant directing the band to " play it pretty for Atlanta " . During the 1980s , Atlanta had an active Punk rock scene that was centered on two of the city 's music venues , 688 Club and the Metroplex , and Atlanta famously played host to the Sex Pistols first U.S. show , which was performed at the Great Southeastern Music Hall . The 1990s saw the birth of Atlanta hip hop , a subgenre that gained relevance following the success of home @-@ grown duo OutKast ; however , it was not until the 2000s that Atlanta moved " from the margins to becoming hip @-@ hop 's center of gravity , part of a larger shift in hip @-@ hop innovation to the South " . Also in the 2000s , Atlanta was recognized by the Brooklyn @-@ based Vice magazine for its impressive yet under @-@ appreciated Indie rock scene , which revolves around the various live music venues found on the city 's alternative eastside .
= = = Tourism = = =
As of 2010 , Atlanta is the seventh @-@ most visited city in the United States , with over 35 million visitors per year . Although the most popular attraction among visitors to Atlanta is the Georgia Aquarium , the world 's largest indoor aquarium , Atlanta 's tourism industry mostly driven by the city 's history museums and outdoor attractions . Atlanta contains a notable amount of historical museums and sites , including the Martin Luther King , Jr . National Historic Site , which includes the preserved childhood home of Dr. Martin Luther King , Jr . , as well as his final resting place ; the Atlanta Cyclorama & Civil War Museum , which houses a massive painting and diorama in @-@ the @-@ round , with a rotating central audience platform , depicting the Battle of Atlanta in the Civil War ; the World of Coca @-@ Cola , featuring the history of the world famous soft drink brand and its well @-@ known advertising ; the College Football Hall of Fame which honors college football and its athletes ; the National Center for Civil and Human Rights , which explores the Civil Rights Movement and its connection to contemporary human rights movements throughout the world ; the Carter Center and Presidential Library , housing U.S. President Jimmy Carter 's papers and other material relating to the Carter administration and the Carter family 's life ; and the Margaret Mitchell House and Museum , site of the writing of the best @-@ selling novel Gone with the Wind .
Atlanta also contains various outdoor attractions . The Atlanta Botanical Garden , adjacent to Piedmont Park , is home to the 600 @-@ foot @-@ long ( 180 m ) Kendeda Canopy Walk , a skywalk that allows visitors to tour one of the city 's last remaining urban forests from 40 @-@ foot @-@ high ( 12 m ) . The Canopy Walk is considered the only canopy @-@ level pathway of its kind in the United States . Zoo Atlanta , located in Grant Park , accommodates over 1 @,@ 300 animals representing more than 220 species . Home to the nation 's largest collections of gorillas and orangutans , the Zoo is also one of only four zoos in the U.S. to house giant pandas . Festivals showcasing arts and crafts , film , and music , including the Atlanta Dogwood Festival , the Atlanta Film Festival , and Music Midtown , respectively , are also popular with tourists .
Tourists are also drawn to the city 's culinary scene , which comprises a mix of urban establishments garnering national attention , ethnic restaurants serving cuisine from every corner of the world , and traditional eateries specializing in Southern dining . Since the turn of the 21st century , Atlanta has emerged as a sophisticated restaurant town . Many restaurants opened in the city 's gentrifying neighborhoods have received praise at the national level , including Bocado , Bacchanalia , and Miller Union in West Midtown , Empire State South in Midtown , and Two Urban Licks and Rathbun 's on the east side . In 2011 , the New York Times characterized Empire State South and Miller Union as reflecting " a new kind of sophisticated Southern sensibility centered on the farm but experienced in the city . " Visitors seeking to sample international Atlanta are directed to Buford Highway , the city 's international corridor . There , the million @-@ plus immigrants that make Atlanta home have established various authentic ethnic restaurants representing virtually every nationality on the globe . For traditional Southern fare , one of the city 's most famous establishments is The Varsity , a long @-@ lived fast food chain and the world 's largest drive @-@ in restaurant . Mary Mac 's Tea Room and Paschal 's are more formal destinations for Southern food .
= = Sports = =
Atlanta is home to professional franchises for three major team sports : the Atlanta Braves of Major League Baseball , the Atlanta Hawks of the National Basketball Association , and the Atlanta Falcons of the National Football League . The Braves , who moved to Atlanta in 1966 , were established as the Boston Red Stockings in 1871 and are the oldest continually operating professional sports franchise in the United States . The Braves won the World Series in 1995 , and had an unprecedented run of 14 straight divisional championships from 1991 to 2005 .
The Atlanta Falcons have played in Atlanta since their inception in 1966 . The Falcons have won the division title five times ( 1980 , 1998 , 2004 , 2010 , 2012 ) and the conference championship once , when they finished as the runner @-@ up to the Denver Broncos in Super Bowl XXXIII in 1999 . The Atlanta Hawks began in 1946 as the Tri @-@ Cities Blackhawks , playing in Moline , Illinois . The team moved to Atlanta in 1968 , and they currently play their games in Philips Arena . The Atlanta Dream is the city 's Women 's National Basketball Association franchise .
Atlanta has also had its own professional ice hockey and soccer franchises . The National Hockey League ( NHL ) has had two Atlanta franchises : the Atlanta Flames began play in 1972 before moving to Calgary in 1980 , while the Atlanta Thrashers began play in 1999 before moving to Winnipeg in 2011 . The Atlanta Chiefs was the city 's professional soccer team from 1967 to 1972 , and the team won a national championship in 1968 . In 1998 another professional soccer team was formed , the Atlanta Silverbacks of the North American Soccer League . In April 2014 , a Major League Soccer team , Atlanta United FC , was formed as an expansion team to begin play in 2017 .
Atlanta has been the host city for various international , professional and collegiate sporting events . Most famously , Atlanta hosted the Centennial 1996 Summer Olympics . Atlanta has also hosted Super Bowl XXVIII in 1994 and Super Bowl XXXIV in 2000 . In professional golf , The Tour Championship , the final PGA Tour event of the season , is played annually at East Lake Golf Club . In 2001 and 2011 , Atlanta hosted the PGA Championship , one of the four major championships in men 's professional golf , at the Atlanta Athletic Club . In professional ice hockey , the city hosted the 56th NHL All @-@ Star Game in 2008 , three years before the Thrashers moved . In 2011 , Atlanta hosted professional wrestling 's annual WrestleMania . The city has hosted the NCAA Final Four Men 's Basketball Championship four times , most recently in 2013 . In college football , Atlanta hosts the Chick @-@ fil @-@ A Kickoff Game , the SEC Championship Game , and the Chick @-@ fil @-@ A Peach Bowl .
= = Parks and recreation = =
Atlanta 's 343 parks , nature preserves , and gardens cover 3 @,@ 622 acres ( 14 @.@ 66 km2 ) , which amounts to only 5 @.@ 6 % of the city 's total acreage , compared to the national average of just over 10 % . However , 64 % of Atlantans live within a 10 @-@ minute walk of a park , a percentage equal to the national average . Furthermore , in its 2013 ParkScore ranking , the The Trust for Public Land , a national land conservation organization , reported that among the park systems of the 50 most populous U.S. cities , Atlanta 's park system received a ranking of 31 . Piedmont Park , located in Midtown is Atlanta 's most iconic green space . The park , which has undergone a major renovation and expansion in recent years , attracts visitors from across the region and hosts cultural events throughout the year . Other notable city parks include Centennial Olympic Park , a legacy of the 1996 Summer Olympics that forms the centerpiece of the city 's tourist district ; Woodruff Park , which anchors the campus of Georgia State University ; Grant Park , home to both Zoo Atlanta and the Atlanta Cyclorama & Civil War Museum ; and Chastain Park , which houses an amphitheater used for live music concerts . The Chattahoochee River National Recreation Area , located in the northwestern corner of the city , preserves a 48 mi ( 77 km ) stretch of the river for public recreation opportunities . The Atlanta Botanical Garden , adjacent to Piedmont Park , contains formal gardens , including a Japanese garden and a rose garden , woodland areas , and a conservatory that includes indoor exhibits of plants from tropical rainforests and deserts . The BeltLine , a former rail corridor that forms a 22 mi ( 35 km ) loop around Atlanta 's core , will eventually be transformed into a series of parks , connected by a multi @-@ use trail , increasing Atlanta 's park space by 40 % .
Atlanta offers resources and opportunities for amateur and participatory sports and recreation . Jogging is a particularly popular local sport . The Peachtree Road Race , the world 's largest 10 km race , is held annually on Independence Day . The Georgia Marathon , which begins and ends at Centennial Olympic Park , routes through the city 's historic east side neighborhoods . Golf and tennis are also popular in Atlanta , and the city contains six public golf courses and 182 tennis courts . Facilities located along the Chattahoochee River cater to watersports enthusiasts , providing the opportunity for kayaking , canoeing , fishing , boating , or tubing . The city 's only skate park , a 15 @,@ 000 square feet ( 1 @,@ 400 m2 ) facility that offers bowls , curbs , and smooth @-@ rolling concrete mounds , is located at Historic Fourth Ward Park .
= = Government and politics = =
Atlanta is governed by a mayor and the Atlanta City Council . The city council consists of 15 representatives — one from each of the city 's 12 districts and three at @-@ large positions . The mayor may veto a bill passed by the council , but the council can override the veto with a two @-@ thirds majority . The mayor of Atlanta is Kasim Reed , a Democrat elected on a nonpartisan ballot whose first term in office expired at the end of 2013 . Reed was elected to a second term on November 5 , 2013 . Every mayor elected since 1973 has been black . In 2001 , Shirley Franklin became the first woman to be elected Mayor of Atlanta , and the first African @-@ American woman to serve as mayor of a major southern city . Atlanta city politics suffered from a notorious reputation for corruption during the 1990s administration of Bill Campbell , who was convicted by a federal jury in 2006 on three counts of tax evasion in connection with gambling income he received while Mayor during trips he took with city contractors .
As the state capital , Atlanta is the site of most of Georgia 's state government . The Georgia State Capitol building , located downtown , houses the offices of the governor , lieutenant governor and secretary of state , as well as the General Assembly . The Governor 's Mansion is located in a residential section of Buckhead . Atlanta serves as the regional hub for many arms of the federal bureaucracy , including the Federal Reserve Bank of Atlanta and the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention . Atlanta also plays an important role in federal judiciary system , containing the United States Court of Appeals for the Eleventh Circuit and of the United States District Court for the Northern District of Georgia .
Historically , Atlanta has been a stronghold for the Democratic Party . Although municipal elections are officially nonpartisan , nearly all of the city 's elected officials are registered Democrats . The city is split among 14 state house districts and four state senate districts , all held by Democrats . At the federal level , Atlanta is split between two congressional districts . The northern three @-@ fourths of the city is located in the 5th district , represented by Democrat John Lewis . The southern fourth is in the 13th district , represented by Democrat David Scott .
The city is served by the Atlanta Police Department , which numbers 2 @,@ 000 officers and oversaw a 40 % decrease in the city 's crime rate between 2001 and 2009 . Specifically , homicide decreased by 57 % , rape by 72 % , and violent crime overall by 55 % . Crime is down across the country , but Atlanta 's improvement has occurred at more than twice the national rate . Nevertheless , Forbes ranked Atlanta as the sixth most dangerous city in the United States in 2012 .
= = Education = =
Due to the more than 30 colleges and universities located in the city , Atlanta is considered a center for higher education . Among the most prominent public universities in Atlanta is the Georgia Institute of Technology , a research university located in Midtown that has been consistently ranked among the nation 's top ten public universities for its degree programs in engineering , computing , management , the sciences , architecture , and liberal arts . Georgia State University , a public research university located in Downtown Atlanta , is the largest of the 29 public colleges and universities in the University System of Georgia and a major contributor to the revitalization of the city 's central business district . Atlanta is also home to nationally renowned private colleges and universities , most notably Emory University , a leading liberal arts and research institution that ranks among the top 20 schools in the United States and operates Emory Healthcare , the largest health care system in Georgia . Also located in the city is the Atlanta University Center , the largest contiguous consortium of historically black colleges , comprising Spelman College , Clark Atlanta University , Morehouse College , Morehouse School of Medicine , and Interdenominational Theological Center . Atlanta also contains a campus of the Savannah College of Art and Design , a private art and design university that has proven to be a major factor in the recent growth of Atlanta 's visual art community .
Atlanta Public Schools enrolls 55 @,@ 000 students in 106 schools , some of which are operated as charter schools . The district has been plagued by a widely publicized cheating scandal exposed in 2009 . Atlanta is also served by many private schools , including parochial Roman Catholic schools operated by the Archdiocese of Atlanta .
= = Media = =
The primary network @-@ affiliated television stations in Atlanta are WXIA @-@ TV ( NBC ) , WGCL @-@ TV ( CBS ) , WSB @-@ TV ( ABC ) , and WAGA @-@ TV ( FOX ) . The Atlanta metropolitan area is served by two public television stations and one public radio station . WGTV is the flagship station of the statewide Georgia Public Television network and is a PBS member station , while WPBA is owned by Atlanta Public Schools . Georgia Public Radio is listener @-@ funded and comprises one NPR member station , WABE , a classical music station operated by Atlanta Public Schools .
Atlanta is served by the Atlanta Journal @-@ Constitution , its only major daily newspaper with wide distribution . The Atlanta Journal @-@ Constitution is the result of a 1950 merger between The Atlanta Journal and The Atlanta Constitution , with staff consolidation occurring in 1982 and separate publication of the morning Constitution and afternoon Journal ceasing in 2001 . Alternative weekly newspapers include Creative Loafing , which has a weekly print circulation of 80 @,@ 000 . Atlanta magazine is an award @-@ winning , monthly general @-@ interest magazine based in and covering Atlanta .
= = Transportation = =
Atlanta 's transportation infrastructure comprises a complex network that includes a heavy rail line , a streetcar line , multiple interstate highways , the world 's busiest airport , and over 45 miles ( 72 kilometres ) of bike paths .
With a network of freeways that radiate out from the city , automobiles are the dominant mode of transportation in the region . Three major interstate highways converge in Atlanta : I @-@ 20 ( east @-@ west ) , I @-@ 75 ( northwest @-@ southeast ) , and I @-@ 85 ( northeast @-@ southwest ) . The latter two combine in the middle of the city to form the Downtown Connector ( I @-@ 75 / 85 ) , which carries more than 340 @,@ 000 vehicles per day and is one of the most congested segments of interstate highway in the United States . Atlanta is mostly encircled by Interstate 285 , a beltway locally known as " the Perimeter " that has come to mark the boundary between " Inside the Perimeter " ( ITP ) , the city and close @-@ in suburbs , and " Outside the Perimeter " ( OTP ) , the outer suburbs and exurbs . The heavy reliance on automobiles for transportation in Atlanta has resulted in traffic , commute , and air pollution rates that rank among the worst in the country .
The Metropolitan Atlanta Rapid Transit Authority ( MARTA ) provides public transportation in the form of buses and heavy rail . Notwithstanding heavy automotive usage in Atlanta , the city 's subway system is the eighth busiest in the country . MARTA rail lines connect many key destinations , such as the airport , Downtown , Midtown , Buckhead , and Perimeter Center . However , significant destinations , such as Emory University and Cumberland , remain unserved . As a result , a 2012 Brookings Institution study placed Atlanta 87th of 100 metro areas for transit accessibility . Emory University operates its Cliff shuttle buses with 200 @,@ 000 boardings per month , while private minibuses supply Buford Highway . Amtrak , the national rail passenger system , provides service to Atlanta via the Crescent train ( New York – New Orleans ) , which stops at Peachtree Station . In 2014 , the Atlanta Streetcar opened to the public . The streetcar 's line , which is also known as the Downtown Loop , runs 2 @.@ 7 miles around the downtown tourist areas of Peachtree Center , Centennial Olympic Park , the Martin Luther King , Jr . National Historic Site , and Sweet Auburn . The Atlanta Streetcar line is also being expanded on in the coming years to include a wider range of Atlanta 's neighborhoods and important places of interest , with a total of 66 miles of track being laid in the near future .
Hartsfield @-@ Jackson Atlanta International Airport , the world 's busiest airport as measured by passenger traffic and aircraft traffic , offers air service to over 150 U.S. destinations and more than 80 international destinations in 52 countries , with over 2 @,@ 700 arrivals and departures daily . Delta Air Lines maintains its largest hub at the airport . Situated 10 miles ( 16 km ) south of downtown , the airport covers most of the land inside a wedge formed by Interstate 75 , Interstate 85 , and Interstate 285 .
Cycling is a growing mode of transportation in Atlanta , more than doubling since 2009 , when it comprised 1 @.@ 1 % of all commutes ( up from 0 @.@ 3 % in 2000 ) . Although Atlanta 's lack of bike lanes and hilly topography may deter many residents from cycling , the city 's transportation plan calls for the construction of 226 miles ( 364 kilometres ) of bike lanes by 2020 , with the BeltLine helping to achieve this goal . In 2012 , Atlanta 's first " bike track " was constructed on 10th Street in Midtown . The two lane bike track runs from Monroe Drive west to Charles Allen Drive , with connections to the Beltline and Piedmont Park . Starting in June 2016 , Atlanta received a bike sharing program with 100 bikes in Downtown , with 500 more being expected by the end of the year .
= = Tree canopy = =
Atlanta has a reputation as a " city in a forest " due to an abundance of trees that is rare among major cities . The city 's main street is named after a tree , and beyond the Downtown , Midtown , and Buckhead business districts , the skyline gives way to a dense canopy of woods that spreads into the suburbs . The city is home to the Atlanta Dogwood Festival , an annual arts and crafts festival held one weekend during early April , when the native dogwoods are in bloom . However , the nickname is also factually accurate , as the city 's tree coverage percentage is at 36 % , the highest out of all major American cities , and above the national average of 27 % . Atlanta 's tree coverage does not go unnoticed — it was the main reason cited by National Geographic in naming Atlanta a " Place of a Lifetime " .
The city 's lush tree canopy , which filters out pollutants and cools sidewalks and buildings , has increasingly been under assault from man and nature due to heavy rains , drought , aged forests , new pests , and urban construction . A 2001 study found that Atlanta 's heavy tree cover declined from 48 % in 1974 to 38 % in 1996 . However , the problem is being addressed by community organizations and city government : Trees Atlanta , a non @-@ profit organization founded in 1985 , has planted and distributed over 75 @,@ 000 shade trees in the city , while Atlanta 's government has awarded $ 130 @,@ 000 in grants to neighborhood groups to plant trees .
= = Sister cities = =
Atlanta has 18 sister cities , as designated by Sister Cities International , Inc . ( SCI ) :
|
= The 37 's =
" The 37 's " is the first episode of the second season , and seventeenth episode overall , of the American science fiction television series Star Trek : Voyager . Due to differing release schedules , it was also released as the final episode of the first season in other countries . The episode originally aired August 28 , 1995 , on the UPN network . Directed by James L. Conway , it was written by producers Jeri Taylor and Brannon Braga . It was originally intended to be a two @-@ part episode to bridge between the first and second seasons , and was subsequently re @-@ written to be a single part . Due to late changes to the final act of the episode , special effects shots of the settlers ' cities could not be completed , which Braga and series creator Michael Piller were unhappy with .
Set in the 24th century , the series follows the adventures of the Starfleet and Maquis crew of the starship USS Voyager after they were stranded in the Delta Quadrant , far from the rest of the Federation . In this episode , Voyager 's crew discovers a group of humans — including Amelia Earhart ( Sharon Lawrence ) — who were abducted from Earth in 1937 .
Lawrence was cast as Amelia Earhart after she had previously worked with Voyager 's casting director on NYPD Blue . The episode shows the first time that a Federation starship lands on a planet 's surface . CGI was used to show the landing struts unfold , and feet were added to the Voyager model for filming ; however the production crew weren 't pleased with these and obscured them during filming . The episode received Nielsen ratings of 7 @.@ 5 percent , and was given a mixed response by critics . Among the criticisms were the density of the ideas in the episode and the gimmicky appearance of Earhart . It was also said to be redeemed by the vignettes showing the crew discussing whether to leave the ship , and that the episode contained a " powerful feminist narrative " .
= = Plot = =
On stardate 48975 @.@ 1 , the crew of Voyager follows an ancient SOS to a Class L planet whose atmospheric interference requires landing the ship to investigate . On the surface , Captain Janeway ( Kate Mulgrew ) leads an away team to discover the source of the transmission : it is a Lockheed Model 10 Electra with an alien generator added to sustain the SOS . Joining Commander Chakotay 's ( Robert Beltran ) team , the crew finds a " cryostasis chamber " containing eight humans preserved since the 1930s , including Amelia Earhart ( Sharon Lawrence ) and her navigator , Fred Noonan ( David Graf ) .
After resuscitation , Noonan uses a handgun to hold the Voyager officers hostage , disbelieving their story and insisting on speaking to J. Edgar Hoover . Janeway speaks to Earhart and explains her significance to human history and to Janeway herself ; Earhart , as Noonan 's boss , tells him to cooperate , and some of them go out of the caves . Outside , however , a firefight breaks out between Starfleet officers from Voyager and three hooded figures . Janeway flanks the aliens and disarms them ; they are human , and are surprised that Janeway is also . They had assumed the Voyager was a Briori ship .
Janeway learns that the Briori are an alien species who visited Earth in 1937 and abducted more than 300 humans , bringing them to this planet in the Delta Quadrant as slaves ; but the humans successfully rose up against the Briori , who never returned . Fifteen generations later , there are more than 100 @,@ 000 humans living in three cities on the planet . The last eight un @-@ revived humans in cryostasis were believed dead by the others , who came to revere " the 37s " as " monuments to [ their ] ancestors " .
The settlers cannot offer Janeway the Briori technology that brought them there , as their ancestors dismantled the alien ship long ago . But they do offer to accept any of the Voyager crew into their society . Janeway thus faces a crisis of conscience : can she decide , for all 152 people on Voyager , to condemn them to the 70 @-@ year journey home to Earth ? Yet , if the choice is presented to the crew and only some decide to stay , the ship cannot be staffed by fewer than 100 . Meanwhile , Earhart says that as much as she admires Voyager and yearns to learn to pilot it , she and the other 37s feel a stronger affinity to the people on the planet and they will all be staying . In the end , Janeway allows the crew to decide as individuals , and none of them choose to leave .
= = Production = =
= = = Writing = = =
" The 37 's " was written by Jeri Taylor and Brannon Braga . One of four season two episodes produced during season one ( the others being " Projections " , " Elogium " , and " Twisted " ) , " The 37 's " was originally intended to round out the first season of Voyager ; UPN delayed these episodes to begin Voyager 's second season before other networks ' shows . This delay influenced a lot of decision @-@ making about an episode that wound up pushed to the second season . Both writers wanted to end the first season by showing the Starfleet and Maquis factions aboard the ship banding together as a crew , accepting their long journey home , and " whining less about home . " The landing of Voyager was also intended to take advantage of the last episode of the season as an opportunity to really wow the audience .
Braga wanted the episode to be broken into a two @-@ part episode because of what he called " a wealth of material " , what Kate Mulgrew would later describe as " every scene " containing a monologue . However , nobody else on the staff wanted to end the first season on a cliffhanger , as the first half would have been . Braga therefore condensed it into one episode , and admitted to struggling with the story , pointing out dramatically different tones in the first three acts as compared to the final two . Ultimately , though , he was satisfied with the end result and how the story came back around to focus on the Voyager crew in the end .
The colonists ' cities , which are described in the episode as " [ something ] to be proud of " , " amazing " , and impressive , were never actually seen . Jeri Taylor explained that the last act of the episode was developed late , and between budgetary considerations and time constraints , it was impossible to realize them . Unlike co @-@ writer Brannon Braga and series creator Michael Piller , who felt not seeing the cities was detrimental to the overall episode , Taylor did not think the compromise was " a big deal . "
= = = Sharon Lawrence = = =
Casting for " The 37 's " was done by Junie Lowry @-@ Johnson , C.S.A. , and Ron Surma . Lowry @-@ Johnson was familiar with guest star Sharon Lawrence from their work together on NYPD Blue . Lawrence later expressed the belief that the qualities of her NYPD Blue character ( " somebody who had ... a professional strength about them " ) was what cinched her role as Amelia Earhart .
The actress was excited to be portraying a version of Earhart , saying that she relishes the professional relationships roles like these have — as opposed to ones featuring " domestic or familial relationship [ s ] . " In " The 37 's " , Lawrence was drawn to the relationship Earhart has with Janeway : two women , two professional pilots who have risen to great heights in their chosen fields . Not only did the historical character appeal to her , Lawrence also reveled in the " what @-@ if " twist , the alternate historical story about what happened .
Lawrence grew up watching Mulgrew as Mary Ryan on the soap opera Ryan 's Hope . As Lawrence came from a family where women more often than not became homemakers , Mary Ryan was an " exotic " character — with her career and life in New York City — who served as inspiration . On the set of Star Trek : Voyager the two actresses spoke frequently about their careers , their backgrounds in theatre , and the struggles of balancing home and professional requirements . Lawrence felt that her relationship with Mulgrew influenced the relationship between their characters on screen . Mulgrew praised Lawrence 's performance in " The 37 's " , saying that " [ she ] really played the hell out of that role " .
Though she specifically remarked on her pleasure at seeing Robert Beltran ( Chakotay ) again , Lawrence praised all the cast 's professionalism and their ability to cope with the " vast amount of virtually unreferenced text that they have on Star Trek . "
= = = Landing the USS Voyager = = =
= = = = Background = = = =
For the original Star Trek , to avoid the tremendous costs of landing the Enterprise every week , Gene Roddenberry invented the transporter to get the crew to and from planets cheaply and quickly . For Star Trek : Voyager however , the concept of landing the Voyager was considered from the beginning as a way to differentiate the new series from those that preceded it . Episode co @-@ writer Brannon Braga explained that it was understood from the beginning that the ship could land .
= = = = Effects = = = =
" The 37 's " is the first time in Star Trek canon that a starship is landed on a planet 's surface . This was accomplished with a combination of computer @-@ generated imagery ( CGI ) and physical modeling . Overhead views of the ship as it descended were CGI because it allowed the ship to descend " to a virtual pinpoint " .
Because the initial description of the ship described its landing capability , four small hatches on the ventral hull were included on both the ship miniature and model . However the legs that were to emerge from those hatches had not yet been designed by " The 37 's " . In the 13 feet ( 4 @.@ 0 m ) allowed by the design of the ship , Rick Sternbach had difficulty designing " an articulated set of legs and footpads " that would fold out and support some of the ship 's 750 @,@ 000 metric tons ( 740 @,@ 000 long tons ; 830 @,@ 000 short tons ) . Shots of the unfolding " landing struts " were CGI because motorized versions were not installed in the physical model ; visual effects producer Dan Curry later said that installing such motorized elements in the 5 @-@ foot ( 1 @.@ 5 m ) model was impossible due to the size . For filming the landed Voyager , miniature feet were made ; however , because the producers felt the feet looked inappropriately sized for the rest of the ship , they were partially obscured by landscape in post @-@ production .
Scenes with the landed ship were shot in Bronson Canyon . Before filming , shots were plotted out with a styrofoam , " foam @-@ core Voyager mockup for scale and perspective . " Since the canyon could not provide enough space to show the entire landed ship , the Voyager set down with the forepart of the ship visible outside the mouth of the canyon against a matte painting backdrop . Visual effects supervisor Ronald B. Moore later admitted that the composited Voyager in the canyon was far too small with respect to the shooting location , though without any visible references for the audience , and by keeping the cast between the ship and camera , it was not obvious to anyone except the visual effects crew .
= = Reception = =
" The 37 's " was first aired in the United States on UPN on August 28 , 1995 . It received a Nielsen rating of 7 @.@ 5 percent , meaning that it was watched by 7 @.@ 5 percent of all of those watching television at the time of the broadcast . It was the most watched episode of the season , receiving the highest ratings since the first season episode " Ex Post Facto " .
Kate Mulgrew later recalled that she " loved shooting every second of ' The 37 's ' " ; she specifically praised the writing , Sharon Lawrence as Amelia Earhart , and director James L. Conway . Tim Russ ( Tuvok ) praised the episode as a fine example of science fiction and said he wished to see more of this type of episode . Braga felt " The 37 's " had a lot of fun and cool elements such as meeting Earhart and landing the ship , but that the episode fell flat after meeting the colonists and never seeing their cities on the planet . Star Trek : Voyager co @-@ creator Michael Piller described the premise of the episode as hokey , comparing it to " old Star Trek " ; instead Piller praised the landing of the ship as " pretty amazing . " Series co @-@ creator Rick Berman described " The 37 's " as " a great episode . "
Cinefantastique 's Dale Kutzera felt that " The 37 's " had too many disparate ideas crammed into one episode . Specifically , in his view , Amelia Earhart served little purpose as the subject of Janeway 's idolization ( as compared to Captain Kirk and Abraham Lincoln in The Original Series episode " The Savage Curtain " ) , and he complained that she all but disappears from the second half of the episode . Kutzera also noted the lauded unseen cities . He awarded " The 37 's " two out of four stars . In Frank Garcia and Mark Phillips ' book Science Fiction Television Series , 1990 – 2004 , " The 37 's " was specifically called out for being gimmicky , noting the appearance of not only " a phony @-@ looking , 1936 Ford truck ... but long @-@ lost aviatrix Amelia Earhart . " In his book Delta Quadrant : The unofficial guide to Voyager , David McIntee described the acting in " The 37 's " as watchable , and felt the episode was redeemed by the little vignettes such as Earhart and Janeway 's discussion , or Harry Kim ( Garrett Wang ) and B 'Elanna Torres ( Roxann Dawson ) debating whether to leave the ship . He gave the episode a 6 / 10 rating . Though David Greven , in his book Gender and Sexuality in Star Trek , also described the plot as hokey , he felt the episode contained " a powerful feminist narrative of shared female aspiration and daring . "
|
= 2009 International Bowl =
The 2009 International Bowl was a postseason college football bowl game between the Connecticut Huskies ( UConn ) and the Buffalo Bulls at the Rogers Centre in Toronto , Ontario , Canada , on January 3 , 2009 . The game was the final contest of the 2008 NCAA Division I @-@ Football Bowl Subdivision ( Division I @-@ FBS ) football season for both teams , and ended in a 38 – 20 victory for Connecticut . UConn represented the Big East Conference ( Big East ) in the game ; Buffalo entered as the Mid @-@ American Conference ( MAC ) champion .
Connecticut was selected as a participant in the 2009 International Bowl following a 7 – 5 regular season where they won their first five games , only to lose five of their last seven contests . Facing the Huskies were the Buffalo Bulls with a regular season record of 8 – 5 , highlighted by an upset win over then @-@ No. 12 and undefeated Ball State in the 2008 MAC Championship Game . Pre @-@ game media coverage focused on the legacy of the 1958 Buffalo Bulls , the first team from the university to be invited to a bowl game . When told that the two African @-@ American members of the team would not be allowed to play because of segregation , the team elected to refuse the bowl bid . Buffalo would not play in a bowl until this game , 50 years later .
The game began at 12 : 00 PM EST . Connecticut , led by running back Donald Brown 's 208 yards rushing , dominated the first half statistically , but found themselves down 20 – 10 midway through the second quarter because they committed six fumbles , five of which were recovered by Buffalo . UConn would close the gap to 20 – 17 by halftime , and take the lead for good late in the third quarter off a 4 @-@ yard touchdown pass from quarterback Tyler Lorenzen to tight end Steve Brouse . The Connecticut victory was sealed when , late in the fourth quarter , Buffalo quarterback Drew Willy threw a pass that was intercepted by UConn safety Dahna Deleston and returned 100 yards for a touchdown .
UConn junior running back Donald Brown was named player of the game . He finished with 261 rushing yards and one touchdown ; his 2 @,@ 083 rushing yards for the 2008 season was best in the NCAA . Following the game , Brown declared his eligibility for the 2009 NFL Draft ; he would become the first Connecticut player ever drafted in the first round . Three other UConn players were drafted in the second round .
= = Team selection = =
The International Bowl had contracts with the Big East and Mid @-@ American Conferences that allowed them to select one team from each conference to participate in their annual game . By virtue of being the Big East champion Cincinnati was awarded an automatic Bowl Championship Series berth ; they would play in the 2009 Orange Bowl . The Gator Bowl and Sun Bowl shared the second pick of Big East teams ; after the Gator Bowl opted to select Big 12 member Nebraska and the Sun Bowl learned that they would not be allowed to select Notre Dame , Pittsburgh received the Sun Bowl invitation . The Meineke Car Care Bowl , which had the third selection , picked West Virginia . The fourth , fifth , and sixth selections of Big East teams belonged collectively to the International Bowl , PapaJohns.com Bowl , and St. Petersburg Bowl , which , in consultation with the Big East , decided which schools were the best fit for each bowl . There were three remaining bowl @-@ eligible Big East teams : Connecticut , Rutgers , and South Florida . The previous season , Rutgers had played in the International Bowl and South Florida had appeared in the PapaJohns.com Bowl ; bowls in general dislike inviting the same team in consecutive years , on the theory that fans are less likely to want to travel to the same destination they were at the year before . Additionally , the St. Petersburg Bowl , in its inaugural year , sought to have local team South Florida play in their game to drive local attendance . Therefore , the teams were apportioned among the bowls as follows : South Florida to the St. Petersburg Bowl , Rutgers to the PapaJohns.com Bowl , and Connecticut to the International Bowl . On December 7 , 2008 , UConn formally accepted the bowl invitation , the third in their history .
Buffalo accepted an invitation to the International Bowl following their victory over then @-@ undefeated Ball State in the 2008 MAC Championship Game . Although in past years the MAC champion had been invited to the Motor City Bowl , Buffalo preferred to go to the International Bowl due to Toronto being closer to the school than Detroit , the home of the Motor City Bowl . The game marked the first bowl for the Bulls after their first MAC Championship since moving to Division I @-@ A and joining the MAC in 1999 .
The Bulls and Huskies had been frequent opponents during the previous decade as both programs made the transition from Division I @-@ AA to Division I @-@ A. The two teams played each other in six consecutive seasons from 1999 to 2005 , with Connecticut winning five of the six contents . The 2005 game , won by UConn 38 – 0 , was the most recent meeting between the two teams . Overall , the Huskies and Bulls had played each other 16 times since their first meeting in 1939 , with Connecticut holding a 12 – 4 advantage in the all @-@ time series . Prior to the 2008 season , Buffalo and UConn had signed a contract to play a four @-@ game , home @-@ and @-@ home series beginning in 2010 .
= = = Buffalo = = =
Entering 2008 , the Bulls sought to build off of their 2007 season , where they shared the MAC East championship but did not appear in the championship game due to a 31 – 28 loss to fellow division co @-@ champion Miami ( Ohio ) . Their 5 – 7 final record , while not good enough to qualify for a bowl game , was still the best by a Buffalo team since they had moved up to Division I @-@ A in 1999 . With 10 starters returning on offense and eight on defense , the 2008 team was predicted to be perhaps the most talented team in Bulls history ; however , due to their challenging schedule , their final record was predicted to be no better than 3 – 9 .
Buffalo opened the season stronger than expected , with a dominant home win over the University of Texas @-@ El Paso ( UTEP ) , 42 – 17 . This was followed by a closer @-@ than @-@ predicted loss at heavily favored Pittsburgh , 27 – 16 . Buffalo 's third game and conference opener , versus Temple , was a back @-@ and @-@ forth contest that came down to the final play of the game . Keeping the game within seven points for the first three quarters , the Bulls first took the lead with 2 : 27 left in the fourth quarter , on a 25 @-@ yard field goal by A.J. Principe . Temple responded with a nine @-@ play , 74 @-@ yard drive capped by an 11 @-@ yard touchdown catch by wide receiver Bruce Francis , his second score of the game , to take a 28 – 24 lead with only 38 seconds remaining . Taking over at their own 40 @-@ yard line after the kickoff went out of bounds , the Bulls drove down the field , scoring the game @-@ winning touchdown on a 35 @-@ yard desperation heave from Drew Willy to wide receiver Naaman Roosevelt with no time remaining on the clock . Buffalo 's record following the last @-@ second win was 2 – 1 , marking the first time since 1969 that the Bulls had a record over .500 beyond Week 1 as a Division I @-@ A team . The last time the Bulls had started a season 2 – 1 was 1998 , while they were still played in Division I @-@ AA .
The Bulls proceeded to lose their next three games . Buffalo was unable to keep up with No. 5 @-@ ranked Missouri , losing 42 – 21 in a game that Missouri saw as a tuneup for their later season . In the next contest , against MAC opponent Central Michigan , down nine points with under three minutes left Buffalo scored on a 65 @-@ yard pass to James Starks , recovered an onside kick to retain possession , and attempted a game @-@ winning field goal — but A.J. Principe 's 46 @-@ yard kick hit the right goalpost to give Central Michigan the victory . In the next game , against the Western Michigan Broncos , also in the MAC , Buffalo squandered a two @-@ touchdown advantage with just over five minutes left , allowing the Broncos to win the game in overtime . Buffalo 's overall record fell to 2 – 4 , 1 – 2 in the MAC .
Bouncing back , Buffalo won their next five games . Against Army , Buffalo reversed the result of the Western Michigan game , coming back from a two @-@ touchdown deficit to win in overtime . Handling conference opponents Ohio and Miami ( Ohio ) with relative ease , Buffalo continued conference play by beating Akron in a four @-@ hour , four @-@ overtime slugfest , 43 – 40 , in Akron 's final football game at the Rubber Bowl . In their next game , against Bowling Green , the Bulls found themselves down 21 – 0 midway through the third quarter , but still managed to come back for their third overtime win of the season . With the win , Buffalo clinched the MAC East championship and ensured that they would have their first winning regular season since moving to Division I @-@ A ; the final regular season game , a 24 – 21 loss to Kent State , was only a formality . The Bulls finished the regular season with an overall record of 7 – 5 , 5 – 3 within the conference .
Buffalo 's opponent in the 2008 MAC Championship Game would be the No. 12 @-@ ranked Ball State Cardinals , who had gone undefeated in winning the MAC West . Ball State was a two @-@ touchdown favorite entering the game ; Buffalo in its history was 0 – 5 against the Cardinals . The Bulls struck first with a touchdown late in the first quarter ; Ball State responded with a touchdown and a field goal in the second quarter to take a 10 – 7 lead at the half . The two teams traded touchdowns early in the third quarter . Disaster then struck for Ball State : on two consecutive possessions late in the third quarter , after having driven into the red zone , the Cardinals fumbled the ball . Buffalo returned both of these fumbles for touchdowns and took a lead they would not surrender . The Bulls won the game 42 – 24 , earning their first @-@ ever MAC Championship as well as their first @-@ ever win over a ranked opponent in nine attempts .
= = = Connecticut = = =
The Huskies entered 2008 seeking to prove their success the previous season was no fluke . In 2007 , Connecticut earned their first Big East co @-@ championship , albeit after losing to their fellow co @-@ champion , West Virginia , 66 – 21 . A loss to Wake Forest in the 2007 Meineke Car Care Bowl — the team 's second bowl appearance all @-@ time — gave the Huskies a final 2007 record of 9 – 4 . In the Big East preseason media poll , UConn was picked to finish 6th overall in the conference .
UConn started the season strong , winning their first five games . The Huskies easily won their first game 35 – 3 against Division I @-@ Football Championship Subdivision ( Division I @-@ FCS ) opponent Hofstra . The second game , at Temple , was played as the remnants of Hurricane Hanna hit Philadelphia . UConn won 12 – 9 in overtime as Donald Brown ran for a then @-@ career high 214 yards and scored the game @-@ winning touchdown . Connecticut next avenged their loss to Virginia from 2007 , winning the rematch 45 – 10 . Baylor was next on the schedule ; the Huskies pulled out the win in a back @-@ and @-@ forth game , 31 – 28 . Connecticut opened Big East conference play in their next game against Louisville . The game was not decided until UConn linebacker Lawrence Wilson returned an interception for a touchdown with 2 : 45 left in the fourth quarter , giving the Huskies a 26 – 21 lead they would not relinquish . This was the second straight season where Connecticut won their first five games ; before 2007 , they had not opened a season so successfully since 1995 , when they won their first six straight . Following the game , UConn achieved their first and only ranking of the year , appearing at No. 24 in the Associated Press ( AP ) and Harris polls and No. 23 in the Coaches ' poll . However , starting quarterback Tyler Lorenzen broke his foot in the Louisville game ; the Huskies would be forced to rely on backup Zach Frazer for the next few games .
The Huskies were unable to match their early success in the second half of the season , losing five of their next seven games . Everything went wrong for UConn in their game at North Carolina , as Frazer was intercepted three times and three Connecticut punts were blocked ; North Carolina won in a blowout , 38 – 12 . Against Big East rival Rutgers , UConn lost 12 – 10 as kicker Tony Ciaravino missed three field goals , including one with 1 : 09 left in the game that hit the right goalpost . The Huskies bounced back in their next game against eventual Big East champion Cincinnati , winning in a blowout 40 – 16 . While not ranked in any of the polls , after the win Connecticut found itself No. 25 in the BCS standings . The Huskies would promptly give up that honor , losing to West Virginia 35 – 13 after leading 10 – 0 at the end of the first quarter and 13 – 7 at halftime . UConn would win the next week at Big East bottom @-@ dweller Syracuse , 39 – 14 , as Lorenzen returned from his injury . This would prove to be their last win of the regular season , as the Huskies finished with losses to South Florida ( 17 – 13 ) and No. 23 @-@ ranked Pittsburgh ( 34 – 10 ) . Connecticut ended the regular season with a record of 7 – 5 , 3 – 4 within the Big East conference .
= = Pregame buildup = =
In the weeks leading up to the game , media coverage focused on the achievements of the Buffalo Bulls . Buffalo had been one of the least @-@ successful programs in college football from their transition to Division I @-@ A in 1999 to 2006 , during which they had a cumulative record of 12 – 79 . In 2008 , the Bulls had their first winning season since 1996 , won five games in a row for the first time since 1986 , beat a ranked team for the first time in program history with their upset victory over Ball State in the MAC Championship Game , and would be making the first bowl appearance in school history . The turnaround of the Buffalo program brought acclaim to Bulls head coach Turner Gill , who had taken over the team in 2007 .
Comparatively , Connecticut was an afterthought heading into the game . Pre @-@ bowl coverage of UConn focused on NCAA rushing leader Donald Brown , who was considering foregoing his senior season to enter the 2009 NFL Draft . Brown indicated before the game that he had decided to return to UConn for the 2010 season .
= = = Coaching change rumors = = =
Following the regular season , speculation surrounded whether Turner Gill would leave Buffalo for another school 's head coaching position . He was identified as a candidate at two schools : Syracuse and Auburn . In neither case was Gill hired ; Syracuse opted for New Orleans Saints offensive coordinator Doug Marrone , while Auburn passed him over in favor of Iowa State head coach Gene Chizik , a move that prominent former National Basketball Association ( NBA ) player , Basketball Hall @-@ of @-@ Famer , and Auburn alumnus Charles Barkley claimed was due to racism . Gill ended up signing a contract extension with Buffalo .
UConn head coach Randy Edsall , who had been with the Huskies since 1999 , was also rumored to be a candidate for the Syracuse job . Edsall , a Syracuse alumnus , denied any interest . Offensive coordinator Rob Ambrose accepted the head coaching position at Towson , his alma mater ; he would stay to coach UConn during the bowl game , however .
= = = Legacy of the 1958 Buffalo Bulls = = =
While the 2009 International Bowl marked the first appearance of the Buffalo Bulls in a bowl game , it was not the first time the school had been invited to a bowl . Fifty years earlier , the 1958 Buffalo Bulls team finished with a record of 8 – 1 . They were awarded the Lambert Cup , given to the best small college team in the eastern US , and received a bid to play in the 1958 Tangerine Bowl , where they would face Florida State . There was one catch : the team 's African @-@ American players — starting running back Willie Evans and backup defensive end Mike Wilson — would not be allowed to play . The Tangerine Bowl Stadium was controlled by the Orlando High School Athletic Association , who prohibited integrated football games . University officials and the coaching staff decided to allow the team to vote on whether they would accept the bowl bid . Before secret ballots could be passed out , the players unanimously decided to reject the bid .
Surviving members of the 1958 Bulls team were invited to the 2009 International Bowl and were honored before the game . The Reverend Jesse Jackson spoke at the kickoff luncheon prior to the game , paying tribute to the legacy of the 1958 team .
= = = Offensive matchups = = =
= = = = Buffalo offense = = = =
Buffalo featured a high @-@ powered , high @-@ tempo , balanced offense that was good at not committing turnovers . During the regular season the Bulls averaged 380 @.@ 5 offensive yards per game , 45th best in the nation , and scored an average of 31 @.@ 3 points per game , 31st best . Buffalo 's turnover margin was 6th best in the nation , at + 1 @.@ 15 .
The Bulls were led offensively by the triple threat of quarterback Drew Willy , running back James Starks , and wide receiver Namaan Roosevelt . The three combined to break 14 single @-@ season school records , including most points scored in a season ( 404 ) . Willy , heading into his final game as a Buffalo Bull , had already surpassed the 3 @,@ 000 @-@ yard mark in passing on the season , throwing for 25 touchdowns against only five interceptions . Starks , while not seen as the same caliber of player as UConn 's Donald Brown , had run for over 1 @,@ 300 yards and caught 41 passes for 340 yards , scoring 16 touchdowns on the year . Roosevelt was seen as the top playmaker , going over the 100 @-@ yard mark in each of Buffalo 's last five games and scoring at least once in his last seven .
= = = = Connecticut offense = = = =
Especially compared to Buffalo , the UConn offense was extremely unbalanced ; the Huskies ranked 19th in the nation in running , averaging 204 @.@ 6 yards per game , but only 106th in the nation in passing , averaging 147 @.@ 3 yards per game . Connecticut 's offense was centered around running back Donald Brown . Described as " the ultimate workhorse " , Brown led the NCAA in rushing going into the game with 1 @,@ 822 yards . He had already tied the school single @-@ season rushing touchdown record with 17 scores . His dominant performance led to him being named the Big East offensive player of the year as well as an All @-@ American by multiple organizations . Somewhat surprisingly , he was not a finalist for the Doak Walker Award , annually given to the best running back in college football ; the award was eventually won by Shonn Greene of Iowa . UConn 's rushing attack was supplemented by the efforts of quarterback Tyler Lorenzen and running back Jordan Todman .
The Huskies struggled to pass the ball all season , only completing four touchdown passes as a team heading into the International Bowl . Lorenzen completed under half of his passing attempts on the season . He threw for 820 yards with more interceptions ( eight ) than touchdowns ( two ) . Nevertheless , before the game Randy Edsall confirmed that Lorenzen would be the starting quarterback for UConn in the International Bowl . This would be his ninth appearance at quarterback on the season ; he missed four games with a broken right foot .
= = = Defensive matchups = = =
= = = = Buffalo defense = = = =
The Buffalo defense was described as " among the worst in the MAC , meaning it 's among the worst in college football " . In Division I @-@ FBS , the Bulls ranked 84th in total defense , allowing an average of 408 yards per game . Buffalo 's run defense was 83rd in the country , allowing 141 @.@ 1 yards per game ; their pass defense was ranked 97th , allowing almost 250 yards per game . The Bulls allowed other teams to score an average of 27 points against them per game , which ranked 73rd in the country .
Buffalo did have one strength on defense : forcing turnovers . The Bulls recovered 20 fumbles and caught eight interceptions on the year . Buffalo 's turnover margin of + 1 @.@ 15 was 6th best in the nation .
= = = = Connecticut defense = = = =
Conversely , UConn boasted one of the better defenses in the country . The Huskies allowed the 10th @-@ fewest yards per game in the nation with 281 yards allowed . Connecticut was especially good against the pass ; they allowed an average of only 165 yards per game , seventh @-@ best in the country . No UConn opponent passed for more than 259 yards during the regular season .
The Huskies had several standout players on defense . One was defensive end Cody Brown , who led UConn with 14 tackles for a loss ( TFL ) and nine sacks while also being named to the All @-@ Big East first team . Cornerback Jasper Howard was another standout player : he had 37 tackles and four interceptions on the year while also leading the Big East in punt returns .
= = Starting lineups = =
Source :
= = Game summary = =
The 2009 International Bowl kicked off on January 3 , 2009 , at 12 : 00 PM in Toronto , Ontario , Canada . Official attendance was listed at 40 @,@ 184 , the highest in the history of the International Bowl . The attendance record was largely due to Buffalo fans ; an estimated 30 @,@ 000 attended the game . John Saunders , Jesse Palmer , and Doug Flutie , all with ties to Canada , were the announcers for the television broadcast , which aired on ESPN2 . The game was watched by over 2 million households with a rating of 2 @.@ 12 , both the highest in International Bowl history . Prior to the game , spread bettors favored Connecticut to win by four and a half points .
= = = First quarter = = =
Buffalo received the ball first to begin the game , and returned the opening kickoff to their own 24 @-@ yard line . They were unable to move the ball in three plays , and punted the ball to Connecticut . The Huskies took possession on their own 18 @-@ yard line and drove down the field with alternating rushes by running back Donald Brown and quarterback Tyler Lorenzen , earning two first downs . On 2nd down and 5 from the UConn 49 @-@ yard line , Lorenzen was sacked by Buffalo 's Sherrod Lott and fumbled ; the ball was recovered by UConn right tackle Mike Hicks , allowing the Huskies to retain possession . A holding penalty on the next play called on UConn left tackle William Beatty set up 3rd @-@ and @-@ 24 . Donald Brown rushed for fifteen yards but was unable to reach the first @-@ down marker , forcing UConn to punt .
Buffalo took over at their own 19 @-@ yard line and promptly earned their 1st first down of the game on a 10 @-@ yard pass from quarterback Drew Willy to wide receiver Naaman Roosevelt . The Bulls ' drive stalled from there , forcing them to punt . The punt struck the ground and hit UConn 's Jonathan Jean @-@ Louis , who was attempting to block for the punt return ; Buffalo recovered the loose ball , giving them back possession at the Connecticut 23 @-@ yard line . The Bulls were unable to move the ball any closer to the end zone , and settled for a 38 @-@ yard field goal by kicker A. J. Principe , giving them a 3 – 0 lead with 4 : 26 remaining in the first quarter .
The ensuing kickoff was returned by UConn running back Jordan Todman 45 yards to the Buffalo 45 @-@ yard line . On the first play from scrimmage , Donald Brown broke through the Buffalo defense and ran the length of the field for the first touchdown of the day . UConn kicker Dave Teggart 's extra point attempt was good , giving UConn their first lead of the day , at 7 – 3 .
Buffalo got the ball back at their own 21 @-@ yard line and were only able to advance it to their 34 @-@ yard line before punting the ball back to Connecticut . UConn cornerback Jasper Howard returned the ball 26 yards to the Bulls ' 41 @-@ yard line . The Huskies handed the ball to Donald Brown for five straight running plays , advancing the ball to the Buffalo 19 @-@ yard line as the first quarter clock expired . At the end of the first quarter , UConn held a 7 – 3 lead and looked to be in position to score more when the second quarter began .
= = = Second quarter = = =
UConn began the second quarter by having Tyler Lorenzen rush the ball for four yards . On 3rd and 7 , Lorenzen attempted his first pass of the game , which was behind Husky wide receiver Michael Smith . Dave Teggart kicked a 32 @-@ yard field goal to increase Connecticut 's lead to 10 – 3 .
The Bulls began their next drive at their own 26 @-@ yard line , but went three @-@ and @-@ out . Buffalo punter Peter Fardon kicked the ball over the head of UConn returner Jasper Howard ; rather than let the ball go , he ran backwards chasing after it . Trying to grab the ball over his shoulder , he muffed the catch , and the ball bounced into the end zone , where it was recovered by Buffalo 's Ray Anthony Long for a Bull touchdown . The special @-@ teams miscue by Howard allowed Buffalo to tie the game at 10 – 10 with 11 : 36 remaining in the second quarter .
UConn 's turnover woes continued on their next possession when , on their second play from scrimmage after receiving Buffalo 's kickoff , Tyler Lorenzen was sacked , causing him to fumble the ball . The Bulls recovered and drove down the field to the UConn 12 @-@ yard line where they were stopped . Principe kicked a 29 @-@ yard field goal giving Buffalo back the lead , at 13 – 10 .
The ensuing kickoff saw yet another Connecticut special @-@ teams blunder . UConn running back Robbie Frey misplayed the ball off of the kickoff , letting it roll back into the end zone . Frey recovered the loose ball ; if he had simply taken a knee , by rule it would have been a touchback and the Huskies would have gotten the ball at their own 20 @-@ yard line . Instead , Frey carried the ball out of the end zone , was hit at the 4 @-@ yard line , and fumbled . Buffalo recovered and promptly scored on a 4 @-@ yard touchdown run by Bull running back James Starks , giving themselves a 20 – 10 lead . UConn had committed its fifth fumble of the game , four of which were recovered by Buffalo . All of Buffalo 's 20 points were directly off of UConn turnovers .
Connecticut fumbled the ball for the sixth time on the next possession ; this time Donald Brown was responsible for dropping the ball . Buffalo recovered for the fifth time , but was unable to score , punting to ball back to UConn with 4 : 37 left in the half . Brown made up for his earlier mistake by breaking off a 75 @-@ yard run before being caught from behind . On the next play Tyler Lorenzen ran the ball into the end zone from 13 yards out . Neither team scored for the remainder of the first half , making the score 20 – 17 Buffalo going into halftime .
= = = Third quarter = = =
Connecticut received the ball to start the third quarter and drove down the field on rushing plays by Donald Brown , Jordan Todman and Tyler Lorenzen , before the drive stalled at the Buffalo 36 @-@ yard line . UConn punter Desi Cullen 's punt was downed at the Buffalo 1 @-@ yard line , pinning them against their own end zone . The Bulls were unable to move the ball , punting the ball back to UConn after three plays . Starting from their own 44 @-@ yard line , the Huskies drove to within the Buffalo 10 @-@ yard line ; an offside penalty on Buffalo 's Jerry Housey gave UConn a 1st @-@ and @-@ goal at the Buffalo 4 @-@ yard line . Connecticut used a play @-@ action pass , only their second pass attempt of the game , to fool the Bulls ; UConn tight end Steve Brouse was wide open in the end zone , catching the ball for the touchdown and giving Connecticut back the lead at 24 – 20 with 5 : 22 left in the third quarter .
Buffalo received the ball off the kickoff on their own 28 @-@ yard line . Losing eight yards on their three plays , Buffalo once again punted the ball to Connecticut . UConn drove to the Buffalo 25 @-@ yard line and attempted a 42 @-@ yard field goal ; the kick by Dave Teggart was blocked . Buffalo got the ball back with less than a minute left in the quarter and completed two passes , moving the ball 13 yards down the field before the quarter expired . The score remained in Connecticut 's favor , 24 – 20 .
= = = Fourth quarter = = =
Buffalo began the final quarter with the ball in a 2nd @-@ and @-@ 11 situation and were unable to convert the first down . UConn received Buffalo 's punt and were also unable to move the ball , going three @-@ and @-@ out and punting back to the Bulls . On their next possession Buffalo managed to get a first down off of a Drew Willy pass to tight end Jesse Rack , but were unable to move the ball further than UConn 's 49 @-@ yard line and punted again .
Connecticut took over at their own 32 @-@ yard line and , after throwing only two passes in the first three quarters , completed three passes over 10 yards apiece to move down the field . On a 2nd @-@ and @-@ 5 from the Buffalo 15 @-@ yard line , Tyler Lorenzen scored his second rushing touchdown of the game . UConn 's lead was extended to 31 – 20 with less than five minutes left in the game .
Receiving the ball at their own 8 @-@ yard line following a penalty on the kickoff return , Buffalo began to move down the field , with Drew Willy completing a 38 @-@ yard pass to wideout Brett Hamlin and a 29 @-@ yard pass to Naaman Roosevelt . On 3rd @-@ and @-@ 4 from the Connecticut 19 @-@ yard line , Willy completed a ten @-@ yard pass to James Starks , giving the Bulls a 1st @-@ and @-@ goal . Starks rushed for four yards on first down ; on second down , Willy threw an incomplete pass intended for Roosevelt . On 3rd @-@ and @-@ goal from the Husky 5 @-@ yard line , Willy attempted a pass that was deflected and intercepted by UConn safety Dahna Deleston , who returned the ball 100 yards for the game @-@ sealing touchdown . UConn won the game 38 – 20 .
= = = Scoring summary = = =
= = Final statistics = =
For his performance in the 2009 International Bowl , Connecticut running back Donald Brown was named the player of the game . Brown rushed for 261 yards and one touchdown on 29 attempts . He finished the 2008 college football season with 2 @,@ 083 rushing yards which led the nation . Brown set several new UConn school records , including the single @-@ season records for rushing yards ( 2 @,@ 083 ) , attempts ( 367 ) , and yards per game ( 160 @.@ 2 ) , the career records for rushing yards ( 3 @,@ 800 ) and attempts ( 698 ) , and the record for consecutive games with at least 100 yards rushing ( 8 ) . His performance did not break the International Bowl rushing records , however ; the previous year Rutgers running back Ray Rice ran for 280 yards and four touchdowns .
Brown 's dominant rushing performance was supplemented by RB Jordan Todman 's 62 yards on seven attempts , QB Tyler Lorenzen 's 32 yards on twelve attempts , including two touchdowns , and fullback Anthony Sherman 's three yards on one attempt ; in total Connecticut ran for 358 yards . The Huskies attempted to pass only six times during the game ; Lorenzen completed four of them for 49 yards and a touchdown . Four different UConn receivers caught one pass each : wide receiver Kashif Moore ( 18 yards ) , cornerback and sometime wide receiver Darius Butler ( 16 yards ) , fullback Anthony Sherman ( 11 yards ) , and tight end Steve Brouse ( 4 yards and a touchdown ) .
Buffalo 's offensive performance was in some ways the opposite of Connecticut 's : while UConn dominated on the ground and barely passed the ball , Buffalo struggled with the run but had a good day passing . The Bulls ran for a total of 24 yards on the game ; James Starks accounted for 25 yards on thirteen carries and scored a touchdown , while RB Brandon Termilus ran three times for five yards . Their total was partially offset by Drew Willy , who lost six yards on three rushing attempts . Willy had a much more successful day passing , completing 29 out of 43 passes for 213 yards and one interception . Namaan Roosevelt led the Buffalo receivers with 90 yards on eight catches ; of the five other Bulls who received passes , WR Brett Hamlin caught four passes for 54 yards , TE Jesse Rack caught three for 22 yards , RB Starks caught 11 for 21 yards , WR Ernest Jackson caught two for 17 yards , and WR Gary Rice caught one for 9 yards .
Connecticut dominated Buffalo statistically in the first half , gaining 225 yards to the Bulls ' 94 , led by Donald Brown 's 208 yards rushing . Buffalo won the turnover battle however , recovering five UConn fumbles . The Bulls scored 20 points off UConn turnovers in the first half , but were held scoreless in the second half when the Huskies stopped turning the ball over .
= = Aftermath = =
Connecticut 's win gave the team a final record of 8 – 5 and back @-@ to @-@ back winning seasons for the first time since 2003 – 04 . Buffalo 's final record fell to 8 – 6 , which still marked the first winning season for the Bulls since transitioning to Division I @-@ A football in 1999 .
In a press conference after the game , Brown announced that he would not return for his senior season and enter the NFL Draft , saying he told the media he said he was staying to take the focus off of himself prior to the game . Brown was drafted 27th overall by the Indianapolis Colts , becoming the first UConn player ever drafted in the first round . Three other UConn players were drafted in the second round : Darius Butler 41st overall by the New England Patriots , William Beatty 60th overall by the New York Giants , and defensive end Cody Brown 63rd overall by the Arizona Cardinals . Tight end Martin Bédard was drafted 15th overall in the second round of the Canadian Football League 's ( CFL ) 2009 Draft . Buffalo did not have any players drafted by either league in 2009 ; in the 2010 NFL Draft James Starks was selected in the sixth round , 193rd overall , by the Green Bay Packers . UConn cornerback Robert McClain was also drafted by the NFL in 2010 , in the seventh round , 249th overall , by the Carolina Panthers .
In the offseason Connecticut hired Joe Moorhead as their new offensive coordinator , replacing the departed Rob Ambrose . Turner Gill returned to coach Buffalo in 2009 . Following that season , however , he left to take over the football program at the University of Kansas .
Connecticut and Buffalo resumed their rivalry on September 25 , 2010 , playing a regular season game at UConn 's Rentschler Field . Although the score was tied 14 – 14 at halftime , the Huskies pulled away in the second half after changing quarterbacks , winning the rematch 45 – 21 .
|
= Battery White =
Battery White was an artillery battery constructed by the Confederates during the American Civil War . Built in 1862 – 63 to defend Winyah Bay on the South Carolina coast , the battery was strongly situated and constructed ; however , it was inadequately manned , and was captured without resistance during the final months of the war .
The battery is listed in the National Register of Historic Places . It is located on private land , but is open to the public .
= = Island fortifications = =
Even before the outbreak of the Civil War , the secessionist government of South Carolina was concerned with the possibility of attack by sea in Georgetown County . Shortly after the December 20 , 1860 passage of the Ordinance of Secession , an aide @-@ de @-@ camp to governor Francis Pickens urged Lowcountry planters to " aid in the erection of Batteries to protect and defend the entrance of Winyah Bay and the Santee River " .
The area offered a tempting target to Union forces . Winyah Bay would furnish a sheltered anchorage large enough for the entire United States Navy of 1861 . The city of Georgetown on the bay was the largest on the South Carolina coast north of Charleston . Georgetown County produced nearly half of the rice grown in the United States , amounting to some 54 million pounds ( 24 @,@ 000 tonnes ) in 1860 ; Georgetown exported more rice than any other port in the world . This production and shipping could be disrupted by gunboats moving up the Black , the Pee Dee , the Waccamaw , and the Sampit rivers , which flow into the bay ; and the two distributary channels of the Santee River , whose mouths lie just below the bay . Curtailing rice production would not only damage the local economy , but would impair the Confederacy 's ability to feed its armies .
In May 1861 , General P. G. T. Beauregard ordered the development of coastal defenses for South Carolina , including batteries situated on three islands flanking the mouth of Winyah Bay : North Island , South Island , and Cat Island . The Federal capture of Port Royal in November 1861 lent urgency to the construction and improvement of these works , which was done under Robert E. Lee , the newly appointed commander of the Department of South Carolina , Georgia , and East Florida , with Colonel Arthur Middleton Manigault in charge of the district that included Georgetown and Horry counties .
The island fortifications were never tested against a major Union attack . However , they served a useful purpose in dealing with grounded ships , both Confederate and Federal ; in protecting the entrance to the bay ; and in maintaining Confederate possession of the islands .
= = Withdrawal = =
Matters changed in early 1862 . In March of that year , Lee was recalled to Richmond as military advisor to President Jefferson Davis . He was replaced by General John C. Pemberton , who ordered the withdrawal of troops and artillery from the positions around Georgetown , apparently in order to concentrate his limited manpower on shorter defensive lines .
Union naval forces were quick to take advantage of this new vulnerability . In May 1862 , the gunboats USS Albatross and USS Norwich noted that the island forts were unoccupied . They landed troops to occupy North Island , which became the principal local Union base for much of the war ; and they destroyed the fortifications on South and Cat Islands . They also sailed some 10 miles ( 16 km ) up the Waccamaw River , where they raided a mill and carried off 80 slaves . Settled on North Island , these freed slaves formed the nucleus of a colony of " contrabands " that grew to more than a thousand before being removed to Port Royal for fear of Confederate raids leading to their recapture or massacre .
The Federal forces made no attempt to seize territory up the rivers , and their expeditions were limited by the draft of their vessels . Nevertheless , they conducted a number of raids in which they damaged facilities , seized rice , and released slaves ; and these raids severely disrupted the region 's economy . Rice production in particular suffered , since it depended on a labor force of skilled slaves performing carefully timed tasks .
Pemberton still refused to move artillery and men to the Georgetown area , maintaining that all of his resources were necessary for the protection of Charleston . However , his superiors ordered him to construct new fortifications at Winyah Bay . Since the Union now controlled the islands , it was necessary to find sites further up the bay . On August 3 , 1862 , Pemberton visited the area and selected Mayrant 's Bluff and Frazier 's Point as the sites for the new batteries .
= = Battery White = =
Later in August 1862 , Pemberton was promoted to lieutenant general and sent to the Department of Mississippi and East Louisiana , where he would eventually surrender Vicksburg . He was replaced in the Department of South Carolina and Georgia by Beauregard , who assumed command on September 24 , 1862 . The new commander supported the fortification of Winyah Bay : on October 8 , 1862 , he assured Governor Pickens that he had ordered the construction of a battery of five or six pieces of artillery at Mayrant 's Bluff ; on November 10 , he wrote Colonel James Chesnut , Jr. that the battery was " armed and completed " , and that he had sent a new regiment of the State Reserves to General James H. Trapier , in command of the Georgetown District .
Trapier was less than pleased with the troops and artillery that he had been given . The new regiment , he noted , arrived at the battery without arms and ammunition ; and as Reserves , would only be in service for 90 days , not enough time to make effective soldiers of them even had they been armed . He had also been given fairly light guns ; what he wanted was Columbiads , suitable for defending the battery and the bay against incursions by ironclads .
Despite the paucity of men and weaponry , the new battery proved effective . On November 11 , 1862 , two Union gunboats entered Winyah Bay and began firing on the Mayrant 's Bluff works . The Second South Carolina Artillery , which had set up nine guns in the fortification , responded ; and within a few minutes , the Federal vessels were forced to retire .
In February 1863 , Trapier reported that the Mayrant 's Bluff fortification , now named Battery White , was occupied by only 53 men and nine guns . Even this small force sufficed to stop Federal incursions up the rivers of Winyah Bay . However , rice production in the Georgetown area did not recover : the raids had destroyed too much of the physical plant , carried off too many of the slaves , and created too much uncertainty for planters to return to anything near full production .
The battery continued to lose manpower , despite Trapier 's ongoing calls for more troops and guns . In October 1864 , a body of eleven deserters from the Confederate German Artillery reached the gunboat USS Potomska ; they reported that there was great discontent among the troops , and that many would desert were they not so strongly guarded . They also reported that there were ten guns at the battery ; the captain of the Potomska concluded that the bay was too well defended for him to render aid to prospective deserters .
= = Capture = =
In November 1864 , Trapier was ordered to bring most of his forces to Mount Pleasant , just north of Charleston . Only a company of the German Artillery was left to defend the Georgetown district . By the end of January 1865 , only a small crew commanded by a lieutenant remained at Battery White .
In January and early February 1865 , Union forces under General William Tecumseh Sherman moved northward from Georgia into South Carolina . On February 2 and 3 , they defeated a Confederate force in the Battle of Rivers ' Bridge , clearing their pathway into the state . After a feint at Charleston , they marched to Columbia , which they entered on February 17 ; on the same day , Charleston was evacuated , and on the 18th , it was surrendered .
From Charleston , Union naval forces under Admiral John A. Dahlgren moved up the coast to Georgetown , which Dahlgren thought might be a useful point of communication with Sherman 's land forces . On February 23 , deserters told the captain of the gunboat USS Mingoe that Battery White had been or would soon be evacuated . The Mingoe fired four rounds into the battery . When no response was made , a party was sent ashore ; they found the battery abandoned and its guns spiked . The sloop @-@ of @-@ war USS Pawnee and the gunboat USS Nipsic continued up the bay and landed a party of Marines to take possession of Georgetown ; the intendant and wardens of the city formally surrendered it on February 25 .
Soon thereafter , Dahlgren inspected the battery , and was impressed . The fortification , he wrote , was well situated and designed , laid out to defend against both shipborne bombardment and attack by landing parties . Eleven guns bore on the channel : two 10 @-@ inch ( 254 mm ) Columbiads , three banded rifled 32 @-@ pounders , four smoothbore 24 @-@ pounders , and two banded rifled 12 @-@ pounders . A 6 @-@ pound smoothbore flanked the ditch . The rear was defended by a " formidable " rampart and ditch , with a 24 @-@ pound smoothbore at either end ; in the fort were numerous traverses and magazines . The approach along the beach to the battery 's right flank was covered by a 24 @-@ pound and a 12 @-@ pound smoothbore . " If the works had been sufficiently manned " , wrote Dahlgren , " it would have required good troops to take the work . "
= = = Sinking of the USS Harvest Moon = = =
By the fall of 1864 , the Union fleet had effectively closed Winyah Bay to blockade runners . Accordingly , the Confederate command had elected to lay mines , at the time known as " torpedoes " , in the bay . Eighteen mines had been constructed in Georgetown by Captain Thomas West Daggett and Stephen W. Rouquie and placed strategically in the bay .
As early as January 1865 , Union sympathizers in Georgetown had warned Dahlgren 's forces about the existence of mines in the channel . While approaching Battery White , the Mingoe had sent its boats out to sweep for such devices . However , their efforts may have been perfunctory : according to Dahlgren 's report , " ... so much has been said in ridicule of torpedoes that very little precautions are deemed necessary , and if resorted to are probably taken with less care than if due weight was attached to the existence of these mischievous things . "
On the morning of March 1 , 1865 , Dahlgren 's flagship , the side @-@ wheel steamer USS Harvest Moon , sailed from Georgetown toward Battery White , which Dahlgren intended to inspect . En route , the vessel struck one of Daggett and Rouquie 's mines , which blew a large hole in it , killing one sailor ; the boat quickly sank in two and a half fathoms of water .
= = Battery White postbellum = =
For over a century after the Civil War , the grounds on which Battery White stood were part of the Belle Isle Plantation . During the late 19th century , extensive landscaping was undertaken on the plantation . The United Daughters of the Confederacy erected a memorial stone on the site in 1929 . In about 1946 , the plantation gardens , including the battery , were opened to the public , and remained thus until 1974 .
In the 1970s , the plantation was developed as a condominium complex . Portions of the 100 @-@ acre ( 40 ha ) complex of fortifications were lost to construction . However , the owners elected to preserve Battery White itself . In 1977 , a 3 @-@ acre ( 1 @.@ 2 ha ) area encompassing the battery was nominated to the National Register of Historic Places . In 2008 , the site was re @-@ opened to the public .
The battery 's earthworks are for the most part well preserved . The powder magazines have deteriorated , owing to collapse of the earth mounds following decay of their wooden interior shoring . The two Columbiads have been re @-@ mounted and once again point out over Winyah Bay .
Three of the battery 's guns have been placed in Georgetown . A 24 @-@ pound gun has been mounted in front of the National Guard Armory , and two cannon are displayed in Constitution Park on the Georgetown waterfront .
The Harvest Moon was never salvaged , and has gradually sunk deeper into the mud of the bay . In the mid @-@ 1960s , the top deck lay under an estimated six feet ( 1 @.@ 8 m ) of mud . A Georgetown group attempted to salvage and restore the vessel as a tourist attraction , and in 1964 the U.S. Navy formally abandoned it , rendering it eligible for private salvage ; but the attempt failed for lack of funds . As of 2011 , the ship 's boiler stack was still visible at low tide .
|
= Tropical Storm Beryl ( 1988 ) =
Tropical Storm Beryl was an unusual Atlantic tropical cyclone that formed over southeastern Louisiana in August 1988 . The second tropical storm of the 1988 Atlantic hurricane season , Beryl developed from a slow @-@ moving trough of low pressure on August 8 . It tracked southeastward into the coastal waters of eastern Louisiana , and Beryl reached peak winds of 50 mph ( 85 km / h ) while located about 75 miles ( 120 km ) southeast of New Orleans . The storm turned to the northwest over Louisiana and Texas , and slowly dissipated . The remnants of Beryl continued northward into the central United States , dropping some rainfall and providing relief to a severe heat wave .
Due to its slow motion , Beryl dropped heavy amounts of rainfall , peaking at 16 @.@ 09 inches ( 408 mm ) on Dauphin Island in Alabama . The rainfall caused some reports of flooding , while prolonged durations of rough waves resulted in severe beach erosion . The waves capsized a boat in Mobile Bay , killing one of its passengers . Overall damage was minor , totaling about $ 3 million ( 1988 USD , $ 5 @.@ 46 million 2009 USD ) .
= = Meteorological history = =
A weak surface trough of low pressure emerged into the northeast Gulf of Mexico on August 1 . Under weak steering currents , the trough drifted westward , and slowly became better defined with the formation of a circulation in the mid- through upper @-@ levels of the atmosphere . An upper @-@ level low developed over Texas , providing unfavorable amounts of vertical wind shear . A surface circulation was first evident on satellite imagery on August 4 just off the coast of Mississippi , and for several days it remained nearly stationary over the Mississippi Sound . As the upper @-@ level low over Texas drifted southwestward , an anticyclone developed over the system , with the circulation becoming better defined and more vertically aligned . On August 7 , the system drifted into southeastern Louisiana . It continued to become better organized , and on August 8 it developed into Tropical Depression Three while located near the northern coast of Lake Pontchartrain . This is unusual in that tropical cyclones rarely form over land .
Upon becoming a tropical cyclone , the depression drifted southeastward , and within hours of its formation it emerged into the Gulf of Mexico . Based on ship reports and observations from oil rigs , it is estimated the depression intensified into Tropical Storm Beryl at 1000 UTC on August 8 while located just offshore coastal Louisiana . Conditions remained favorable for further intensification , with the circulation located over warm waters and maintaining well @-@ defined outflow ; early on August 9 Beryl attained its peak intensity of 50 mph while located about 75 miles ( 120 km ) southeast of New Orleans . Shortly thereafter , a trough from the northwest dissipated the anticyclone and resulted in a steady northwest motion very near where the cyclone originally moved offshore . Beryl maintained tropical storm status for about 18 hours before weakening to a tropical depression over central Louisiana . It turned to the northwest , and the surface circulation dissipated on August 10 while located a short distance south of Shreveport , Louisiana . The surface low pressure area crossed into north Texas before dissipating early on August 12 , while its upper @-@ level circulation turned northward into Oklahoma before being merged by an approaching trough .
= = Preparations = =
Upon becoming a tropical storm , the National Hurricane Center issued a tropical storm warning from the mouth of the Mississippi River to Pensacola , Florida . Six hours later , the warning was extended westward to Morgan City , Louisiana . The threat of Beryl prompted some voluntary evacuations in St. Bernard Parish in Louisiana , and also forced the evacuations of thousands from offshore oil rigs . Officials advised small craft to remain at port from Port O 'Connor , Texas to Pensacola , Florida .
= = Impact = =
Rainfall from the storm reached over 7 inches ( 175 mm ) a short distance east of Pensacola , Florida , though impact in the state was minor . Wind gusts peaked at 38 mph ( 61 km / h ) in Pensacola . In Alabama , Beryl produced sustained winds of 38 mph ( 61 km / h ) , with gusts to 54 mph ( 86 km / h ) , as well as above normal tides . The storm dropped heavy rainfall in coastal portions of Alabama , peaking at 16 @.@ 09 inches ( 408 mm ) on Dauphin Island . Rough waves overturned a shrimp boat in Mobile Bay . A 15 @-@ year @-@ old boy on the boat drowned , the only direct fatality from the storm . The boy 's father , also on the boat , spent 24 hours in the water before being rescued by the United States Coast Guard . The waves caused severe beach erosion along the coastline , with Dauphin Island losing 60 to 70 feet ( 18 to 21 m ) of beach .
In Mississippi , coastal areas reported heavy amounts of precipitation , reaching over 10 inches ( 250 mm ) in Jackson County . Sustained winds reached 47 mph ( 76 km / h ) at Gulfport , the strongest wind on a land station . Similar to Alabama , strong waves caused considerable beach erosion along portions of the coastline .
Beryl dropped rainfall across much of Louisiana , peaking at over 10 inches ( 250 mm ) near Morgan City . The rainfall caused significant river flooding along the Biloxi River . Wind gusts were fairly light across the state , reaching 40 mph ( 65 km / h ) in New Orleans . The winds caused light tree damage , which resulted in some power outages . A storm surge of about 5 feet ( 1 @.@ 5 m ) caused some coastal flooding .
The remnants of Beryl produced locally heavy precipitation peaking at about 12 inches ( 300 mm ) in east @-@ central Texas , resulting in some reports of flash flooding . The rainfall flooded some roads and also causes severe river flooding on the Angelina River . Remnant moisture dropped about 5 inches ( 125 mm ) of rain in southeast Oklahoma and 3 inches ( 75 mm ) in southwestern Arkansas . Further inland , the remnants of Beryl cooled temperatures and provided relief to the severe heat wave in the central United States .
Throughout its path , Beryl caused about $ 3 million in damage ( 1988 USD , $ 5 @.@ 46 million 2009 USD ) , primarily along the immediate coastline from erosion or flood damage .
|
= Clark Thomas Rogerson =
Clark Thomas Rogerson , ( 2 October 1918 – 7 September 2001 ) , was an American mycologist . He was known for his work in the Hypocreales ( Ascomycota ) , particularly Hypomyces , a genus of fungi that parasitize other fungi . After receiving his doctorate from Cornell University in 1950 , he went on to join the faculty of Kansas State University . In 1958 , he became a curator at The New York Botanical Garden , and served as editor for various academic journals published by the Garden . Rogerson was involved with the Mycological Society of America , serving in various positions , including President in 1969 . He was Managing Editor ( 1958 – 89 ) and Editor @-@ in @-@ chief ( 1960 – 65 ) of the scientific journal Mycologia .
= = Biography = =
C.T. Rogerson was born on October 2 , 1918 , in Ogden , Utah , to parents Elijah Knapp Rogerson ( 1899 – 1956 ) and Mable Crissie Clarke Rogerson ( 1897 – 1987 ) . Upon graduating from high school in 1936 , he enrolled in Weber Junior College ( since renamed to Weber State University ) for the following two years . Rogerson then attended Utah State University , where he had hoped to work under the supervision of botanist Bassett Maguire , but settled instead for the only available studentship with plant pathologist B.L. Richards . Rogerson received his bachelor of science from Utah State University in 1940 . Soon after , he was drafted into the army , and spent three years ( 1942 – 1945 ) in the Pacific Theater of World War II . He served as a technical sergeant in laboratory and pharmacy at an army evacuation hospital , and cared for internees released in the Philippines near the war 's end . During his war years , Rogerson made collections of plants , fungi , slime molds , and butterflies that he sent to Cornell or to the Smithsonian Institution .
After the war finished , Rogerson continued studying fungal systematics and started a doctoral program with Harry Morton Fitzpatrick at Cornell University ; noted mycologist Richard Korf was another of Fitzpatrick 's graduate students at the time . Under Fitzpatrick , Rogerson studied Hypomyces fungi and their anamorphs . Fitzpatrick committed suicide in 1950 , and Donald S. Welch replaced him as Rogerson 's advisor for the last few months of his doctoral program . Rogerson received his doctorate from Cornell in 1950 . That year , he joined the faculty of Kansas State University as an assistant professor , but he would ultimately advance to associate professor . While at Kansas , he worked on the identification of fungi , and published nearly 20 papers on fungal taxonomic novelties , aeromycology ( the fungal flora of air ) , and plant diseases caused by fungi .
In 1958 , the director of The New York Botanical Garden , William Jacob Robbins , recruited Rogerson for the position of Curator of Cryptogamic Botany . Rogerson became Senior Curator in 1967 and Senior Curator Emeritus at his retirement in 1990 . As curator of cryptogamic botany , Rogerson " was directly responsible for all accessions and loans of ferns and mosses , as well as of fungi and lichens , until about 1965 when , first a bryologist and later a pteridologist were added to the cryptogamic staff . " At the Garden , he also continued his study on the taxonomy of the Ascomycetes , especially of Hypomyces , a genus of fungi that parasitize other fungi , and the fungal diversity of New York and Utah . Additionally , he served as editor of the Garden 's publications : Memoirs of the New York Botanical Garden ( 1963 – 88 ) , North American Flora ( 1963 – 88 ) , and Flora Neotropica ( 1969 – 83 ) . While at the Garden , Rogerson was also an adjunct professor of biology at Columbia University and at the Herbert H. Lehman College of the City University of New York .
During his tenure at the Garden , Rogerson was also a deeply involved member of the Mycological Society of America ( MSA ) . He served as Managing editor ( 1958 – 89 ) and Editor @-@ in @-@ chief ( 1960 – 65 ) of the scientific journal Mycologia . He was Vice @-@ President ( 1967 ) , President Elect ( 1968 ) , and President of the MSA ( 1969 ) , and secretary @-@ treasurer of the society from 1973 to 1974 . He has served as historian of the Mycological Society of America from 1960 to 1990 . Rogerson was a generous donor to MSA student travel awards . He died in Ogden on September 7 , 2001 .
= = Mycological contributions = =
Rogerson added many thousands of records of fungi , mainly from Utah , to the Garden herbarium , where his specimens are available for study by systematists . Rogerson assisted in the formation of the three major amateur mushroom groups in the New York City area : the New York Mycological Association , the New Jersey Mycological Association , and the Connecticut @-@ Westchester Mycological Association ( COMA ) . He helped amateur mycologists correctly identify fungal specimens during his weekends . " In return , amateur mycologists provided him with many specimens of fungicolous Hypomyces . "
In 1970 , Rogerson presented a detailed history of the Hypocreales and reviewed changes in the circumscription of the order up to that time . His publication included keys to the genera of both the Hypocreales and Clavicipitales , followed by a list of genera , each with the literature citation of the original descriptions and type species . He included 115 genera in the Hypocreales .
= = = Taxa described = = =
Cladobotryum arnoldii Rogerson & Samuels 1993
Cladobotryum hughesii Rogerson & Samuels 1993
Cladobotryum succineum Rogerson & Samuels 1992
Cylindrosporium campicola Rogerson & R. Sprague 1959
Hypocrea avellanea Rogerson & S.T. Carey 1976
Hypomyces amaurodermatis Rogerson & Samuels 1993
Hypomyces badius Rogerson & Samuels 1989
Hypomyces boletiphagus Rogerson & Samuels 1989
Hypomyces cervinigenus Rogerson & Simms 1971
Hypomyces chlorinigenus Rogerson & Samuels 1989
Hypomyces lanceolatus Rogerson & Samuels 1993
Hypomyces leotiicola Rogerson & Samuels 1985
Hypomyces melanocarpus Rogerson & Mazzer 1971
Hypomyces melanochlorus Rogerson & Samuels 1989
Hypomyces microspermus Rogerson & Samuels 1989
Hypomyces mycogones Rogerson & Samuels 1985
Hypomyces mycophilus Rogerson & Samuels 1993
Hypomyces papulasporae Rogerson & Samuels 1985
Hypomyces papulasporae var. americanus Rogerson & Samuels 1985
Hypomyces pergamenus Rogerson & Samuels 1993
Hypomyces porphyreus Rogerson & Mazzer 1971
Hypomyces pseudopolyporinus Rogerson & Samuels 1986
Hypomyces stephanomatis Rogerson & Samuels 1985
Hypomyces succineus Rogerson & Samuels 1992
Hypomyces sympodiophorus Rogerson & Samuels 1993
Merugia Rogerson & Samuels 1990
Merugia palicoureae Rogerson & Samuels 1990
Nectria albidopilosa Rogerson & Samuels 1985
Nectria discicola Rogerson & Samuels 1985
Nectria discophila Rogerson & Samuels 1985
Nectria phialotrichi Rogerson & Samuels 1992
Podostroma eperuae Rogerson & Samuels 1992
Sympodiophora polyporicola Rogerson & S.T. Carey 1981
= = Mycological lineage = =
Clark T. Rogerson belongs to the Dudley mycological lineage , which can be traced back to Anton De Bary , a famous German mycologist . William Russell Dudley was Assistant Professor of Cryptogamic Botany at Cornell University from 1883 to 1892 , and received mycological training from De Bary in 1887 . Joseph Charles Arthur , George Francis Atkinson , and Mason B. Thomas studied under Dudley . Thomas went to Wabash College , where he would influence Harry Morton Fitzpatrick to study mycology . Fitzpatrick received his Ph.D. in 1913 at Cornell under tutelage of Atkinson . Rogerson studied under Fitzpatrick at Cornell from 1946 to 1950 . Contemporary to Rogerson was fellow student Richard P. Korf , another prominent mycologist . Students of Rogerson include Robert L. Shaffer ( Kansas State ; M.A. ) , Susan Carey Canham ( Columbia University ; Ph.D. ) , Anna F. Doyle ( Columbia University ; Ph.D. ) , Gary J. Samuels ( Columbia University ; Ph.D. ) , and Rosalind Lowen ( Lehman College ; Ph.D. ) . Katia F. Rodrigues and Priscila Chaverri ( Penn State ; Ph.D. ) studied under Samuels . The Rogerson sublineage continues to expand under Chaverri at the University of Maryland .
= = Honors and memberships = =
Rogerson received several awards and honors during his career :
1969 : President of the Mycological Society of America
1980 : North American Mycological Association ( NAMA ) award for contributions to amateur mycology
1981 : Award from the Mycological Society of America in appreciation for service to the Society as Historian , Secretary @-@ Treasurer , Vice @-@ President , and President and as Managing Editor and Editor @-@ in @-@ Chief of Mycologia
1981 : The Connecticut @-@ Westchester Mycological Association ( COMA ) named their annual four @-@ day mushroom foray after C.T. Rogerson in appreciation of his commitment to education and the development of amateur mycology .
1984 : New York Botanical Garden Distinguished Service Award for outstanding contribution to the advancement of Horticulture and Botany
1985 : COMAndation for outstanding service to COMA
1989 : A commemorative publication celebrating the 70th birthday of C.T. Rogerson ( Memoirs of the New York Botanical Garden 49 : 1 – 375 ) .
2004 : The Mycological Society of America established the Clark T. Rogerson student research and travel award .
Rogerson was a member of the American Association for the Advancement of Science , the Bergen Swamp Preservation Society , and the Utah Academy of Sciences .
= = = Eponymous taxa = = =
Rogersonanthus B.Maguire & B.M.Boom ( 1989 )
Rogersonia Samuels & Lodge ( 1996 )
Clonostachys rogersoniana Schroers ( 2001 )
Golovinomyces rogersonii U.Braun ( 1996 )
Pseudocercospora rogersoniana U.Braun & Crous
Pseudocosmospora rogersonii C. Herrera & P. Chaverri
Trichoderma rogersonii Samuels ( 2006 )
Zelleromyces rogersonii Fogel & States ( 2001 )
= = Publications = =
Rogerson wrote 65 research publications and several bibliographic publications .
1950 . Rogerson CT , Muenscher WC . " The vegetation of Bergen Swamp VI . The fungi . " Proc Rochester Acad Sci 9 : 277 – 314 .
1951 . King C , Rogerson CT . " Tomato late blight in Kansas " . Plant Dis Rep 35 : 120 .
1952 . Rogerson CT , Shaffer RL . " Underwoodia in Kansas " . Mycologia 44 : 582 .
1952 . Shaffer RL , Rogerson CT . " Notes on the fleshy fungi of Kansas " . Trans Kansas Acad Sci 55 : 282 – 286 .
1952 . Walker EA , Rogerson CT , Jenkins AE . " Additional collections of plantain scab and violet scab from several North Central states " . Plant Dis Rep 36 : 331 – 332 .
1953 . Elmer OM , Shields IJ , Rogerson CT . " Oak wilt in seven Kansas counties " . Plant Dis Rep 37 : 44 .
1953 . Rogerson CT . " Kansas mycological notes : 1951 " . Trans Kansas Acad 56 : 53 – 57 .
1954 . Rogerson CT , King CL . " Stem rust of Merion bluegrass in Kansas " . Pl Dis Reporter 38 : 57 .
1954 . Rogerson CT . " Kansas mycological notes : 1952 " . Trans Kansas Acad 57 : 280 – 284 .
1954 . Slagg CM , Rogerson CT . " A tuckahoe found in Kansas " . Trans Kansas Acad 57 : 66 – 68 .
1956 . Rogerson CT . " Kansas mycological notes : 1953 – 54 " . Trans Kansas Acad 59 : 39 – 48 .
1957 . Pady SM , Johnston CO , Rogerson CT . " Stipe rust of wheat in Kansas in 1957 " . Plant Dis Rep 41 : 959 – 961 .
1957 . Rogerson CT . " Diseases of grasses in Kansas : 1953 – 55 " . Plant Dis Rep 40 : 388 – 397 .
1957 . — — — . " Verticillium @-@ wilt in Kansas " . Plant Dis Rep 41 : 1053 – 1054 .
1958 . — — — . " Diseases of grasses in Kansas : 1956 – 1957 " . Plant Dis Rep 42 : 346 – 353 .
1958 . — — — . " Kansas aeromycology I. Comparison of media " . Trans Kansas Acad 61 : 155 – 162 .
1958 . — — — . " Kansas mycological notes : 1955 – 1956 " . Trans Kansas Acad 60 : 370 – 375 .
1958 . — — — . " Kansas mycological notes : 1957 " . Trans Kansas Acad 61 : 262 – 272 .
1958 . Sprague R , Rogerson CT . " Some leafspot fungi on Kansas Gramineae " . Mycologia 50 : 634 – 641 .
1959 . CL , Pady SM , Rogerson CT , Ouye L. " Kansas aeromycology II . Materials , methods , and general results " . Trans Kansas Acad 62 : 184 – 199 .
1959 . Kramer CL , Pady SM , Rogerson CT . " Kansas aeromycology III . Cladosporium " . Trans Kansas Acad 62 : 200 – 207 .
1959 . Luttrell ES , Rogerson CT . " Homothallism in an undescribed Cochliobolus and in Cochliobolus kusanoi " . Mycologia 51 : 195 – 202 .
1959 . Willis WW , Rogerson CT , Carpenter WJ . " An evaluation of several fungicides for control of root rot of croft lilies " . Plant Dis Rep 43 : 745 – 749 .
1960 . Hall CV , Dutta SK , Kalia HR , Rogerson CT . " Inheritance of resistance to the fungus Colletotrichum lagenarium in watermelons " . Proc Am Soc Hort Sci 15 : 638 – 643 .
1960 . Kramer CL , Pady SM , Rogerson CT . " Kansas aeromycology IV . Alternaria " . Trans Kansas Acad 62 : 252 – 256 .
1960 . — — — , — — — , — — — . " Kansas aeromycology V : Penicillium and Aspergillus " . Mycologia 52 : 545 – 555 .
1960 . — — — , — — — , — — — . " Kansas aeromycology VIII : Phycomycetes " . Trans Kansas Acad 63 : 19 – 23 .
1962 . Anchel M , Silverman WB , Valanju N , Rogerson CT . " Patterns of polyacetylene production I. The diatretynes " . Mycologia 54 : 249 – 257 .
1962 . Rogerson CT . " Coral mushrooms " . Gard Journal New York Botanical Garden 12 : 52 – 54 .
1962 . Swarup G , Hansing ED , Rogerson CT . " Fungi associated with sorghum seed in Kansas " . Trans Kansas Acad 65 : 120 – 137 .
1965 . Rogerson CT . " Bibliography " . In : Munz PA , Onagraceae ( ed . ) . N Am Flora II 5 : 232 – 265 .
1965 . — — — . " Bibliography " . In : Yuncker TG , Cuscuta ( ed . ) . N Am Flora II 4 : 41 – 48 .
1965 . — — — . " Stinkhorn fungi " . Gard Journal New York Botanical Garden 15 : 214 – 215 .
1966 . — — — . " Dedication and preface " In : Mycologia index volumes 1 – 58 , 1909 – 1966 . The New York Botanical Garden : New York . Pp. vii – xv .
1967 . Kramer CL , Haard RT , Rogerson CT . " Kansas mycological notes , 1955 – 1964 " . Trans Kansas Acad 70 : 241 – 255 .
1968 . Rogerson CT . Preface . In : Mycologia index , volumes 1 – 58 , 1909 – 1966 @.@ ix – xv . New York : The New York Botanical Garden .
1969 . — — — . " The cryptogamic herbarium . Algae and fungi " . Gard Journal New York Botanical Garden 19 : 14 – 19 .
1970 . Hodges CS Jr , Warner GM , Rogerson CT . " A new species of Penicillium " . Mycologia 62 : 1106 – 1111 .
1970 . Rogerson CT . " The Hypocrealean fungi ( Ascomycetes @-@ Hypocreales ) " . Mycologia 62 : 865 – 910 .
1971 . — — — , Mazzer SJ . " Two new species of Hypomyces from Michigan " . Michigan Bot 10 : 107 – 113 .
1971 . — — — , Simms HR . " A new species of Hypomyces on Helvella " . Mycologia 63 : 416 – 422 .
1973 . — — — . " Fred Jay Seaver , 1877 – 1970 " . Mycologia 65 : 721 – 724 .
1973 . — — — . " New names and new taxa of fungi proposed by Fred Jay Seaver ( 1877 – 1970 ) . 1 – 42 " . Unpublished manuscript . The New York Botanical Garden .
1973 . — — — . " Publications of Fred Jay Seaver , 1877 – 1970 . 1 – 21 " . Unpublished manuscript , The New York Botanical Garden .
1976 [ 5 Jan 1977 ] . Carey ST , Rogerson CT . " Taxonomy and morphology of a new species of Hypocrea on Marasmius " . Brittonia 28 : 381 – 389 .
1976 . Rogerson CT , ed . " Commemorating the 70th Birthday of Dr. Josiah L. Lowe " . Mem New York Bot Gard 28 : 24 .
1977 . Hervey A , Rogerson CT , Leong I. " Studies of fungi cultivated by ants " . Brittonia 29 : 226 – 236 .
1977 . Malloch D , Rogerson CT . " Pulveria , a new genus of Xylariaceae ( Ascomycetes ) " . Can J Bot 55 : 1505 – 1509 .
1978 . — — — , — — — . " Fungi of the Canadian boreal forest region : Catulus aquilonius gen. et sp. nov . , a hyperparasite on Seuratia millardetii " . Can J Bot 56 : 2344 – 2347 .
1978 . Rogerson CT . " Bibliography and index ( Compositae tribe Mutisiae , tribe Senecioneae , tribe Vernoniaea ) " . N Am Flora II , 10 : 203 – 245 .
1981 . Berthier J , Rogerson CT . " A new North American species : Physalacria cryptomeriae " . Mycologia 73 : 643 – 648 .
1981 . Carey ST , Rogerson CT . " Morphology and cytology of Hypomyces polyporinus and its Sympodiophora anamorph " . Bull Torrey Bot Club 108 : 12 – 24 .
1981 . Rossman AY , Rogerson CT . " A new species of Hypomyces ( Hypocreaceae ) with phragmosporous ascospores " . Brittonia 33 : 382 – 384 .
1983 . Barr ME , Rogerson CT . " Two new species of Loculoascomycetes " . Mycotaxon 17 : 247 – 252 .
1983 . Carey ST , Rogerson CT . " Arnoldiomyces clavisporus , the anamorph of Hypomyces polyporinus " . Bull Torrey Club 110 : 224 – 225 .
1983 . Nair MSR , Carey ST , Rogerson CT . " Illudoids from Omphalotus olivascens and Clitocybe subilludens " . Mycologia 75 : 920 – 922 .
1984 [ May 1986 ] . Samuels GJ , Rogerson CT . " New ascomycetes from Amazonas " . Acta Amazonica 14 ( 1 / 2 Suppl . ) : 81 – 93 .
1984 . Buck WR , Rogerson CT . " Bibliography . Sphagnopsida , Sphagnaceae " . N Am Flora II 11 : 161 – 175 .
1984 . Rogerson CT , Thiers BM . " Fungi from the A.O. Garrett Herbarium , University of Utah ( UT ) " . Brittonia 36 : 293 – 296 .
1984 . Samuels GJ , Rogerson CT , Rossman AY , Smith JD . " Nectria tuberculariformis , Nectriella muelleri , Nectriella sp . , and Hyponectria sceptri : low @-@ temperature tolerant , alpine @-@ boreal fungal antagonists " . Can J Bot 62 : 1896 – 1903 .
1984 . — — — , — — — . " Nectria atrofusca and its anamorph , Fusarium staphyeae , a parasite of Staphylea trifolia in Eastern North America " . Brittonia 36 : 81 – 895 .
1985 . Illman WI , Rogerson CT , White GP . " Disposition of Stilbum rhizomorpharum under Pseudographiella " . Mycologia 77 : 662 – 665 .
1985 . Rogerson CT , Samuels GJ . " Species of Hypomyces and Nectria occurring on discomycetes " . Mycologia 77 : 763 – 783 .
1986 . Barr ME , Rogerson CT , Smith SJ , Haines JH . " An annotated catalog of the pyrenomycetes described by Charles H. Peck " . Bull New York State Mus Nat Hist 459 : 1 – 74 .
1986 . Rogerson CT . " [ Review of ] Microfungi on land plants . An identification handbook , by Martin B. Ellis and J. Pamela Ellis " . Bull Torrey Club 113 : 61 .
1988 . Samuels GJ , Barr ME , Rogerson CT . " Xenomeris saccifolii and Gibbera sphyrospermi , new tropical species of the Venturiaceae ( Fungi , Pleosporales ) " . Brittonia 40 : 392 – 397 .
1989 . Rogerson CT , Samuels GJ . " Boleticolous species of Hypomyces " . Mycologia 81 : 413 – 432 .
1989 . — — — , — — — . " Polyporicolous species of Hypomyces " . Mycologia 85 : 231 – 272 .
1989 . Samuels GJ , Rogerson CT . " Endocreas lasiacidis and Sinosphaeria lasiacidis , new tropical ascomycetes " . Stud Mycol 31 : 145 – 149 .
1990 . Rogerson CT , Harris RC , Samuels GJ . " Fungi collected by Bassett Maguire and Collaborators in the Guayana Highland , 1944 – 1983 " . Mem New York Bot Gard 64 : 130 – 164 .
1990 . Samuels GJ , Doi Y , Rogerson CT . " Hypocreales " . Mem New York Bot Gard 59 : 6 – 108 .
1990 . — — — , Rogerson CT . " Some Ascomycetes ( Fungi ) occurring on tropical ferns " . Brittonia 42 : 105 – 115 .
1990 . — — — , Rogerson CT . " New Ascomycetes from the Guayana Highland " . Mem New York Bot Gard 64 : 165 – 183 .
1991 . — — — , Rossman AY , Lowen R , Rogerson CT . " A synopsis of Nectria subgen . Dialonectria " . Mycol Pap 164 : 1 – 48 .
1992 . Rogerson CT , Samuels GJ . " New species of Hypocreales ( Fungi , Ascomycetes ) " . Brittonia 44 : 256 – 263 @.@ doi : 10 @.@ 2307 / 2806843
1993 . — — — , Stephenson SL . " Myxomyceticolous fungi " . Mycologia 85 : 456 – 469 .
1994 . — — — , Samuels GJ . " Agaricolous species of Hypomyces " . Mycologia 86 : 839 – 866 .
1995 . Braun U , Rogerson CT . " Phytoparasitic hyphomycetes from Utah ( USA ) — II " . Sydowia 47 : 141 – 145 .
1995 . — — — , Rogerson CT . " Phytoparasitic Hyphomycetes from Utah ( USA ) " . Mycotaxon 46 : 263 – 274 .
1996 . Rogerson CT , Samuels GJ . " Mycology at The New York Botanical Garden ( 1895 – 1995 ) " . Brittonia 48 : 389 – 398 @.@ doi : 10 @.@ 1007 / BF02805308
1999 . Barr ME , Rogerson CT . " Some loculoascomycete species from the Great Basin , USA " . Mycotaxon 71 : 473 – 480 .
1999 . Rossman , Samuels GJ , Rogerson CT , Lowen R. " Genera of Bionectriaceae , Hypocreaceae , and Nectriaceae ( Hypocreales , Ascomycetes ) " . Stud Mycol 42 : 1 – 248 .
= = External Links = =
Clark T. Rogerson , Expert on Fungi , Is Dead at 82 - The New York Times Obituaries
|
= Felix Leiter =
Felix Leiter is a fictional character created by Ian Fleming in the James Bond series . The character is an operative for the CIA and Bond 's friend . After losing a leg and his hand to a shark attack , Leiter joined the Pinkerton Detective Agency . The name " Felix " comes from the middle name of Fleming 's friend Ivor Bryce , while the name " Leiter " was the surname of Fleming 's friend Marion Oates Leiter Charles , then wife of Thomas Leiter .
Leiter also appeared in novels by continuation authors , as well as ten films and one television programme , Casino Royale , where the character became a British agent , Clarence Leiter , played by Michael Pate . In the Eon Productions series of films , Leiter has been portrayed by Jack Lord , Cec Linder , Rik Van Nutter , Norman Burton , David Hedison , John Terry and Jeffrey Wright ; in the independent production Never Say Never Again , the part was played by Bernie Casey . Leiter has also appeared in the video game 007 Legends .
= = Novels = =
Felix Leiter , James Bond 's CIA ally and friend , played a part in six of the Fleming novels ; he is introduced in Casino Royale as being thin , tall , about thirty @-@ five years old and a former member of the U.S. Marine Corps who was working with the Joint Intelligence Staff of NATO . Fleming named the character after two of his American friends : " Felix " was Ivar Bryce 's middle name , whilst Tommy Leiter was a mutual friend . Academic Kerstin Jütting describes Leiter as " a cool and quiet no @-@ nonsense character who knows 007 's strengths and weaknesses well " . Physically , Fleming describes Leiter in Casino Royale : " a mop of straw @-@ coloured hair lent his face a boyish look which closer examination contradicted " .
Leiter is Bond 's saviour in Casino Royale , providing him with 32 million francs when Bond has been cleaned out by SMERSH paymaster Le Chiffre , calling it " Marshall Aid " . Media historian James Chapman notes that Bond 's relationship with Leiter represented the Special Relationship between Britain and America , although the American Leiter is in the subordinate position to the British Bond . Academic Jeremy Black agrees , although points out that the Bond and Leiter relationship suggested " a far smoother working of the Anglo @-@ American alliance than was in fact the case . " Academic and writer Kingsley Amis , in his exploration of Bond in The James Bond Dossier , considered that this view of Leiter was partly because of Fleming 's writing , noting that " Leiter , such a nonentity as a piece of characterization ... he , the American , takes orders from Bond , the Britisher , and that Bond is constantly doing better than he " . Bond scholars Bennett and Woollacott note that although the two men share adventures , it is Bond who leads , not Leiter . Leiter 's role is to " suppl [ y ] Bond with technical support and hardware , add ... muscle where needed and money " .
Fleming 's second novel , Live and Let Die shows that in his early twenties , Leiter wrote a few pieces on Dixieland jazz for the New York Amsterdam News . Bond scholar John Griswold notes that in the original draft of the story , Fleming killed Leiter off in the shark attack ; when Naomi Burton , Fleming 's US agent with Curtis Brown , protested about the death of the character , Fleming relented and Leiter lived , albeit missing an arm and half a leg . Espionage scholar Rupert Allason , writing as Nigel West , noted that Leiter 's involvement in a domestic US matter was a breach of the CIA 's charter , as laid out in the National Security Act of 1947 .
After the shark attack , Leiter returned in Diamonds Are Forever with a hook for his missing hand and a prosthetic leg ; as he had lost his gun hand , he was no longer with the CIA , but employed as a private detective by Pinkerton Detective Agency , although he was on the reserve of the CIA and was recalled for Goldfinger , Thunderball and The Man with the Golden Gun . Fleming had flown to the US in August 1954 to research the background to Diamonds Are Forever ; his friend Ernest Cuneo introduced him to a rich socialite , William Woodward , Jr . , who drove a Studillac — a Studebaker with a powerful Cadillac engine . According to Bond scholar Henry Chancellor , " the speed and comfort of it impressed Ian , and he shamelessly appropriated this car " for Leiter to drive in the novel .
For the post @-@ Fleming continuation Bond authors , Leiter has also appeared on a periodic basis . After John Gardner took over writing the James Bond novel series , Leiter made an occasional appearance and the novel For Special Services introduces his daughter , Cedar Leiter , who is also a CIA officer ( and briefly Bond 's romantic conquest ) . Raymond Benson also included Leiter 's character in some of his novels , including The Facts of Death and Doubleshot . Similarly the more recent continuation Bond novels — the 2008 Sebastian Faulks novel Devil May Care and the 2011 novel Carte Blanche by Jeffery Deaver — both contained the character .
= = Television = =
= = = Michael Pate : 1954 = = =
The first screen interpretation of the Leiter character was in the 1954 CBS one @-@ hour television adventure Casino Royale , broadcast as part of the dramatic anthology series Climax Mystery Theater , which ran between October 1954 and June 1958 . For the American audience the Bond character from Casino Royale was re @-@ cast as an American agent — " Card Sense " Jimmy Bond , played by Barry Nelson — described as working for " Combined Intelligence " , supported by the British agent , Clarence Leiter ; " thus was the Anglo @-@ American relationship depicted in the book reversed for American consumption " , according to Jeremy Black . Leiter , who was an agent for Station S , was a combination of the novel 's Felix Leiter and René Mathis and was played by the Australian actor Michael Pate .
= = Films = =
= = = Eon Productions films = = =
= = = = Jack Lord : 1962 = = = =
Jack Lord was the first Felix Leiter , appointed into the role for the first Bond film , Dr. No . Eon Productions started filming the series out of the order written by Fleming ( Fleming had started with Casino Royale , with Dr. No being the sixth novel ) . Leiter was not present in the Fleming novel , but the writers added the character to the film . Bond scholars Smith and Lavington consider Leiter to offer negligible help to Bond , largely because there is no role for him in the novel , a point with which continuation Bond author Raymond Benson agrees , noting that he is " extraneous to the dramatic action " . Jeremy Black agrees , although points out that the inclusion of Leiter was a sign of American influence in the Caribbean .
Lord played Leiter in a " swaggering " fashion , according to Smith and Lavington , and they considered him " excellent , an effective American version of James Bond . " Bond scholars Pfeiffer and Worrall agree , stating that Lord 's was " one of the most satisfying portrayals of Leiter " .
Featured in
Dr. No ( 1962 )
= = = = Cec Linder : 1964 = = = =
When the role of Leiter was brought back for the third Bond film , Goldfinger , in 1964 , Lord was again approached to play Leiter ; according to screenwriter Richard Maibaum , Lord demanded co @-@ star billing with Connery , a bigger role and more money to reprise the role . The producers instead decided to recast the role , initially with Austin Willis . At the last minute , Cec Linder switched roles with Willis , who played cards with Goldfinger . Linder was the only actor actually on location in Miami . Raymond Benson considers that Linder was " miscast " as Leiter because he looked too old : " he looks like Bond 's uncle rather than his best friend . "
Featured in
Goldfinger ( 1964 )
= = = = Rik Van Nutter : 1965 = = = =
The fourth film in the Eon series , Thunderball , was the third to portray Leiter and the producers chose a third actor to play the role , Rik Van Nutter . Van Nutter was married to Swedish actress Anita Ekberg at the time and the couple had dined with Cubby and Dana Broccoli after Ekberg had appeared in the Eon @-@ produced Call Me Bwana . Van Nutter was subsequently offered the Leiter role without an audition , although he did have screen tests with some of the Bond girls .
According to Pfeiffer and Worrall , Leiter had a more proactive role in Thunderball and Van Nutter was " an inspired choice for the role " . Smith and Lavington agree and consider that Van Nutter 's " relaxed and charming performance works well . " Benson also concurs , but complains that although Van Nutter is a piece of successful casting , " the script ... does not give the character any real depth " .
Featured in
Thunderball ( 1965 )
= = = = Norman Burton : 1971 = = = =
For the 1971 instalment , Diamonds Are Forever , Eon chose Norman Burton . Burton 's Leiter was more amusing and more exasperated than the previous incarnations of the role .
Raymond Benson again considers that the Leiter role was miscast and considered Burton to be " overweight and too old for the role " . Smith and Lavington describe him as " an elderly , portly man in a government @-@ issue suit ... anonymous , orthodox " . Pfeiffer and Worrall agree , thinking that Burton was " the least likely incarnation " of Leiter .
Featured in
Diamonds Are Forever ( 1971 )
= = = = David Hedison : 1973 & 1989 = = = =
In 1973 the Bond franchise introduced a new main lead , Roger Moore , who played Bond for the next twelve years in seven films . To play the part of Leiter in Live and Let Die , an old friend of Moore 's was chosen , David Hedison . Pfeiffer and Worrall consider that this friendship comes through , with " genuine chemistry " between the two . Hedison played the role with an understated charm , although the script did not give Leiter much to do . Raymond Benson thought him miscast , but acknowledged that " he 's the best Leiter next to Rik Van Nutter . "
Hedison returned to play Leiter sixteen years later in Licence to Kill and after another actor had also been in the role . Hedison did not expect to return to the role , saying " I was sure that ... [ Live and Let Die ] would be my first – and last " and Glen was reluctant to cast the 61 @-@ year @-@ old actor , since the role even had a scene parachuting . Hedison was the only actor to play Leiter twice until Jeffrey Wright appeared in both Casino Royale and Quantum of Solace .
Leiter is central to the plot of Licence to Kill . Now working with the DEA , Leiter and Bond work together to capture drug lord Franz Sanchez on the way to Leiter 's wedding , at which Bond serves as Best Man . A short time , Leiter and his wife Della are attacked by an escaped Sanchez , who kills Della and tortures Leiter by lowering him into a tank containing a great white shark . Bond finds Leiter maimed but alive , and seeks revenge on Sanchez , paving the way for the rest of the film 's plot . At the film 's end , Leiter is shown recovering in the hospital .
Featured in
Live and Let Die ( 1973 )
Licence to Kill ( 1989 )
= = = = John Terry : 1987 = = = =
Following Hedison 's first outing in 1973 in Live and Let Die , the Leiter role did not appear again until the 1987 film The Living Daylights , by which time Bond was being played by Timothy Dalton ; the role was taken up by John Terry .
Smith and Lavington consider that , although the scene between Bond and Leiter sees warmth in the relationship between them , " it is too fleeting to have any impact " . Pfeiffer and Worrall agree on the briefness of Leiter 's role in the film , although they consider that Terry has " virtually no chemistry with Dalton " .
Featured in
The Living Daylights ( 1987 )
= = = = Jeffrey Wright : 2006 & 2008 = = = =
Casino Royale rebooted the series , which allowed Leiter to re @-@ appear ; he and Bond meet for the first time in the film . He appeared again in Quantum of Solace ; early script drafts for Quantum of Solace gave Wright a larger role , but his screen time was restricted by on @-@ set rewrites . Leiter is mentioned in Spectre .
Featured in
Casino Royale ( 2006 )
Quantum of Solace ( 2008 )
= = = Non @-@ Eon films = = =
= = = = Bernie Casey : 1983 = = = =
In 1983 Kevin McClory , one of the original writers of the novel Thunderball , produced Never Say Never Again , a re @-@ make of the 1965 film Thunderball . McClory 's rights to the film were held separate to those of Eon Productions , although he had been one of the producers for the original Thunderball adaptation . The film marked the return of Sean Connery to the Bond role ; he spoke with Bernie Casey , saying that as the Leiter role was never remembered by audiences , using a black Leiter might make him more memorable . Smith and Lavington consider Casey to be " the most compelling Felix Leiter since Jack Lord " , although again there was little in the script for him to do .
Featured in
Never Say Never Again ( 1983 )
= = Video games = =
In the 2012 game 007 Legends , Canadian @-@ American actor Demetri Goritsas provided his likeness and voice for the character of Leiter .
= = Analysis = =
The New York Times has referred to Leiter as James Bond 's " sidekick " and documented that his evolving character has paralleled Bond 's fortunes as both a cinematic icon and a hero of the Cold War and its aftermath .
|
= Exposé ( Lost ) =
" Exposé " is the 14th episode of the 3rd season and 63rd episode overall of the American Broadcasting Company ( ABC ) ' s serial drama television series Lost . It aired on ABC in the United States and on CTV in Canada on March 28 , 2007 . The episode was written by Edward Kitsis and Adam Horowitz and directed by Stephen Williams .
The episode 's story focuses on couple Nikki Fernandez ( Kiele Sanchez ) and Paulo ( Rodrigo Santoro ) . The flashbacks reveal their lives before arriving on the island , and what they have been doing between day one and day eighty @-@ one . Boone Carlyle ( Ian Somerhalder ) returned for the fifth time since his death late in the first season . Furthermore , Ethan ( William Mapother ) and Dr. Arzt ( Daniel Roebuck ) reprised their guest roles in flashbacks . The episode got a mixed response from critics and fans , with positive reception considering it an entertaining send @-@ off to two unpopular characters , but negative reviews deeming it unnecessary .
= = Plot = =
= = = Flashbacks = = =
The flashbacks begin with Nikki Fernandez ( Kiele Sanchez ) acting in a popular , Charlie 's Angels @-@ like TV show Exposé filmed in Sydney , in which she is a guest star . She is also having an affair with the septuagenarian executive producer , Howard L. Zuckerman , who is very wealthy , while Paulo ( Rodrigo Santoro ) works as his chef . Paulo kills Zuckerman by poisoning his food , and the couple steals his diamonds , which are worth $ 8 million . The couple plan on returning to the United States on Oceanic Flight 815 , encountering Boone Carlyle ( Ian Somerhalder ) and Shannon Rutherford ( Maggie Grace ) at the airport . Upon surviving the plane crash , Nikki and Paulo realize that they have lost the bag with the diamonds . Nikki consults Dr. Leslie Arzt ( Daniel Roebuck ) , who tells her of a spider with the ability to paralyze people . He also gives her a trajectory map which leads them to The Pearl and the Nigerian plane ; they explore neither . When Kate Austen ( Evangeline Lilly ) mentions that she found luggage from the plane in a lake , Paulo finds the diamonds , but does not tell Nikki . Instead , he hides them in the toilet at The Pearl and overhears a conversation between Juliet Burke ( Elizabeth Mitchell ) and Ben Linus ( Michael Emerson ) . The two accidentally leave behind a walkie @-@ talkie that Paulo takes . Later , when Sayid Jarrah ( Naveen Andrews ) , John Locke ( Terry O 'Quinn ) , Desmond Hume ( Henry Ian Cusick ) , Nikki and Paulo visit The Pearl , Paulo retrieves the diamonds by pretending to use the bathroom . Nikki figures out that Paulo has found the diamonds without telling her and decides to lure him into a trap . When he denies that he has the diamonds she unleashes one of the paralyzing spiders on him . She finds the diamonds and Paulo apologizes , claiming that he did it so that she would not end their relationship . As Nikki stands in a state of regret , the pheromones of the female spider attract a group of the male spiders of the same species and she is bitten on her leg . She buries the diamonds and sprints to the beach .
= = = On the beach = = =
Nikki then runs onto the beach , before collapsing where Hugo " Hurley " Reyes ( Jorge Garcia ) and James " Sawyer " Ford ( Josh Holloway ) are playing ping pong . As Hurley and Sawyer rush to her , she says something barely audible . She is soon pronounced dead . Hurley and Sawyer try to recount what Nikki said before she died and come to the conclusion that she said , " Paulo lies " , although she actually said " paralyzed " . Sawyer and Hurley begin an investigation and find Paulo lying lifeless in the jungle . Sawyer finds a walkie talkie in Nikki and Paulo 's tent , and concludes they were working with the Others , due to the similarity . Hurley does not think the Others are near their camp , but Sun @-@ Hwa Kwon ( Yunjin Kim ) reminds them that she was abducted nearby ( unaware that it was Charlie who grabbed her ) . Sawyer tries to calm them down and says he will do a perimeter sweep . Meanwhile , Charlie Pace ( Dominic Monaghan ) , who feels guilty , confesses to Sun that it was he who attempted to kidnap her . Sawyer returns , having found the diamonds , and the other survivors accuse him of being the killer because Desmond saw him arguing with Nikki just that morning . He gives the diamonds to Sun , but she later confronts him about kidnapping her and returns the diamonds because " they 're worthless here . " The survivors then hold a funeral for Nikki and Paulo , where Sawyer pours the pouch of diamonds into the grave . Nikki 's eyelids open just as Hurley and Sawyer are filling the grave , burying her and Paulo alive .
= = Production = =
" Exposé " was the fourteenth episode of the series directed by Stephen Williams , and the ninth written by the screenwriting duo Edward Kitsis and Adam Horowitz . Kitsis and Horowitz intended to make the episode an homage to film noir , with two con artists who did the " perfect crime " , that eventually goes wrong due to them getting stranded on the island . A reference to the genre was added by having Sawyer read Agatha Christie 's Evil Under the Sun . A recurring theme is Nikki and Paulo 's selfishness , which eventually leads to their deaths due to them being greedy and " too focused on their own petty needs to really care about anyone else " .
The flashbacks of " Exposé " would show how Nikki and Paulo were always on the island by making them appear in important previous events . The scene set after the crash mixes actual scenes and unused footage of the pilot episode , along with new footage shot in the original location of Mokulēʻia beach . Since not all pieces of the wreckage were found , a few were added with greenscreen effects . The scene with Jack 's speech intersperses new scenes with footage from " White Rabbit " . Other continuity nods were considered , such as Paulo finding Shannon 's inhaler from " Confidence Man " , Nikki seeing Boone and Locke carrying shovels to excavate the hatch , and a filmed , but deleted scene where Nikki sees the sky turning purple .
During season one , the writers had the idea of introducing a character who was an actress and also created the outline of the fictional show where she would work Exposé . The " long , daunting hours " on the writer 's room would sometimes lead to creating episodes of the fictional show , with ten being done when the Nikki @-@ centered episode was written . Originally , there was going to be an entire flashback episode in which Nikki was going to be a crime @-@ fighting stripper , only to have it revealed that she was actually an actress . The idea was shortened to just one flashback spot . The role of Mr. LaShade was written with Billy Dee Williams in mind and , when he was cast , the color scheme of LaShade 's hat was chosen in reference to his costume worn in his famed role as Lando Calrissian .
Nikki and Paulo were killed off due to being disliked by much of Lost 's fan base . Show runner Damon Lindelof admitted that the couple were " universally despised " by fans . Lindelof explained that " back when we ( the producers ) had more good faith with the audience , we could have gotten away with these shenanigans . Given the backlash against them , we had to clean up the mess . " The decision to kill them off in one flashback episode was decided by the producers in December 2006 . It was also stated by Lindelof and fellow show runners Carlton Cuse that despite Nikki and Paulo 's bad reception , they felt the episode was necessary to explain their original plan of introducing former background characters to the main cast . Lindelof suggested having the characters be buried alive . Although actress Kiele Sanchez said that she wasn 't bothered by the general dislike of her character , she was very nervous during the burial scene , because she has claustrophobia . Speculation about the duo 's deaths began months before the actual episode aired . Santoro said in an interview with Brazilian Rolling Stone that his character was going to die in the middle of the third season . Another clue about the deaths came when it was announced that Sanchez was signed on to film a fall 2007 pilot for the ABC show , Football Wives .
= = Reception = =
" Exposé " had 11 @.@ 25 million viewers upon its first US broadcast , being ABC 's third most watched show of the week – behind the performance show and results of Dancing with the Stars – and placing Lost at the eighteenth spot on the overall weekly ranking . It also attracted 1 @.@ 089 million viewers in Canada , being the fourth most watched show of the night , and 961 @,@ 000 viewers in the United Kingdom , being Sky One 's most watched show of the week .
" Exposé " received mixed reviews . Lindelof admitted that the episode " created a varying degree of fan reaction " , with some fans even describing it as " filler " . But Cuse defended " Exposé " , saying it was " a little bit more of an anthology episode for the show " , and that he felt that " it 's unrealistic , in a show that is now 72 episodes in , that every episode is gonna be , you know , chock full of plot momentum . I think it 's entirely reasonable , and we sort of by necessity have to have episodes that aren 't super @-@ narratively , you know , propelled . " Daniel of TMZ.com said that the episode " was a complete waste of time " , and that although he " wanted Nikki and Paulo to die " , he did not think their deaths warranted an entire episode . Entertainment Weekly 's Jeff Jensen wrote that although he liked the cameo appearance of Billy Dee Williams , he did not think " Exposé " " will do much to change anyone 's minds " about Nikki and Paulo , who were already unpopular characters . Brooke Tarnoff , a writer for UGO.com , wrote that she was " embarrassed " for Lost . New York Magazine put " Exposé " at the top of its list of " Twenty Most Pointless Lost Episodes " . However , TV Guide 's Matt Roush very much praised the episode for " weaving flashbacks that appeared to be posthumous but really weren 't while providing clever new angles on classic Lost moments from previous seasons " , Roush went on to say that " Exposé " was " a welcome reminder that sometimes these producers really do seem to know what they 're doing after all . " Chris Carabott of IGN also gave a positive review , stating that while Nikki and Paulo had no real impact on the overall storyline , " their ultimate end made for an entertaining hour of television " . The IGN staff later ranked " Exposé " 58th out of the 113 Lost episodes , describing it as " one of the series ' darkest and most fun episodes " .
|
= Bombing of Banski dvori =
The bombing of Banski dvori ( Croatian : bombardiranje Banskih dvora ) was a Yugoslav Air Force strike on the Banski dvori in Zagreb — the official residence of the President of Croatia at the time of the Croatian War of Independence . The bombing occurred on 7 October 1991 , as a part of a Yugoslav Air Force attack on a number of targets in the Croatian capital city . One civilian was reported killed by strafing of the Tuškanac city district and four were injured .
At the time of the attack , Croatian President Franjo Tuđman was in the building , meeting Stjepan Mesić , then President of the Presidency of Yugoslavia and Ante Marković , then Prime Minister of Yugoslavia , but none of them were injured in the attack . In immediate aftermath , Tuđman remarked that the attack was apparently meant to destroy the Banski dvori as the seat of the statehood of Croatia . Marković blamed Yugoslav Defence Secretary General Veljko Kadijević , who denied the accusation and suggested the event was staged by Croatia . The attack prompted international condemnation and consideration of economic sanctions against Yugoslavia . The presidential residence was immediately moved to the Presidential palace , which was formerly known as Villa Zagorje . The Banski dvori sustained significant damage , but repairs started only in 1995 . The building later became the seat of the Croatian Government .
= = Background = =
In 1991 , the first multi @-@ party elections were held in Croatia , with Franjo Tuđman 's win raising nationalist tensions further in an already tense SFR Yugoslavia . The Serb politicians left the Sabor and declared the autonomy of areas that would soon become part of the unrecognized Republic of Serbian Krajina , which had the intention on achieving independence from Croatia . As tensions rose , Croatia declared independence in June 1991 . However , the declaration was suspended for three months , until 8 October 1991 . The suspension came about as the European Economic Community and the Conference on Security and Cooperation in Europe urged Croatia that it would not be recognized as an independent state because of the possibility of a civil war in Yugoslavia . The tensions escalated into the Croatian War of Independence when the Yugoslav People 's Army and various Serb paramilitaries mobilized inside Croatia . On 3 October , the Yugoslav Navy renewed its blockade of the main ports of Croatia . This move followed months of standoff and the capture of Yugoslav military installations in Dalmatia and elsewhere . These events are now known as the Battle of the barracks . That resulted in the capture of significant quantities of weapons , ammunition and other equipment by the Croatian Army , including 150 armoured personnel carriers , 220 tanks and 400 artillery pieces of 100 @-@ millimetre ( 3 @.@ 9 in ) caliber or larger , 39 barracks and 26 other facilities including two signals centres and a missile base . It also coincided with the end of Operation Coast @-@ 91 , in which the Yugoslav forces failed to occupy the coastline in an attempt to cut off Dalmatia 's access to the rest of Croatia .
= = Warning of the attack = =
According to Martin Špegelj , the Defence Minister of Croatia between August 1990 and July 1991 , the Croatian Army was informed by a Yugoslav Air Force Željava Air Base @-@ based source about a top secret mission prepared for the next day , but Špegelj claims that the information was not taken seriously due to lack of details . Other sources assert that a warning was conveyed by Croatian security and intelligence system services , indicating the Soviet Union and its then @-@ president Mikhail Gorbachev as the source of the information . At midnight during the night of the 6 – 7 October , the Soviet ambassador to Belgrade was reported to have received government instructions to warn the Yugoslav military against attacking Zagreb .
Tuđman spent the night in a Croatian Air Force and Air Defence command post — a tunnel running under the Gornji Grad — where information on the movement of Yugoslav aircraft was relayed . In the morning , Yugoslav General Andrija Rašeta informed the press that his superiors may decide to attack Zagreb as a form of pressure on Tuđman . Three air raid alarms were sounded during the morning of 7 October because the Yugoslav Air Force deployed as many as 30 to 40 combat jets in the Zagreb area , and numerous tip @-@ offs of imminent air raids were received from Yugoslav military bases . During the morning , Yugoslav Air Force jets were observed taking off from bases near Pula and Udbina in Croatia and Banja Luka in Bosnia and Herzegovina . No flights were recorded taking off from Željava Air Base , presumably because of low cloud cover in the area . At 1 : 30 pm , the Croatian Army captured a Yugoslav military communications centre and radar post near Velika Buna , south of Zagreb , hindering Yugoslav Air Force control of aircraft in the area . It is believed that the event affected the timing of the raid on the Banski dvori , the official residence of the President of Croatia at the time .
= = Bombing = =
Approximately at noon of 7 October 1991 , Tuđman met with Stjepan Mesić , then President of the Presidency of Yugoslavia and Ante Marković , then Prime Minister of Yugoslavia , both ethnic Croats , in the Banski dvori . The purpose of the meeting was to persuade Marković to leave his position as the head of the Yugoslav federal government , which he appeared reluctant to do , and to discuss the need for Croatia 's independence . The meeting was adjourned for lunch that was to be attended by presidential aides . Tuđman made another effort at persuading Marković , trying to appeal to his Croatian origin . The three left the lunch as dessert was being served and moved into the president 's office to continue their discussion . After Tuđman left the room , everyone else followed .
Just after 3 pm , minutes after the lunch had ended , the Yugoslav Air Force attacked the Banski dvori and other targets in the Gornji Grad area of Zagreb and elsewhere in the Croatian capital city , two or three minutes after everyone had left the hall where the lunch was hosted . Zagreb was attacked by approximately 30 Yugoslav jets , however the Gornji Grad raid was carried out by two Mikoyan @-@ Gurevich MiG @-@ 21s carrying eight Munja 128 @-@ millimetre ( 5 @.@ 0 in ) unguided missiles each and two Soko G @-@ 4 Super Galebs carrying two Mark 82 bombs each . The Banski dvori building was struck by the Mark 82 bombs set off by proximity fuzes 5 metres ( 16 feet ) above the target , scoring two direct hits .
One civilian was reported killed by the aircraft strafing of the Tuškanac area of Gornji Grad . None of the three leaders was injured , but four people were wounded in the attack . The facade of the Banski dvori and nearly all its rooms were damaged , and a part of its roof structure was destroyed . The first estimates of the damage inflicted on the building and its contents ranged between 2 and 3 million US dollars . Apart from the Banski dvori , other buildings in the area sustained damage . Those included the Croatian Parliament building , the Old City Hall , St. Mark 's Church , the Museum of History , the Institute for the protection of cultural monuments as well as residences and offices in the vicinity , including the residence of Swiss consul Werner Mauner .
= = Aftermath = =
In a television report taped and broadcast shortly after the bombing , Tuđman said that the attack appears to have been meant to destroy the Banski dvori as the seat of the statehood of Croatia , and as a decapitation strike . He concluded with statements of resolve to end foreign occupation and rebuild the nation . Marković telephoned his office in Belgrade blaming Yugoslav Defence Secretary General Veljko Kadijević for the attack . He demanded his resignation , threatening not to return to Belgrade until Kadijević was out of office . The Yugoslav Defence Ministry brushed away the accusation , claiming that the attack was not authorized by the central command and suggesting that the event might have been stage @-@ managed by the Croatian authorities . The Yugoslav military later suggested that Croatian leadership planted plastic explosives in the Banski dvori .
In response to the situation , the United States consulate advised American nationals , including journalists , to leave Croatia . The US State Department announced that it would consider introducing economic sanctions against Yugoslavia . Germany condemned the attack , calling it barbarous , and blamed it on the Yugoslav military .
On 8 October 1991 , as the independence declaration moratorium expired , the Croatian Parliament severed all remaining ties with Yugoslavia . That particular session of the parliament was held in the INA building on Pavao Šubić Avenue in Zagreb due to security concerns provoked by the recent air raid ; Specifically , it was feared that the Yugoslav Air Force might attack the parliament building .
After the bombing , the residence of the President of Croatia was moved from the Banski dvori to the Presidential palace — formerly known as Villa Zagorje — in the Pantovčak area of Zagreb . Funds to repair the Banski dvori were approved in 1995 , and the site became the official residence of the Croatian Government . A plaque commemorating the bombing was placed at the Banski dvori facade 20 years after the attack , in 2011 . The bombing is also commemorated by the Zagreb City Museum as the event is featured in the Zagreb in Independent Croatia collection of its permanent display .
|
= Sanctuary ( season 2 ) =
The second season of the Canadian science fiction – fantasy television series Sanctuary premiered on Space in Canada and on Syfy in the United States on October 9 , 2009 , and concluded on the same channel on January 15 , 2010 after 13 episodes . It continues to follow the actions of a secret organization known as the Sanctuary Network , who track down a series of creatures known as abnormals and then bring them to the Sanctuary base for refuge . Amanda Tapping , Robin Dunne , Emilie Ullerup , Ryan Robbins , Agam Darshi and Christopher Heyerdahl are billed in the opening credits as the main cast .
The season starts six weeks after the conclusion of the first season , where the protagonists work to defeat the antagonistic Cabal from destroying the Sanctuary Network , but in the process Ashley Magnus ( Ullerup ) , daughter of Sanctuary leader Helen Magnus ( Tapping ) , dies . Later episodes involve a story arc on Big Bertha , the most dangerous abnormal on Earth .
The second season included a writing team , where as in the first there were only two writers ; series creator Damian Kindler , and Sam Egan ; however Egan left the series after the end of the first season . The producers wanted to expand on the Sanctuary Network by including episodes where the team visit some of their international sites as opposed to only mentioning them . The season was filmed in Vancouver , British Columbia from late March to July 2009 , with some scenes of the finale filmed on location in Tokyo , Japan . Anthem Visual Effects continues to produce the series ' visual effects . Anthem found an exponential growth in their work , with some episodes including as many as 500 visual effects shots .
The first ten episodes were seen by an average of 1 @.@ 55 million viewers in the United States , increasing to 2 @.@ 2 million when time @-@ shifted viewings were taken into account . It received generally positive reviews from critics ; however , some reviewers criticized the abrupt end to the Cabal arc within the first few episodes . The introduction of the new character Kate Freelander ( Darshi ) was also met with mixed reactions , while there was an outpouring of fans against Ashley 's demise . Season two won seven Leo Awards after its release . The season was released on a four @-@ disc set on DVD and Blu @-@ ray Disc on June 9 , 2010 in Region 4 , June 15 in Region 1 , and October 4 in Region 2 .
= = Episodes = =
In this table , the number in the first column refers to the episode 's number within the entire series , whereas the number in the second column indicates the episode 's number within this particular season . " U.S. viewers in millions " refers to how many Americans watched the episode live or on the day of broadcast .
= = Cast = =
= = = Regular cast = = =
The second season began with the original cast from the first season . Amanda Tapping returns as series protagonist Helen Magnus , a 158 @-@ year @-@ old English scientist who runs the Sanctuary Network . The producers intended for Magnus to be more angry and vulnerable following Ashley 's death after the first three episodes . Robin Dunne returns as Will Zimmerman , a former forensic psychiatrist who has been Magnus ' protégé since the pilot . After the first season , the producers made Will more confrontational towards Magnus after feeling more comfortable working with her . Christopher Heyerdahl portrays two characters : Bigfoot , an abnormal who works in the Sanctuary , and John Druitt , Magnus ' former fiancé and father to Ashley . Ryan Robbins returns as Henry Foss . A recurring actor in the first season , Robbins was upgraded to a series regular in the second .
Emilie Ullerup returns as Ashley , Magnus ' daughter who was written out of the series after " Eulogy " . The decision to kill off the character came from an agreement between series creator Damian Kindler and the commissioning networks , as they felt this development would " have the deepest , most dramatic impact on the series and the characters . " Director Martin Wood also believed that her death would add a sense of jeopardy on the show . When Ullerup first heard Ashley would be killed off , she was under the impression that her character was not well received by the fans . After the second season aired however , Ullerup noticed an outpouring from fans against Ashley 's death . Following her death , the producers were willing to develop an Ashley story for the third season .
Agam Darshi joined the cast as Kate Freelander , described by Syfy as " a swindler , con artist and thief who finds herself in an uneasy alliance with Dr. Magnus after her business relationship with the Cabal goes sour . " The producers intended for Kate to be an unlikeable character at first , but by the end of the season have " 99 percent of the people who don 't like Kate , [ ... ] like Kate . " The producers also noted that Kate would begin to prove herself by the third episode " Eulogy " , and the ninth episode " Penance " would become important to Kate 's evolution from " first class bitch " to a more open character when her father 's death is revisited .
= = = Recurring cast and guest appearances = = =
Jonathon Young returns as half @-@ vampire Nikola Tesla . In the tenth episode , the character was " de @-@ vamped " . Kindler felt this development was a bold choice , but also believed his vampirism was the least interesting character trait against being a genius and having electricity @-@ based powers . The producers wanted to make Tesla somewhat heroic by sacrificing that part of him . Like the first season , there were instances where Young was unavailable to shoot some of his scenes due to theatre commitments , so he was replaced by a body double . Christine Chatelain returns as Will 's girlfriend Clara Griffin . Clara was killed off in the second episode ; Tapping viewed the death as an " important casualty " that has resonance to the main characters . Robert Lawrenson made a recurring appearance as Declan McRae , the head of the London Sanctuary following the death of James Watson in the season one finale . The character was originally going to be introduced in " Hero " , but Kindler decided it would be better for the character to be introduced earlier in the season .
The season also introduced numerous guest appearances . Babz Chula appeared as a Cabal scientist in the season premiere , a character that was originally a German male ; Chula accepted Tapping 's offer to appear on the show after they met at an awards ceremony . Christopher Gauthier appears as Walter and his alter @-@ ego , " the Adjuster " , in " Hero " . Gauthier modeled the Adjuster 's voice from Christian Bale 's Batman . The scenes where Walter was worn out from the suit that is killing him mirrored Gauthier 's performance because of the suit he had to wear constantly , which consisted of two sets of jogging outfits , cotton padding , and a wetsuit . Because the producers were impressed with Walter , they wanted him to return in the next season . Mandy May , the wife of director Steven A. Adelson , appears in full prosthetics as the abnormal Jack in " Fragments " ; May previously appeared on the series as the face of Sally the mermaid . In the same episode , Colin Cunningham played the antagonist Gerald . Cunningham was offered a role because he was long @-@ time friends with some of the crew members , as is the same case when it came to casting Anne Marie Loder , wife of director Peter DeLuise , as Rachel . Eureka actress Erica Cerra makes a guest appearance as the telepath Emma in " Veritas " . Cerra 's casting by the producers was " really easy " as it was based on her work in other science fiction productions , especially Eureka .
Tapping 's former Stargate SG @-@ 1 co @-@ star Michael Shanks guest starred as Jimmy in " Penance " . Shanks had an interest in playing Jimmy because of the edgeness of the character . Shanks also suggested Aleks Paunovic , actor and part @-@ time boxer , for the part as the diacon Duke ; being a boxer fit into the character 's violent nature . Paul McGillion returns as Wexford in the season finale . McGillion first appeared as Wexford in the original webisodes , and since then the producers wanted him to return . Tapping believed that placing him in the finale was " the perfect place for him . " Callum Blue was cast as the finale 's antagonist , Edward Forsythe , as the producers believed Blue could portray somebody who is both charming and evil . In the same episode , Sahar Biniaz was cast as Kali ; Biniaz was chosen as the producers believed her physical appearance was goddess @-@ like . Balinder Johal played a cult member ; she was the first person to audition for the part , and the producers cast her as she was spiritual , calm , and soft in her appearance . Johal taught the cast how to speak Hindi in parts of the dialogue . The producers were hoping to cast David Hewlett , another Stargate alum , in a guest spot ; however , this was met by scheduling issues , as he was shooting a film at the time . Despite this the producers were confident they would cast Hewlett " eventually . "
= = Production = =
= = = Development = = =
Syfy officially announced the commissioning of a second season of Sanctuary in November 2008 due to the ratings success of the pilot episode , which totalled over three million viewers . Writer and executive producer Sam Egan left the series after the first season . Andrea Gorfolova , Carrie Mudd and Keith Beedie join creator Damian Kindler , director Martin Wood , and actress Amanda Tapping as the show 's executive producers .
= = = Writing = = =
The second season saw the introduction of a writing team ; Sara Cooper , Alan McCullough and James Thorpe were hired as additional writers to Kindler . Because of the writing team , it allowed Kindler and the team had to hold meetings , where as in the first season it was just him discussing with Egan . One of the goals in writing the second season is to further explore the global Sanctuary Network , because in the Sanctuary universe abnormals can be found all around the world . Some international Sanctuary bases were mentioned in the first season , but in the second season , the producers wished to visit some of those bases . Introducing new Sanctuaries and its characters would widen the breadth of the show . They also wished to start introducing abnormals that cannot walk , including an oil @-@ like abnormal in " End of Nights " and the fire elemental " Penance " . Kindler wrote both parts of " End of Nights " , " Pavor Nocturnus " , " Next Tuesday " , " Haunted " and the second part of " Kali " . McCullough wrote " Hero " , " Veritas " , " Penance " and the first part of " Kali " . Cooper wrote " Eulogy " and " Fragments " , while Thorpe wrote " Sleepers " , and co @-@ wrote " Pavor Nocturnus " and " Haunted " with Kindler .
Following the cliffhanger of the first season finale , Kindler worked to figure out how to conclude the story and managed to write the outlines of the first two episodes in two days . He also consulted with the writing team to look at all the problems on how to conclude the story . " Eulogy " was conceived as an important episode in the lives of the main characters following the aftermath of " End of Nights " , as well as dealing with the loss of Ashley . Kindler said of the episode " it 's one thing to end on a terrible tragic cliffhanger , it 's another in a satisfactory manner lay all things to rest appropriately . " In writing the episode Cooper was knowledgeable on " medical jargon , " as she once wrote for the medical drama series House . In writing his first script " Hero " , McCullough was initially concerned that it would be met by resistance from the producers because of the special effects that would be involved , but was " floored " to find out it was entirely possible because of Anthem Visual Effects . The producers were originally hesitant in including " Hero " as the fourth episode , as it was considered lighter in tone as Magnus was trying to get over Ashley 's death from " Eulogy " . " Pavor Nocturnus " came early in the development of the season , as Kindler wanted to show an episode about Magnus ' work going " horribly wrong , " and explore the opportunity to have the heroes warned that their work has consequences . Described as the " darkest , scariest , creepiest episode ever " by Tapping , it also featured scenes Kindler was never comfortable with , and did not want to show again , including the assault of naked women , and child killings .
" Fragments " was written to be in real time format . Kindler described the episode as a " nice procedural , with heart , " that follows the same style as episodes of the medical drama ER , where " stuff goes down and you have to kind of follow the team in different aspects and see how they 're handling the situation . " The idea behind " Next Tuesday " came when Kindler and Wood noticed a rescue helicopter that was available for rent , prompting the two to come up with a " helicopter story . " The episode also introduces a next level in Will and Magnus ' friendship ; arguments , which would create a " far more realistic thread of tension " between the two characters who " obviously love each other , " and " obviously get along , " which Kindler felt made a " cool character layer . " This was also based on the producers themselves , who despite being good friends , often argue while producing the series .
" Sleepers " was developed because the producers wanted to do a Tesla @-@ centric episode , as they view him as one of their favorite characters . " Haunted " rounds Druitt to " something unexpected . " The producers were aware that Druitt became more insane the more he teleports , and they wanted to find an explanation why , hence the creation of the energy creature . " Kali " was designed as a somewhat " faith versus science " episode , with faith as the winning party , because any host to the macri would need a spiritual understanding to it ; the cult of Kali are religious , so they would make suitable hosts , but Edward Forsythe is a believer of science , and would not make a suitable host as he does not share the cult 's understanding . In the original draft , Magnus would fall ill , but that later changed to Will before the episode was filmed . Some episodes in the season originally followed a different order . " Pavor Nocturnus " was originally going to be the fourth episode , while " Hero " would become the tenth . " Sleepers " would also be in an earlier slot . However , the order changed , partially due to availability issues with Jonathon Young for " Sleepers " . The writers were also working on a Bigfoot @-@ centric episode , where he returns to his home . However , before it could be written , the networks were unhappy with the idea .
= = = Filming = = =
Filming began in late March 2009 , and finished on the end of July the same year . Director Martin Wood wanted to film the season in a more graphic novel style . Wood directed both parts of " End of Nights " , " Hero " , " Next Tuesday " and both parts of " Kali " . Brenton Spencer directed " Eulogy " , " Pavor Nocturnus " and " Penance " . The producers felt that Spencer did " a great job " in making sense on a lot of moves he had to make , as well as understanding that the stories are important in getting things back on track in " Eulogy " . The episode ended up being 17 minutes longer than usual , so much of it had to be cut . Steven A. Adelson directed " Fragments " and " Sleepers " . Amanda Tapping directed " Veritas " , her first directorial credit since the Stargate SG @-@ 1 episode " Resurrection " in 2004 . To direct the scenes featuring Magnus , Tapping rehearsed them to decide how it would be shot , then appointed somebody to handle the cameras . Peter DeLuise directed " Haunted " . Lee Wilson from Anthem Visual Effects directed a scene in " Hero " , while Robbins directed a scene from " Fragments " when his character recorded Rachel 's documentary .
Like the first season , much of the second was filmed on green screen sets in a studio in Burnaby , British Columbia , though also like the first season , there are more instances it was shot on practical sets and on location , most of which taking place just outside the studio . The first part of " End of Nights " had scenes filmed at a large empty warehouse . At some point , Dunne , Kindler , Tapping and Wood were sent to Tokyo to promote the series for Syfy Asia . The four decided to use the opportunity to film some scenes for the finale there , one of which was filmed in the Shibuya crossing . Filming took place just as a monsoon season was kicking in . In addition , they noticed a concert hall and took pictures of one of its angles as they deem the architecture suitable for a Tokyo Sanctuary base .
During the shoot of the first part of " End of Nights " , Kindler loaned his car for a car chase sequence . A later scene involved having the car shot at by snipers . To prevent damage to the car , the bullet holes were made from visual effects . In " Pavor Nocturnus " , the crew had to make the Sanctuary set ruined in a post @-@ apocalyptic state . Set designer Bridget McGuire made the set look " horrible " overnight , but then had to clean it up for the last scene . They also " completely trashed " the street sets in the studio . " Next Tuesday " was considered a bottle episode as it was largely filmed in one set , a water tank some 14 feet deep and 70 feet long , in a studio . The episode was filmed over five 13 @-@ hour days , not including a two @-@ day break midway through , becoming the fastest time filming a Sanctuary episode . Wood directed the episode from the water rather than dry land . The following episode " Penance " was largely filmed at a constructed city set some three and a half blocks in size , which was previously used in the superhero film Watchmen .
The Mumbai slum set in the season finale was constructed on the parking lot of the studio , which took two to three weeks to complete . The finale was filmed during one of the hottest heatwaves to hit British Columbia ; Tapping found that the set was hotter than the average temperature of the actual Mumbai . Three main cameras were used , one of which was crane @-@ operated . 60 extras were used , the highest number used in an Sanctuary episode . For the extras to be used in more than one scene , they wore many different costumes . The streeting area was also limited in size , so the streets were recycled frequently with every scene . The practical sets of the Sanctuary offices and corridors were also redesigned to look like the Mumbai Sanctuary .
= = = Music = = =
Andrew Lockington was appointed the series composer in the season . The producers liked Lockington 's contribution to the score as it was more heightened than it was in the first season . Lockington would also capture the emotional temper when it comes to scoring for the emotional scenes . The composer sampled several instruments from around the world to give the score a more ehtnic , international feel . Some episodes feature the score taking different styles . For instance " Fragments " features a " cool Michael Mann soundtrack . " In " Kali " , the score adopted a more Bollywood @-@ style theme , particularly during Will 's dance sequence . In addition to the score , there were occasional instances where popular music was featured . " End of Nights " featured a track from the Toronto @-@ based hip hop group Down with Webster .
= = = Effects = = =
Anthem Visual Effects resumed their duties of producing the visual effects for the second season . The company 's Lee Wilson noted that their workload for the second season " increased exponentially " over the first , with some episodes containing as many as 500 visual effects shots . The produce decided to " re @-@ jig " the opening title sequence , which they wanted to do each year . The photograph where Magnus meets Albert Einstein changed to aviation pilot Amelia Earhart . The producers noticed that the visual effects have been made " more wonderous than we did the season before , " as they were able to produce certain actions that they never tried before . The steno in " Eulogy " was designed to look adorable , harmless and bunny @-@ like in its infancy , but more menacing when it grows up . In making the Adjuster fly in " Hero " , both visual and practical effects were used ; some of the simpler sequences involved Gauthier hooked up to a velocity rig , but in order to make him fly over the city skyline , a computer @-@ generated avatar was created . The design of the coleanthropus in the same episode was based on a mix of insect and dinosaur .
The second season introduces " moving zorts , " an upgraded technique the film crew used to complete the effect where Druitt teleports . The zorts were used specifically to make the sequences where the cast around Heyerdahl freeze until he leaves the screen . The producers wanted to have the camera move during those shots , as they believed it would be " way cooler to have those zorts on the move . " One of the more difficult moving zorts included a " triple zort " with other characters who could teleport on the same shot in " End of Nights " . The sequence was difficult for Tapping , as she had to carry a prop weighing approximately 73 pounds . A three @-@ dimensional hologram of Rachel 's office was included in " Fragments " ; it was originally intended to feature the hologram throughout the episode , but because doing so would be costly , the producers decided to have one scene with the hologram , so Henry could use it as a blueprint to make an identical office with boxes . For the finale , Anthem decided to make the macri and Big Bertha look like the same creature , though Bertha would be a considerably larger creature . Some scenes involve the macri interacting with real life objects , including clothing . To make a scene where the macri enters a jacket , Wilson used fishing wire to move a sleeve slightly . Big Bertha 's actions meanwhile , were largely made underwater . Anthem found that making underwater effects was difficult because there was a different style of movement . Additionally , Anthem produced a sequence where Wexford launches depth charges from his ship . The producers were looking for stock footage of the dropping depth charges , but they could not find one in high @-@ definition .
In addition to visual effects , other forms of physical effects were produced . In " Hero " , there was a scene where the camera appeared to be shot from inside a water tank . Instead , a water tank was placed between the camera and the actors , where Alka @-@ Seltzer was placed at the bottom to simulate bubbles . Wood previously used this technique in the first season episode " Requiem " as well as in Stargate Atlantis . The Adjuster comic books at the end of the episode were designed by artists who occasionally work for DC Comics . Dunne wore a mullet and a white eye contact lens in " Pavor Nocturnus " for Will 's alternate self in a dystopian future . The vampire squid @-@ related effects for " Next Tuesday " were made possible by visual aids . For the shots where the squid swims on the water surface , the production crew used a radio @-@ controlled boat to mimic a wake . When the squid erupts from the water , they placed a beach ball underwater and released it to mimic the splash . To make the helicopter sway during the battles between the squid and sea scorpion , an air pump was placed below it . However , doing so added the side effect of strong currents , proving difficult for the cast to swim towards the helicopter .
The season also includes stunt work . Weeks before filming " End of Nights " , Heyerdahl practiced sword fighting to be done against the hybrids in the second part . Jonathon Young performed his own stunts for " Sleepers " , including being run over by a car and falling from a car . Both stunts involved harnesses and other safety measures . Young also participated in a fight scene with the other vampire characters , but he ended up injuring two of the actors . In one instance Young hit Chad Rook in the face , which caused a fang insert to puncture his lip .
= = Broadcast and reception = =
= = = Broadcast and ratings = = =
The season commenced airing on Syfy from October 9 , 2009 , and aired nearly every Friday night until the two @-@ part finale " Kali " on January 15 , 2010 . It aired alongside the first season of Stargate Universe . The season started off with 1 @.@ 85 million viewers . Ratings were up 18 per cent in terms of adults aged between 18 and 49 , and 7 per cent in adults aged between 25 and 54 compared to the average of the first season . After " Sleepers " aired , the season was seen by an average of 1 @.@ 55 million viewers per episode . Timeshifted ratings for the season increases from live viewers by 45 @.@ 9 per cent , increasing the average to 2 @.@ 2 million viewers per episode . In Canada , the season premiered on October 9 on Space , a cable channel that specialises in science fiction programs . Each episode would be available on demand on the channel 's website after they aired . It was moved from The Movie Network , which originally aired the first season . In the United Kingdom , the season premiered on ITV4 on October 12 , 2009 , and finished on January 18 , 2010 . It started with 334 @,@ 000 viewers for the first episode , and ended with 268 @,@ 000 for the finale . In Australia , the season started airing on July 12 , 2010 on ABC2 .
= = = Critical reception = = =
The season was met with generally positive reviews . Mark Wilson of About.com believed that after the series was " finding its feet , " and " looks like a harbinger of the new , more confident Sanctuary , " but added " there 's still work to be done . " He also stated " because of the talents involved , the wide @-@ open concept , and the way it 's created , Sanctuary has huge potential . The season 2 premiere is good to great , with a fantastic performance from Tapping and a real escalation of the Cabal threat . Let 's hope that the show continues to develop and evolves , like its characters , into the show it 's capable of becoming . " In a DVD review of the season , Monsters and Critics rated it five out of five , stating that fans " will be very happy " with the season set .
John Sinnott of DVD Talk said that while " the show still has a lot of charm , " he felt it did not live up to the standards of the first season . Sinnott criticised the season for wrapping up the Cabal story line in the first two episodes , expecting it to continue throughout the season , as well as accusing the writers of throwing out " a lot of aspects that made the end of the first season so great . " However , he felt there were good episodes , naming " Sleepers " as his favourite , and also saying he liked " Hero " . He summed up that the season was " still worth watching and enjoyable , just not as gripping as the first season , " believing it comes " recommended " to those who wish to purchase the season box set . David Blackwell of Enterline Media stated that the second season " continues to amaze as a show I first wrote off as bad . I 'm glad I 'm still giving this show a second chance as it continues to deliver great character arcs and stories . " Blackwell named " Pavor Nocturnus " , " Veritas " and " Haunted " as the standout episodes . CliqueClack TV believed the season was a " mixed bag " ; " End of Nights " was considered " the most thrilling hours of television Sanctuary has ever produced , " but the season later " suffered mostly from failure to follow through with the Cabal / Ashley story arc . "
Critical reactions towards the introduction of Kate Freelander was also mixed . Mark Wilson stated " the growling sass @-@ mouth feels out of place . Darshi 's performance is good , at least , so we 'll just have to see if the writers are capable of integrating her into the cast . " John Sinnot meanwhile , started " I always found [ Ashley ] a bit irritating , so it was no big loss . For some reason however , they 've replaced her with another annoying young woman , Kate Freelander . She 's basically the same character as Ashley , tough as nails on the outside but still a vulnerable young woman on the inside , but this time in an Indian shell . "
= = = Awards and nominations = = =
Overall the second season won seven awards , all them Leo Awards , out of 17 nominations from the same ceremony . " Pavor Nocturnus " won three of those wins ; Brenton Spencer won " Best Direction " , Christina McQuarrie won " Best Costume Design " , and Robin Dunne won " Best Lead Performance by a Male " . Christopher Gauthier won " Best Guest Performance by a Male " for his role in " Hero " . Todd Masters , Holland Miller , Harlow Macfarlane , Werner Pretorius and Yukio Okajima won " Best Make @-@ Up " for " Fragments " . Christopher Heyerdahl won " Best Supporting Performance by a Male " for " Haunted " , and Bridget McGuire won " Best Production Design " in the season finale , " Kali Part 2 " . The season was also nominated for " Best Dramatic Series " , but lost to Stargate Universe .
The second part of " Kali " represented the series for " Best Television Series – Drama " in the 2010 Directors Guild of Canada Awards , but lost out to the comedy – drama series Being Erica . Elsewhere , Dunne was also nominated for " Best Male Performance in a 2009 Science Fiction Television Episode " at the 2010 Constellation Awards , but lost out to Doctor Who actor David Tennant , for his role in the episode " The Waters of Mars " , by only one percent of the votes .
= = Home video releases = =
A DVD box set of the second season , published by E1 Entertainment , was first released in Region 1 on June 15 , 2010 , in Region October 2 4 , 2010 , and in Region 4 on June 9 , 2010 It was also released on Blu @-@ ray Disc in the United States and Australia on the same days the DVD counterpart was released . The four @-@ disc set consists of all 13 episodes , each with audio commentaries from cast and crew . The set also includes numerous special featurettes : Amanda Tapping Directs " Veritas " , " Next Tuesday " – Anatomy of an Episode , Sanctuary Visual Effects , Sanctuary for Kids , Behind the Scenes and On the Set , Sanctuary Goes to Japan and Dancing in Mumbai , as well as a presentation from the San Diego Comic @-@ Con International , a blooper reel and photo gallery .
|
= History of Liverpool F.C. ( 1985 – present ) =
The history of Liverpool Football Club from 1985 to the 2015 – 16 Liverpool F.C. season covers the period from the appointment of Kenny Dalglish as manager , the Hillsborough disaster , the club 's return to European competition in 1991 , and the club 's performance in the Premier League .
Dalglish was appointed as manager after Joe Fagan resigned following the Heysel Stadium disaster , which resulted in Liverpool being banned from European competition for an indefinite period . Dalglish had the dual role of player and manager and in his first season the club won the league championship and FA Cup . They failed to retain the title the following season finishing second to neighbours Everton F.C. The club regained the league championship , but lost the final of the FA Cup to Wimbledon F.C. , to prevent a repeat of the double . The following season saw the club involved in one of the worst disasters to occur at an English football stadium . 96 of the club 's supports lost their lives on 15 April 1989 , as a consequence of being crushed against perimeter fencing due to overcrowding at the Leppings Lane End of Hillsborough stadium , during an FA Cup semi @-@ final against Nottingham Forest . Liverpool subsequently won the FA Cup , defeating Everton in the final . They again missed out on the double , as they were beaten to the league championship by Arsenal by goals scored , after the two teams finished the season tied on 76 points . Liverpool regained the league championship in the 1989 – 90 season to win their 18th title . Dalglish resigned the following season , as Liverpool finished second to Arsenal .
Former player Graeme Souness was appointed as manager and he won the FA Cup in his first full season in charge . Despite this , the club finished in sixth position , the first time they had finished outside the top two since 1981 . Liverpool fared no better in the 1992 – 93 season , again finishing sixth . A poor start to the 1993 – 94 season resulted in Souness being replaced by Roy Evans midway through the season . Liverpool improved to fourth the following season and won the Football League Cup . The team improved under Evans ' stewardship finishing fourth , third and fourth in the following season under his reign . They also reached the final of the FA Cup in 1996 but lost to Manchester United . After finishing third during the 1997 – 98 season , Gérard Houllier was appointed co @-@ manager alongside Evans . The arrangement lasted until November when Evans resigned . The team improved under Houllier and after finishing fourth during the 1999 – 2000 season , they won a unique treble of trophies the following season . They finished second to Arsenal during the 2001 – 02 season , their highest league finish since 1991 . The following seasons were disappointing as Liverpool were unable to improve on the previous season 's exploits finishing fifth and fourth respectively . Houllier was sacked at the end of the 2003 – 04 season .
Houllier 's replacement was Rafael Benítez . Liverpool won the UEFA Champions League for the fifth time in Benítez 's first season beating Milan in the final . This was followed by success in the FA Cup the following season . Midway through the following season , Liverpool were bought by Americans Tom Hicks and George Gillett . The club again reached the final of the UEFA Champions League against Milan , but this time , they were defeated by 2 – 1 . The 2008 – 09 season saw Liverpool finish second in the league to Manchester United . Despite this , the following season was a disappointment , as the club finished in seventh place . Benítez left at the end of the season and was replaced by Roy Hodgson . At the start of the 2010 – 11 season , Liverpool were on the verge of bankruptcy . The club were sold to New England Sports Ventures following a high court ruling after the club 's creditors requested the club be sold . Hodgson was replaced by former manager Dalglish midway through the season . He won the Football League Cup in his second spell , but was replaced by Brendan Rodgers after finishing eighth in the 2011 – 12 season .
= = 1985 – 90 : Success at a cost = =
Dalglish became manager following the resignation of Fagan after the Heysel Stadium disaster . He started by replacing long @-@ serving full @-@ backs Phil Neal and Alan Kennedy with Steve Nicol and Jim Beglin . Liverpool began the 1985 – 86 season poorly and were ten points behind Manchester United at the end of September . The club continued to struggle until the end of the season when they won eleven of their last twelve matches , as their rivals were dropping points . Liverpool needed to beat Chelsea in the last game of the season to win the league championship . A goal from Dalglish secured the championship . The club also progressed to the final of the FA Cup , where they faced Everton . Liverpool went behind to a first @-@ half goal from Gary Lineker , but two goals from Ian Rush and a Craig Johnston goal in the second half secured a 3 – 1 victory . Thus , the club had achieved a double of league championship and FA Cup in the same season for the first time .
At the start of the 1986 – 87 season , Rush announced his intention to leave Liverpool for Italian team Juventus when the season was finished . Rush did not want to leave , but the club decided to sell him , due to the expulsion from European competition affecting the club 's cash @-@ flow . Midway through the season , Dalglish signed John Aldridge , who would replace Rush when he left . Despite his impending departure , Rush scored 40 goals . It was not enough to help Liverpool retain the trophies they won the previous season , as they finished second in the league behind Everton , and were knocked out of the FA Cup in the third round by Luton Town . The club did reach the final of the Football League Cup , but they were beaten 2 – 1 by Arsenal . At the end of the season , Dalglish signed Peter Beardsley and John Barnes to improve their attacking options . The signings had the desired effect as Liverpool regained the league championship . They did not suffer defeat until their 29th match against Everton , one of two losses during the season . The club had the chance to complete the double , as they reached the final of the FA Cup against Wimbledon . Although favourites against a club who had only become a member of The Football League eleven years previously , they lost the match 1 – 0 .
Rush returned to Liverpool for the start of the 1988 – 89 season , due to homesickness . Liverpool struggled at the start of the season and by January they were nine points behind leaders Arsenal . However , by April the teams were level on points , with Arsenal leading on goal difference . By this time , Liverpool had reached the semi @-@ finals of the FA Cup against Nottingham Forest at Hillsborough stadium on 15 April 1989 . Within six minutes the match was abandoned ; overcrowding at the Leppings Lane end of the ground resulted in the death of ninety @-@ six people , as they were crushed against perimeter fencing . Ninety @-@ four fans died , in what became known as the Hillsborough disaster , that day ; the 95th victim died in hospital from his injuries four days later and the 96th died nearly four years later , without regaining consciousness . Liverpool won the replayed match 3 – 1 to reach the final against Everton . They led for the majority of the match courtesy of a goal from Aldridge . Stuart McCall scored in the 89th minute to take the game into extra @-@ time . Substitute Rush scored in the 95th minute , but McCall scored again in the 102nd minute to level the match . Another goal from Rush two minutes later , secured a 3 – 2 victory for Liverpool . Once again , Liverpool had a chance to complete the double . Their final match of the season was against second @-@ placed Arsenal , who were three points behind . The game had originally been scheduled for 23 April , but Liverpool 's FA Cup commitments meant it was postponed and rearranged for 26 May . Arsenal needed to win the match by two clear goals to win the league championship . They took the lead in the 52nd minute when striker Alan Smith scored . With the match in injury time , Michael Thomas scored to give Arsenal a 2 – 0 victory . The result meant Arsenal won the championship on goals scored .
Following the end of the season , an inquiry , headed by Lord Taylor was set up to establish the causes of the Hillsborough disaster . The subsequent Taylor Report , published in 1990 , found that failure of police control was the main reason for the disaster and recommended that major stadia remove terracing and become all @-@ seater stadia . Liverpool started the 1989 – 90 season in good form , exemplified by a 9 – 0 victory over newly promoted Crystal Palace . Eight different players scored for the club , the only time this has occurred in English football . The club endured a blip in October and November when they lost four games , but they recovered to go unbeaten until a 1 – 0 loss to Tottenham Hotspur in March . Following the match , Liverpool signed forward Ronny Rosenthal on loan from Standard Liège to boost their attacking options . His impact was immediate , he scored seven goals in eight appearances , including a hat @-@ trick against Charlton Athletic to help Liverpool to their eighteenth league championship . The club progressed to the semi @-@ finals of the FA Cup , but they were unable to defend the trophy , losing 4 – 3 to Crystal Palace after extra @-@ time .
= = 1990 – 98 : Decline = =
Liverpool started the 1990 – 91 season in good form , as they won their first eight league games . They remained unbeaten until a 3 – 0 loss to Arsenal in December , which was followed by another to Crystal Palace at the end of the month . The club 's form began to tail off and Arsenal moved above them in January . After a 4 – 4 draw against Everton in an FA Cup replay in February , Dalglish announced his resignation as manager , citing stress as the reason . Coach Ronnie Moran was installed as caretaker manager , he won three of the ten matches he was in charge of , as they fell further behind Arsenal . Former player Graeme Souness was announced as manager in April , but the club were unable to catch Arsenal , who won the league by seven points . Souness reshaped the team during the 1991 – 92 season , which not been replenished by Dalglish , since the signings of Barnes and Beardsley . Beardsley , Gary Gillespie and Steve McMahon were sold . He bought Dean Saunders for £ 2 @.@ 9 million , but the league campaign was unsuccessful for Liverpool , as they finished in sixth position , the first time they had finished outside the top two since 1981 . The club did reach the final of the FA Cup against Sunderland , which they won 2 – 0 . The season saw Liverpool compete in Europe for the first time since the Heysel stadium disaster in 1985 , they were readmitted a year after other English clubs . Competing in the UEFA Cup , Liverpool reached the quarter @-@ finals , where they beaten by Italian team Genoa 4 – 1 over two @-@ legs . The Boot Room , which had been a meeting place for Liverpool 's coaches since Bill Shankly was manager was demolished during Souness ' time at the club . A new press room was built in its place .
Anfield was redeveloped at the start of the 1992 – 93 season following the recommendations of the Taylor report . A second tier was added to the Kemlyn Road stand , which included executive boxes and function suites as well as 11 @,@ 000 seats . Renamed the Centenary Stand , it was officially opened on 1 September 1992 by Union of European Football Associations ( UEFA ) president Lennart Johansson . In the inaugural season of the Premier League , Liverpool performed poorly ; they again finished in sixth place , losing fifteen of their forty @-@ two matches . They did not fare better in cup competitions , exiting early in the FA Cup , League Cup and UEFA Cup Winners ' Cup . The 1993 – 94 season started well for Liverpool as they won their first three games . However , their form dipped in the league as they lost four consecutive games . One positive was the emergence of striker Robbie Fowler from the club 's youth team . He scored on his first @-@ team debut against Fulham in the first leg of the League Cup and scored all five goals in the return leg as Liverpool won 5 – 0 . Liverpool continued to struggle during the season , culminating in a defeat to Bristol City in an FA Cup replay . Souness was sacked after the match and replaced by coach Roy Evans . The club 's form did not improve under Evans and they ended the season in eighth place after losing sixteen of their forty @-@ two games . Liverpool began to fall behind their rivals off the pitch . Their rivals Manchester United made £ 93 million after they were floated on the stock market , while Liverpool made £ 22 million when media company Granada bought 9 @.@ 9 % of the club .
Following on from the construction of the Centenary Stand , the Spion Kop was redeveloped for the start of the 1994 – 95 season . The stand became all @-@ seater , retaining the single tier with a reduced capacity of 12 @,@ 000 . Evans first full season in charge was more successful than the previous seasons . Liverpool finished the season in fourth place , their best finish since the departure of Dalglish . The club performed well in cup competitions ; they reached the sixth round of the FA Cup , before losing 2 – 1 to Tottenham Hotspur and reached the final of the League Cup against Bolton Wanderers . Two goals from Steve McManaman helped Liverpool to a 2 – 1 victory as they won their fifth League Cup . The season also saw a number of long @-@ serving players leave the club , as Grobbelaar , Steve Nicol and Ronnie Whelan departed . Before the start of the 1995 – 96 season , Liverpool signalled their intent to improve upon the previous season , signing forward Stan Collymore for a British club record £ 8 @.@ 5 million . Collymore made an immediate impact , scoring the only goal in a 1 – 0 win over Sheffield Wednesday in the first game of the season . Liverpool were unable to sustain a challenge for the league championship over the course of the season and finished in third place . The club reached the final of the FA Cup against Manchester United . However , an 85th @-@ minute goal from Eric Cantona secured a 1 – 0 victory for United .
Liverpool started the 1996 – 97 season in good form , and by the turn of the year they were top of the league , two points clear of Arsenal . The club were unable to maintain their form during the rest of the season , losses to Coventry City , Manchester United and Wimbledon resulted in the club finishing the season in fourth position . Despite early exits in the League and FA Cup , Liverpool reached the semi @-@ finals of the UEFA Cup Winners ' Cup . They were unable to progress after a 3 – 0 defeat in the first @-@ leg , despite winning the second leg 2 – 0 and were knocked out 3 – 2 on aggregate against French team Paris Saint @-@ Germain . Liverpool were without striker Fowler for the start of the 1997 – 98 season after he suffered knee ligament damage in a pre @-@ season friendly . This was offset by the emergence of Michael Owen , who scored eighteen goals from thirty @-@ six appearances . Paul Ince was signed to replace Barnes who left the club to join Newcastle United . Despite this , Liverpool were unable to challenge eventual winners Arsenal and finished thirteen points behind in third place . Further redevelopment took place at Anfield during the season with a second tier added to the Anfield Road stand .
= = 1998 – 2006 : Fluctuating fortunes = =
Liverpool appointed Frenchman Gérard Houllier as co @-@ manager alongside Evans for the 1998 – 99 season . The arrangement did not last long , poor results put pressure on the partnership and after a 3 – 1 defeat by Tottenham Hotspur in the League Cup , Evans resigned . Houllier 's first game as sole manager was a 3 – 1 defeat to Leeds United . Liverpool 's form did not improve under Houllier and early exits in the UEFA and FA Cup , were followed with the club finishing the season in seventh place outside of the qualification spots for European competition . Houllier reshaped the squad at the start of the 1999 – 2000 season . A number of players were brought into the squad such as Dietmar Hamann , Sami Hyypiä and Sander Westerveld , while players such as David James , Ince and McManaman left the club . Houllier continued the reshaping into the season when he signed forward Emile Heskey for a then club record £ 11 million in March . Liverpool failed to secure a return to the UEFA Champions League , as they finished the season in fourth place . Their also performed poorly in the FA and League Cup , exiting early in both competitions .
The 2000 – 01 season was the best in recent years for Liverpool , as they won three competitions to complete a unique treble of trophies . The first trophy the club won was the League Cup after they beat Birmingham City 5 – 4 in a penalty shoot @-@ out after the match had finished 1 – 1 . They then won the FA Cup , as Owen scored two goals in the last ten minutes to overturn a one @-@ goal deficit to win the match 2 – 1 against Arsenal . The final trophy the club won was the UEFA Cup . An own goal in the last minute of extra time by Delfí Geli secured a 5 – 4 victory over Spanish team Alavés . Liverpool finished the season in third place in the league , securing a return to the European Cup ( now rebranded as the UEFA Champions League ) for the first time since the Heysel Stadium disaster in 1985 . Liverpool 's participation in the UEFA Champions League in the 2001 – 02 season saw the club reach the quarter @-@ finals , where they were eliminated by German team Bayer Leverkusen 4 – 3 on aggregate . The season was Liverpool 's best in the league in recent years , as they finished in second place , seven points behind Arsenal . Despite their improved performance in the league , Liverpool were unable to defend the FA and League Cup they won the previous season exiting in the fourth and third rounds respectively . The season was overshadowed by heart problems that affected Houllier . He suffered chest pain at half @-@ time during a match with Leeds United at Anfield . He subsequently had an eleven @-@ hour operation to fix an acute dissection of the aorta and did not return until February . His assistant Phil Thompson took charge of the team in the interim .
Hollier signed a number of players at the start of the 2002 – 03 season , including Bruno Cheyrou , Salif Diao and El @-@ Hadji Diouf . The former was preferred to Nicolas Anelka , despite the latter performing well during his loan from Paris Saint @-@ Germain the previous season . Liverpool were unbeaten in their first twelve games in the league , which gave them a seven @-@ point lead . A defeat to Middlesbrough in their next game , started a run of twelve games without victory until they beat Southampton 1 – 0 in January . The club were unable to regain their form from earlier in the season and finished the season in fifth place . Despite early exits in the FA Cup and UEFA Champions League , Liverpool won the League Cup defeating Manchester United in the final . The 2003 – 04 season started poorly for Liverpool as they lost their first game 2 – 1 to Chelsea . Their form did not improve and by the end of the year they had lost six of their eighteen matches in the league . The club 's form improved in the second half of the season and they only lost a further four games to finish in fourth position securing a place in the 2004 – 05 UEFA Champions League . Liverpool 's form in cup competitions was poor as they exited the UEFA and League Cup in the fourth round . They progressed a round further in the FA Cup , but were eliminated by Portsmouth 1 – 0 in a replay . At the end of the season Houllier was replaced as manager by Rafael Benítez .
The 2004 – 05 season was a disappointment in the league as Liverpool finished in fifth place outside of the UEFA Champions League qualification places . Despite their poor form in the league , the club performed well in cup competitions , the FA Cup withstanding , where they were eliminated in the third round by Burnley . The club reached the final of the League Cup , but were unable to beat Chelsea , losing 3 – 2 . Liverpool also reached the final of the UEFA Champions League and it appeared the club would lose their second final of the season when they were 3 – 0 down to Italian team Milan at half @-@ time . However , three goals in six minutes meant Liverpool drew level at 3 – 3 . No goals in extra time meant the match went to a penalty shoot @-@ out , which they won 3 – 2 . A fifth @-@ place finish in the Premier League meant Liverpool were not guaranteed entry into the Champions League and faced the prospect of not being able to defend their European title . UEFA eventually ruled that they would be allowed to do so , but Liverpool would be required to start in the first qualifying round . Despite being allowed to enter the competition they were unable to defend the trophy , as they were eliminated in the first knockout round by Portuguese team Benfica . Liverpool 's performance in the league improved in the 2005 – 06 season as they finished in third place . They also reached the final of the FA Cup where they faced West Ham United . Liverpool won 3 – 1 in a penalty shoot @-@ out after the match finished 3 – 3 to win the competition .
= = 2006 – present : Downturn = =
The 2006 – 07 season saw Liverpool come under new ownership as American businessmen George Gillett and Tom Hicks bought the club in a deal which valued it and its outstanding debts at £ 218 @.@ 9 million . Liverpool again finished the season in third place , as they finished twenty @-@ one points behind Manchester United . Despite exiting to Arsenal in both the FA and League Cup , the club reached final of the UEFA Champions League where they again faced Milan . The result was different from the match in 2005 , as Liverpool were unable to recover a two @-@ goal deficit and lost the match 2 – 1 Benítez made a number of signings , including Ryan Babel , Yossi Benayoun and Fernando Torres for a club record £ 24 million , in an attempt to improve the club 's performance during the 2007 – 08 season . The signings , Torres in particular , who scored 33 goals during the season , had an effect as the club only lost four league games during the season . However , they drew thirteen of their thirty @-@ eight matches and finished the season in fourth place . Liverpool exited the FA and League Cup in the fifth round , but performed well in the UEFA Champions League . They reached the semi @-@ finals for the third time in four seasons , where they faced Chelsea , who won 4 – 3 on aggregate .
The 2008 – 09 season was the club 's best in recent years . A 5 – 1 victory over Newcastle United in December gave Liverpool a three @-@ point lead in the league with half of the season remaining . They suffered a blip in January , not winning any games and despite good form for the remainder of the season , they were unable to catch Manchester United and finished in second place . Liverpool 's form in the league did not carry over to the FA and League Cup as they were eliminated in the fourth round of both competitions . They performed better in the UEFA Champions League , where the club reached the quarter @-@ finals , but were again eliminated by Chelsea . The 2009 – 10 season was a disappointment for Liverpool as they were unable to improve on the previous season 's performance , finishing seventh in the league . They lost eleven matches , nine more than the previous season , to finish outside the top four for the first time since 2005 . The club also suffered poor form in the UEFA Champions League , they were eliminated in the group stages and subsequently entered the UEFA Cup ( now rebranded as the UEFA Europa League ) . They performed better in the Europa League , where they reached the semi @-@ finals . Their opponents were Spanish team Atlético Madrid , who progressed to the final on the away goals rule after the tie finished 2 – 2 on aggregate . Benitez left the club by mutual consent at the end of the season and was replaced by Roy Hodgson .
The club was sold to Fenway Sports Group during the 2010 – 11 season . Accounts had shown that Liverpool were £ 350 million in debt with losses of £ 55 million , causing auditor KPMG to qualify its audit opinion . The Royal Bank of Scotland who were the club 's creditors , took owners Gillett and Hicks to court to force through a sale . The court ruled in the creditors favour and the club was sold to Fenway Sports Group for £ 300 million on 15 October 2010 . On the pitch , Liverpool 's performances were poor . A 3 – 1 defeat to Blackburn Rovers in January , left the club in twelfth place in the league with nine defeats from twenty games . Hodgson was sacked after the match and replaced by former manager Dalglish . Despite a loss in his first match against Manchester United in the FA Cup , Liverpool improved under Dalglish and eventually finished the season in sixth place . Dalglish bought a number of players at the start of the 2011 – 12 season , including Charlie Adam , Stewart Downing and Jordan Henderson . Despite the arrival of new players , their performance in the league did not improve , as they finished in eighth place , the club 's worst finish in eighteen years . Liverpool performed markedly better in the League and FA Cup , as they reached the final of both competitions . The club won a record eighth League Cup , with a 3 – 2 penalty shoot @-@ out victory against Cardiff City after the match finished 2 – 2 . Liverpool were unable to repeat their success in the FA Cup , as they lost the final 2 – 1 to Chelsea . The season was marred by the Luis Suárez racial abuse incident in October during a match against Manchester United , in which Suárez racially abused Patrice Evra , and was fined £ 40k and banned for eight games . Dalglish was sacked at the end of the season and replaced by Brendan Rodgers .
In the 2013 – 14 season , Liverpool challenged for their first league title since 1990 . In April 2014 , after a run of 11 consecutive victories , they lost 2 – 0 at home to Chelsea . The following match they led 3 – 0 after 78 minutes , but ended in a 3 – 3 draw to Crystal Palace , as Manchester City won the league . In July , Suárez was sold to Barcelona for £ 75 million , and the following January Gerrard agreed a move to the LA Galaxy at the end of the campaign , ending 17 years at the club . Rodgers was sacked after a poor start to the 2015 – 16 season , and was replaced by German Jürgen Klopp . Liverpool were unsuccessful in the finals of the League Cup and UEFA Europa League , losing the former 3 – 1 in a penalty shootout after the match finished 1 – 1 , and the latter 3 – 1 to Spanish team Sevilla in Basel .
|
= 2004 Football League Cup Final =
The 2004 Football League Cup Final ( known as the Carling Cup final for sponsorship reasons ) was a football match that took place on 29 February 2004 at the Millennium Stadium , Cardiff . It was the final match of the 2003 – 04 Football League Cup , the 44th edition of the Football League Cup , a competition for the 92 teams in the Premier League and The Football League .
It was contested between Premier League sides Bolton Wanderers and Middlesbrough , both of whom had never won in their previous appearances in the final . Bolton 's run to the final included a win away to holders Liverpool in the fourth round , while requiring extra time against Southampton in the next round and losing the second leg of the semi @-@ final against Aston Villa . Middlesbrough needed extra time against lowly Brighton & Hove Albion in their first game , and later advanced on penalty shootouts against top @-@ flight Everton and Tottenham Hotspur ; they then won home and away against league leaders Arsenal in the semi @-@ finals .
Middlesbrough scored two goals in the first seven minutes , from Joseph @-@ Désiré Job and a Boudewijn Zenden penalty . Kevin Davies got a goal back in the first half after an error by Boro goalkeeper Mark Schwarzer , but Middlesbrough kept the score at 2 – 1 for their first major trophy . In doing so , they qualified for the 2004 – 05 UEFA Cup , their first European competition .
= = Background = =
Bolton were playing in their second League Cup Final , having lost the 1995 edition 2 – 1 to Liverpool . Middlesbrough too had never previously won the competition : in 1997 they lost the final after extra time in a replay against Leicester City , and a year later they lost 2 – 0 to Chelsea after extra time . In 1997 , they also lost the FA Cup final to Chelsea , and were relegated from the Premier League . Although Middlesbrough , founded in 1876 , were without a major trophy , Bolton had 4 FA Cups from 7 finals between 1894 and 1958 .
Bolton and Middlesbrough had already met once in the league season , at the former 's Reebok Stadium on 13 September 2003 . The hosts won 2 – 0 with goals by Bruno N 'Gotty and Kevin Davies in each half for a first victory of the campaign .
= = Route to the Final = =
= = = Bolton = = =
As a Premier League team , Bolton began in the second round , hosting Walsall of the First Division at the Reebok Stadium . They won 3 – 1 with two goals – one a penalty kick – by Brazilian debutant Mário Jardel . In the next round on 28 October , they again hosted a second @-@ tier team , this time Gillingham , and won 2 – 0 with goals by Stelios Giannakopoulos and Henrik Pedersen , in front of a notably low crowd of 5 @,@ 258 .
In the fourth round , Bolton had their first trip , and their first game against top @-@ flight opposition , facing Liverpool at Anfield on 3 December . Jardel scored the first goal within five minutes , with Danny Murphy equalising with 20 minutes remaining . Youri Djorkaeff would have put Bolton back into the lead , but referee Mike Riley disallowed it for an earlier handball ; they scored minutes later from Jay @-@ Jay Okocha 's free kick . Liverpool got a second equaliser from a 25 @-@ yard Vladimír Šmicer strike , but with a minute remaining Salif Diao fouled Kevin Davies in the penalty area and Djorkaeff sent the resulting spot @-@ kick past Liverpool goalkeeper Jerzy Dudek to win the game . Thirteen days later , in extra time at home to the Premier League 's Southampton , Pedersen volleyed the only goal with five minutes remaining .
On 21 January 2004 , Bolton hosted Aston Villa in the first leg of an all @-@ Premier League semi @-@ final . Okocha gave them the lead with a second @-@ minute free kick , and further strikes from Kevin Nolan and Stelios gave them a 3 – 0 lead after 17 minutes , with Juan Pablo Ángel getting one back for the visitors soon after . Ángel got another goal in the second half , before N 'Gotty 's header and a second Okocha free kick gave Bolton a 5 – 2 victory . Six days later in the second leg at Villa Park , Bolton lost 2 – 0 to a Villa team who had Gavin McCann sent off in the first half , but advanced to the final 5 – 4 on aggregate .
= = = Middlesbrough = = =
Middlesbrough , also of the Premier League , began the competition in the second round by hosting Brighton & Hove Albion at the Riverside Stadium , and defeated the Second Division team 1 – 0 with a goal from Malcolm Christie at the start of extra time . In the next round , they travelled to Wigan Athletic of the First Division and won 2 – 1 with Massimo Maccarone and Gaizka Mendieta 's first goals of the season , despite the hosts at the JJB Stadium scoring a late free kick through Jimmy Bullard .
They met their first top @-@ flight opposition in the fourth round , hosting Everton . After 120 goalless minutes , the match went to a penalty shootout in which Mendieta scored the winner after Middlesbrough goalkeeper Mark Schwarzer saved from Leon Osman . The quarter @-@ final at another Premier League team , Tottenham Hotspur , also went to a shootout . Darren Anderton scored for the hosts within 63 seconds , the first goal Boro conceded for over 11 hours . With four minutes to play , Middlesbrough striker Michael Ricketts equalised after a cross from George Boateng . The shootout , in which Schwarzer denied Mauricio Taricco and Kasey Keller blocked from Mendieta , went to sudden death , in which Middlesbrough 's goalkeeper saved from Gus Poyet and Franck Queudrue scored Boro 's winner .
In the semi @-@ finals , Boro faced Arsenal , the leaders and eventual unbeaten champions of the Premier League season . In the first leg at Highbury on 20 January 2004 , Queudrue exploited a mistake by Arsenal defender Martin Keown and passed to Mendieta , who then assisted Juninho for the only goal of the game . On 3 February , Boro hosted Arsenal in the second leg ; Keown was sent off at the end of the first half for a professional foul on Maccarone . In the second half , Boudewijn Zenden put Middlesbrough ahead and Edu equalised . With five minutes remaining , Arsenal 's José Antonio Reyes scored an own goal by deflecting Stuart Parnaby 's shot , making Middlesbrough advance to the final 3 – 1 on aggregate .
= = Match = =
= = = Pre @-@ match = = =
Bolton manager Sam Allardyce , who was building a reputation for signing unwanted foreign veterans such as N 'Gotty , Djorkaeff and Iván Campo , predicted that a win would help him sign more players in the summer . However , he thought that success would also lead his 13 players who would be out of contract , to demand more money for a renewal .
On @-@ loan Middlesbrough right @-@ back Danny Mills , a self @-@ acknowledged " hate figure " from opposition fans due to his physical style of play , declared that he would ignore any abuse from Bolton fans .
= = = Summary = = =
Middlesbrough manager Steve McClaren had not even sat down when his team took the lead . Mendieta 's pass let Zenden run down the left wing and cross for striker Joseph @-@ Désiré Job to put Middlesbrough ahead in the second minute . It was the fastest goal scored in a final , a record broken the following year by Liverpool 's John Arne Riise .
After Job 's early goal , Bolton went on the attack , with Djorkaeff forcing Schwarzer to make a near @-@ post save . In the seventh minute however , Middlesbrough won a penalty when Job was tripped in the Bolton box by Emerson Thome , under " minimal contact " . Zenden stepped up to take the spot kick and beat Bolton goalkeeper Jussi Jääskeläinen , despite slipping and the goalkeeper 's foot touching the ball . Later , Thome nearly scored an own goal from Juninho 's cross .
Davies scored for Bolton on 21 minutes when an error by Middlesbrough goalkeeper Schwarzer allowed his shot to go inside his near post . Bolton continued to attack , and Schwarzer made a double save from winger Per Frandsen and Djorkaeff . The latter had two more chances soon after , missing the target with the first . Boro pleaded for a second penalty when Nicky Hunt pulled Job , but referee Riley did not give it .
The second half had fewer incidents . Schwarzer saved a header from Nolan , while Juninho had two opportunities for Middlesbrough . In the final few minutes , Thome made a crucial block against Mendieta , and at the other side of the pitch Ugo Ehiogu did the same to thwart Stelios .
= = = Match details = = =
= = Post @-@ match = =
Winning manager McClaren called the victory a " great reward " for Middlesbrough 's players , managers and chairman Steve Gibson . Captain Gareth Southgate also dedicated the win to the fans and Gibson , calling the chairman " the biggest fan we 've got " . Gibson himself called the win " 128 years in the making " and predicted the team would " kick on " from it .
McClaren praised his goalkeeper Schwarzer for recovering from his error that allowed Bolton 's goal , in order to make saves that won the match . He also said that the team should not become carried away by their qualification for Europe , and instead concentrate on the upcoming game against Birmingham City .
By winning the final , Middlesbrough qualified for the following season 's UEFA Cup , their first European competition . They beat Baník Ostrava in the first round and came first in their group featuring Villarreal , Partizan , Lazio and Egaleo . They then defeated Grazer AK in the third round before being eliminated by Sporting .
Columnist Henry Winter The Daily Telegraph wrote that it was the best League Cup Final since Luton Town beat Arsenal in 1988 . He praised all four of Middlesbrough 's back line for their " alert defending " , and noted the hard work in midfield by Boateng that allowed Zenden , Juninho and Mendieta to create chances . He also lauded Bolton 's fans and the efforts of Okocha , Djorkaeff and Davies , while noting how Bolton 's Campo was effective despite " the odd pantomime dive " . Alan Smith of the same newspaper opined that 33 @-@ year @-@ old Southgate was the most deserving winner , as reward for his consistency since arriving in an " average " Boro side in 2001 . Southgate 's only other medal had come in the same competition for Aston Villa eight years prior .
In June 2013 , Juninho said that winning the League Cup with Middlesbrough was better than when he won the FIFA World Cup with Brazil in 2002 .
|
= Action of 26 July 1806 =
The Action of 26 July 1806 was a minor naval engagement of the Napoleonic Wars fought off the southern coast of the island of Celebes in the Dutch East Indies . During the battle , a small British squadron attacked and defeated a Dutch force defending a valuable convoy , which was also captured . The British force — consisting of the frigate HMS Greyhound and brig @-@ sloop HMS Harrier under the command of Captain Edward Elphinstone — was initially wary of the Dutch , mistaking the Dutch East Indiaman merchant ship Victoria for a ship of the line . Closer observation revealed the identity of the Dutch vessels the following day and Elphinstone led his frigate against the leading Dutch warship Pallas while Harrier engaged the merchant vessels and forced them to surrender . Only the corvette William escaped , taking no part in the engagement .
The battle was the first in a series of actions by the Royal Navy squadron based at Madras with the intention of eliminating the Dutch squadron maintained at Java . Greyhound had been sent to the Java Sea and the Molucca Islands to reconnoitre the Dutch ports in preparation for a raid on Java by a larger force under Rear @-@ Admiral Sir Edward Pellew later in the year . Elphinstone 's success was followed by a second frigate action by Captain Peter Rainier in which the Dutch ship Maria Riggersbergen was captured . In November 1806 , Admiral Pellew led the main body of his squadron against the capital of the Dutch East Indies at Batavia and a year later eliminated the last vessels of the Dutch East Indies squadron at Griessie .
= = Background = =
The Dutch squadron in the Dutch East Indies was a constant threat to the British system of trade routes during the Napoleonic Wars . The Dutch — under the guise of the Kingdom of Holland and ruled by the French Emperor Napoleon 's brother Louis Bonaparte — had joined the war against Britain following the end of the Peace of Amiens in 1803 . Although the primary function of the Dutch East Indies squadron was the suppression of piracy , their presence threatened British shipping in the Malacca Straits , in particular the lucrative trade with China . At the start of every year , the " China Fleet " — a large convoy of British East Indiamen merchant ships — sailed from Canton and passed through the South China Sea and the Malacca Strait on their journey to the Indian Ocean and eventually to Britain . Worth millions of pounds , these convoys were vital to the British economy , but they faced considerable danger in passing though waters that were within easy reach of the Dutch ports in Java .
In 1804 , a French squadron under Rear @-@ Admiral Charles Linois used Batavia on Java as a base to attack the China Fleet , although the attempt ended in failure at the Battle of Pulo Aura . Java presented a clear threat to British maritime interests in the South China Sea , but the British squadron based in the Indian Ocean was too weak in 1805 to consider operations so far from its main base at Madras while Linois remained active . By the start of 1806 , Linois had sailed into the Atlantic and an expeditionary force had seized the Dutch base at the Cape of Good Hope , securing the western Indian Ocean and providing reinforcements that allowed Rear @-@ Admiral Sir Edward Pellew to begin operations against the Dutch forces in the East Indies .
Pellew 's first action , during the spring of 1806 , was to deploy several frigates to the Java Sea with instructions to reconnoitre the Dutch squadron and its main port at Batavia . The first British ship to reach the Java Sea was the 32 @-@ gun frigate HMS Greyhound under Captain Edward Elphinstone , which arrived in July 1806 . In company with the brig @-@ sloop HMS Harrier under Commander Edward Troubridge , the two vessels cruised in search of Dutch activity in the area . On 4 June they successfully destroyed the armed brig Christian Elizabeth at Manado and two days later captured the Belgica at Tidore .
During the evening of 25 July , lookouts spotted four sails passing through the Selayar Strait that separates Selayar Island from the southern tip of Celebes . These four vessels were a Dutch convoy from the Molucca Islands , consisting of : The Dutch national frigate Pallas , of 36 guns , under Captain N. S. Aalbers ; Dutch East India Company corvette William , of twenty 24 @-@ pounder guns and 110 men , under Captain P. Feteris ; Dutch East Indiaman Victoria ( or in some sources Vittoria ) , of about 800 tons burthen ( bm ) , under Captain Klaas Kenkin and Dutch East Indiaman Batavier , of some 500 tons ( bm ) under Captain William De Val .
= = Battle = =
On observing the Dutch ships , Elphinstone immediately gave chase . Aalbers responded by forming his ships in a line of battle and retaining close formation as the convoy passed the Celebes coast close to the small Dutch trading posts at Borthean and Balacomba . At 21 : 00 , Aalbers ordered his force to anchor 7 nmi ( 8 @.@ 1 mi ; 13 km ) offshore and prepare for the British attack . Elphinstone was cautious however as Victoria was a particularly large ship , with two decks and the appearance of a ship of the line . Aware that such a large vessel could easily destroy his frigate Elphinstone halted his advance and Greyhound and Harrier stopped to observe the Dutch convoy during the night , maintaining a position 2 nmi ( 2 @.@ 3 mi ; 3 @.@ 7 km ) to windward of Aalbers ' force .
At dawn , lookouts on Greyhound were able to establish that Victoria was a large merchant ship rather than a warship and Elphinstone was encouraged to resume the attack . Aalbers sailed shortly afterwards , his ships tacking away from the shore in line of battle ready for the British advance . In doing so , Pallas drew ahead of the next ship in line , creating a gap through which the British attack could be directed . At 05 : 00 , Elphinstone raised French colours in an effort to confuse the Dutch officers and indicated that he wished to speak with the Dutch commander . Aalbers was not fooled , and when Elphinstone opened fire on Pallas at close range at 05 : 30 , the Dutch frigate replied immediately . With the frigates engaged , Harrier cut between Pallas and Victoria , Troubridge discharging his carronades into Victoria and ordering his crew to fire muskets at the deck of Pallas . In response , Victoria and Batavier pulled out of the line to engage Harrier , which continued its fire against Pallas , while William , bringing up the rear of the Dutch line , pulled out completely and sailed for the coast .
Elphinstone rapidly took advantage of the confusion Harrier 's attack had created , passing Aalbers ' bow and raking his ship . Elphinstone then threw his sails back , halting his ship and allowing Greyhound to maintain a position across Pallas ' bow from which he could inflict severe damage on the Dutch frigate without coming under fire himself . As the damage and casualties mounted on Pallas , Harrier joined the attack . Gunfire from the Dutch ship gradually slackened , and finally stopped at 06 : 10 , the Dutch flag was struck from the mast and Pallas surrendered with over 40 casualties from a crew of 250 ( including 50 local recruits ) . Throughout the engagement , Victoria and Batavier had kept up a constant but inefficient fire on Harrier , Troubridge waiting until the Dutch flagship surrendered before counterattacking .
With Troubridge in pursuit , the Dutch merchant ships were unable to escape Harrier , and at 06 : 30 Victoria surrendered . Sending a boat to take possession , Troubridge immediately turned away towards Batavier . Elphinstone too was sailing towards the isolated merchant vessel and at 06 : 40 Captain De Val surrendered rather than fight the superior British force . William successfully escaped in the aftermath of the battle , rapidly outdistancing a weak chase from the battered Harrier . All three captured ships were taken over by prize crews and brought to Port Cornwallis on South Andaman Island . Casualties on Pallas were heavy , with eight men killed outright and 32 wounded , including Aalbers and three of his lieutenants . Six of the wounded later died , including the Dutch captain . There were also four men killed on the East Indiamen and seven wounded , one of whom died later . British losses by contrast were light , with one man killed and eight wounded on Greyhound and just three wounded on Harrier .
= = Aftermath = =
In India , the prizes were sold , Pallas being purchased by the Royal Navy and recommissioned as HMS Celebes . Elphinstone did not long survive his victory : he was ordered back to Britain in early 1807 and took passage on Rear @-@ Admiral Sir Thomas Troubridge 's flagship HMS Blenheim . He was presumed drowned in February 1807 along with the entire crew , when Blenheim disappeared during a hurricane in the western Indian Ocean .
For Pellew , the victory was an encouraging sign of the weakness of the Dutch squadron . In October , Captain Peter Rainier seized another Dutch frigate from Batavia harbour itself and the following month Admiral Pellew led a large scale raid on the port that eliminated most of the Dutch East Indies squadron . Two ships of the line escaped Pellew 's attack , but they were old and in a poor state of repair , and so were unable to defend themselves when Pellew discovered and destroyed them at Griessie in 1807 .
|
= The Boat Race 1840 =
The 4th Boat Race took place on the River Thames on 15 April 1840 . It was the third of the University Boat Races to be held on the Thames , between Westminster Bridge and Putney Bridge . Oxford University Boat Club was formed to assist in the selection of the Oxford crew . Nevertheless , Cambridge won the race by three @-@ quarters of a length to lead the overall record at 3 – 1 .
= = Background = =
The Boat Race is a side @-@ by @-@ side rowing competition between the University of Oxford ( sometimes referred to as the " Dark Blues " ) and the University of Cambridge ( sometimes referred to as the " Light Blues " ) . The race was first held in 1829 , and takes place on the River Thames in southwest London .
Following heavy defeats in the 1836 and 1839 races , and in order to improve the selection of the crew , Oxford University Boat Club was formed on 23 April 1839 , to which anyone at the university could subscribe and which was governed by the various college boat club captains . The initial letter of challenge was delivered to Cambridge from Oxford in February . After considerable discussion , mainly about the restriction of crew selection to undergraduates only , the date of the race , 15 April 1840 , was agreed sixteen days prior to the race itself . The umpires for the race were Calverley Bewicke ( for Oxford ) and Charles Jasper Selwyn ( for Cambridge ) , while W. H. Harrison , the Commodore of the Royal Thames Yacht Club , was the referee . The race was to take place on a five @-@ and @-@ three @-@ quarter @-@ mile ( 9 @.@ 2 km ) stretch of the Thames between Westminster Bridge and Putney Bridge .
= = Crews = =
The Oxford crew weighed an average of 11 st 10 @.@ 5 lb ( 74 @.@ 4 kg ) per rower , 2 @.@ 5 pounds ( 1 @.@ 1 kg ) more per man than their opponents . Cambridge saw former Blues Alfred Shadwell and cox Thomas Selby Egan return , while Oxford 's crew also contained two veterans of the race , in Samuel Maberly and R. G. Walls .
= = Race = =
Oxford won the toss and elected to start from the Middlesex side of the river , handing the Surrey side to Cambridge . The race commenced from below Westminster Bridge at 1.30pm , with Edward Searle acting as the starter . With a number of steamers blocking the route , Oxford made a good start and took an early lead . The wake of the steamers caused rough water in which both crews struggled to maintain a consistent rhythm . The lead had extended by the time the crews passed below Vauxhall Bridge and was nearly three lengths by the Spread Eagle pub . At this point Cambridge began to reduce the deficit , but following a warning from Robert Coombes who was steering the umpire 's boat Dolphin , Oxford 's cox Garnett steered across the path of Cambridge . The Light Blues maintained their course and Oxford were forced back again . By the Red House , Cambridge had restored parity and started to pull away . Despite suffering further rough water from the wake of another steamer at Battersea Bridge , Cambridge maintained their lead and passed through the centre arch of Putney Bridge three @-@ quarters of a length ahead of Oxford . The winning time was 29 minutes 3 seconds , and the victory took the overall lead to 3 – 1 in favour of Cambridge .
|
= Theodor Weissenberger =
Theodor Weissenberger ( 21 December 1914 – 11 June 1950 ) was a German Luftwaffe military aviator during World War II and a fighter ace credited with 208 enemy aircraft shot down in 375 combat missions . The majority of his victories were claimed near the Arctic Ocean in the northern sector of the Eastern Front , but he also claimed 33 victories over the Western Front . He claimed eight of these victories over the Western Allies while flying the Messerschmitt Me 262 jet fighter .
Born in Mühlheim am Main in the German Empire , Weissenberger , who had been a glider pilot in his youth , volunteered for service in the Luftwaffe of the Third Reich in 1936 . Following flight training , he was posted to the heavy fighter squadron of Jagdgeschwader 77 ( JG 77 — 77th Fighter Wing ) in 1941 . He claimed his first aerial victory over Norway on 24 October 1941 . After 23 aerial victories as heavy fighter pilot , he received the German Cross in Gold and was then posted to Jagdgeschwader 5 ( JG 5 — 5th Fighter Wing ) in September 1942 . There he received the Knight 's Cross of the Iron Cross on 13 November 1942 after 38 aerial victories .
In June 1943 , Weissenberger was appointed Staffelkapitän of 7 . Staffel of JG 5 . Following his 112th aerial victory , he was awarded the Knight 's Cross of the Iron Cross with Oak Leaves on 2 August 1943 . He was appointed Staffelkapitän of 6 . Staffel in September 1943 and in March 1944 he was given command of II . Gruppe of JG 5 which was operating in Defense of the Reich missions . In June 1944 he took command of I. Gruppe of JG 5 which defended against the Invasion of Normandy . Weissenberger claimed 25 aerial victories in this theater , which included his 200th victory on 25 July 1944 . After conversion training to the Me 262 jet fighter , he was appointed commander of I. Gruppe of Jagdgeschwader 7 " Nowotny " ( JG 7 — 7th Fighter Wing ) , the first operational jet fighter wing in the world , in November 1944 . Promoted to Major ( major ) , he took command of JG 7 " Nowotny " as a Geschwaderkommodore in January 1945 , a position he held until the end of hostilities . He was killed in a car racing accident on 11 June 1950 at the Nürburgring .
= = Early life and career = =
Weissenberger , the son of a plant nursery owner , was born on 21 December 1914 in Mühlheim am Main in the Grand Duchy of Hesse of the German Empire . He had a brother Otto who also served as a pilot in Luftwaffe . As a glider pilot with the German Air Sports Association ( Deutscher Luftsportverband ) , he made his maiden flight on 16 November 1935 . On 20 July 1941 he logged his 645th flight as a glider pilot , in total 196 hours and 46 minutes of powerless flight . Most of these flights were made as an instructor over the Rhön Mountains , Silesia and Bavaria .
He joined the military service of the Luftwaffe with 2 . / Flieger @-@ Ersatz @-@ Abteilung 14 ( 2nd Company of Flier Replacement Unit 14 ) in Detmold on 19 October 1936 . There he was promoted to Feldwebel of the Reserves on 1 December 1940 .
= = World War II = =
Weissenberger was posted to a front @-@ line unit on 27 August 1941 , almost two years after the start of World War II . His unit , 1 . ( Z ) / Jagdgeschwader 77 ( JG 77 — 77th Fighter Wing ) was a Zerstörer ( Z — heavy fighter or destroyer ) Staffel ( squadron ) flying the twin @-@ engine , up to three @-@ seat , Messerschmitt Bf 110 . The unit was stationed in Norway , operating in the Murmansk area in support of Finnish operations against the Soviet Union during the Continuation War . Germany regarded its operations in the region as part of its overall war efforts on the Eastern Front , and it provided Finland with critical material support and military cooperation . There he flew his first combat mission of the war on 13 September 1941 .
= = = War on the Arctic Front = = =
Weissenberger claimed his first aerial victory , a Polikarpov I @-@ 153 biplane fighter , on 24 October 1941 and was awarded the Iron Cross 2nd Class ( Eisernes Kreuz zweiter Klasse ) on 6 November 1941 . He was promoted to Oberfeldwebel of the Reserves on 1 February 1942 . During this phase of his military career , he often got into trouble with his superiors regarding his lack of discipline . A few times his comrades had to intervene to save him from punishment . On 24 January 1942 , Weissenberger and Oberleutnant Max Franzisket flew on a ground attack mission against the Kirov Railway line . Weissenberger claimed a Polikarpov I @-@ 18 shot down at 13 : 35 , roughly 4 kilometers ( 2 @.@ 5 miles ) northwest of the railway station of Bojaskoje . At 13 : 40 , he claimed a Hawker Hurricane shot down , his third aerial victory .
In February 1942 he mostly flew escort fighter missions for Junkers Ju 87 and Ju 88 bombers attacking the harbors at Ferosero , Polyarnoye , present @-@ day Polyarny , and Murmansk . Weissenberger received the Iron Cross 1st Class ( Eisernes Kreuz erster Klasse ) on 17 February 1942 . On 25 February he claimed two more Hurricanes shot down at 11 : 15 and 11 : 22 , his fourth and fifth victories . His Staffel was redesignated as 10 . ( Z ) of Jagdgeschwader 5 ( JG 5 — 5th Fighter Wing ) on 16 March 1942 and subordinated to JG 5 . In April 1942 he claimed eight victories , three of which were shot down on 15 April during two combat missions west of Murmansk . On 25 April at 7 : 20 Weissenberger took off at Kirkenes for an emergency intercept mission against 20 Soviet Petlyakov Pe @-@ 2 bombers . He shot down two bombers before his aircraft was hit by the defensive fire . The right engine started burning and he was forced to disengage from the enemy . Returning to the German lines , he made a safe belly landing .
Weissenberger became an " ace @-@ in @-@ a @-@ day " for the first time on 10 May 1942 when he shot down five enemy aircraft , aerial victories 14 – 18 , between 16 : 45 and 16 : 57 while on a Ju 87 escort mission . These victories were claimed over aircraft of 2 Gvardeyskiy Smeshannyy Aviatsionny Polk ( 2 GSAP — 2nd Soviet Guards Composite Aviation Division ) , which lost ten Hurricanes destroyed and three damaged . He claimed his 20th victory on 15 May when he shot down a Hurricane 4 km ( 2 @.@ 5 mi ) west of Murmansk . In June 1942 , JG 5 was augmented by another group , VI . Gruppe ( 4th Group ) under the command of Hauptmann Hans Kriegel . This led to a number of Staffel redesignations . Weissenberger 's 10 . ( Z ) Staffel was renamed as 13 . ( Z ) Staffel and remained subordinated to JG 5 . He transferred from the reserve force to active service and was promoted to Leutnant ( second lieutenant ) on 1 July 1942 . In early September he was transferred to 6 . Staffel of JG 5 , now flying the single @-@ engine , single @-@ seat , Messerschmitt Bf 109 fighter . By this date , Weissenberger , as a Zerstörer pilot , had claimed 23 aerial victories in addition to 15 locomotives , 2 FLAK installations , a radio station , a railway station and other ground targets destroyed and was awarded the German Cross in Gold ( Deutsches Kreuz in Gold ) on 8 September 1942 .
= = = Knight 's Cross of the Iron Cross = = =
At the time , 6 . Staffel at the time was based in Petsamo , present @-@ day Pechenga in Murmansk Oblast , Russia . Weissenberger took off on his first Bf 109 combat mission at 14 : 00 on 15 September 1942 after he had spent a few days familiarizing himself with the single @-@ engine fighter aircraft . The mission , flown by 10 Bf 109 fighters from 6 . Staffel , was a combat air patrol in the vicinity of Murmashi . The flight encountered enemy aircraft and Weissenberger filed claims over two Curtiss P @-@ 40 Warhawk Lend @-@ Lease fighters shot down at 14 : 31 and 14 : 33 . These were his first victories claimed on the Bf 109 , taking his total to 25 victories . A week later , on 22 September , Weissenberger and 6 . Staffel were again patrolling the airspace near the Soviet airfield at Murmashi . During this mission , he claimed three more aerial victories , over Hurricanes shot down between 14 : 59 and 15 : 05 .
On 27 September 1942 , Weissenberger claimed five victories during the course of two combat missions . During the first mission , he shot down a Bell P @-@ 39 Airacobra at 11 : 36 . On his second mission , which began at 15 : 00 , he encountered a formation of roughly 30 aircraft , claiming four Hurricanes shot down from 15 : 49 to 15 : 56 , a time space of seven minutes . This " ace @-@ in @-@ a @-@ day " achievement took his total to 33 aerial victories . On 22 October 1942 , Weissenberger was tasked with fighter protection for a reconnaissance aircraft . The engine of his Focke Wulf Fw 190 F @-@ 4 seized up just west of Murmansk . He managed to nurse his aircraft back to the German lines before bailing out . He was picked up eight hours later by a Gebirgsjäger ( mountain infantry ) patrol and brought back to his Staffel . Following this event he was given one week of rest . He returned to combat on 30 October 1942 , and during two combat missions again achieved " ace @-@ in @-@ a @-@ day " status . He claimed three victories on his first mission and two P @-@ 40s at 15 : 00 and 15 : 06 on his second mission of the day . This took his total to 38 aerial victories and he was honored with the presentation of the Knight 's Cross of the Iron Cross ( Ritterkreuz des Eisernen Kreuzes ) on 13 November 1942 .
Following the winter break , Weissenberger claimed 33 further victories between 6 – 28 March 1943 . Often he achieved multiple victories per day ; six claims on 10 March , victories 43 to 48 on 10 March , victories 49 to 53 on 12 March , and numbers 54 to 57 on 13 March . A ground attack mission against the airfield at Salmiyarvi on 28 March was his last action of the month . Weissenberger claimed three P @-@ 39s shot down during this mission , but was himself hit by anti @-@ aircraft fire and had to make a forced landing . He was picked up and returned by a Fiesler Fi 156 " Storch " . On 13 April 1943 , a flight of five aircraft from 6 . Staffel claimed 18 Soviet aircraft destroyed without loss . Six of the enemy aircraft were credited to Weissenberger , shot down between 17 : 05 and 17 : 16 . This took his score to 77 aerial victories . On 13 May , he claimed four P @-@ 39s destroyed , representing victories 83 to 86 , and he was promoted to Oberleutnant on 1 June 1943 .
= = = Oak Leaves to the Knight 's Cross = = =
Weissenberger claimed another five victories on 8 June 1943 north of Murmansk between 17 : 15 and 17 : 23 . This brought his score to 91 aerial victories and on 15 June he was appointed Staffelkapitän ( squadron leader ) of 7 . Staffel of JG 5 . In the period 15 June to 4 July , 7 . Staffel claimed 122 aerial victories under his leadership . The heaviest fighting occurred on 22 June over the Karelia Front , during which his Staffel claimed 13 victories , of which three were Hurricanes shot down by Weissenberger . A day later , he again claimed three aircraft shot down , comprising victories 95 to 97 .
On 4 July 1943 , Weissenberger led 7 . Staffel to 16 aerial victories , while providing fighter cover for a departing German naval task force . First , Weissenberger claimed a Pe @-@ 2 reconnaissance aircraft shot down at 21 : 07 . A flight of 25 to 30 enemy bombers and torpedo bombers was then spotted at 21 : 50 . Weissenberger claimed an Ilyushin Il @-@ 2 " Sturmovik " at 21 : 54 , his 100th aerial victory . He was the 43rd Luftwaffe pilot to achieve the century mark . The Staffel returned to its airfield at 22 : 19 without having sustained any losses during the encounter . Weissenberger alone had claimed seven victories during this mission , taking his total to 104 victories . On 10 July 1943 , this achievement earned him his first mention in the Wehrmachtbericht , an information bulletin issued by the headquarters of the Wehrmacht .
He achieved " ace @-@ in @-@ a @-@ day " status for the fourth time on 25 July 1943 , claiming aerial victories numbers 108 to 112 . Following his 112th victory , he was awarded the Knight 's Cross of the Iron Cross with Oak Leaves ( Ritterkreuz des Eisernen Kreuzes mit Eichenlaub ) on 2 August 1943 , the 266th member of the Wehrmacht to be so honored . The presentation was made by Adolf Hitler at the Wolf 's Lair , Hitler 's headquarters in Rastenburg , present @-@ day Kętrzyn in Poland . Five other Luftwaffe officers were presented with awards that day by Hitler , Hauptmann Egmont Prinz zur Lippe @-@ Weißenfeld , Hauptmann Manfred Meurer , Hauptmann Heinrich Ehrler , Oberleutnant Joachim Kirschner , Hauptmann Werner Schröer were also awarded the Oak Leaves , and Major Helmut Lent received the Swords to his Knight 's Cross with Oak Leaves .
Weissenberger was placed in command of 6 . Staffel on 14 September 1943 and in October and November added five more victories to his score , four of which were achieved on 3 November over the Rybachy Peninsula . At the end of 1943 , II . Gruppe ( 2nd Group ) was ordered to relocate further south to the front near Nevel , Leningrad and Lake Ilmen . Relocating from Pskov , 6 . Staffel arrived at their new airfield at Idritsa on 11 November 1943 and was in action again on 17 November . In January 1944 , II . Gruppe was subordinated to Luftflotte 2 ( 2nd Air Fleet ) in the middle sector of the Eastern Front in support of the defensive battles at Vitebsk . The Staffel flew combat missions from Orsha and Polotsk . Between 10 : 50 to 10 : 58 on 1 February 1944 , Weissenberger achieved his fifth " ace @-@ in @-@ a @-@ day " , taking his total to 124 . On 28 February , he claimed his 140th aerial victory .
At the end of February 1944 , II . Gruppe relocated again to Polotsk and then to Jakobstadt , present @-@ day Jēkabpils in Latvia , and on 16 March Weissenberger claimed his 141st victory . Among his four victories claimed on 20 March were three Il @-@ 2 ground attack aircraft . On 25 March 1944 , another " ace @-@ in @-@ a @-@ day " achievement saw his total increase to 153 aerial victories . In late March 1944 , II . Gruppe was transferred to the far north again , and was based at Alakurtti . Here they defended against the Vyborg – Petrozavodsk Offensive .
Weissenberger was appointed Gruppenkommandeur ( group commander ) of II . Gruppe of JG 5 on 26 March 1944 . He claimed three aircraft shot down on 4 April , and four more on 9 April , taking his victories from 159 to 162 . At the end of April 1944 , II . Gruppe relocated to Jakobstadt , withdrawing from the Arctic Front for the last time . On 17 May he claimed victories 169 to 172 , and the next day shot down three Yakovlev Yak @-@ 9s , taking his total to 175 . These were his last victories on the Eastern Front . At the end of May 1944 , II . Gruppe was transferred to Defense of the Reich duties and was relocated to Gardelegen Airfield in Germany .
= = = Combat on the Western Front = = =
Weissenberger was promoted to Hauptmann on 1 June 1944 . On 3 June he arrived in Herzogenaurach to take over command of I. Gruppe ( 1st Group ) of JG 5 . The former Gruppenkommandeur Major Horst Carganico had been killed in a flying accident on 27 May 1944 . Three days after Weissenberger took command , the Allied invasion of Normandy began . To counter the invasion , elements of I. / JG 5 were transported to France by train that afternoon . The ground personnel were flown on Junkers Ju 52s to their airfield at Montdidier , 35 km ( 22 mi ) south of Amiens . The following day , Weissenberger took I. Gruppe into combat , achieving " ace @-@ in @-@ a @-@ day " status once again on his first day of combat on the Western Front . His 176th victory was over a Republic P @-@ 47 Thunderbolt shot down at 09 : 05 . He claimed two further P @-@ 47s shot down 20 minutes later . I. Gruppe was scrambled again in the afternoon which resulted in aerial combat with roughly 12 P @-@ 47s near Beauvais . During the course of this encounter , which ended at 17 : 39 , Weissenberger claimed two P @-@ 47s shot down .
On 8 June the final elements of I. Gruppe arrived in Montdidier , making the unit complete . In the evening Weissenberger again claimed two P @-@ 47s shot down , his 181st and 182nd aerial victories . The airfield at Montdidier came under heavy fighter bomber attack on 11 June followed by another attack on 12 June resulting in significant damage to the airfield . On 12 June Weissenberger filed a claim for three aerial victories . Together with his wingman , Unteroffizier ( Sergeant ) Alfred Tichy , he took off at 06 : 00 and during the course of 12 minutes shot down three P @-@ 47s . After his first victory , Tichy was killed in action , crashing near Évreux . At 07 : 02 Weissenberger shot down his third P @-@ 47 of the day but his Bf 109 G @-@ 5 was hit in the engine forcing him to bail out near Saint André . The airfield in Montdidier was rendered unserviceable and I. Gruppe was forced to relocate . It was first moved to Péronne , then to Chauny , a makeshift airfield between Noyon and Tergnier . The constant attacks against German airfields forced another move in July 1944 , this time to Frières in the vicinity of Laon .
II . Gruppe flew a combat air patrol on 6 July 1944 , resulting in the claim of three Lockheed P @-@ 38 Lightnings destroyed . Weissenberger was credited with two of these victories , the first at 08 : 48 and the second at 08 : 49 , both shot down south of Cambrai . The next day , the Gruppe took off heading for the airspace south of Rosières where they engaged a formation of 15 to 20 P @-@ 47s . During this encounter , Weissenberger claimed three victories , numbers 188 to 190 . The Gruppe was given a few days of rest and on 13 July were ordered to operate against enemy fighter bombers attacking German positions in the area Rouen – Bernay – Évreux . During this mission , he shot down a Hawker Typhoon at 18 : 24 near Trouville and another one two minutes later . They were then tasked with a fighter bomber mission on 14 July , attacking enemy positions near Caen . After a number of ground strafing attacks they themselves came under attack of numerous Supermarine Spitfires and P @-@ 47s . Flying at a height of 10 meters ( 33 feet ) , Weissenberger managed to shoot down one Spitfire 5 km ( 3 @.@ 1 mi ) south of Bayeux .
The commanding general of II . Jagdkorps ( 2nd Fighter Corps ) , Generalleutnant Alfred Bülowius , accompanied by Oberstleutnant Herbert Ihlefeld inspected II . Gruppe at their airfield in Frières on 15 July 1944 . On 17 July , Weissenberger led his Gruppe on a number of missions in the combat area near Caen without encountering any enemy aircraft . On their last mission of the day , having taken off at 19 : 00 , they encountered enemy fighter bombers near Caen – Le Mesnil . During aerial combat , the Gruppe lost three pilots without any success for themselves . On 19 July 1944 , I. Gruppe was tasked with flying top cover for Jagdgeschwader 2 " Richthofen " and Jagdgeschwader 26 " Schlageter " . During this mission , Weissenberger claimed four aerial victories . At 20 : 22 he shot down his first Typhoon of the mission north of Lisieux , another Typhoon one minute later and his third at 20 : 25 northwest of Cormeilles . His fourth victory was over a North American P @-@ 51 Mustang , shot down at 20 : 35 near Charleval .
On 25 July 1944 , the Gruppe was again tasked with a combat air patrol mission in the greater Caen area . Weissenberger received the order to take off at 10 : 30 and at 11 : 00 they spotted Spitfires in the vicinity of Rouen . In the ensuing aerial encounter at an altitude of 3 @,@ 800 m ( 12 @,@ 500 ft ) , Weissenberger shot down a Spitfire 15 km ( 9 @.@ 3 mi ) south of Rouen . This was his 199th aerial victory . Two minutes later , at 11 : 02 , he shot down his 200th opponent . This achievement earned him his second mention in the Wehrmachtbericht on 26 July 1944 . Weissenberger left the Gruppe on 30 July 1944 and went on vacation to Bad Wiessee .
His I. Gruppe was withdrawn from combat and moved to Wunstorf for a period of rest and conversion training to the Bf 109 G @-@ 14 . The ground personnel were transferred to II . Gruppe of Jagdgeschwader 6 ( JG 6 — 6th Fighter Wing ) . Conversion training ended in October 1944 and I. Gruppe was disbanded shortly after and became III . Gruppe ( 3rd Group ) of JG 6 on 14 October . On 24 October 1944 Weissenberger was ordered to Königsberg in der Neumark , present @-@ day Chojna in Poland . At Königsberg , he was given command of the newly forming I. Gruppe of Jagdgeschwader 7 " Nowotny " ( JG 7 — 7th Fighter Wing ) .
= = = Flying the Messerschmitt Me 262 = = =
JG 7 " Nowotny " was the first operational jet fighter wing in the world and was named after Walter Nowotny , who was killed in action on 8 November 1944 . Nowotny , a fighter pilot credited with 258 aerial victories and recipient of the Knight 's Cross of the Iron Cross with Oak Leaves , Swords and Diamonds ( Ritterkreuz des Eisernen Kreuzes mit Eichenlaub , Schwertern und Brillanten ) , had been assessing the Messerschmitt Me 262 jet aircraft under operational conditions . JG 7 " Nowotny " was equipped with the Me 262 , an aircraft which was heavily armed and faster than any Allied fighter . General der Jagdflieger ( General of the Fighter Force ) Adolf Galland hoped that the Me 262 would compensate for the Allies ' numerical superiority . On 12 November 1944 , the Oberkommando der Luftwaffe ( OKL — Air Force High Command ) ordered JG 7 " Nowotny " to be equipped with the Me 262 . Galland appointed Oberst Johannes Steinhoff as its first Geschwaderkommodore ( wing commander ) .
JG 7 " Nowotny " was initially formed with the Stab ( headquarters unit ) and III . Gruppe at Brandenburg @-@ Briest from the remnants of Kommando Nowotny . I. Gruppe was created on 27 November from pilots and personnel from II . Gruppe of Jagdgeschwader 3 " Udet " ( JG 3 — 3rd Fighter Wing ) and placed under the command of Weissenberger . Weissenberger ’ s appointed Staffelkapitäne in I. Gruppe were Oberleutnant Hans Grünberg , Oberleutnant Fritz Stehle , and Oberleutnant Hans Waldmann , commanding 1 . – 3 . Staffel respectively .
On New Year 's Day 1945 , Weissenberger married his teenage @-@ love Cilly Vogel in Langenselbold near Hanau . Best man at his wedding was his former JG 5 comrade and friend Walter Schuck . Schuck succeeded Waldmann as Staffelkapitän of the 3 . Staffel following the latter 's death in a flying accident on 18 March 1945 .
Weissenberger was promoted to Major on 1 January 1945 and replaced Steinhoff as Geschwaderkommodore of JG 7 " Nowotny " shortly after . Both Galland and Steinhoff , among others , were relieved of their commands in the aftermath of the Fighter Pilots ' Revolt in early 1945 .
Under his command , JG 7 " Nowotny " achieved some success before the end of World War II in Europe on 8 May 1945 . On 18 March 1945 , JG 7 " Nowotny " claimed 25 aerial victories over Berlin , among them three Boeing B @-@ 17 Flying Fortresses shot down by Weissenberger . Over all , he achieved eight confirmed victories , seven B @-@ 17 bombers and a P @-@ 51 fighter , while flying the Me 262 . Weissenberger survived the war and was credited with a total of 208 aerial victories , including 33 over the Western Front , claimed in 375 combat missions .
= = Later life = =
Weissenberger became a motor racing driver after the war , and was killed at the Nürburgring circuit on 11 June 1950 , when his modified BMW 328 single seater ( Veritas ) , start number 15 , crashed on the first lap of the XV Eifelrennen , a Formula Two motor race .
= = Awards = =
Weissenberger received the following awards :
Iron Cross ( 1939 variant )
2nd Class ( 6 November 1941 )
1st Class ( 17 February 1942 )
Ehrenpokal der Luftwaffe on 1 July 1942 as Oberfeldwebel and pilot
German Cross in Gold on 8 September 1942 as Oberfeldwebel in the 10 . ( ZS ) / JG 5
Knight 's Cross of the Iron Cross with Oak Leaves
Knight 's Cross on 13 November 1942 as Leutnant ( war officer ) and pilot in the 6 . / JG 5
266th Oak Leaves on 2 August 1943 as Oberleutnant ( war officer ) and Staffelkapitän of the 7 . / JG 5
Mentioned twice in the Wehrmachtbericht
In addition , Weissenberger was also recommended for the Knight 's Cross of the Iron Cross with Oak Leaves and Swords ( Ritterkreuz des Eisernen Kreuzes mit Eichenlaub und Schwertern ) by Steinhoff after his 200th aerial victory . The recommendation was received by the Oberkommando der Luftwaffe / Luftwaffenpersonalamt ( OKL / LP — Air Force High Command / Air Force Staff Office ) on 29 January 1945 , but was declined on 20 February 1945 . At the time , 240 aerial victories were required for the Swords to be awarded .
= = = Dates of rank = = =
|
= Capitulation of Saldanha Bay =
The Capitulation of Saldanha Bay saw the surrender to the British Royal Navy of a Dutch expeditionary force sent to recapture the Dutch Cape Colony in 1796 during the French Revolutionary Wars . In 1794 the army of the French Republic overran the Dutch Republic which then became a French client state , the Batavian Republic . Concerned by the threat posed to the trade routes between Great Britain and British India by the Dutch Cape Colony in Southern Africa , a British expeditionary force had landed at Simon 's Town in June 1795 and forced the surrender of the colony in a short campaign . The British commander , Vice @-@ Admiral Sir George Elphinstone , then reinforced the garrison and stationed a naval squadron at the Cape to protect the British conquest .
The Batavian government immediately ordered an expeditionary force to sail to the Cape and recapture the colony . This force comprised two ships of the line and five smaller vessels , all under the command of Rear @-@ Admiral Engelbertus Lucas . Security regarding the plans was weak and the British knew of the operation before Lucas had sailed . The British warned Elphinstone , who further reinforced the Cape . Lucas 's journey took nearly six months , suffering shortages of drinking water leading to a near @-@ mutinous state among his crews . On arrival , the Batavian fleet anchored in Saldanha Bay to take on fresh water before deciding to abandon the operation and sail to the French base at Île de France in the Western Indian Ocean .
On 15 August 1796 Elphinstone 's larger fleet discovered Lucas 's force and trapped it in the bay . Aware that resistance would be futile and with his crews in open revolt , Lucas surrendered unconditionally . The ships of the captured Batavian force were taken into the Royal Navy , joining the squadron at the Cape ; Elphinstone was later made Baron Keith in recognition of his achievements . The Batavian operation did however force the cancellation of a planned British invasion of Île de France . Lucas faced a court martial on his return to the Netherlands , but died before it concluded by exonerating him for the defeat . The Cape Colony was not attacked again before the end of the war in 1802 , when the Treaty of Amiens returned it to the Batavian Republic .
= = Background = =
In the winter of 1794 the army of the French Republic overran the Dutch Republic . The French National Convention reformed the Dutch Republic into a revolutionary client state named the Batavian Republic . This event alarmed the government of Great Britain , erstwhile allies of the Dutch , as the Dutch Empire controlled a number of strategically important colonies in the East Indies . The key to controlling European access to the region was the Dutch Cape Colony on the tip of Southern Africa ; a naval force based there could dominate the trade routes between Europe and the East Indies , in particular the economically vital links between Britain and British India .
To ensure that the Cape Colony did not become a French naval base , the Secretary of State for War , Henry Dundas , ordered a large expeditionary force to sail for the Cape in March 1795 . The force comprised two squadrons and 500 troops , all under the overall control of Vice @-@ Admiral Sir George Elphinstone ; more substantial reinforcements followed . Arriving on 10 June in False Bay , Elphinstone then conducted two months of fruitless negotiations with the government at the Cape , led by Abraham Josias Sluysken . On 7 August , with negotiations stalled , Elphinstone ordered an attack on Dutch positions at Muizenberg . The Dutch defenders withdrew , but Elphinstone 's forces were low on food and ammunition and not numerous enough to launch a major attack on Cape Town . On 14 September the arrival of British reinforcements under General Alured Clarke convinced Sluysken to surrender the colony .
Elphinstone turned his attention to planning operations against the Dutch East Indies and the French island base of Île de France . He sailed for Madras in his flagship HMS Monarch to take command of the East Indies Station , but maintained a strong garrison and naval presence at the Cape under Sir James Henry Craig and Commodore John Blankett . Much of his squadron was subsequently dispersed on operations across the Indian Ocean . While Elphinstone was consolidating his position , the Batavian government determined to recapture the Cape . A squadron was prepared under the command of Rear @-@ Admiral Engelbertus Lucas , who had sailed to the East Indies once in 1786 , but otherwise had no experience of long expeditionary campaigns . His force comprised two small 66 @-@ gun ships of the line , Dortrecht and Revolutie , and five smaller warships . After taking the Cape , Lucas was to continue his expedition in order to reinforce the Dutch East Indies .
= = Lucas 's voyage = =
Lucas 's expeditionary force sailed from the Texel on 23 February 1796 , intending to pass through the North Sea and around Scotland before entering the Atlantic and turning south . Unspecified French support for the operation had been promised by the National Convention , but did not materialise . The British North Sea Fleet was actively blockading the Texel and the 16 @-@ gun brig HMS Espiegle sighted the Batavian force putting to sea . Espiegle shadowed Lucas throughout the day , sending a message to Admiral Adam Duncan at Great Yarmouth . On 26 February a small British squadron led by Captain Henry Trollope in HMS Glatton detached from the cruising division of Rear @-@ Admiral Thomas Pringle and encountered the Batavians , the weaker British making off as Lucas formed a line of battle .
Having successfully evaded pursuit , Lucas followed his planned route , arriving at Las Palmas on Gran Canaria on 13 April . The journey had not been unobserved : a small British warship , the 20 @-@ gun HMS Mozelle under Captain Charles Brisbane , had sighted the Batavian force near Madeira while Mozelle was escorting two merchant ships to Barbados . Leaving the merchant ships to make their way unescorted , Mozelle followed Lucas for several days and then sailed south with all haste to bring a warning to the Cape . Despite noticing Mozelle , Lucas decided not to attack her .
After taking on supplies at Las Palmas , Lucas sailed to Praia on Cape Verde , before continuing south on 29 May in the direction of the Brazilian coast , hoping to profit from favourable winds and currents . In fact , due to persistent calms , a position off the Brazilian shore was only reached on 27 June . Because of the delay , Lucas decided not to supply himself but to sail directly to the Cape . Because Lucas made no stops on his journey between Cape Verde and the Cape , the fact that his voyage took far longer than a journey of this distance should have taken has surprised several authors . Historian C. Northcote Parkinson ascribed the delay , at least partially , to the poor quality of seamanship among Lucas 's crews . The Batavian expeditionary force did not speak to another vessel during this time and thus had no information regarding British dispositions when it eventually reached the Cape on 26 July . They first reconnoitred Saldanha Bay , then Table Bay to the south , and eventually on 6 August they anchored in Saldanha Bay .
British agents had observed Lucas 's preparations in the Netherlands and reported them in January , more than a month before the expedition sailed . The British Admiralty sent the frigate HMS Carysfort to the Cape with a warning . Carysfort arrived at the Cape in April , but vague accounts of Lucas 's mission had reached Elphinstone even earlier , appearing at Madras in March , less than a month after Lucas 's departure from the Texel . Sailing from Madras on 23 March , Elphinstone reached the Cape on 23 May where he received detailed reports of the size and status of the Batavian force heading for the Cape . The Admiralty had already responded to the threat by diverting substantial resources to the Cape : in addition to Elphinstone and Blankett 's forces a convoy of transports led by Captain William Essington arrived on 28 May and a small squadron under Pringle followed on 28 July , joined that day by Mozelle with the most detailed reports to date of Lucas 's movements . Subsequent reinforcements arrived from the squadron based in India , so that by August there were seven ships of the line and seven smaller vessels under Elphinstone 's command and the garrison of the Cape stood at 9 @,@ 400 British troops .
= = Saldanha Bay = =
Elphinstone was concerned that the Batavian force might not be sailing for the Cape at all . In May a powerful French frigate squadron under Contre @-@ amiral Pierre César Charles de Sercey had sailed past the Cape without stopping , observed by HMS Sphynx , which it chased back to Simon 's Town . If the Batavian force was sailing for the East Indies , it might bypass the Cape altogether . Elphinstone therefore decided to take his fleet out to sea to search for the Batavians . On 6 August Elphinstone sailed southwest from False Bay in search of Lucas , but a fierce storm caught the British , inflicting damage on the ships , including the loss of the mainmast on Monarch and flooding on HMS Ruby . The fleet returned to Simon 's Bay in a battered state on 12 August , to learn on arrival that Lucas 's force lay at anchor to the north . The following day a storm swept the bay . Most of Elphinstone 's ships were damaged : both HMS Crescent and HMS Trident grounded , and HMS Tremendous dragged anchors and was almost wrecked .
Lucas had arrived off the Cape on 26 July with no knowledge of Elphinstone 's dispositions . He had more pressing concerns : it had been several months since his ships had sighted land and his supplies of drinking water were running dangerously low . A significant proportion of his crews were suffering from disease and he had decided to send these men to an encampment ashore to allow for better treatment . Lucas even ordered that the sails on his ships be removed for repairs , rendering his ships temporarily immobile . On 9 August , Lucas was warned by a servant of a Dutch inhabitant of the Cape that a superior English force was present . He was informed that the Dutch population would not assist an attack on the British and strongly advised to sail away . Lucas however , on hearing this sailed deeper into the bay . Sir James Craig sent cavalry to Saldanha Bay to harry Batavian shore parties and organised the withdrawal of the local population and livestock to prevent their capture , following with a larger force under his own command . Lucas held a council with his senior officers , debating whether an attack on Cape Town was practical or whether they should abandon the operation . By 16 August the decision had been made to sail for Île de France , but Lucas delayed , unwilling to leave his sick men ashore .
As the Batavian force prepared to sail , on 16 August Elphinstone 's fleet appeared off the bay , led by the scouting frigate Crescent . He sent a letter to Lucas demanding his surrender but this was refused . Ascertaining the strength of the Batavian force , on 17 August Elphinstone led his fleet into the bay in line of battle and brought the line to anchor at close gunshot range from Lucas 's ships . Trapped between the coast and the British , Lucas immediately raised a flag of truce . He then sent an officer to negotiate terms with Elphinstone . By 17 : 00 , hopelessly outnumbered and his crews in open rebellion , Lucas agreed to terms that dictated an almost unconditional surrender of the Batavian force . Elphinstone furthermore refused Lucas 's request for cartels to immediately send his crews back to the Netherlands .
= = Orders of battle = =
= = = Lucas 's order of battle = = =
= = = Elphinstone 's order of battle = = =
= = Aftermath = =
The warships of the Batavian squadron were all commissioned into the Royal Navy and attached to the squadron at the Cape , an action for which Elphinstone was criticised by the Admiralty . Elphinstone returned to Britain in October 1796 . There he was made Baron Keith for his capture and retention of the Cape Colony . Most of the sailors and soldiers in the Dutch force were Germans and nearly all entered British service , either with the Royal Navy or the East India Company . Lucas and the Dutch officers later returned to Europe in the cartel Gertruida . One of the captured ships , HMS Dortrecht became notorious the following year when the crew mutinied at Saint Helena in imitation of the Spithead and Nore mutinies in Britain . Only the intervention of Captain Charles Brisbane , who threw a noose around the ringleader 's neck and threatened death if the disobedience was repeated , succeeded in intimidating the rebellious seamen . In the Batavian Republic Lucas 's surrender caused popular outrage . On the admiral 's return he faced a court martial by the National Assembly of the Batavian Republic on 11 April 1797 and an investigation by Jacobus Spoors . Lucas did not survive to see the conclusion of the trial , dying of natural causes on 21 June 1797 , but he was ultimately exonerated in December 1797 .
Historians have held Lucas blamelss for refusing to fight Elphinstone 's force , which was far superior in both ships and men . Elphinstone 's ships carried more than twice as many men as the Batavian expedition , even before the British troops ashore are taken into account . Lucas could only muster 1 @,@ 972 men compared with the 4 @,@ 291 under Elphinstone 's command . The expedition has however been criticised for its lack of preparedness ; while it is true that promised French support failed to appear , the Batavian troops were insufficient in number to seriously threaten the British garrison . As Parkinson noted : " what could be the point of landing a few hundred men on a shore bristling with English bayonets ? " An unintended site @-@ effect of the campaign however was to forestall a British invasion of Île de France , which Elphinstone had postponed to prepare for Lucas 's arrival and which was ultimately cancelled entirely .
There were no further attacks on the Cape Colony during the war . The Treaty of Amiens in 1802 returned all captured Dutch colonies except Ceylon to the Batavian Republic , including the Cape Colony . The peace was short @-@ lived , and early in the Napoleonic Wars a second British expeditionary force was prepared . In 1806 the British seized the Cape Colony a second time following the Battle of Blaauwberg . Cape Colony remained part of the British Empire until its independence as part of a unified South Africa in 1910 .
|
= Final Fantasy Adventure =
Final Fantasy Adventure , originally released in Japan as Seiken Densetsu : Final Fantasy Gaiden ( 聖剣伝説 ～ ファイナルファンタジー外伝 ～ ) , and later released in Europe as Mystic Quest , is a Final Fantasy spinoff and the first game in the Mana series . Published by Square in 1991 on the original Game Boy , it later saw a North American re @-@ release by Sunsoft in April 1998 .
Originally being developed under the name Gemma Knights , features gameplay roughly similar to that of the original The Legend of Zelda game , but with the addition of role @-@ playing video game statistical elements . Along with Final Fantasy Mystic Quest , Final Fantasy Adventure was the first Final Fantasy game to be released in Europe . A remake , Sword of Mana , was released in 2003 changing the plot and many gameplay aspects . A second remake was released on mobile phones in Japan which only improved the graphics and music of the original version . A third remake , Adventures of Mana , was released for iOS , Android , and PlayStation Vita on February 4 , 2016 .
The story follows the hero and the young heroine as they attempt to thwart the Dark Lord of Glaive and his sorcerer assistant , Julius , from destroying the Tree of Mana and dooming their world . The game was released with many familiar elements of the Final Fantasy series , such as Chocobos , but these were later changed to feature common enemies and the gameplay style of the Mana series .
Final Fantasy Adventure was met with generally positive reviews at the time of its release . Over the course of time , reviewers have considered it one of the best action adventure games on the Game Boy . The game also spawned an entirely new game series , called the Mana series , which became a successful video game RPG franchise .
= = Gameplay = =
The gameplay is similar to the original Legend of Zelda for the NES : the world is viewed from a top @-@ down camera angle , it is divided up into many different squares that can fit on the screen , and the main character can move up , down , left , and right across the screen . The player can interact with individuals within towns by gathering information and buying or selling items and equipment . A variety of enemies can be battled on a field screen to gain experience , GP , and items . Within dungeon areas , a number of puzzles may be present and required to be solved in order for the player to advance . The player can also save at any point . A number of weapons can be found throughout the game to maneuver through obstacles such as cutting through trees and thorns .
In standard role @-@ playing game fare , the main character possesses several statistics , including hit points , power , and stamina , which can all increase upon gaining an experience level . Magic spells , which expend the character 's MP , can be used to heal oneself or damage enemies . These spells can only be found in certain locations or obtained from other characters at specific plot intervals . In addition , the protagonist has a power gauge that affects his attack strength — the higher the gauge , the stronger his attack will be . The speed at which it fills is directly affected by the character 's will level . The gauge will slowly fill up over time , but once the main character attacks , the gauge is emptied . When the gauge is completely filled up and the main character attacks with a weapon , he will perform a special attack .
One additional , non @-@ controllable character may occasionally accompany the main character in the story and can perform different activities to aid the main character in his quest . The game also introduced the ability to kill townspeople , something that many role @-@ playing video games lack .
= = Plot = =
The Hero ( named by the player ) , is a prisoner of the Dark Lord . One day , the Hero 's friend informs him of the Dark Lord 's goals and urges him to seek a Knight named Bogard . As the Hero escapes imprisonment , he learns the Dark Lord is seeking a key to the Mana Sanctuary in order to control the Mana Tree , an energy source which sustains life . The Hero is befriended by the Heroine ( named by the player ) who is also seeking Bogard . The two find Bogard who recommends them to meet a man named Cibba . During his journey to meet Cibba , the Heroine gets kidnapped and was rescued by the Hero with the aid of a mysterious man . When they meet Cibba , he plays a message left by the Heroine 's mother who reveals she is a descendant of the guardians of the Mana Tree and that her pendant is the key to it . The mysterious man , after discovering she holds the pendant , reveals himself to be Julius , Dark Lord 's advisor , and kidnaps the Heroine . The Hero then attempts to rescue the Heroine but fails and gets knocked out of Julius 's airship . The Heroine gives the Hero the pendant just before he falls off the airship .
The Hero is then reunited with Amanda , an escapee from his prison , who steals the pendant in order to win her brother Lester 's freedom . The mayor of Jadd , Davias , takes the pendant but transforms Lester into a parrot . The Hero and Amanda confront a Medusa for its tear which will break the spell . They kill it but Amanda is infected by the Medusa 's attack causing her to transform into one . The Hero reluctantly kills her and uses her tears to break Lester 's spell . Lester avenges Amanda 's death by killing Davias who reveals he gave the pendant to the Dark Lord . The Hero confronts and defeats the Dark Lord ; however , Hero discovers that the Heroine is under Julius ' mind control and has opened the entrance to the Mana Tree . Julius reveals he is the last survivor of the Vandole empire , the empire who attempted to control the Mana Tree years ago , and handily defeats the Hero .
Realizing he is powerless to defeat Julius , the Hero learns from Cibba about a powerful sword called Excalibur . Cibba helps him find the Excalibur only to find a rusty Sword instead . He explains that the rusty sword is the Excalibur and would reveal its true strength to whoever it finds worthy . The Hero then raises Dime Tower to reach the Mana Sanctuary and meets a robot known as Marcie . After reaching the top , the tower begins to collapse and Marcie sacrifices himself by throwing the Hero across . After obtaining and passing the sword 's trials , the Hero confronts and defeats Julius at the cost of the Mana Tree 's life . The Heroine 's mother reveals she is the current Mana Tree and before dying , asks the Heroine to succeed her position . The Heroine agrees and bids farewell to the Hero as she becomes the next Mana Tree and the Hero her guardian .
= = Development = =
Square trademarked Seiken Densetsu in 1989 , intending to use it for a game project subtitled The Emergence of Excalibur , and led by Kazuhiko Aoki for the Famicom Disk System . According to early advertisements , the game would consist of an unprecedented five floppy disks , making it one of the largest titles developed for the Famicom up until that point . Although Square solicited pre @-@ orders for the game , Kaoru Moriyama , a former Square employee , affirms that management canceled the ambitious project before it advanced beyond the early planning stages . In October 1987 , customers who had placed orders were sent a letter informing them of the cancellation and had their purchases refunded . The letter also suggested to consider placing an order on another upcoming Square role @-@ playing game in a similar vein : Final Fantasy .
After the release of the third Final Fantasy title in 1990 , Square offered designer Koichi Ishii to direct a spin @-@ off series game . It began development for the Game Boy under the working title Gemma Knights ; eventually , Square revived the trademarked name and released the game as Seiken Densetsu : Final Fantasy Gaiden . It was later released in Europe as Mystic Quest . Ishii suggested the basis of the game 's story , while scenario writer Yoshinori Kitase helped write the game 's script . Ishii designed all of the characters himself , while Goro Ohashi was responsible for the development of the game system .
The Mana series , of which Final Fantasy Adventure was the first game of , was the result of Koichi Ishii 's desire to create a fictional world . In Ishii 's opinion , Mana is not a series of video games , but rather a world which is illustrated by and can be explored through video games . When working on the series , Koichi Ishii drew inspiration from abstract images from his memories of childhood , as well as movies and fantasy books that captivated him as a child . Ishii took care to avoid set conventions , and his influences are correspondingly very wide and non @-@ specific . Nonetheless , among his literary influences , he acknowledges Tove Jansson 's Moomin , Lewis Carroll 's Alice 's Adventures in Wonderland , and J. R. R. Tolkien 's Lord of the Rings .
= = = Music = = =
The Seiken Densetsu : Final Fantasy Gaiden Original Soundtrack ( 聖剣伝説 ファイナルファンタジー外伝 Original Soundtrack ) was released in Japan on July 15 , 1991 . Most of the tracks were composed by Kenji Ito , while track 16 , " Chocobo Tanjou ( Chocobo 's Birth ) " , is credited to renowned Square composer Nobuo Uematsu . Seiken Densetsu / Arranged Version Omoi wa Shirabe ni Nosete ( 聖剣伝説 / アレンジ ・ ヴァージョン ・ 想いは調べにのせて , lit . " Holy Sword Legend / Arranged Version Let Thoughts Ride On Knowledge " ) , a set of arranged tracks was also released on September 30 , 1991 . Both albums were compiled into Seiken Densetsu : Final Fantasy Gaiden Sound Collections , originally released in August 18 , 1995 . The game 's music was included in a 20th anniversary CD compilation of all of the Mana series games ' soundtracks . A second arranged album titled Tanoshī Baieru Heiyō Seiken Densetsu ( 楽しいバイエル併用 聖剣伝説 , lit . " Fun Together with Beyer : Holy Sword Legend " ) was released on December 10 , 1998 . The album was compiled by Yu Hong Ishikawa and Kushiro Negishi .
= = Versions and merchandise = =
In 1998 , Sunsoft obtained the license for it and re @-@ released it along with the Final Fantasy Legend games . This version was advertised as having Game Boy Color support , although the release was not enhanced in any way . RPGamer reported in July 2004 that Square was polling die @-@ hard customers , testing the feasibility of porting Final Fantasy Adventure to the Nintendo DS . GamesRadar listed Final Fantasy Adventure as one of the titles they want in the 3DS Virtual Console .
The game received a remake for the Game Boy Advance called Sword of Mana in 2003 . The original version was remade again to mobile phones and released on August 16 , 2006 for SoftBank 's 3G network . It was later ported onto i @-@ Mode distribution service on November 6 , 2006 and EZweb distribution service on February 5 , 2007 . The gameplay of the mobile phone version is closer to the original game 's design , but featuring updated graphics and sound , an improved world map , and other minor changes . The characters have been redesigned several times between each remake . On September 16 , 2015 a 3D remake was announced for PlayStation Vita , Android and iOS .
Two guidebooks have been released in Japan : Seiken Densetsu : Final Fantasy Gaiden kiso chishiki @-@ hen ( 聖剣伝説 ファイナルファンタジー外伝 : 基礎知識編 , lit . Holy Sword Legend Final Fantasy Supplementary Story Basic Knowledge ) and Seiken Densetsu Final Fantasy Gaiden kanzen kōryaku @-@ hen ( 聖剣伝説 ファイナルファンタジー外伝 完全攻略編 , lit . Holy Sword Legend Final Fantasy Supplementary Story Advance Knowledge ) , each of which contains character illustrations and manga . The guidebooks were released on May 1991 and August 1991 respectively .
= = = Other manga = = =
Final Fantasy Adventure , is one of the video games featured in the manga titled Rock 'n Game Boy , by Shigeto Ikehara and Published by Comic BomBom October 1989 to December 1991 .
= = Reception = =
According to Square 's publicity department , the game sold 700 @,@ 000 units , with 500 @,@ 000 of these sold in Japan .
Final Fantasy Adventure was featured in Nintendo Power when it was re @-@ released in the United States . The game holds an aggregated score of 79 @.@ 07 % approval rating on Game Rankings based on seven reviews . IGN praised the Game Boy re @-@ release version noting its strong story , graphics , and music . They additionally praised the game 's puzzle elements as innovative and drew comparisons to The Legend of Zelda : Link 's Awakening , though noted that its role @-@ playing gameplay did not blend well with its action @-@ oriented nature . RPGFan also praised the game stating it was " possibly the best thing that ever happened to Gameboy . " RPGamer praised the game 's plot stating , " The story is one where you can relate to the characters and also the world around them . " Ndojo also gave similar praise to the game however noting it being vastly different from Final Fantasy stating , " If you ’ re expecting Final Fantasy in the traditional sense , you ’ re going to be disappointed . However , if you play the game for a while , you just might find that it ’ s equally entertaining in its own fashion . "
The game has been perceived very positively in the years following its initial release . GameDaily named it alongside the other Game Boy Final Fantasy titles as definitive games for the system , describing it as providing " hours of role @-@ playing excitement , whether you were waiting in a dentist 's office or on the way to Grandma 's house . " The sentiment was shared by gaming magazine Pocket Games , which ranked the titles together 8th out of the Top 50 games for the Game Boy , stating " every game in the series is a sprawling classic with well written scripts and solid characters . " Kotaku praised the original release of the game as a " really great action @-@ RPG " . 1UP.com called the game ambitious for its time , writing that it represented an evolution of the overhead perspective action adventure genre . They also rated the game as " Worth It ! " in terms of buying and enjoying the original game in 2007 , and noted it as the origins of the Mana series ' many unique gameplay features . GamesRadar named it the 13th best Game Boy game ever made , noting that its interesting leveling system and large number of collectible items made up for a poor English translation . Game Informer also praised the game 's leveling system , though it did call it a " simplistic " title in comparison to its sequels .
|
= Diamond Rio =
Diamond Rio is an American country and Christian country music band . The band was founded in 1982 as an attraction for the Opryland USA theme park in Nashville , Tennessee , and was originally known as the Grizzly River Boys , then the Tennessee River Boys . It was founded by Matt Davenport , Danny Gregg , and Ty Herndon , the last of whom became a solo artist in the mid @-@ 1990s . After undergoing several membership changes in its initial years , the band has consisted of the same six members since 1989 : Marty Roe ( lead vocals , rhythm guitar ) , Gene Johnson ( mandolin , guitar , fiddle , tenor vocals ) , Jimmy Olander ( lead guitar , Dobro , banjo ) , Brian Prout ( drums ) , Dan Truman ( keyboards , organ , synthesizer ) , and Dana Williams ( bass guitar , baritone vocals ) .
After assuming the name Diamond Rio , the band was signed to Arista Nashville and debuted in 1991 with the single " Meet in the Middle " , which made them the first band ever to send a debut single to No. 1 on the Billboard Hot Country Songs charts . The band charted 32 more singles between then and 2006 , including four more that reached No. 1 : " How Your Love Makes Me Feel " ( 1997 ) , " One More Day " ( 2001 ) , " Beautiful Mess " ( 2002 ) , and " I Believe " ( 2003 ) .
Diamond Rio has recorded nine studio albums , four Greatest Hits compilations , and an album of Christmas music . Three of the band 's albums have achieved RIAA platinum certification in the United States . In addition , Diamond Rio has received four Group of the Year awards from the Country Music Association , two Top Vocal Group awards from the Academy of Country Music , and one Grammy Award out of thirteen nominations . The band is known for its vocal harmonies , varied instrumentation , and near @-@ exclusive use of only its own membership on recordings instead of session musicians . Their sound was originally defined by mainstream country , bluegrass , and rock influences , but later albums drew more influence from Christian country music and country pop .
= = Beginnings = =
In 1982 , Matt Davenport and Danny Gregg founded a band at Opryland USA , a former country music @-@ based amusement park in Nashville , Tennessee . The band was first named the Grizzly River Boys , after a new river rafting ride at the park , but quickly changed names to the Tennessee River Boys due to its members disliking the original name . Originally intended to promote the park through a one @-@ time television special , the band proved popular enough that it became one of many regular performers there . Davenport , Gregg , and Ty Herndon alternated as lead vocalists , with Davenport also playing bass guitar and Gregg on rhythm guitar ; completing the lineup were Larry Beard ( lead guitar , fiddle , banjo ) , Mel Deal ( steel guitar ) , Al DeLeonibus ( piano ) , and Ed Mummert ( drums ) . The group " swapped lead voices , told jokes , and balanced old @-@ school country concert shtick with a contemporary sound . " Herndon left the group in 1983 to compete on the talent show Star Search , and became a solo artist for Epic Records between 1995 and the early 2000s . Herndon was temporarily replaced by Anthony Crawford and then Virgil True before his role was taken over by Marty Roe , who had originally toured nationally with the Christian band Windsong , and worked in the park by doing impersonations of Larry Gatlin . Following Herndon 's departure , DeLonibus and Mummert quit as well , with Dan Truman ( who had previously played in Brigham Young University 's Young Ambassadors ) and Jimmy " J. J. " Whiteside taking their places . Beard quit shortly afterward and ultimately became a session musician , and former Mel McDaniel sideman Jimmy Olander took his place . The band , through the assistance of Bill Anderson 's drummer Len " Snuffy " Miller , submitted demos to various Nashville record labels with no success .
By 1985 , the Tennessee River Boys had quit working at Opryland . According to Roe , while the band enjoyed playing at the park , they also felt that their status as a theme park attraction discredited them as " real musicians " to those in the Nashville community . For the next few years , they played at small venues such as high school auditoriums , and usually worked no more than four concerts a month . They also competed on Star Search , but were eliminated in the first round . Frustrated by the sporadic touring schedules , Whiteside quit the group and was replaced by Brian Prout , who previously performed in Hot Walker Band and Heartbreak Mountain . Around 1986 , Deal and Gregg both left the group , the latter due to health complications from a serious illness he had developed as a teenager . They initially chose to operate as a quintet , with Davenport as the sole lead vocalist and Roe and Prout singing harmony ; when this arrangement proved unsuccessful , they found mandolist Gene Johnson , a former member of the bluegrass group Eddie Adcock 's IInd Generation , which Olander was a fan of as a child . Johnson debuted at a concert in Clewiston , Florida in May 1987 . Also at this point , the band members supplemented their incomes with outside jobs : Johnson continued to work in carpentry , as he had done before joining the band , while Olander and Roe mowed lawns , and Prout drove tour buses .
In 1988 , the band caught the attention of Keith Stegall , a singer @-@ songwriter who would later become known primarily for his work as Alan Jackson 's record producer . Stegall produced demos for the Tennessee River Boys , but noted that Davenport could not record the lead vocal and bass parts at the same time , as they would be difficult to separate in the control room . As a result , Stegall had Roe sing a " scratch " vocal track live with the other musicians , which would then be replaced by Davenport 's voice in post @-@ production . Upon hearing Roe sing the " scratch " track , Stegall successfully convinced the other members that Roe should be the lead vocalist instead . Due to his discomfort outside the lead role and his wife 's dissatisfaction with his career , Davenport quit in late 1988 , becoming the last founding member to leave . The group quickly had to find a replacement , as they were scheduled to appear on the talk show Nashville Now on January 23 , 1989 . Alan LeBeouf , who had just left Baillie & the Boys , expressed interest in replacing Davenport , but ultimately declined due to other commitments . They finally chose Dana Williams , a nephew of the bluegrass group Osborne Brothers and former sideman for Jimmy C. Newman , who had been a fan of the Tennessee River Boys since Herndon was a member .
= = = 1990 : Signing with Arista Nashville = = =
Williams officially joined before the Nashville Now appearance , but the band still did not have a record deal at this point . They continued to record demos in Prout 's garage with assistance from Monty Powell , who had previously hired Roe and Olander for recording jingles , but wanted to produce commercial music . Powell was a friend of audio engineer Mike Clute , who would later become one of the band 's producers , and songwriters Tim DuBois and Van Stephenson . DuBois was talking with record executive Clive Davis about creating a country music branch of Arista Records called Arista Nashville ; Stephenson would later sign to the label in 1993 as a member of Blackhawk . Initially , DuBois was hesitant about signing the Tennessee River Boys , as he felt that there were too many popular bands in country music , and he was about to sign both Asleep at the Wheel and Exile . He expressed interest in signing Roe as a solo artist , but at Powell 's insistence , he agreed to see the band open for George Jones at a May 1989 concert , and officially signed them to Arista Nashville in 1990 . The band members also decided to choose a new name , as they thought that Tennessee River Boys sounded more suitable for a bluegrass or gospel group than a country one . Among the names they had chosen were Kilroy and T @-@ Town Mavericks , the latter of which was rejected by Arista executives . Prout suggested Diamond Rio , after the truck manufacturing company Diamond Reo Trucks . The name had been previously rejected by another country band , Shenandoah , whose lead singer Marty Raybon ( also a former member of Heartbreak Mountain ) gave Prout permission to use the name even though Shenandoah " conducted business " under that name .
Shortly after the band received its record deal , the band underwent a series of misfortunes when Olander , Johnson , and Williams came down with health problems . On August 9 , 1990 , Johnson was injured in a carpentry accident in Arkansas a day before his 41st birthday , severely cutting his left thumb . Robert Bolin substituted for Johnson during the band 's tour in Brazil with Kevin Welch and Jann Browne . On September 6 , four weeks after Johnson 's accident , Williams was water skiing with his family in Cookeville , Tennessee as his boat came forward at high speed when his wife was picking him up . The propellor slashed Williams ' legs and he was rushed to a hospital for his injuries . Brian Helgos and Paul Gregg ( Danny Gregg 's brother , and a member of Restless Heart ) substituted for Williams . Meanwhile , Olander discovered that he had a lemon @-@ sized tumor that was pressing against his esophagus . The tumor was never successfully diagnosed , although it ultimately vanished .
= = Musical career = =
= = = 1991 – 1992 : Diamond Rio = = =
After Olander , Williams , and Johnson had recovered , the six musicians set to work on their debut album . In doing so , Johnson soon discovered that the injuries to his hands had altered his dexterity on the mandolin , and threatened to walk away after Powell offhandedly remarked that he would have Roe dub in his own tenor harmonies instead of having Johnson sing them . The band also had commitments to finish as the Tennessee River Boys , to the point that they occasionally had to promote themselves under both names in the same day .
Arista Nashville released Diamond Rio 's debut single , " Meet in the Middle " , on February 6 , 1991 . As the lead single to their self @-@ titled debut album , " Meet in the Middle " went on to spend two weeks at No. 1 on the Billboard Hot Country Songs charts , making Diamond Rio the first country music group ever to send its debut single to the top of that chart . Following its release , the band performed its first official concert as Diamond Rio on May 4 , 1991 . They shared the bill with Wild Rose , whose membership included Prout 's then @-@ wife , Nancy Given Prout . Released three weeks later with DuBois and Powell as producers , Diamond Rio was met with positive critical reception from critics such as Allmusic , Chicago Tribune , and Entertainment Weekly , which praised the band 's vocal harmonies , instrumentation , and song choices .
Four more singles were released from Diamond Rio , all reaching top 10 on the Billboard country singles charts : " Mirror , Mirror " , " Mama Don 't Forget to Pray for Me " , " Norma Jean Riley " ( which was previously the B @-@ side of " Mama Don 't Forget to Pray for Me " ) , and " Nowhere Bound " , the latter two of which were co @-@ written by Powell . Roe and Prout had found both " Mama Don 't Forget to Pray for Me " and " Mirror , Mirror " by attending shows at the Bluebird Cafe in Nashville , a popular spot for performances by aspiring songwriters . Truman and an employee of Arista had found " Norma Jean Riley " , which was originally titled " Pretty Little Lady " until DuBois remarked that the lady in the song should have a name : " It could be ' Norma Jean Riley ' , anything ! " Johnson spoke positively about " Mama Don 't Forget to Pray for Me " , which was written and originally recorded by Larry Cordle , and the impact that it had on fans . He recalled a letter sent to him by a female fan who had run away from home and chose to return after hearing that song , and said that " We already didn 't wanna do the drinkin ' songs and stuff ... if you 're gonna touch someone , touch them with something that 's positive . "
Diamond Rio was later certified platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) for shipping one million copies in the United States . In addition , the band won the Academy of Country Music 's Top Vocal Group for 1992 , an award they would receive again in 1993 , 1994 , and 1997 . They were also nominated for Top New Vocal Duet or Group by the same association in 1992 . A cut from the album , the instrumental " Poultry Promenade " , gave the band its first Grammy Award nomination .
= = = 1992 – 1995 : Close to the Edge and Love a Little Stronger = = =
Close to the Edge , the group 's second album , was released in 1992 . Certified gold by the RIAA for U.S. shipments of 500 @,@ 000 copies , the album produced the Top 5 country hits " In a Week or Two " and " Oh Me , Oh My , Sweet Baby " , the latter of which was originally recorded by George Strait on his 1989 album Beyond the Blue Neon . The next singles , " This Romeo Ain 't Got Julie Yet " and " Sawmill Road " , both failed to reach top 10 . Roe considered Close to the Edge a weaker album than their debut because the band only had one month to pick the songs for it ; in a 1994 interview with New Country magazine , he stated : " There aren 't ten great songs out there for everybody , certainly not that you could find in a 30 @-@ day period of time . " Olander was also critical of the novelty factor of " This Romeo Ain 't Got Julie Yet " , which he co @-@ wrote , saying that it was " by far not my favorite Diamond Rio recording – but that 's at the time when I 'm thinkin ' , ' Oh , this is easy , let 's write this . It 's kinda cute . " Brian Mansfield of Allmusic was also critical of the song , but described the rest of the album with favor , saying that its " strongest material emphasizes the virtues of God , family and honest living – traditional stuff , no doubt influenced by the members ' bluegrass background " , while Jack Hurst of the Chicago Tribune thought that " In a Week or Two " and " Sawmill Road " , " which is about the diverse trails some rural schoolmates follow in adulthood " , were the strongest tracks .
In 1994 , the band released its third album , Love a Little Stronger . The album was recorded on a more relaxed schedule than the previous album ; as a result , they did not have a single on the charts for three months after " Sawmill Road " fell off the charts . For this album , Clute joined DuBois and Powell as co @-@ producer , a role that he has held on all of the band 's subsequent releases . The title track ( co @-@ written by Billy Crittenden , later a member of the vocal group 4 Runner ) , reached a peak of No. 2 on the Billboard country singles charts , and No. 1 on the country singles chart published by Radio & Records . It was followed by the No. 9 hit " Night Is Fallin ' in My Heart " and the Top 20 hits " Bubba Hyde " and " Finish What We Started " . Because the band had taken a longer period of time to choose songs for Love a Little Stronger , they considered it a superior album to its predecessor ; Mansfield shared a similar opinion in his review of the album , stating that " Spurred by the relatively lackluster performance of Close to the Edge ... Diamond Rio explored the musical possibilities of its talents rather than digging for easy commercial success . " This album also earned the band its second platinum certification .
= = = 1996 – 1999 : IV , Greatest Hits , and Unbelievable = = =
IV , Diamond Rio 's fourth album , was released in 1996 . It was the " first country release recorded entirely on a digital console " ; specifically , a Fairlight console which recorded the album directly to a hard drive . Produced by DuBois , Clute , and the band itself , it was also their first album not to have Powell as a co @-@ producer . According to DuBois , Powell left this role on good terms , as he " saw a need to go in a certain direction , and the guys saw a need to go in a different direction . " Roe thought that the album benefited from a new label policy that allowed label personnel to respond more quickly to pitches from songwriters , specifically recalling to Billboard that the label 's head of artists and repertoire ( A & R ) recommended the lead single " Walkin ' Away " while co @-@ writer Craig Wiseman ( who co @-@ wrote " Bubba Hyde " ) was still recording its demo , and the band was able to record the song in the same day that the demo was completed . " Walkin ' Away " peaked at No. 2 on the country charts in early 1996 . Three more singles were released from the album : the top 10 hits " That 's What I Get for Lovin ' You " and " Holdin ' " ( also written by Wiseman ) , with the top 20 " It 's All in Your Head " , co @-@ written by Van Stephenson , in between . The music video for " It 's All in Your Head " featured Martin Sheen and Ramon Estevez , the former playing the part of a snake handling preacher .
A year after IV , Diamond Rio released its first Greatest Hits package , which included eleven of the singles from their first four albums , plus the album cut " She Misses Him on Sunday the Most " from IV and two new songs : " How Your Love Makes Me Feel " and " Imagine That " . " How Your Love Makes Me Feel " became the band 's second No 1 on Hot Country Songs , as well as their longest @-@ lasting at three weeks , making it the biggest chart hit for any country group that year . " Imagine That " , co @-@ written by Bryan White , reached Top 5 by early 1998 . Greatest Hits became the band 's third platinum album .
Diamond Rio was inducted into the Grand Ole Opry in April 1998 , becoming the first band in fourteen years to be inducted . Later in the year , the band released its fifth studio album , Unbelievable . Contributing songwriters to the album included Paul Williams , former NRBQ member Al Anderson , Robert John " Mutt " Lange , and Huey Lewis . The lead single was the ballad " You 're Gone " , which reached top 5 on the country charts . After it was the title track , which peaked at No. 2 on the country charts and became the band 's first entry on the Billboard Hot 100 , where it reached No. 36 . The third and final single was " I Know How the River Feels " , originally recorded on Herndon 's 1996 album Living in a Moment and later released as a single by McAlyster in 2000 . Diamond Rio 's rendition peaked at 33 on the country charts , their lowest chart peak at the time .
In 1998 , Prout began dating Mary Bono , the widow of singer and politician Sonny Bono . The two became engaged but later ended their relationship in 2001 . On December 28 of the same year , Prout married singer @-@ songwriter Stephanie Bentley , best known for co @-@ writing Faith Hill 's 1999 single " Breathe " .
= = = 2000 – 2002 : One More Day = = =
Diamond Rio released its twenty @-@ third official chart single , " Stuff " , in May 2000 . The song was originally intended to be the title track to their sixth studio album , which would have been released on August 22 of the same year , but according to Truman , " Certain radio stations , for some reason , didn 't want to play ' Stuff ' . " As a result , " Stuff " was withdrawn after peaking at number 36 on the country charts , and the album was delayed until February 2001 . Following this song 's failure , the band released " One More Day " later in 2000 . The song was written by Steven Dale Jones and Bobby Tomberlin , the same two writers who wrote " She Misses Him on Sunday the Most " . " One More Day " went on to spend two non @-@ consecutive weeks at No. 1 on the country charts , with the album , by this point re @-@ titled One More Day , having its release date moved up to February 6 , 2001 . The song also peaked at No. 29 on the Billboard Hot 100 , in addition to reaching top 10 on the Adult Contemporary charts ( the band 's first appearance on that chart ) . Regarding the song 's popularity among fans who have used the song to cope with personal losses , Prout said , " Actually , ' One More Day ' was recorded as a love song . Then one of Oklahoma State 's basketball team 's plane went down , then in early 2001 we lost Dale [ Earnhardt ] in Daytona , and then of course , 9 / 11 came after that . And every event of that year , the song took on a different meaning to different people ... We hear quite often in e @-@ mails and people talking to us in shows . If you 're asking how it makes us feel ? Pretty darn special ... to know that you had that impact on someone 's life and helped in a tough time of healing and hope . "
The third and fourth singles from One More Day were less successful : " Sweet Summer " made Top 20 , while " That 's Just That " failed to make Top 40 . The album featured a guest vocal from Chely Wright on " I 'm Trying " , making for the band 's first ever duet with another artist on one of their own albums . It also included a cover of " Hearts Against the Wind " , originally recorded by J. D. Souther and Linda Ronstadt for the Urban Cowboy soundtrack . Chris Neal of Country Weekly ( now Nash Country Weekly ) thought that the album showed a greater musical variety than its predecessors , specifically noting the " spoken @-@ word verses " of " Here I Go Fallin ' " , the " Hearts Against the Wind " cover , and the Wright duet as standout tracks .
Starting in 2001 , the other members had noticed that Roe was having difficulty maintaining proper pitch in concert , but they did not want to confront him about it for fear of " bruis [ ing ] his ego " , although they eventually convinced Roe of his problems by recording each concert and listening to it together . He also consulted unsuccessfully with vocal coaches and throat doctors at Vanderbilt University Medical Center . The band attempted to cover up Roe 's problems by removing certain songs from concert set lists , lowering the key on others , having Truman sometimes take the lead vocal , and using pitch correction software , but even these did not fully correct the issues . Finally , they consulted vocal coach Diane Sheets , a friend of Johnson 's son @-@ in @-@ law . She determined that Roe was over @-@ compensating for a small degree of hearing loss typical of musicians who have performed live for long periods of time , thus tightening muscles in his throat and diaphragm and causing him to lose pitch . Although Roe was initially " cynical " toward Sheets 's coaching , she was ultimately successful in restoring his voice .
= = = 2002 – 2007 : Completely , Can 't You Tell , and Greatest Hits , Volume 2 = = =
In 2002 , Diamond Rio released its seventh studio album , Completely . The band originally conceived it as a double album , featuring traditional country on one disc and more pop @-@ oriented country on the other , but according to Prout , this concept did not fully materialize because " country music has blinders on as far as what 's acceptable – and what isn 't " , although Olander and Williams noted that the idea allowed them " more leeway in choosing songs " . In addition to earning a gold certification , it produced two consecutive No. 1 singles in " Beautiful Mess " and " I Believe " , the latter being the band 's last single to top Hot Country Songs . Third single " Wrinkles " made Top 20 , while the last single , " We All Fall Down " ( also written by Steven Dale Jones ) , failed to reach top 40 . Two of the album 's tracks were previously recorded by other artists : " Make Sure You 've Got It All " , written by Bill Anderson and Steve Wariner , was originally recorded on Collin Raye 's 1998 album The Walls Came Down , and " If You 'd Like Some Lovin ' " by its co @-@ writer , David Ball , on his 1996 album Starlite Lounge .
Rick Cohoon of Allmusic praised the album for its musical variety , saying , " With artists as well anchored in the business as Diamond Rio , the musical quality is a given . The real challenge is outdoing yourself and coming up with fresh concepts . The selections on this album seem to be the fruition of that search for musical renewal " . He cited " Beautiful Mess " and " I Believe " as standout tracks . Ray Waddell of Billboard also thought that the singles were among the best tracks on the album , while highlighting the instrumental track " Rural Philharmonic " ( which Olander had originally intended to record for a solo album ) as an example of the band 's strong musicianship . Chrissie Dickinson of The Chicago Tribune was less favorable , commending the " masterful musicianship " and Roe 's " light vocal timbre " , while criticizing the song selections as " mostly a paint @-@ by @-@ numbers trip around the musical block , from the predictable power balladry of ' I Believe ' to the saccharine sentiments of ' We All Fall Down . ' "
A seventh album , tentatively titled Can 't You Tell , was recorded in 2003 , but it was cancelled after its first two singles – the title track and " One Believer " – both failed to make Top 40 upon their releases in late 2004 and early 2005 respectively . Diamond Rio 's second Greatest Hits package , Greatest Hits , Volume 2 , was released in 2006 . Like their first Greatest Hits album , this compilation included several new songs as well as the band 's greatest hits ; one of these new songs , " God Only Cries " , was released as a single , peaking at No. 30 . Shortly after the album 's release , Diamond Rio parted ways with Arista Nashville .
= = = 2007 – present : New record label , The Reason , and I Made It = = =
On August 31 , 2007 , Diamond Rio signed with Word Records , a Christian music label based in Nashville . Their first album for Word was a Christmas album entitled A Diamond Rio Christmas : The Star Still Shines , which they recorded in Olander 's basement studio . Roe said in an interview with CMT that " we just didn 't try to copy anybody else . We tried to make up our own arrangements . " The group released its first contemporary Christian album , The Reason , on September 22 , 2009 . It earned the band three Dove Award nominations : Song of the Year for " God Is There " , Country Song of the Year for the title track , and Country Album of the Year .
In 2014 , Olander told The Arizona Republic that the group was no longer signed to Word Records and planned to release new material independently . " I will say that I was proud of the material , but maybe it 's not the best version of Diamond Rio , " Olander told the publication . " We were kind of in a no @-@ man 's land . We didn 't fit in with country radio and we didn 't fit with Christian radio . It was something that wasn 't fully realized . " The band began releasing records independently , starting with a live album in 2014 and following in 2015 with the studio album I Made It .
= = = Outside contributions = = =
Diamond Rio has been featured on several projects featuring multiple country artists , including three tribute albums released between 1993 and 1994 . The first was a cover of the Eagles ' 1975 hit " Lyin ' Eyes " for Common Thread : The Songs of the Eagles , an album released in late 1993 via Giant Records which featured various country musicians covering that band 's songs . Diamond Rio had originally wanted to record the song for Love a Little Stronger , but DuBois rejected the idea because he felt that they were not yet well @-@ established enough to record a cover song on one of their own albums . The second was Keith Whitley : A Tribute Album , to which they contributed a cover of Keith Whitley 's 1986 hit " Ten Feet Away " , and the third was a cover of Merle Haggard 's " Workin ' Man Blues " for a tribute album entitled Mama 's Hungry Eyes : A Tribute to Merle Haggard . This rendition , which featured guest appearances from Lee Roy Parnell and Steve Wariner ( both of whom were also signed to Arista Nashville at the time ) , was credited to " Jed Zeppelin " . This rendition peaked at No. 48 on the Billboard country charts from unsolicited airplay , and was made into a music video . In 1996 , the band covered " Beauty and the Beast " for the multi @-@ artist compilation The Best of Country Sing the Best of Disney and contributed the original song " Christmas Spirit " ( which Powell and Roe co @-@ wrote ) to Star of Wonder : Country Christmas Collection , a Christmas album featuring various artists on Arista Nashville 's roster . A year later , Diamond Rio contributed a recording of the gospel standard " Walkin ' in Jerusalem " to a compilation entitled Peace in the Valley : A Country Music Journey Through Gospel Music . Diamond Rio and Collin Raye also sang backing vocals on Kenny Rogers ' 2000 single " He Will , She Knows " . Finally , in 2002 , they were featured on country parodist Cledus T. Judd 's " Man of Constant Borrow " , a parody of " Man of Constant Sorrow " on his album Cledus Envy .
Some of the individual members have also contributed to songs by other artists . Roe sang duet vocals with then @-@ labelmate Pam Tillis on " Love Is Only Human " , a cut from her 1992 album Homeward Looking Angel . Olander was featured along with bluegrass musicians Carl Jackson and Mark O 'Connor on the track " Hap Towne Breakdowne " from Steve Wariner 's 1996 instrumental album No More Mr. Nice Guy . He also co @-@ wrote Kenny Chesney 's 2001 single " I Lost It " , Marshall Dyllon 's 2001 single " You " , and the track " The Night Before ( Life Goes On ) " from Carrie Underwood 's 2005 debut album Some Hearts . Truman co @-@ wrote Shane Minor 's 1999 single " Ordinary Love " ; Minor would later co @-@ write the band 's hit " Beautiful Mess " . In 2003 , Truman and songwriter Jason Deere co @-@ founded the Nashville Tribute Band , which has recorded three albums for missionaries of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter @-@ day Saints , of which Truman is a member . Roe , Johnson , and Williams sang backing vocals on Josh Turner 's 2006 single " Me and God " ( from the album Your Man ) , which also featured a guest vocal from bluegrass musician Ralph Stanley .
= = Musical stylings = =
In the country music industry particularly , record producers hire mostly session musicians to record tracks for an album for both solo artists and bands , as opposed to rock bands who record their own instrumental and vocal tracks on their albums . Diamond Rio has been one of few self @-@ contained country bands to have followed the practice of each member playing their own instruments and singing their own vocals on all their albums themselves , without any additional input from outside musicians . The sole exception has been the inclusion of string sections on some of their later work , starting with " I Know How the River Feels " and continuing through certain tracks on One More Day and Completely .
Their early music blended neotraditionalist country with occasional traces of country rock , primarily in the song 's prominent rhythm sections . A bluegrass influence has also been shown , primarily in the three @-@ part harmonies among Roe ( lead ) , Williams ( baritone ) , and Johnson ( tenor ) . Bluegrass influences are also shown in the band 's prominent use of the mandolin , as well as in the instrumentals featured on many of their earlier albums . The band 's later material has tended towards pop @-@ oriented ballads , such as " I Believe " and " One More Day " – songs which received critical acclaim for their often religious @-@ themed messages , but were considered departures from the more traditional material of their first four albums .
Another trademark of Diamond Rio 's sound is the custom @-@ built B @-@ Bender guitar played by Olander . He refers to this instrument as the " Taxicaster " because of its yellow body and black @-@ and @-@ white checkered pickguard , which give it the coloration of a taxicab .
= = Awards = =
Diamond Rio received the Academy of Country Music 's award for Top Vocal Group in 1991 and 1992 . In 1992 , 1993 , 1994 , and 1997 , they also received the Country Music Association 's award for Vocal Group of the Year ( an award for which they received fifteen total nominations , more than any other country music group ) . In addition , Diamond Rio has received thirteen Grammy Award nominations . In 2010 they received three nominations for the GMA Dove Awards , and on April 22 won the award for Country Album of the Year . In 2011 , they received their first Grammy Award in the Grammy Award for Best Southern , Country or Bluegrass Gospel Album category for The Reason .
= = Personnel = =
= = = Members = = =
= = Discography = =
Diamond Rio ( 1991 )
Close to the Edge ( 1992 )
Love a Little Stronger ( 1994 )
IV ( 1996 )
Unbelievable ( 1998 )
One More Day ( 2001 )
Completely ( 2002 )
The Reason ( 2009 )
I Made It ( 2015 )
|
= Love Is Blindness =
" Love Is Blindness " is a song by the rock band U2 , and the twelfth and final track on their 1991 album Achtung Baby . The song was written on piano by lead singer Bono during the recording sessions for U2 's 1988 album Rattle and Hum . Originally intending to give the song to singer Nina Simone , the band decided to keep it for Achtung Baby after playing it together . Thematically , the song describes a failing romance , mixing personal themes with imagery of metaphorical acts of terrorism . During the recording sessions for Achtung Baby , guitarist the Edge separated from his wife , Aislinn O 'Sullivan . The separation had a major effect on the development of the song ; the ending guitar solo was a cathartic experience for the Edge , as he snapped several guitar strings during the recording .
" Love Is Blindness " made its live debut on the group 's 1992 – 1993 Zoo TV Tour and was performed regularly during the tour , appearing in 154 of its 157 concerts . It was commonly played as either the penultimate or closing song ; as the penultimate song , it was usually followed by a rendition of the Elvis Presley song " Can 't Help Falling in Love " . Following the tour , " Love Is Blindness " has been played live only two other times . The track was favourably received by critics and has been covered by multiple artists .
= = Writing , recording , and inspiration = =
" Love Is Blindness " was developed by lead singer Bono during the recording sessions for U2 's 1988 album Rattle and Hum . He wrote the song on a piano , which guitarist the Edge said is " not an instrument he is noted for playing . " The torch songs of Jacques Brel influenced Bono 's songwriting . His initial plan was to send it to Nina Simone , one of his favourite singers , although after playing the song together , the band decided to keep it for themselves . They did not include the song on Rattle and Hum because they believed it was not " U2 enough " .
During the recording sessions for Achtung Baby , the Edge separated from his wife , Aislinn O 'Sullivan . Reflecting on the impact it had on U2 , Bono said , " We 're a really tight community . This is not like somebody 's , you know , girlfriend 's left . We 've grown up with these people , this our family , our community . This was really hard for us ... It was like the first cracks on the beautiful porcelain jug with those beautiful flowers in it that was our music and our community , starting to go ' crack ' . " The Edge explained that travelling to Berlin to write and record provided him with an escape from his failing marriage : " I was disappearing into the music for a different reason . It was a refuge in a way . That approach didn 't completely work . You know , I wasn 't really ... in a good positive headspace . I was running away , I suppose . " While recording the guitar solo that concludes the song , the Edge " put everything into it , all the feeling , all the hurt , all the angst , everything went into that solo . " Bono said , " his whole life came out of him when he played ... when we went for the take , one string broke and he just kept playing harder and harder . Another string broke . And he has such a light touch , ordinarily , he 's so gentle . All that left him for a kind of rage . And yet there 's not one bum note in there . " Audio engineer Flood said the " bold , unadulterated , naked [ guitar solo ] sound was a combination of the part , the moment , a good guitar , a small amp , a simple mic . Edge just got an idea , tried it , and it worked straightaway . "
= = Composition and theme = =
" Love Is Blindness " runs for 4 : 23 ( 4 minutes , 23 seconds ) . According to Hal Leonard Corporation 's sheet music published at Musicnotes.com , it is played in a 6 / 4 time signature at a tempo of 48 beats per minute in a key of B @-@ flat minor .
The production team gave bassist Adam Clayton 's bass a " low end bass throbbing effect " , which the Edge described as " a real stroke of genius from the production team . " Drummer Larry Mullen , Jr . ' s drum pattern was taken from U2 's 1987 single " I Still Haven 't Found What I 'm Looking For " and slowed down . The lyrics " [ mix ] up the personal and the political . " Bono noted that " There was some reference to the little death , which can be taken to mean a faint during orgasm but also works as an image of terrorism . " Quoting the lyric " A little death without mourning / No call and no warning / Baby , a dangerous idea / That almost makes sense " , he said , " There 's nothing more deadly than an idea – or a person – that 's almost right . You know , it took the 20th century a hundred years to get over communism . There 's another dangerous idea that almost made sense . "
U2 biographer Bill Flanagan credits Bono 's habit of keeping his lyrics " in flux until the last minute " with providing a narrative coherence to the album . Flanagan interpreted Achtung Baby as using the moon as a metaphor for a dark woman seducing the singer away from his virtuous love , the sun ; he is tempted away from domestic life by an exciting nightlife and tests how far he can go before returning home . For Flanagan , the final three songs on Achtung Baby — " Ultraviolet ( Light My Way ) " , " Acrobat " , and " Love Is Blindness " — are about how the couple deal with the suffering they have forced on each other . Uncut contributor Gavin Martin believed the song contained " images of love , debased or abandoned . " He wrote , " With its stark , churchlike organ intro , pulsating bass synth and guitar reverb stretched into a hallucinatory squall , it brilliantly describes the discord and dread that provide a constant undertow to Achtung Baby . And yet , through its alluring sonic palette and wounded but sensual vocal , ' Love Is Blindness ' also maps out a search for harmony and salvation " .
Author Atara Stein wrote that the song " suggests that love can operate only through a willful self @-@ deception , a voluntary surrender to what one knows is an illusion . The singer begs his lover to ' wrap the night ' around him because , as he proclaims , ' I don 't want to see . ' The singer knows that the image he creates of his loved one is false , but it is the only image that can satisfy him . He must perceive his beloved in idealized terms , so she can reflect back to him the image of himself that he desires to see . " Journalist Bill Graham believed the song was a bleak account of a failing romance . Hot Press editor Niall Stokes wrote that the song " takes us back – again – to the shadowy world of deceit , infidelity , and betrayal . It depicts love at the end , the very end , of its tether . It is as bleak and as despairing a view of the world as you 're likely to get , reflecting the emotional climate in which the entire album had been made . " He noted , " In terms of its mood , ' Love Is Blindness ' had the dark , sensual and decadent feel of pre @-@ war Berlin " , adding that the lyric " Love is blindness / I don 't want to see " was " a desolate acknowledgement of the terrible reality that it is sometimes better not to know . "
= = Reception = =
" Love Is Blindness " was favourably received by critics . Uncut contributor Gavin Martin rated the song five stars , calling it " rapturous and unsettling . " Hot Press editor Niall Stokes said , " its sentiments made it the perfect conclusion to Achtung Baby , describing the Edge 's playing as " a mournful , ejaculatory guitar solo , stabbing out thick emotional blues notes that linger and then fall away like tears . " Third Way reviewer Roland Howard described it as " haunting and melodic " , believing it to be about the loss of virginity . Music journalist Bill Wyman said the Edge 's guitar playing on the song sounded like a " dentist 's drill " . Jon Pareles of the New York Times described it as " a kind of summation " , calling it " an elegy that compares love to ' drowning in a deep well ' and wishes for it anyway . " Geoffrey Himes of The Washington Post wrote that it has " a gospel quality , as swooning synth parts are set against block piano chords , and Bono acknowledges that mismatched lovers will suffer their inevitable fate . "
Greg Potter of The Vancouver Sun believed it to be a " dour closer " that was " riddled with images of self @-@ doubt and uncertainty " . A critic for the Waterloo Region Record said it was " hardly great U2 , but U2 closers have always been anti- climactic . " Writing for the Boston Herald , Romandetta called it a " broken @-@ hearted [ lament ] " that was " gentle " and " subdued " . George Varga of The San Diego Union @-@ Tribune said it was one of the most interesting tracks on the albums , calling it a " spare , David Bowie @-@ like [ ode ] to tormented love " . Michael Ross of The Sunday Times and James Healy of The San Diego Union @-@ Tribune lamented that U2 did not include it on the compilation album The Best of 1990 – 2000 . The Edge called it " a great end to the album and probably one of Bono 's finest lyrics . " Bono said , " The bass sounds like liquid at the centre of the earth , a kind of molten lava bass sound . " Describing the Edge 's guitar playing , he said , " It 's incredible . "
= = Live performances = =
" Love Is Blindness " debuted on 29 February 1992 in Lakeland , Florida , on the opening night of the Zoo TV Tour , where it closed the concert . It remained in this position throughout the first and second leg of the tour , with only two concerts concluding with an alternate song – " With or Without You " . " Love Is Blindness " was not performed on either of those two occasions . Beginning on the third leg of the tour it was followed by a cover of the Elvis Presley song " Can 't Help Falling in Love " and , on one occasion , " Are You Lonesome Tonight ? " . The song was performed at 154 of 157 concerts on the tour , closing 67 of them . On multiple occasions Bono brought a girl from the audience on to the stage to dance with during the song . Following the conclusion of the Zoo TV Tour , " Love Is Blindness " has appeared in concert only twice . The first occasion was on the Elevation Tour ; while performing in Calgary , Alberta , on 10 April 2001 , Bono sang a few lines from the song at the conclusion of " One " . The final appearance was during a Vertigo Tour concert in Buenos Aires , Argentina , on 1 March 2006 , when U2 performed the song spontaneously to conclude the concert .
U2 concert historian Pimm Jal de la Parra called the live rendition " sultry , as the screens show a constellation map , giving the crowd a feeling of floating across the universe by the way it moves , transmitting a mood of distance and loneliness that corresponds with the nature of the song . " Mark Lepage of The Gazette described the dance at the conclusion as " an appropriate moment of human contact after almost two hours of uproar . " Julie Romandetta of the Boston Herald believed it to be an anticlimatic finish to the concert , calling the song " low @-@ key " and saying " U2 soared for more than 90 minutes , but left with a whimper , instead of a bang . " Gary Graff of the Houston Chronicle believed it to be a " moody show @-@ closer " . Writing for The Arizona Daily Star , Gene Armstrong called it an " achingly romantic closing tune " , describing the Edge 's solo as " especially tender " .
A live performance of the song appears on Zoo TV : Live from Sydney ( 1994 ) , and Zoo TV Live ( 2006 ) . The Zoo TV Live performance is an audio rip of the performance from Zoo TV : Live from Sydney . One performance , recorded on 30 August 1992 in New York City , was included as a B @-@ side on some versions of U2 's 1994 single " Stay ( Faraway , So Close ! ) " . A video for the song , directed by Matt Mahurin , was included on the 1994 VHS single " Numb " . It featured the studio recording set to footage of the Zoo TV Tour . An acoustic performance by the Edge appears in the 2011 documentary From the Sky Down .
= = Cover versions = =
" Love Is Blindness " has been covered several times . Cassandra Wilson included it on her 1995 album New Moon Daughter . Dutch band Kane recorded a version for their 2000 album With or Without You . Trespassers William covered it on the 2001 tribute album Even Better Than the Real Thing , and on their 2002 self @-@ released album Different Stars . Sixpence None the Richer recorded a cover for the 2004 benefit album In the Name of Love : Artists United for Africa . The Devlins featuring Sharon Corr included a version on the 2005 tsunami relief album Even Better Than the Real Thing Vol . 3 . Angolan musician Waldemar Bastos recorded a cover for the 2008 album In the Name of Love : Africa Celebrates U2 .
A rendition by Jack White appears on the 2011 tribute album AHK @-@ toong BAY @-@ bi Covered , and as the B @-@ side of his own single , " Sixteen Saltines " . This cover is also featured on the album The Great Gatsby : Music from Baz Luhrmann 's Film . In March 2015 , video director DirectorBrazil and choreographer Zach Venegas released a music video using the Jack White rendition 's audio track and starring 13 @-@ year @-@ old American dancer Chloe Lukasiak ( formerly of Dance Moms reality show ) , as well as brief appearances by other teenage dancers . The video was filmed in Nov. 2014 in Los Angeles and released as part of the Team Chloe Dance Project on Lukasiak 's YouTube channel .
In 2013 , Jacquie Lee covered the song on the fifth season of The Voice . Madi Davis subsequently covered it on the show 's ninth season .
= = Personnel = =
|
= War of the Fifth Coalition =
The War of the Fifth Coalition was fought in the year 1809 by a coalition of the Austrian Empire and the United Kingdom against Napoleon 's French Empire and Bavaria . Major engagements between France and Austria , the main participants , unfolded over much of Central Europe from April to July , with very high casualty rates for both sides . Britain , already involved on the European continent in the ongoing Peninsular War , sent another expedition , the Walcheren Campaign , to the Netherlands in order to relieve the Austrians , although this effort had little impact on the outcome of the conflict . After much campaigning in Bavaria and across the Danube valley , the war ended favourably for the French after the bloody struggle at Wagram in early July .
The resulting Treaty of Schönbrunn was the harshest that France had imposed on Austria in recent memory . Metternich and Archduke Charles had the preservation of the Habsburg Empire as their fundamental goal , and to this end the former succeeded in making Napoleon seek more modest goals in return for promises of Franco @-@ Austrian peace and friendship . Nevertheless , while most of the hereditary lands remained part of Habsburg territories , France received Carinthia , Carniola , and the Adriatic ports , while Galicia was given to the Poles and the Salzburg area of the Tyrol went to the Bavarians . Austria lost over three million subjects , about one @-@ fifth of her total population , as a result of these territorial changes . Although the Peninsular War continued , the War of the Fifth Coalition was the last major conflict on the European continent until the French invasion of Russia in 1812 sparked the Sixth Coalition .
= = Background = =
Europe had been embroiled in warfare , pitting revolutionary France against a series of coalitions , nearly continuously since 1792 . After five years of war , the French Republic subdued the First Coalition in 1797 . A Second Coalition was formed in 1798 , only to be defeated . In March 1802 , France ( now under Napoleon , as First Consul ) and Great Britain , its one remaining enemy , agreed to end hostilities under the Treaty of Amiens . For the first time in ten years , all of Europe was at peace . However , many disagreements between the two sides remained unresolved , and implementing the agreements they had reached at Amiens seemed to be a growing challenge . Britain resented having to turn over all of its colonial conquests since 1793 when France was permitted to retain most of its conquered territory in Europe . France , meanwhile , was upset that British troops had not evacuated the island of Malta . In May 1803 , Britain declared war on France .
= = = Third Coalition ( 1804 – 1805 ) = = =
With the resumption of hostilities , Napoleon ( proclaimed Emperor in 1804 ) planned an invasion of England , spending the better part of the next two years ( 1803 – 05 ) on this objective . In December 1804 , an Anglo @-@ Swedish agreement led to the creation of the Third Coalition . British Prime Minister William Pitt spent 1804 and 1805 in a flurry of diplomatic activity geared towards forming a new coalition against France and neutralising the threat of invasion . Mutual suspicion between the British and the Russians eased in the face of several French political mistakes , and by April 1805 , the two had signed a treaty of alliance . Alarmed by Napoleon 's consolidation of northern Italy into a kingdom under his rule , and keen on revenge for having been defeated twice in recent memory by France , Austria would join the coalition a few months later .
In August 1805 , the French Grande Armée invaded the German states in hopes of knocking Austria out of the war before Russian forces could intervene . On 25 September , after great secrecy and feverish marching , 200 @,@ 000 French troops began to cross the Rhine on a front of 160 miles ( 260 km ) . Mack had gathered the greater part of the Austrian army at the fortress of Ulm in Bavaria . Napoleon hoped to swing his forces northward and perform a wheeling movement that would find the French at the Austrian rear . The Ulm Maneuver was well executed , and on 20 October Mack and 23 @,@ 000 Austrian troops surrendered at Ulm , bringing the total number of Austrian prisoners in the campaign to 60 @,@ 000 . The French captured Vienna in November and went on to inflict a decisive defeat on a Russo @-@ Austrian army at Austerlitz in early December . Austerlitz led to the expulsion of Russian troops from Central Europe and the humiliation of Austria , which signed the Treaty of Pressburg on 26 December .
= = = Fourth Coalition ( 1806 – 1807 ) = = =
Austerlitz incited a major shift in the European balance of power . Prussia felt threatened about her security in the region and , alongside Russia , went to war against France as part of the Fourth Coalition in 1806 . One hundred and eighty thousand French troops invaded Prussia in the fall of 1806 through the Thuringian Forest , unaware of where the Prussians were , and hugged the right bank of the Saale river and the left of the Elster . The decisive actions took place on 14 October : with an army of 90 @,@ 000 , Napoleon crushed Hohenlohe at Jena , but Davout , commander of the III Corps , outdid everyone when his 27 @,@ 000 troops held off and defeated the 63 @,@ 000 Prussians under Brunswick and King Frederick William III at the Battle of Auerstadt . A vigorous French pursuit through Northern Germany finished off the remnants of the Prussian army . The French then invaded Poland , which had been partitioned among Prussia , Austria , and Russia in 1795 , to meet the Russian forces that had not been able to save Prussia .
The Russian and French armies met in February 1807 at the savage and indecisive Battle of Eylau , which left behind between 30 @,@ 000 – 50 @,@ 000 casualties . Napoleon regrouped his forces after the battle and continued to pursue the Russians in upcoming months . The action in Poland finally culminated on 14 June 1807 , when the French mauled their Russian opponents at the Battle of Friedland . The resulting Treaty of Tilsit in July ended two years of bloodshed and left France as the dominant power on the European continent . It also severely weakened Prussia and formed a Franco @-@ Russian axis designed to resolve disputes among European nations .
= = = Iberia Peninsula ( 1807 – 1809 ) = = =
After the War of the Oranges , Portugal adopted a double policy . On the one hand John , Prince of Brazil , as regent of Portugal , signed the Treaty of Badajoz with France and Spain by which he assumed the duty to close the ports to British trade . On the other hand , not wanting to breach the Treaty of Windsor ( 1386 ) with Portugal 's oldest ally , Britain , he allowed for such trade to continue and maintained secret diplomatic relations with them . However , after the Franco @-@ Spanish defeat in the Battle of Trafalgar , John grew bold and officially resumed diplomatic and trade relations with Britain .
Unhappy with this change of policy of the Portuguese government , Napoleon sent an army to invade Portugal . On 17 October 1807 , 24 @,@ 000 French troops under General Junot crossed the Pyrenees with Spanish cooperation and headed towards Portugal to enforce Napoleon 's Continental System . This was the first step in what would become the six @-@ year @-@ long Peninsular War , a struggle that sapped much of the French Empire 's strength . Throughout the winter of 1808 , French agents became increasingly involved in Spanish internal affairs , attempting to incite discord between members of the Spanish royal family . On 16 February 1808 , secret French machinations finally materialised when Napoleon announced that he would intervene to mediate between the rival political factions in the Spanish royal family . Marshal Murat led 120 @,@ 000 troops into Spain and the French arrived in Madrid on 24 March , where wild riots against the occupation erupted a few weeks later . The resistance to French aggression soon spread throughout the country . The shocking French defeat at the Battle of Bailén in July gave hope to Napoleon 's enemies and partly persuaded the French emperor to intervene in person . A new French army commanded by Napoleon crossed the Ebro in autumn and dealt blow after blow to the opposing Spanish forces . Napoleon entered Madrid on 4 December with 80 @,@ 000 troops . He then unleashed his troops against Moore 's British forces . The British were swiftly driven to the coast , and , after a last stand at the Battle of Corunna in January 1809 , withdrew from Spain entirely .
= = = Austria stands alone = = =
Austria sought another confrontation with France to avenge the recent defeats , and the developments in Spain only encouraged its attitudes . Austria could not count on Russian support because the latter was at war with Britain , Sweden ( which meant Austria could not count on Swedish support either ) , and the Ottoman Empire in 1809 . Some in the government of Frederick William III of Prussia initially wanted to help Austria , but their hopes were dashed when Stein 's correspondence with Austria , planning such a move , was intercepted by the French and resulted in Prussia being compelled to sign the crushing Convention of September 1808 . The British had been at war with the French Empire for six years . A report from the Austrian finance minister suggested that the treasury would run out of money by mid @-@ 1809 if the large army that the Austrians had formed since the Third Coalition remained mobilised . Although Charles warned that the Austrians were not ready for another showdown with Napoleon , a stance that landed him amidst the so @-@ called " peace party " , he did not want to see the army demobilised . On 8 February 1809 , the advocates for war finally succeeded when the Imperial Government secretly decided to make war against France .
= = = Austrian reforms = = =
Austerlitz and the subsequent Treaty of Pressburg in 1805 indicated that the Austrian army needed reform . Napoleon had offered Charles the Austrian throne after Austerlitz , an act that aroused deep suspicion from Charles ' brother , Austrian emperor Francis II . Even though Charles was allowed to spearhead the reforms of the Austrian army , Francis kept the Hofkriegsrat ( Aulic Council ) , a military advisory board , to oversee the activities of Charles as supreme commander .
In 1806 , Charles issued a new guide for army and unit tactics . The main tactical innovation was the concept of the " mass " , an anti @-@ cavalry formation created by closing up the spacing between ranks . However , Austrian commanders disliked the innovation and rarely used it unless directly supervised by Charles . Following the failures at Ulm and Austerlitz , the Austrians went back to using the six @-@ companies @-@ per @-@ battalion model , abandoning the four @-@ company @-@ per @-@ battalion that had been introduced by Mack on the eve of war in 1805 . Problems persisted despite the reforms . The Austrians lacked sufficient skirmishers to successfully contend with their French counterparts , the cavalry was often sprinkled into individual units throughout the army , preventing the shock and hitting power evident in the French system , and even though Charles imitated the French corps command structure , leaders in the Austrian military establishment were often wary of taking the initiative , relying heavily on written orders and drawn @-@ out planning before they came to a decision .
Another reform was that Austria , having lost many officers , veteran and elite troops , and regulars , and unable to call on allies , embraced the Levée en masse used earlier by the French . By this time , the French were moving from the Levée en masse in favour of forming a regular army based on a core of battle @-@ hardened and elite veterans . In a strange reversal of the earlier Napoleonic Wars , where Frenchmen with little experience and often pressed into service fought against the professional Austrian army , a massive amount of Austrian conscripts , with no experience and only basic training and equipment would be sent into the field against a highly trained , campaign @-@ hardened , and well @-@ equipped French Grande Armée .
= = = Austrian preparations = = =
Charles and the Aulic Council were divided about the strategy with which to attack the French . Charles wanted a major thrust from Bohemia designed to isolate the French forces in northern Germany and lead to a rapid decision . The greater part of the Austrian army was already concentrated there , so it seemed like a natural operation . The Aulic Council disagreed on account of the Danube River splitting the forces of Charles and his brother John . They instead suggested that the main attack should be launched south of the Danube so as to maintain safer communications with Vienna . In the end , they had their way , but not before precious time had been lost . The Austrian plan called for the Bohemian corps , the I under Bellegarde , consisting of 38 @,@ 000 troops , and the II of 20 @,@ 000 troops under Kollowrat , to attack Regensburg ( Ratisbon ) from the Bohemian mountains by way of Cham , the Austrian center and reserve , comprising 66 @,@ 000 men of Hohenzollern 's III , Rosenberg 's IV , and Lichtenstein 's I Reserve Corps , to advance on the same objective through Scharding , and the left wing , made up of the V of Archduke Louis , Hiller 's VI , and Kienmayer 's II Reserve Corps , a total of 61 @,@ 000 men , to move forward toward Landshut and guard the flank .
= = = Congress of Erfurt ( 1808 ) = = =
At Tilsit Napoleon had made Tsar Alexander of Russia an admirer , but by the time of the Erfurt Congress from September to October 1808 anti @-@ French sentiment at the Russian court was beginning to threaten the newly forged alliance . Napoleon and his foreign minister Jean @-@ Baptiste Nompère de Champagny sought to reaffirm the alliance once more in order to allow Napoleon to settle affairs in Spain , as well as prepare for the looming war with Austria . Working at cross @-@ purposes to Napoleon was his former foreign minister Charles Maurice de Talleyrand @-@ Périgord who had by this time come to the conclusion that Napoleon and his war policies were leading France to destruction , and who secretly advised Alexander to resist Napoleon 's demands .
Out of the meetings came an agreement , the Erfurt Convention ( in 14 articles , ) calling upon Britain to cease its war against France , recognizing the Russian conquest of Finland from Sweden , and stating that in case of war with Austria , Russia should aid France " to the best of its ability . " The two emperors departed for their homelands on October 14 . Six months later , the expected war with Austria began , and Alexander barely lived up to his agreement , aiding France as little as possible ( though in the resulting Treaty of Schönbrunn Russia did receive a portion of Austrian Polish territory , namely the district of Tarnopol , for at least maintaining neutrality ) . By 1810 , due mainly to the economic pressures of enforcing the Continental System , both emperors were considering war with one another . Erfurt was the last meeting between the two leaders .
= = = French preparations = = =
Napoleon was not entirely certain about Austrian planning and intentions . He had just returned to Paris at the time ( from his campaigns in Spain in winter 1808 – 09 ) and was instructing the main French field commander in southern Germany , Berthier , on planned deployments and concentrations for this likely new second front . His rough ideas about the possible upcoming campaign included the decision to make the Danube valley the main theatre of operations , as he had done in 1805 , and to tie down any Austrian forces that might invade northern Italy by positioning some of his own forces that would be commanded by Eugène and Marmont . Faulty intelligence gave Napoleon the impression that the main Austrian attack would come north of the Danube . On 30 March , he wrote a letter to Berthier explaining his intention to mass around 140 @,@ 000 troops in the vicinity of Regensburg ( Ratisbon ) , far to the north of where the Austrians were planning to make their attack . Napoleon also expected the Austrian offensive to commence no earlier than 15 April ( it would in fact begin on 9 April ) and his two contingency orders relayed to Berthier were based heavily on this supposition . These misconceptions about Austrian thinking left the French army poorly deployed when hostilities commenced .
= = Course of War = =
The war pitted a reformed Austrian army against a collection of French veterans and conscripts . With major engagements of the war lasting from April to July 1809 , Napoleon achieved the quick victory that characterised his previous campaigns . However , the War of the Fifth Coalition would also mark the last time in which Napoleon and the French Empire would emerge as decisive victors .
= = = Austria strikes first = = =
In the early morning of 10 April , leading elements of the Austrian army crossed the Inn River and invaded Bavaria . Bad roads and freezing rain slowed the Austrian advance in the first week , but the opposing Bavarian forces gradually retreated . The Austrian attack occurred about a week before Napoleon 's anticipations , and in his absence Berthier 's role became all the more critical . Berthier ( whose fortè was staff work ) proved to be an insufficient field commander , a characteristic made worse by the fact that several messages from Paris were being delayed and misinterpreted when they finally arrived at headquarters . Whereas Napoleon had written to Berthier that an Austrian attack before 15 April should be met by a general French concentration around Donauwörth and Augsburg , Berthier focused on a sentence that called for Davout to station his III Corps around Regensburg and ordered the Iron Marshal to move back to the city despite massive Austrian pressure .
The Grande Armée d 'Allemagne was now in a perilous position of two wings separated by 75 miles ( 121 km ) and joined together by a thin cordon of Bavarian troops . Berthier , the French marshals , and the rank @-@ and @-@ file were all evidently frustrated at the seemingly pointless marches and counter marches . On the 16th , the Austrian advance guard had beaten back the Bavarians near Landshut and had secured a good crossing place over the Isar by evening . Napoleon finally arrived in Donauwörth on the 17th after a furious trip from Paris . Charles congratulated himself on a successful opening to the campaign and planned to destroy Davout 's and Lefebvre 's isolated corps in a double @-@ pincer manoeuvre . When Napoleon realised that significant Austrian forces were already over the Isar and were marching towards the Danube , he insisted that the entire French army deploy behind the Ilm River in a bataillon carré within 48 hours , all in hopes of undoing Berthier 's mistakes and achieving a successful concentration . His orders were unrealistic because he underestimated the number of Austrian troops that were heading for Davout ; Napoleon believed Charles only had a single corps over the Isar , but in fact , the Austrians had five corps lumbering towards Regensburg , a grand total of 80 @,@ 000 men . Napoleon needed to do something quickly to save his left flank from collapsing .
= = = Landshut Maneuver = = =
Davout anticipated the problems and withdrew his corps from Regensburg , leaving a garrison of only 2 @,@ 000 for defence . The northbound Austrian columns in the Kelheim – Abbach zone ran into the four French columns heading west towards Neustadt in the early hours of the 19th . The Austrian attacks were slow , uncoordinated , and easily repulsed by the experienced French III Corps . Napoleon knew there was fighting in Davout 's sector and had already devised a new strategy that he hoped would beat the Austrians : while the Austrians attacked to the north , Masséna 's corps , later augmented by Oudinot 's forces , would strike southeast towards Freising and Landshut in hopes of rolling up the entire Austrian line and relieving the pressure on Davout . Napoleon was reasonably confident that the joint corps of Davout and Lefebvre could pin the Austrians while his other forces swept the Austrian rear .
The attack began well as the central Austrian V Corps guarding Abensberg gave way to the French advance . Napoleon , however , was working under false assumptions that made his goals difficult to achieve . Massena 's advance towards Landshut required too much time , permitting Hiller to escape south over the Isar . The Danube bridge that provided easy access to Regensburg and the east bank had not been demolished , allowing the Austrians to transfer themselves across the river and rendering futile French hopes for the complete destruction of the enemy . On the 20th , the Austrians had suffered 10 @,@ 000 casualties , lost 30 guns , 600 caissons , and 7 @,@ 000 other vehicles , but were still a potent fighting force . Later in the evening , Napoleon realised that the day 's fighting had only involved two Austrian corps . Charles still had a good chance of escaping east over Straubing if he wished .
On the 21st , Napoleon received a dispatch from Davout that spoke of major engagements near Teugen @-@ Hausen . Davout held his ground , and although Napoleon sent reinforcements , about 36 @,@ 000 French troops had to face off against 75 @,@ 000 Austrians . When Napoleon finally learned that Charles was not withdrawing to the east , he realigned the Grande Armée 's axis in an operation that became known as the Landshut Maneuver . All available French forces , except 20 @,@ 000 troops under Bessieres that were chasing Hiller , now hurled themselves against Eckmühl in another bid to trap the Austrians and relieve their beleaguered comrades . For 22 April , Charles left 40 @,@ 000 troops under Rosenburg and Hohenzollern to attack Davout and Lefebvre while detaching two corps under Kollowrat and Lichtenstein to march for Abbach and gain undisputed control of the river bank . At 1 : 30 pm , however , the sound of gunfire from the south could be heard — Napoleon had arrived . Davout immediately ordered an attack along the entire line despite numerical inferiority ; the 10th Light Infantry Regiment successfully stormed the village of Leuchling and went on to capture the woods of Unter @-@ Leuchling with horrific casualties . Napoleon 's reinforcements were soon crippling the Austrian left . The Battle of Eckmühl ended in a convincing French victory , and Charles decided to withdraw over the Danube towards Regensburg . Napoleon then launched Massena to capture Straubing to the east while the rest of the army pursued the escaping Austrians . The French managed to capture Regensburg after a heroic charge led by Marshal Lannes , but the vast majority of the Austrian army fled successfully to Bohemia . Napoleon then turned his attention south towards Vienna , fighting a series of actions against Hiller 's forces , most famously , at the Battle of Ebersberg on 3 May . Ten days later , the Austrian capital fell for the second time in four years .
= = = Aspern @-@ Essling = = =
On 16 May and 17 , the main Austrian army under Charles arrived in the Marchfeld , a plain northeast of Vienna just across the Danube that often served as a training ground for Austrian military forces . Charles kept the bulk of his forces several miles away from the river bank in hopes of concentrating them at the point where Napoleon decided to cross . On the 20th , Charles learned from his observers on the Bissam hill that the French were building a bridge at Kaiser @-@ Ebersdorf , just southwest of the Lobau island , that led to the Marchfeld . On the 21st , Charles concluded that the French were crossing at Kaiser @-@ Ebersdorf in strength and ordered a general advance for 98 @,@ 000 troops and the accompanying 292 guns , which were organised into five columns . The French bridgehead rested on two villages : Aspern to the west and Essling to the east . Napoleon had not expected to encounter opposition , and the bridges linking the French troops at Aspern @-@ Essling to Lobau were not protected with palisades , making them highly vulnerable to Austrian barges that had been lighted on fire .
The Battle of Aspern @-@ Essling started at 2 : 30 pm on 21 May . The initial and poorly coordinated Austrian attacks against Aspern and the Gemeinde Au woods to the south failed completely , but Charles persisted . Eventually , the Austrians managed to capture the whole village but lost the eastern half . The Austrians did not attack Essling until 6 pm because the fourth and fifth columns had longer marching routes . The French successfully repulsed the attacks against Essling throughout the 21st . Fighting commenced by 3 am on the 22nd , and four hours later the French had captured Aspern again . Napoleon now had 71 @,@ 000 men and 152 guns on the other side of the river , but the French were still dangerously outnumbered . Napoleon then launched a massive assault against the Austrian center designed to give enough time for the III Corps to cross and clinch the victory . Lannes advanced with three infantry divisions and travelled for a mile before the Austrians , inspired by the personal heroics of Charles with his rally of the Zach Infantry Regiment ( No. 15 ) , unleashed a hail of fire on the French that caused the latter to fall back . At 9 am , the French bridge broke again . Charles launched another massive assault an hour later and captured Aspern for good , but still could not lay claim to Essling . A few hours later , however , the Austrians returned and took all of Essling except the staunchly defended granary . Napoleon replied by sending a part of the Imperial Guard under Jean Rapp , who audaciously disobeyed Napoleon 's orders by attacking Essling and expelling all Austrian forces . Charles then kept up a relentless artillery bombardment that counted Marshal Lannes as one of its many victims . Fighting diminished shortly afterwards , and the French pulled back all of their forces to Lobau . Charles had inflicted the first major defeat in Napoleon 's military career .
= = = Wagram = = =
After the defeat at Aspern @-@ Essling , Napoleon took more than six weeks in planning and preparing for contingencies before he made another attempt at crossing the Danube . The French brought in more troops , more guns , and instituted better defensive measures to ensure the success of the next crossing . From 30 June to the early days of July , the French recrossed the Danube in strength , no less than 188 @,@ 000 troops marching across the Marchfeld towards the Austrians . Immediate resistance to the French advance was restricted to the outpost divisions of Nordmann and Johann von Klenau ; the main Habsburg army was stationed five miles ( 8 km ) away , centred on the village of Wagram . After a successful crossing , Napoleon ordered an attack along the entire line so as to prevent the Austrians from escaping during the night . Furious assaults by the " Terrible 57th " Infantry Regiment and the elite 10th Light Infantry Regiment against the village of Baumersdorf led to an almost immediate French victory , but ultimately , the Austrians did not budge and kept the French from pressing further . Incessant attacks by the heroic Austrian Vincent Chevaulegers ' cavalry forced the 10th and the 57th to retreat , leaving the French with no gains . Further attacks to the left of the line by Eugène and MacDonald also produced nothing . Bernadotte 's troops attacked later with equally disappointing results , and on the right Davout decided to disengage in the darkness of the night . The first day ended with the French on the Marchfeld but with little results to show for their efforts .
For 6 July , Charles planned a double @-@ envelopment that would require a quick march from the forces of his brother John , then a few kilometres to the east of the battlefield . Napoleon 's plan envisaged an envelopment of the Austrian left with Davout 's III Corps while the rest of the army pinned the Austrian forces . Klenau 's VI Corps , supported by Kollowrat 's III , opened the fighting in the second day at 4 am with a crushing assault against the French left , forcing the latter to abandon both Aspern and Essling . Meanwhile , a shocking development had occurred overnight . Bernadotte had unilaterally ordered his troops out of the key and central village of Aderklaa , citing heavy artillery shelling , an act that seriously compromised the entire French position . Napoleon was livid and sent two divisions of Massena 's corps supported by some cavalry to regain the critical village . After difficult fighting in the first phase , Massena sent in Molitor 's reserve division , which slowly but surely grabbed all of Aderklaa back for the French , only to lose it again following fierce Austrian bombardments and counterattacks . To buy time for Davout 's materialising assault , Napoleon sent 4 @,@ 000 cuirassiers under Nansouty against the Austrian lines , but their efforts led to nothing . To secure his center and his left , Napoleon formed a massive artillery battery of 112 guns that began pounding at the Austrians and tearing gaping holes through their lines . As Davout 's men were progressing against the Austrian left , Napoleon formed the three small divisions of MacDonald into a hollow , oblong shape that marched against the Austrian center . The lumbering phalanx was devastated by Austrian artillery but managed to break through the center , although the victory could not be exploited because there was no cavalry in the immediate area . Nevertheless , when Charles sized up the situation , he realised it was only a matter of time before the Austrian position broke completely and ordered a retreat toward Bohemia a few hours after noon . His brother John arrived on the battlefield at 4 pm , too late to have any impact , and accordingly ordered a retreat to Bohemia as well .
The French did not pursue the Austrians immediately because they were exhausted from two straight days of vicious fighting . After recuperating , they chased the Austrians and caught up with them at Znaim in mid @-@ July . Here Charles signed an armistice with Napoleon and agreed to end the fighting . Military conflict between France and Austria was effectively ended , although a few more months of diplomatic wrangling were required to make the result official .
= = = Other theatres = = =
= = = = Italy and Dalmatia = = = =
In Italy , Archduke John went up against Napoleon 's stepson Eugène . The Austrians beat back several bungled French assaults at the Battle of Sacile in April , causing Eugène to fall back on Verona and the Adige River , but Eugène regrouped and launched a more mature offensive that expelled the Austrians from Northern Italy again . By the time of Wagram , Eugène 's forces had joined Napoleon 's main army . In Dalmatia , Marmont , under the nominal command of Eugène , was fighting against General Stoichewich . Marmont launched a mountain offensive on 30 April , but this was repulsed by the Grenzer troops . Like Eugène , however , Marmont did not let an initial setback dictate the tempo of the conflict . He went back on the offensive and joined Napoleon at Wagram .
= = = = Poland = = = =
In the Duchy of Warsaw , Poniatowski defeated the Austrians at Raszyn on 19 April , prevented Austrian forces from crossing the Vistula river , and forced the Austrians to retreat from occupied Warsaw . Afterward , the Poles went on to invade Galicia , with some success , but the offensive quickly stalled with heavy casualties . The Austrians also won a few battles but were hampered by the presence of Russian troops whose intentions were unclear and that did not allow them to advance . Eventually , the defeat of the main Austrian army at Wagram decided of the fate of the war .
After the Austrian invasion of the Duchy of Warsaw , Russia , bound by the treaty of alliance with France , reluctantly entered the war against Austria . The Russian army under the command of General Sergei Golitsyn crossed into Galicia on 3 June 1809 . Golitsyin advanced as slowly as possible , with instructions to avoid any major confrontation with the Austrians . There were only minor skirmishes between the Russian and Austrian troops , with minimal losses . The Austrian and Russian commanders were in frequent correspondence and , in fact , shared some operational intelligence . A courteous letter sent by a Russian divisional commander , General Andrey Gorchakov , to Archduke Ferdinand was intercepted by the Poles , who sent an original to Emperor Napoleon and a copy to Tsar Alexander . As a result , Alexander had to remove Gorchakov from command . Furthermore , there were constant disagreements between Golitsyn and Poniatowski , with whom the Russians were supposed to cooperate in Galicia . As a result of the Treaty of Schönbrunn , Russia received the Galician district of Tarnopol .
= = = = Germany = = = =
In Tyrol , Andreas Hofer led a rebellion against Bavarian rule and French domination that resulted in early isolated victories , but the uprising was suppressed after the French won at Wagram . Hofer was executed in 1810 by a firing squad .
In Saxony , a joint force of Austrians and Brunswickers under the command of General Kienmayer was far more successful , defeating a corps under the command of General Junot at the Battle of Gefrees . After taking the capital , Dresden , and pushing back an army under the command of Napoleon 's brother , Jérôme Bonaparte , the Austrians were effectively in control of all of Saxony . But by this time , the main Austrian force had already been defeated at Wagram and the armistice of Znaim had been agreed . The Duke of Brunswick however , refused to be bound by the armistice and led his corps on a fighting march right across Germany to the mouth of the River Weser , from where they sailed to England and entered British service .
= = = = Holland = = = =
In the Kingdom of Holland , the British launched the Walcheren Campaign to relieve the pressure on the Austrians . The British force of over 39 @,@ 000 , a larger army than that serving in the Iberian Peninsula , landed at Walcheren on 30 July . However , by this time the Austrians had already lost the war . The Walcheren Campaign was characterised by little fighting but many casualties nevertheless , thanks to the popularly @-@ dubbed " Walcheren Fever " . Over 4 @,@ 000 British troops were lost , and the rest withdrew in December 1809 .
= = Aftermath = =
Although France had not completely defeated Austria , the Treaty of Schönbrunn , signed on 14 October 1809 , nevertheless imposed a heavy political toll on the Austrians . As a result of the treaty , France received Carinthia , Carniola , and the Adriatic ports , while Galicia was given to the Poles , the Salzburg area of the Tyrol went to the Bavarians , and Russia was ceded the district of Tarnopol . Austria lost over three million subjects , about 20 % of her total population . Emperor Francis also agreed to pay an indemnity equivalent to almost 85 million francs , gave recognition to Napoleon 's brother Joseph as the King of Spain , and reaffirmed the exclusion of British trade from his remaining dominions . The Austrian army would never field more than 150 @,@ 000 men at a time for the duration of the Napoleonic Wars . The Austrian defeat paved the way for the marriage of Napoleon to the daughter of Emperor Francis , Marie Louise . Dangerously , Napoleon assumed that his marriage to Marie Louise would eliminate Austria as a future threat , but the Habsburgs were not as driven by familial ties as Napoleon thought .
The impact of the conflict was not all positive from the French perspective . The revolts in Tyrol and the Kingdom of Westphalia during the conflict were an indication that there was much discontent over French rule among the German population . Just a few days before the conclusion of the Treaty of Schönbrunn , an 18 @-@ year @-@ old German named Friedrich Staps approached Napoleon during an army review and attempted to stab the emperor , but he was intercepted in the nick of time by General Rapp . The emerging forces of German nationalism were too strongly rooted by this time , and the War of the Fifth Coalition played an important role in nurturing their development . By 1813 , when the Sixth Coalition was fighting the French for control of Central Europe , the German population was fiercely opposed to French rule and largely supported the Allies .
The war also undermined French military superiority and the Napoleonic image . The Battle of Aspern @-@ Essling was the first major defeat in Napoleon 's career and was warmly greeted by much of Europe . The Austrians had also shown that strategic insight and tactical ability were no longer a French monopoly . The French themselves were actually suffering from tactical shortcomings ; the decline in tactical skill of the French infantry led to increasingly heavy columns of foot soldiers eschewing all manoeuvre and relying on sheer weight of numbers to break through , a development best emphasised by MacDonald 's attack at Wagram . The Grande Armée lost its qualitative edge partly because raw conscripts replaced many of the veterans of Austerlitz and Jena , eroding tactical flexibility . Additionally , Napoleon 's armies were more and more composed of non @-@ French contingents , undermining morale . Although Napoleon manoeuvred with customary brilliance , as evidenced by overturning the awful initial French position , the growing size of his armies stretched even his impressive mental faculties . The scale of warfare grew too large for even Napoleon to fully cope with , a lesson that would be brutally repeated during the invasion of Russia in 1812 .
|
= Samson Occom Bridge =
Bridge No. 1860 , also known as the Samson Occom Bridge , is a fieldstone arch bridge in Montville , Connecticut , United States . Constructed by the Connecticut State Highway Department in 1936 as a Works Progress Administration project , it is located on Mohegan tribal land in an area that was once a part of Fort Shantok State Park . The bridge carries traffic from Massapeag Side Road ( Special Service Road 433 ) over the Shantok Brook , a tributary of the Thames River . Spanning 12 feet ( 3 @.@ 7 m ) across the brook , the bridge 's arch rises about 6 feet ( 1 @.@ 8 m ) above the water . According to a 2011 Connecticut Department of Transportation report , it carries 1 @,@ 100 vehicles per day . Samson Occom Bridge was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1993 .
= = Design = =
Officially referred to as Bridge Number 1860 in state records , the bridge is commonly known as the " Samson Occom Bridge " . On the south end of the bridge is a wooden sign that commemorates the Christian missionary and educator Samson Occom , a colonial @-@ period Mohegan from Montville , Connecticut . The sign does not actually declare it the " Samson Occom Bridge " , but states without further explanation that it is the " Site of the Samson Occum Bridge " . The stone @-@ arch bridge spans 12 feet ( 3 @.@ 7 m ) across the Shantok Brook , with its arch about 6 feet ( 1 @.@ 8 m ) over the water . Built in 1936 by the Works Progress Administration , the bridge is constructed of medium @-@ sized fieldstone and laid in cement mortar . The semi @-@ circular arch is constructed with a ring of stones , each about 18 inches ( 46 cm ) deep . Built up by " rubble construction " , the structure is made of fieldstone , including the wing walls . Rising above the 16 feet ( 4 @.@ 9 m ) roadway are the spandrels of the bridge , which form low parapets with ramped ends . The total length of the bridge , including the railings , is about 20 feet ( 6 @.@ 1 m ) long .
= = Preservation = =
In May 1991 , the Connecticut Historic Bridge Inventory plan outlined a plan for the preservation of the Samson Occom Bridge . It is unlikely that traffic would require replacement or modification of the bridge in the foreseeable future . According to a 2011 Connecticut Department of Transportation report , the bridge carries 1 @,@ 100 vehicles per day . The biggest threat to the bridge is moisture control and the repair of eroded surfaces . Stone arch bridges rarely require structural rehabilitation , but an alternative solution to structural rehabilitation would be to use concrete slab imbedded above the arch , only requiring raising the roadway . The report stated that the " rustic quality " of the bridge is not compatible with roadways larger than two lanes , but that additional width could be facilitated without compromising its historical significance .
= = Importance = =
The National Register of Historic Places nomination states that the Samson Occum Bridge is significant as an example of the 1930s public works programs and as an example of " the picturesque park architecture of the early 20th century . " It was constructed at a time when cobblestone masonry was a popular choice for state park structures , but also after masonry was considered an obsolete building material . The bridge has added significance as an example of the work conducted by the federal Works Progress Administration .
|
= New York State Route 402 =
New York State Route 402 ( NY 402 ) was a state highway located within the village of Tivoli in Dutchess County , New York , in the United States . It was assigned in the early 1930s and served as a connector between NY 9G and what was once a ferry landing on the Hudson River west of the village . Although the ferry service linking Tivoli and the village of Saugerties was shut down in the 1940s , NY 402 continued to exist until 1980 . On April 1 of that year , ownership and maintenance of the highway was transferred to Dutchess County as part of a highway maintenance swap between the county and the state of New York . The highway became part of an extended County Route 78 ( CR 78 ) , which had begun at the junction of NY 9G and NY 402 prior to the swap .
= = Route description = =
NY 402 began at what was once a ferry landing on the Hudson River west of the Tivoli village center , but within the village limits , in northwestern Dutchess County . The highway went southward from the ferry landing , paralleling the Hudson River for a short distance before it turned eastward and traversed a pair of hills as it approached the center of the village . In this area , NY 402 connected to Sycamore Point , a plateau overlooking the Hudson River . East of the highway leading to Sycamore Point , NY 402 intersected with Woods Road , a north – south highway marking the western edge of the village 's central district .
The route proceeded eastward through the village center , an area comprising homes , businesses , and St. Sylvia 's Church . It exited the area upon intersecting Clay Hill Road , at which point NY 402 changed names from Broadway to Mill Street . The route continued for another 0 @.@ 3 miles ( 0 @.@ 48 km ) to an intersection with NY 9G , where NY 402 ended and the roadway continued east as CR 78 .
= = History = =
NY 402 was assigned in the early 1930s as a connector between NY 9G east of the village of Tivoli and a ferry landing on the Hudson River west of the village . At the landing , NY 402 connected to a ferry linking Tivoli to U.S. Route 9W ( US 9W ) in the village of Saugerties . The ferry service was shut down in the 1940s ; however , NY 402 remained in place until 1980 . On April 1 of that year , ownership and maintenance of NY 402 was transferred from the state of New York to Dutchess County as part of a highway maintenance swap between the two levels of government . Following the swap , the former routing of NY 402 became a westward extension of CR 78 , which began at the junction of NY 9G and NY 402 prior to the swap .
When NY 402 was assigned , it was one of two routes that served solely as a connector between a through highway and a ferry landing . The other route was NY 373 , a highway linking US 9 to a ferry across Lake Champlain at Port Kent . NY 347 , a short route connecting NY 22 to another ferry across Lake Champlain at Ticonderoga , was assigned later in the decade .
= = Major intersections = =
The entire route was in Tivoli , Dutchess County .
|
= Battle of Machias =
The Battle of Machias ( also known as the Battle of the Margaretta ) was the second naval engagement of the American Revolutionary War , the Battle off Fairhaven being the first . It took place on June 11 – 12 , 1775 , in and around the port of Machias in what is now eastern Maine , and resulted in the capture by Patriot militia of a British schooner .
Following the outbreak of the war and the start of the Siege of Boston , British authorities enlisted the assistance of Loyalist merchant Ichabod Jones to assist in the acquisition of needed supplies . Two of Jones ' merchant ships arrived in Machias on June 2 , accompanied by the British armed sloop Margaretta , commanded by midshipman James Moore . The townspeople , unhappy with Jones ' business practices , decided to arrest him , and in the attempt , decided to go after Moore and his ship . Moore was able to escape out of the harbor , but the townspeople seized one of Jones ' ships , armed it and a second local ship , and sailed out to meet him . In a short confrontation , they captured Moore 's vessel and crew , fatally wounding him in the process .
The people of Machias went on to capture additional British ships , and fought off the landing of a large force intended to take control of the town in 1777 . Privateers and others operating out of Machias continued to be a thorn in the British Navy 's side throughout the war .
= = Background = =
On April 19 , 1775 , the American Revolutionary War began with the Battles of Lexington and Concord in the British Province of Massachusetts Bay . Following the battle , the militia that had mustered to oppose the British besieged the city of Boston where the British troops were located .
Boston 's British military leaders , Admiral Samuel Graves and General Thomas Gage , both had reason to do business with the people of Machias , a small coastal logging community located in what is now eastern Maine , but was then part of the Province of Massachusetts Bay . Gage required lumber to build barracks for additional troops arriving in the besieged city . Graves wanted to recover the guns from the wreck of HMS Halifax , which had apparently been intentionally run aground in Machias Bay by a local pilot in February 1775 . The ship 's guns were reported to be of interest to the Patriots of Machias . Graves authorized Ichabod Jones , a Tory Machias merchant who had ships in the port of Boston , to take flour and other food supplies to the town of Machias aboard his two ships Unity and Polly in exchange for Gage 's needed lumber . To guarantee that this would happen , Graves sent the armed schooner Margaretta ( sometimes also spelled Margueritta or Marguerite in historical accounts ) , under the command of James Moore , a midshipman from his flagship HMS Preston , to accompany the two merchant vessels . Moore also carried orders to retrieve what he could from the wreck of the Halifax , which they would pass on the way .
= = Arrival at Machias = =
On June 2 , 1775 , Jones ' ships arrived in the port at Machias , while the Margaretta was delayed retrieving the guns from the Halifax wreck . Jones met resistance from the community by refusing to sell his pork and flour unless he was allowed to also load lumber for Boston . In a meeting on June 6 , the townspeople voted against doing business with Jones . The hostile climate led Jones to ask Moore to bring the Margaretta within firing distance of the town . This prompted the town to meet a second time ; this time they voted to permit the trade , and the Unity was docked at the wharf to begin unloading .
Following the vote , Jones announced that he would only do business with those who had voted in favor of trade . This angered those who had voted against , and Colonel Benjamin Foster , a local militia leader , conspired with militia from neighboring towns to capture Jones following the example of Brunswick militiamen a month earlier . Their plan to seize him at church on June 11 failed when he noticed the group of men approaching the building . Jones ran into the woods , from which he eventually emerged two days later . Moore and his second @-@ in @-@ command , who were also attending the services , also managed to get back to their ship .
= = Prelude = =
Some of the militia men boarded the docked Unity , removed the remaining supplies , and also removed her sails . Others went around by land near the place where the Margaretta was anchored , and demanded her surrender . Moore refused , threatening to fire on the town . This threat was more bluster than real , as Margaretta sported only a few mounted guns capable of firing one @-@ pound shot . More of the militia men rowed out to the Polly , which was anchored downstream from the Margaretta , and attempted to tow her into the harbor . This attempt failed when she ran aground , possibly due to low tide . Moore raised anchor and came alongside Polly , intending to recover her . After a brief and inconsequential exchange of gunfire with the militia men on the shore , however , he again raised anchor and went further downstream to a safe anchorage .
The next day , the men of Machias regrouped . Foster took about 20 men to East Machias , where they commandeered the Falmouth Packet , a local schooner . The remaining men commandeered the Unity . They rerigged her , installed some planks as a makeshift breastwork to serve as protection , armed themselves with muskets , pitchforks and axes and then set out after the Margaretta , which by that time had reached the waters of Machias Bay . Moore had brought aboard as pilot one Captain Toby , near whose sloop he had anchored overnight , and was looking to depart the scene . In jibing into brisk winds , however , the Margaretta 's main boom and gaff broke away , crippling its navigability . As a result , once in Holmes Bay , Moore captured a sloop , took its spar and gaff to replace the Margaretta 's and also took captive its pilot , Robert Avery , of Norwich , Connecticut .
= = Conflict = =
The Unity crew , about 30 Machias men , elected Jeremiah O 'Brien as their captain , and then sailed out to chase down the Margaretta . As the Unity was a much faster sailing vessel , O 'Brien 's crew quickly overtook the crippled Margaretta , while the Falmouth Packet lagged behind . Maine historian Roger Duncan , among others , indicates that both the Unity and the Falmouth Packet engaged the Margaretta , but other sources disagree . Early 20th @-@ century Machias historian George Drisko claims that the Falmouth Packet either ran aground or never caught up to the Margaretta , and that the men aboard the Unity alone battled the Margaretta directly .
Seeing the Unity approaching , Moore opened full sail and cut away his boats in an attempt to escape . As the Unity pulled closer , he opened fire , but the Machias crew managed to avoid that fire and pull alongside the Margaretta . It took two tries , but they tied alongside and stormed on board the Margaretta , led by O 'Brien 's brother John and Joseph Getchell . Both sides also exchanged musket shots , and Moore tossed hand grenades onto the Unity until Samuel Watts took him down with a musket shot to the chest . As Duncan reports , the Falmouth Packet then managed to pull along the other side of the Margaretta , and the combined crews overwhelmed the Margaretta .
As Midshipman Moore was grievously wounded , his second , Midshipman Stillingfleet , surrendered the crew and vessel . Moore was taken into care in Machias at the home of Stephen Jones , the nephew of Ichabod Jones , but died the next day . At least three other members of Moore 's crew were also killed , as was Robert Avery , the colonist taken by the British . The remaining crew members of the British schooner were held at Machias for about a month , and were eventually handed over to the Massachusetts Provincial Congress . There were also reports circulated , likely exaggerated , that as many as 100 British men died in this and other skirmishes in the Machias area . Machias lost two men , John McNiell and James Coolbroth . Coolbroth died after the skirmish of his wounds . Three others were badly wounded but survived . They were John Berry , who had a musket ball enter his mouth and exit behind his ear , Isaac Taft , and James Cole .
= = Aftermath = =
The Machias community , expecting the full wrath of the British Empire in revenge , immediately petitioned the Massachusetts Provincial Congress for guidance , supplies and assistance . They organized for the defense of Machias and maintained vigilance in the event of British retaliation . Jeremiah O 'Brien immediately outfitted one of the three captured vessels ( sources disagree on which vessel ; Polly and Unity are both mentioned , and historian James Volo suggests that recent scholarship favors Polly ) with breastwork , armed her with the guns and swivels taken from the Margaretta and changed her name to Machias Liberty . In July 1775 , Jeremiah O 'Brien and Benjamin Foster captured two more British armed schooners , the Diligent and the Tatamagouche , whose officers had been captured when they came ashore near Bucks Harbor . In August 1775 , the Provincial Congress formally recognized their efforts , commissioning both the Machias Liberty and the Diligent into the Massachusetts Navy , with Jeremiah O 'Brien as their commander . British retaliation occurred as the burning of Falmouth in October .
Following rumours that an assault on Nova Scotia was being planned , with stores stockpiled at Machias , a small British fleet carrying 1 @,@ 000 men attempted to take Machias in August 1777 ; the locals successfully fought off the landing . The rumors were only partly true ; the idea had been proposed , but no significant military planning had taken place .
During the war , Machias men refitted and armed a variety of ships — including the Margaretta — and sailed off looking for battle with the British . Jeremiah O 'Brien and John Lambert were both commissioned into the Continental Navy . The Machias Liberty and the Diligent were used to intercept merchant ships supplying the British in the siege of Boston . John and Jerry O 'Brien built a twenty @-@ gun ship and began privateering under an American letter of marque . Jerry was captured off New York late in 1777 ; he escaped from prison in Britain , and continued privateering throughout the war .
The British naval command was continually frustrated by the actions of the Machias seamen during the war , and by the use of Machias as a staging point for militia actions ( such as the Eddy Rebellion ) in Nova Scotia . Graves more than once attempted to subdue Machias ; he gave commands in 1776 to " proceed and reduce Machias " , and ordered Sir George Collier to " Go , — destroy Machias " in 1777 . One British officer , presumed to be Collier , said " The damned rebels at Machias were a harder set than those at Bunker Hill . "
= = Liberty pole story = =
There is a widely told story concerning this affair that Machias men erected a Liberty pole after meeting in the Burnham Tavern to discuss the battles of Lexington and Concord . This story , which persists in modern history books and travel guides , has been shown to be an 1831 fabrication by Machias resident John O 'Brien . There is no mention of the Liberty pole in any earlier accounts , including the official report sent by the residents of Machias in 1775 , and the letters of other participants in the events .
|
= 1911 Giro d 'Italia =
The 1911 Giro d 'Italia was the 3rd edition of the Giro d 'Italia , a cycling race set up and sponsored by the newspaper La Gazzetta dello Sport . The race began on 18 May in Rome with a stage that stretched 394 @.@ 1 km ( 245 mi ) to Florence . It was composed of twelve stages that covered a total distance of 3 @,@ 530 @.@ 3 km ( 2 @,@ 194 mi ) . The race came to a close back in Rome on 6 June after a 266 @.@ 9 km ( 166 mi ) stage . The race was won by the Italian rider Carlo Galetti of the Bianchi team . Second and third respectively were the Italian riders Giovanni Rossignoli and Giovanni Gerbi .
Returning champion Carlo Galetti won the race 's opening stage into Florence and was the first to lead the race . He lost the lead to Giovanni Rossignoli after Galetti finished poorly on the race 's second stage . Rossignoli held the lead for four days after Galetti took back the lead after the sixth stage . Frenchman Lucien Petit @-@ Breton became the first non @-@ Italian to lead the Giro d 'Italia after the race 's ninth stage . Petit @-@ Breton lost the lead the next day to Galetti , who then held it all the way to the race 's conclusion in Rome .
= = Changes from the 1910 Giro d 'Italia = =
In both 1909 and 1910 Milan had served as both the start and finish of the Giro d 'Italia . The organizers chose to honor the 50th anniversary of the unification of Italy by holding the start and finish of the Giro in the Italian capital of Rome .
The organizers chose to expand the Giro d 'Italia from ten to twelve stages after its great success . The race also saw an increase of close to 500 kilometers in length . The organizers also included the first climb above 2000 meters in the race , the Sestriere . This was also the first edition of the Giro to go deep down into the southern part of Italy , specifically the Bari .
= = Participants = =
Of the 86 riders that began the Giro d 'Italia on 15 May , 24 of them made it to the finish in Rome on 6 June . Riders were allowed to ride on their own or as a member of a team . There were five teams that competed in the race : Atala @-@ Dunlop , Bianchi @-@ Pirelli , Fiat @-@ Pirelli , Legnano @-@ Dunlop , and Senior @-@ Polack .
The peloton was composed of primarily Italians . The field featured two former Giro d 'Italia champions in the 1909 winner Luigi Ganna and returning champion Carlo Galetti . Other notable Italian riders included Giovanni Rossignoli , Eberardo Pavesi , and Giovanni Gerbi . Two @-@ time Tour de France winner Lucien Petit @-@ Breton also competed in the race .
= = Race overview = =
The first stage began on 15 May and stretched from Rome to Florence . The racing that day was marred by heavy rain , which led to ten withdrawals . Carlo Galetti won the stage ahead of Giovanni Rossignoli and Dario Beni . The next leg was also dogged by rain and very poor conditions on the road and saw the climbing of the Colle de Bacco . Giovanni Gerbi was the first rider to summit the Colle de Bacco . The climb wore Gerbi out and he was caught and passed by three riders and ultimately finished fourth on the stage . Vincenzo Borgarello was the first rider to cross the finish line in Genoa and won the stage , where a large crowd waited for the riders to finish . Rossignoli took the race lead after finishing two positions in front of Galetti . The race 's third day of racing was the first to have clear weather . Race leader Rossignoli bested the likes of Giovanni Gerbi and Carlo Durando to win the stage and consolidate his lead in the general classification . The next stage was hotly contested , with the peloton staying together for the whole stage as Carlo Galetti took the stage win .
The race 's fifth stage is considered to be the first real mountain stage in Giro d 'Italia history . The stage contained the climb of the Sestriere which rises over 2 @,@ 000 meters . As the race entered the Val Chisone leading up the Sestriere , the peloton ran into muddy roads , which forced many to walk their bikes . Frenchman Lucien Petit @-@ Breton led the riders up the slopes before cracking near the snowy summit . He was passed first by Ezio Corlaita , who was the first to summit the Sestriere , and then by many other riders . Petit @-@ Breton caught up with the leading riders on the long descent and rode into the finish in Turin with Corlaita , Rossignoli , and Galetti . Petit @-@ Breton edged out Galetti for the stage win as Galetti tied Rossignoli for the overall lead .
The riders started the sixth stage in Turin with large amount of people in attendance for the sendoff . Giuseppe Santhià took the stage as the riders rolled over the packed finish line in Milan . Dario Beni soloed to victory in the seventh leg , finishing over a minute ahead of the second @-@ place finisher Santhià . The next stage was won by Lauro Bordin as Galetti extended his overall lead by a single point over Rossignoli . Ezio Corlaita won the Giro 's ninth stage , while Lucien Petit @-@ Breton took the race lead and doing so , became the first non @-@ Italian to lead the Giro d 'Italia . In the following stage , the leading breakaway contained six riders – race leader Petit @-@ Breton and five Bianchi riders – and rode into the finish in Bari together . Carlo Galetti took the stage win and the race lead , while Petit @-@ Breton finished in sixth place on the day and was pushed down to second overall .
The race 's penultimate day of racing was scheduled to go from Bari to Naples . During the stage , Lucien Petit @-@ Breton crashed and was forced to abandon the race . The route had the riders go through rough roads that were heavy with dust and occasional passed over streams , thus flooding the roads . The riders were also chase by enraged buffalo . All of those factors caused the riders to end the stage a few kilometers short of Naples , in Pompeii with Alfredo Sivocci winning the day . The last stage ended back in Rome , where the race began . Ezio Corlaita took his second stage win as 24 riders that began the Giro finished the day . Bianchi 's Carlo Galetti became the first rider to win two editions of the Giro d 'Italia .
= = Final standings = =
= = = Stage results = = =
= = = General classification = = =
There were 24 cyclists who had completed all twelve stages . For these cyclists , the points they received from each of their stage placing 's were added up for the general classification . The cyclist with the least accumulated points was the winner .
|
= Libby ( Lost ) =
Libby is a fictional character on the ABC drama television series Lost , which chronicles the lives of over forty people after their plane crashes on a remote island somewhere in the South Pacific . She is played by American actress Cynthia Watros . The character is first introduced as a member of the tail section survivors in the second season episode " Everybody Hates Hugo " , together with Bernard , and she ends her role as a " living character " in the episode " ? " . Reception towards the character is generally positive , especially after her death , although controversy exists due to a traffic violation by the actress that plays her . While no surname was given for the character in the show , a clip reel of deceased characters at Comic @-@ Con 2009 presented her full name as " Elizabeth Smith " .
Libby appeared in twenty @-@ four episodes , twenty @-@ one of them in the second season , one in the fourth , and twice in season six in " Everybody Loves Hugo " and the finale . As of the end of the third season , she is the only main character not to have a centric episode that details her past , though a brief flashback at the end of the episode " Dave " is shown from her point of view . She was supposed to return during the third season , but did not make an appearance . Her first appearance after the second season was in the fourth season episode , " Meet Kevin Johnson " .
= = Prior to the crash = =
Little is known about Libby 's life prior to the island . She states in " The Other 48 Days " that she visited Vermont , where she broke her leg in a skiing accident , and she attended medical school for a year before dropping out to become a clinical psychologist .
It was shown in " Live Together , Die Alone " before she ends up on the island , she meets Desmond ( played by Henry Ian Cusick ) at a café . There , she tells him that she is from Newport Beach , California , and when she learns about his intention to join a sailing race , she decides to donate her sailboat Elizabeth , a gift given to her and named after her by her late husband David . She also stayed in the Santa Rosa Mental Institution , a place whose patients include Hurley ( Jorge Garcia ) , as well as Emily Locke , John Locke 's ( Terry O 'Quinn ) mother . Prior to boarding the Oceanic flight , she intervenes during an argument between Mr. Eko ( Adewale Akinnuoye @-@ Agbaje ) and Charlotte Malkin ( Brooke Mikey Anderson ) in " ? " .
= = After the crash = =
Libby ends up in the tail @-@ section with another twenty @-@ one survivors . She immediately tries to help the injured , such as Donald ( Glenn Lehmann ) , due to her background with medicine . Some , however , including Donald , die a few days later . Within days after the crash , the Others invade their camp and kidnap all the remaining survivors except her and six others : Ana Lucia ( Michelle Rodriguez ) , Mr. Eko , Bernard ( Sam Anderson ) , Cindy ( Kimberley Joseph ) , Nathan ( Josh Randall ) , and Goodwin ( Brett Cullen ) . Paranoia soon afflicts Libby and the remaining tail @-@ section survivors causing them to speculate Nathan is not part of the flight and is an Other , which leads to his death . Eventually , she and the remaining survivors make their way to The Arrow , where they find a radio allowing them to make a brief contact with Boone ( Ian Somerhalder ) . Goodwin , the real Other , tries to steal this radio , but Ana Lucia stops and murders him . Her group stays in The Arrow until Jin ( Daniel Dae Kim ) , Michael ( Harold Perrineau ) , and Sawyer ( Josh Holloway ) arrive there in " Everybody Hates Hugo " , when her group learns about other survivors .
Libby 's group soon decides to leave and join the main group of survivors . But before their journey , Ana Lucia orders her and Michael to get some fruit ( " ... And Found " ) . Soon , Michael finds out , through her , where the Others are and decides to leave her in search for his son , Walt ( Malcolm David Kelley ) . Mr. Eko and Jin find Michael , leading him back to Libby and the group and allowing them to start their journey . During their trek in " Abandoned " , numerous tragedies occur , including the mysterious disappearance of Cindy and the death of Shannon ( Maggie Grace ) . Once she joins the main camp , she and Hurley start to become romantically involved , especially when she tells him that she remembers when he stepped on her foot in the plane . Aside from Hurley , Libby also becomes friends with Claire ( Emilie de Ravin ) , whom she helps in unlocking the memories of Claire 's kidnapping in " Maternity Leave " . She also tries to help out with Bernard 's S.O.S. but loses interest . In " Dave " , Libby helps Hurley solve his food addiction , but this fails when a food pallet coincidentally " falls from the sky " during a supply drop . Sensing something is wrong , she confronts him and eventually ends up on a cliff , where Hurley is about to jump . She tries to stop him , which leads to her professing her feelings for him .
As their relationship grows , Hurley decides to plan dates . In " Two for the Road " , he secretly plans a picnic for her but eventually confesses when he is caught with food . Once they arrive at the beach , he tells her that he forgot drinks and blankets , so she tells him to get Rose ( L. Scott Caldwell ) and Bernard 's bottle of wine while she gets the blankets . This turns out to be a fatal mistake for her , because she is accidentally shot by Michael while getting them . Hours later , Libby is found unconscious alongside a dead Ana Lucia and an injured Michael , while " Henry Gale " ( Michael Emerson ) is found to have fled . Jack ( Matthew Fox ) tries to save her but fails , so he decides to ease her pain with heroin . Once Jack has injected the drug , she stirs and says " Michael " but says nothing more . Jack assumes it is out of concern and tells her Michael is okay , but then she makes one last gasp and passes , dying with Hurley at her bedside . She is buried beside Ana Lucia , coincidentally during the reappearance of Desmond aboard the Elizabeth . Two weeks later , Hurley visits Libby 's grave and expresses how much he misses her before leaving a flower .
Off the island , Libby 's presence continues to haunt Michael after her death . In one scene in " Meet Kevin Johnson " , she appears to Michael in the hospital as a nurse with blankets on her stomach , representing the position she was in when she was shot . This turns out to be a dream . She even follows him in the freighter Kahana , where she tries to trick Michael into not pushing a button , which he pushes anyway . In an extended version of the Oceanic Six press conference , they say Libby was one of the eight initial survivors , but died during the first week .
= = Afterlife = =
Libby is still in the mental institution in the alternate timeline . One day she sees a Mr. Cluck 's commercial with Hurley in it , and memories of her past life on the Island come flooding back to her . Later at a Mexican restaurant , Libby sees Hurley , and tells him she thinks they may be connected and be soul mates . Hurley later tracks her down , and she tells him of her visions and the fact in those visions Hurley was also in the mental institution . Hurley then invites her on a date . On the date they kiss and Hurley 's memories of the Island come flooding back to him , and he assures Libby she isn 't crazy . When the alternate time line is revealed to be a meeting place before the afterlife Libby reunites with many of the other characters in a church . She sits beside Hurley as they move on together into the afterlife .
= = Personality = =
Libby is a mysterious character , seated at the tail @-@ section of the plane . Her character was written to be in her late forties to early fifties , easy on the eyes , amicably maladjusted , and a compulsive liar so good at what she does , most people will not know she is not what she seems . Damon Lindelof was quoted in Variety as saying the character " is going to bring a flavor to the show that doesn 't exist right now . She 's not as intense as some of the other characters . She 's that person you want in the trenches with you who can take lemons and make lemonade . "
Libby is seen by some as a beautiful blonde " Tailie " and Hurley 's true love . She is often described as mysterious , especially since much of her backstory is yet to be revealed . IGN 'has described her as a " loose end " in the storyline due to the contradictions between what she tells other characters and the flashbacks viewers see about her , such as her profession as a clinical psychologist and her stay at a mental institution .
On the show , she is often seen as helpful to other people , such as Donald , Jin , Claire , Bernard , and Desmond . One example of her exhibiting this virtue is when she assists Hurley in resolving his mental problems . Characters have often described her as a " shrink " or as a " mega cute blonde chick " due to her profession and appearance . Sawyer , meanwhile , has used the nickname " Moonbeam " on her due to her upbeat hippie @-@ like personality .
= = Development = =
American actress Cynthia Watros portrays Libby in around twenty @-@ one episodes of the series . Veteran actress Jennifer Jason Leigh was originally approached to play the character , but Watros ended up playing the role instead . During her audition , Watros did not think she would be cast . When she learned she had been , she was excited since she was a fan of the show and moved with her twin daughters from Los Angeles to Hawaii where Lost is filmed .
Libby was not originally going to be killed off , but since Ana Lucia Cortez was considered an unpopular character , the producers thought her death would not generate enough sympathy from fans . They decided Libby , who was well liked , should also be killed for emotional impact . Additionally the producers and writers ran out of ideas for a compelling storyline for the character . According to Carlton Cuse and Damon Lindelof , the writers did try to develop her story through her romance with Hurley but they ran out of possible avenues for the character . The writers also thought her story was not as dramatic when juxtaposed with the other characters .
A few weeks before Libby was written out of the show , Watros and Michelle Rodriguez were arrested for driving under the influence in Kailua , Hawaii , in two separate incidents . This led fans to speculate that this was the cause of the two characters ' deaths in the episode " Two for the Road " . The producers denied this claim , and Rodriguez confirmed the producers ' comments and denied the relation between their arrests and their characters ' deaths . Watros took the news of the death of her character badly and was sad about the decision . The producers felt sorry for her and tried to help her get a new job . She was cast in a pilot for a show on CBS called My Ex @-@ Life , although it was not picked up by the network .
Libby is one of the few main characters not to have a centric episode detailing her life before the crash . The writers said a reason for killing the character was so they could explore her backstory in a mysterious and posthumous way . The producers intended to explore Libby 's backstory through flashbacks in the show 's third season , and later in the fourth season , although her character did not appear . Although she appeared in " Meet Kevin Johnson " , her backstory was not explored . In September 2008 , the writers stated her backstory would probably be explored in the fifth season ; however , Lindelof revealed in May 2009 her story would not be explored any further , saying , " I have learned that if you kill someone off the show , they are less likely to cooperate with you " . The producers said Watros was busy with other commitments , and they could not reveal Libby 's story without her .
It is revealed in a deleted scene Libby had been married three times prior to the plane crash and she specializes in marriage counseling . Theories about unknown aspects of her life exist , including assumptions she was once a DHARMA Initiative employee , an Other , a person planted by Desmond 's flashback characters Mrs. Hawking and Brother Campbell . Her surname was not given during the show 's run , but was later revealed as Smith during Comic @-@ Con 2009 in an in memoriam clip show of Lost 's major death scenes .
The producers brought the character back to the show in the second half of the final season . About the return of Libby , Cuse stated , " Finally , all of your questions [ about Libby ] will be answered " , however , Lindelof jokingly responded , " No , they will not " . Watros said about the reunion with Hurley and Libby in season six : " [ It was ] so sweet and honest . And I think , hopefully , when people see our scenes that they ’ ll get that feeling , too . [ Libby and Hurley ] are so incredibly real with each other . I was really grateful that I got to play those scenes and Libby got to sort of express herself in ways that she hasn ’ t been able to . "
= = Reception = =
Libby is a well liked character . After her death , her popularity increased due to the added mystery to her character . In a poll conducted by BuddyTV about five characters seldom seen on the show , she received the highest votes . Meanwhile , her romantic fling with Hurley was described by Entertainment Weekly as " well @-@ played " and " charming " . Cynthia Watros co @-@ won the 2005 Screen Actors Guild Award for " Best Ensemble - Drama Series . When she returned to the show in 2008 , Watros was praised by the producers who said she " is a smart and engaging actor " .
|
= Irfan Pathan =
Irfan Khan Pathan ( pronunciation ; born 27 October 1984 ) is an Indian cricketer who made his debut for India in the 2003 / 04 Border @-@ Gavaskar Trophy , and was a core member of the national team until a decline in form set in during 2006 , forcing him out of the team . Since then , he has been in and out of the limited @-@ overs teams ( ODIs and T20Is ) , and has only sporadic appearances in Test cricket . Pathan played his last Test in April , 2008 at the age of 24 .
Beginning his career as a fast @-@ medium swing and seam bowler , Pathan broke into the national team soon after turning 19 , and evoked comparisons with Pakistan 's Wasim Akram with his promising performances and prodigious swing . He cemented his position in the team and was named by the International Cricket Council as the 2004 Emerging Player of the Year . Pathan was instrumental in India 's One @-@ day international and Test series wins in Pakistan in 2004 . He was described by the media as the " blue @-@ eyed boy " of the Indian cricket . In late @-@ 2004 he took 18 wickets in two Tests against Bangladesh , but the start of 2005 he performed poorly and conceded runs at a high rate , leading to a brief exile from the one @-@ day international ( ODI ) team .
Immediately thereafter , Australian Greg Chappell , one of the leading batsmen of his time , became India 's coach ( 2005 ) and identified Pathan 's batting potential . Pathan improved his batting skills and tried to become a complete bowling all @-@ rounder , and he opened the batting on occasions in ODIs and scored 93 in a Test match ( 10 Dec 2005 , versus Sri Lanka in Delhi ) in the role after an illness to Virender Sehwag . He made three scores beyond 80 in the space of four Test innings against Sri Lanka and Pakistan . For the first nine months of Chappell 's stint at the helm , Pathan performed strongly with both bat and ball , scoring runs regularly and frequently taking top @-@ order wickets . He rose to No. 2 in the ICC 's ODI rankings for all @-@ rounders and was also in the top five in the Test rankings . This led critics to compare him to former Indian pace bowling allrounder Kapil Dev .
In early 2006 , Pathan became the only bowler to take a Test hat @-@ trick in the first over of the match ( vs Pakistan at Karachi ) . However , the productive run did not last and after the start of 2006 , Pathan began to steadily lose pace and swing , and his wicket @-@ taking dwindled . Although Pathan 's batting continued to be productive , he was not regarded as a specialist and was dropped from the team in both Tests and ODIs by the end of 2006 , and by 2007 was no longer in the squad .
He returned to international cricket in September 2007 for the inaugural World Twenty20 , where he took three wickets and was man of the match as India beat Pakistan in the final . This earned him a recall into the ODI team , where he was a regular for most of the next 12 months before being dropped as his economy rate continued to trend upwards and subsequently struggled with a loss of form and injuries . In late @-@ 2007 Pathan was also recalled into the Test team after 19 months and hit his maiden Test century , but could not maintain his place in the team as his bowling was not effective enough with only two pacemen needed . Pathan played his last Test for India in April 2008 against South Africa . He continued to perform with both bat and ball at the domestic level , although his sedate pace is frequently criticized as being irrelevant at the international level . However , he impressed during the 2011 – 12 Ranji Trophy , where he was the leading wicket @-@ taker , and his performances earned him a recall to the national side again .
Irfan Pathan , along with players such as Vinod Kambli and Laxman Sivaramakrishnan , was included in the list of " India 's lost boys " by Shashi Tharoor .
= = Early years = =
Pathan was born 27 October 1984 in Baroda , Gujarat , India and is of Pashtun ( Pathan ) ancestry , belonging to the Pathan community in Gujarat . He grew up with his elder brother Yusuf in a mosque in Vadodara , in an impoverished family . His father served as the muezzin . Although their parents wished them to become Islamic scholars , Pathan and his brother took an interest in cricket . Their games on the grounds off and inside the mosque often necessitated apologies from their father to Muslim worshippers who visited it . In the beginning his deliveries did not reach the other end of the cricket pitch , but rigorous six @-@ hour training sessions in blazing heat and his family 's sense of discipline saw him progress steadily . Under the guidance of former Indian captain Datta Gaekwad , Pathan rose to get selected in the Under @-@ 14 Baroda cricket team , and when he was selected at Under @-@ 15 level to represent Baroda in a national tournament , he was finally presented with a full set of cricket equipment , having before been restricted to second @-@ hand gear due to his family 's limited economic means .
In December 1997 , Pathan broke into the Baroda Under @-@ 16 team , less than two months after turning 13 . He took a total of 1 / 35 and scored 1 and 11 against Gujarat and was dropped immediately afterwards . He did not play again for the Under @-@ 16s for two years , and in November 1999 , less than a month after turning 15 , he made his next appearance , this time for Baroda Under @-@ 19s against Maharashtra . He scored 61 and 9 and took a total of 3 / 41 in a victory , but was immediately dropped back to the Under @-@ 16s for the next match , and spent the rest of the 1999 – 2000 season there . He bowled short spells in the younger division , taking four wickets at 38 @.@ 00 in six matches , averaging less than seven overs an innings . He had more success with the bat , scoring 253 runs at 31 @.@ 62 including a best of 72 against Mumbai .
Pathan was then selected for the India Under @-@ 15 team in mid @-@ 2000 to play a series of matches against their colleagues from other countries . He took 15 wickets at 12 @.@ 66 in ten matches , including a best of 3 / 2 against Thailand , and scored 15 runs at 7 @.@ 50 . India won all but one of the matches , most by enormous margins .
At the start of the 2000 – 01 season , Pathan was immediately back in the Under @-@ 19s , this time bowling more , often delivering more than 20 overs per innings . In four matches , he scored 102 runs at 102 @.@ 00 including a best of 63 not out , and took 10 wickets at 32 @.@ 50 . He was then promoted to the Under @-@ 22s , where he scored 44 and took 4 / 71 in his first match against Saurashtra , prompting the Baroda selectors to propel him into the senior team .
= = Senior beginnings = =
He started against Bengal in March 2001 , after fellow left @-@ arm paceman Zaheer Khan was selected for the national team . He scored 13 not out and 2 , and took 3 / 40 and 2 / 68 in a 222 @-@ run win . However , he was unable to repeat this form in the three remaining matches , taking only two more wickets in total , but Baroda nevertheless managed to win the Ranji Trophy . He ended his maiden season with seven wickets at 43 @.@ 28 and 75 runs at 12 @.@ 50 with a best score of 40 not out against Orissa .
The Ranji win saw Baroda qualify for the following season 's Irani Trophy where they took on the Rest of India . Pathan scored 32 in the second innings and took 3 / 95 and 1 / 34 in a defeat , but his performance reminded Test batsman V. V. S. Laxman of Zaheer . However , he was omitted from the senior team and sent back to the Under @-@ 19s the next week and stayed there for the next two months , playing eight double @-@ innings matches for Baroda . He took 20 wickets at 20 @.@ 40 , including a best of 6 / 41 against Gujarat , and scoring 190 runs at 31 @.@ 66 with a best of 63 not out . Pathan was then recalled to the senior team and made his List A debut against Mumbai , taking 1 / 69 from nine overs . Pathan further honed his bowling at the MRF Pace Foundation in Chennai , after being referred by Indian selector Kiran More .
In early @-@ 2002 , he was selected for the Under @-@ 19 Cricket World Cup in New Zealand , where he took six wickets at 27 @.@ 50 and scored 30 runs at 15 @.@ 00 , taking 2 / 18 in a win over South Africa .
Upon returning to India , Pathan was selected in a senior zonal team for the first time . He was selected for West Zone for the Duleep Trophy , even though he had not played a single match for Baroda in the Ranji Trophy season . He immediately repaid the selectors ' faith by taking 4 / 74 and 6 / 72 , his first ten @-@ wicket match haul , in the first fixture against Central Zone , setting up a 161 @-@ run win . In the next match , he took 4 / 72 and 3 / 85 as West defeated North by 178 runs . He only took 1 / 55 in the next match against South but West were through to the final , where he took 4 / 43 to help cut down East Zone for 162 in the first innings , sealing the title . In all Pathan , had taken 22 wickets at 18 @.@ 22 for the tournament , and scored 46 runs at 11 @.@ 50 .
These performances propelled Pathan into the India A team at the age of 17 and a half , for a tour of Sri Lanka , where he took six wickets at 35 @.@ 00 in three first @-@ class matches . Pathan then went on an India Under @-@ 19 tour of England in mid @-@ 2002 . He took 15 wickets at 25 @.@ 93 in the three youth Tests , which India lost 1 – 0 , with a best of 4 / 83 in the Second Test . He then took four wickets at 42 @.@ 00 , conceding more than six runs an over , and scored 66 runs at 33 @.@ 00 in the three youth ODIs , which India won 2 – 1 .
Pathan was rewarded with selection in the Rest of India team that played against Railways in the Irani Trophy at the start of the 2002 – 03 season . He took a total of 2 / 84 and scored 29 as the Ranji champions prevailed . He struggled in the Ranji Trophy , taking 18 wickets at 39 @.@ 33 in seven matches . Half of his wickets came in one match against Orissa in which he claimed 6 / 31 and 3 / 46 in an innings victory . He scored 161 runs at 23 @.@ 00 , with a 54 against Tamil Nadu being his maiden first @-@ class fifty , as well as two other forties . Despite a lack of wickets for Baroda , Pathan was selected for the Duleep Trophy , playing for Elite Group A. He took 5 / 88 and 4 / 106 against Plate Group A and 4 / 101 against Elite Group C , before taking 3 / 53 and 2 / 42 as Elite Group A defeated Elite Group B in the final by seven wickets . Pathan ended the tournament with 19 wickets at 27 @.@ 00 and scored 72 runs at 24 @.@ 00 . In the one @-@ dayers , Pathan also struggled for Baroda , taking three wickets at 64 @.@ 66 in four matches at an economy rate of 4 @.@ 85 , but he was nevertheless selected for the zonal team , where he took four wickets at 34 @.@ 25 in four matches at an economy rate of 3 @.@ 91 .
In 2003 he was selected for the India A team which travelled to England . Playing in five first @-@ class matches , Pathan took nine wickets at 43 @.@ 77 , including 4 / 60 against Yorkshire and 3 / 83 against South Africa . He managed only 8 runs at 4 @.@ 00 with the bat . He had more success in the limited @-@ overs matches , taking eight wickets at 11 @.@ 12 in three matches , including a 4 / 19 against Lancashire , and scoring 27 runs at 27 @.@ 00 .
At the start of the 2003 – 04 season , Pathan played in the domestic Challenger Trophy for the first time . Representing India A , he had little success , taking two wickets at 79 @.@ 00 at an economy rate of 5 @.@ 85 , and he did not force his way into India 's limited @-@ overs team . He was then selected for India Emerging Players for a series of limited @-@ overs matches against counterparts from Pakistan and Sri Lanka . Pathan took seven wickets at 11 @.@ 00 in three matches , including 4 / 22 and 3 / 35 in two matches against Pakistan .
In late 2003 , he was selected for the India Under @-@ 19 team to compete in an Asian youth ODI competition in Pakistan , where he was the leading bowler with 18 wickets at 7 @.@ 38 , with an economy rate of 3 @.@ 54 . This was more than twice that of the second leading wicket @-@ taker . He was named as the player of the tournament , which India won after defeating Sri Lanka by eight wickets in the final . Pathan was featured on the headlines when he claimed 9 / 16 against Bangladesh , helping to bowl them out for 34 , and helped India to emerge victorious over Sri Lanka in the final , taking 3 / 33 . Pathan also scored 94 runs at 31 @.@ 33 with the bat , compiling scores of 32 , 28 and 34 . Pathan returned to India and took 3 / 51 and 1 / 33 and scored 26 and 12 in his first Ranji Trophy match for the season , against Andhra Pradesh . This resulted in him being selected for the Indian national squad for the 2003 – 04 Border @-@ Gavaskar Trophy Test series in Australia .
= = Early international career ( 2003 – 2005 ) = =
Pathan made his Test debut in the Second Test against Australia at the Adelaide Oval in December 2003 . At the age of 19 , he opened the bowling following an injury to the Baroda left @-@ armer Zaheer Khan in the First Test . In a high scoring match , he took the wicket of Matthew Hayden while giving away 160 runs at almost five runs an over . He scored one in his only innings as India took a four @-@ wicket victory . He was dropped for the following Test upon the return of Zaheer , but was recalled for the Fourth Test at the Sydney Cricket Ground after Zaheer broke down in his only spell in the Third Test . On another flat pitch , Pathan took the wickets of Steve Waugh , Adam Gilchrist in the first innings in a spell of reverse swing bowling . He had Waugh caught behind from an outswinger and then bowled Gilchrist with an inswinging yorker . He ended with 2 / 80 in the first innings and dismissed Ricky Ponting in the second innings to end with match figures of 3 / 106 .
In the ODI tri @-@ nation tournament against Australia and Zimbabwe that followed , Pathan was the leading wicket @-@ taker with 16 wickets at an average of 31 in his maiden ODI series . After ending with 0 / 61 from ten overs on debut against Australia , he bounced back to take 3 / 64 and 3 / 51 in the next two matches against the World Cup holders . He earned his first international man of the match award in the tournament , after taking 4 / 24 against Zimbabwe at the WACA Ground in Perth in his eighth ODI . However , his tour ended on a bad note after he was reprimanded by match referees for mocking the Australian batsman Damien Martyn after his dismissal in the second final . In that match , he took 2 / 75 as Australia amassed 5 / 359 and crushed India by 208 runs . Pathan made 30 in the match as his team folded for only 151 . His batting improved towards the end of the tour with three scores of at least 19 in his last four innings , and he ended with 86 runs at 17 @.@ 20 for the tournament .
Pathan subsequently led the pace attack again on the 2004 Test tour to Pakistan , taking 12 wickets and bowling a higher proportion of maiden overs than any other bowler to help secure India 's first series victory over Pakistan in two decades . In the first innings , he bowled 28 overs and took 4 / 100 to help India restrict their arch @-@ rivals to 407 and take a 268 @-@ run lead . After stand @-@ in captain Rahul Dravid enforced the follow on , Pathan tied the Pakistanis down , bowling 12 maidens in his 21 overs to end with 2 / 26 as India secured an innings win . Pathan then scored 49 in the Second Test in Lahore after a batting collapse of the top order , helping India to recover to 287 . However this was not enough as Pakistan reached 489 despite Pathan bowling 44 overs to take 3 / 107 , and the hosts went on to complete a nine @-@ wicket win . In the deciding Test in Rawalpindi , Pathan took 2 / 49 and 1 / 35 in an innings win . He ended the series with 12 wickets at 28 @.@ 50 and 64 runs at 21 @.@ 33 .
He also continued his prolific wicket @-@ taking in the ODIs , taking eight wickets at 17 @.@ 87 at an economy rate of 4 @.@ 76 in three matches , including three top @-@ order wickets in the deciding fifth ODI in Lahore . He also scored 36 runs at 36 @.@ 00 in the ODIs . His ability to swing the ball both ways and his innings in Lahore led to speculation that he could become an all rounder . In recognition of his performances at the start of his international career , Pathan was named the ICC Emerging Player of the Year in 2004 .
Pathan continued his productive form in ODIs at the 2004 Asian Cup in Sri Lanka , where he was the leading wicket @-@ taker with 14 wickets at 16 @.@ 28 at an economy rate of 4 @.@ 37 in six matches , with three three @-@ wicket hauls against the United Arab Emirates , Bangladesh and Pakistan respectively . He also scored 64 runs at 32 @.@ 00 including a 38 in a defeat against Pakistan .
He then struggled during an ODI tour in Europe , taking three wickets at 78 @.@ 00 at an economy rate of 5 @.@ 48 from five matches . India won only one of these games and lost four . Pathan returned to form during India 's brief campaign at the 2004 ICC Champions Trophy in England , where he claimed 5 wickets at an average of 9 @.@ 00 and economy rate of 3 @.@ 00 . He took 2 / 11 against Kenya and 3 / 34 against Pakistan , but defeat at the hands of the latter ended India 's campaign .
Returning to India , Pathan then represented his country at the highest level for the first time on home soil . Pathan continued to improve his batting with a defiant 31 and 55 against Australia in October 2004 in the First Test in Bangalore . This was his first half @-@ century in Tests , and was scored after the specialist batsmen had failed . Nevertheless , he managed a total of only 2 / 100 and India fell to a 217 @-@ run loss . Pathan 's career was put on hold after he suffered a side strain in the following Test in Chennai , in which he totalled 0 / 68 , causing him to miss the Tests in Nagpur and Mumbai . Australia went on to take the series 2 – 1 and Pathan ended with two wickets at 84 @.@ 00 and 100 runs at 33 @.@ 33 . After being overlooked for the First Test with selectors opting for three spinners , he returned in the Second Test against South Africa in Kolkata , aggregating 3 / 89 and scoring 24 in an eight @-@ wicket win that sealed a 1 – 0 series win .
Pathan made his name in Tests on the December tour to Bangladesh . Swinging the ball both ways , Pathan took 5 / 45 and 6 / 51 including several LBW decisions in the First Test in Dhaka to claim his first ten @-@ wicket haul and his first Test man of the match award as India claimed a commanding innings victory . He followed this with a match haul of 7 / 118 in the following match in Chittagong to take 18 wickets at 11 @.@ 88 to be named as man of the series . India swept the series , winning both matches by an innings . Although the Indian batsmen scored heavily , Pathan managed only five and four . He played in only one of the three ODIs against the hosts as India rotated their players , taking 1 / 45 and scoring 21 not out in an 11 @-@ run win .
In late 2004 , the Board of Control for Cricket in India introduced central contracts for international players for the first time , and Pathan was given a B @-@ grade contract . 2005 began rather poorly for Pathan . He took only six wickets at 68 @.@ 33 in the home Test series against Pakistan after losing pace and accuracy . In the last two matches , he managed totals of 2 / 122 and 1 / 160 , conceding more than four runs an over as the Pakistani batsmen scored heavily . He scored 64 runs at 16 @.@ 00 and made a duck in the second innings of the Third Test as the hosts collapsed on the last day to squander the series 1 – 1 .
He was subsequently dropped for the ODI series , playing in only one match in which he conceded 67 runs without picking up a wicket in 8 overs . However , he did manage to post his first ODI half @-@ century , scoring 64 , defiantly holding up his end as India were bowled out for 213 , sealing a 106 @-@ run loss . Greg Chappell became the coach of the Indian team following the Pakistan series and identified Pathan as a potential all @-@ rounder . He started to hone Pathan 's batting skills , which had up to this point yielded 275 Test runs at 19 @.@ 64 . Pathan was subsequently signed by Middlesex County Cricket Club for the English country season , where he attempted to regain his form after his bad start to the year . Pathan arrived in late @-@ May and stayed for six weeks . He achieved better results than in the Pakistan series , taking six wickets at 24 @.@ 66 and an economy rate of 5 @.@ 41 in four one @-@ dayers , including 3 / 42 against Essex . In the new Twenty20 format , Pathan took 12 wickets at 12 @.@ 75 and an economy rate of 6 @.@ 37 in seven matches , including a best of 4 / 27 against Essex . He scored 21 not out in the same match to help seal a 31 @-@ run win . However , his difficulties in first @-@ class matches continued . He took 4 / 81 and 1 / 68 , and scored 41 and 13 not out in a productive debut against Sussex , and Middlesex were only one wicket away from victory when time ran out . However , he failed to take another wicket and ended with five wickets at 64 @.@ 80 and 126 runs at 63 @.@ 00 , scoring 68 against Surrey .
= = Chappell era ( 2005 – 2007 ) = =
Pathan was recalled to the ODI team for the 2005 Indian Oil Cup in Sri Lanka in August . This was Chappell 's first series as a coach , in which Pathan played in all five matches and took 6 wickets at 33 @.@ 83 at an economy rate of 4 @.@ 41 , but conceded 0 / 59 from nine overs as the hosts won the final . He scored 58 runs at 29 @.@ 00 including an unbeaten 36 after India 's batting collapsed in a loss to the hosts in a preliminary match .
He showed further signs of returning to peak form in the Videocon Triangular Series in Zimbabwe , taking 10 wickets at 16 @.@ 10 at an economy rate of 5 @.@ 03 and scored 60 runs at 30 @.@ 00 in four matches . This included a haul of 3 / 34 and then a score of 50 as India collapsed to 164 all out and a 51 @-@ run loss to New Zealand . In another match , he took his ODI career best of 5 / 27 against Zimbabwe in Harare as the hosts fell for 65 . Despite his overall good form , Pathan was punished by the New Zealanders in the final , conceding 40 runs in five wicketless overs as India lost their second successive final . He was subsequently the leading wicket @-@ taker as India took a 2 – 0 clean sweep of an away Test series against Zimbabwe . In the First Test in Bulawayo , Pathan took 5 / 58 and 4 / 53 as well as scoring 52 in a man of the match performance to help India to an innings victory . He followed this with a 7 / 59 haul , his Test career best innings haul , and 5 / 67 in the final Test in Harare , his second ten @-@ wicket match haul to set up a ten wicket victory , having also scored 32 in the first innings . He was again named man of the match , and his 21 wickets at 11 @.@ 29 runs saw him named man of the series . This made him only the third bowler after Anil Kumble and Johnny Briggs to take 21 wickets in a two @-@ match series .
Upon the team 's return to India , Chappell experimented with Pathan by using him as an opening batsman in the Challenger Trophy prior to the late 2005 series against Sri Lankan cricket team . This yielded only moderate success with scores of 28 and 11 not out . Pathan took six wickets at 29 @.@ 16 at an economy rate of 5 @.@ 17 . Pathan was subsequently used at No. 3 in the batting line @-@ up in the First ODI against Sri Lanka in Nagpur , where he scored 83 runs from 70 balls to help India post a total of 6 / 350 . Pathan also took 4 / 37 and 3 / 38 in the second and seventh matches at Mohali and Baroda respectively to win two @-@ man of the match awards , taking ten wickets at 25 @.@ 60 at ane economy rate of 5 @.@ 22 for the whole series . He added a 35 in the final match and ended the series with 118 runs at 39 @.@ 33 , playing akey role in India 's 6 – 1 triumph . Pathan continued his strong ODI form with another man of the match performance of 3 / 23 and a knock of 37 runs against South Africa in the second ODI in Bangalore , having scored 46 in the middle @-@ order in the first match after a top @-@ order collapse . He ended the series with six wickets at 20 @.@ 33 at an economy rate of 4 @.@ 69 and 83 runs at 27 @.@ 66 .
After scoring two consecutive ducks in the Test series against Sri Lanka , Pathan was elevated to opening in the second innings of the Second Test in Delhi , after regular opener Virender Sehwag was down with illness . Having taken 3 / 34 from 22 overs in the first innings , Pathan scored 93 runs , building on a first innings lead of 60 to help set up a winning target of 436 . In the following match in Ahmedabad , he scored 82 runs and combined in a century stand with V. V. S. Laxman to revive India after an early batting collapse saw five wickets fall during the first half of the opening day . He also took seven wickets at an average of 26 @.@ 00 runs in the series , which India won 2 – 0 . Pathan later admitted that he had been disappointed in failing to score a Test century . Following his strong performances in 2005 , Pathan was promoted in December to an A @-@ grade contract by the Board of Control for Cricket in India .
Pathan had another difficult start to the new year in 2006 on the Test tour to Pakistan . In the first two Test matches played on flat surfaces in Lahore and Faisalabad , he had little success against the Pakistani batsmen , taking a total of two wickets while conceding 319 runs at more than four runs an over . After not getting an opportunity in the First Test — India lost only one wicket — Pathan made use of the good batting conditions himself and scored 90 in a double century partnership with wicket @-@ keeper Mahendra Singh Dhoni in Faisalabad . Pathan found success with the ball in the Third Test in Karachi , when on 29 January , he became the first person to claim a hat @-@ trick in the first over of a Test match — the first five minutes of a match scheduled for 30 hours — and the first Indian to take a hat @-@ trick in an away Test . It was also the highest in terms of total averages of the batsmen dismissed ( 130 @.@ 18 : Salman Butt 34 @.@ 27 , Younis Khan 46 @.@ 04 , Mohammad Yousuf 49 @.@ 86 ) and came after 1783 Tests in the history of cricket . He had Butt caught by Dravid in the slips from an outswinger , before trapping Younis leg before wicket and bowling Yousuf , both with inswingers . He finished with a haul of 5 / 61 after the hosts staged a lower @-@ order counter @-@ attack but was punished in the second innings , taking 1 wicket while conceding 106 runs as Pakistan set a target which was beyond India 's reach . Pathan ended the series with 134 runs at 44 @.@ 66 and took eight wickets at 60 @.@ 75 . Despite his Test travails , Pathan continued to perform strongly in the ODI arena , scoring 65 in the top order in the first ODI against Pakistan in Peshawar before making three consecutive three wicket hauls in the following matches . This included a man of the match performance that included a haul of 3 wickets for 43 runs at Rawalpindi as he claimed nine wickets at 18 @.@ 88 at an economy rate of 4 @.@ 49 for the series . Having taken an unassailable 3 – 1 lead , India rested Pathan for the final match .
Pathan had a quiet series against England following his return to India , taking 8 wickets at an average of 39 @.@ 37 runs and scoring 121 runs at an average of 24 @.@ 20 runs in three Tests . Pathan scored 52 in the first innings of the Second Test in Mohali , helping India to a first @-@ innings lead and eventually a nine @-@ wicket win . In the Third Test , Pathan managed only 1 / 84 in total and scored 26 and 6 as they collapsed on the final day and ceded their series lead . Again his ODI form was unaffected , taking eleven wickets at 15 @.@ 63 in five matches , and scoring 123 runs at 41 @.@ 00 with the bat as India easily claimed the series 5 – 1 . Pathan scored 28 and then took 3 / 21 in a low @-@ scoring 29 @-@ win in the first match , before scoring 36 and taking 4 / 51 in the third match in Goa . India then took an unassailable 4 – 0 lead by winning the fourth match , in which Pathan took 1 / 27 before scoring 46 in the run @-@ chase .
= = International omission = =
Pathan began to suffer a loss of form during the tour of the West Indies in May 2006 , when he managed only 24 runs at 6 @.@ 00 and took 6 wickets at 29 @.@ 83 at an economy rate of 5 @.@ 59 while bowling in the ODI arena as India lost the series 4 – 1 . After a poor display in a tour match , in which he was hit for 70 runs in 12 overs and appeared jaded , he was dropped from the Test team as V. R. V. Singh became the third place bowler and captain Rahul Dravid scrapped the five bowler strategy . Pathan only played once in the Second Test , after Sreesanth was sidelined due to injury . He scored 19 and took 1 / 43 and 1 / 50 as India enforced the follow on but the hosts hung on for a draw with three wickets in hand . India then selected two spinners in the last two Tests , and Pathan could not gain one of the two pace positions . Chappell stated that Pathan was fatigued and had been overworked but was confident that Pathan " would recover from his slump and rise to further heights " , asserting that he was still young and learning . Former India paceman Javagal Srinath expressed concern about Pathan 's dwindling pace , but expressed that swing was the first priority in backing Pathan 's return to international cricket .
These concerns were further magnified in late 2006 , when Pathan conceded 54 runs in six overs in the first two matches of a triangular ODI tournament in Malaysia . Despite scoring 64 in the top @-@ order in the first of these matches against the West Indies , Pathan was dropped for the rest of the tournament . He appeared to have run into some form during the Challenger Trophy when he took five wickets at 15 @.@ 80 at an economy rate of 4 @.@ 64 and scored 95 runs at 31 @.@ 66 in three matches .
Pathan was then demoted from the position of an opening bowler in ODIs during the 2006 ICC Champions Trophy ; he took four wickets at 24 @.@ 00 at an economy rate of 4 @.@ 80 , and scored only 29 runs at 9 @.@ 66 , as India were knocked out in the first round . Pathan was then limited to sporadic ODI appearances on the late @-@ 2006 tour to South Africa . Playing in three of the five matches , he took a solitary wicket at 136 @.@ 00 , conceding 7 @.@ 15 runs per over , the only bright spot being an unbeaten 47 as India were skittled for 163 in one match ; they were whitewashed by the hosts .
Since the West Indies tour in May 2006 , Pathan had only been taking wickets at 41 @.@ 33 . He subsequently fell out of the Top 10 of the ICC bowling rankings and the Top 5 of the All rounder rankings after having spent the previous year on the list . Despite this , Indian captain Rahul Dravid remained optimistic about Pathan 's prospects , stating " The number of Man @-@ of @-@ the @-@ Matches that Irfan has won is a testimony to the fact that he 's a proven matchwinner for us . He takes wickets early , contributes with the bat , is good in the field . " Despite top scoring in both innings of a first @-@ class warm @-@ up match in Potchefstroom , scoring 111 not out and 40 not out whilst many specialist batsmen failed to cope with the bouncy conditions , he totalled only 1 / 49 from eight overs with the ball and was overlooked by the selectors for the First Test in Johannesburg . This indicated that although he had scored 560 runs at 35 @.@ 00 under Chappell 's coaching , they saw bowling , which had been steadily declining , as his primary responsibility . After a poor bowling display in the subsequent tour match in which he conceded 74 runs in only 11 overs , Pathan became the first player to be sent home by the BCCI during a tour for poor performance rather than indiscipline . It was later revealed by Kiran More that it was a mutual agreement so that Pathan could play for Baroda in the final two rounds of Ranji Trophy in an attempt to regain form via match practice instead of watching the final two Tests from the sidelines . He subsequently led Baroda to the semi @-@ finals after scoring 82 * to help defeat Uttar Pradesh by five wickets , but his bowling remained ineffective , returning figures of 2 / 108 and 1 / 59 , conceding 4 @.@ 77 runs per over . Former Indian captain Sunil Gavaskar attributed Pathan 's situation to mismanagement , asserting that Pathan has been " messed about " as well as insinuating foul play . Pathan 's fortunes improved in the next two matches , totalling 5 / 92 and 7 / 96 against Tamil Nadu and Mumbai respectively .
Pathan was initially dropped for the ODI series hosted by India against the West Indies , but was recalled for the final match in his home town after claiming seven wickets against Mumbai in the Ranji Trophy semi @-@ final . His performance was regarded as lacklustre , taking 1 / 43 from seven overs . The selectors persisted and named him in the squad for the 2007 Cricket World Cup , but injury stopped him from playing in the ODI series against Sri Lanka , denying him an opportunity to regain form . Pathan on his return took two wickets of the overs which he bowled.He had an impressive start as he took the wicket of Lendle Simons as a Leg Before Wicket .
After taking 1 / 12 and 3 / 25 in warm @-@ up matches against the Netherlands and the West Indies in the Caribbean , Pathan did not play a match at the World Cup , and was among a group of players to be dropped from the squad following India 's exit from the first round . He played no part in the tours of Bangladesh and England . Instead , he was sent on an India A tour of Africa . Two years after devastating the Zimbabwean batsmen , he played against a Zimbabwe Select XI , he took only six wickets at 30 @.@ 16 in two matches , and then took eight wickets at 18 @.@ 12 in two matches against Kenya . India won all four matches , and Pathan scored 87 runs at 21 @.@ 75 . Pathan then took six wickets at 23 @.@ 83 and scored 93 runs at 31 @.@ 00 in four one @-@ dayers .
= = International comeback = =
With India 's older players opting out of the inaugural World Twenty20 , Pathan was one of several younger players to regain national selection . India were not expected to do well in a format that favoured stronger fielding sides . In the first match , he scored 20 and took 2 / 20 in four overs as India tied with Pakistan in the first round , before winning in a bowl @-@ out . He then took 0 / 16 from two chamatkar as India lost to New Zealand before taking 3 / 37 in a defeat of England . India needed a win over hosts South Africa to reach the semi @-@ final and Pathan conceded only 16 runs from his four overs , helping to restrict the hosts to 9 / 116 in pursuit of 154 . Pathan then took 2 / 44 , removing Brad Hodge and Andrew Symonds as India managed to defend 188 for a 15 @-@ run win to reach the finals . India faced arch @-@ rivals Pakistan in the final . Pathan was declared the Man of the match after bowling a tidy spell and taking 3 / 16 , including the removal of Pakistan captain Shoaib Malik and then the big @-@ hitting Shahid Afridi for a duck in the space of three balls , before later bowling Yasir Arafat .
As a result of his performances in South Africa , Pathan was recalled to the ODI team and played in the home series against Australia and Pakistan in late 2007 . He played in all 12 matches , seven against Australia and five against Pakistan . Pathan scored 131 runs at 18 @.@ 71 in the lower @-@ order and took 12 wickets at 46 @.@ 00 at an economy rate of 5 @.@ 02 , averaging substantially worse than his overall career statistics . It was a steady performance ; Pathan never took more than two wickets in any match and his economy rate was always between 4 @.@ 60 and 6 @.@ 66 and scored 26 and 29 in consecutive matches in Baroda and Rajkot against Australia before making 43 in the final match against Pakistan .
With India opting to field two spinners and two pacemen on turning tracks in the home Test series against Pakistan in late 2007 , Pathan missed the first two Tests as Zaheer and Rudra Pratap Singh were the fast bowlers chosen . In the meantime , he took 11 wickets at 23 @.@ 81 and scored 90 runs at 30 @.@ 00 in two Ranji Trophy matches . Injury to both Zaheer and Singh in his colleagues resulted in his recall for the Third Test at Bangalore . Pathan scored his maiden Test century , reaching the mark with a six from leg spinner Danish Kaneria to move from 96 to 102 with only last man , paceman Ishant Sharma left to accompany him , before holing out in the same over . He made 21 not out in the second innings but was unpenetrative with the ball , taking a total of 1 / 110 as the tourists hung on for a draw .
Pathan gained selection for the 2007 – 08 tour of Australia , but did not play in the first two Tests with only two pacemen chosen . Zaheer and Singh were the first @-@ choice pace duo before the former was injured and replaced by Ishant , who had taken five wickets in the first innings of the Bangalore Test . With the Third Test held on the bouncy WACA Ground in Perth , Pathan replaced second spinner Harbhajan Singh . He batted well with scores of 28 and 46 respectively . His second innings performance came as a nightwatchman in order to shield other batsmen from the new ball late in the second day . After entering at the fall of the first wicket , he batted for more than two hours and was the sixth man to fall . Pathan rediscovered his ability to swing the ball , taking 2 / 63 and 3 / 54 , including both Australian openers in each innings , having the hosts two wickets down in both innings before 50 runs had been scored . He had four of his victims caught behind the wicket off an edge and trapped Chris Rogers lbw . India won by 72 runs and Pathan was recognised with the man of the match award .
After his batting displays in Perth , Pathan was promoted to open the batting in the Fourth Test in Adelaide , replacing the struggling Wasim Jaffer and thereby allowing Harbhajan to return in a five @-@ bowler attack . In a high @-@ scoring match , Pathan took 3 / 112 , but he struggled with the responsibility of opening , scoring nine and a duck . In a high @-@ scoring match , he took 3 / 112 in Australia 's 563.Following the Test series , he top @-@ scored with 26 as India were skittles for 74 in the one @-@ off T20 international . Pathan held his place in the ODI team and played all 10 matches in the Commonwealth Bank Trophy , scoring 118 runs at 19 @.@ 66 mostly in the lower order and taking 11 wickets at 34 @.@ 27 at an economy rate of 5 @.@ 49 . His best performance was a 4 / 41 against Australia at Adelaide to help restrict the hosts to 203 but India then collapsed to a 50 @-@ run loss . His top @-@ score of 31 in the series came in partnership with captain Mahendra Singh Dhoni in the closing stages of a successful and tense run @-@ chase against Sri Lanka . Pathan struggled in the two finals against Australia , taking three wickets at 39 @.@ 00 at an economy rate of 7 @.@ 46 but his teammates did enough to ensure a 2 – 0 win . An extra bowler backfired as the batsmen struggled . Pathan top @-@ scored with 21 * in India 's first innings of 76 on the first morning and was again unbeaten in the second innings with 43 . However , he failed to take a wicket and conceded 85 runs in only 21 @.@ 2 overs in an innings defeat , and was omitted from the next Test . After the South Africa series , Pathan participated in the 2008 Indian Premier League , having been purchased by the Kings XI Punjab .
He took 15 wickets at 23 @.@ 33 at the economy rate of 6 @.@ 60 runs per over . His most effective performance came when he added an unbeaten 24 and took 2 / 18 from his four overs to help Punjab to a nine @-@ run win over the Kolkata Knight Riders . He scored 131 runs at 21 @.@ 83 and added 40 in a failed run @-@ chase against Chennai Super Kings .
= = Back on the fringes = =
Following the IPL , Pathan resumed international duties in the Kitply Cup and the 2008 Asia Cup . He had an unproductive time with the ball ; although he scored a total of 86 runs at 28 @.@ 66 , he took seven wickets at 51 @.@ 42 at an economy rate of 6 @.@ 56 . Pathan was overlooked for the Tests in Sri Lanka but was called into the team for the one @-@ dayers , but played in only three of the five fixtures . He took three wickets at 34 @.@ 66 , conceding 5 @.@ 20 runs an over , and struggled with the bat , scoring 19 runs at 6 @.@ 33 as the Indian batting collapsed in each match . He was then included in an India A team for a series of matches against touring counterparts from New Zealand and Australia . He had average results , taking four wickets at 43 @.@ 75 and an economy rate of 4 @.@ 86 , and scored 56 runs at 18 @.@ 66 in four games . He did better the Challenger Trophy , taking six wickets at 14 @.@ 00 at an economy rate of 3 @.@ 42 , and scored 71 runs at 35 @.@ 50 as India Blue won all three matches .
At the start of the first @-@ class season , Pathan scored 56 but took a total of only 1 / 91 for the Board President 's XI against the touring Australians ahead of the Test series , and he was overlooked for Test selection as India used only two pacemen . He returned to play for Baroda in the Ranji Trophy . He played in four matches and performed strongly , taking 26 wickets at 16 @.@ 03 and scored 166 runs at 33 @.@ 20 . He started the season with 6 / 85 and 1 / 34 in a draw against Uttar Pradesh , and then took 4 / 42 and 1 / 46 against Railways . He then put on an all @-@ round display to guide his team to a victory over Maharashtra . Pathan took 5 / 64 and then scored 51 as Baroda made 305 in their first innings to take a 77 @-@ run lead . After taking 1 / 61 in the second innings , he scored an unbeaten 50 to guide Baroda to their target of 227 with four wickets in hand . In his final Ranji fixture for the season , he took 7 / 35 in the first innings to help dismiss Andhra Pradesh for 77 , setting up an innings win . However , with India persisting with and tasting success with their Test bowling strategy , Pathan was also overlooked for the home Tests against England . Pathan 's domestic season was interrupted by spasmodic limited overs duty . Following his recent uneconomical run in ODIs , he was not given a game in the seven @-@ match series against England in November until India had taken an unassailable 4 – 0 series lead . He took 0 / 57 from ten overs in the fifth match , as India recorded another victory , but did not get another opportunity after the Mumbai terrorist attacks saw the two remaining fixtures cancelled . Pathan was then selected for the early @-@ 2009 five @-@ match ODI tour of Sri Lanka , but was not entrusted with a match until India took an unbeatable 3 – 0 lead . He took four wickets at 28 @.@ 25 in two matches , but was again expensive , conceding 7 @.@ 06 runs an over . However , he ended the tour on a high note when he combined with half @-@ brother Yusuf in an unbroken eighth @-@ wicket stand that saw India to a three @-@ wicket win in the T20 international after a late flurry ; Irfan ended on 33 not out . Pathan returned to India and took 3 / 50 and scored 51 not out in his only domestic one @-@ dayer for Baroda during the season , which ended in a win , before leaving for the limited overs leg of a tour to New Zealand .
Pathan had a poor time in New Zealand . In the two T20 internationals preceding the ODIs , he took 0 / 38 and 2 / 41 , conceding his runs at an alarming economy rate of 11 @.@ 28 . He was left out of all five ODIs during the tour before heading home . He then played in all 14 of Punjab 's round @-@ robin matches in the 2009 Indian Premier League held in South Africa , taking 17 wickets at 22 @.@ 94 with an economy rate of 7 @.@ 74 , and scored 196 runs at 19 @.@ 60 . He started strongly , taking nine wickets in four matches in the early stages of the tournament , before taking only two in the next five matches , and ending with six in the last three fixtures . Punjab failed to make the semi @-@ finals .
Pathan 's performances in the IPL were enough for him to retain his position in the national T20 team after his performances in New Zealand , and he then proceeded to the 2009 ICC World Twenty20 in England in June , where India were seeking to defend their title . He struggled in the warm @-@ up matches , totalling 1 / 49 in five overs , and again in the first round of matches , bowling five overs and conceding 42 runs without success . Nevertheless , India defeated both Bangladesh and Ireland to move into the next round . He took 1 / 9 from two overs in the loss to the West Indies in the Super 8 round , and was left out for the remaining two matches , which India lost to be eliminated .
Since then , Pathan was dropped from the limited overs team and was then injured for an extended period , until he made his return to cricket in the Ranji Trophy in November . He played in six matches for Baroda as captain and was successful with both bat and ball , scoring 397 runs at 49 @.@ 62 and taking 22 wickets at 18 @.@ 54 . In his most productive first @-@ class season with the bat , Pathan made starts in eight of his nine innings , only failing to reach 24 once , and scoring four fifties , although he was unable to convert any to triple figures . In his fourth match of the season , Pathan top @-@ scored in both innings with 68 and 81 as Baroda lost to Karnataka by an innings after making 153 and 223 . He then took a total of 7 / 76 and scored 65 not out to secure a seven @-@ wicket win over Saurashtra , and then totalled 7 / 96 in a seven @-@ wicket triumph over Maharashtra . However , these performances were not enough to earn Pathan a Test recall . Furthermore , on 25 February 2010 the Board of Control for Cricket in India ( BCCI ) announced its list of 30 probables for the T20 World Cup to be held in the West Indies , the most notable omission being Irfan Pathan .
Pathan took 5 / 100 in the first innings of the Duleep Trophy final against South Zone . His fifth wicket brought up his 300th scalp at first @-@ class level . After cricket was engulfed in a series of corruption scandals in September 2010 , Pathan told the media that he had received " three expensive gifts in his room " and , later , two further gifts that he could not afford . Pathan reported this to the team management as he thought the gifts might be from a bookmaker .
= = Comeback to the national side and knee injury = =
Irfan Pathan was recalled for India 's ODI squad for last two matches of five match one @-@ day series against West Indies in December 2011 , and played in last match of the series , picking the wicket of first ball .
He was selected for the Commonwealth Bank Series , playing four games and scoring 96 runs at an average of 24 with a top score of 47 . He also succeeded in taking 6 wickets at an average of 31 @.@ 16 ; his best figures were 3 / 16 . His strong performances led to his inclusion in the Asia Cup squad . He played three matches and did not get a chance to bat but he proved himself with the ball taking 4 / 32 in the first match of the series against Sri Lanka . He picked up two more wickets in the next two games . He was the part of the team touring South Africa for the one T20 played on 31 March 2012 where he had figures of 4 – 0 – 44 – 1 but was yet to bat . Pathan also played for the Delhi Daredevils the Indian Premier League in 2012 , taking only 8 wickets from 17 matches with an average of 58 @.@ 12 . BCCI announced on 13 July 2012 inclusion of Irfan Pathan in the Indian team for the tour of Sri Lanka as a replacement to the injured Vinay Kumar . With his all round performance , India managed to win four of the five ODIs and the lone T20 match in the next series in Sri Lanka . Pathan emerged as the top wicket taker with a 5 @-@ wicket haul .
Irfan Pathan was a part of the Indian squad for the 2012 ICC World Twenty20 tournament in Sri Lanka . In the Ranji Trophy 2012 – 13 opener against Karnataka , Pathan raised his First @-@ class top @-@ score to 121 with his 3rd domestic hundred . But , he injured his knee during match and only made comeback to cricket in March 2013 . In 2014 he was picked up by Sunrisers Hyderabad to play in the Indian Premier League .
= = Jhalak Dikhhla Jaa = =
Pathan became a contestant on the Colors TV popular dance show Jhalak Dikhhla Jaa in the 8th season in 2015 . He impressed many people with his dancing skills and stayed on the show for little while until he quit the show in the 6th week on 22 August 2015 .
= = Personal life = =
Irfan Pathan married Jeddah @-@ based , Safa Baig in February 2016 . Cricketer Irfan Pathan settled in matrimony with Jeddah @-@ based model Safa Baig on February 4 . The wedding took place in the holy city of Mecca and it was a low key affair.Safa is the daughter of Mirza Farooq Baig . She is currently working for a PR firm and is also a popular nail artist , said reports .
= = Cricket Academy Of Pathans = =
The Cricket Academy Of Pathans was jointly launched by Irfan Pathan and Yusuf Pathan.The academy has tied up with former India coach Greg Chappell and Cameron Tradell as chief mentors . Chappell would coach the coaches of the Academy .
= = Statistics = =
In the column Runs , * indicates being not out .
The column title Match refers to the Match Number of his career .
= = = International Centuries = = =
= = = = Test Centuries = = = =
= = = International 5 @-@ Wicket Hauls = = =
= = = = Test 5 @-@ Wicket Hauls = = = =
= = = = One Day International 5 @-@ Wicket Hauls = = = =
= = Records / Trivia = =
Irfan Pathan holds the World record ( as of 29 January 2013 ) for the double – 1000 runs and 100 wickets in the quickest time in an ODI career . It took him 1059 days .
He is the fastest Indian ODI player to reach the 100 wicket milestone ( in 59 matches )
= = Awards = =
2004 – ICC Emerging Player of the Year
= = = Test Awards = = =
= = = = Man of the Match Awards = = = =
= = = = Man of the Series Awards = = = =
= = = ODI Awards = = =
= = = = Man of the Match Awards = = = =
= = = T20I Awards = = =
= = = = Man of the Match Awards = = = =
|
= GHV2 =
GHV2 ( an abbreviation of Greatest Hits Volume 2 ) is the second greatest hits album by American recording artist Madonna . Maverick and Warner Bros. Records released it on November 12 , 2001 , coinciding with the video album , Drowned World Tour 2001 . A follow @-@ up to The Immaculate Collection ( 1990 ) , GHV2 contains a collection of singles during the second decade of Madonna 's career . Madonna mentioned that she only included " songs that I could listen to five times in a row " on it . The album did not contain any new songs , but a promotional single , " GHV2 Megamix " , was released to promote it , with remixes by Thunderpuss , John Rocks & Mac Quayle and Tracy Young . Another promotional remix album was released alongside , titled GHV2 Remixed : The Best of 1991 – 2001 .
GHV2 received generally positive reviews from music critics , who deemed it as an essential compilation , although some criticized the absence of new material . Commercially , the compilation was successful , peaking at number seven on the US Billboard 200 and was certified platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) . Elsewhere , GHV2 also attained success , reaching the top five in Australia , Germany , the United Kingdom and several other European countries . It was the 14th best @-@ selling album of the year and has sold more than seven million units worldwide .
= = Background and development = =
In early September 2001 , media reported that Madonna had recorded two songs , " Sex Makes the World Go Round " and " Veronica Electronica " , to be included on the forthcoming greatest hits album . The last title was from an unreleased remix album in collaboration with William Orbit . It was also reported that the album would be titled The Immaculate Collection 2 . However , both the title and new songs rumors were proven false . After the final show of Madonna 's Drowned World Tour on September 15 , 2001 , MTV News confirmed that the singer had planned to release a greatest hits album in November 2001 . On October 4 , 2001 , Maverick Records eventually announced the track list of GHV2 as well as its official release date . The album coincided with the release of the DVD / VHS video album of the tour .
A sequel to her first greatest hits album , The Immaculate Collection ( 1990 ) , GHV2 included fifteen singles released during Madonna 's second decade in the recording industry , starting from " Erotica " ( 1992 ) to " What It Feels Like for a Girl " ( 2001 ) . Unlike the former release , GHV2 did not feature any new material . In an interview with BBC 's Jo Whiley , Madonna spoke about the selection of the tracks , " I only wanted songs that I could listen to five times in a row . " She also added that " If you listen to the record , you can really see my evolution as a singer , songwriter , and , more important , a human being . " Madonna felt that because it was a " greatest hits " , it should only contain previously released hit songs . In an interview with MSN she clarified , " Because [ GHV2 is ] my greatest hits . New songs would be false advertising because if it 's a new song , it wouldn 't be considered a greatest hit . That 's a little presumptuous isn 't it ? " Several of her popular singles of that period were excluded from the album . Despite being a worldwide number @-@ one hit in 2000 , " American Pie " was also excluded because Madonna had regretted putting it on her eighth studio album , Music ( 2000 ) . " It was something a certain record company executive twisted my arm into doing , but it didn 't belong on the album so now it 's being punished ... My gut told me not to [ put the song on Music ] , but I did it and then I regretted it so just for that reason it didn 't deserve a place on GHV2 . " she said . Other notable exclusion were " This Used to Be My Playground " , " Rain " , " I 'll Remember " and " You 'll See " — all of which had been included on her ballads compilation Something to Remember ( 1995 ) .
The album was originally titled Greatest Hits : The Second Coming , but Madonna decided to name it change the name to GHV2 just before it was released as " it 's a title you will remember " and also because of " laziness " , due to the fact that she had just finished the Drowned World Tour and was about to begin filming Swept Away ( 2002 ) . The cover picture is from a 2001 photo shoot for InStyle magazine , by Regan Cameron . It was revealed through Madonna 's official website , on October 18 , 2001 . Cameron recalled that they had been given the assignment of shooting Madonna for InStyle and he was nervous . It was shot at Smashbox Studios in Los Angeles and he tried out first with a polaroid . Madonna approved of it and continued shooting , took direction from him and was present throughout the day for trying out different pictures . Two of the pictures from the session were used by Madonna , first one showing her with finger on her lips as a promotional photo for the HBO debut of her Drowned World Tour video , and another one showing her with hair in front of her right eye for GHV2 . Cameron also contributed artwork to the inner sleeve , which features 600 photographs of Madonna . " GHV2 " can also be seen on the cover picture on Madonna 's eye . The sleeves also contains Japanese lettering ( モヂジラミミヂ ) , which is the result of typing the letters ' M @-@ A @-@ D @-@ O @-@ N @-@ N @-@ A ' on an English keyboard but with the keys re @-@ mapped to their positions on a Japanese kana keyboard . It is pronounced as " Mo @-@ Dzi @-@ Ji @-@ Ra @-@ Mi @-@ Mi @-@ Dzi " .
= = Release and promotion = =
In order to promote the album , Madonna 's recording company Warner Bros. spent £ 1 million ( £ 1 @.@ 49 million in 2016 dollars ) on its promotion , to generate excitement in the album without the support of media interviews or TV performances , as Madonna was in Malta filming Swept Away . A company executive said , " There will be no Top of the Pops appearance or interview on Radio One or in Q magazine this time so we want the unusual name to get people thinking about the association between Madonna and GHV2 " and to generate extra media interest to compensate for the artist 's unavailability to promote the release at the time . Hovever , in December , Madonna made an appearance at the 2001 Turner Prize award ceremony and mentioned that she " had a new record in stores called GHV2 " .
Madonna 's company Maverick Records sent a promotional megamix titled " GHV2 Megamix " to radio stations in order to promote the compilation , on October 29 , 2001 . However , it was limited to airplay , and was never released commercially nor included on GHV2 . The songs featured , in chronological order , were " Don 't Tell Me " , " Erotica " , " Secret " , " Frozen " , " What It Feels Like for a Girl " , " Take a Bow " , " Deeper and Deeper " , " Music " and " Ray of Light " . Remixes were produced by Thunderpuss , Johnny Rocks & Mac Quayle and Tracy Young . Chris Cox from Thunderpuss explained , " Basically , they were dong the greatest @-@ hits album ... and so they approached actually a couple of different remix entities to take a stab at doing a megamix , and it was kind of a cattle call , actually . They basically liked ours the best and so they put it out . " The remix peaked at number five on the Billboard Hot Dance Club Play chart in 2001 . The " GHV2 Megamix " ' s accompanying music video , directed by Dago Gonzalez of Veneno Inc . , was compiled of images of Madonna 's live performances and previous music videos and premiered on November 2 , 2001 , through Total Request Live ( TRL ) and MTV 's website . Chuck Taylor from Billboard complimented the remix , saying that " its quite a trip down 80s memory lane from an artist whose continually evolving body of work stands strong — even when summarized in this novel context . "
In December 20 , 2001 , Maverick Records also released a promotional album GHV2 Remixed : The Best of 1991 – 2001 , featuring remixed versions of tracks from GHV2 , except " Take a Bow " , " Don 't Cry for Me Argentina " , and " The Power of Good @-@ Bye " . Like the promotional megamix single release , it was not made commercially available . Remixes were done by Victor Calderone , Junior Vasquez , BT , Sasha , Timo Maas , and Hex Hector . MTV France listed the remixes on their website for streaming .
= = Critical reception = =
The compilation received generally positive reviews from music critics . Music journalist Robert Christgau gave a positive review , stating that Madonna " gleans goodies from the overrated Bedtime Stories and Ray of Light , mixes in the glorious soundtrack @-@ only ' Beautiful Stranger ' and the dismal soundtrack @-@ only ' Don 't Cry for Me Argentina ' , and hands it all over to Mirwais for sonic tweaking I 'm not interested enough to pin down " , while calling it as " an essential package " . A writer from the South Wales Echo gave a positive review , saying that GHV2 is " an essential pop album " and " truly immaculate " . MusicOMH 's Michael Hubbard complimented the inclusion of " Don 't Cry For Me Argentina " from Evita and " Beautiful Stranger " from the Austin Powers sequel The Spy Who Shagged Me , saying that they " are worthy inclusions ... compiling this collection didn 't require much imagination , the end result does the job — the CD is exactly what it says on the tin . "
John Aizlewood from The Guardian gave the compilation four out of five stars , stating : " GHV2 is sufficiently confident to avoid remixes or new tracks . Desperate times , however , call for desperate measures " . Ian Wade from Dotmusic positively reviewed the compilation saying , " Had ' GHV2 ' been released before 1998 , it would 've been a not much fun bunch of ballads and arsery . Thankfully , for the sake of herself , her fans and mankind in general , Madge had a bit of re @-@ think . [ ... ] GHV2 contains some of the best pop music made by anybody " , although he criticized the omission of some singles like " Nothing Really Matters " or " Rain " . Cristine Leach from Raidió Teilifís Éireann gave the compilation 4 out of 5 stars , saying that " [ Madonna ] is still the queen of pop and GHV2 is essential listening . One for the multiple personality in you this Christmas . " Dugald Baird from Music Week noted : " the set is something of an anti @-@ climax , although it is an essential purchase for her army of fans " .
Giving the album 8 on 10 , Alex Needham from NME criticized the compilation 's lack of new tracks , and said " while far from immaculate , this is still quite a collection " . About GHV2 , New Strait Times ' Christie Leo commented that " this second volume of greatest hits isn 't as immediately accessible as the first . But that 's not what this collection is all about . This 14 @-@ track set actually provides a more daring glimpse into the inner machinations of the music marketing juggernaut , Madonna " . AllMusic writer Stephen Thomas Erlewine gave a mixed review calling it " slightly disappointing " , justifying that it was because during the 1990s , Madonna was an album artist . He finished his review saying that " the end result is less than the sum of its parts , even if this is a good way to get all of Madge 's 90s hits at once . " Sal Cinquemani from Slant Magazine commented that " GHV2 certainly encapsulates the second decade of the performer 's boundary @-@ bridging career " , but criticized the lack of new material , and its " choppy edits , random sequences and missing links " , saying : " the collection doesn 't seem to do justice to a career that has always been ahead of the game and focused on the future " . Charlotte Robinson from PopMatters criticized its sequencing , stating , " Chronological sequencing would have made it easier to follow the course of Madonna 's musical evolution . But would these changes have made GHV2 a significantly better album ? Probably not . As it stands , it 's the best summary of Madonna 's second decade as a performer we 're going to get . "
= = Commercial performance = =
In the United States , the compilation entered at number seven on the Billboard 200 chart on the week dated December 1 , 2001 , with first week sales of 150 @,@ 000 copies . It was an improvement from the 113 @,@ 000 copies sold by her 1995 ballad compilation album , Something to Remember . However , GHV2 also became her lowest debut on the chart since The Immaculate Collection ( 1990 ) , which debuted on the Billboard 200 at number 32 . Every Madonna album had debuted in the top six until GHV2 . It was present for a total of 18 weeks on the chart and ranked at number 58 on the Billboard 200 year end chart for 2002 . As of August 2009 , the album has sold 1 @,@ 385 @,@ 000 copies in the region according to Nielsen SoundScan , with an additional 90 @,@ 000 sold at BMG Music Clubs . Nielsen SoundScan does not count albums sold through clubs like the BMG Music Service . It received a platinum certification from the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) for shipping over a million copies . In Canada , the album debuted at number 11 on the Canadian Albums Chart , being present in the top 100 for a total of 16 weeks . It was certified platinum by Music Canada ( MC ) for selling over 100 @,@ 000 copies .
Even before its release in the United Kingdom , the compilation had broken a record as the album with most shipments before release , with 750 @,@ 000 copies shipped , overtaking the previous pre @-@ release high of 650 @,@ 000 copies achieved by Simply Red 's compilation album , Greatest Hits ( 1996 ) . GHV2 debuted at number two on the UK Albums Chart , after competing for the top spot with Westlife 's third studio album , World of Our Own , with the boy band outselling Madonna by two to one in the midweek chart . The album was present for a total of 33 weeks inside the chart , and was certified double platinum by the British Phonographic Industry ( BPI ) . As of May 2006 , the compilation has sold 804 @,@ 076 copies according to the Official Charts Company . GHV2 also debuted at number two , behind Westlife 's album in Ireland and Scotland . Across Europe , the compilation reached the top of the chart in Austria , and reaching the top @-@ ten in Belgium ( Flanders and Wallonia ) , France , Germany , Hungary , Italy , Norway , Spain and Switzerland . On the combined European Top 100 Albums , GHV2 peaked at number five .
GHV2 debuted at number three on the Australia ARIA Charts , and was present for a total of 13 weeks within the top 50 . The Australian Recording Industry Association ( ARIA ) certified it platinum for shipment of 70 @,@ 000 copies . It had moderate performance in New Zealand where it debuted at number eight on the Recorded Music NZ 's album chart , and received a gold certification for shipment of 7 @,@ 500 copies . The album was successful in Japan , where it received a platinum certification from the Recording Industry Association of Japan ( RIAJ ) for selling over 200 @,@ 000 copies . GHV2 was the 14th best @-@ selling album of 2001 , selling 4 @.@ 9 million copies worldwide in that year according to the International Federation of the Phonographic Industry ( IFPI ) . In total GHV2 has sold over seven million copies as of October 2007 .
= = Track listing = =
= = Credits and personnel = =
Credits for GHV2 adapted from AllMusic .
= = Charts = =
= = Certifications = =
|
= Darrell S. Cole =
Sergeant Darrell Samuel Cole ( July 20 , 1920 – February 19 , 1945 ) was a United States Marine who posthumously received the United States ' highest military decoration , the Medal of Honor , for his " conspicuous gallantry " at the Battle of Iwo Jima during World War II .
Although he was originally assigned to play the bugle , Sergeant Cole repeatedly requested that his rating be changed from field musician to machine @-@ gunner . Although rated as a bugler he fought as a machine @-@ gunner in several major campaigns of World War II including Guadalcanal , Tinian , Saipan .
On his fourth request to change his rating to machine @-@ gunner the request was approved 4 months before he was sent into combat again on Iwo Jima . During the battle , Cole made a successful one @-@ man attack against two gun emplacements impeding the advance of his company . Upon returning to his squad , he was killed by an enemy grenade .
In 1996 the United States Navy named the USS Cole ( DDG @-@ 67 ) , a destroyer , in his honor . This destroyer was damaged in a suicide attack in Yemen but subsequently repaired and is currently in service .
= = Early life = =
Darrell Cole was born July 20 , 1920 in Esther ( now part of Park Hills ) , Missouri . He attended high school in Esther , graduating in 1938 . Before graduating , his main interests were sports ; particularly basketball , hunting and photography . He also learned to play the french horn which later led to him being assigned as a bugler .
After graduating from high school , he joined the Civilian Conservation Corps ( CCC ) , where he became an assistant forestry clerk and assistant educational advisor for his company . He left after one year and he went to Detroit , Michigan where he worked at a company that made engine gaskets .
= = Military service = =
On August 25 , 1941 , he enlisted in the Marine Corps . Following United States Marine Corps Recruit Training at MCRD Parris Island , South Carolina , he was appointed to the Field Music School for training as a Marine Corps Field Musician ( a bugler ) . He was unhappy with being a field musician because he had joined the Marine Corps to fight . He applied for a change in rating to be a machine @-@ gunner , but was refused due to the shortage of buglers . After completing field music school , he was transferred to the 1st Marine Regiment , 1st Marine Division .
After completing his first overseas tour , he returned to the United States in February 1943 and was assigned to the First Battalion , 23rd Marines , 4th Marine Division at Marine Corps Base Camp Lejeune , North Carolina . When his unit moved to California he again asked for relief as a field musician ; and for permission to perform line duties . Again , due to the shortage of buglers in the Marine Corps , his request was denied . Throughout the course of World War II , until his death on Iwo Jima , Cole participated in several battles and campaigns as a machine @-@ gunner and was promoted to the rank of sergeant in 1944 .
= = = Battle of Guadalcanal = = =
The Battle of Guadalcanal , was fought between August 7 , 1942 , and February 7 , 1943 , in the Pacific theatre of World War II and was the first major offensive launched by allied forces against the Empire of Japan . Cole arrived on Guadalcanal on August 7 , 1942 for the first American offensive of World War II ; and his first opportunity to fill in as a machine @-@ gunner in the absence of the regular gunner .
= = = Battles of Kwajalein , Saipan and Tinian = = =
After Guadalcanal , Cole served in several more battles throughout the Pacific theatre , including the battles of Kwajalein , Sapian and Tinian . The United States launched an assault on the main islands of Kwajalein in the south and Roi @-@ Namur in the north from January 31 , 1944 , to February 3 , 1944 . The Japanese defenders put up a stiff resistance though outnumbered and under @-@ prepared . Although the United States won the battle the determined defenses of Roi @-@ Namur left only 51 Japanese survivors of an original garrison of 3 @,@ 500 . During this engagement of the 4th Division Cole , again forsaking his bugle , stepped in as a machine @-@ gunner .
When Cole was sent to fight with his unit in Saipan , he was assigned to a machine gun unit ; and was designated as a machine gun section leader . During the battle his squad leader was killed and Cole , although wounded , assumed command of the entire squad . He was awarded the Bronze Star for " … his resolute leadership , indomitable fighting spirit and tenacious determination in the face of terrific opposition . " and was awarded the Purple Heart for the wounds he received .
When fighting began on the island of Tinian in the Mariana Islands from July 24 to August 1 , 1944 , Cole 's unit was sent in a few days after the battle began . Cole again led his squad ashore in the invasion and defeat of the neighboring islands of Tinian ; and continued to build his reputation as " The Fighting Field Musician . "
= = = Mariana and Palau Islands campaign = = =
The Mariana and Palau Islands campaign was an offensive launched by United States forces against Imperial Japanese forces in the Mariana Islands and Palau in the Pacific Ocean , between June and November , 1944 during the Pacific War . It was after the Marianas campaign , that he submitted a request for a change of rating for the third time . Pointing out his experience and combat record , he stated that he felt he would be of more benefit to the Marine Corps performing line duties than those of field music . This time his request was approved and he was redesignated Corporal and subsequently promoted to Sergeant in November 1944 .
= = = Battle of Iwo Jima = = =
The Battle of Iwo Jima was fought between the United States and the Japanese Empire , in February and March 1945 during the Pacific Campaign of World War II . Ground fighting on the island took place over approximately 35 days ; lasting from the landings of February 19 to a final Japanese charge the morning of March 26 , 1945 . The U.S. invasion , known as Operation Detachment , was charged with the mission of capturing the islands airfields . The Japanese positions on the island were heavily fortified , with vast bunkers , hidden artillery , and 18 kilometers ( 11 mi ) of tunnels .
On February 19 , Sergeant Cole led his machine gun section ashore in the D @-@ Day assault of Iwo Jima . Moving forward with the initial assault wave , a hail of fire from two enemy emplacements halted his section 's advance . Sergeant Cole personally destroyed them with hand grenades . His unit continued to advance until pinned down for a second time by enemy fire from three Japanese gun emplacements . One of these emplacements was destroyed by a machine @-@ gunner in Cole 's squad . When his machine guns jammed , armed only with a pistol and one hand grenade , Sergeant Cole made a one @-@ man attack against the two remaining gun emplacements . Twice he returned to his own lines for additional grenades and continued the attack under fierce enemy fire until he had succeeded in destroying the enemy strong points .
Upon returning to his own squad , he was killed by an enemy grenade . As a result of his one @-@ man attack , Sergeant Cole 's company could move forward against the fortifications and attain their ultimate objective . Sergeant Cole was initially buried in the 4th Marine Division Cemetery on Iwo Jima , but at the request of his father , his remains were returned to the United States to be buried in Parkview Cemetery , Farmington , Missouri .
= = Honors and awards = =
= = = Military decorations = = =
In addition to the Medal of Honor and Bronze Star Medal , Sergeant Cole was awarded the Purple Heart with Gold Star in lieu of a second award , the Presidential Unit Citation , American Defense Service Medal , Asiatic @-@ Pacific Campaign Medal , and the World War II Victory Medal .
= = = = Medal of Honor = = = =
Cole was posthumously awarded the Medal of Honor , which was presented to his widow on April 17 , 1947 . The citation reads as follows .
For conspicuous gallantry and intrepidity at the risk of his life above and beyond the call of duty while serving as Leader of a Machine @-@ gun Section of Company B , First Battalion , Twenty @-@ Third Marines , Fourth Marine Division , in action against enemy Japanese forces during the assault on Iwo Jima in the Volcano Islands , 19 February 1945 . Assailed by a tremendous volume of small @-@ arms , mortar and artillery fire as he advanced with one squad of his section in the initial assault wave , Sergeant Cole boldly led his men up the sloping beach toward Airfield Number One despite the blanketing curtain of flying shrapnel and , personally destroying with hand grenades two hostile emplacements which menaced the progress of his unit , continued to move forward until a merciless barrage of fire emanating from three Japanese pillboxes halted the advance . Instantly placing his one remaining machine gun in action , he delivered a shattering fusillade and succeeded in silencing the nearest and most threatening emplacement before his weapon jammed and the enemy , reopening fire with knee mortars and grenades , pinned down his unit for the second time . Shrewdly gauging the tactical situation and evolving a daring plan of counterattack , Sergeant Cole , armed solely with a pistol and one grenade , coolly advanced alone to the hostile pillboxes . Hurling his one grenade at the enemy in sudden , swift attack , he quickly withdrew , returned to his own lines for additional grenades and again advanced , attacked , and withdrew . With enemy guns still active , he ran the gauntlet of slashing fire a third time to complete the total destruction of the Japanese strong point and the annihilation of the defending garrison in this final assault . Although instantly killed by an enemy grenade as he returned to his squad , Sergeant Cole had eliminated a formidable Japanese position , thereby enabling his company to storm the remaining fortifications , continue the advance and seize the objective . By his dauntless initiative , unfaltering courage and indomitable determination during a critical period of action , Sergeant Cole served as an inspiration to his comrades , and his stouthearted leadership in the face of almost certain death sustained and enhanced the highest traditions of the United States Naval Service . He gallantly gave his life for his country .
= = = Other honors = = =
The second USS Cole ( DDG @-@ 67 ) , an Arleigh Burke @-@ class Aegis @-@ equipped guided missile destroyer was named for Sergeant Cole . The Cole is homeported in NS Norfolk , Virginia . The ship was built by Ingalls Shipbuilding and delivered to the Navy on March 11 , 1996 . On October 12 , 2000 , the Cole was damaged by a suicide attack while harbored in the Yemeni port of Aden . The first USS Cole ( DD @-@ 155 ) , launched in 1919 , was named for a Marine who was killed in World War I.
The Marine Corps Reserve training center in Camp Las Flores aboard Marine Corps base Camp Pendleton , California is also named in his honor .
The Sgt Darrell S. Cole Band Hall aboard Marine Corps Base Quantico is also named in his honor .
|
= Voyager ( video game ) =
Voyager was a graphic adventure computer game developed by Looking Glass Technologies from 1995 until its cancellation in 1997 . It was published by Viacom New Media . Based on the Star Trek : Voyager license , the game followed Kathryn Janeway and the crew of the USS Voyager in their attempts to rescue members of their team from the Kazon . Voyager was the first game in a multi @-@ title agreement between Viacom and Looking Glass , and Viacom took a minority equity investment in the company as part of the deal . However , Viacom decided to leave the video game industry in 1997 , and Voyager was cancelled in spring of that year . In response to Voyager 's cancellation , team members Ken Levine , Jonathan Chey and Rob Fermier left Looking Glass to found Irrational Games .
= = Overview = =
Voyager was an adventure game based on the Star Trek : Voyager license . The player guided Kathryn Janeway and other characters aboard the USS Voyager through three " episodes " . The game began as the USS Voyager resupplied at an agricultural planet , only to have certain members of its crew kidnapped by the Kazon . As Janeway and the surviving team tracked the Kazon , they encountered such things as other alien races and " an abandoned planet occupied only by a single computer system " . Unlike in other Star Trek video games of the time , the player manipulated the crew at a high and general level . The player selected the crew 's course of action from a list of options during " decision point " scenes , after which the crew would carry out their orders automatically . Certain decisions continued the plot , while others led to dead ends or to a game over . Producer Alan Dickens said , " We want to make it a lot like you 're watching the TV and yelling at the characters . You 're giving them , as a team , guidance and direction on where they should go and how they should address the various problems that come before them . "
Between decision points , the player used and combined items , solved puzzles and engaged in combat . The game 's item system involved scanning objects with tricorders and storing them in a " virtual inventory " . This was an attempt to avoid hammerspace and the protagonists " stealing everything they find " , two issues that Dickens said were common in the adventure game genre . " Tech sim " puzzles in the style of The Incredible Machine — a video game series in which players create Rube Goldberg machines — were a main feature in Voyager : the player would receive collections of mechanical parts , which would have to be combined into complex mechanisms . Combat took place on the ground and in space , and like other scenes was controlled at a general level . The player could order the crew to provide suppressive fire , to maneuver or to beam out , for example , and would then watch the scene play out .
= = Development and aftermath = =
Voyager began development in 1995 , and it was announced in August of that year as the first game in a multi @-@ title deal between Viacom New Media and Looking Glass Technologies . According to Next Generation , the announcement was " greeted with joy " by gamers and fans of Star Trek . Viacom was interested in Looking Glass 's engine technology , and took a minority equity investment in the company . Voyager was conceptualized by Dickens and by Viacom producer Rachel Leventhal . It was initially planned for release in 1996 , but a later report gave it an expected release date of early 1997 . The team at Looking Glass visited and researched the set of Star Trek : Voyager in order to reproduce it accurately , and they created 3D laser scans of the cast 's heads . Voice over from the cast was also recorded . The game 's characters and pre @-@ rendered backgrounds were created with 3D Studio and Alias , and the characters were animated with the skeletal animation system that had been developed for Terra Nova : Strike Force Centauri . Designer Jonathan Chey worked on the game 's physics and artificial intelligence code , which he later said were " really weird " features for an adventure game and evidence of unfocused development .
Voyager was cancelled in the spring of 1997 , after 18 months in production . According to Looking Glass 's Paul Neurath , the cancellation was due to Viacom 's wider decision to abandon the video game industry . He believed that the Viacom deal and Voyager were ultimately a " giant distraction " and a " boondoggle " that hurt the company . These events started a financial downward spiral at Looking Glass , which , compounded by a string of troubled and commercially unsuccessful projects such as Terra Nova and British Open Championship Golf , culminated in the company 's closure in May 2000 . Three members of the Voyager team — Chey , writer Ken Levine and designer Rob Fermier — became close friends during the game 's development . The game 's cancellation inspired them to start the spin @-@ off developer Irrational Games in April 1997 , which went on to develop System Shock 2 in collaboration with Looking Glass . Levine later recalled that , while writing Voyager 's opening cutscene , he learned that technological limitations made it difficult for characters to express emotion ; and this experience influenced his future writing for games such as BioShock Infinite .
|
= 2010 Auto Club 500 =
The 2010 Auto Club 500 was a NASCAR Sprint Cup Series race held on February 21 , 2010 at Auto Club Speedway in Fontana , California . Contested over 250 laps , it was the second race of the 2010 Sprint Cup Series season . The race was won by Jimmie Johnson for Hendrick Motorsports . Kevin Harvick finished second and Jeff Burton clinched third .
Polesitter driver Jamie McMurray maintained his lead into the first corner , but outsider Juan Pablo Montoya took the lead before the first lap was over . Afterward , Johnson became the leader , and would eventually lead to the race high of 101 laps . During the final pit stops , Johnson was on pit lane as the caution flag came out . Burton , who led the race during Johnson 's pit stop , did not pass Johnson to put him a lap down . Therefore , Johnson retained the first position upon the completion of pit stops . On the final lap , Harvick was gaining on Johnson , but Johnson maintained his position to win his first race of the season .
There were six caution flags and 28 lead changes among 14 different drivers throughout the course of the race . The result moved Johnson up 23 spots to tenth in the Drivers ' Championship , 78 points behind of leader Kevin Harvick and one ahead of Kyle Busch . Chevrolet maintained its lead in the Manufacturers ' Championship , eight points ahead of Toyota and nine ahead of Ford , with 34 races remaining in the season .
= = Report = =
= = = Background = = =
Auto Club Speedway is one of six superspeedways to hold NASCAR races ; the others are Daytona International Speedway , Michigan International Speedway , Indianapolis Motor Speedway , Pocono Raceway and Talladega Superspeedway . The standard track at Auto Club Speedway is a four @-@ turn superspeedway that is 2 miles ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) long . The track 's turns are banked at fourteen degrees , while the front stretch , the location of the finish line , is banked at eleven degrees . The back stretch has 3 degrees of banking .
Before the race , Jamie McMurray led the Drivers ' Championship with 190 points , and Dale Earnhardt , Jr. stood in second with 175 points . Greg Biffle was third in the Drivers ' Championship with 170 points , Clint Bowyer was fourth with 165 points , and Kevin Harvick was in fifth with 156 points . In the Manufacturers ' Championship , Chevrolet was leading with nine points , three points ahead of their rival Ford . Toyota , with four points , was one point ahead of Dodge in the battle for third .
= = = Practices and qualifying = = =
Three practice sessions were held before the Sunday race — one on Friday , and two on Saturday . In the first practice session , the fastest drivers were Mark Martin , Ryan Newman , Juan Pablo Montoya , Jeff Burton , and Clint Bowyer . During the second practice session , Jimmie Johnson , Martin , Denny Hamlin , Carl Edwards , and Greg Biffle had the quickest times . Martin , Bowyer , Johnson , McMurray , and Jeff Gordon led the final practice session .
During qualifying , forty @-@ six cars were entered , but only forty @-@ three were able to race because of NASCAR 's qualifying procedure . Jamie McMurray clinched the pole position with a best lap time of 39 @.@ 185 seconds . He was joined on the front row of the grid by Montoya . Bowyer qualified third , Kasey Kahne took fourth , and Dave Blaney started fifth . Casey Mears , Johnny Sauter , and Terry Cook were the three drivers who failed to qualify .
= = = Race summary = = =
The race , the second out of a total of thirty @-@ six in the season , began at 3 p.m. EST and was televised live in the United States on Fox . Pre @-@ race ceremonies began with Motor Racing Outreach 's Jeff Hamilton giving the invocation ; then Katharine McPhee , season five American Idol runner @-@ up turned RCA Records recording artist , performed the national anthem . Actor Andy García gave the traditional command , " Gentlemen Start Your Engines ! " Before the race , Denny Hamlin moved to the back of the starting grid because his team changed engines after his qualifying run . At 3 : 19 p.m. EST , polesitter Jamie McMurray led the 43 @-@ car field to the green flag , but his lead was short @-@ lived . Juan Pablo Montoya passed him during the first lap to lead lap 1 . On lap 29 , Jimmie Johnson passed Montoya for the lead . Between laps 35 to 40 teams made green flag pit stops ( a pit stop while high speed racing continues ) . Dave Blaney stayed out to lead before parking his car on lap 44 , allowing Johnson to regain the lead .
On lap 57 , the first caution period of the race was called because of debris on the track 's surface . The restart on lap 61 was led by Johnson , but Kevin Harvick passed him for the lead before the lap was over . The second caution flag was waved on lap 92 because Kasey Kahne collided with Montoya . On lap 97 , Johnson brought the field to the green flag . Mark Martin passed Johnson on lap 98 , but was passed back after two laps . Drivers began heading for pit stops on lap 133 . Then , on lap 140 , the third caution came out because Montoya 's engine failed , causing him to collide with the turn one wall . On lap 145 , the green flag waved with Jeff Gordon as the leader .
The fourth caution , caused by the expired engine of Ryan Newman , came out on lap 147 . On the restart , Gordon led the field to the green flag . He did not restart fast enough and was passed by both Jeff Burton and Kyle Busch on lap 154 . On the next lap , Kyle Busch passed Burton for the lead . Ten laps after that , Burton returned the favor by passing Busch for the lead . During the following laps , several drivers made pit stops . The fifth caution flag was waved on lap 192 because light rain was moving through the area ; the leader at the time was Denny Hamlin .
During the restart on lap 199 , Burton brought the field to the green flag . No cautions were called until Brad Keselowski collided with the outside wall in turn four that brought out the sixth caution . The restart was on lap 229 with Jimmie Johnson as the leader . In the ensuing laps , Jimmie Johnson increased his lead over second @-@ placed Kevin Harvick , but with fewer than ten laps to go Harvick began gaining on Johnson . Two laps before the finish , Burton caught up to Harvick and Johnson . Johnson held off both Harvick and Burton to win his first race in 2010 .
= = = Post @-@ race = = =
Jimmie Johnson appeared in victory lane after his victory lap to start celebrating his first win of the season , his fifth at Auto Club Speedway , and his 48th overall in the NASCAR Sprint Cup Series . Following his win , he added , " No way around it , we got lucky . We were able to just beat the 31 car [ leader Jeff Burton ] to the scoring line by about half a car length or we would have been a lap down . "
Although Burton was leading near the end of the race , the caution was issued as Johnson was exiting pit lane . It gave Burton a chance to put Johnson a lap down , but Johnson entered the track ahead of Burton . In the subsequent press conference , Johnson said , " Fortunate came our way . I ’ m not going to lie . The fact that we were on pit row gave us track position , and I drove my butt off . " Johnson expressed his enjoyment of winning the race , stating :
" Today was a great race for NASCAR and a great race for this track . I know it got spread out some , but there [ was ] some really good racing from what I saw . Yes , today we got a huge gift . But I was running fourth or fifth at the time [ of the last caution ] , so it 's not like we totally backed into this thing . And I still had to hold Kevin off . "
Burton , who finished third , stated , " We weren 't slowing each other down . I ran the low line and Kevin ran the high line . But I got looser and Kevin got better at the end . The 29 by far had the best car . " Harvick , who finished second , said , " When he moved up I got tight and caught the wall a little bit . If he doesn 't move up , he gets passed pretty easily . He did what he 's supposed to do to take the line away . He did exactly what he had to do . " The race result left Harvick leading the Driver 's Championship with a total of 331 points . Clint Bowyer , who finished third , was second with 312 points , eight ahead of Greg Biffle and ten ahead of Jamie McMurray . Jeff Burton stood in fifth with 300 points . In the Manufacturers ' Championship , Chevrolet maintained their lead with 18 points . Toyota moved to second with 10 points . Ford followed with 9 points , two points ahead of Dodge in fourth .
= = Race results = =
= = = Qualifying = = =
= = = Race results = = =
= = Standings after the race = =
Note : Only the top five positions are included for both sets of standings .
|
= Navajo Nation Zoological and Botanical Park =
The Navajo Nation Zoological and Botanical Park is located in Window Rock , Arizona , the capital of the Navajo Nation . It is the only tribally owned zoological park in the United States and is notable among zoological facilities in that it labels its exhibits in a Native American Indian language . Having been operated by the Navajo Nation Parks & Recreation Department since its inception in the early 1960s , it became part of the Navajo Nation Department of Fish and Wildlife in September 2006 .
While its facilities have the unique mission of preserving and caring for the fauna and flora significant to Navajo culture , its existence has also sparked controversy among the more traditionalist elements in Navajo society .
= = History = =
The zoo 's first specimen was a bear that had been left behind after the 1963 Navajo Nation Fair by a state organization , and the animal was named " Yogi the Bear , " after the then @-@ popular cartoon character . Since then , the exhibit has grown to about 50 different species on display , almost all of them native to the area . In 1976 , the zoo , then named " Navajo Tribal Zoo , " relocated to its current home and became part of the Navajo Tribal Parks & Recreation system . In September 2006 , it was reorganized to be administered by the Navajo Nation Department of Fish and Wildlife .
= = Staff and budget = =
The facility 's current director and curator is Matthew Holdgate , a biologist from the University of New Hampshire with prior work experience as an animal research specialist at the University of Massachusetts Amherst and with the U.S. Forest Service in California .
The zoo currently employs five full @-@ time and one part @-@ time staff members and has an annual budget of US $ 336 @,@ 000 . It is primarily funded by the Navajo Nation Government , but also solicits for donations from project sponsorship , animal adoption , and donations ; admission is free .
= = Exhibits and mission = =
The zoo operates on an area spanning 7 acres ( 2 @.@ 8 ha ) and is located in the vicinity of the Navajo Nation Museum in Window Rock ( Tségháhoodzání ) . It is home to about 150 animals , representing over 50 species and sees an estimated 33 @,@ 000 visitors each year .
The zoo dubs itself " A Sanctuary for Nature and the Spirit " , and according to its mission statement , it aims to conserve " native plants and animals , including rare , sensitive and endangered species " with an emphasis on fauna and flora that is important and significant to Navajo culture and traditions . In this spirit , it houses primarily animals native to Navajoland and implements cultural and educational programs in cooperation with schools and similar facilities in the area ; furthermore , it provides care for injured and orphaned animals found in the wild . The zoo also fosters the use of plants and animals for ceremonial purposes in accordance with Navajo tradition , and regularly accepts appointments for offerings being made and ceremonies held within its facilities .
Its wild creatures include black bear , bobcat , Mexican wolves , elk , Gila monsters , coyotes , rattlesnakes , cougars , skunks , and red foxes , as well as cranes , golden eagle , red @-@ tailed hawk , and great horned owls . In keeping with Navajo tradition , none of the zoo 's birds were captured for the purpose of being exhibited , but were rather rescued after sustaining injuries from vehicles or electrical lines and are thus unable to fly ; the majority of the other specimens are also non @-@ releasable and unable to survive in the wild due to being orphaned or having been confiscated as illegal pets from their former owners .
Starting in 2008 , the zoo 's then 30 @-@ year @-@ old Discovery Center was renovated and redesigned to bring it in line with modern zoo standards ; apart from displaying the majority of the park 's invertebrates , it also incorporates a display with traditional Navajo stories relating to the animals .
= = = Adopt an Animal @-@ Program = = =
Any animal in the zoo can be " adopted " for a price of US $ 100 annually to cover the cost of food and care ; the adopting party will receive a certificate and has his or her name engraved on the plaque next to the exhibit in question . If the animal has never been adopted before , the sponsor will have the opportunity of giving the animal a name ; in this process , various animals have been given names such as " Napoleon " for the park 's mountain lion and " Señor Atsá " for the golden eagle .
= = = Eagle sanctuary = = =
Since 2008 , the zoo has been lobbying for a permit to build an eagle sanctuary in order to be able to distribute the animals ' feathers to tribal members for ceremonial purposes in accordance with federal law . Since the species are listed as endangered , any remains of dead animals are confiscated by the federal government and transported to a central repository in Colorado ; members of Native American Indian nations then have to apply individually to receive parts , such as feathers , in a lengthy process with wait @-@ times that can exceed several years . Since a tribally operated eagle sanctuary constitutes an exception to the process , it would be instrumental in strengthening Navajo cultural sovereignty ; currently , only the Iowa and Zuni nations operate eagle sanctuaries for this purpose .
= = Controversies = =
In January 1999 , outgoing Navajo Nation president Milton Bluehouse ordered the zoo closed after two women from Rock Ridge claimed to have been visited by the Diyin Dineʼé , traditional Navajo deities , who had given them a warning , saying that the Navajo people were not living according to tradition by keeping caged animals , specifically bears , snakes , and eagles , which are considered sacred .
Subsequently , during his first days in office , Bluehouse 's successor , Kelsey A. Begaye , received more complaints and letters protesting the zoo 's closure than concerning any other political issue . After temporarily reversing Bluehouse 's decision , Begaye then summoned a meeting with the Navajo Nation 's Hataałii Advisory Council to discuss the situation ; the group , however , refused to consider the matter while the animals were in hibernation and postponed any advice or decision until April of the following year . Options under consideration were releasing the animals into the wild , not accepting new animals and closing the zoo after the last one had died , or renaming the zoo to a term that would be considered more respectful to the animals .
Opponents to the shut @-@ down maintained that most of the animals were unable to survive in the wild and would perish , and that the zoo 's facilities had become one of the last possibilities for future generations of Navajos to see the sacred creatures and thereby relate to traditional stories , due to the fact that most younger Navajos are more accustomed to dealing with domesticated livestock rather than untamed animals .
On March 12 , Begaye announced his decision to keep the zoo open without expanding it and letting the remaining animals live out their lives on the zoo @-@ grounds . According to Harry Walters , an anthropologist and former chairman of the Center for Diné Studies at Diné College in Tsaile ( Tséhílį ́ ) , the incident demonstrates a crucial difference between Navajo and Western culture in the way visions and supernatural experiences are handled : " Rather than focus on the sightings to determine if who saw it was nuts or not – that 's what a Westerner would do – we look at it as a message : ' Are we going the way we should ? ' " Walters said .
|
= Peak District =
The Peak District is an upland area in England at the southernmost end of the Pennines . It falls mostly in northern Derbyshire but also includes parts of Cheshire , Greater Manchester , Staffordshire and Yorkshire .
An area of great diversity , it is split into the northern Dark Peak , where most of the moorland is found and whose geology is gritstone , and the southern White Peak , where most of the population lives and whose geology is mainly limestone .
The Peak District National Park became the first national park in the United Kingdom in 1951 . With its proximity to the cities of Manchester and Sheffield and easy access by road and rail , it attracts millions of visitors every year .
= = Geography = =
The Peak District forms the southern end of the Pennines and much of the area is uplands above 1 @,@ 000 feet ( 300 m ) , with a high point on Kinder Scout of 2 @,@ 087 feet ( 636 m ) . Despite its name , the landscape generally lacks sharp peaks , being characterised by rounded hills and gritstone escarpments ( the " edges " ) . The area is surrounded by major conurbations , including Huddersfield , Manchester , Sheffield , Derby and Stoke @-@ on @-@ Trent .
The National Park covers 555 square miles ( 1 @,@ 440 km2 ) of Derbyshire , Staffordshire , Cheshire , Greater Manchester and South and West Yorkshire , including the majority of the area commonly referred to as the Peak . Its northern limits lie along the A62 road between Marsden and Meltham , north east of Oldham , while its southernmost point is on the A52 road on the outskirts of Ashbourne in Derbyshire . The Park boundaries were drawn to exclude large built @-@ up areas and industrial sites from the park ; in particular , the town of Buxton and the adjacent quarries are located at the end of the Peak Dale corridor , surrounded on three sides by the Park .
The town of Bakewell and numerous villages are included within the boundaries , as is much of the ( non @-@ industrial ) west of Sheffield . As of 2010 , it is the fifth largest National Park in England and Wales . In the UK , the designation " National Park " means that there are planning restrictions to protect the area from inappropriate development and a Park Authority to look after it , but does not imply that the land is owned by the government , or that it is uninhabited .
12 % of the Peak District National Park is owned by the National Trust , a charity which aims to conserve historic and natural landscapes . It does not receive government funding . The three Trust estates ( High Peak , South Peak and Longshaw ) include the ecologically or geologically significant areas of Bleaklow , Derwent Edge , Hope Woodlands , Kinder Scout , Leek and Manifold , Mam Tor , Dovedale , Milldale and Winnats Pass . The Peak District National Park Authority directly owns around 5 % , and other major landowners include several water companies .
= = Geology = =
The Peak District is formed almost exclusively from sedimentary rocks dating from the Carboniferous period . They comprise the Carboniferous Limestone , the overlying Gritstone and finally the Coal Measures , though the latter occur only on the extreme margins of the area . In addition there are infrequent outcrops of igneous rocks including lavas , tuffs and volcanic vent agglomerates .
The general geological structure of the Peak District is that of a broad dome ( see image below ) , whose western margins have been most intensely faulted and folded . Uplift and erosion have effectively sliced the top off the dome to reveal a concentric outcrop pattern with Coal Measures rocks on the eastern and western margins , Carboniferous Limestone at the core and with rocks of Millstone Grit outcropping between these two . The southern edge of the dome is overlain by sandstones of Triassic age though these barely impinge upon the National Park .
The central and southern section of the Peak District , where the Carboniferous Limestone is found at or near the surface , is known as the White Peak in contrast to the Dark Peak , which is characterised by Millstone Grit outcrops and broad swathes of moorland .
Earth movements after the Carboniferous period resulted in the up @-@ doming of the area and , particularly in the west , the folding of the rock strata along north – south axes . The region was raised in a north – south line which resulted in this dome @-@ like shape and the shale and sandstone were worn away until limestone was exposed . At the end of this period , the Earth 's crust sank here which led to the area being covered by sea , depositing a variety of new rocks .
Some time after its deposition , mineral veins were formed in the limestone . These veins and rakes have been mined for lead since Roman times .
The Peak District was covered by ice during at least one of the ice ages of the last 2 million years ( probably the Anglian glaciation of around 450 @,@ 000 years ago ) as evidenced by the patches of glacial till or boulder clay that can be found across the area . It was not covered by ice during the last glacial period , which peaked around 20 @,@ 000 – 22 @,@ 000 years ago . A mix of Irish Sea and Lake District ice abutted against its western margins . Glacial meltwaters eroded a complex of sinuous channels along this margin of the Peak District during this period .
Glacial meltwaters also contributed to the formation and development of many of the caves in the limestone area . Wild animal herds roamed the area , and their remains have been found in several of the local caves .
The different types of rock that lie beneath the soil strongly influence the landscape ; they determine the type of vegetation that will grow , and ultimately the type of animal that will inhabit the area . Limestone has fissures and is soluble in water , therefore rivers have been able to carve deep , narrow valleys . These rivers then often find a route underground , creating cave systems . Millstone Grit on the other hand is insoluble but porous , so it absorbs water which often seeps through the grits , until it meets the less porous shales beneath , creating springs when it reaches the surface again . The shales are friable and easily attacked by frost , so they form areas that are vulnerable to landslides , as on Mam Tor .
= = Rivers = =
The high moorland plateau of the Dark Peak and the high ridges of the White Peak are the sources of many rivers . In a report for the Manchester Corporation , the engineer John Frederick Bateman wrote in 1846 :
Within ten or twelve miles of Manchester , and six or seven miles from the existing reservoirs at Gorton , there is this tract of mountain land abounding with springs of the purest quality . Its physical and geological features offer such peculiar features for the collection , storage and supply of water for the use of the towns in the plains below that I am surprised that they have been overlooked .
He was referring to Longdendale , and the upper valley of the River Etherow . The western side of the Peak District is drained by the rivers Etherow , Goyt , and Tame , which are tributaries of the River Mersey . The north east is drained by tributaries of the River Don , itself a tributary of the Yorkshire Ouse . Of the tributaries of the River Trent , that drain the south and east , the River Derwent is the most prominent . It rises in the Peak District on Bleaklow just east of Glossop and flows through the Upper Derwent Valley with its three reservoirs , the Howden Reservoir , Derwent Reservoir and Ladybower Reservoir . The River Noe and the River Wye are tributaries . The River Manifold and River Dove , rivers of the south west whose sources are on Axe Edge Moor , also flow into the Trent , while the River Dane flows into the River Weaver .
= = Ecology = =
The gritstone and shale of the Dark Peak supports heather moorland and blanket bog environments , with rough sheep pasture and grouse shooting being the main land uses . The limestone plateaux of the White Peak are more intensively farmed , with mainly dairy usage of improved pastures . Some sources also recognise the South West Peak ( near Macclesfield ) as a third type of area , with intermediate characteristics .
Woodland forms around 8 % of the Peak National Park . Natural broad @-@ leaved woodland is found in the steep @-@ sided , narrow dales of the White Peak and the deep cloughs of the Dark Peak , while reservoir margins often have coniferous plantations .
Lead rakes , the spoil heaps of ancient mines , form another distinctive habitat in the White Peak , supporting a range of rare metallophyte plants , including Spring Sandwort ( Minuartia verna ; also known as leadwort ) , Alpine Pennycress ( Thlaspi caerulescens ) and Mountain Pansy ( Viola lutea ) .
= = Climate = =
With the majority of the area being in excess of 1 @,@ 000 feet ( 300 m ) above sea level , and being situated to the west of the country with a latitude of 53 degrees , the Peak District experiences a relatively high amount of rainfall each year compared to the rest of England and Wales , averaging 40 @.@ 35 inches ( 1 @,@ 025 mm ) in 1999 . The Dark Peak tends to receive more rainfall each year in comparison to the White Peak as it is higher in altitude . This higher rainfall does not seem to affect the area 's temperature , as it averages the same as England and Wales at 10 @.@ 3 ° C ( 50 @.@ 5 ° F ) .
During the 1970s , the Dark Peak regularly recorded over 70 days of snowfall each year . Since then this number has decreased markedly . Frost cover is seen for 20 – 30 % of the winter on the moors of the Dark Peak and for 10 % on the White Peak , and the hills of the National Park still see periods of long continuous snow cover in some winters . For example , a snowfall in mid @-@ December 2009 on the summits of some of the hills created snow patches that lasted in some cases until May 2010 . In that same winter , some of the area 's passes , such as the A635 ( Saddleworth Moor ) and A57 ( Snake Pass ) , were closed because of lying snow for almost a month .
The Moorland Indicators of Climate Change Initiative was set up in 2008 to collect data on climate change in the area . Students investigated the interaction between people and the moorlands , and their overall effect on climate change , to discover whether the moorlands are a net carbon sink or source , based on the fact that upland areas of Britain are a significant global carbon store in the form of peat . Human interaction in terms of direct erosion and fire as well as the effects of global warming are the major variables that they considered .
= = Economy = =
Tourism is the major local employment for Park residents ( 24 % ) , with manufacturing industries ( 19 % ) and quarrying ( 12 % ) also being important . 12 % are employed in agriculture . The cement works at Hope is the largest single employer within the Park . Tourism is estimated to provide 500 full @-@ time jobs , 350 part @-@ time jobs and 100 seasonal jobs .
Limestone is the most important mineral quarried , mainly for roads and cement ; shale is extracted for cement at Hope , and several gritstone quarries are worked for housing . Lead mining is no longer economic , but fluorite , baryte and calcite are extracted from lead veins , and small @-@ scale Blue John mining occurs at Castleton .
The springs at Buxton and Ashbourne are exploited to produce bottled mineral water , and many of the plantations are managed for timber . Other manufacturing industries of the area are varied ; they include David Mellor 's cutlery factory in Hathersage , Ferodo brake linings in Chapel @-@ en @-@ le @-@ Frith and electronic equipment in Castleton . There are approximately 2 @,@ 700 farms in the National Park , most of them under 40 hectares ( 99 acres ) in area . 60 % of farms are believed to be run on a part @-@ time basis where the farmer has a second job .
= = History = =
= = = Early history = = =
The Peak District has been inhabited from the earliest periods of human activity , as is evidenced by occasional finds of Mesolithic flint artefacts and by palaeoenvironmental evidence from caves in Dovedale and elsewhere . There is also evidence of Neolithic activity , including some monumental earthworks or barrows ( burial mounds ) such as that at Margery Hill . In the Bronze Age the area was well populated and farmed , and evidence of these people survives in henges such as Arbor Low near Youlgreave , or the Nine Ladies Stone Circle at Stanton Moor .
In the same period , and on into the Iron Age , a number of significant hillforts such as that at Mam Tor were created . Roman occupation was sparse but the Romans certainly exploited the rich mineral veins of the area , exporting lead from the Buxton area along well @-@ used routes . There were Roman settlements , including one at Buxton which was known to them as " Aquae Arnemetiae " in recognition of its spring , dedicated to the local goddess .
Theories as to the derivation of the Peak District name include the idea that it came from the Pecsaetan or peaklanders , an Anglo @-@ Saxon tribe who inhabited the central and northern parts of the area from the 6th century AD when it fell within the large Anglian kingdom of Mercia .
= = = Mining and quarrying = = =
In medieval and early modern times the land was mainly agricultural , as it still is today , with sheep farming , rather than arable , the main activity in these upland holdings . However , from the 16th century onwards the mineral and geological wealth of the Peak became increasingly significant . Not only lead , but also coal , fluorite , copper ( at Ecton ) , zinc , iron , manganese and silver have all been mined here . Celia Fiennes , describing her journey through the Peak in 1697 , wrote of
... those craggy hills whose bowells are full of mines of all kinds off black and white and veined marbles , and some have mines of copper , others tinn and leaden mines , in w [ hi ] ch is a great deale of silver .
Coal measures occur on the western and the eastern fringes of the Peak District , and evidence of past workings can be found from Glossop down to The Roaches , and from Stocksbridge to Baslow . Mining started in medieval times and was at its most productive in the 18th and early 19th centuries , in some cases continuing into the early 20th century . The earliest mining took place at and close to outcrops and miners eventually followed the seams deeper underground as the beds dipped beneath hillsides . At Goyt 's Moss and Axe Edge , deep seams were worked and steam engines raised the coal and dewatered the mines . Coal from the eastern mines was used in lead smelting , and coal from the western mines for lime burning .
Lead mining peaked in the 17th and 18th centuries ; high concentrations of lead have been found in the area dating back from this period , as well as discovering peat on Kinder Scout suggesting that lead smelting occurred . Lead mining began to decline from the mid @-@ 19th century , with the last major mine closing in 1939 , though lead remains a by @-@ product of fluorite , baryte and calcite mining . Not all mines were deep underground ; Bell pits were a cheap and easy way at getting at an ore that lay close to the surface of flat land . A shaft was sunk into the ore and enlarged at the bottom for extraction . The pit was then enlarged further until it became unsafe or worked out , then another pit would be sunk adjacent to the existing one .
Fluorite or fluorspar is called Blue John in the Peak District , the name allegedly coming from the French Bleu et Jaune which describes the colour of the bandings . Blue John is now scarce , and only a few hundred kilograms are mined each year for ornamental and lapidary use . The Blue John Cavern in Castleton is a show cave ; mining still takes place in the nearby Treak Cliff Cavern .
Industrial limestone quarrying for the manufacture of soda ash started in the Buxton area as early as 1874 . In 1926 this operation became part of ICI . Large @-@ scale limestone and gritstone quarries flourished as lead mining declined , and remain an important if contentious industry in the Peak . Twelve large limestone quarries operate in the Peak ; Tunstead near Buxton is one of the largest quarries in Europe . Total limestone output was substantial : at the 1990 peak , 8 @.@ 5 million tonnes was quarried .
= = = Introduction of textiles = = =
Textiles have been exported from the Peak for hundreds of years . Even as early as the 14th century , the area traded in unprocessed wool . There was a number of skilled hand spinners and weavers in the area . By the 1780s , inventors such as Richard Arkwright developed machinery to produce textiles more quickly and to a higher standard . The early mills were narrow and low in height , of light construction , powered by water wheels and containing small machines . Interior lighting was by daylight , and ceiling height was only 6 – 8 ft . These Arkwright type mills are about 9 feet ( 2 @.@ 7 m ) wide . The Peak District was the ideal location , with its rivers and humid atmosphere . The local pool of labour was quickly exhausted and the new mills such as Litton Mill and Cressbrook Mill in Millers Dale brought in children as young as four from the workhouses of London as apprentices .
With the advance of technology , the narrow Derbyshire valleys became unsuited to the larger steam driven mill , but the Derbyshire mills remained , and continued to trade in finishing and niche products . The market town of Glossop benefitted from the textile industry . The town 's economy was linked closely with a spinning and weaving tradition which had evolved from developments in textile manufacture during the Industrial Revolution . Until the First World War , Glossop had the headquarters of the largest textile printworks in the world . In the 1920s , the firm was refloated on the easily available share capital ; thus it was victim of the Stock Market Crash of 1929 . Their product lines becoming vulnerable to the new economic conditions , and resulted in the industry 's decline .
= = = Waterways = = =
The streams of the Peak District have been dammed to provide headwater for numerous water driven mills ; weirs have been built across the rivers for the same purpose .
There are no canals within the National Park boundary ( though the Standedge Tunnels on the Huddersfield Narrow Canal run underneath the extreme north of the park ) . Waters from the Dark Peak fed the Ashton Canal , and Huddersfield Narrow Canal , and waters from the White Peak fed the Macclesfield Canal . Outside the National Park , but within the general area , the Peak Forest Canal was built to bring lime from the quarries at Dove Holes for the construction industry .
The canal terminated at Bugsworth and the journey was completed using the Peak Forest Tramway . Southeast of the National Park , the disused Cromford Canal ran from Cromford to the Erewash Canal and formerly served the lead mines at Wirksworth and cotton mills of Sir Richard Arkwright .
The large reservoirs along the Longdendale valley known as the Longdendale Chain were designed in the 1840s and completed in February 1877 . They provided compensation water to ensure a continuous flow along the River Etherow which was essential for local industry , and provided pure water for Manchester . The Upper Derwent Valley reservoirs were built from the mid 20th century onward to supply drinking water to the East Midlands and South Yorkshire .
= = = Development of tourism = = =
The area has been a tourist destination for centuries , with an early tourist description of the area , De Mirabilibus Pecci or The Seven Wonders of the Peak by Thomas Hobbes , being published in 1636 . Much scorn was poured on these seven wonders by subsequent visitors , including the journalist Daniel Defoe who described the moors by Chatsworth as " a waste and houling wilderness " and was particularly contemptuous of the cavern near Castleton known as the ' Devil 's Arse ' or Peak Cavern . Visitor numbers did not increase significantly until the Victorian era , with railway construction providing ease of access and a growing cultural appreciation of the Picturesque and Romantic . Guides such as John Mawe 's Mineralogy of Derbyshire ( 1802 ) and William Adam 's Gem of the Peak ( 1843 ) generated interest in the area 's unique geology .
Buxton has a long history as a spa town due to its geothermal spring which rises at a constant temperature of 28 ° C. It was initially developed by the Romans around AD 78 , when the settlement was known as Aquae Arnemetiae , or the spa of the goddess of the grove . It is known that Bess of Hardwick and her husband the Earl of Shrewsbury , " took the waters " at Buxton in 1569 , and brought Mary , Queen of Scots , there in 1573 . The town largely grew in importance in the late 18th century when it was developed by the 5th Duke of Devonshire in style of the spa of Bath .
A second resurgence a century later attracted the eminent Victorians such as Dr. Erasmus Darwin and Josiah Wedgwood , who were drawn by the reputed healing properties of the waters . The railway reached Buxton in 1863 . Buxton has many notable buildings such as ' The Crescent ' ( 1780 – 1784 ) , modelled on Bath 's Royal Crescent , by John Carr , ' The Devonshire ' ( 1780 – 1789 ) , ' The Natural Baths ' , and ' The Pump Room ' by Henry Currey . The Pavilion Gardens were opened in 1871 . Buxton Opera House was designed by Frank Matcham in 1903 and is the highest opera house in the country . Matcham was the theatrical architect who designed the London Palladium , the London Coliseum , and the Hackney Empire .
There is a great tradition of public access and outdoor recreation in the area . The Peak District formed a natural hinterland and rural escape for the populations of industrial Manchester and Sheffield , and remains a valuable leisure resource in a largely post @-@ industrial economy .
In a 2005 survey of visitors to the Peak District , 85 % of respondents mentioned " scenery and landscape " as a reason for visiting .
= = = Modern history = = =
The Kinder Trespass in 1932 was a landmark in the campaign for national parks and open access to moorland in Britain . At the time , such open moors were closed to all ; they were strongly identified with the game @-@ keeping interests of landed gentry who used them only 12 days a year . The Peak District National Park became the United Kingdom 's first national park on 17 April 1951 . The first long @-@ distance footpath in the United Kingdom was the Pennine Way , which opened in 1965 and starts at the Nags Head Inn , in Grindsbook Booth , part of Edale village .
The northern moors of Saddleworth and Wessenden , above Meltham , gained notoriety in the 1960s as the burial site of several children murdered by Ian Brady and Myra Hindley .
= = Transport = =
= = = History = = =
The first roads in the Peak were constructed by the Romans , although they may have followed existing tracks . The Roman network is thought to have linked the settlements and forts of Aquae Arnemetiae ( Buxton ) , Chesterfield , Ardotalia ( Glossop ) and Navio ( Brough and Shatton ) , and extended outwards to Danum ( Doncaster ) , Mamucium ( Manchester ) and Derventio ( Little Chester , near Derby ) . Parts of the modern A515 and A53 roads south of Buxton are believed to run along Roman roads .
Packhorse routes criss @-@ crossed the Peak in the Medieval era , and some paved causeways are believed to date from this period , such as the Long Causeway along Stanage Edge . However , no highways were marked on Christopher Saxton 's map of Derbyshire , published in 1579 . Bridge @-@ building improved the transport network . A surviving early example is the three @-@ arched gritstone bridge over the River Derwent at Baslow , which dates from 1608 and has an adjacent toll @-@ shelter .
Although the introduction of turnpike roads ( toll roads ) from 1731 reduced journey times , the journey from Sheffield to Manchester in 1800 still took 16 hours , prompting Samuel Taylor Coleridge to remark that " a tortoise could outgallop us ! " From around 1815 onwards , turnpike roads both increased in length and improved in quality . An example is the Snake Pass , which now forms part of the A57 , built under the direction of Thomas Telford in 1819 – 21 ; the name refers to the crest of the Duke of Devonshire . The Cromford Canal opened in 1794 , carrying coal , lead and iron ore to the Erewash Canal .
Within several years , the improved roads and the Cromford Canal both saw competition from new railways , with work on the first railway in the Peak commencing in 1825 . Although the Cromford and High Peak Railway ( from the Cromford Canal at High Peak Junction to Whaley Bridge ) was an industrial railway , passenger services soon followed , including the Woodhead Line ( Sheffield to Manchester via Longdendale ) and the Manchester , Buxton , Matlock and Midlands Junction Railway . Not everyone regarded the railways as an improvement :
You enterprised a railroad through the valley , you blasted its rocks away , heaped thousands of tons of shale into its lovely stream . The valley is gone , and the gods with it ; and now , every fool in Buxton can be at Bakewell in half @-@ an @-@ hour , and every fool in Bakewell at Buxton .
By the second half of the 20th century , the pendulum had swung back towards road transport . The Cromford Canal was largely abandoned in 1944 , and several of the rail lines passing through the Peak were closed as uneconomic in the 1960s as part of the Beeching Axe . The Woodhead Line was closed between Hadfield and Penistone . Parts of the trackbed are now used for the Trans Pennine Trail , the stretch between Hadfield and Woodhead being known specifically as the Longdendale Trail .
The Manchester , Buxton , Matlock and Midlands Junction Railway is now closed between Rowsley and Buxton where the trackbed forms part of the Monsal Trail . The Cromford and High Peak Railway is now completely shut , with part of the trackbed open to the public as the High Peak Trail . Another disused rail line between Buxton and Ashbourne now forms the Tissington Trail .
= = = Road network = = =
The main roads through the Peak District are the A57 ( Snake Pass ) between Sheffield and Manchester , the A628 ( Woodhead Pass ) between Barnsley and Manchester via Longdendale , the A6 from Derby to Manchester via Buxton , the Cat and Fiddle road from Macclesfield to Buxton , and in the extreme north of the Park the A635 ( Saddleworth Moor ) running from Manchester to Barnsley and the A62 from Manchester to Leeds , which forms the northernmost border of the National Park at Standedge . These major roads , together with other minor roads and lanes in the area , are attractive to drivers , but the Peak 's popularity makes road congestion and the availability of parking spaces a significant problem , especially during summer . This led to the proposal of a congestion charge in 2005 , but this was later rejected .
= = = Public transport = = =
The Peak District is readily accessible by public transport , which reaches even central areas . Train services into the area are along the Hope Valley Line from Sheffield and Manchester , the Derwent Valley Line from Derby to Matlock , the Huddersfield Line from Manchester to Huddersfield , the Buxton Line and Glossop Line , linking those towns to Manchester . Coach ( long @-@ distance bus ) services provide access to Matlock , Bakewell and Buxton from Derby , Nottingham and Manchester through TransPeak and National Express , and there are regular buses from the nearby towns of Sheffield , Glossop , Stoke , Leek and Chesterfield . The nearest airport is Manchester .
For such a rural area , the smaller villages of the Peak are relatively well served by internal transport links . There are many minibuses operating from the main towns ( Bakewell , Matlock , Hathersage , Castleton , Tideswell and Ashbourne ) out to the small villages . The Hope Valley and Buxton Line trains also serve many local stations ( including Hathersage , Hope and Edale ) .
The National Park Authority announced , in October 2009 , that Cycle England will be investing £ 1 @.@ 25 million , to be spent by 2011 , to build and improve cycle routes within the National Park for use by leisure and commuting cyclists . It is hoped that this investment will help reduce traffic congestion and environmental pollution , as well as giving commuters and visitors a viable alternative to travelling around the National Park by car .
= = Activities = =
The Peak District provides opportunities for many types of outdoor activity . An extensive network of public footpaths and numerous long @-@ distance trails , over 1 @,@ 800 miles ( 2 @,@ 900 km ) in total , as well as large open @-@ access areas , are available for hillwalking and hiking . The Pennine Way traverses the Dark Peak from Edale to the Park 's northern boundary just south of Standedge . Bridleways are commonly used by mountain bikers , as well as horse riders . Some of the long @-@ distance trails in the White Peak , such as the Tissington Trail and High Peak Trail , re @-@ use former railway lines ; they are well used by walkers , horse riders and cyclists .
The local authorities run cycle hire centres at Ashbourne , Parsley Hay , Middleton Top and the Upper Derwent Valley . Wheelchair access is possible at several places on the former railway trails , and cycle hire centres offer vehicles adapted to wheelchair users . There is a programme to make footpaths more accessible to less @-@ agile walkers by replacing climbing stiles with walkers ' gates .
The many gritstone outcrops , such as Stanage Edge and The Roaches , are recognised as some of the finest rock climbing sites in the world ( see rock climbing in the Peak District ) ; they were the first to be climbed . The Peak District 's limestone was then ' discovered ' by climbers . It is more unstable but provides many testing climbs . For example , Thor 's Cave was explored in the early 1950s by Joe Brown and others . Eleven limestone routes there are listed by the BMC , ranging in grade from Very Severe to E7 , and several more have been claimed since the guidebook 's publication ; a few routes are bolted .
Beneath the ground , the potholer enjoys natural caves , the potholes and old mine workings found in the limestone of the Peak . Peak Cavern is the largest and most important cave system which is even linked to the Speedwell system at Winnats . The only significant potholes are Eldon Hole and Nettle Pot . There are many old mine workings , which often were extensions of natural cave systems . Systems can be found at Castleton , Winnats , Matlock , Stoney Middleton , Eyam , Monyash and Buxton .
Some of the area 's large reservoirs , for example Carsington Water , have become centres for water sports , including sailing , fishing and canoeing , in this most landlocked part of the UK . Other activities include air sports such as hang gliding and paragliding , birdwatching , fell running , off @-@ roading , and orienteering .
= = Visitor attractions = =
= = = Towns and villages = = =
Buxton , Matlock and Matlock Bath , Bakewell , Leek and the small towns of Ashbourne and Wirksworth , on the fringes of the Park , all offer a range of tourist amenities . To the north the village of Hayfield sits at the foot of Kinder Scout , the highest summit in the area .
Bakewell is the largest settlement within the National Park ; its five @-@ arched bridge over the River Wye dates from the 13th century .
The spa town of Buxton was developed by the Dukes of Devonshire as a genteel health resort in the 18th century . Although just outside the national park boundary , it is a popular attraction in the area . It has an opera house with a theatre , museum and art gallery . Another spa town is Matlock Bath , popularised in the Victorian era .
The picturesque village of Castleton , overshadowed by Peveril Castle , has four show caves , the Peak , Blue John , Treak Cliff , and Speedwell , and is the centre of production of the unique semi @-@ precious mineral , Blue John . Other show caves and mines include the Heights of Abraham , reached by cable car , at Matlock Bath , and Poole 's Cavern in Buxton . The small village of Eyam is known for its self @-@ imposed quarantine during the Black Death of 1665 .
= = = Historic buildings = = =
Historic buildings include Chatsworth House , seat of the Dukes of Devonshire and among Britain 's finest stately homes ; the medieval Haddon Hall , seat of the Dukes of Rutland ; Hardwick Hall , built by powerful Elizabethan Bess of Hardwick ; and Lyme Park , an Elizabethan manor house transformed by an Italianate front .
Many of the Peak 's villages and towns have fine parish churches , with a particularly magnificent example being the 14th century Church of St John the Baptist at Tideswell , sometimes dubbed the ' Cathedral of the Peak ' . ' Little John 's Grave ' can be seen in the Hathersage churchyard . Historic castles include Bolsover Castle and Peveril Castle , both associated with the Normans .
= = = Museums and attractions = = =
The Mining Museum at Matlock Bath , which includes tours of the Temple Lead Mine , and the Derwent Valley Mills World Heritage Site and Brindley Water Mill at Leek give insight into the Peak 's industrial heritage . The preserved steam railway between Matlock and Rowsley , the National Tramway Museum at Crich and the Cromford Canal chart the area 's transport history . The Life in a Lens Museum of Photography & Old Times in Matlock Bath presents the history of photography from 1839 . Other attractions on the fringes of the national park include the theme parks of Alton Towers and Gulliver 's Kingdom , and the Peak Wildlife Park .
= = = Local customs and events = = =
Well dressing ceremonies are held in most of the villages during the spring and summer months , in a tradition said to date from pagan times . Other local customs include Castleton 's annual Garland Festival and Ashbourne 's Royal Shrovetide Football , played annually since the 12th century . Buxton hosts two opera festivals , the Buxton Festival and the International Gilbert and Sullivan Festival , as well as the Buxton Festival Fringe , and the Peak Literary Festival is held at various locations twice a year .
= = = Local cuisine = = =
Peak District food specialities include the dessert Bakewell pudding , very different from the nationally available Bakewell tart , and until 2009 the famous cheese Stilton and other local cheeses were produced in the village of Hartington .
= = Conservation issues = =
The proximity of the Peak to major conurbations ( an estimated 20 million people live within an hour 's drive ) poses unique challenges to managing the area . The Peak District National Park Authority and the National Trust , with other landowners , attempt to balance keeping the upland landscape accessible to visitors for recreation , whilst protecting it from intensive farming , erosion and pressure from visitors themselves . An inevitable tension exists between the needs of the 38 @,@ 000 residents of the Peak District National Park , the many millions of people who visit it annually , and the conservation requirements of the area .
The uneven distribution of visitors creates further stresses . Dovedale alone receives an estimated two million visitors annually ; other highly visited areas include Bakewell , Castleton and the Hope Valley , Chatsworth , Hartington and the reservoirs of the Upper Derwent Valley . Over 60 % of visits are concentrated in the period May – September , with Sunday being the busiest day .
= = = Footpath erosion = = =
The number of footpath users on the more popular walking areas in the Peak District has contributed to serious erosion problems , particularly on the fragile peat moorlands of the Dark Peak . The recent use of some paths by mountain bikers is believed by some to have exacerbated an existing problem . Measures taken to contain the damage have included the permanent diversion of the official route of the Pennine Way out of Edale , which now goes up Jacob 's Ladder rather than following the Grindsbrook , and the surfacing of many moorland footpaths with expensive natural stone paving .
= = = Quarrying = = =
Large @-@ scale limestone quarrying has been a particular area of contention . Most of the mineral extraction licences were issued by national government for 90 years in the 1950s , and remain legally binding . The Peak District National Park Authority has a policy of considering all new quarrying and licence renewal applications within the area of the National Park in terms of the local and national need for the mineral and the uniqueness of the source , in conjunction with the effects on traffic , local residents and the environment .
Some licences have not been renewed ; for example , the RMC Aggregates quarry at Eldon Hill was forced to close in 1999 , and landscaping is ongoing . The proposals dating from 1999 from Stancliffe Stone Ltd to re @-@ open dormant gritstone quarries at Stanton Moor have been seen as a test case . They are hotly contested by ecological protesters and local residents on grounds that the development would threaten nearby Bronze Age remains , in particular the Nine Ladies Stone Circle , as well as the natural landscape locally . As of 2007 , negotiations are ongoing to shift the development to the nearby Dale View quarry , a less sensitive area .
= = Peak District in literature and arts = =
The landscapes of the Peak have formed an inspiration to writers for centuries . Various places in the Peak District have been identified by Ralph Elliott and others as locations in the 14th @-@ century poem Sir Gawain and the Green Knight ; Lud 's Church for example , is thought to be the Green Chapel .
Key scenes in Jane Austen 's 1813 novel Pride and Prejudice are set in the Derbyshire Peak District . Peveril of the Peak ( 1823 ) by Sir Walter Scott is a historical novel set at Peveril Castle , Castleton during the reign of Charles II . William Wordsworth was a frequent visitor to Matlock ; the Peak inspired several of his poems , including an 1830 sonnet to Chatsworth House . The village of Morton in Charlotte Brontë 's 1847 novel Jane Eyre is based on Hathersage , where Brontë stayed in 1845 , and Thornfield Hall might have been inspired by nearby North Lees Hall . Snowfield in George Eliot 's first novel Adam Bede ( 1859 ) is believed to be based on Wirksworth , where her uncle managed a mill ; Ellastone ( as Hayslope ) and Ashbourne ( as Oakbourne ) are also featured .
Beatrix Potter , the author of Peter Rabbit , used to visit her uncle Edmund Potter at his printworks in Dinting Vale . She used cloth patterns from his Pattern Sample book to dress her characters . Mrs Tiggywinkle 's shawl , in The Tale of Mrs. Tiggy @-@ Winkle , is based on pattern number 222714 .
Children 's author Alison Uttley ( 1884 – 1976 ) was born at Cromford ; her well @-@ known novel A Traveller in Time , set in Dethick , recounts the Babington Plot to free Mary , Queen of Scots , from imprisonment . Crichton Porteous ( 1901 – 91 ) set several books in specific locations in the Peak ; Toad Hole , Lucky Columbell and Broken River , for example , are set in the Derwent Valley . More recently , Geraldine Brooks 's first novel , Year of Wonders ( 2001 ) , blends fact and fiction to tell the story of the plague village of Eyam , which also inspired Children of Winter by children 's novelist Berlie Doherty ( b . 1943 ) . Doherty has set several other works in the Peak , including Deep Secret , based on the drowning of the villages of Derwent and Ashopton by the Ladybower Reservoir , and Blue John , inspired by the Blue John Cavern at Castleton .
Many works of crime and horror have been set in the Peak . The Terror of Blue John Gap by Sir Arthur Conan Doyle ( 1859 – 1930 ) recounts terrible events at the Blue John mines , and Sherlock Holmes investigates the kidnapping of a child in the region in The Adventure of the Priory School . Many of the horror stories of local author Robert Murray Gilchrist ( 1878 – 1916 ) feature Peak settings . More recently , Stephen Booth has written a series of crime novels set in various real and imagined Peak locations , while In Pursuit of the Proper Sinner , an Inspector Lynley mystery by Elizabeth George , is set on the fictional Calder Moor .
Other writers and poets who lived in or visited the Peak include Samuel Johnson , William Congreve , Anna Seward , Jean @-@ Jacques Rousseau , Lord Byron , Thomas Moore , Richard Furness , D. H. Lawrence , Vera Brittain , Richmal Crompton and Nat Gould . The landscapes and historic houses of the Peak are also popular settings for film and television . The classic 1955 film The Dam Busters was filmed at the Upper Derwent Valley reservoirs , where practice flights for the bombing raids on the Ruhr dams had been made during the Second World War .
In recent adaptations of Pride and Prejudice , Longnor has featured as Lambton , while Lyme Park and Chatsworth House have stood in for Pemberley . Haddon Hall not only doubled as Thornfield Hall in two different adaptations of Jane Eyre , but has also appeared in several other films including Elizabeth , The Princess Bride and The Other Boleyn Girl . The long @-@ running television medical drama Peak Practice is set in the fictional village of Cardale in the Derbyshire Peak District ; it was filmed in Crich , Matlock and other Peak locations .
|
= Seth Neddermeyer =
Seth Henry Neddermeyer ( September 16 , 1907 – January 29 , 1988 ) was an American physicist who co @-@ discovered the muon , and later championed the Implosion @-@ type nuclear weapon while working on the Manhattan Project at the Los Alamos Laboratory during World War II .
= = Early life = =
Seth Henry Neddermeyer was born in Richmond , Michigan , on September 16 , 1907 . He attended Olivet College , a small college that his mother , older sister , and uncle had also attended , for two years before his family moved to California . He transferred to Stanford University , from which received his Bachelor of Arts ( A.B. ) degree in 1929 . His interest in physics was inspired by the work of Robert A. Millikan , and he enrolled in graduate school at California Institute of Technology ( Caltech ) , where he wrote his 1935 Ph.D. thesis on " The absorption of high energy electrons " , under the supervision of Carl D. Anderson . He confirmed the theory espoused by Niels Bohr for this process . He also noted large radiative energy losses of electrons in lead , in agreement with the theory propounded by Hans Bethe and Walter Heitler .
Neddermeyer contributed to the research which led to the 1932 discovery of the positron , for which Anderson was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1936 . That year , Neddermeyer and Anderson discovered the muon , using cloud chamber measurements of cosmic rays . Their discovery predated Hideki Yukawa 's 1935 theory of mesons that postulated the particle as mediating the nuclear force . Anderson and Neddermeyer collaborated with Millikan in high altitude studies of cosmic rays , which confirmed Robert Oppenheimer 's theory that the air showers produced in the atmosphere by cosmic rays contained electrons . They also obtained the first evidence that gamma rays can generate positrons .
= = Manhattan Project work = =
In early 1941 , with World War II raging in Europe but the United States not yet a belligerent , Neddermeyer joined a team led by Charles C. Lauritsen and William A. Fowler at the Department of Terrestrial Magnetism at the Carnegie Institution of Washington , and then at the National Bureau of Standards in Washington , D.C. , that worked on the photoelectric proximity fuze . After this work was successfully completed , Neddermeyer was recruited by Oppenheimer to work at the Manhattan Project 's Los Alamos Laboratory . Neddermeyer was an early advocate for the development of an implosion technique for assembling a critical mass In an atomic bomb . Although implosion was suggested by Richard Tolman as early as 1942 , and discussed in the introductory lectures given to Los Alamos scientists by Robert Serber , Neddermeyer was one of the first to urge its full development . Unable to find much initial enthusiasm for the concept among his fellow Los Alamos scientists , Neddermeyer presented the first substantial technical analysis of implosion in late April 1943 . Oppenheimer considered this to be the beginning of implosion research at Los Alamos .
Though many remained unimpressed , Oppenheimer appointed Neddermeyer the head of a new group to test implosion . His group became the E @-@ 5 ( Implosion ) Group , which was part of Captain William S. Parsons ' E Division . A gun @-@ type nuclear weapon was the preferred method , but implosion research constituted a backup . Neddermeyer embarked on an intensive series of experiments testing cylindrical implosions . The result was a series of distorted shapes . Progress was made ; Neddermeyer and a member of his team , Hugh Bradner , along with James L. Tuck from the British Mission , conceived the idea of explosive lenses , in which shaped charges are used to focus the force of an explosion . Nevertheless , seemingly unsolvable problems with shock wave uniformity brought progress on implosion to a crawl .
By September 1943 , Neddermeyer 's team had grown from five people to fifty . That month , John von Neumann came to Los Alamos at Oppenheimer 's request . Von Neumann was impressed by the implosion concept and , working with Edward Teller , an old friend , made a series of suggestions . Von Neumann was able to create a sound mathematical model of implosion , enabling Neddermeyer to present a proposal for a greatly expanded research program . Edwin McMillan and Isidor Isaac Rabi recommended that George Kistiakowsky , who had a specialized knowledge in the precision use of explosives , be brought in to help the program . In February 1944 , Kistiakowsky became Parsons ' deputy for implosion .
In April 1944 , tests on the first sample of plutonium that had been produced with neutrons in a nuclear reactor revealed that reactor @-@ bred plutonium contained five times more plutonium @-@ 240 than that hitherto produced in a cyclotrons . This unwanted isotope that spontaneously decayed and produced neutrons promised to cause a predetonation without sufficiently quick critical mass assembly . It now became apparent that only implosion would work for practical plutonium bombs ; a powerful enough gun could not be constructed small enough to be carried in an aircraft , and plutonium @-@ 240 was even more difficult to separate from plutonium @-@ 239 than the isotopes of uranium that were giving the rest of the Manhattan Project such difficulties . Plutonium was unusable unless implosion worked , but only plutonium could be produced in quantities that would allow regular production of atomic bombs . Thus , the implosion technique now suddenly stood as the key to production of nuclear weapons .
In mid @-@ June 1944 , a report from Kistiakowsky to Oppenheimer detailing dysfunctionality within the implosion team led to the ousting of Neddermeyer . He was replaced as the head of the E @-@ 5 Group by Kistiakowsky on June 15 , 1944 , but remained a technical adviser to the implosion program , with group leader status . Neddermeyer was said to have been much embittered by this episode . In Oppenheimer 's August 1944 reorganization of the Los Alamos Laboratory , Neddermeyer 's group was renamed X @-@ 1 , with Norris Bradbury as group leader . The implosion method championed by Neddermeyer was used in the first atom bomb exploded ( in the Trinity test ) , the Fat Man bomb dropped on Nagasaki , and almost all modern nuclear weapons . Kistiakowsky later insisted that " the real invention should be given full credit to [ Seth ] Neddermeyer . "
= = Later years = =
In 1946 , after World War II ended , Neddermeyer left Los Alamos to become an associate professor at the University of Washington , where he would spend the rest of his career . In due course he became a full professor . He resumed his studies of cosmic rays using a cloud chamber and a new device that he invented to measure the speed of charged particles known as a " chronotron " . He was particularly interested in the properties of the muon , and conducted experiments with muons at SLAC . He participated in the DUMAND Project , for which he helped design large @-@ scale underwater neutrino detectors . Neddermeyer became interested in parapsychology , insisting , in spite of the skepticism of many colleagues , that it warranted proper scientific investigation . He retired in 1973 , becoming a professor emeritus , but he continued his research activities for as long as his health permitted . He was afflicted with Parkinson 's disease .
In 1982 , he was presented with the Department of Energy 's Enrico Fermi award . His citation read :
For participating in the discovery of the positron , for his share in the discovery of the muon , the first of the subatomic particles ; for his invention of the implosion technique for assembling nuclear explosives ; and for his ingenuity , foresight , and perseverance in finding solutions for what at first seemed to be unsolvable engineering difficulties .
In later life , Neddermeyer was sometimes troubled by the nuclear weapons he had helped to invent . He told an interviewer in 1983 :
I get so overwhelmed by a feeling of terrible guilt when I think about the history of the bomb . I 'm terribly worried now about the current world situation . What the hell can we do about it ?
Neddermeyer died in Seattle on January 29 , 1988 , from complications of Parkinson 's disease .
|
= Nashville International Airport =
Nashville International Airport ( IATA : BNA , ICAO : KBNA , FAA LID : BNA ) is a public and military use airport in the southeastern section of Nashville in the U.S. state of Tennessee . It is included in the National Plan of Integrated Airport Systems for 2011 – 2015 , which categorized it as a primary commercial service airport ( more than 10 @,@ 000 daily arriving and departing flights per year ) . Established in 1937 , its original name was Berry Field , from which its ICAO and IATA identifiers are derived . The current terminal was constructed in 1987 , and the airport took its current name in 1988 . Nashville International Airport has four runways , the longest of which is 11 @,@ 030 feet ( 3 @,@ 360 m ) long , a size adequate to handle all aircraft in service in 2014 .
Nashville International Airport ( BNA ) as of 2014 ranks as the 32nd @-@ busiest airport in the United States in terms of passengers . A total of 12 @,@ 293 @,@ 924 passengers traveled into and out of BNA during 2015 , a 9 @.@ 8 percent increase over calendar year 2014 , setting a new all @-@ time passenger record . The month of June 2015 set a new record for passenger traffic at Nashville International , including a monthly record 1 @,@ 071 @,@ 025 total passengers . Nashville International classifies as a medium @-@ sized airport in terms of 2015 passengers , and is the second largest of this category ( behind only St. Louis ) . The airport is currently served by 10 airlines and offers 390 daily arriving and departing flights with nonstop flights to more than 55 markets in the US , Canada , Mexico , Bahamas , Jamaica , Dominican Republic and Cuba .
The airport terminal complex includes an over 1 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 @-@ square @-@ foot ( 93 @,@ 000 m2 ) passenger terminal with 47 air carrier gates and up to 78 commuter parking positions . BNA serves a trade area of 79 counties in Middle Tennessee , southern Kentucky , and northern Alabama . The airport is a focus city for Southwest Airlines and was previously a hub for American Airlines . Berry Field Air National Guard Base is located at Nashville International Airport . The base is home to the 118th Airlift Wing and is the headquarters of the Tennessee Air National Guard .
= = History = =
= = = Origins = = =
Nashville 's first airport was Hampton Field , which operated until 1921 . It was replaced by Blackwood Field in the Hermitage community , which operated between 1921 and 1928 . The first airlines to serve Nashville , American Airlines and Eastern Air Lines , flew out of Sky Harbor Airport in nearby Rutherford County .
By 1935 the need for an airport larger and closer to the city than Sky Harbor Airport was realized and a citizens ' committee was organized by mayor Hillary Howse to choose a location . A 340 @-@ acre ( 1 @.@ 4 km2 ) plot along Dixie Parkway ( now Murfreesboro Road ) composed of four farms was selected , and construction began in 1936 as one of the first major Works Progress Administration projects in the area . The airport was dedicated on November 1 , 1936 , as Berry Field , named after Col. Harry S. Berry , the Tennessee administrator for the Works Progress Administration . It officially opened in June 1937 with much fanfare , including parades , an air show , and an aerial bombardment display by the 105th Aero Squadron , which was based at the field . Passenger service began in mid @-@ July through American Airlines and Eastern Airlines , both of which operated Douglas DC @-@ 3 aircraft . The new airport had three asphalt runways , a three @-@ story passenger terminal , a control tower , two hangars and a beacon , and was constructed at a cost of 1 @.@ 2 million dollars . In its first year , Berry Field served 189 @,@ 000 passengers .
During World War II , the airfield was requisitioned by the United States Army Air Forces Air Transport Command as the headquarters for the 4th Ferrying Command for movement of new aircraft overseas . During this time , the Federal government expanded the airport to 1 @,@ 500 acres ( 6 @.@ 1 km2 ) . At the end of the war , the airport was returned to the control of the city , with a number of facilities remaining for support of the tenant unit of the Tennessee National Guard .
= = = Early jet service = = =
The airport had been enlarged by the military during World War II , but in 1958 the City Aviation Department , started planning to expand and modernize the airport . Nashville gained its first scheduled jet service in 1961 , the same year a new 145 @,@ 000 square feet ( 13 @,@ 500 m2 ) terminal opened off of Briley Parkway , west of runway 2L . For the first time more than half a million people passed through the airport when the six airlines that served Nashville carried 532 @,@ 790 passengers . These renovations also included expansion of an existing runway , with 2L / 20R being extended by 600 feet ( 180 m ) , and the construction of a new crosswind runway , 13 / 31 . In 1962 Nashville became the first municipal airport in the United States with a public reading room when the Nashville Public Library opened a branch inside the terminal .
= = = Modern terminal and hub status = = =
By the 1970s the airport was again in need of expansion and modernization . In 1973 the newly created Metropolitan Nashville Airport Authority ( MNAA ) finalized a master plan to coordinate the long @-@ term growth of the airport along projected increases in needed passenger capacity . This plan included the building of a new terminal and a new parallel runway across Donelson Pike to handle increasing operations by reducing the time between consecutive takeoffs and landings .
In the early 1980s the MNAA commissioned Robert Lamb Hart , in association with the firm of Gresham , Smith and Partners , to design a modern terminal ; construction began in 1984 and was completed in 1987 . It had three main concourses and a smaller commuter concourse radiating from a distinctive three @-@ story atrium . An international wing was built in Concourse A and flights to Toronto started in 1988 ; the airport was renamed Nashville International Airport / Berry Field . It is now rare to see the " Berry Field " portion used , but the airport 's IATA code ( BNA ) is short for Berry Field Nashville , and the military facilities at the airport are still commonly known by this name . In 1989 a new parallel runway ( 2R / 20L ) was opened for use .
American Airlines announced in 1985 that it would establish a hub at Nashville , investing $ 115 million to develop a new 15 @-@ gate concourse and applying for $ 50 million in federal funds to build a new 10 @,@ 000 @-@ foot runway . The hub was intended to compete with Delta Air Lines , Eastern Airlines and Piedmont Airlines for north @-@ south traffic in the eastern United States . American and its regional affiliate American Eagle officially opened their hub in Nashville in April 1986 . Besides flying domestic service non @-@ stop to many U.S. cities , American also operated international nonstop flights from Nashville to London , England and Toronto , Canada . The American hub was touted as a selling point in bringing companies such as Nissan and Saturn Corporation to the Nashville area .
American 's service peaked in 1992 , after which flights were gradually scaled back until the hub eventually closed in 1995 . American cited the aftermath of the early 1990s recession and the lack of local passengers as reasons for the closure . As American scaled down its operations , it subleased its gates to other carriers , largely in order to cover the debt used to construct the hub facilities , which American had guaranteed . Southwest Airlines quickly filled the void by seizing 54 % of the Nashville market and making it a focus city , with American remaining as the second @-@ largest carrier at Nashville , followed by Delta Air Lines .
= = = Recent history = = =
In 2002 , Embraer Aircraft Maintenance Services ( EAMS ) selected Nashville as the location for its Regional Airline Support Facility , which was built on the site of the demolished 1961 terminal building .
In October 2006 , the Nashville Metropolitan Airport Authority started an extensive renovation of the terminal building , designed by Architectural Alliance of Minneapolis and Thomas , Miller & Partners , PLLC of Nashville , the first since the terminal opened 19 years prior . Phase one of the project involved updating and expanding food and vending services , improving flight information systems , and construction of a new consolidated security checkpoint for all terminals . Phase one was completed in 2009 . Phase two of the project involved the expansion of the ticketing and check @-@ in areas , the construction and renovation of bathrooms , and the renovation of the baggage claim areas . Completion of the second phase of the renovation project was completed in 2011 . These renovations bring the total size of the terminal building to over 1 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 @-@ square @-@ foot ( 93 @,@ 000 m2 ) . In addition to the terminal renovation and expansion , the renovations included expanding parking and a new rental car facility . The renovated terminal was named the Robert C. H. Mathews Jr . Terminal in honor of a MNAA board chair in 2011 .
In addition to passenger amenities in the terminal and parking areas , the renovations included improvements to the airport 's infrastructure . The largest project was the complete demolition and rebuilding of Runway 2L / 20R , which was completed in August 2010 . In addition to the rebuilding of Runway 2L / 20R , Runway 2C / 20C was closed from September through December 2010 for pavement and concrete rehabilitation . BNA 's 91 acres ( 0 @.@ 37 km2 ) of tarmac were also rehabilitated during this project after being funded entirely by American Recovery and Reinvestment Act allotments .
Even with Nashville no longer a connecting hub for a major airline , according to the Federal Aviation Administration , the number of passengers using BNA is expected to double within the next 20 years . With the additional renovations and expansions , the MNAA leadership has a stated goal of adding the number of nonstop destinations , increasing cargo service , and adding more international flights . According to a chief executive officer Rob Wigington , the MNAA is actively seeking increased nonstop domestic flights and more international service . Restoring nonstop service to London remains the top priority for international flights .
Nashville recently gained nonstop daily service to the San Francisco Bay Area with daily nonstop service to both San Francisco International Airport ( SFO ) on United Airlines ; and to Oakland International Airport ( OAK ) on Southwest Airlines , as well as a new daily nonstop flight to Seattle / Tacoma International Airport ( SEA ) on Alaska Airlines . JetBlue has announced its return to the Nashville market , with twice daily nonstop service to Boston ( BOS ) and daily nonstop service to Fort Lauderdale ( FLL ) beginning on May 5 , 2016 . Numerous other added flights by Frontier Airlines to destinations such as Chicago , Philadelphia , Orlando and Las Vegas , along with the addition of WestJet to the Nashville market have continued the trend of airport growth . Southwest Airlines has also expressed desire to expand at the airport , and international service to Europe or Asia is quickly being considered as the city grows .
= = Concourses and facilities = =
= = = Robert C. H. Mathews Jr . Terminal = = =
The Robert C. H. Mathews Jr . Terminal is the airport 's main commercial terminal . It consists of three floorswith ground transportation on the first , baggage claim services on the second ; and ticketing , passenger drop off , and concourse access on the third . There are 47 gates in the three concourses in use . These concourses are connected by a large hub that contains a unified security checkpoint located in the main section of the terminal .
The terminal is served by Nashville Metropolitan Transit Authority bus route 18 , which provides express and local service between the airport 's passenger facilities and the Music City Central bus terminal in Nashville 's central business district .
Concourse A was originally constructed to service American Airlines international flights between Nashville and London . Concourse A has 8 gates , of which 6 are occupied . It is now utilized by Air Canada , Frontier Airlines , and United Airlines and its respective express subsidiaries and is the smallest concourse in use . United uses gates A3 , A4 , A7 , A8 . Air Canada uses gate A1 , and Frontier uses A2 .
Concourse B is the second largest concourse in BNA with 13 gates , eleven of which are occupied . It is utilized by Alaska Airlines , Boutique Air , Contour Airlines , JetBlue , WestJet , Delta Air Lines , and its respective subsidiaries for domestic flights . Delta uses gates B1 , B2 , B3 , B4 , B5 , B7 . Alaska uses gate B8 , JetBlue uses gate B6 , Contour uses gate B10 , Boutique Air uses B11 , and WestJet uses B13 .
Concourse C is the largest concourse at BNA , featuring a large shopping and dining area and the highest number of gates of any concourse . Concourse C has 24 gates , all of which are occupied , although 3 of these gates are inactive . It was originally constructed to be the main concourse for American Airlines during BNA 's tenure as a hub , which continues to maintain a large presence in the concourse . It is now mainly utilized by Southwest Airlines for their focus city operations in Nashville . Additional occupants of Concourse C include American Airlines and American Eagle . American uses gates C3 , C5 , C6 , C10 , C11 , C12 , C13 , and C14 . Southwest uses gates C2 , C4 , C7 , C9 , C15 , C16 , C17 , C18 , C19 , C20 , C21 , C23 , and C25 .
Concourse D was constructed as a ground level commuter terminal for American Eagle with 15 ground level commuter aircraft parking spots and gate facilities . All American Eagle flights operated out of Concourse D until , as a cost @-@ cutting measure after September 11 , 2001 ( 9 / 11 ) , all American Eagle flights were moved to Concourse C to share gates with American Airlines . For a short period of time , Concourse D was used by Corporate Airlines to operate its own regional flights until it became an regional affiliate with American Connection and Continental Connection , at which point the concourse was closed by the MNAA . The MNAA has no plans to reopen Concourse D , and it is occupied by the Transportation Security Administration .
= = = = Airline lounges = = = =
Nashville International Airport hosts two airline lounges — a Delta Air Lines Sky Club and an American Airlines Admirals Club . The Sky Club is located adjacent to gate B3 , in the same concourse as all of Delta 's gates . The Admirals Club is located above gate C12 , in the same concourse as all of American 's gates .
= = = = Public art = = = =
BNA is home to an aviation themed art project and gallery entitled Arts at the Airport . The award @-@ winning Arts at the Airport program reviews and presents works by local , regional , and national artists for the enjoyment and enrichment of Nashville International Airport 's passengers and visitors . In addition to visual art , Arts at the Airport includes various live music exhibitions , showcasing Nashville 's musical heritage . Arts at the Airport is supported by the MNAA and the Tennessee Arts Commission ( TAC ) , and is funded under an agreement with the State of Tennessee .
In addition to the various exhibits , exhibitions and collections of Arts at the Airport , the Consolidated Rental Car Facility includes a large outdoor public art display by artist Ned Kahn . The installation includes a large number of alumnium sheets attached to hinges to the facade of the building designed to move with the wind , creating an undulating appearance to the surface of the building .
= = = General aviation , charter and commuter terminals = = =
Fixed @-@ base operators ( FBO ) Atlantic Aviation and Signature Flight Support operate separate terminals from the main commercial terminal that are used primarily for general aviation and charter service . These FBOs provide hangar space , fueling and maintenance , and traveler amenities to individuals and companies utilizing the airport for non @-@ scheduled commercial and private flights .
Some scheduled commuter service flights have utilized the Atlantic Aviation terminal in the past . Due to its inability to secure a position at the main terminal and low number of scheduled flights , Tennessee Skies operated scheduled commercial EAS flights to Jackson , Tennessee from the Atlantic Aviation terminal . Since the cessation of Tennessee Skies flights from Nashville , no scheduled commercial service operates outside of the main terminal building , with all EAS flights operating from the main terminal .
= = = Airfield = = =
Nashville International Airport has four runways , three of which are parallel with one crosswind . The crosswind runway , 13 / 31 , is the longest of the four at 11 @,@ 030 feet ( 3 @,@ 360 m ) . The most recent improvement was to runway 2L / 20R , the primary outbound runway under the airport 's Advanced Surface Movement Guidance and Control System . It was completely rebuilt with concrete recycling techniques that prevented having to bring in large amounts of fresh concrete to the site , with construction ending in early 2011 .
= = Airlines and destinations = =
Nashville International Airport is served by 13 carriers with more than 440 average daily arriving and departing flights at 47 air carrier gates . These carriers serve 57 airports with non @-@ stop service from Nashville , with direct through service to 90 markets .
= = = Passenger = = =
= = = Cargo = = =
Air cargo integrators , charter cargo airlines and air express companies operate daily from the Nashville Air Cargo all @-@ cargo complex . The complex , located across the airfield from the airport 's passenger facility , is within five minutes of Interstate 40 . It provides taxiway access to Nashville International 's three parallel runways and crosswind international runway . The airport has seen considerable growth in its cargo operations in recent years with the addition of a 70 @,@ 000 sq ft ( 7 @,@ 000 m2 ) FedEx facility at BNA . China Airlines ceased operations at Nashville on July 31 , 2009 . For September 2010 – 2011 , BNA had 43 @,@ 500 t ( 43 @,@ 000 long tons ; 48 @,@ 000 short tons ) of cargo pass through its facilities .
Additional charter and unscheduled cargo service is provided by AirNet Systems , Ameristar Air Cargo , Baron Aviation Services , Cherry Air Cargo , Contract Air Cargo | IFL , McNeely Charter Service , Mountain Air , Royal Air Cargo , Special Aviation Services and USA Jet .
= = Statistics = =
= = = Top destinations = = =
= = = Airline market share = = =
= = Military facilities = =
Berry Field Air National Guard Base ( ANGB ) is located on the premises of Nashville International Airport . Since 1937 it has hosted the 118th Airlift Wing ( AW ) . Berry Field faced the removal of its flying mission with the BRAC 2005 recommendation to realign its assets to other units . It averted this fate by taking on a new role as the C @-@ 130 International Training Center .
Approximately 1 @,@ 500 personnel are assigned to both HQ , Tennessee Air National Guard and to the 118 AW at Berry ANGB . Approximately 400 are full @-@ time Active Guard and Reserve ( AGR ) and Air Reserve Technician ( ART ) personnel , augmented by approximately 1100 traditional part @-@ time air guardsmen . Approximately 100 additional foreign military personnel are also temporarily assigned to the 118 AW at any one time for training in the C @-@ 130E or C @-@ 130H aircraft .
= = Accidents and incidents = =
On October 15 , 1943 , American Airlines Flight 63 , a Douglas DC @-@ 3 , crashed near Centerville , Tennessee en route to Memphis after departing Nashville due to atmospheric icing on the aircraft 's carburetors and wings . All 11 passengers and crew were killed . This accident remains to this day the deadliest accident related to BNA .
On September 28 , 1963 , an Eastern Air Lines Douglas DC @-@ 7 crashed on landing after the aircraft 's nose gear collapsed . All 45 passengers and crew survived .
On May 31 , 1985 , a Gulfstream I crashed immediately after takeoff due to failure of the left engine . Both people on board were killed .
On January 29 , 1996 , a United States Navy F @-@ 14 Tomcat fighter crashed shortly after takeoff . The jet struck a housing development and erupted into a fireball , killing the pilot and four individuals on the ground .
On September 9 , 1999 , a TWA McDonnell Douglas DC @-@ 9 suffered a landing gear collapse after a hard touchdown . All 46 passengers and crew survived .
On October 29 , 2013 , a Cessna 172R , from Ontario , Canada , crashed at Nashville International Airport . According to preliminary information from the NTSB , the flight plans that were filled with Transport Canada was to fly to Pelee , Ontario . It is currently unclear how the plane got to Nashville International Airport . Around 3AM Eastern time , the plane crashed on runway 2C . The burned wreckage on runway 2C went unnoticed for nearly six hours before being spotted by another general aviation aircraft . There was dense fog at the airport at the time of the accident
On September 19 , 2014 , NetJets Flight 322 , an Embraer Phenom 300 arriving from Nashville International Airport , slid off the runway at Lone Star Executive Airport ( IATA : CXO ) in Conroe , Texas . The area had recently been inundated by the remains of Hurricane Odile . Neither the pilot nor co @-@ pilot were hurt .
On December 15 , 2015 , Southwest Airlines Flight 31 , a Boeing 737 @-@ 300 , from Houston , Texas , exited the taxiway and rolled into a ditch shortly after arriving into Nashville as the airplane was entering the terminal ramp . All 138 passengers and crew were safely evacuated from the plane and bussed into the airport .
|
= The Sword of Kahless =
" The Sword of Kahless " is the 81st episode of the American science fiction television series Star Trek : Deep Space Nine , the ninth of the fourth season . It originally aired on November 20 , 1995 in broadcast syndication . The story was created by Richard Danus and was turned into a teleplay by Hans Beimler . The episode was directed by Star Trek : The Next Generation alumnus LeVar Burton , and featured the return of John Colicos as Kor . Colicos had first appeared as Kor in the Star Trek : The Original Series episode " Errand of Mercy " , and had previously appeared in this series in the episode " Blood Oath " .
Set in the 24th century , the series follows the adventures on Deep Space Nine , a space station located near a stable wormhole between the Alpha and Gamma quadrants of the Milky Way Galaxy . In this episode , Kor returns to the station to recruit Lt. Cmdr. Worf ( Michael Dorn ) and Lt. Cmdr. Jadzia Dax ( Terry Farrell ) to help to find the ancient Sword of Kahless . After they find the sword , they are forced to evade the forces of Toral ( Rick Pasqualone ) , Son of Duras , and Worf and Kor come to blows over the future use of the weapon .
The episode was the first in the series to feature the character of Worf in a central storyline , who had previously been a character on The Next Generation . Due to time restraints in filming , there were edits made to the scripts and the production team were forced to make best use of the cave sets which had been seen on the show previously . The sword itself was created specifically for the episode , and was made to seem more elaborate than the bat 'leths previously seen in Star Trek , including hand etchings to make it appear similar to Damascus steel . Composer David Bell sought to bring influences of Richard Wagner into the score , including the use of Wagner tubas . Although producers were disappointed with the initial fan reaction , critics later gave a mostly positive response to the episode and compared it to Indiana Jones and The Treasure of the Sierra Madre .
= = Plot = =
Kor ( John Colicos ) , a revered Klingon warrior , is in Quark 's Bar telling stories of past battles to his friend Lieutenant Commander Jadzia Dax ( Terry Farrell ) . She notices Lieutenant Commander Worf ( Michael Dorn ) nearby and invites him to meet Kor , who greets Worf happily , saying that anyone who is so strongly disliked by the Klingon government is a friend of his . He explains to Jadzia and Worf that he is on the station as part of his plan to find the legendary Sword of Kahless . The sword is the original bat 'leth , used by Kahless to defeat the tyrant Molor . Kor received a shroud from a Vulcan science team , which he believes once held the Sword . He gives it to Jadzia to test the shroud 's authenticity . As he returns to his quarters , Kor is attacked by a Lethean who reads his thoughts in order to find out about the Sword and then removes his memories of the attack . Jadzia finds him the following morning , and thinks that he has passed out from too much alcohol . She has verified the authenticity of the shroud . Captain Benjamin Sisko ( Avery Brooks ) lends the trio a Runabout to travel into the Gamma Quadrant to search for the sword on a planet where the Vulcan team found the shroud .
They arrive at the planet and travel to an underground vault which had been ransacked . As they are about to leave , Worf discovers a secret chamber containing the sword . They are attacked by Toral ( Rick Pasqualone ) , son of Duras who had hired the Lethean and wants the sword for the prestige of finding it . Kor , Worf and Jadzia fight past Toral and his men and after finding that they cannot transport back to the Runabout in orbit , they head into the adjoining cave system in order to try to get out of range of whatever Toral is using to block the transporter . As they travel through the caves , the Klingons begin to be affected by the prestige of the sword . Kor begins to talk about how it would allow him to overthrow Chancellor Gowron and Emperor Kahless II but Worf says that he should be the one to lead their people . Suddenly , Kor slips down the side of a cliff but refuses to let go of the sword . Worf grabs the other end of the sword , and tries to convince Kor to let go as he cannot pull him and the sword up .
Dax helps Worf save Kor , and afterwards takes possession of the sword because she thinks the two Klingons cannot be trusted with it . The three make camp and sleep through the night , but Dax is awoken by a scuffle between Kor and Worf . The fight between them stops momentarily after Toral and his men arrive . After Toral is subdued , Kor and Worf again attack each other . Jadzia shoots them both with her phaser set to stun and then forces Toral to deactivate the transport blocker so that the three can return to the Runabout . After they depart the planet , Kor and Worf realize that if the sword divided two men as honorable as they , it would do the same to the Klingon Empire , so they beam it into space , leaving it to drift until the Klingon Empire is ready for it .
= = Production = =
= = = Writing = = =
" The Sword of Kahless " was the first Deep Space Nine ( DS9 ) episode to predominately focus on Worf . Michael Dorn had joined the cast at the beginning of season four , but his character was not featured prominently in the first eight episodes of the season because they had been scripted prior to confirmation that Dorn would be joining the show . " The Sword of Kahless " was the first episode to be written after his arrival , so it was the first time his character was featured centrally . This meant that in each of those episodes , Worf was inserted into the episode , whereas " The Sword of Kahless " was the first episode to be written after his arrival and the production team wanted him to feature centrally for the first time . The story was created by Richard Danus , who had been the executive story editor during the third season of TNG , when Ira Steven Behr joined the production team . Danus had written TNG episodes such as " Déjà Q " and co @-@ wrote the teleplay for " Booby Trap " . It was Behr who gave Danus the opportunity to write for DS9 , after they became friends following Behr 's arrival on TNG .
The episode was directed by another former TNG actor , LeVar Burton , who described the story as something akin to the search for the Holy Grail in Klingon mythology . Hans Beimler , who converted Danus ' story into a teleplay , was aware of the mythology of the Grail as he wrote the script and wanted to avoid giving the sword any mystical or magical powers . He said that " It 's the concept of the sword that has the power . We could have said that some technology or magic gave the Klingons the feeling of power , but that would have been a cheap way to go . " The writing staff was disappointed in the reaction of many fans , who wanted a technological explanation for the effects of the sword .
= = = Filming , casting and music = = =
Because of limited time to film , several edits were made to the script by Beimler . Some of the scenes set in the cave sets were dropped as they would have taken too long to set up . Kor , Worf and Dax were in almost every scene of the episode and so time could not be saved by filming more than one scene at a time . The cave sequences were filmed on the cave standing sets on stage 18 of Paramount Studios . The sets were limited , so Burton said that in order to make it look like the characters were moving through a complex labyrinth of caves , he and director of photography Jonathan West used the sets ' depth to make them look like different parts of the caves .
The precipice that Kor nearly falls down was created by filming the actors on the second level of the cave sets and then matting the footage onto a 8 feet ( 2 @.@ 4 m ) long miniature version of the cave that Gary Hutzel created out of aluminium foil . The production staff also spread sand onto the floor of the cave sets in order to make it look different from other episodes in which the sets had been used . Burton advised Farrell on the aggressiveness Dax should show in her interactions with Kor and Worf in the episode , a type of performance which both Burton and Farrell later nicknamed " Action Barbie " .
John Colicos had appeared as Kor once before on DS9 , in the second season episode " Blood Oath " . Colicos had played the first main character Klingon to appear on Star Trek , in his appearance in The Original Series first season episode " Errand of Mercy " . Rick Pasqualone had appeared as Toral , son of Duras in " The Sword of Kahless " . The character , played by JD Cullum , had appeared in the TNG two @-@ part episode " Redemption " , when he sought the leadership of the Klingon High Council alongside his aunts Lursa and B 'Etor . Worf has history with the House of Duras , dating back to the rivalry between Worf 's father , Mogh , and Toral 's grandfather , Ja 'Rod .
Composer David Bell created music for the episode that had echoes of the operas of 19th @-@ century German composer Richard Wagner . He explained that he used " Wagner opera vocabulary in the orchestrations , and ... actually used Wagner tubas in the score " . He used religious tones to accompany appearances of the sword itself , specifically when it is first found by Worf , and said , " If the audience isn 't made to understand the spiritual importance of that weapon , then we have no episode " .
= = = Props = = =
Dan Curry created the Klingon weapon , the bat 'leth , while working on TNG . Its first appearance was in the episode " Reunion " and has appeared in all live action series of Star Trek with the exception of The Original Series . The sword in " The Sword of Kahless " was intended to be the first bat 'leth made by , according to Klingon mythology , Kahless himself , which he used to defeat the tyrant Molor and unite the Klingon people for the first time in their history .
It was decided that the sword needed to be different from other bat 'leths seen on the show , and so a new hardened aluminium prop was ordered after numerous designs by John Eaves were considered on paper . As with the original bat 'leth , Dan Curry created the prop . Sculptor Dragon Dronet then etched designs into the blade by hand using dental tools . The producers requested designs on the blade similar to the effects seen in Damascus steel , which was combined with Dronet 's idea of forming these into a topographic map , with an effect described as being " as if you 're staring down at mountains " . Klingon names were then added to the side of the weapon . Dronet also created the stand for the sword out of plexiglas which was spray @-@ painted to look metallic . The legs of the stand were carved to look like the feet of the Klingon animal , the targ . " The Sword of Kahless " also featured new prop designs for Starfleet @-@ issued over @-@ the @-@ shoulder bags and the camping equipment used in the cave sequences .
= = Reception and home media release = =
" The Sword of Kahless " was first broadcast on November 20 , 1995 in broadcast syndication . It received Nielsen ratings of 6 @.@ 9 percent , placing it in tenth place in its timeslot and lower than the episode that aired the previous week , " Little Green Men " , which gained a rating of 7 @.@ 1 percent . " The Sword of Kahless " received a higher rating than the following episode , " Our Man Bashir " , seen by 6 @.@ 8 percent of viewers .
Several reviewers re @-@ watched the episode after the end of the series . Michelle Erica Green , who watched the episode in April 2013 for TrekNation , thought that it was not a typical Deep Space Nine episode and that it required knowledge of Worf 's history from The Next Generation . She said that the episode was " admirable for a drama that takes place mostly walking through uninteresting cave sets " . She thought that towards the end , it became a little " mumbo @-@ jumbo @-@ mystical " but that it was in " perfect keeping with the Klingons " . However , she felt that the episode again relied on Jadzia 's past as Curzon Dax and that the ending would have been better with Toral stealing the sword at the last minute so that it could be followed up with in a later episode .
Jamahl Epsicokhan at his website " Jammer 's Reviews " compared the episode to an Indiana Jones story and said that it was a " enjoyable fable for a simpler time " . He praised the musical score by David Bell and thought that the episode was the perfect vehicle for Worf , saying that Michael Dorn gave a strong performance . He gave the episode a rating of three and a half out of four . Zack Handlen , writing for the A.V. Club in January 2013 , said that the plot was similar to the plots of stories such as The Treasure of the Sierra Madre ( 1927 ) . He felt that the episode showed a side of Worf that had not been seen before , and that Worf had exhibited a " willingness to go to absolute lengths to do what he believes needs to be done " . He compared it to the anger bubbling under the surface of Bruce Banner in the 2012 film The Avengers .
The first home media release of " The Sword of Kahless " was as a two @-@ episode VHS cassette alongside " Our Man Bashir " in the United Kingdom on June 13 , 1996 , followed in the United States and Canada by a single @-@ episode release on October 3 , 2000 . It was later released on DVD as part of the season four box set on August 5 , 2003 .
|
= Umbriel ( moon ) =
Umbriel is a moon of Uranus discovered on October 24 , 1851 , by William Lassell . It was discovered at the same time as Ariel and named after a character in Alexander Pope 's poem The Rape of the Lock . Umbriel consists mainly of ice with a substantial fraction of rock , and may be differentiated into a rocky core and an icy mantle . The surface is the darkest among Uranian moons , and appears to have been shaped primarily by impacts . However , the presence of canyons suggests early endogenic processes , and the moon may have undergone an early endogenically driven resurfacing event that obliterated its older surface .
Covered by numerous impact craters reaching 210 km ( 130 mi ) in diameter , Umbriel is the second most heavily cratered satellite of Uranus after Oberon . The most prominent surface feature is a ring of bright material on the floor of Wunda crater . This moon , like all moons of Uranus , probably formed from an accretion disk that surrounded the planet just after its formation . The Uranian system has been studied up close only once , by the spacecraft Voyager 2 in January 1986 . It took several images of Umbriel , which allowed mapping of about 40 % of the moon ’ s surface .
= = Discovery and name = =
Umbriel , along with another Uranian satellite , Ariel , was discovered by William Lassell on October 24 , 1851 . Although William Herschel , the discoverer of Titania and Oberon , claimed at the end of the 18th century that he had observed four additional moons of Uranus , his observations were not confirmed and those four objects are now thought to be spurious .
All of Uranus 's moons are named after characters created by William Shakespeare or Alexander Pope . The names of all four satellites of Uranus then known were suggested by John Herschel in 1852 at the request of Lassell . Umbriel is the " dusky melancholy sprite " in Alexander Pope 's The Rape of the Lock , and the name suggests the Latin umbra , meaning shadow . The moon is also designated Uranus II .
= = Orbit = =
Umbriel orbits Uranus at the distance of about 266 @,@ 000 km ( 165 @,@ 000 mi ) , being the third farthest from the planet among its five major moons . Umbriel 's orbit has a small eccentricity and is inclined very little relative to the equator of Uranus . Its orbital period is around 4 @.@ 1 Earth days , coincident with its rotational period . In other words , Umbriel is a synchronous or tidally locked satellite , with one face always pointing toward its parent planet . Umbriel 's orbit lies completely inside the Uranian magnetosphere . This is important , because the trailing hemispheres of airless satellites orbiting inside a magnetosphere ( like Umbriel ) are struck by magnetospheric plasma , which co @-@ rotates with the planet . This bombardment may lead to the darkening of the trailing hemispheres , which is actually observed for all Uranian moons except Oberon ( see below ) . Umbriel also serves as a sink of the magnetospheric charged particles , which creates a pronounced dip in energetic particle count near the moon 's orbit as observed by Voyager 2 in 1986 .
Because Uranus orbits the Sun almost on its side , and its moons orbit in the planet 's equatorial plane , they ( including Umbriel ) are subject to an extreme seasonal cycle . Both northern and southern poles spend 42 years in complete darkness , and another 42 years in continuous sunlight , with the Sun rising close to the zenith over one of the poles at each solstice . The Voyager 2 flyby coincided with the southern hemisphere 's 1986 summer solstice , when nearly the entire northern hemisphere was unilluminated . Once every 42 years , when Uranus has an equinox and its equatorial plane intersects the Earth , mutual occultations of Uranus 's moons become possible . In 2007 – 2008 a number of such events were observed including two occultations of Titania by Umbriel on August 15 and December 8 , 2007 as well as of Ariel by Umbriel on August 19 , 2007 .
Currently Umbriel is not involved in any orbital resonance with other Uranian satellites . Early in its history , however , it may have been in a 1 : 3 resonance with Miranda . This would have increased Miranda 's orbital eccentricity , contributing to the internal heating and geological activity of that moon , while Umbriel 's orbit would have been less affected . Due to Uranus 's lower oblateness and smaller size relative to its satellites , its moons can escape more easily from a mean motion resonance than those of Jupiter or Saturn . After Miranda escaped from this resonance ( through a mechanism that probably resulted in its anomalously high orbital inclination ) , its eccentricity would have been damped , turning off the heat source .
= = Composition and internal structure = =
Umbriel is the third largest and fourth most massive of Uranian moons . The moon 's density is 1 @.@ 39 g / cm3 , which indicates that it mainly consists of water ice , with a dense non @-@ ice component constituting around 40 % of its mass . The latter could be made of rock and carbonaceous material including heavy organic compounds known as tholins . The presence of water ice is supported by infrared spectroscopic observations , which have revealed crystalline water ice on the surface of the moon . Water ice absorption bands are stronger on Umbriel 's leading hemisphere than on the trailing hemisphere . The cause of this asymmetry is not known , but it may be related to the bombardment by charged particles from the magnetosphere of Uranus , which is stronger on the trailing hemisphere ( due to the plasma 's co @-@ rotation ) . The energetic particles tend to sputter water ice , decompose methane trapped in ice as clathrate hydrate and darken other organics , leaving a dark , carbon @-@ rich residue behind .
Except for water , the only other compound identified on the surface of Umbriel by the infrared spectroscopy is carbon dioxide , which is concentrated mainly on the trailing hemisphere . The origin of the carbon dioxide is not completely clear . It might be produced locally from carbonates or organic materials under the influence of the energetic charged particles coming from the magnetosphere of Uranus or the solar ultraviolet radiation . This hypothesis would explain the asymmetry in its distribution , as the trailing hemisphere is subject to a more intense magnetospheric influence than the leading hemisphere . Another possible source is the outgassing of the primordial CO2 trapped by water ice in Umbriel 's interior . The escape of CO2 from the interior may be a result of past geological activity on this moon .
Umbriel may be differentiated into a rocky core surrounded by an icy mantle . If this is the case , the radius of the core ( 317 km ) is about 54 % of the radius of the moon , and its mass is around 40 % of the moon ’ s mass — the parameters are dictated by the moon 's composition . The pressure in the center of Umbriel is about 0 @.@ 24 GPa ( 2 @.@ 4 kbar ) . The current state of the icy mantle is unclear , although the existence of a subsurface ocean is considered unlikely .
= = Surface features = =
Umbriel 's surface is the darkest of the Uranian moons , and reflects less than half as much light as Ariel , a sister satellite of similar size . Umbriel has a very low Bond albedo of only about 10 % as compared to 23 % for Ariel . The reflectivity of the moon 's surface decreases from 26 % at a phase angle of 0 ° ( geometric albedo ) to 19 % at an angle of about 1 ° . This phenomenon is called opposition surge . The surface of Umbriel is slightly blue in color , while fresh bright impact deposits ( in Wunda crater , for instance ) are even bluer . There may be an asymmetry between the leading and trailing hemispheres ; the former appears to be redder than the latter . The reddening of the surfaces probably results from space weathering from bombardment by charged particles and micrometeorites over the age of the Solar System . However , the color asymmetry of Umbriel is likely caused by accretion of a reddish material coming from outer parts of the Uranian system , possibly , from irregular satellites , which would occur predominately on the leading hemisphere . The surface of Umbriel is relatively homogeneous — it does not demonstrate strong variation in either albedo or color .
Scientists have so far recognized only one class of geological feature on Umbriel — craters . The surface of Umbriel has far more and larger craters than do Ariel and Titania . It shows the least geological activity . In fact , among the Uranian moons only Oberon has more impact craters than Umbriel . The observed crater diameters range from a few kilometers at the low end to 210 kilometers for the largest known crater , Wokolo . All recognized craters on Umbriel have central peaks , but no crater has rays .
Near Umbriel 's equator lies the most prominent surface feature : Wunda crater , which has a diameter of about 131 km . Wunda has a large ring of bright material on its floor , which appears to be an impact deposit . Nearby , seen along the terminator , are the craters Vuver and Skynd , which lack bright rims but possess bright central peaks . Study of limb profiles of Umbriel revealed a possible very large impact feature having the diameter of about 400 km and depth of approximately 5 km .
Much like other moons of Uranus , the surface of Umbriel is cut by a system of canyons trending northeast – southwest . They are not , however , officially recognized due to the poor imaging resolution and generally bland appearance of this moon , which hinders geological mapping .
Umbriel 's heavily cratered surface has probably been stable since the Late Heavy Bombardment . The only signs of the ancient internal activity are canyons and dark polygons — dark patches with complex shapes measuring from tens to hundreds of kilometers across . The polygons were identified from precise photometry of Voyager 2 's images and are distributed more or less uniformly on the surface of Umbriel , trending northeast – southwest . Some polygons correspond to depressions of a few kilometers deep and may have been created during an early episode of tectonic activity . Currently there is no explanation for why Umbriel is so dark and uniform in appearance . Its surface may be covered by a relatively thin layer of dark material ( so called umbral material ) excavated by an impact or expelled in an explosive volcanic eruption . Alternatively , Umbriel 's crust may be entirely composed of the dark material , which prevented formation of bright features like crater rays . However , the presence of the bright feature within Wunda seems to contradict this hypothesis .
= = Origin and evolution = =
Umbriel is thought to have formed from an accretion disc or subnebula ; a disc of gas and dust that either existed around Uranus for some time after its formation or was created by the giant impact that most likely gave Uranus its large obliquity . The precise composition of the subnebula is not known ; however , the higher density of Uranian moons compared to the moons of Saturn indicates that it may have been relatively water @-@ poor . Significant amounts of nitrogen and carbon may have been present in the form of carbon monoxide ( CO ) and molecular nitrogen ( N2 ) instead of ammonia and methane . The moons that formed in such a subnebula would contain less water ice ( with CO and N2 trapped as clathrate ) and more rock , explaining the higher density .
Umbriel 's accretion probably lasted for several thousand years . The impacts that accompanied accretion caused heating of the moon 's outer layer . The maximum temperature of around 180 K was reached at the depth of about 3 km . After the end of formation , the subsurface layer cooled , while the interior of Umbriel heated due to decay of radioactive elements present in its rocks . The cooling near @-@ surface layer contracted , while the interior expanded . This caused strong extensional stresses in the moon 's crust , which may have led to cracking . This process probably lasted for about 200 million years , implying that any endogenous activity ceased billions of years ago .
The initial accretional heating together with continued decay of radioactive elements may have led to melting of the ice if an antifreeze like ammonia ( in the form of ammonia hydrate ) or some salt was present . The melting may have led to the separation of ice from rocks and formation of a rocky core surrounded by an icy mantle . A layer of liquid water ( ocean ) rich in dissolved ammonia may have formed at the core – mantle boundary . The eutectic temperature of this mixture is 176 K. The ocean , however , is likely to have frozen long ago . Among Uranian moons Umbriel was least subjected to endogenic resurfacing processes , although it may like other Uranian moons have experienced a very early resurfacing event .
= = Exploration = =
So far the only close @-@ up images of Umbriel have been from the Voyager 2 probe , which photographed the moon during its flyby of Uranus in January 1986 . Since the closest distance between Voyager 2 and Umbriel was 325 @,@ 000 km ( 202 @,@ 000 mi ) , the best images of this moon have a spatial resolution of about 5 @.@ 2 km . The images cover about 40 % of the surface , but only 20 % was photographed with the quality required for geological mapping . At the time of the flyby the southern hemisphere of Umbriel ( like those of the other moons ) was pointed towards the Sun , so the northern ( dark ) hemisphere could not be studied . No other spacecraft has ever visited Uranus ( and Umbriel ) , and no mission to Uranus and its moons are planned .
|
= I Got You ( Leona Lewis song ) =
" I Got You " is a song performed by British singer and songwriter Leona Lewis for her second studio album , Echo ( 2009 ) . It was written by Arnthor Birgisson , Max Martin and Savan Kotecha , with production helmed by Birgisson . It was recorded by Birgisson at Westlake Recording Studios , Los Angeles , CA and The Vault , Stockholm , Sweden , who was assisted by Lewis on the songs vocal production . It was released to United States Contemporary hit radio on 8 December 2009 , and throughout Europe to download digitally on 19 February 2010 . " I Got You " is a pop ballad , and instrumentation consists of guitars and synthesizers .
The song garnered a mixed response from music critics . Peter Robinson for The Guardian wrote that " I Got You " " is an impressive distant relative of " Bleeding Love " . Other critics praised Lewis ' vocal performance and likened it to the structure of her cover of Snow Patrol 's " Run " . Despite this , some critics criticised the song for not being memorable . " I Got You " failed to achieve commercial success . It achieved a peak position of number three on the UK R & B Chart , number 14 on the UK Singles Chart , and peaked inside the top 50 singles Austria , Belgium , Germany and New Zealand .
As part of promotion for the songs release as a single , an accompanying music video was shot at Venice Beach , California , and directed by Dave Meyers . The content of the video revolves around couples who try to resolve their differences and arguments . In the video , scenes of Lewis performing in front of a heart engulfed in flames and sitting on an apartment floor barefoot are intercut . In the United States , Lewis performed the song live on the Late Show with David Letterman , whilst in the United Kingdom , she performed on multiple television shows , including So You Think You Can Dance , The Alan Titchmarsh Show and The National Lottery Draws . It was included on the set list of her debut tour , The Labyrinth ( 2010 ) .
= = Recording , production and release = =
" I Got You " was written by Arnthor Birgisson , Max Martin and Savan Kotecha for Lewis 's second studio album , Echo ( 2009 ) . Production of the song was helmed by Birgisson . It was recorded by Birgisson at Westlake Recording Studios , Los Angeles , CA and The Vault , Stockholm , Sweden . Birgisson and Lewis both handled the vocal production . It was mixed by Phil Tan at Soapbox Studios in Atlanta , Georgia , and Damien Lewis served as the assistant engineer . Background vocals were sung by Vicky Sandström and guitar was provided by Esbjörn Öhrwall . " Heartbeat " was co @-@ written by Lewis , Birgisson and Ina Wroldsen , with production of the song once again helmed by Birgisson . It was recorded by Chris Kasych at Chalice Studios , Los Angeles , CA , and The Vault in Stockholm , Sweden . It was mixed by Manny Marroquin , Christian Plata and Erik Madrid at Larrabee Studios , Universal City , CA . Strings were provided by Janson & Janson and the Czech National Symphony Orchestra , which were recorded by Marcus Bergqvist . Guitar was provided by Esbjörn Öhrwall .
In the United States , " I Got You " was released to Contemporary hit radio on 8 December 2009 . In Europe , " I Got You " was released as an A @-@ side and B @-@ side , with " I Got You " as the A @-@ side single , and " Heartbeat " , a song which does not appear on any edition of Echo , as the B @-@ side . It was released in Belgium , France , Italy , Germany , The Netherlands , Spain , and the United Kingdom , to download digitally on 19 February 2010 .
= = Composition = =
" I Got You " is a pop ballad , which lasts for a duration of 3 minutes , 49 seconds . The song was composed in the key of G major using common time with a tempo at 104 beats per minute . Lewis 's vocal range spans over two octaves , from the low note of G3 to the high note of A5 , on the song . It incorporates elements of adult contemporary music and contemporary R & B genres . Instrumentation consists of guitars and synthesizers . Fraser McAlpine for the BBC compared " I Got You " ' s structure to her cover of Snow Patrol 's " Run " . McAlpine noted that it follows the same four chord progression as " Run " , and also is instrumentally complete with guitars . He also noted that Lewis performs the verses of " I Got You " quietly , like on " Run " , and belts the chorus , like on " Run " .
= = Critical reception = =
" I Got You " garnered a mixed response from music critics . Peter Robinson for The Guardian wrote that " I Got You " " is an impressive distant relative of Bleeding Love " . Leah Greenblatt for Entertainment Weekly praised " I Got You " , along with " Happy " , as they allowed Echo to redeem itself from the " soppy balladry and standard @-@ issue dancery " present on the rest of the album . Greenblatt 's only criticism was that " it can be difficult to connect with the woman who wields it . " Mayer Nissim for Digital Spy awarded the song three stars out of a possible five ; Nissim was complimentary of Lewis 's vocal performance , which he described as " effortless " in the verses and that she belts out the chorus with " gusto . " However , Nissim was critical of the song 's production , writing that although Lewis sings with conviction , it is not as memorable as other ballads . He continued to write that her voice will allow the song to chart fairly well , and that she should collaborate with other producers to make more memorable songs . Fraser McAline for the BBC awarded the song three stars out of a possible five ; McAlpine noted that although Lewis is able to provide " some kind of musical movement , by wandering off the path set down by the song , " he was critical of the songs structure , and labeled it as " lazy . "
= = Chart performance = =
" I Got You " failed to achieve commercial success , and managed to peak inside the top 50 singles charts in most regions . In the United Kingdom , the song debuted at number 127 on the UK Singles Chart on 6 February 2010 , two weeks before its release as single . It debuted inside the official top 40 at number 40 on 27 February 2010 , and leap to its peak position of number 14 the following week . It managed to attain more success on the UK R & B Chart ; it debuted inside to top 40 R & B singles at number 40 on 6 February 2010 , and reached its peak of number three on 6 March 2010 . In Ireland , " I Got You " debuted at number 47 on 25 February 2010 , and reached a peak of number 43 the following week . Elsewhere , " I Got You " peaked at number 30 in Austria , number 20 in the Flanders region of Belgium , number 13 on the singles chart and number 30 on the airplay chart in the Wallonia region of Belgium , number 43 in Germany , number 29 in New Zealand , and number 57 in Switzerland .
= = Music video = =
" I Got You " ' s accompanying music video was directed by Dave Meyers , and shot at Venice Beach , California on 21 December 2009 . The content of the video revolves around " several couples as they deal with the ups and downs of relationships . " Prior to the release of the video , Lewis tweeted " It 's a strong , cool performance , lots of actors with a movie feel to it . I 'm so proud of it and hope you love it – enjoy ! " . The video was released on 12 February 2010 . In the video , scenes of Lewis performing in front of a heart engulfed in flames , as well as sitting on an apartment floor barefoot , are intercut throughout the video amongst the narrative of the video . The video shows several couples ending their relationships , showing many of them are who angry and cannot cope with the heartbreak , but progresses to show how they manage to rebuild their relationships with one and other , ending with images suggesting healing , happiness and new relationships .
= = Live performances = =
Lewis performed " I Got You " for the first at a one @-@ off private concert at the Hackney Empire in London , United Kingdom , on 2 November 2009 , which served as a taster show to Lewis 's The Labyrinth ( 2010 ) . On 2 December 2009 , the singer performed the song on The National Lottery Draws . The following day on 3 December 2009 , Lewis on the BBC Radio 2 show Live Sessions with Ken Bruce , as part of a set list which included " Bleeding Love " , " Better in Time " , " Happy " and a her own cover of Oasis 's " Stop Crying Your Heart Out " . On 15 December 2009 , to coincide with the songs radio release in the United States , Lewis performed the song on the Late Show with David Letterman . On 21 January 2010 , Lewis appeared on BBC Radio 1 's Live Lounge where she performed " I Got You " as well as covering Oasis ' " Stop Crying Your Heart Out " for a second time , and also gave an interview as to why she decided to cover that song . On 6 February 2010 , Lewis performed " I Got You " on the semi @-@ final of So You Think You Can Dance on 6 February 2010 . Lewis also performed the song to coincide with the official release in the UK on GMTV on 22 February 2010 , Promotion of the song ended with a performance and interview The Alan Titchmarsh Show on 26 February 2010 . In late May 2010 , the song was included in the setlist for Lewis 's first concert tour , The Labyrinth .
= = Track listing = =
Digital Download
" I Got You " – 3 : 46
" Heartbeat " – 3 : 51
= = Credits and personnel = =
" Heartbeat " credits adapted from " I Got You " CD single , and " I Got You " credits adapted from the liner notes of Echo , Syco Music , J Records , Sony Music .
= = Charts = =
= = Release history = =
|
= Oliver P. Morton =
Oliver Hazard Perry Throck Morton ( August 4 , 1823 – November 1 , 1877 ) , commonly known as Oliver P. Morton , was a U.S. Republican Party politician from Indiana . He served as the 14th Governor of Indiana during the American Civil War , and was a stalwart ally of President Abraham Lincoln . During the war , Morton thwarted and neutralized the Democratic @-@ controlled Indiana General Assembly . He exceeded his constitutional authority by calling out the militia without approval , and during the period of legislative suppression he privately financed the state government through unapproved federal and private loans . He was criticized for arresting and detaining political enemies and suspected southern sympathizers . As one of President Lincoln 's " war governors " , Morton made signification contributions to the war effort , more than any other man in the state , and earned the lifelong gratitude of former Union soldiers for his support .
During his second term as governor , and after being partially paralyzed by a stroke , he was elected to serve in the U.S. Senate . He was a leader among the Radical Republicans of the Reconstruction era , and supported numerous bills designed to reform the former Southern Confederacy . In 1877 , during his second term in the Senate , Morton suffered a second debilitating stroke that caused a rapid deterioration in his health ; he died later that year . Morton was mourned nationally and his funeral procession was witnessed by thousands . He is buried in Indianapolis 's Crown Hill Cemetery .
= = Early life = =
= = = Family and background = = =
Morton was an Indiana native born in Wayne County near the small settlement of Salisbury on August 4 , 1823 , to James Throck and Sarah Miller Morton . His grandfather had shortened the family 's surname , Throckmorton , to Morton , but the males in the family carried Throck as a middle name . He was named for Oliver Hazard Perry , the victorious Commodore in the Battle of Lake Erie . Morton disliked his name from an early age , and before beginning his political career he shortened it to Oliver Perry Morton , dropping the middle names of Hazard and Throck . His mother died when he was three , and he was raised by his maternal grandparents . He spent most of his young life living with them in Ohio .
Morton returned to eastern Indiana as a young man , and joined his family at Centerville . Leaving school at the age of fifteen , Morton briefly worked as an apothecary 's clerk , but left after a dispute with the proprietor and apprenticed as a hat maker . After four years in the hat @-@ making business he became dissatisfied and quit to enroll at Miami University in Oxford , Ohio , where he studied for two years , and briefly attended Cincinnati College to continue his law studies . In 1845 he returned to Centerville and was admitted to the Indiana bar in 1846 . Morton formed a law practice with Judge Newman and became a successful and moderately wealthy attorney . Morton married Lucinda Burbank in 1845 . The couple had five children , but only two survived infancy .
= = = Early political career = = =
In 1852 Morton campaigned and was elected to serve as a circuit court judge , but resigned after only a year ; he found that he preferred to practice law . By 1854 he was active in Indiana politics . Initially , Morton was an anti @-@ slavery Democrat , but living in a region dominated by the Whig Party he had little hope of furthering a political career without changing his party affiliation . Passage of the Kansas @-@ Nebraska Act ( 1854 ) , which repealed the Missouri Compromise 's ban on slavery in the western territories , beyond Missouri , had a divisive effect on both parties . As the Democrats divided over the issue , Morton took a stand with the Free Soil supporters and opposed the Act . Under the influence of U.S. Senator Jesse D. Bright , the state 's Democrats expel its anti @-@ slavery members , including Morton , from the Indiana state convention in 1854 . That same year Morton joined with other political factions to form the People 's party , the forerunner to the state 's Republican party .
By February 1856 Morton had made his way to the newly formed Republican party at the national level as a member of the resolutions committee to the preliminary national convention that met in Pittsburgh . He also served as a delegate to the 1856 Republican National Convention in Philadelphia . Thirty @-@ two @-@ year @-@ old Morton became the People 's / Republican candidate for governor of Indiana in 1856 . His Democratic opponent was Ashbel P. Willard , a popular state senator . Despite a hard @-@ fought campaign that for the first time brought Morton to the attention of voters around the state , Willard defeated him in the general election by fewer than 6 @,@ 000 votes , amid charges on both sides of fraudulent voting . Radical Republican George W. Julian , who detested Morton , contended that Morton did not take a strong enough position against slavery , and , as conservative former Whigs claimed , he had been too lenient on the issue in a state where southern @-@ born residents wanted nothing to do with blacks or abolitionism . Despite these criticisms , Morton 's anti @-@ slavery speeches made him popular among the Republicans in Indiana . Noted for his " plain and convincing " manner of speaking , Morton 's contemporaries said he was not " eloquent or witty " , but rather " logical and reasonable " .
By 1858 , the People 's party had officially adopted the name of Republican , and in 1860 the Republicans nominated Morton for lieutenant governor of Indiana on a ticket with the more conservative former Whig , Henry S. Lane , as its gubernatorial candidate . Savvy Republican politicians thought that Morton would be seen as too radical and could not carry the former Know @-@ Nothing vote in the southern half of the state , while a man of Whig antecedents like Lane would . Because both men had strong support within the party , and neither had much desire to make open war on one another , a compromise was arranged , giving Lane the gubernatorial nomination and Morton the nomination for lieutenant governor . Both nominees understood that if they carried the state and a Republican majority was elected to the state legislature in the fall , the Indiana General Assembly would choose Lane for a seat in the U.S. Senate and Morton would become the successor to the Indiana governorship . The campaign focused primarily on the prevailing issues of the nation , including homesteading legislation , tariffs , and the looming possibility of civil war . Lane and Morton won in the state 's general election and the Republicans gained control of the state legislature . As it had been pre @-@ arranged with the candidates , on the day after Lane 's inauguration as governor , the General Assembly chose him to fill a U.S. Senate seat . Lane resigned immediately and Morton succeeded him to become the fourteenth governor of Indiana on January 18 , 1861 , and its first governor to be born in the state .
= = Governor = =
= = = War effort = = =
Morton served as governor of Indiana for six years ( 1861 – 1867 ) and strongly supported the Union during the Civil War . While others urged compromise and conciliation , Morton demanded an end to concession discussions , with no further compromise , and , if necessary , the use of force to preserve the Union . In a speech he delivered on November 22 , 1860 , Morton declared : " If it is worth a bloody struggle to establish this nation , it is worth one to preserve it . " He was also a staunch supporter of President Abraham Lincoln 's conduct of the war . Morton , who was not in favor of conciliation , believed his role as Indiana 's governor was " to denounce treason and uphold the cause of the Union . "
Morton also believed that war was inevitable and began to prepare the state for its outbreak during his early tenure as governor . Morton appointed men to positions in state government who opposed any compromise with the southern states . He also established without legislative permission a state arsenal , where up to 700 men produced ammunition , and made many other preparations for the impending war .
Three days after the war began on April 12 , 1861 , at the Battle of Fort Sumter in South Carolina , Governor Morton telegraphed President Lincoln offering 10 @,@ 000 volunteers from Indiana under arms to help suppress the rebellion . By the end of April , about 12 @,@ 000 Hoosier volunteers had signed up to fight for the Union , exceeding the state 's initial quota of six regiments ( 4 @,@ 683 men ) . In a special session of the Indiana General Assembly held on April 24 , 1861 , Morton called for Indiana 's politicians to set aside party considerations and unite in defense of the Union . He also received the state legislature 's authority to borrow and spend funds to purchase arms and supplies for Indiana 's troops .
Among Lincoln 's " war governors " , who were critically important in the early prosecution of the war , " no governor played his role more valiantly or effectively than did Morton . " Although Morton 's efforts were not without controversy and garnered significant opposition from his political adversaries , his greatest strength during the war was his ability to raise volunteers and money for the Union army and to equip them for battle . Morton also successfully suppressed Indiana 's Confederate sympathizers . As the leader of the Republicans in the state , he confronted the Peace Democrats , especially the " Copperheads " .
Lincoln and Morton maintained a close alliance during the war , although Lincoln was wary at times of Morton 's ruthlessness . Lincoln also recognized the Indiana governor had significant fears , once remarking that Morton was " a good fellow , but at times he is the skeeredest person I know . " Morton was especially afraid that Kentucky , across the Ohio River from Indiana 's southern border , would secede from the Union and pose a threat to Indiana 's security .
Morton went to great lengths to ensure that Indiana contributed as much as possible to the war effort . He was not afraid to criticize others if he felt Indiana 's interests were being overlooked . Morton frequently clashed with federal authorities and military leaders over recruitment policies , regimental assignments , appointment of military leaders , purchases of supplies , and the care given to sick and wounded soldiers , among other issues . Although he wanted Indiana to receive as much recognition as other states , Morton 's political opponents often challenged his efforts . Governor Morton once complained to Lincoln that " no other free state is so populated with southerners " , which he believed kept him from being as forceful as he wanted to be .
In 1862 Morton attended the Loyal War Governors ' Conference in Altoona , Pennsylvania , organized by Pennsylvania Governor Andrew Gregg Curtin , that gave Lincoln the support needed for his Emancipation Proclamation . Emancipation and the conscription of men to fight a protracted war became major issues that divided Republicans and Democrats during Morton 's tenure as governor .
= = = Conflict with the General Assembly = = =
Although Morton was able to keep the state united during the first phase of the war , once emancipation became an issue in 1862 , the Republicans suffered a major defeat in the mid @-@ term elections , and Morton lost the support of the strong Democratic majority in the legislature . Before the new legislature convened in 1863 , Morton began circulating reports that the Democrats intended to seize control of the state government , secede from the Union , and instigate riots . The Democrats responded with harsh criticisms of Morton and Lincoln , the conduct of the war , and the issues of emancipation and the loss of constitutional rights , among others . Accusations on both sides created a tense atmosphere that only worsened relation between the two parties and guaranteed further confrontations .
Morton had already made several unconstitutional moves by acting on his own authority without legislative approval , including the establishment of the state arsenal , and the Democrats drafted legislation that attempted to reduce his authority . When Democrats in the state legislature sought to remove the state militia from Morton 's command and transfer it to a state board of Democratic commissioners , the governor immediately disbanded the Indiana General Assembly . He feared that once in control of militia , the Democrats might attempt to force him from office and secede from the Union . Morton issued secret instructions to Republican legislators , asking them to stay away from Indianapolis , the state capital , to prevent the General Assembly from attaining the quorum needed to pass any legislation . All but four Republicans fled to Madison , Indiana , where they could quickly flee into Kentucky if the Democrats attempted to force their return to Indianapolis .
Without the enactment of an appropriations bill , the state government would not have funds to operate , and the Democrats assumed that Morton would be forced to call a special session and recall the Republicans . The Democrats hoped to once again press their measures to weaken the governor , but Morton was aware of their plans . Going beyond his constitutional powers , Morton solicited millions of dollars in federal and private loans . Morton 's move to subvert the state legislature was successful ; he was able to privately fund the state government and the war effort in Indiana . Former Hoosier James Lanier of the New York banking firm of Winslow , Lanier and Company loaned Morton funds to pay interest on the state 's debt until the state government could resume its revenue collecting efforts .
Morton 's moves caused considerable rage among the Democrats , who launched a vicious attack on the governor . He responded by accusing his Democratic opponents of treason . Following the suppression of the General Assembly in 1862 , Morton asked General Henry B. Carrington for assistance in organizing the state 's levies for service . He also established an intelligence network under Carrington 's leadership to deal with rebel sympathizers affiliated with the Knights of the Golden Circle , and , beginning in 1863 , the American Knights , which merged with the Sons of Liberty . Members of these secret groups included Democrats and others who supported states @-@ rights and opposed the Union cause during the war . Carrington succeeded in keeping the state secure , but his operatives also carried out arbitrary arrests , suppressed freedom of speech and freedom of association , and generally maintained repressive control over the southern @-@ sympathetic minority . In an incident that would later be referred to as the Battle of Pogue 's Run , Morton had soldiers disrupt a Democratic state convention , where many leaders of the Democratic Party were arrested , detained , or threatened . Morton also urged pro @-@ war Democrats to abandon their party in the name of unity for the duration of the war , and met with some success . Former governor Joseph A. Wright was among the Democrats who had been expelled from the party in 1854 , and in an attempt to show his bipartisanship , Morton appointed him to the U.S. Senate .
In reaction to Morton 's actions against dissenters , the Indiana Democratic Party called Morton a " Dictator " and an " Underhanded Mobster . " Republicans countered that the Democrats were using " treasonable and obstructionist tactics in the conduct of the war " . Morton illegally — without approval from the state legislature — called out the state militia in July 1863 to counter Morgan 's Raid , an incident where Confederate raiders under Confederate General John Hunt Morgan crossed the Ohio River into southern Indiana . Large @-@ scale support for the Confederacy among Golden Circle members and southern Hoosiers in general declined after Morgan 's raiders ransacked many homes bearing the banners of the Golden Circle , despite their proclaimed support for the Confederate cause . After Hoosiers failed to support Morgan 's troops in significant numbers , Morton slowed his crackdown on Confederate sympathizers within the state , theorizing that because the Copperheads had failed to come to Morgan 's aid in large numbers , they would similarly fail to aid a larger invasion .
Despite his controversial actions , one notable thing historians record from this period during Morton 's first term as governor was the honesty with which the government was run . All of the borrowed money was accounted for with no political corruption and repaid in the years after the war . It was by these honest actions that Morton was able to avoid repercussions when the state legislature reconvened after Morton 's reelection , this time with a new Republican majority .
= = = Second term = = =
In 1864 the war was nearing its end , but many Hoosiers were war weary and saw no end in sight as they prepared for the state 's next gubernatorial election . Indiana 's constitution prohibited a governor to serve more than four years in any eight @-@ year period , but Morton was elected as Indiana 's lieutenant governor in 1860 and had only been completing Lane 's term , so he claimed that was eligible to run for governor in the upcoming election . The Democrats were furious and launched a bitter campaign against Morton , who did not do a great deal of campaigning . Instead , he successfully returned about 9 @,@ 000 active @-@ duty soldiers home on leave to vote in the election , presumably for Morton , " the soldier 's friend " , and his fellow Republicans .
Morton was reelected to office , defeating Democrat and longtime friend Joseph McDonald by more than 20 @,@ 000 votes . Although the campaign was conducted in time of war , with both parties strongly opposing the other , both Morton and McDonald remained friends after the campaign and later served together in the U.S. Senate . Many Democrats claimed that Morton had rigged the election because Republicans retook the majority in both houses of the Assembly .
Morton was partially crippled by a paralytic stroke in October 1865 which incapacitated him for a time . For treatment , Morton traveled to Europe where he sought the assistance of several specialists , but none were able to help his paralysis . During his recovery , Lieutenant Governor Conrad Baker served as acting governor . With the war ending , Baker oversaw the demobilization of most of the state 's forces . Morton returned to the governorship in March 1866 , but he was never again able to walk without assistance .
= = Senator = =
= = = First term = = =
In 1867 , Morton was elected by the Indiana General Assembly to serve as a U.S. Senator . He resigned from his post as governor that same year and turned over the leadership of the state government to Lieutenant Governor Baker . In the U.S. Senate , Morton became a member of the foreign affairs committee and quickly grew to become a Republican leader . He was also made chairman of the Committee of Privileges and Elections . Because of his stroke , Morton always sat while delivering his speeches , but he was noted by other senators for his effectiveness in speaking and debating .
Morton 's close observers saw a man of untiring activity , " of unfaltering determination , quick as well as far @-@ seeing ... " Restless and full of energy , one newspaper commentated , " He accommodated himself with a kind of cynical indifference to his crippled body , as to a house badly out of repair , and dragged it about with him as a snail does a shell . " As a U.S. Senator , " he excused himself from no duties ; acted as chairman and member of several committees ; was never absent from his seat , and was ready for debate at all times . "
Unfriendly sources described Morton in exceedingly negative terms . " With a superabundance of the quality called ' force , ' Senator Morton possesses one of the most terrible natures in public life , " and as news correspondent George Alfred Townsend described him : " A dark , determined , brooding and desperate mind is reflected in his warthy complexion and introspective eyes . His powerful frame , prematurely wrecked , yet carrying alive the savage will , towers on his crutch , and in his very hobble is the tyrant 's pace .... He wants to be terrible for the sake of freedom . His conscience and fortitude are thus fed from his fanaticism . Like all bloody bigots , he thinks he feels God 's mercy moving in him . "
Morton , who served in the U.S. Senate during Reconstruction , supported much of the Radical Republican program for re @-@ making the former Confederate states . Early in his first term , Morton supported legislation to eliminate all civil government in the southern states and impose a military government . He also supported legislation to void the southern states ' constitutions — in nearly every case imposed in 1865 without being submitted to the voters — and to require elections for representatives to state constitutional conventions that would be charged with writing new ones . In addition , he voted in favor of provisions declaring that the new state constitutions would go into effect only if adopted by a majority of registered voters , not just those voting in the special elections that called for the constitutions ' adoption . At the same time , he favored stringent restrictions on former Confederates who were permitted to vote , in particular those who had taken an oath to support the United States Constitution , and had served the Confederate States of America in a political office or in its military .
During the impeachment trial of President Andrew Johnson , Morton voted in favor of conviction , as did most moderate and all Radical Republicans , and openly voiced his disappointment at Johnson 's acquittal . Although Morton delivered a speech in the fall of 1865 arguing that the recently freed slaves were unready for the vote , and once worked to end Indiana 's so @-@ called " Black Laws " that restricted blacks ' basic civil rights , and the state constitutional provision forbidding their entry into the state , he reversed his position after the war . By 1866 Morton had come to share the general Republican belief that the only means of guaranteeing loyalty to governments protective of black civil rights must be through giving adult males of every race the franchise . As he explained , " I confess , and I do it without shame , that I have been educated by the great events of War . " He championed the passage of the Fifteenth Amendment , and when the Democrats began to resign en masse from the Senate during its debate to prevent a quorum , Morton engineered a maneuver that kept the bill in the docket and allowed it to be passed .
U.S. Senator George Frisbie Hoar once judged Morton as a man with " little regard for Constitutional scruples . " Not that Morton would have willfully flouted his oath to uphold the U.S. Constitution , but Hoar added , " he believed that the Constitution should be interpreted in the light of the Declaration of Independence , so as to be the law of life to a great , powerful , and free people . To this principle of interpretation , all strict or narrow criticism , founded on its literal meaning , must yield . " If so , Hoar 's assessment put Morton in the same category as U.S. Senator Charles Sumner , who openly declared the Declaration 's decree that all men were created equal the defining words by which all constitutional duty should be judged .
After President @-@ elect Ulysses S. Grant 's inauguration in 1869 , Morton became one of the Grant administration 's most able and reliable floor leaders . Morton helped shepherd through the bill readmitting Virginia to representation in Congress and voted in favor of the treaty annexing Santo Domingo to the United States . Later , he countered Senate Foreign Relations Committee chairman Charles Sumner of Massachusetts in a bitter debate over the president 's motives and intentions towards the Caribbean nation and its people . In the Senate Morton argued in favor of the Enforcement Act ( 1871 ) , also known as the so @-@ called Ku @-@ Klux Act , that gave the president expanded power to oppose terrorism in the Deep South . Morton , known as a masterful waver of the " bloody shirt " , was unstinting in his efforts to connect the Democrats to wartime treason and peacetime violence , and generally could be relied on to provide a ready and strong defense of the federal government 's right to intervene and enforce the protection of the civil rights of black Americans . Morton championed the right of Louisiana 's black leader , Pinckney B. S. Pinchback , to a seat in the U.S. Senate , although the effort was unsuccessful . Morton voted for the Civil Rights Act of 1875 , and had his strongest support in 1876 among black Republicans in an increasingly " solid South " .
The Grant administration , who recognized Morton as a powerful friend , offered him the position of Minister to Great Britain , replacing John Lothrop Motley , but Morton declined . Because the Indiana General Assembly was controlled by the Democrats , Morton feared a Democrat would be elected to his U.S. Senate seat . In 1874 similar concerns caused him to refuse invitations to accept a nomination to the Supreme Court of the United States . ( Later , Grant recalled that concerns over Morton 's ill health alone had kept him from proposing Morton for Chief Justice , but Grant may have mistaken . Well @-@ advised sources at the time heard that the Senator from Indiana had been offered a place on the Supreme Court , unofficially , and Justice David Davis took the credit for convincing Grant that the rigor of the job would cause Morton a physical breakdown ) .
= = = Second term = = =
Morton was reelected to the U.S. Senate in 1873 , and began his second term in 1874 . His stand on paper money added to his controversial reputation . During a time of serious economic hardship and deflation , Morton favored a bill that would have added more paper currency to the money supply . He began his second term by leading the Senate 's support for an inflation bill that President Grant vetoed . Morton 's action was politically astute . In Indiana the demands for easy money topped the Democrats ' list of priority issues , and in the fall of 1874 , they carried the state 's elections largely on that basis . However , within a year , Morton joined other Republicans in supporting the Specie Payment Resumption Act , which effectively suspended new currency issues and gave the U.S. Secretary of the Treasury the authority to withdraw currency from circulation .
In 1876 Morton was a contender for the Republican nomination for president at the party 's National Convention in Cincinnati , Ohio . Richard W. Thompson offered Morton 's name to the delegation at a nominee , but Morton 's position on issuing paper money to inflate the currency , combined with his failing health , hurt his bid for the nomination among the convention delegates . However , neither of these issues made as much difference as Morton 's association with the deeply discredited and scandal @-@ ridden Grant administration . Morton 's nomination would have made the Republicans vulnerable on both the Reconstruction and corruption issues . In addition , Grant 's supporters had an alternative choice in U.S. Senator Roscoe Conkling of New York . Between the two nominees , the " stalwart " Republican bloc was divided , with no prospect of coming together because Conkling and Morton detested one another . When the balloting began , Morton 's vote total placed him second to James G. Blaine , but Morton had slipped to fourth place by the sixth ballot . Blaine 's opponents could only stop Morton 's nomination by uniting behind a candidate acceptable to reform @-@ minded delegates and the stalwart bloc . On the seventh ballot nearly all the anti @-@ Blaine delegates , including Morton 's , united to give Rutherford B. Hayes the Republican nomination .
Morton ranked as one of the strongest members of the so @-@ called " stalwart " faction of the Republican party : those members most deeply committed to protecting and preserving Republican governments in the South . Not surprisingly , during the winter of 1876 @-@ 77 , Morton was among the most aggressive supporters of Hayes 's right to the presidency in a close election . When Morton was placed on the Electoral Commission , the group that determined the outcome of the election , there was never any doubt that his vote would be cast for Hayes . After Hayes 's supporters made overtures to southern Democrats , offering assurances that the president @-@ elect would take no active role in propping up Republican governors in Louisiana and South Carolina , there were fears that Morton might cause difficulties . In one speech Morton made it clear that the Democrats must make guarantees of fair play and equal rights for southern blacks , before he would support Hayes 's program . The guarantees were given , or at least promises were made . To the general surprise of many , Hayes 's policy withdrew military support from the Republican governments in those two states , and Morton proved to be one of the president 's strongest defenders , urging that his fellow Republicans show patience and give the so @-@ called " New Departure " time to prove itself .
= = = Death = = =
In 1877 Morton was named to lead a committee to investigate charges of bribery made against La Fayette Grover , a newly elected U.S. Senator from Oregon . The committee spent eighteen days in Oregon holding hearings and investigations . On the return trip , Morton detoured to San Francisco for a rest and visit . After dinner on the night of August 6 , Morton suffered a severe stroke that paralyzed the left side of his body . The next day he was taken by train to Cheyenne , Wyoming Territory , where he was met by his brother @-@ in @-@ law , John A. Burbank , the former governor of the Dakota Territory . Morton was accompanied by him to the home of his mother @-@ in @-@ law in Richmond , Indiana , where he stayed until October 15 , then he was moved to his own home in Indianapolis to recover . He remained at Indianapolis , surrounded by his family , until his death on November 1 , 1877 .
Morton 's remains were laid in state at the Indiana Statehouse , before their removal to Indianapolis 's Roberts Park Methodist Church , where his funeral service was held . The service was attended by many dignitaries from across the United States , and President Hayes ordered all flags to half @-@ staff . Because the church could not hold the large crowd , thousands of mourners waited outside and followed in a long procession to witness the burial at Indianapolis 's Crown Hill Cemetery .
= = Legacy = =
Morton remains " the most powerful , important , and controversial governor in Indiana history . " To his admirers and supporters , Morton was a decisive , effective , ambitious , and energetic leader as governor of Indiana during the Civil War ; his detractors would describe him as a wily and power @-@ hungry politician , who shifted his stance on issues to suit prevailing views for his own political gain . Although his tactics were controversial , and on occasion unconstitutional , he remained a dominant political figure from 1861 to 1877 . As one of Lincoln 's " war governors " , Morton was most successful in recruiting and equipping Union troops during the Civil War , and became known as " the soldier 's friend " , in tribute to his crucial efforts in supplying and supporting the Union soldiers in the field . Morton was also known for standing firm against his political opponents , whom he often antagonized by his ruthlessness , and they frequently responded with severe criticism of his actions .
= = = Policies and criticism = = =
Morton had many critics during his long tenure in government service . They derided the manner in which he ran Indiana 's state government during the Civil War and criticized his open suppression of the freedom of speech , arrests and detentions of his political opponents , and violations of the state and federal constitutions on more than one occasion . Morton justified his forceful actions as " a necessary wartime measure " to protect Indiana and defend the Union . In the U.S. Senate he became one of the foremost defenders of Republican governments in the southern states . Recent historiography of Reconstruction has found Morton among the most consistent supporters of the cause of equal justice under the law .
Morton was a formidable personality , detested by his enemies , and vilified in opposition newspapers . According to one account , Morton had no leavening wit , no humor , no breadth of intellect , no sparkle of conversation , to attract those who disagreed with him politically . Another Republican was said to have declared , " His presence is a deadly poison " and " He is a sphinx ; and I am repressed into dumbness when trying to hold a conversation with that man . " According to a southern newspaper that opposed his actions , Morton was " a vice @-@ reeking Hoosier bundle of moral and physical rottenness , leprous ulcers and caustic bandages , who loads down with plagues and pollutions the wings of every breeze that sweeps across his loathsome putrefying carcass . " Other critics and political opponents called him a tyrant and a bully , highlighting his ruthlessness in denouncing , even defaming his enemies , and spreading rumors that he had been a shameless womanizer , forcing himself on every female applicant for favor at the governor 's mansion . One Democratic journalist wrote , " There is not , probably , in this country , a more conscienceless , corrupt , and utterly profligate man in public life than Morton " and " He is rotten physically , morally and politically . " It was even alleged that his paralysis came from some unspeakable social disease , brought on by his habits . When the Senator declared himself in favor of woman suffrage , the Saint Paul Pioneer was not surprised . " Why shouldn 't Morton espouse the woman 's cause ? " it asked . " It is woman that has made him what he is -- so the gossips say . "
None of his critics could make charges of corruption stick . Senator Morton was among the earliest to refuse any share in the so @-@ called " back pay " that Congress awarded its members in 1873 , and returned his money to the U.S. Treasury as soon as it was given to him . Morton was untouched by the Crédit Mobilier scandal . A hostile Democratic House scoured the official files for some evidence of bribe @-@ taking or shakedowns in awarding Civil War contracts , and came up empty @-@ handed . For others , despite holding many positions that angered his opponents , Morton was highly regarded for remaining clean of graft during the war period when corruption was commonplace . For his honest conduct he was offered the thanks of the Indiana General Assembly and others on numerous occasions . After Morton learned that President Grant had nominated his son , John M. Morton , for Registrar of the Land Office in Dakota Territory , the Senator immediately wrote to ask that the selection be withdrawn , protest that he could not afford to have any relative appointed to any political office .
After the poor decision @-@ making of Senators Jesse D. Bright and Graham N. Fitch , Morton succeeded in raising Indiana to national prominence during his lifetime . The state and its citizens were once the common subject of jokes to the eastern states , but much of that ceased after the Civil War .
= = = Memorials = = =
Morton is memorialized in the United States Capitol as one of Indiana 's two statues in the National Statuary Hall Collection . A statue of Governor Morton serves as the Indiana State Memorial at Vicksburg National Military Park in Vicksburg , Mississippi , in honor of his role as a powerful wartime governor .
There are two statues of Morton in downtown Indianapolis . A statue on the east side of the Indiana Statehouse , facing Capitol Avenue , by sculptor Rudolf Schwarz was dedicated in 1907 . The other statue , created by sculptor Frank Simmons , was installed in 1864 on Monument Circle , when it served as a city park , and was moved to its new location to become part of the Circle 's Indiana Soldiers ' and Sailors ' Monument around 1899 .
A statue of Morton stands on the second floor of the Wayne County Courthouse in Richmond , Indiana , where a previous high school was named for him ; the central section of the current high school is named Morton Hall in his honor . Morton Senior High School in Hammond , Indiana , home of the Morton Governors , is named after him . The annual yearbook of Centerville Senior High School in Centerville , Indiana , is called The Mortonian in honor of Gov. Morton . Morton County , Kansas , and Morton County , North Dakota , are named in his honor .
The Oliver P. Morton House at Centerville was added to the National Register of Historic Places in 1975 .
|
= Marc Pugh =
Marc Anthony Pugh ( born 2 April 1987 ) is an English professional footballer who plays for Premier League club Bournemouth . He plays mainly as a winger but can also play as a midfielder .
Pugh started his career with Burnley , where he progressed through the youth system . He was released by the club having made his first team while on loan at Kidderminster Harriers and signed a short @-@ term contract with Bury in 2006 . Pugh later signed a professional contract at the club and after rejecting an extended contract in 2007 he signed for Shrewsbury Town . He was loaned out to Luton Town and Hereford United , joining the latter permanently in 2009 .
Pugh left Hereford after one season to sign for Bournemouth in 2010 , where he was top scorer in his first two seasons . He won promotion from League One in 2013 and the Championship two years later , making over 200 appearances for the club . Pugh has played and scored in all five of England 's nationwide football divisions .
= = Career = =
= = = Burnley = = =
Pugh started his career with First Division club Burnley where , at a young age , he started as a Centre of Excellence player , and gradually worked his way up through the ranks to become an apprentice in 2003 . As a first year apprentice he played for the youth and reserve teams and due to his great goalscoring record , which led to him being named on the bench for two first team matches in the League Cup , they decided to keep him on for a third year . As a third year apprentice he scored 15 goals for the club 's reserve and youth team . This led to him to being loaned out to Kidderminster Harriers of the Conference National in November 2005 to play first team football . He made his debut for Kidderminster after coming on as an 86th minute substitute in a 3 – 1 defeat to Stevenage Borough . He converted a Simon Heslop cross during a match against Dagenham & Redbridge to score his first career goal , which helped Kidderminster to a 3 – 1 victory . Also , during a match he displayed a smart piece of skill which involved flicking the ball over an opponents head with his heel , then crossing the ball in for a teammate to score ; this move was featured on Soccer AM 's showboating section .
He returned to Burnley on 13 December 2005 after picking up a groin injury , but returned to Kidderminster for a second loan spell on 7 January 2006 . This spell ended on 26 January 2006 so Pugh could concentrate on his career at Burnley , having made 10 appearances and scored 1 goal while at Kidderminster . He learned that he would not receive a professional contract at Burnley in February 2006 , which was partly because both Chris McCann and Kyle Lafferty had both already received professional contracts and they were only second year apprentices .
= = = Bury = = =
Having just been released from Burnley , Pugh signed for League Two side Bury on a short @-@ term contract on 23 March 2006 , following a three @-@ week trial . Bury were entangled in a relegation battle , and Pugh made his debut two days later after coming on as an 80th @-@ minute substitute for Lewis Gobern in a 2 – 1 home win over Rochdale . He marked his first start for Bury with a goal from 10 yards in a 1 – 1 away draw with Lincoln City on 15 April 2006 , after which manager Chris Casper commented " Mark 's a good player and he 's got a bright future if he keeps his feet on the ground " . He finished the 2005 – 06 season by playing six games and scoring one goal for the club . As a result of his good performances , and helped by the fact that Bury had survived relegation in 18th @-@ place , Bury manager Chris Casper offered him a new one @-@ year contract at Gigg Lane ; his first professional contract .
Pugh was a regular first @-@ team player in 2006 – 07 , playing particularly well in the first half of the season , and was offered an extended contract at the club in January 2007 . Pugh rejected this in February 2007 , saying he " wanted to keep his options open " . Casper revealed his disappointment at this and Pugh later said financial reasons were his motivation to reject a new contract . He was offered renewed contracts throughout the season but still took none of them , which Casper blamed on his agent . Pugh finished 2006 – 07 with 41 appearances and 4 goals for Bury ; they finished in 21st @-@ place in League Two .
= = = Shrewsbury Town = = =
With many clubs interested in his services , Pugh signed for fellow League Two side Shrewsbury Town on 29 May 2007 for a compensation fee . Shrewsbury manager Gary Peters revealed that he had already attempted to sign him earlier in the season as part of a swap deal when striker Glynn Hurst moved to Bury . He made his debut in a 4 – 0 away win over Lincoln City , setting up Andy Cooke for the third goal with a cross . He suffered an injury in November 2007 and underwent a scan , which was believed to be a cartilage problem . Days after discovering the results of the scan , which revealed he was suffering from acute tendinitis , he returned to training . He scored his first goal for Shrewsbury on his return in a 4 – 0 home victory over Dagenham & Redbridge , turning in a Marc Tierney cross in the 78th @-@ minute before assisting Tierney for Shrewsbury 's final goal . He scored a further two goals that season following the arrival of Paul Simpson as manager , and finished 2007 – 08 with 38 appearances and 4 goals , for a Shrewsbury side that ranked 18th @-@ place in League Two .
After struggling to feature in the team at the start of 2008 – 09 , Pugh joined fellow League Two side Luton Town on a one @-@ month loan on 12 September 2008 . His debut came in a 3 – 1 home win over Aldershot Town a day later , after which manager Mick Harford said " He is an out and out winger , and he put in some good crosses . But he hasn 't played a lot of football this season and he maybe faded a bit " . He returned to Shrewsbury after playing in four matches for Luton . He was loaned out to League One team Hereford United on 26 March 2009 , and made his debut two days later in a 1 – 0 home loss to Huddersfield Town . Pugh scored his first goal for Hereford with an equaliser against Hartlepool United on 4 April 2009 , to make the score 2 – 2 , although Hereford eventually lost 4 – 2 . He finished the loan spell with nine appearances and one goal , as Hereford were relegated after finishing bottom of League Two . He was released by Shrewsbury after having the remaining year of his contract cancelled on 26 June 2009 .
= = = Hereford United = = =
Pugh re @-@ joined Hereford on a permanent basis following their relegation into League Two , signing a one @-@ year contract on 30 June 2009 . Upon this move , he realised that he " needed to knuckle down and get on the football ladder now , because this could be my last opportunity " . He scored twice on his second debut for Hereford , the first from a long @-@ range shot in the 39th @-@ minute and the second a 90th @-@ minute equaliser , as they drew 2 – 2 away to Morecambe on 8 August 2009 . Pugh finished 2009 – 10 as Hereford 's top scorer with 13 goals in 46 appearances . His goals were credited with helping stabilise Hereford , as they finished in 16th @-@ place in League Two . He left Hereford at the end of the season after rejecting a new two @-@ year contract .
= = = Bournemouth = = =
On 4 June 2010 , Pugh signed for newly promoted League One team Bournemouth on a three @-@ year contract , for a compensation fee . The fee of £ 100 @,@ 000 , which was decided by a tribunal , was described as " quite excessive " by Bournemouth vice @-@ chairman Jeff Mostyn . Pugh made his debut on 7 August 2010 in a 1 – 0 away defeat to Charlton Athletic , and his first goal of 2010 – 11 came after heading in a Liam Feeney cross in a 5 – 1 home win over Peterborough United on 14 August . He was praised for a " virtuoso performance " by the Bournemouth Daily Echo . Pugh had a strong start to his Bournemouth career , and was leading the club 's goalscoring charts with six goals by mid @-@ October 2010 . Bournemouth qualified for the League One play @-@ offs with a sixth @-@ place finish , and Pugh played in both legs of their semi @-@ final with Huddersfield . They were eliminated after a 4 – 2 defeat on penalties , having drawn 4 – 4 on aggregate over the two legs . Pugh was Bournemouth 's top scorer in 2010 – 11 , with 13 goals from 47 appearances .
Pugh was one of Bournemouth 's most consistent players as they made an indifferent start to 2011 – 12 , having scored 4 goals from 11 appearances by mid @-@ September 2011 . Bournemouth opened contract talks with him in December 2011 , and he opted to bide his time over the offer of a new three @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half @-@ year deal to concentrate on his playing performances . Pugh finished 2011 – 12 as Bournemouth 's top scorer for the second season running , with 12 goals from 49 appearances , while they finished in 11th @-@ place in League One . He was voted the Bournemouth Daily Echo Supporters ' Player of the Year ; this newspaper described him as " a rare shining light during an up @-@ and @-@ down campaign " . He decided not to sign a new contract with Bournemouth in July 2012 , and the club was willing to listen to offers for him .
Pugh remained with Bournemouth for 2012 – 13 , with the club not receiving any offers for him over the summer of 2012 . He started the season in indifferent form , much like the rest of the team , and had a brief spell on the bench during September 2012 . He described Eddie Howe as a manager who " expects and demands the best " upon his re @-@ appointment at Bournemouth ; Pugh scored in the returning manager 's first match in charge , a 2 – 0 home win over Leyton Orient on 13 October 2012 . Pugh signed a new three @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half @-@ year contract with the club in November 2012 , tying him to the club until the summer of 2016 . He cited the return of Howe and Bournemouth 's promotion credentials as his reasons for signing a new contract . He established himself as an important player for Bournemouth in 2012 – 13 , as they pushed for promotion . They finished the season with promotion into the Championship as League One runners @-@ up , Pugh having contributed with 8 goals from 46 appearances .
He formed an effective partnership with fellow winger Ryan Fraser as Bournemouth enjoyed their best start to a season in the second tier in 2013 – 14 . Im mid @-@ November 2013 Pugh stated his belief that Bournemouth had made a " decent start " to the season ; by this point he had scored 4 goals from 16 appearances . He believed his playing intelligence improved by playing against more attack @-@ minded full @-@ backs in the Championship , saying that " They are still quick to react and you have got to use your brain a little bit more than in League One . It 's developed me as a player because you need to learn how to perform in different situations against different players " . Pugh made 45 appearances and scored 5 goals in 2013 – 14 as Bournemouth finished in 10th @-@ place in the Championship , which at the time was the highest league ranking in the club 's history .
In Bournemouth 's first match of 2014 – 15 , a 4 – 0 away win over Huddersfield on 9 August 2014 , Pugh opened the scoring after only 26 seconds with a composed finish from Matt Ritchie 's cross . On 25 October 2014 , Pugh played as Bournemouth beat Birmingham City 8 – 0 away to set a club record win , in which he second the first hat @-@ trick of his career in the second half . Pugh and full @-@ back Charlie Daniels formed a partnership on the left @-@ hand side of the pitch during 2014 – 15 , the duo starting all matches but one of a 14 @-@ match unbeaten run for Bournemouth . He scored the first goal in a 3 – 0 win over Bolton Wanderers on 27 April 2015 with a left @-@ footed shot into the top corner ; this result all but sealed Bournemouth 's promotion into the Premier League . He played in a 3 – 0 away win against Charlton on 2 May 2015 , which confirmed promotion and , thanks to Watford drawing their last match , the Championship title . This was the first time Bournemouth had been promoted into the top flight in the club 's 125 @-@ year history . Pugh was one of Bournemouth 's most consistent players in 2014 – 15 , and contributed with 9 goals from 44 matches .
Pugh scored his first Premier League goal in Bournemouth 's 4 – 3 away win over West Ham United on 22 August 2015 , with a curling shot past Darren Randolph in the 66th minute . This goal meant he had scored in each of the top five divisions of the English football league system . In November 2015 , Pugh signed a new two @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half @-@ year contract with Bournemouth , tying him to the club until the summer of 2018 .
= = Style of play = =
Pugh primarily plays as a winger but can also play as an attacking midfielder . He has been noted for his dribbling skills and his ability to get past opposition players , and in February 2015 was praised by manager Eddie Howe for adding " real intelligence with his movement " .
= = Personal life = =
Pugh was born in Bacup , Lancashire to Tony and Denise . He grew up in Stacksteads and attended All Saints ' Catholic High School , Rawtenstall . He is married to Laura , with whom he has two daughters .
= = Career statistics = =
As of match played 17 May 2016 .
= = Honours = =
Bournemouth
Football League One runner @-@ up : 2012 – 13
Football League Championship : 2014 – 15
|
= Rogers Hornsby =
Rogers Hornsby , Sr. ( April 27 , 1896 – January 5 , 1963 ) , nicknamed " The Rajah " , was an American baseball infielder , manager , and coach who played 23 seasons in Major League Baseball ( MLB ) . He played for the St. Louis Cardinals ( 1915 – 1926 , 1933 ) , New York Giants ( 1927 ) , Boston Braves ( 1928 ) , Chicago Cubs ( 1929 – 1932 ) , and St. Louis Browns ( 1933 – 1937 ) . Hornsby had 2 @,@ 930 hits and 301 home runs in his career ; his career .358 batting average is second only to Ty Cobb 's average . He was named the National League ( NL ) ' s Most Valuable Player ( MVP ) twice , and was a member of one World Series championship team .
Born and raised in Texas , Hornsby played for several semi @-@ professional and minor league teams . In 1915 , he began his major league career with the St. Louis Cardinals and remained with the team for 12 seasons ; during this period , Hornsby won his first MVP Award and the Cardinals won the 1926 World Series . After that season , he spent one season with the New York Giants and another with the Boston Braves before being traded to the Chicago Cubs . He played with the Cubs for four years and won his second MVP Award before the team released him in 1932 . Hornsby re @-@ signed with the Cardinals in 1933 , but was released partway through the season and was picked up by the St. Louis Browns . He remained there until his final season in 1937 . From 1925 to 1937 , Hornsby was intermittently his own manager . After retiring as a player , he managed the Browns in 1952 and the Cincinnati Reds from 1952 to 1953 .
Hornsby is one of the best hitters of all time . His career batting average of .358 is second only to Ty Cobb , at .367 , in MLB history . He also won two Triple Crowns and batted .400 or more three times during his career . He is the only player to hit 40 home runs and bat .400 in the same year ( 1922 ) . His batting average for the 1924 season was .424 , a mark that no player has matched since . He was elected to the National Baseball Hall of Fame in 1942 and the St. Louis Cardinals Hall of Fame in 2014 .
Hornsby married three times , in 1918 , 1924 , and 1957 , and had two children , one from each of his first two marriages .
Known as someone difficult to get along with , he was not at all well @-@ liked by his fellow players . He never smoked , drank , or went to the movies , but frequently gambled on horse races during his career .
= = Early life = =
Hornsby was born in Winters , Texas , the last of Ed and Mary ( Rogers ) Hornsby 's six children . When Hornsby was two years old , his father died of unknown causes . Four years later , the surviving Hornsbys moved to Fort Worth , Texas , so Hornsby 's brothers could get jobs in the meat packing industry to support the family .
Hornsby started playing baseball at a very young age ; he once said , " I can 't remember anything that happened before I had a baseball in my hand . " He took a job with the Swift and Company meat industry plant as a messenger boy when he was 10 years old , and he also served as a substitute infielder on its baseball team . By the age of 15 , Hornsby was already playing for several semi @-@ professional teams . He also played baseball for North Side High School until 10th grade , when he dropped out to take a full @-@ time job at Swift and Company . While he was in high school , Hornsby also played on the football team , alongside future College Football Hall of Famer Bo McMillin .
= = Minor league career = =
In 1914 , Hornsby 's older brother Everett , a minor league baseball player for many years , arranged for Rogers to get a tryout with the Texas League 's Dallas Steers . He made the team , but did not play in any games for the Steers ; he was released after only two weeks . Following his dismissal , he signed with the Hugo Scouts of the Class D Texas – Oklahoma League as their shortstop for $ 75 per month ( $ 1 @,@ 772 today ) . The Scouts went out of business a third of the way through the season , and Hornsby 's contract was sold to the Denison Champions of the same league for $ 125 ( $ 2 @,@ 953 today ) . With both teams in 1914 , Hornsby batted .232 and committed 45 errors in 113 games .
The Denison team changed its name to the Denison Railroaders and joined the Western Association in 1915 . They raised Hornsby 's salary to $ 90 per month ( $ 2 @,@ 105 today ) . Hornsby 's average improved that season to .277 in 119 games , but he made 58 errors . Nonetheless , his contributions helped the Railroaders win the Western Association pennant . At the end of the season , a writer from The Sporting News said that Hornsby was one of about a dozen Western Association players to show any major league potential .
= = St. Louis Cardinals = =
= = = 1915 – 1919 = = =
Hornsby came to the attention of the St. Louis Cardinals during an exhibition series between that team and the Railroaders in spring training in 1915 . Cardinals ' manager Miller Huggins told his only scout , Bob Connery , to look for minor league players to fill the roster of their financially struggling team . In September , the Cardinals purchased Hornsby 's contract from Denison and added him to their major league roster , although his only professional baseball experience had been in Class D. Hornsby 's first game came on September 10 , when he relieved Art Butler at shortstop in a 7 – 1 loss to the Cincinnati Reds . Three days later he started a game , and he got his first hit the next day against Rube Marquard of the Brooklyn Robins . Hornsby finished the season with a .246 average in 57 at @-@ bats while the Cardinals finished in sixth place in the National League ( NL ) . At only 19 years old , Hornsby was the fourth @-@ youngest player in the NL that year .
The Cardinals picked up Roy Corhan from the San Francisco Seals of the Pacific Coast League to play at shortstop in 1916 , making Hornsby one of three candidates for the position . Hornsby 's great performance in spring training , a shoulder injury to Corhan , and poor hitting by Butler meant Hornsby was the starting shortstop on Opening Day . He had both runs batted in ( RBIs ) in the Cardinals ' 2 – 1 victory over the Pittsburgh Pirates that day . On May 14 , he hit his first major league home run against Jeff Pfeffer of Brooklyn . He rotated among infield positions before finally settling in at third base for much of the second half of the year . Late in the season , he missed 11 games with a sprained ankle . He finished 1916 with a .313 average , fourth in the NL , and he was one short of the league lead in triples with 15 .
Hornsby returned to the shortstop position in 1917 after Corhan returned to San Francisco and Butler was released . After playing nearly every game throughout the first month of the season , Hornsby was called away from the team on May 29 after his brother William was shot and killed in a saloon . Rogers attended the funeral on June 1 and returned to the Cardinals on June 3 , finishing the season without missing any more playing time . His batting statistics improved from the previous season ; his .327 batting average was second in the league , and he led the league in triples ( 17 ) , total bases ( 253 ) , and slugging percentage ( .484 ) .
Many baseball players were drafted to fight in World War I in 1918 , but Hornsby was given a draft deferment because he was supporting his family . During the offseason , Miller Huggins , unhappy with the Cardinals ' management , left the team to manage the New York Yankees . He was replaced by Jack Hendricks , who had managed the Indianapolis Indians to a pennant in the American Association the previous year . Hornsby lacked confidence in Hendricks 's ability to run the Cardinals , and the two men developed animosity towards each other as a result of Hornsby 's growing egotism and fondness for former manager Huggins . Under Hendricks , Hornsby 's batting average dipped to .281 . He had problems off the field too ; on June 17 , Hornsby hit St. Louis resident Frank G. Rowe with his Buick when Rowe stepped out in front of traffic to cross an intersection . Rowe sued Hornsby for $ 15 @,@ 000 ( $ 235 @,@ 985 today ) , but Hornsby eventually settled for a smaller , undisclosed amount , and the case was dismissed . He was still among the league leaders in triples and slugging percentage in 1918 , but after the season ended with the Cardinals in last place , he announced that he would never play under Hendricks again . Partially due to Hornsby 's complaints , Hendricks was fired after the season and replaced by Branch Rickey , then president of the Cardinals .
In 1919 , after the Cardinals acquired shortstop Doc Lavan , Rickey tried converting Hornsby into a second baseman in spring training . Hornsby played third base for most of the year . His batting average was low at the beginning of the season but improved by June . At season 's end , his average of .318 was second @-@ highest in the league , and he also finished second in total bases and runs batted in .
= = = 1920 – 1926 = = =
In 1920 , Rickey moved Hornsby to second base , where he remained for the rest of his career . He started the year with a 14 @-@ game hitting streak . On June 4 , he had two triples and two RBIs as the Cardinals defeated the Chicago Cubs 5 – 1 , a game that ended future Hall of Famer Grover Cleveland Alexander 's 11 @-@ game winning streak . Hornsby finished the season with the first of seven batting titles by hitting .370 , and he also led the league in on @-@ base percentage ( .431 ) , slugging percentage ( .559 ) , hits ( 218 ) , total bases ( 329 ) , doubles ( 44 ) , and RBIs ( 94 ) .
The beginning of the live @-@ ball era led to a spike in hitting productivity throughout the majors , which helped Hornsby to hit with increased power during the 1921 season . He hit .397 in 1921 , and his 21 home runs were second in the league , more than twice his total in any previous season . He also led the league in on @-@ base percentage ( .458 ) , slugging percentage ( .639 ) , runs scored ( 131 ) , RBIs ( 126 ) , doubles ( 44 ) , and triples ( 18 ) . The Cardinals held a special day in Hornsby 's honor on September 30 before a home game against the Pittsburgh Pirates , and they presented Hornsby with multiple awards before the game , including a baseball autographed by President of the United States Warren G. Harding . The Cardinals beat the Pirates 12 – 4 that day as Hornsby hit a home run and had two doubles .
By the 1922 season , Hornsby was considered a big star , having led the league in batting average , hits , doubles , and runs batted in multiple times . As a result , he sought a three @-@ year contract for $ 25 @,@ 000 per season . After negotiating with Cardinals management , he settled for a three @-@ year , $ 18 @,@ 500 contract ( $ 261 @,@ 538 today ) , which made him the highest @-@ paid player in league history to that point . He then became the only player in history to hit over 40 home runs and bat over .400 in the same season . On August 5 , Hornsby set a new NL record when he hit his 28th home run of the season off of Jimmy Ring of the Philadelphia Phillies . From August 13 through September 19 , he had a 33 @-@ game hitting streak . He finished the year with a new record of 42 home runs , and he also set NL records in hits ( 250 ) and slugging percentage ( .722 , the highest ever for 600 + at @-@ bat players ) . He won the first of his two Triple Crowns that year , and he led the league in batting average ( .401 ) , RBIs ( 152 ) , on @-@ base percentage ( .459 ) , doubles ( 46 ) , and runs scored ( 141 ) . His 450 total bases was the highest mark for any NL player ever . On defense , Hornsby led all second basemen in putouts , double plays , and fielding percentage . His batting performance that year was , and still is , one of the finest in MLB history , and his 42 home runs are still the most ever for a .400 hitter .
On May 8 , 1923 , Hornsby suffered an injury to his left knee in a game against the Phillies when he turned to make a throw . He returned 10 days later , but the injury lingered , and he was removed from a game against the Pirates on May 26 to be examined by Robert Hyland , the Cardinals ' physician . Hyland had Hornsby 's knee placed in a cast for two weeks , after which he returned to the Cardinals . During a game in August , Hornsby was on third base late in the game and threw up his hands in disgust in response to a sign flashed by Rickey ; he had given the current batter the take sign , and Hornsby felt the batter should have hit the ball . After the game , he and Rickey fought in the clubhouse , but teammates quickly broke it up . Hornsby missed several games late in the year with injuries that the Cardinals ( and Hyland ) did not believe to be serious ; as a result he was fined $ 500 ( $ 6 @,@ 944 today ) and suspended for the last five games of the year . However , Hornsby still won his fourth consecutive NL batting title with a batting average of .384 . He also repeated as the leader in on @-@ base percentage ( .459 ) and slugging percentage ( .627 ) .
Hornsby raised his average to .424 in 1924 , which is the sixth @-@ highest batting average in a single season in MLB history , and the live @-@ ball era batting average record . He led the league with 89 walks , producing a .507 on @-@ base percentage . His slugging percentage of .696 again led the league , as did his 121 runs scored , 227 hits , and 43 doubles ; he hit 25 home runs as well . That year , the NL reintroduced its Most Valuable Player ( MVP ) award . Although Hornsby was expected to win the award , it went to Dazzy Vance instead . Cincinnati voter Jack Ryder left Hornsby 's name off his ballot altogether because he believed Hornsby was an MVP on the stat sheet , but was not a team player . In 1962 , the Baseball Writers ' Association of America presented Hornsby with an award retroactively recognizing him as the 1924 MVP .
In 1925 , Sam Breadon , the owner of the Cardinals , wished to replace Rickey as manager . Hornsby initially declined the job . After discovering that Rickey planned to sell his stock in the Cardinals if he was replaced as field manager , Hornsby agreed to take the job as long as Breadon would help him purchase the stock . Breadon agreed , and Hornsby became the Cardinals ' manager . Hornsby finished the year with his second Triple Crown , when he combined a .403 batting average with 39 home runs and 143 RBIs . He bested teammate Jim Bottomley in the batting title race by nearly 40 points . That year , he won the MVP Award , receiving 73 out of 80 possible votes . His .756 slugging percentage set an NL record . The Cardinals finished in fourth place in 1925 , finishing one game over .500 , though the team won 64 games and lost 51 under Hornsby . During the year , his wife Jeanette had a son , Billy .
Hornsby had an off @-@ year offensively in 1926 , as he hit only .317 with 11 home runs . Nonetheless , St. Louis won its first NL pennant . In the 1926 World Series , the Cardinals defeated the Yankees in a seven @-@ game series ; Hornsby tagged out Babe Ruth on a stolen base attempt , ending the Series and giving St. Louis its first undisputed world championship . During post @-@ season negotiations for a new contract , Hornsby demanded $ 50 @,@ 000 per year for three years . Breadon agreed to a one @-@ year contract for $ 50 @,@ 000 ( $ 668 @,@ 327 today ) . When Hornsby refused to give way , the Cardinals traded him to the New York Giants for Frankie Frisch and Jimmy Ring on December 20 , 1926 . The trade was briefly postponed as NL president John Heydler stated that Hornsby could not play for the Giants while he held stock in the Cardinals . Hornsby wanted $ 105 per share for his stock , a price Breadon was unwilling to pay . In early 1927 , Hornsby was able to sell his shares at $ 105 each , enabling him to officially become a Giant .
= = New York Giants = =
Hornsby enjoyed a better season in 1927 , as he hit .361 and led the league in runs scored ( 133 ) , walks ( 86 ) , and on @-@ base percentage ( .448 ) . He managed the Giants for part of the year as well , as manager John McGraw dealt with health problems . Hornsby 's performance helped guide the Giants to a 92 – 62 win – loss record during the season , which was good enough for third place in the NL . However , Hornsby 's gambling problems at the racetrack and distrust of Giants ' management annoyed team owner Charles Stoneham . During the offseason he was traded to the Boston Braves for Jimmy Welsh and Shanty Hogan .
= = Boston Braves = =
With the Braves in 1928 , Hornsby was again the league 's most productive hitter ; he won his seventh batting title with a .387 average , also leading the league in on @-@ base percentage ( .498 ) , slugging percentage ( .632 ) , and walks ( 107 ) . One month into the season , manager Jack Slattery resigned , and the Braves hired Hornsby to be his replacement . The Braves , however , lost 103 games and finished in seventh place out of eight teams in the NL . They were struggling financially as well , and when the Chicago Cubs offered $ 200 @,@ 000 ( $ 2 @,@ 756 @,@ 202 today ) and five players for Hornsby , the Braves found the offer too good to pass up .
= = Chicago Cubs = =
Hornsby hit .380 in 1929 for Chicago while recording 39 home runs and leading the league with a .679 slugging percentage and 156 runs scored ; the .380 batting average set a Cubs team record . He also collected another MVP award , and the Cubs won the NL pennant . However , they lost in the 1929 World Series to the Philadelphia Athletics in five games , as Hornsby batted .238 with one RBI . He also set a World Series record for strikeouts with eight .
After the first two months of the 1930 season , Hornsby was batting .325 with two home runs . In the first game of a doubleheader against the Cardinals , Hornsby broke his ankle while advancing to third base . He did not return until August 19 , and he was used mostly as a pinch @-@ hitter for the rest of the season . When Joe McCarthy was fired with four games remaining in the season Hornsby became the team 's manager . Hornsby finished the year with a .308 batting average and two home runs .
On April 24 , 1931 , Hornsby hit three home runs and drove in eight runs in a 10 – 6 victory over Pittsburgh . Hornsby played in 44 of the first 48 games , but after a disappointing performance he only played himself about half the time for the rest of the year . In 100 games , he had 90 RBIs , 37 doubles , and a batting average of .331 . He also led the league in on @-@ base percentage ( .421 ) for the ninth time in his career . The team finished 84 – 70 , 17 games back of the pennant @-@ winning Cardinals , and four games back of the Giants .
The 1931 season was Hornsby 's last as a full @-@ time player . Boils on his feet bothered him during the start of the 1932 season , and he did not play his first game until May 29 . Hornsby played right field from May 29 to June 10 , appeared in two games as a pinch hitter , played third base from July 14 through July 18 , and played one last game as a Cub when he pinch @-@ hit on July 31 .
William Veeck , Sr. , who was running the team , was unhappy with Hornsby 's management of the team . Hornsby maintained strict rules , and Veeck thought his managing style hurt team morale . Veeck believed Hornsby broke a cardinal rule of baseball in one particular incident . Hornsby disagreed with a call made by the umpire . Instead of disputing the call himself , as was the manager 's job , Hornsby sent another player to argue with the umpire . That player was ejected from the game . On August 2 , although the Cubs were in second place , Hornsby was released , and Charlie Grimm replaced him as manager . Hornsby had played 19 games , batting .224 with one home run and seven RBIs . Although the Cubs advanced to the 1932 World Series , the players voted not to give Hornsby any of the World Series money .
= = St. Louis Cardinals and Browns = =
Hornsby did not play for the rest of 1932 , but the Cardinals signed him as a player on October 24 for the 1933 season . He played regularly at second base from April 25 through May 5 , but he was used mostly as a pinch hitter with the Cardinals . On July 22 , he had his final NL hit in a 9 – 5 loss to the Braves . Through July 23 , Hornsby was batting .325 with two home runs and 21 RBIs . However , the Cardinals chose to place him on waivers .
Hornsby was claimed by the last @-@ place St. Louis Browns of the American League ( AL ) on July 26 as player @-@ manager . Bill Killefer had just resigned as Browns manager , and Browns owner Phil Ball wanted Hornsby as a replacement . Hornsby appeared in 11 games for the Browns . He had three hits , including a home run , in nine at @-@ bats . The Browns finished in last place in the AL . That year , Hornsby began operating a baseball school in Hot Springs , Texas , which he ran on and off between 1933 and 1951 with various associates .
In 1934 , Hornsby started only two games , one at third base , and the other in right field . In all of his other appearances , he was a pinch hitter . For the season , he batted .304 with one home run and 11 RBIs . The Browns improved on their previous season , finishing in sixth place out of eight teams in the AL .
Hornsby played in 10 games in the 1935 season , starting in 4 . From April 16 through April 21 , he started at first base , and he started at third base on May 22 . He finished the year with five hits and a .208 average , while the Browns slipped to seventh place .
Hornsby only appeared in two games with the team during the 1936 season . On May 31 , his pinch @-@ hit single in the ninth inning gave the Browns an 11 – 10 win over the Detroit Tigers . In his other appearance on June 9 , he played first base in a 5 – 3 win over the Yankees . The Browns again finished in seventh place .
In 1937 , Hornsby played in 20 games . On April 21 , in his first game of the year , Hornsby hit the final home run of his career in a 15 – 10 victory over the Chicago White Sox . On July 5 , he had the final hit of his career in a 15 – 4 loss in the second game of a doubleheader with the Cleveland Indians .
On July 20 , Hornsby appeared in what would be his final game , a 5 – 4 loss to the Yankees . A day later , Hornsby was fired as manager and released as a player by the Browns , who were in last place at the time of his release . His release was partly due to an incident with Browns owner Donald Barnes . On July 15 , Hornsby won $ 35 @,@ 000 ( $ 576 @,@ 123 today ) from betting on a horse race . When he tried to use $ 4 @,@ 000 of this money to pay off a debt to Barnes , Barnes refused it , since it had come from a bookmaker . Hornsby protested to Barnes , " The money is as good as the money you take from people in the loan @-@ shark business . It 's better than taking interest from widows and orphans ... " ; that made his release five days later an easy decision for Barnes . Hornsby finished the 1937 season with a .321 batting average and 18 hits in 20 games , and was the oldest player in the AL that season .
= = Baseball schools = =
Before opening his own baseball school , Hornsby was an instructor at the " Roy Doan Baseball School " , which operated from 1934 @-@ 38 at Ban Johnson Park , Fogel Field and Majestic Park in Hot Springs , Arkansas , the site of many early Spring training facilities . Then , in 1939 , Hornsby , started the " Rogers Hornsby Baseball College " in Hot Springs after Doan moved his School elsewhere . Hornsby ran the six @-@ week event annually until 1952 , usually attracting 100 @-@ 200 prospects . Cy Young , Jimmie Foxx , Tris Speaker and Schoolboy Rowe were among the instructors for Hornsby 's School . Held in conjunction with the baseball schools was " The George Barr Umpire School " , the first umpire instructional school , with students under the direction of Barr , a Major League Umpire .
= = Later baseball career = =
Following his release from the Browns , Hornsby was unable to retire because he had lost so much money gambling over the years . He signed as a player @-@ coach with the Baltimore Orioles of the International League in 1938 before leaving them to play for and manage the Chattanooga Lookouts of the Southern Association for the rest of the season . Hornsby then returned to the Orioles to manage them for 1939 , but he did not return to the club following the season . Halfway through 1940 , he signed to manage the Oklahoma City Indians of the Texas League . He led them from last place to the Texas League playoffs , where they fell to the Houston Buffaloes in four games . Hornsby began 1941 managing the Indians once again , but he resigned in the middle of the season . In November , he became the general and field manager of the Fort Worth Cats , also of the Texas league . Fort Worth finished in third place and made the playoffs in 1942 , but they were eliminated in the first round by the Shreveport Sports .
Hornsby went unsigned by any team in 1943 , but he signed as a player @-@ manager with the Vera Cruz Blues of La Liga Mexicana in Mexico in 1944 . After hitting a game @-@ winning grand slam for the second win of a series in March , he resigned when the team owner complained that the win would diminish the crowd for the third game of the series . Following his release , he did some commentary for radio station WTMV , assisted the Cleveland Indians in spring training in 1947 , and became a TV announcer for Chicago Cubs games in 1949 .
Hornsby did not become a manager or coach again until 1950 , when he was hired to manage the Texas League 's Beaumont Roughnecks . Beaumont won the pennant , but they were swept in the first round of the playoffs by the San Antonio Missions . The next year , in 1951 , Hornsby managed the Seattle Rainiers of the Pacific Coast League . Under Hornsby 's leadership , the Rainiers won the pennant .
In 1952 , Hornsby was again hired to manage the St. Louis Browns , his first major league job in 16 years . The Browns ' owner , Bill Veeck , was the son of former Cubs president and general manager William Veeck , Sr. Hornsby was not well received by the players , however . On June 9 , he was fired due to a disagreement with Veeck over an incident against the Yankees the day before . During the game , a fan prevented Gil McDougald of the Yankees from catching a fly ball , and the umpire ruled that it was fan interference . Hornsby did not initially argue the call , and a few minutes later Veeck forced him to do it ( when it was already too late to do anything about it ) . This led to Hornsby and the Browns parting ways . The Browns players were so happy about Hornsby 's firing that they gave Veeck an engraved trophy to thank him .
A little over a month later , on July 26 , Hornsby was hired to replace Luke Sewell as manager of the Cincinnati Reds . After Hornsby completed two mediocre seasons with the club , the Reds announced that he would not return for 1954 . He finished his MLB managerial career with a record of 701 – 812 . Following his dismissal , Hornsby worked as a coach for the Chicago Cubs from 1958 to 1960 before becoming a scout and third base coach for the New York Mets in 1962 . In 1963 , Hornsby died of a heart attack . He was buried in Hornsby Bend Cemetery near Austin , Texas .
= = Managerial record = =
= = Legacy = =
Baseball experts and sportswriters consider Hornsby to be one of the greatest hitters of all time . His lifetime batting average of .358 is only exceeded by Ty Cobb 's career mark of .367 . He won seven batting titles in total , a feat tied or exceeded by only five players ( Cobb ( 11 or 12 , depending on the source ) , Tony Gwynn ( 8 ) , Honus Wagner ( 8 ) , Rod Carew ( 7 ) , and Stan Musial ( 7 ) ) . Hornsby led the National League in slugging percentage nine times , a record that still stands . He also hit more home runs , drove in more runs , and had a higher batting average than any other National League player during the 1920s , which makes him one of four players in baseball history ( along with Honus Wagner , Ted Williams , and Albert Pujols ) to win a decade " triple crown " . He hit a career total of 301 home runs and was the first National League player to hit 300 . His 264 home runs as a second baseman was a major league record for that position until Joe Morgan surpassed him in 1984 . Hornsby was also a very consistent hitter whether he was playing at home or on the road . His lifetime home batting average was .359 , and his lifetime away batting average was .358 . Ted Williams , who had the highest career batting average since Hornsby , said that Hornsby was the greatest hitter for power and average in baseball , and Frankie Frisch said of him , " He 's the only guy I know who could hit .350 in the dark . " Hornsby also holds second place on the unofficial major league record list of " consecutive games with two or more hits " with 13 games , first place honors going to Count Campau 's 15 @-@ game streak . Hornsby is only the second right @-@ handed batter in history to hit over .400 three times and is considered , according to the Los Angeles Times , to be the greatest right @-@ handed hitter in history . He led the National League in batting average , on @-@ base percentage , slugging percentage , and total bases every year from 1920 to 1925 . He is one of only two players ( the other being Ted Williams ) to win the batting Triple Crown more than once , but only Hornsby batted .400 on both occasions .
Rogers Hornsby was so respected as a hitter that once , when a rookie pitcher complained to umpire Bill Klem that he thought he had thrown Rogers a strike , Klem replied , " Son , when you pitch a strike , Mr. Hornsby will let you know . "
Hornsby was also renowned for his speed , and was considered to be the fastest player in the National League in his prime . He did not try to steal very often but used his speed to take extra bases . Between 1916 and 1927 Hornsby had 30 inside @-@ the @-@ park home runs , and he led the league with 17 triples in 1917 and 18 triples in 1921 ; he had 20 triples in 1920 .
However , Hornsby was often hard to get along with , a major reason he changed teams so frequently in the last decade of his career . He usually left due to falling out with the front office . Most of the players he managed did not like him due to his insistence that others follow his lifestyle , although some ( like Woody English and Clint Courtney ) did . Hornsby never played cards , but he did bet frequently on horse races , and he lost more than he won . His gambling was often a factor in his dismissal from a team . By most contemporary accounts , he was at least as mean and nasty as Cobb , who was known in his time for his aggressive attitude and dirty play . He never went to movies or read books , convinced that it would harm a batter 's eyesight , and he never smoked or drank .
Hornsby was elected into the National Baseball Hall of Fame in 1942 . In 1999 , Hornsby was ranked ninth on The Sporting News list of Baseball 's Greatest Players . Later that year , he was named to the Major League Baseball All @-@ Century Team . In 2001 , writer Bill James ranked him as the 22nd @-@ greatest player and the third @-@ greatest second baseman in baseball history , while at the same time documenting his unpopularity and his difficult personality . He is also tied for eighth overall with Stan Musial in wins above replacement for position players . Hornsby has also been recognized on the St. Louis Walk of Fame In January , 2014 , the Cardinals announced Hornsby among 22 former players and personnel to be inducted into the St. Louis Cardinals Hall of Fame Museum for the inaugural class of 2014 .
= = Personal life = =
On September 23 , 1918 , Hornsby married Sarah Elizabeth Martin , whom he had known since he played for the Denison Railroaders , in Philadelphia . They had a son , Rogers Hornsby , Jr . , on November 15 , 1920 . Rogers Jr. died in a plane crash on December 23 , 1949 near Savannah , Georgia .
During 1922 he began seeing Jeanette Pennington Hine , who was married to an automobile @-@ supply salesman named John Hine . On June 12 , 1923 , Hornsby divorced Sarah , and Hine divorced her spouse in 1923 as well ; the two were married on February 28 , 1924 . As a result of the divorce , Sarah took custody of Rogers Jr .
Hornsby and Jeanette had a son , Billy , on June 2 , 1925 . Billy played baseball for several years in the minor leagues , but never reached the majors . Hornsby and Jeanette became estranged in December 1944 , and Hornsby began seeing a woman named Bernadette Harris , whom he called his " personal good friend and secretary " , in 1945 . They lived together after 1948 , until Harris committed suicide by jumping out of a third @-@ story window on September 7 , 1953 . The suicide was attributed to depression . Following Jeanette 's death on June 1 , 1956 , Hornsby married Marjorie Bernice Frederick Porter on January 27 , 1957 . They remained together until Hornsby 's death in 1963 .
|
= The Great Milenko =
The Great Milenko is the fourth studio album by American hip hop group Insane Clown Posse , released on August 12 , 1997 , by Hollywood Records , in association with Psychopathic Records . As the fourth Joker 's Card in the group 's Dark Carnival mythology , the album 's lyrics focus on the titular Great Milenko , an illusionist who tries to trick individuals into greed and other such sins .
The album was recorded and initially released by the Disney @-@ owned record label Hollywood Records . The album was taken off shelves by Hollywood hours after its release , in response to criticism from the Southern Baptist Church of decisions that the church believed did not reflect Disney 's family @-@ friendly image , although Disney claimed that the album was released due to an oversight by its review board . After Hollywood terminated the group 's contract , Insane Clown Posse signed a new contract with Island Records ( whose parent at the time , PolyGram , distributed Hollywood releases in North America ) , which agreed to release the album as it was originally intended .
The music of The Great Milenko features a rock sound and features guest appearances by popular rock stars Alice Cooper , Steve Jones and Slash . Although the album was poorly received by critics , it debuted at number 63 on the Billboard charts , and was later certified platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) . It is the group 's 10th overall release .
= = Conception = =
= = = Background = = =
Following the 1994 release of the album Ringmaster , Insane Clown Posse started to attract a strong local following in Detroit , Michigan . The group began selling out large clubs such as St. Andrew 's Hall and the State Theater , and drew the attention of major record label Jive Records . The next year , Insane Clown Posse signed with the label Battery , a subsidiary Jive Records . Battery / Jive released the duo 's third studio album , Riddle Box ( 1995 ) , but showed little interest in promoting the album . The group 's manager Alex Abbiss negotiated a contract with the Disney 's Hollywood Records label , which reportedly paid $ 1 million to purchase the Insane Clown Posse contract from Battery / Jive Records .
The expansion of the Juggalo fanbase into its own culture inspired Insane Clown Posse to write the songs " What Is A Juggalo ? " and " Down With The Clown " for this album .
= = = Recording = = =
The group started recording The Great Milenko in 1996 , and Violent J began thinking of a title for the album shortly after . Bruce later came up with the title The Great Milenko . Bruce also admitted that he had always liked the ring name of professional wrestler Dean Simon ( " Dean Malenko " ) , because he felt that the name Malenko had a " carnival " sound to it . Believing that he had created the name himself , Bruce later realized that he had unwittingly used the nickname of Dean 's father , Boris " The Great " Malenko .
The band wanted to include famous rock stars on the album . Julian Raymond , the artists and repertoire representative for Hollywood Records contacted Slash , Steve Jones , and Alice Cooper . Slash , who was a self @-@ professed fan of the band 's music , reportedly only asked for Wild Irish Rose as payment for his contributions . Bruce , who knew very little about the Sex Pistols or Steve Jones , declined to show up at the studio when Jones played his guitar part for " Piggy Pie " . Although not knowing much about Alice Cooper either , Bruce decided to fly to Arizona and coach Cooper on his parts . Bruce and Clark also met George Clinton , who was staying in the same hotel , and recorded his voice in his room , but it did not fit anywhere on the album .
After the recording sessions were finished , executives at Hollywood Records — and the label 's parent company , Disney — expressed dissatisfaction with several tracks . Disney requested that the tracks " The Neden Game , " " Under the Moon , " and " Boogie Woogie Wu " be removed because of lyrics referencing abuse of women , rape and murder , and the slaughter of children , respectively . Disney also asked that the lyrics of " Piggy Pie " be changed , due to lyrics about murdering police officers . Disney threatened not to release the album if their requests were not met . Begrudgingly , Bruce and Utsler complied with Disney 's requests . The uncensored version of " Piggy Pie " was later released on Forgotten Freshness Volumes 1 & 2 . After recording was finalized , the duo planned to go on a national tour with House of Krazees and Myzery as its opening acts . Several songs were recorded with the intention of releasing them on The Great Milenko . One such song , " House of Wonders " was recorded but was later released on Mutilation Mix ( 1997 ) and Forgotten Freshness Volumes 1 & 2 ( 1998 ) .
= = = Joker 's Cards = = =
The Great Milenko is the fourth Joker 's Card in Insane Clown Posse 's Dark Carnival concept album series . The Dark Carnival is a concept of the afterlife in which souls are sent to a form of limbo while waiting to be sent to heaven or hell based on their individual actions . These concepts are related by Insane Clown Posse in a series of albums called the six Joker 's Cards . Each of the six Joker 's Cards relate to a specific character — an entity of the Dark Carnival — that tries to " save the human soul " by showing the wickedness inside of one 's self .
This Joker 's Card is a necromancer and illusionist who tries to trick individuals into acts of greed , envy , and lust . The Card ultimately issues a warning against such acts of sin , and enlightens listeners that The Great Milenko is a part of every individual , and that they have the power to fall under his illusions or cast his hoaxes aside .
= = Music = =
= = = Style = = =
The Great Milenko featured more rock influences than previous Insane Clown Posse albums , including an introduction performed by Alice Cooper and guitar tracks performed by Steve Jones ( on " Piggie Pie " ) , and Slash ( on " Halls of Illusions " ) . Stephen Thomas Erlewine of Allmusic wrote , in his review of The Amazing Jeckel Brothers ( 1999 ) that , " The Great Milenko [ ... ] was targeted at white @-@ boy , adolescent metalheads -- really , how could any album that contained guest spots from Alice Cooper , Slash , Steve Jones and Legs Diamond be anything else ? "
Insane Clown Posse hired renowned Detroit record producer and DJ Mike E. Clark to produce the record . Clark made the album sound more rock @-@ oriented , as opposed to the duo 's earlier material , which featured a more prominent hip @-@ hop sound . To create the record , Clark utilized standard hip hop techniques such as record scratching , and mixed them with elements of rock and heavy metal .
= = = Lyricism = = =
According to the group 's mythology , The Great Milenko is a necromancer and illusionist who tries to trick individuals into greed and other such sins . He takes out the worst in an individual and creates powerful illusions in an attempt to cause them to become hedonistic and greedy . An honorable individual must fight his magic in order to make it to Shangri @-@ La ( as revealed in the track " Pass Me By " ) .
The album 's themes mostly revolve around those of death , morality , and everyday decisions . For instance , " How Many Times ? " talks about annoying traffic jams and other everyday @-@ life inconveniences . " Piggy Pie " references the Three Little Pigs and tells Violent J 's story of murdering three kinds of people : an incest @-@ prone redneck , cops who wrongly arrest and harass people , and stuck @-@ up wealthy people . " Under the Moon " tells the tale of a man convicted after killing a man who tried to rape his girlfriend . " Boogie Woogie Wu " is told from the perspective of the boogie man and talks about the slaughter of children . The " Neden Game " takes the form of a Dating Game @-@ esque show , albeit with added misogynistic banter for humor . Finally , the lyrics to " Hellalujah " target money @-@ hungry preachers .
= = = Singles = = =
Two singles were released from the album : " Halls of Illusions " and " Hokus Pokus . " " Halls of Illusions " was the first single released in 1997 . The single peaked at number 56 on the UK Singles Chart , and its accompanying music video peaked at number one on The Box video request channel . The album 's second single , " Hokus Pokus , " was released in June 1997 . In 1998 , it peaked at number 54 on the UK Singles Chart .
= = Promotion and release = =
Initially , Hollywood Records shipped 100 @,@ 000 copies of The Great Milenko to various record stores . During a music @-@ store autograph signing , Insane Clown Posse was notified that Hollywood Records had deleted the album within hours of its release , despite having sold 18 @,@ 000 copies and reaching number 63 on the Billboard 200 . The group was also informed that its in @-@ store signings and 25 @-@ city nationwide tour had been canceled , commercials for the album and the music video for " Halls of Illusions " ( which had reached number one on The Box video request channel ) were pulled from television , and that the group was dropped from the label . It was later revealed that Disney was being criticized by the Southern Baptist Church at the time because of Disney 's promotion of Gay Days at Disneyland , in addition to producing and distributing the gay @-@ themed television sitcom Ellen . The church claimed Disney was turning its back on family values . Although Abbiss told the press that Disney had stopped production of The Great Milenko to avoid further controversy , Disney claimed instead that the release of the album was an oversight by their review board , and that the album " did not fit the Disney image " because of its " inappropriate " lyrics , which they claimed were offensive to women . Although Hollywood Records had ordered record stores to return shipments of the now @-@ deleted album , many record stores refused , including the Michigan @-@ based Harmony House where 1 @,@ 700 CDs were sold in 36 stores after the termination order .
After the termination of the Hollywood Records contract , labels such as Interscope and Geffen Records wanted to sign the group , but Island Records ' Chris Blackwell came to the group 's rescue and agreed to release The Great Milenko as it was originally intended . As part of the deal , Island also agreed to rerelease the group 's first two Joker 's Card albums . Milenko was released in four colors : red , green , purple , and gold . Each color had a different secret message that would help reveal the title of the fifth Joker 's Card , The Amazing Jeckel Brothers . Music videos were filmed for " Halls of Illusions , " " How Many Times , " and " Piggy Pie . " An unofficial music video for " Down with the Clown " was featured on the home @-@ video release Juggalo Championshxt Wrestling Volume 1 . A music video for the Headhuntaz Remix of " Hokus Pokus " was produced after the release of the album . The video featured appearances by Twiztid and Myzery . Blackwell left Island Records shortly after the group released Forgotten Freshness Volumes 1 & 2 , and the merger of PolyGram into Universal Music Group ( which owned Interscope and Geffen ) affected the way the label handled its next Joker 's Card release . Despite the rough start , The Great Milenko has sold well over the years . On May 5 , 1998 , the album was certified gold by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) . A year later , on April 21 , 1999 , the album was certified platinum for shipments of over one million copies . As of 2007 , the album has sold over 1 @.@ 7 million copies in the United States .
= = Critical reception = =
Reviews for The Great Milenko were generally very mixed reviews . Entertainment Weekly music critic David Browne gave the record a C @-@ minus rating : " [ With ] its puerile humor and intentionally ugly metal @-@ rap tunes , the album feels oddly dated . " Allmusic reviewer Stephen Thomas Erlewine said that The Great Milenko is " the sort of record you wish they would take off the stereo at excruciating frat parties . " In The Great Rock Discography , Martin Charles Strong gave the album five out of ten stars . The album received two out of five stars in The New Rolling Stone Album Guide , in which Ben Sisario identified it as the album in which " the group came into its own " .
Although the reviews were mostly negative , some critics complimented the album 's improved sound over its precursors . Stephen Thomas Erlewine said that the album was " a better record than [ its ] predecessors , boasting a tougher sound and some actual hooks , without losing the juvenile vulgarity that pleased their following , " and added that " it is better than the rest of ICP 's work . " David Browne said that " Milenko is better produced than the duo 's earlier output ( Slash grinds out metal chords on Halls of Illusions ) , and Pass Me By is a genuinely melodic song . " In 2009 , Fangoria named The Great Milenko an iconic horrorcore album .
= = Track listing = =
= = Personnel = =
= = Charts and certifications = =
= = = Singles = = =
|
= Kerala =
Kerala ( / ˈkɛrələ / ) , historically known as Keralam , is an Indian state in South India on the Malabar coast . It was formed on 1 November 1956 following the States Reorganisation Act by combining Malayalam @-@ speaking regions . Spread over 38 @,@ 863 km2 ( 15 @,@ 005 sq mi ) , it is bordered by Karnataka to the north and northeast , Tamil Nadu to the east and south , and the Lakshadweep Sea to the west . With 33 @,@ 387 @,@ 677 inhabitants as per the 2011 Census , Kerala is the thirteenth largest state by population and is divided into 14 districts with the capital being Thiruvananthapuram . Malayalam is the most widely spoken language and is also the official language of the state .
The region has been a prominent spice exporter since 3000 BCE . The Chera Dynasty was the first prominent kingdom based in Kerala , though it frequently struggled against attacks by the neighbouring Cholas and Pandyas . In the 15th century , the spice trade attracted Portuguese traders to Kerala , and paved the way for the European colonisation of India . After independence , Travancore and Cochin joined the Republic of India and Travancore @-@ Cochin was given the status of a state in 1949 . In 1956 , Kerala state was formed by merging Malabar district , Travancore @-@ Cochin ( excluding four southern taluks ) , and the taluk of Kasargod , South Kanara .
Kerala has the lowest positive population growth rate in India , 3 @.@ 44 % ; highest Human Development Index ( HDI ) , 0 @.@ 790 in 2011 ; the highest literacy rate , 93 @.@ 91 % in the 2011 census ; the highest life expectancy , 77 years ; and the highest sex ratio , 1 @,@ 084 women per 1000 men . The state has witnessed significant emigration , especially to Arab states of the Persian Gulf during the Gulf Boom of the 1970s and early 1980s , and its economy depends significantly on remittances from a large Malayali expatriate community . Hinduism is practised by more than half of the population , followed by Islam and Christianity . The culture is a synthesis of Aryan and Dravidian cultures , developed over millennia , under influences from other parts of India and abroad .
The production of pepper and natural rubber contributes significantly to the total national output . In the agricultural sector , coconut , tea , coffee , cashew and spices are important . The state 's coastline extends for 595 kilometres ( 370 mi ) , and around 1 @.@ 1 million people in the state are dependent on the fishery industry which contributes 3 % to the state 's income . The state has the highest media exposure in India with newspapers publishing in nine languages , mainly English and Malayalam . Kerala is one of the prominent tourist destinations of India , with backwaters , beaches , Ayurvedic tourism and tropical greenery as its major attractions .
= = Etymology = =
The name Kerala has an uncertain etymology . " Keralam " may stem from the Classical Tamil cherive @-@ alam ( " declivity of a hill or a mountain slope " ) or chera alam ( " Land of the Cheras " ) . While " Kerala " may represent an imperfect Malayalam portmanteau fusing kera ( " coconut palm tree " ) and alam ( " land " or " location " ) . " Kerala " can also be derived from the word " Cheral " that refers to the oldest known dynasty of Kerala kings . The word " Cheral " is derived from the Proto @-@ Tamil @-@ Malayalam word for " lake " .
The earliest Sanskrit text to mention Kerala is the Aitareya Aranyaka of the Rigveda . It is also mentioned in the Ramayana and the Mahabharata , the two Hindu epics . The word Kerala is first recorded ( as Keralaputra , meaning Cherathala makan or Cheraman ) in a 3rd @-@ century BCE rock inscription ( Rock Edict 2 ) left by the Maurya emperor Ashoka ( 274 – 237 BCE ) . The inscription refers to the local ruler as Keralaputra ( Sanskrit for " son of Kerala " ) ; or " son of Chera [ s ] " . This contradicts a popular theory that its etymology derives " Kerala " from " Kera " ( coconut tree in Malayalam ) . At that time , one of three states in the region was called Cheralam in Classical Tamil : Chera and Kera are variants of the same word . The Greco @-@ Roman trade map Periplus Maris Erythraei refers to Keralaputra as Celobotra .
= = History = =
= = = Mythology = = =
According to Hindu mythology , the lands of Kerala were recovered from the sea by the axe @-@ wielding warrior sage Parasurama , the sixth avatar of Vishnu , hence Kerala is also called Parasurama Kshetram ( " The Land of Parasurama " ) . Parasurama threw his axe across the sea , and the water receded as far as it reached . According to legend , this new area of land extended from Gokarna to Kanyakumari . The land which rose from sea was filled with salt and unsuitable for habitation ; so Parasurama invoked the Snake King Vasuki , who spat holy poison and converted the soil into fertile lush green land . Out of respect , Vasuki and all snakes were appointed as protectors and guardians of the land . The legend was later expanded , and found literary expression in the 17th or 18th century with Keralolpathi , which traces the origin of aspects of early Kerala society , such as land tenure and administration , to the story of Parasurama . In medieval times Kuttuvan may have emulated the Parasurama tradition by throwing his spear into the sea to symbolise his lordship over it .
Another much earlier Puranic character associated with Kerala is Mahabali , an Asura and a prototypical just king , who ruled the earth from Kerala . He won the war against the Devas , driving them into exile . The Devas pleaded before Lord Vishnu , who took his fifth incarnation as Vamana and pushed Mahabali down to Patala ( the netherworld ) to placate the Devas . There is a belief that , once a year during the Onam festival , Mahabali returns to Kerala . The Matsya Purana , among the oldest of the 18 Puranas , uses the Malaya Mountains of Kerala ( and Tamil Nadu ) as the setting for the story of Matsya , the first incarnation of Vishnu , and Manu , the first man and the king of the region .
= = = Pre @-@ history = = =
A substantial portion of Kerala may have been under the sea in ancient times . Marine fossils have been found in an area near Changanacherry , thus supporting the hypothesis . Pre @-@ historical archaeological findings include dolmens of the Neolithic era in the Marayur area of the Idukki district . They are locally known as " muniyara " , derived from muni ( hermit or sage ) and ara ( dolmen ) . Rock engravings in the Edakkal Caves , in Wayanad date back to the Neolithic era around 6000 BCE . Archaeological studies have identified Mesolithic , Neolithic and Megalithic sites in Kerala . The studies point to the development of ancient Kerala society and its culture beginning from the Paleolithic Age , through the Mesolithic , Neolithic and Megalithic Ages . Foreign cultural contacts have assisted this cultural formation ; historians suggest a possible relationship with Indus Valley Civilization during the late Bronze Age and early Iron Age .
= = = Ancient period = = =
Kerala has been a major spice exporter since 3000 BCE , according to Sumerian records and it is still referred to as the " Garden of Spices " or as the " Spice Garden of India " . Kerala 's spices attracted ancient Babylonians , Assyrians and Egyptians to the Malabar Coast in the 3rd and 2nd millennia BCE . Arabs and Phoenicians established trade with Kerala during this period . The Land of Keralaputra was one of the four independent kingdoms in southern India during Ashoka 's time , the others being Chola , Pandya , and Satiyaputra . Scholars hold that Keralaputra is an alternate name of the Cheras , the first dominant dynasty based in Kerala . These territories once shared a common language and culture , within an area known as Tamilakam . While the Cheras ruled most of modern Kerala , its southern tip was in the kingdom of Pandyas , which had a trading port sometimes identified in ancient Western sources as Nelcynda ( or Neacyndi ) in Quilon . Later , the region fell under the control of the Pandyas , Cheras , and Cholas . Ays and Mushikas were two other dynasties of ancient Kerala , whose kingdoms lay to the south and north of Cheras respectively .
In the last centuries BCE the coast became important to the Greeks and Romans for its spices , especially black pepper . The Cheras had trading links with China , West Asia , Egypt , Greece , and the Roman Empire . In foreign @-@ trade circles the region was known as Male or Malabar . Muziris , Berkarai , and Nelcynda were among the principal ports at that time . The value of Rome 's annual trade with the region was estimated at around 50 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 sesterces ; contemporary Sangam literature describes Roman ships coming to Muziris in Kerala , laden with gold to exchange for pepper . One of the earliest western traders to use the monsoon winds to reach Kerala was Eudoxus of Cyzicus , around 118 or 166 BCE , under the patronage of Ptolemy VIII , king of the Hellenistic Ptolemaic dynasty in Egypt . Roman establishments in the port cities of the region , such as a temple of Augustus and barracks for garrisoned Roman soldiers , are marked in the Tabula Peutingeriana ; the only surviving map of the Roman cursus publicus .
Merchants from West Asia and Southern Europe established coastal posts and settlements in Kerala . The Jewish connection with Kerala started in 573 BCE . Arabs also had trade links with Kerala , starting before the 4th century BCE , as Herodotus ( 484 – 413 BCE ) noted that goods brought by Arabs from Kerala were sold to the Jews at Eden . They intermarried with local people , resulting in formation of the Muslim Mappila community . In the 4th century , some Christians also migrated from Persia and joined the early Syrian Christian community who trace their origins to the evangelistic activity of Thomas the Apostle in the 1st century . Mappila was an honorific title that had been assigned to respected visitors from abroad ; Jewish , Syrian Christian , and Muslim immigration account for later names of the respective communities : Juda Mappilas , Nasrani Mappilas , and Muslim Mappilas . The earliest Saint Thomas Christian Churches , Cheraman Juma Masjid ( 629 CE ) — the first mosque of India — and Paradesi Synagogue ( 1568 CE ) — the oldest active synagogue in the Commonwealth of Nations — were built in Kerala .
= = = Early medieval period = = =
A second Chera Kingdom ( c . 800 – 1102 ) , also known as Kulasekhara dynasty of Mahodayapuram , was established by Kulasekhara Varman , which ruled over a territory comprising the whole of modern Kerala and a smaller part of modern Tamil Nadu . During the early part of the Kulasekara period , the southern region from Nagerkovil to Thiruvalla was ruled by Ay kings , who lost their power in the 10th century , making the region a part of the Kulasekara empire . Under Kulasekhara rule , Kerala witnessed a developing period of art , literature , trade and the Bhakti movement of Hinduism . A Keralite identity , distinct from the Tamils , became linguistically separate during this period . For local administration , the empire was divided into provinces under the rule of Naduvazhis , with each province comprising a number of Desams under the control of chieftains , called as Desavazhis .
The inhibitions , caused by a series of Chera @-@ Chola wars in the 11th century , resulted in the decline of foreign trade in Kerala ports . Buddhism and Jainism disappeared from the land . The social system became fractured with divisions on caste lines . Finally , the Kulasekhara dynasty was subjugated in 1102 by the combined attack of Later Pandyas and Later Cholas . However , in the 14th century , Ravi Varma Kulashekhara ( 1299 – 1314 ) of the southern Venad kingdom was able to establish a short @-@ lived supremacy over southern India . After his death , in the absence of a strong central power , the state was divided into thirty small warring principalities ; the most powerful of them were the kingdom of Samuthiri in the north , Venad in the south and Kochi in the middle . In the 18th Century , Travancore King Sree Anizham Thirunal Marthanda Varma annexed all the kingdoms up to Northern Kerala through military conquests , resulting in the rise of Travancore to pre @-@ eminence in Kerala . The Kochi ruler sued for peace with Anizham Thirunal and Malabar came under direct British rule until India became independent .
= = = Colonial era = = =
The maritime spice trade monopoly in the Indian Ocean stayed with Arabs during the High and Late Middle Ages . However , the dominance of Middle East traders was challenged in the European Age of Discovery during which the spice trade , particularly in black pepper , became an influential activity for European traders . Around the 15th century , the Portuguese began to dominate eastern shipping , and the spice @-@ trade in particular , culminating in Vasco Da Gama 's arrival in Kappad Kozhikode in 1498 . The Zamorin of Kozhikode permitted the new visitors to trade with his subjects such that Portuguese trade in Kozhikode prospered with the establishment of a factory and a fort . However , Portuguese attacks on Arab properties in his jurisdiction provoked the Zamorin and led to conflicts between them . The Portuguese took advantage of the rivalry between the Zamorin and the King of Kochi allied with Kochi . When Francisco de Almeida was appointed as Viceroy of Portuguese India in 1505 , his headquarters was established at Fort Kochi ( Fort Emmanuel ) rather than in Kozhikode . During his reign , the Portuguese managed to dominate relations with Kochi and established a few fortresses on the Malabar coast . However , the Portuguese suffered setbacks from attacks by Zamorin forces ; especially from naval attacks under the leadership Kozhikode admirals known as Kunjali Marakkars , which compelled them to seek a treaty . In 1571 , the Portuguese were defeated by the Zamorin forces in the battle at Chaliyam fort .
The Portuguese were ousted by the Dutch East India Company , who during the conflicts between the Kozhikode and the Kochi , gained control of the trade . The Dutch in turn were weakened by constant battles with Marthanda Varma of the Travancore Royal Family , and were defeated at the Battle of Colachel in 1741 . An agreement , known as " Treaty of Mavelikkara " , was signed by the Dutch and Travancore in 1753 , according to which the Dutch were compelled to detach from all political involvement in the region . Marthanda Varma annexed northern kingdoms through military conquests , resulting in the rise of Travancore to a position of preeminence in Kerala .
In 1766 , Hyder Ali , the ruler of Mysore invaded northern Kerala . His son and successor , Tipu Sultan , launched campaigns against the expanding British East India Company , resulting in two of the four Anglo @-@ Mysore Wars . Tipu ultimately ceded the Malabar District and South Kanara to the Company in the 1790s ; both were annexed to the Madras Presidency of British India in 1792 . The Company forged tributary alliances with Kochi in 1791 and Travancore in 1795 . By the end of 18th century , the whole of Kerala fell under the control of the British , either administered directly or under suzerainty . There were major revolts in Kerala during the independence movement in the 20th century ; most notable among them is the 1921 Malabar Rebellion and the social struggles in Travancore . In the Malabar Rebellion , Mappila Muslims of Malabar rioted against Hindu zamindars and the British Raj . Some social struggles against caste inequalities also erupted in the early decades of 20th century , leading to the 1936 Temple Entry Proclamation that opened Hindu temples in Travancore to all castes .
= = = Post colonial period = = =
After British India was partitioned in 1947 into India and Pakistan , Travancore and Kochi , part of the Union of India were merged on 1 July 1949 to form Travancore @-@ Cochin . On 1 November 1956 , the taluk of Kasargod in the South Kanara district of Madras , the Malabar district of Madras , and Travancore @-@ Cochin , without four southern taluks ( which joined Tamil Nadu ) , merged to form the state of Kerala under the States Reorganisation Act . A Communist @-@ led government under E. M. S. Namboodiripad resulted from the first elections for the new Kerala Legislative Assembly in 1957 . It was one of the earliest elected Communist governments , after Communist success in the 1945 elections in the Republic of San Marino .
= = Geography = =
The state is wedged between the Lakshadweep Sea and the Western Ghats . Lying between northern latitudes 8 ° 18 ' and 12 ° 48 ' and eastern longitudes 74 ° 52 ' and 77 ° 22 ' , Kerala experiences the humid equatorial tropic climate . The state has a coast of 590 km ( 370 mi ) and the width of the state varies between 11 and 121 kilometres ( 7 and 75 mi ) . Geographically , Kerala can be divided into three climatically distinct regions : the eastern highlands ; rugged and cool mountainous terrain , the central mid @-@ lands ; rolling hills , and the western lowlands ; coastal plains . Pre @-@ Cambrian and Pleistocene geological formations compose the bulk of Kerala 's terrain . A catastrophic flood in Kerala in 1341 CE drastically modified its terrain and consequently affected its history ; it also created a natural harbour for spice transport . The eastern region of Kerala consists of high mountains , gorges and deep @-@ cut valleys immediately west of the Western Ghats ' rain shadow . 41 of Kerala 's west @-@ flowing rivers , and 3 of its east @-@ flowing ones originate in this region . The Western Ghats form a wall of mountains interrupted only near Palakkad ; hence also known Palghat , where the Palakkad Gap breaks . The Western Ghats rise on average to 1 @,@ 500 m ( 4920 ft ) above sea level , while the highest peaks reach around 2 @,@ 500 m ( 8200 ft ) . Anamudi , the highest peak in south India , is at an elevation of 2 @,@ 695 metres ( 8 @,@ 842 ft ) .
Kerala 's western coastal belt is relatively flat compared to the eastern region , and is criss @-@ crossed by a network of interconnected brackish canals , lakes , estuaries , and rivers known as the Kerala Backwaters . The state 's largest lake Vembanad , dominates the backwaters ; it lies between Alappuzha and Kochi and is about 200 km2 ( 77 sq mi ) in area . Around eight percent of India 's waterways are found in Kerala . Kerala 's 44 rivers include the Periyar ; 244 kilometres ( 152 mi ) , Bharathapuzha ; 209 kilometres ( 130 mi ) , Pamba ; 176 kilometres ( 109 mi ) , Chaliyar ; 169 kilometres ( 105 mi ) , Kadalundipuzha ; 130 kilometres ( 81 mi ) , Chalakudipuzha ; 130 kilometres ( 81 mi ) , Valapattanam ; 129 kilometres ( 80 mi ) and the Achankovil River ; 128 kilometres ( 80 mi ) . The average length of the rivers is 64 kilometres ( 40 mi ) . Many of the rivers are small and entirely fed by monsoon rain . As Kerala 's rivers are small and lacking in delta , they are more prone to environmental effects . The rivers face problems such as sand mining and pollution . The state experiences several natural hazards like landslides , floods and droughts . The state was also affected by the 2004 Indian Ocean Tsunami .
= = = Climate = = =
With around 120 – 140 rainy days per year , Kerala has a wet and maritime tropical climate influenced by the seasonal heavy rains of the southwest summer monsoon and northeast winter monsoon . Around 65 % of the rainfall occurs from June to August corresponding to the Southwest monsoon , and the rest from September to December corresponding to Northeast monsoon . The moisture @-@ laden winds of the Southwest monsoon , on reaching the southernmost point of the Indian Peninsula , because of its topography , divides into two branches ; the " Arabian Sea Branch " and the " Bay of Bengal Branch " . The " Arabian Sea Branch " of the Southwest monsoon first hits the Western Ghats , making Kerala the first state in India to receive rain from the Southwest monsoon . The distribution of pressure patterns is reversed in the Northeast monsoon , during this season the cold winds from North India pick up moisture from the Bay of Bengal and precipitate it on the east coast of peninsular India . In Kerala , the influence of the Northeast monsoon is seen in southern districts only . Kerala 's rainfall averages 2 @,@ 923 mm ( 115 in ) annually . Some of Kerala 's drier lowland regions average only 1 @,@ 250 mm ( 49 in ) ; the mountains of the eastern Idukki district receive more than 5 @,@ 000 mm ( 197 in ) of orographic precipitation : the highest in the state . In eastern Kerala , a drier tropical wet and dry climate prevails . During the summer , the state is prone to gale force winds , storm surges , cyclone @-@ related torrential downpours , occasional droughts , and rises in sea level . The mean daily temperature ranges from 19 @.@ 8 ° C to 36 @.@ 7 ° C. Mean annual temperatures range from 25 @.@ 0 – 27 @.@ 5 ° C in the coastal lowlands to 20 @.@ 0 – 22 @.@ 5 ° C in the eastern highlands .
= = Flora and fauna = =
Most of the biodiversity is concentrated and protected in the Western Ghats . Three quarters of the land area of Kerala was under thick forest up to 18th century . As of 2004 , over 25 % of India 's 15 @,@ 000 plant species are in Kerala . Out of the 4 @,@ 000 flowering plant species ; 1 @,@ 272 of which are endemic to Kerala , 900 are medicinal , and 159 are threatened . Its 9 @,@ 400 km2 of forests include tropical wet evergreen and semi @-@ evergreen forests ( lower and middle elevations — 3 @,@ 470 km2 ) , tropical moist and dry deciduous forests ( mid @-@ elevations — 4 @,@ 100 km2 and 100 km2 , respectively ) , and montane subtropical and temperate ( shola ) forests ( highest elevations — 100 km2 ) . Altogether , 24 % of Kerala is forested . Three of the world 's Ramsar Convention listed wetlands — Lake Sasthamkotta , Ashtamudi Lake and the Vembanad @-@ Kol wetlands — are in Kerala , as well as 1455 @.@ 4 km2 of the vast Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve . Subjected to extensive clearing for cultivation in the 20th century , much of the remaining forest cover is now protected from clearfelling . Eastern Kerala 's windward mountains shelter tropical moist forests and tropical dry forests , which are common in the Western Ghats . The world 's oldest teak plantation ' Conolly 's Plot ' is in Nilambur .
Kerala 's fauna are notable for their diversity and high rates of endemism : it includes 102 species of mammals ( 56 of which are endemic ) , 476 species of birds , 202 species of freshwater fish , 169 species of reptiles ( 139 of them endemic ) , and 89 species of amphibians ( 86 endemic ) . These are threatened by extensive habitat destruction , including soil erosion , landslides , salinisation , and resource extraction . In the forests , sonokeling , Dalbergia latifolia , anjili , mullumurikku , Erythrina , and Cassia number among the more than 1 @,@ 000 species of trees in Kerala . Other plants include bamboo , wild black pepper , wild cardamom , the calamus rattan palm , and aromatic vetiver grass , Vetiveria zizanioides . Indian elephant , Bengal tiger , Indian leopard , Nilgiri tahr , common palm civet , and grizzled giant squirrels are also found in the forests . Reptiles include the king cobra , viper , python , and mugger crocodile . Kerala 's birds include the Malabar trogon , the great hornbill , Kerala laughingthrush , darter and southern hill myna . In the lakes , wetlands , and waterways , fish such as kadu ; stinging catfish and choottachi ; orange chromide — Etroplus maculatus are found .
= = Subdivisions = =
The state 's 14 districts are distributed among six regions : North Malabar ( far @-@ north Kerala ) , South Malabar ( northern Kerala ) , Kochi ( central Kerala ) , Northern Travancore , Central Travancore ( southern Kerala ) and Southern Travancore ( far @-@ south Kerala ) . The districts which serve as administrative regions for taxation purposes are further subdivided into 75 taluks , which have fiscal and administrative powers over settlements within their borders , including maintenance of local land records . Kerala 's taluks are further sub @-@ divided into 1 @,@ 453 revenue villages . Since the 73rd and 74th amendments to the Constitution of India , the local government institutions function as the third tier of government , which constitutes 14 District Panchayats , 152 Block Panchayats , 978 Grama Panchayats , 60 Municipalities , six Corporations and one Township . Mahé , a part of the Indian union territory of Puducherry , though 647 kilometres ( 402 mi ) away from it , is a coastal exclave surrounded by Kerala on all of its landward approaches . The Kannur District surrounds Mahé on three sides with the Kozhikode District on the fourth .
There are six Municipal corporations in Kerala that govern Thiruvananthapuram , Kollam , Kochi , Thrissur , Kozhikode and Kannur . The Thiruvananthapuram Municipal Corporation is the largest corporation in Kerala while Kochi metropolitan area named Kochi UA is the largest urban agglomeration . According to a survey by economics research firm Indicus Analytivs in 2007 , Thiruvananthapuram , Kozhikode , Thrissur , Kochi and Kannur are among the " best cities in India to live " ; the survey used parameters such as health , education , environment , safety , public facilities and entertainment to rank the cities .
= = Government and administration = =
Kerala hosts two major political alliances : the United Democratic Front ( UDF ) , led by the Indian National Congress ; and the Left Democratic Front ( LDF ) , led by the Communist Party of India ( Marxist ) ( CPI ( M ) ) . As of 2016 , the LDF is the ruling coalition ; Pinarayi Vijayan of the Communist Party of India ( Marxist ) is the Chief Minister , while Ramesh Chennithala of the UDF is the Leader of Opposition . Strikes , protests and marches are ubiquitous in Kerala because of the comparatively strong presence of labour unions . According to the Constitution of India , Kerala has a parliamentary system of representative democracy ; universal suffrage is granted to residents . The government is organised into the three branches :
Legislature : The unicameral legislature , the Kerala Legislative Assembly popularly known as Niyamasabha , comprises elected members and special office bearers ; the Speaker and Deputy Speaker elected by the members from among themselves . Assembly meetings are presided over by the Speaker and in the Speaker 's absence , by the Deputy Speaker . The state has 140 assembly constituencies . The state elects 20 and 9 members for representation in the Lok Sabha and the Rajya Sabha respectively .
Executive : The Governor of Kerala is the constitutional head of state , and is appointed by the President of India . P Sathasivam is the Governor of Kerala . The executive authority is headed by the Chief Minister of Kerala , who is the head of government and is vested with extensive executive powers ; the head of the majority party in the Legislative Assembly is appointed to the post by the Governor . The Council of Ministers has its members appointed by the Governor , taking the advice of the Chief Minister . The executive administration is based in Thiruvananthapuram at State Secretariat complex . Each district has a district administrator appointed by government called District collector for executive administration . Auxiliary authorities known as panchayats , for which local body elections are regularly held , govern local affairs .
Judiciary : The judiciary consists of the Kerala High Court and a system of lower courts . The High Court , located in Kochi , has a Chief Justice along with 23 permanent and seven additional pro tempore justices as of 2012 . The high court also hears cases from the Union Territory of Lakshadweep .
The local government bodies ; Panchayat , Municipalities and Corporations have existed in Kerala since 1959 , however , the major initiative to decentralise the governance was started in 1993 , conforming to the constitutional amendments of central government in this direction . With the enactment of Kerala Panchayati Raj Act and Kerala Municipality Act in 1994 , the state implemented reforms in local self @-@ governance . The Kerala Panchayati Raj Act envisages a 3 @-@ tier system of local government with Gram panchayat , Block panchayat and District Panchayat forming a hierarchy . The acts ensure a clear demarcation of power among these institutions . However , the Kerala Municipality Act envisages a single @-@ tier system for urban areas , with the institution of municipality designed to par with the Gram panchayat of the former system . Substantial administrative , legal and financial powers are delegated to these bodies to ensure efficient decentralisation . As per the present norms , the state government devolves about 40 per cent of the state plan outlay to the local government .
= = Economy = =
After independence , the state was managed as a democratic socialist welfare economy . From the 1990s , liberalisation of the mixed economy allowed onerous Licence Raj restrictions against capitalism and foreign direct investment to be lightened , leading to economic expansion and an increase in employment . In the fiscal year 2007 – 2008 , the nominal gross state domestic product ( GSDP ) was ₹ 1 @,@ 624 billion ( US $ 24 billion ) . GSDP growth ; 9 @.@ 2 % in 2004 – 2005 and 7 @.@ 4 % in 2003 – 2004 had been high compared to an average of 2 @.@ 3 % annually in the 1980s and between 5 @.@ 1 % and 5 @.@ 99 % in the 1990s . The state recorded 8 @.@ 93 % growth in enterprises from 1998 to 2005 , higher than the national rate of 4 @.@ 80 % . The Human Development Index rating of Kerala is the highest in India at 0 @.@ 790 . The " Kerala phenomenon " or " Kerala model of development " of very high human development and in comparison low economic development has resulted from a strong service sector .
Kerala 's economy depends on emigrants working in foreign countries , mainly in Arab states of the Persian Gulf , and remittances annually contribute more than a fifth of GSDP . In 2008 , the Persian Gulf countries together had a Keralite population of more than 2 @.@ 5 million , who sent home annually a sum of US $ 6 @.@ 81 billion , which is the highest among Indian states and more than 15 @.@ 13 % of remittances to India in 2008 . In 2012 , Kerala still received the highest remittances of all states : US $ 11 @.@ 3 billion , which was nearly 16 % of the US $ 71 billion remittances to the country . In 2015 , NRI deposits in Kerala have soared to over ₹ 1 lakh crore ( US $ 15 billion ) , amounting to one @-@ sixth of all the money deposited in NRI accounts , which comes to about ₹ 7 lakh crore ( US $ 100 billion ) . However , a study commissioned by the Kerala State Planning Board , suggested that the state look for other reliable sources of income , instead of relying on remittances to finance its expenditure . According to a study done in 2013 , Kerala loses about ₹ 17 @,@ 500 crore ( US $ 2 @.@ 6 billion ) every year , through the sizeable population of migrant labourers in Kerala .
The tertiary sector comprises services such as transport , storage , communications , tourism , banking , insurance and real estate . In 2011 – 2012 , it contributed 63 @.@ 22 % of the state 's GDP , agriculture and allied sectors contributed 15 @.@ 73 % , while manufacturing , construction and utilities contributed 21 @.@ 05 % . Nearly half of Kerala 's people depend on agriculture alone for income . Around 600 varieties of rice , which is Kerala 's most used staple and cereal crop , are harvested from 3105 @.@ 21 km2 ; a decline from 5883 @.@ 4 km2 in 1990 . 688 @,@ 859 tonnes of rice are produced per year . Other key crops include coconut ; 899 @,@ 198 ha , tea , coffee ; 23 % of Indian production , or 57 @,@ 000 tonnes , rubber , cashews , and spices — including pepper , cardamom , vanilla , cinnamon , and nutmeg .
Traditional industries manufacturing items ; coir , handlooms , and handicrafts employ around one million people . Kerala supplies 60 % of the total global produce of white coir fibre . India 's first coir factory was set up in Alleppey in 1859 – 60 . The Central Coir Research Institute was established there in 1959 . As per the 2006 – 2007 census by SIDBI , there are 1 @,@ 468 @,@ 104 micro , small and medium enterprises in Kerala employing 3 @,@ 031 @,@ 272 people . The KSIDC has promoted more than 650 medium and large manufacturing firms in Kerala , creating employment for 72 @,@ 500 people . A mining sector of 0 @.@ 3 % of GSDP involves extraction of ilmenite , kaolin , bauxite , silica , quartz , rutile , zircon , and sillimanite . Other major sectors are tourism , manufacturing , home gardens , animal husbandry and business process outsourcing .
As of March 2002 , Kerala 's banking sector comprised 3341 local branches : each branch served 10 @,@ 000 people , lower than the national average of 16 @,@ 000 ; the state has the third @-@ highest bank penetration among Indian states . On 1 October 2011 , Kerala became the first state in the country to have at least one banking facility in every village . Unemployment in 2007 was estimated at 9 @.@ 4 % ; chronic issues are underemployment , low employability of youth , and a low female labour participation rate of only 13 @.@ 5 % , as is the practice of Nokku kooli , " wages for looking on " . By 1999 – 2000 , the rural and urban poverty rates dropped to 10 @.@ 0 % and 9 @.@ 6 % respectively .
Kerala has focused more attention towards growth of Information Technology sector with formation of Technopark , Thiruvananthapuram which is one of the largest IT employer in Kerala . It was the first technology park in India and with the inauguration of the Thejaswini complex on 22 February 2007 , Technopark became the largest IT Park in India . Software giants like Infosys , Oracle , Tata Consultancy Services , Capgemini , HCL , UST Global , Nest and Suntec have offices in the state . The state has a second major IT hub , the Infopark centred in Kochi with " spokes " ( it acts as the " hub " ) in Thrissur and Alleppy . As of 2014 , Infopark generates one @-@ third of total IT Revenues of the state with key offices of IT majors like Tata Consultancy Services , Cognizant , Wipro , UST Global , IBS Software Services etc. and Multinational corporations like KPMG , Ernst & Young , EXL Services , Etisalat DB Telecom , Nielsen Audio , Xerox ACS , Tata ELXSI etc . Kochi also has another major project SmartCity under construction , built in partnership with Dubai Government . A third major IT Hub is under construction centred around Kozhikode known as Cyberpark .
The Grand Kerala Shopping Festival ( GKSF ) was started in 2007 , covering more than 3000 outlets across the nine cities of Kerala with huge tax discounts , VAT refunds and huge array of prizes .
The state 's budget of 2012 – 2013 was ₹ 481 @.@ 42 billion ( US $ 7 @.@ 2 billion ) . The state government 's tax revenues ( excluding the shares from Union tax pool ) amounted to ₹ 217 @.@ 22 billion ( US $ 3 @.@ 2 billion ) in 2010 – 2011 ; up from ₹ 176 @.@ 25 billion ( US $ 2 @.@ 6 billion ) in 2009 – 2010 . Its non @-@ tax revenues ( excluding the shares from Union tax pool ) of the Government of Kerala reached ₹ 19 @,@ 308 million ( US $ 290 million ) in 2010 – 2011 . However , Kerala 's high ratio of taxation to GSDP has not alleviated chronic budget deficits and unsustainable levels of government debt , which have impacted social services . A record total of 223 hartals were observed in 2006 , resulting in a revenue loss of over ₹ 20 billion ( US $ 300 million ) . Kerala 's 10 % rise in GDP is 3 % more than the national GDP . In 2013 , capital expenditure rose 30 % compared to the national average of 5 % , owners of two @-@ wheelers rose by 35 % compared to the national rate of 15 % , and the teacher @-@ pupil ratio rose 50 % from 2 : 100 to 4 : 100 .
In November 2015 , the Ministry of Urban Development selected seven cities of Kerala for a comprehensive development program known as the Atal Mission for Rejuvenation and Urban Transformation ( AMRUT ) . A package of ₹ 25 lakh ( US $ 37 @,@ 000 ) was declared for each of the cities to develop service level improvement plan ( SLIP ) , a plan for better functioning of the local urban bodies in the cities of Thiruvananthapuram , Kollam , Alappuzha , Kochi , Thrissur , Kozhikode , and Palakkad .
= = = Agriculture = = =
The major change in agriculture in Kerala occurred in the 1970s when production of rice fell due to increased availability of rice all over India and decreased availability of labour . Consequently , investment in rice production decreased and a major portion of the land shifted to the cultivation of perennial tree crops and seasonal crops . Profitability of crops fell due to a shortage of farm labour , the high price of land , and the uneconomic size of operational holdings .
Kerala produces 97 % of the national output of black pepper and accounts for 85 % of the natural rubber in the country . Coconut , tea , coffee , cashew , and spices — including cardamom , vanilla , cinnamon , and nutmeg are the main agricultural products . 80 % of India 's export quality cashew kernels are prepared in Kollam . The key agricultural staple is rice , with varieties grown in extensive paddy fields . Home gardens made up a significant portion of the agricultural sector . Related animal husbandry is touted by proponents as a means of alleviating rural poverty and unemployment among women , the marginalised , and the landless . The state government promotes these activities via educational campaigns and the development of new cattle breeds such as the Sunandini .
Though the contribution of agricultural sector to the state economy was on the decline in 2012 – 13 , through the strength of the allied livestock sector , it has picked up from 7 @.@ 03 % ( 2011 – 12 ) to 7 @.@ 2 % . In the 2013 – 14 fiscal period , the contribution has been estimated at a high of 7 @.@ 75 % . The total growth of the farm sector has recorded a 4 @.@ 39 % increase in 2012 – 13 , over a paltry 1 @.@ 3 % growth in the previous fiscal year . The agricultural sector has a share of 9 @.@ 34 % in the sectoral distribution of Gross State Domestic Product at Constant Price , while the secondary and tertiary sectors has contributed 23 @.@ 94 % and 66 @.@ 72 % respectively .
There is a preference for organic products and home farming compared to synthetic fertilizers and pesticides . Entekrishi.com is Kerala 's first online open market for consumers / farmers to connect directly with each other . It provides a platform or rather a virtual market for farmers and end consumers where the farmers can display their crops , mention the quantity , specify the method of cultivation , expected price for the commodity and contact details . Farmers can post their products in any quantity ranging from 1 kilogram ( 2 @.@ 2 lb ) to 1 @,@ 000 kilograms ( 2 @,@ 200 lb ) which means even a person having a kitchen farm may find a buyer .
= = = Fisheries = = =
With a 590 km of coastal belt , 400 @,@ 000 hectares of inland water resources and approximately 220 @,@ 000 active fishermen , Kerala is one of the leading producers of fish in India . According to 2003 – 04 reports , about 1 @.@ 1 million people earn their livelihood from fishing and allied activities such as drying , processing , packaging , exporting and transporting fisheries . The annual yield of the sector was estimated as 608 @,@ 000 tons in 2003 – 04 . This contributes to about 3 % of the total economy of the state . In 2006 , around 22 % of the total Indian marine fishery yield was from Kerala . During the southwest monsoon , a suspended mud bank develops along the shore , which in turn leads to calm ocean water , peaking the output of the fishing industry . This phenomenon is locally called chakara . The waters provide a large variety of fish : pelagic species ; 59 % , demersal species ; 23 % , crustaceans , molluscs and others for 18 % . Around 1 @.@ 050 million fishermen haul an annual catch of 668 @,@ 000 tonnes as of a 1999 – 2000 estimate ; 222 fishing villages are strung along the 590 km coast . Another 113 fishing villages dot the hinterland . Kerala 's coastal belt of Karunagappally is known for high background radiation from thorium @-@ containing monazite sand . In some coastal panchayats , median outdoor radiation levels are more than 4 mGy / yr and , in certain locations on the coast , it is as high as 70 mGy / yr .
= = Transport = =
= = = Roads = = =
Kerala has 145 @,@ 704 kilometres ( 90 @,@ 536 mi ) of roads , which accounts for 4 @.@ 2 % of India 's total . This translates to about 4 @.@ 62 kilometres ( 2 @.@ 87 mi ) of road per thousand population , compared to an average of 2 @.@ 59 kilometres ( 1 @.@ 61 mi ) in the country . Roads in Kerala include 1 @,@ 524 kilometres ( 947 mi ) of national highway ; 2 @.@ 6 % of the nation 's total , 4 @,@ 341 @.@ 6 kilometres ( 2 @,@ 697 @.@ 7 mi ) of state highway and 18 @,@ 900 kilometres ( 11 @,@ 700 mi ) of district roads . Most of Kerala 's west coast is accessible through two national highways , NH 47 and NH 17 ; and the eastern side is accessible through state highways . There is also a hill highway proposed , to provide access to the eastern hills . National Highway 17 , with the longest stretch of road ( 421 kilometres ( 262 mi ) ) connects Edapally to Panvel ; it starts from Kochi and passes through Kozhikode , Kannur , Kanhangad , Kasaragod and Uppala before entering Karnataka . NH 47 runs from Salem to Kanniyakumari via Coimbatore , Palakkad , Thrissur , Ernakulam , Kochi , Alapuzha , Kollam , Thiruvananthapuram , and Nagercoil , connecting Kerala 's political capital ( Thiruvananthapuram ) to its commercial capital ( Kochi ) . Palakkad district is generally referred to as the Gateway of Kerala , due to the presence of the Palakkad Gap , in the Western Ghats , through which the northern ( Malabar ) and southern ( Travancore ) parts of Kerala are connected to the rest of India via road and rail . There is the state 's largest checkpoint , Walayar , the border town between Kerala and Tamilnadu , through which a large amount of public and commercial transportation reaches the northern and central districts of Kerala .
The Department of Public Works is responsible for maintaining and expanding the state highways system and major district roads . The Kerala State Transport Project ( KSTP ) , which includes the GIS @-@ based Road Information and Management Project ( RIMS ) , is responsible for maintaining and expanding the state highways in Kerala ; it also oversees a few major district roads . Traffic in Kerala has been growing at a rate of 10 – 11 % every year , resulting in high traffic and pressure on the roads . Traffic density is nearly four times the national average , reflecting the state 's high population . Kerala 's annual total of road accidents is among the nation 's highest . The accidents are mainly the result of the narrow roads and irresponsible driving . National Highways in Kerala are among the narrowest in the country and will remain so for the foreseeable future , as the state government has received an exemption that allows narrow national highways . In Kerala , highways are 45 meters wide . In other states National Highways are grade separated highways 60 meters wide with a minimum of four lanes , as well as 6 or 8 lane access @-@ controlled expressways . National Highways Authority of India ( NHAI ) has threatened the Kerala state government that it will give high priority to other states in highway development as political commitment to better highways has been lacking . As of 2013 , the state had the highest road accident rate in the country , with most fatal accidents taking place along the state 's National Highways .
= = = Railways = = =
The Indian Railways ' Southern Railway line runs through the state connecting most of the major towns and cities except those in the highland districts of Idukki and Wayanad . The railway network in the state is controlled by two out of six divisions of the Southern Railway ; Thiruvananthapuram Railway division and Palakkad Railway Division . Thiruvananthapuram Central ( TVC ) is the largest railway station in the state . Kerala 's major railway stations are TVC , Ernakulam Junction ( South ) ( ERS ) , Kozhikode ( CLT ) , Shornur Junction ( SRR ) , Palakkad Junction ( PGT ) , Kollam Junction ( QLN ) , Kannur ( CAN ) , Thrissur Railway Station ( TCR ) , Ernakulam Town ( North ) ( ERN ) , Alappuzha railway station ( ALLP ) , Kottayam ( KTYM ) Kayamkulam Junction ( KYJ ) and Chengannur ( CNGR ) . Major railway transport between Beypore – Tirur began on 12 March 1861 , from Shoranur – Cochin Harbour section in 1902 , from Kollam – Shenkottai on 1 July 1904 , Kollam – Thiruvananthapuram on 4 January 1918 , from Nilambur @-@ Shoranur in 1927 , from Ernakulam – Kottayam in 1956 , from Kottayam – Kollam in 1958 , from Thiruvananthapuram – Kanyakumari in 1979 and from the Thrissur @-@ Guruvayur Section in 1994 .
Kochi Metro is an under @-@ construction metro system for the city of Kochi . The construction began in 2012 and the first phase is being set up at an estimated cost of ₹ 5181 crore ( US $ 770 million ) .
= = = Airports = = =
Kerala has three international airports : Trivandrum International Airport , Cochin International Airport and Calicut International Airport . All civilian airports functioning in the state are international airports , a feature which is unique to Kerala . Upon completion of the Kannur International Airport , Kerala will join Tamil Nadu as the state with the most international airports . Unlike in other states where the capital city has the highest air traffic , in Kerala , air traffic is distributed evenly over Kochi , Thiruvananthapuram and Kozhikode . Despite this , all these three airports are among the top 15 busiest airports in India .
Kollam Airport , established under the Madras Presidency and closed before the inauguration of Trivandrum International Airport in the capital , was the first airport in Kerala . Trivandrum International Airport , managed by the Airport Authority of India , is among the oldest existing airports in South India . Cochin International Airport is the busiest in the state and the seventh @-@ busiest in the country . It was the first Indian airport to be incorporated as a public limited company ; it was funded by nearly 10 @,@ 000 non @-@ resident Indians from 30 countries . Cochin Airport is the primary hub of Air India Express and the secondary hub of Air Asia India .
Other than civilian airports , Kochi has a naval airport named INS Garuda . Thiruvananthapuram airport shares civilian facilities with the Southern Air Command of the Indian Air Force . These facilities are used mostly by Central Government VIPs visiting Kerala .
= = = Water transport = = =
Kerala has one major port , 17 minor ports and a few mini ports . The state has numerous backwaters , which are used for commercial inland navigation . Transport services are mainly provided by country craft and passenger vessels . There are 67 navigable rivers in the state while the total length of inland waterways is 1 @,@ 687 kilometres ( 1 @,@ 048 mi ) . The main constraints to the expansion of inland navigation are ; lack of depth in waterways caused by silting , lack of maintenance of navigation systems and bank protection , accelerated growth of the water hyacinth , lack of modern inland craft terminals , and lack of a cargo handling system . A canal 205 kilometres ( 127 mi ) long , National Waterway 3 , runs between Kottapuram and Kollam , which is included in the East @-@ Coast Canal .
= = Demographics = =
Kerala is home to 2 @.@ 76 % of India 's population ; 859 persons per km2 , its land is nearly three times as densely settled as the rest of India , which is at a population density of 370 persons per km2 . As of 2011 , Thiruvananthapuram is the most populous city in Kerala . In the state , the rate of population growth is India 's lowest , and the decadal growth of 4 @.@ 9 % in 2011 is less than one third of the all @-@ India average of 17 @.@ 64 % . Kerala 's population more than doubled between 1951 and 1991 by adding 15 @.@ 6 million people to reach 29 @.@ 1 million residents in 1991 ; the population stood at 33 @.@ 3 million by 2011 . Kerala 's coastal regions are the most densely settled with population of 2022 persons per km2 , 2 @.@ 5 times the overall population density of the state , 859 persons per km2 , leaving the eastern hills and mountains comparatively sparsely populated . Around 31 @.@ 8 million Keralites are predominantly Malayali . The state 's 321 @,@ 000 indigenous tribal Adivasis , 1 @.@ 10 % of the population , are concentrated in the east . Malayalam , one of the classical languages in India , is Kerala 's official language . Tamil , Kannada , Tulu , Hindi , Bengali , Mahl and Adivasi ( tribal ) languages are also spoken . As of early 2013 , there are close to 2 @.@ 5 million ( 7 @.@ 5 % of the state population ) migrant labourers in Kerala from other parts of India .
= = = Gender = = =
The democratic rise of the Communist Party of India in the state , culminating in the chief ministership of EMS Namboodiripad and his government , helped to distribute land and implement educational reforms . There is the tradition of matrilineal inheritance in Kerala , where the mother is the head of the household . As a result , women in Kerala have had a much higher standing and influence in the society . This was common among certain influential castes and is a factor in the value placed on daughters . Christian missionaries also influenced Malayali women in that they started schools for girls from poor families . Opportunities for women such as education and gainful employment often translate into a lower birth rate , which in turn , make education and employment more likely to be accessible and more beneficial for women . This creates an upward spiral for both the women and children of the community that is passed on to future generations . According to the Human Development Report of 1996 , Kerala 's Gender Development Index was 597 ; higher than any other state of India . Factors , such as high rates of female literacy , education , work participation and life expectancy , along with favourable sex ratio , contributed to it .
Kerala 's sex ratio of 1 @.@ 084 is higher than that of the rest of India and is the only state where women outnumber men . While having the opportunities that education affords them , such as political participation , keeping up to date with current events , reading religious texts etc . , these tools have still not translated into full , equal rights for the women of Kerala . There is a general attitude that women must be restricted for their own benefit . In the state , despite the social progress , gender still influences social mobility .
= = = Human Development Index = = =
As of 2014 , Kerala has a Human Development Index ( HDI ) of 0 @.@ 790 which comes under the " high " category and it is the highest in the country and a consumption @-@ based HDI of 0 @.@ 920 , which is better than that of many developed countries . Comparatively higher spending by the government on primary level education , health care and the elimination of poverty from the 19th century onward has helped the state maintain an exceptionally high HDI ; the report was prepared by the central government 's Institute of Applied Manpower Research . However , the Human Development Report 2005 , prepared by Centre for Development Studies envisages a virtuous phase of inclusive development for the state since the advancement in human development had already started aiding the economic development of the state . Kerala is also widely regarded as the cleanest and healthiest state in India .
According to the 2011 census , Kerala has the highest literacy rate ( 93 @.@ 91 ) among Indian states . The life expectancy in Kerala is 74 years , among the highest in India as of 2011 . Kerala 's rural poverty rate fell from 59 % ( 1973 – 1974 ) to 12 % ( 1999 – 2010 ) ; the overall ( urban and rural ) rate fell 47 % between the 1970s and 2000s against the 29 % fall in overall poverty rate in India . By 1999 – 2000 , the rural and urban poverty rates dropped to 10 @.@ 0 % and 9 @.@ 6 % respectively . These changes stem largely from efforts begun in the late 19th century by the kingdoms of Cochin and Travancore to boost social welfare . This focus was maintained by Kerala 's post @-@ independence government .
Kerala has undergone a " demographic transition " characteristic of such developed nations as Canada , Japan , and Norway ; . as 11 @.@ 2 % of people are over the age of 60 , and due to the low birthrate of 18 per 1 @,@ 000 . In 1991 , Kerala 's total fertility rate ( TFR ) was the lowest in India . Hindus had a TFR of 1 @.@ 66 , Christians ; 1 @.@ 78 , and Muslims ; 2 @.@ 97 . The state also is regarded as the " least corrupt Indian state " according to the surveys conducted by Transparency International ( 2005 ) and India Today ( 1997 ) . Kerala has the lowest homicide rate among Indian states , with 1 @.@ 1 per 100 @,@ 000 in 2011 . In respect of female empowerment , some negative factors such as higher suicide rate , lower share of earned income , child marriage , complaints of sexual harassment and limited freedom are reported .
In 2015 , Kerala had the highest conviction rate of any state , over 77 % . Kerala has the lowest proportion of homeless people in rural India - 0 @.@ 04 % , and the state is attempting to reach the goal of becoming the first " Zero Homeless State " , in addition to its acclaimed " Zero landless project " , with private organisations and the expatriate Malayali community funding projects for building homes for the homeless . The state was also among the lowest in the India State Hunger Index next only to Punjab . In 2015 Kerala became the first " complete digital state " by implementing e @-@ governance initiatives .
= = = Healthcare = = =
Kerala , considered as being healthier than many states of the United States , is a pioneer in implementing the Universal health care programme . The sub @-@ replacement fertility level and infant mortality rate are lower compared to those of other states ; estimated from 12 to 14 deaths per 1 @,@ 000 live births . However , Kerala 's morbidity rate is higher than that of any other Indian state — 118 ( rural ) and 88 ( urban ) per 1 @,@ 000 people . The corresponding figures for all India were 55 and 54 per 1 @,@ 000 respectively as of 2005 . Kerala 's 13 @.@ 3 % prevalence of low birth weight is higher than that of many first world nations . Outbreaks of water @-@ borne diseases such as diarrhoea , dysentery , hepatitis , and typhoid among the more than 50 % of people who rely on 3 million water wells is an issue worsened by the lack of sewers . According to a study commissioned by Lien Foundation , a Singapore @-@ based philanthropic organisation , Kerala is considered to be the best place to die in India based on the state 's provision of palliative care for patients with serious illnesses .
The United Nations Children 's Fund ( UNICEF ) and the World Health Organisation designated Kerala the world 's first " baby @-@ friendly state " because of its effective promotion of breast @-@ feeding over formulas . Over 95 % of Keralite births are hospital delivered and the state also has the lowest Infant mortality rate in the country . The third National Family Health Survey ranks Kerala first in " Institutional Delivery " with 100 % births in medical facilities . Ayurveda , siddha , and endangered and endemic modes of traditional medicine , including kalari , marmachikitsa and vishavaidyam , are practised . Some occupational communities such as Kaniyar were known as native medicine men in relation to the practice of such streams of medical systems , apart from their traditional vocation . These propagate via gurukula discipleship , and comprise a fusion of both medicinal and alternative treatments .
In 2014 , Kerala became the first state in India to offer free cancer treatment to the poor , via a program called Sukrutham . People in Kerala experience elevated incidence of cancers , liver and kidney diseases . In April 2016 , the Economic Times reported that 250 @,@ 000 residents undergo treatment for cancer . It also reported that approximately 150 to 200 liver transplants are conducted in the region 's hospitals annually . Approximately 42 @,@ 000 cancer cases are reported in the region annually . This is believed to be an underestimate due as private hospitals may not be reporting their figures . Long waiting lists for kidney donations has stimulated illegal trade in human kidneys , and prompted the establishment of the Kidney Federation of India which aims to support financially disadvantaged patients .
= = Religion = =
In comparison with the rest of India , Kerala experiences relatively little sectarianism . According to 2011 Census of India figures , 54 @.@ 73 % of Kerala 's residents are Hindus , 26 @.@ 56 % are Muslims , 18 @.@ 38 % are Christians , and the remaining 0 @.@ 32 % follow another or have no religious affiliation . Hindus constitute the majority in all districts except Malappuram , where they are outnumbered by Muslims .
The mythological legends regarding origin of Kerala are Hindu in nature . Kerala produced several saints and movements . Adi Shankara was a religious philosopher who contributed to Hinduism and propagated the philosophy of Advaita . He was instrumental in establishing four mathas at Sringeri , Dwarka , Puri and Jyotirmath . Melpathur Narayana Bhattathiri was another religious figure who composed Narayaniyam , a collection of verses in praise of the Hindu God Krishna .
Islam arrived in Kerala through Arab traders in the seventh century CE . Muslims of Kerala , generally referred to as Mappila , mostly follow the Shafi 'i Madh 'hab under Sunni Islam . The major Muslim organisations are Sunni , Mujahid and Jama 'at @-@ e @-@ Islami .
Ancient Christian tradition says that Christianity reached the shores of Kerala in AD 52 with the arrival of Thomas the Apostle , one of the Twelve Apostles of Jesus Christ . Saint Thomas Christians include Syro @-@ Malabar Catholic , Syro @-@ Malankara Catholic , Malankara Orthodox Syrian , Jacobite Syrian , Marthoma Syrian , the Syrian Anglicans in the CSI and several Pentecostal and evangelical denominations . The origin of the Latin Catholic Christians in Kerala is the result of the missionary endeavours of the Portuguese Padroado in the 16th century . Judaism reached Kerala in the 10th century BC during the time of King Solomon . They are called Cochin Jews or Malabar Jews and are the oldest group of Jews in India . There was a significant Jewish community which existed in Kerala until the 20th century , when most of them migrated to Israel . The Paradesi Synagogue at Kochi is the oldest synagogue in the Commonwealth . Jainism has a considerable following in the Wayanad district .
Buddhism was popular in the time of Ashoka the Great but vanished by the 12th century CE . Certain Hindu communities such as the Kshatriyas , Nairs , Tiyyas and the Muslims around North Malabar used to follow a traditional matrilineal system known as marumakkathayam , although this practice ended in the years after Indian independence . Other Muslims , Christians , and some Hindu castes such as the Namboothiris and the Ezhavas followed makkathayam , a patrilineal system . Owing to the former matrilineal system , women in Kerala enjoy a high social status . However , gender inequality among low caste men and women is reportedly higher compared to that in other castes .
= = Education = =
The Kerala school of astronomy and mathematics flourished between the 14th and 16th centuries . In attempting to solve astronomical problems , the Kerala school independently created a number of important mathematics concepts , including series expansion for trigonometric functions . Following the instructions of the Wood 's despatch of 1854 , both the princely states , Travancore and Cochin , launched mass education drives with support from agencies , mainly based on castes and communities and introduced a system of grant @-@ in @-@ aid to attract more private initiatives . The efforts by leaders , Vaikunda Swami , Narayana Guru and Ayyankali , towards aiding the socially discriminated castes in the state , with the help of community @-@ based organisations like Nair Service Society , SNDP , Muslim Mahajana Sabha , Yoga Kshema Sabha ( of Nambudiris ) and congregations of Christian churches , led to the development of mass education in Kerala .
In 1991 , Kerala became the first state in India to be recognised as a completely literate state , though the effective literacy rate at that time was only 90 % . As of 2007 , the net enrolment in elementary education was almost 100 % and was almost balanced among sexes , social groups and regions , unlike other states in India . The state topped the Education Development Index ( EDI ) among 21 major states in India in the year 2006 – 2007 . According to the first Economic Census , conducted in 1977 , 99 @.@ 7 % of the villages in Kerala had a primary school within 2 kilometres ( 1 @.@ 2 mi ) , 98 @.@ 6 % had a middle school within 2 kilometres ( 1 @.@ 2 mi ) and 96 @.@ 7 % had a high school or higher secondary school within 5 kilometres ( 3 @.@ 1 mi ) . According to the 2011 census , Kerala has 93 @.@ 91 % literacy compared to the national literacy rate of 74 @.@ 04 % . In January 2016 , Kerala became the first Indian state to achieve 100 % primary education through its literacy programme Athulyam .
The educational system prevailing in the state 's schools is made up of 10 years , which are streamlined into lower primary , upper primary and secondary school stages with a 4 + 3 + 3 pattern . After 10 years of schooling , students typically enroll in Higher Secondary Schooling in one of the three major streams — liberal arts , commerce or science . Upon completing the required coursework , students can enroll in general or professional under @-@ graduate ( UG ) programmes . The majority of public schools are affiliated with the Kerala State Education Board . Other educational boards are the Indian Certificate of Secondary Education ( ICSE ) , the Central Board for Secondary Education ( CBSE ) , and the National Institute of Open Schooling ( NIOS ) . English is the language of instruction in most self @-@ financing schools , while government and government @-@ aided schools offer English or Malayalam . Though the cost of education is generally considered low in Kerala , according to the 61st round of the National Sample Survey ( 2004 – 2005 ) , per capita spending on education by the rural households was reported to be ₹ 41 ( 61 ¢ US ) for Kerala , more than twice the national average . The survey also revealed that the rural @-@ urban difference in household expenditure on education was much less in Kerala than in the rest of India .
= = Culture = =
The culture of Kerala is composite and cosmopolitan in nature and it is an integral part of Indian culture . It is synthesis of Aryan and Dravidian cultures , defined by its antiquity and the organic continuity sustained by the Malayali people . It has been elaborated through centuries of contact with neighbouring and overseas cultures . However , the geographical insularity of Kerala from the rest of the country has resulted in the development of a distinctive lifestyle , art , architecture , language , literature and social institutions . Over 10 @,@ 000 festivals are celebrated in the state every year . The Malayalam calendar , a solar calendar started from 825 CE in Kerala , finds common usage in planning agricultural and religious activities .
= = = Festivals = = =
Many of the temples in Kerala hold festivals on specific days of the year . A common characteristic of these festivals is the hoisting of a holy flag which is brought down on the final day of the festival after immersing the deity . Some festivals include Poorams , the best known of these being the Thrissur Pooram . " Elephants , firework displays and huge crowds " are the major attractions of Thrissur Pooram . Other known festivals are Makaravilakku , Nenmara Vallangi Vela and Utsavam . Temples that can afford it will usually involve at least one richly caparisoned elephant as part of the festivities . The idol in the temple is taken out on a procession around the countryside atop this elephant . When the procession visits homes around the temple , people will usually present rice , coconuts , and other offerings to it . Processions often include traditional music such as Panchari melam or Panchavadyam .
= = = = Onam = = = =
Onam is a harvest festival celebrated by the people of Kerala and is a reminiscent of the state 's agrarian past . It is also the State festival of Kerala with public holidays for four days from Onam Eve ( Uthradom ) to the fourth Onam Day . Onam falls in the Malayalam month of Chingam ( August – September ) and marks the commemoration of the Vamana avatara of Vishnu and the subsequent homecoming of King Mahabali . It is one of the festivals celebrated with cultural elements such as Vallam Kali , Pulikali , Pookkalam , Thumbi Thullal and Onavillu .
= = = Dance = = =
Kerala is home to a number of performance arts . These include five classical dance forms : Kathakali , Mohiniyattam , Koodiyattom , Thullal and Krishnanattam , which originated and developed in the temple theatres during the classical period under the patronage of royal houses . Kerala natanam , Thirayattam , Kaliyattam , Theyyam , Koothu and Padayani are other dance forms associated with the temple culture of the region . Some traditional dance forms such as Margamkali and Parichamuttukali are popular among the Syrian Christians and Chavittu nadakom is popular among the Latin Christians , while Oppana and Duffmuttu are popular among the Muslims of the state .
= = = Music = = =
The development of classical music in Kerala is attributed to the contributions it received from the traditional performance arts associated with the temple culture of Kerala . The development of the indigenous classical music form , Sopana Sangeetham , illustrates the rich contribution that temple culture has made to the arts of Kerala . Carnatic music dominates Keralite traditional music . This was the result of Swathi Thirunal Rama Varma 's popularisation of the genre in the 19th century . Raga @-@ based renditions known as sopanam accompany kathakali performances . Melam ; including the paandi and panchari variants , is a more percussive style of music : it is performed at Kshetram @-@ centered festivals using the chenda . Panchavadyam is a form of percussion ensemble , in which artists use five types of percussion instrument . Kerala 's visual arts range from traditional murals to the works of Raja Ravi Varma , the state 's most renowned painter . Most of the castes and communities in Kerala have rich collections of folk songs and ballads associated with a variety of themes ; Vadakkan Pattukal ( Northern Ballads ) , Thekkan pattukal ( Southern Ballads ) , Vanchi pattukal ( Boat Songs ) , Mappila Pattukal ( Muslim songs ) and Pallipattukal ( Church songs ) are a few of them .
= = = Cinema = = =
Malayalam films carved a niche for themselves in the Indian film industry with the presentation of social themes . Directors from Kerala , like Adoor Gopalakrishnan , John Abraham , P. Padmarajan , G. Aravindan and Shaji N Karun have made a considerable contribution to the Indian parallel cinema . Kerala has also given birth to numerous actors , such as Satyan , Prem Nazir , Jayan , Adoor Bhasi , Bharath Gopi , Mammootty , Mohanlal , Suresh Gopi , Sreenivasan , Jayaram , Murali , Dileep , Oduvil Unnikrishnan , Thilakan , Jagathy Sreekumar , Nedumudi Venu , KPAC Lalitha , Nivin Pauly . Late Malayalam actor Prem Nazir holds the world record for having acted as the protagonist of over 720 movies . Since the 1980s , actors Mammootty and Mohanlal have dominated the movie industry ; Mammootty has won three National Awards for best actor while Mohanlal has two to his credit . Malayalam Cinema has produced a few more notable personalities such as K.J. Yesudas , K.S. Chitra , Vayalar Rama Varma , M.T. Vasudevan Nair and O.N.V. Kurup , the last two mentioned being recipients of Jnanpith award , the highest literary award in India .
= = = Literature = = =
Malayalam literature starts from the late medieval period and includes such notable writers as the 14th @-@ century Niranam poets ( Madhava Panikkar , Sankara Panikkar and Rama Panikkar ) , and the 17th @-@ century poet Thunchaththu Ezhuthachan , whose works mark the dawn of both the modern Malayalam language and its poetry . Paremmakkal Thoma Kathanar and Kerala Varma Valiakoi Thampuran are noted for their contribution to Malayalam prose . The " triumvirate of poets " ( Kavithrayam ) : Kumaran Asan , Vallathol Narayana Menon , and Ulloor S. Parameswara Iyer , are recognised for moving Keralite poetry away from archaic sophistry and metaphysics , and towards a more lyrical mode . In the second half of the 20th century , Jnanpith winning poets and writers like G. Sankara Kurup , S. K. Pottekkatt , Thakazhi Sivasankara Pillai , M. T. Vasudevan Nair and O. N. V. Kurup had made valuable contributions to the modern Malayalam literature . Later , writers like O. V. Vijayan , Kamaladas , M. Mukundan , Arundhati Roy , Vaikom Muhammed Basheer , have gained international recognition .
= = = Cuisine = = =
Kerala cuisine has a multitude of both vegetarian and non @-@ vegetarian dishes prepared using fish , poultry , and meat . Culinary spices have been cultivated in Kerala for millennia and they are characteristic of its cuisine . Rice is a dominant staple that is eaten at all times of day . A majority of the breakfast foods in Kerala are made out of rice , in one form or the other ( idli , puttu , appam , or idiyappam ) , tapioca preparations , or pulse @-@ based vada . These may be accompanied by chutney , kadala , payasam , payar pappadam , appam , chicken curry , beef fry , egg masala and fish curry . Lunch dishes include rice and curry along with rasam , pulisherry and sambar . Sadhya is a vegetarian meal , which is served on a banana leaf and followed with a cup of payasam . Popular snacks include banana chips , yam crisps , tapioca chips , unniyappam and kuzhalappam . Seafood specialties include karimeen , prawns , shrimp and other crustacean dishes . Kerala also has large variety of vegetarian and non @-@ vegetarian achar ( pickles ) ranging from manga ( mango ) , white lemon , fish , beef and seafood pickles .
= = = Elephants = = =
Elephants have been an integral part of the culture of the state . Kerala is home to the largest domesticated population of elephants in India — about 700 Indian elephants , owned by temples as well as individuals . These elephants are mainly employed for the processions and displays associated with festivals celebrated all around the state . More than 10 @,@ 000 festivals are celebrated in the state annually and some animal lovers have sometimes raised concerns regarding the overwork of domesticated elephants during them . In Malayalam literature , elephants are referred to as the ' sons of the sahya . The elephant is the state animal of Kerala and is featured on the emblem of the Government of Kerala .
= = Media = =
The media , telecommunications , broadcasting and cable services are regulated by the Telecom Regulatory Authority of India ( TRAI ) . The National Family Health Survey – 3 , conducted in 2007 , ranked Kerala as the state with the highest media exposure in India . Dozens of newspapers are published in Kerala , in nine major languages , but principally Malayalam and English . The most widely circulated Malayalam @-@ language newspapers are Malayala Manorama , Mathrubhumi , Madhyamam , Deshabhimani , Mangalam , Kerala Kaumudi , Chandrika , Thejas , Janayugam , Janmabhumi , Deepika and Siraj Daily . Major Malayalam periodicals include Mathrubhumi , India Today Malayalam , Madhyamam Weekly , Grihalakshmi , Vanitha , Dhanam , Chithrabhumi , and Bhashaposhini . The Hindu is the most read English language newspaper in the state , followed by The New Indian Express . Other dailies include Deccan Chronicle , The Times of India , DNA , The Economic Times , and The Financial Express .
Doordarshan is the state @-@ owned television broadcaster . Multi system operators provide a mix of Malayalam , English and international channels via cable television . Some of the popular Malayalam television channels are Asianet , Surya TV , Kiran TV , Mazhavil Manorama , Manorama News , Indiavision , Kairali TV , Kairali WE , Kairali People , Yes Indiavision Kappa TV , Asianet News , Asianet Plus , Asianet Movies , Amrita TV , Reporter , Jaihind , Jeevan TV , Mathrubhumi News , Kaumudi , Shalom TV , and Media One TV . Television serials , reality shows and the Internet have become major sources of entertainment and information for the people of Kerala . A Malayalam version of Google News was launched in September 2008 . A sizeable " people 's science " movement has taken root in the state , and such activities as writers ' cooperatives are becoming increasingly common . BSNL , Reliance Infocomm , Airtel , Vodafone , Idea , Tata Docomo and Aircel are the major cell phone service providers . Broadband Internet services are widely available throughout the state ; some of the major ISPs are BSNL , Asianet Satellite communications , Reliance Communications , Airtel , Idea , MTS and VSNL . According to a TRAI report , as of January 2012 the total number of wireless phone subscribers in Kerala is about 34 @.@ 3 million and the wireline subscriber base is at 3 @.@ 2 million , accounting for the telephone density of 107 @.@ 77 . Unlike in many other states , the urban @-@ rural divide is not visible in Kerala with respect to mobile phone penetration .
= = Sports = =
By the 21st century , almost all of the native sports and games from Kerala have either disappeared or become just an art form performed during local festivals ; including Poorakkali , Padayani , Thalappandukali , Onathallu , Parichamuttukali , Velakali , and Kilithattukali . However , Kalaripayattu , regarded as " the mother of all martial arts in the world " , is an exception and is practised as the indigenous martial sport . Another traditional sport of Kerala is the boat race , especially the race of Snake boats .
Cricket and football became popular in the state ; both were introduced in Malabar during the British colonial period in the 19th century . Cricketers , like Tinu Yohannan , Abey Kuruvilla , Sreesanth and Sanju Samson , found places in the national cricket team . However , the Kerala cricket team has never won or performed well at the Ranji Trophy . A cricket club from Kerala , the Kochi Tuskers , played in the Indian Premier League 's fourth season . However , the team was disbanded after the season because of conflicts of interest among its franchises . Football is one of the most widely played and watched sports with huge support for club and district level matches . In the Indian Super League the official team of Kerala is the Kerala Blasters . Kozhikode in Kerala hosts the Sait Nagjee Football Tournament . Kerala is one of the major footballing states in India along with West Bengal and Goa and has produced national players like I. M. Vijayan , C. V. Pappachan , V. P. Sathyan , Jo Paul Ancheri , and Pappachen Pradeep . The Kerala state football team has won the Santhosh Trophy five times ; in 1973 , 1992 , 1993 , 2001 and 2004 . They were also the runners @-@ up eight times .
Among the prominent athletes hailing from the state are P. T. Usha , Shiny Wilson and M.D. Valsamma , all three of whom are recipients of the Padma Shri as well as Arjuna Award , while K. M. Beenamol and Anju Bobby George are Rajiv Gandhi Khel Ratna and Arjuna Award winners . T. C. Yohannan , Suresh Babu , Sinimol Paulose , Angel Mary Joseph , Mercy Kuttan , K. Saramma , K. C. Rosakutty and Padmini Selvan are the other Arjuna Award winners from Kerala . Volleyball is another popular sport and is often played on makeshift courts on sandy beaches along the coast . Jimmy George was a notable Indian volleyball player , rated in his prime as among the world 's ten best players . Other popular sports include badminton , basketball and kabaddi .
For the 2017 FIFA U @-@ 17 World Cup in India , the Jawaharlal Nehru Stadium ( Kochi ) , was chosen as one of the six venues where the game would be hosted in India .
= = Tourism = =
Kerala 's culture and traditions , coupled with its varied demographics , have made the state one of the most popular tourist destinations in India . In 2012 , National Geographic 's Traveller magazine named Kerala as one of the " ten paradises of the world " and " 50 must see destinations of a lifetime " . Travel and Leisure also described Kerala as " One of the 100 great trips for the 21st century " . In 2012 , it overtook the Taj Mahal to be the number one travel destination in Google 's search trends for India . Kerala 's beaches , backwaters , lakes , mountain ranges , waterfalls , ancient ports , palaces , religious institutions and wildlife sanctuaries are major attractions for both domestic and international tourists . The city of Kochi ranks first in the total number of international and domestic tourists in Kerala . Until the early 1980s , Kerala was a relatively unknown destination compared to other states in the country . In 1986 the government of Kerala declared tourism an important industry and it was the first state in India to do so . Marketing campaigns launched by the Kerala Tourism Development Corporation , the government agency that oversees the tourism prospects of the state , resulted in the growth of the tourism industry . Many advertisements branded Kerala with the tagline Kerala , God 's Own Country . Kerala tourism is a global brand and regarded as one of the destinations with highest recall . In 2006 , Kerala attracted 8 @.@ 5 million tourists , an increase of 23 @.@ 68 % over the previous year , making the state one of the fastest @-@ growing popular destinations in the world . In 2011 , tourist inflow to Kerala crossed the 10 @-@ million mark .
Ayurvedic tourism has become very popular since the 1990s , and private agencies have played a notable role in tandem with the initiatives of the Tourism Department . Kerala is known for its ecotourism initiatives which include mountaineering , trekking and bird @-@ watching programmes in the Western Ghats as the major activities . As of 2005 , the state 's tourism industry was a major contributor to the state 's economy , growing at the rate of 13 @.@ 31 % . The revenue from tourism increased five @-@ fold between 2001 and 2011 and crossed the ₹ 190 billion mark in 2011 . Moreover , the industry provides employment to approximately 1 @.@ 2 million people .
Asia 's largest , and the world 's third largest , Naval Academy @-@ Ezhimala Naval Academy @-@ at Kannur is in Kerala . Idukki arch dam , the world 's second , and Asia 's first arch dam is in Kerala . The major beaches are at Kovalam , Varkala , Fort Kochi , Cherai , Payyambalam , Kappad , Muzhappilangad ( South India 's only drive @-@ in beach ) , Bekal , and Gavi . Popular hill stations are at Munnar , Wayanad , Wagamon , Peermade , Paithalmala , Nelliampathi and Ponmudi . Munnar is 4500 feet above sea level and is known for tea plantations , and a variety of flora and fauna . Kerala 's ecotourism destinations include 12 wildlife sanctuaries and two national parks : Periyar Tiger Reserve , Parambikulam Wildlife Sanctuary , Chinnar Wildlife Sanctuary , Thattekad Bird Sanctuary , Wayanad Wildlife Sanctuary , Muthanga Wildlife Sanctuary , Aralam Wildlife Sanctuary , Eravikulam National Park , and Silent Valley National Park are the most popular among them . The Kerala backwaters are an extensive network of interlocking rivers ( 41 west @-@ flowing rivers ) , lakes , and canals that centre around Alleppey , Kumarakom and Punnamada ( where the annual Nehru Trophy Boat Race is held in August ) . Padmanabhapuram Palace and the Mattancherry Palace are two notable heritage sites .
|
= Reckless ( Bryan Adams album ) =
Reckless is the fourth studio album by Canadian singer and songwriter Bryan Adams . The album was co @-@ produced by Adams and Bob Clearmountain , and it was one of Adams ' most successful solo albums . Released on 5 November 1984 through A & M Records , the album was a huge international hit , selling over five million units in the United States alone . It was the first Canadian album to sell more than one million units within Canada . The album reached number one on the Billboard 200 and reached high positions on record charts worldwide .
Six singles were released from the album : " Run to You " , " Somebody " , " Heaven " , " Summer of ' 69 " , " One Night Love Affair " , and " It 's Only Love " . All six singles made the top 15 on the US Billboard Hot 100 , a feature that at the time had been accomplished previously only by Michael Jackson 's Thriller and Bruce Springsteen 's Born In The USA . The album was ranked No. 49 on Kerrang ! s " 100 Greatest Heavy Metal Albums of All Time " in 1989 , and 99th Greatest Rock Album of All Time by Classic Rock and was also named the # 12 Greatest Canadian Album of All Time by Bob Mersereau in his book The Top 100 Canadian Albums . The album was recorded at Little Mountain Sound Studios , Vancouver , Canada . On 12 December 2009 the syndicated radio program In the Studio celebrated the 25th anniversary of the album .
A 30th Anniversary edition of the album , featuring previously unreleased material and a brand new 5 @.@ 1 surround mix , was released on 10 November 2014 in both four and two @-@ disc editions . The Reckless 30th Anniversary Tour also took place in November 2014 , consisting of eleven exclusive arena shows in the United Kingdom .
= = Music = =
= = = Recording and production = = =
In March 1984 , recording for Reckless began after extensive touring for the support of Cuts Like a Knife . However , unhappy with the recording process , Adams decided to take a month off . In August Adams headed back to the studio with Tina Turner for the track " It 's Only Love " ; he also returned with more new songs and started re @-@ recording songs which would lead to the development of such tracks as " Run to You " , Summer of ' 69 " , and " Heaven " .
" Run to You " was recorded after a tour in Asia . The recording for " Run to You " started on 27 March 1984 and went through the summer at Little Mountain Sound Studios , Vancouver . It was mixed in New York by Bob Clearmountain , with mixing of the song completed on 21 September . The recording of " Heaven " , co @-@ written by Adams and Jim Vallance , started on 6 June and lasted only two days , ending on 7 June . The song was recorded for the film A Night in Heaven , and was mixed by Bob Clearmountain on 16 June 1984 . " Summer of ' 69 " was written on 25 January 1984 with Jim Vallance . The recording took place at Little Mountain Sound Studios where the song was recorded three times over the winter . It was mixed in New York by Bob Clearmountain on 22 November 1984 .
= = = Songs = = =
" Run to You " was released as the debut single from Reckless on 18 October 1984 in Canada and the U.S. and became one of the most successful songs from the album on the American rock charts ; it would become arguably one of Adams ' most recognizable and popular songs . The song was Adams ' first number one hit on the Mainstream Rock Tracks and reached number six on the Billboard Hot 100 . It reached the top 20 on the Canadian singles chart and remained in the top 20 for seven weeks . With " Run to You " , Adams reached the highest Canadian chart position in his career to that time ; it was his second top 20 hit single in Canada . " Run to You " was released in November 1984 in Europe where it peaked at the top ten in Ireland at number 8 and reached number 11 on the UK Singles Chart ; it was his second single to chart in Europe .
" Somebody " was released in the winter of 1985 and became one of the most successful songs from Reckless on the American rock charts . The song was Adams ' second number one hit on the Mainstream Rock Tracks . It reached number 11 on the Billboard Hot 100 and was in the top 20 on the Canadian singles chart where it remained for six weeks . " Somebody " was Adams ' third top 20 hit on the Canadian chart . " Somebody " was released the following month in Europe and peaked at the top 20 in Ireland at number 20 and reached the top 40 on the UK Singles Chart at 35 ; it was his third single to chart in Europe .
" Heaven " was the third single from Reckless . The single topped the Billboard Hot 100 chart . The song previously peaked at number nine on the Billboard Top Tracks chart from the A Night in Heaven soundtrack album . The song has appeared on all of Adams ' compilation albums with the exception of The Best of Me . The single was certified Gold in Canada in 1985 .
" Summer of ' 69 " was officially released to US radio in 1984 and it appeared on the Billboard magazine 's Hot 100 chart at 5 and 40 on the mainstream rock tracks . In Canada , " Summer of ' 69 " was officially released to radio on November 1984 . The song reached the top twenty on the Canadian Singles Chart and remained in the top 20 for another month . " Summer of ' 69 " was the highest charting single from Reckless with " Heaven " .
The song was released in Australia , Europe and New Zealand in 1985 . " Heaven " reached the UK top 40 , while " Summer of ' 69 " peaked at the top 40 . " Summer of ' 69 " continued the trend of higher @-@ charting singles when it debuted and peaked at top 20 in most of the European countries it charted . Adams ' previous singles had charted much weaker in Europe and " Summer of ' 69 " would be Adams ' second single to chart in mainland Europe .
Although " Summer of ' 69 " reached the top ten in Norway and then the top 20 in the Austria , Ireland and Sweden , it was a moderate top 100 success in Germany where it peaked at 62 .
In 2008 , Adams was quoted as saying :
" ' Summer of ' 69 ' - I think it 's timeless because it 's about making love in the summertime . There is a slight misconception it 's about a year , but it 's not . ' 69 ' has nothing to do about a year , it has to do with a sexual position ... At the end of the song the lyric says that it 's me and my baby in a 69 . You 'd have to be pretty thick in the ears if you couldn 't get that lyric . "
Co @-@ writer Jim Vallance has always gone for the more conventional interpretation of the title being a reference to a year . He notes Jackson Browne 's " Running on Empty " , which contains references to 1965 and 1969 , as his own influence , and recalls that Adams cited the film Summer of ' 42 as his .
Although " One Night Love Affair " was officially released to US radio in 1985 , it appeared on the Billboard magazine 's Hot 100 chart at 13 and 7 on the mainstream rock tracks . In Canada , " One Night Love Affair " was officially released to radio in February 1985 . The song reached the top 20 on the Canadian Singles Chart and remained in the top twenty for another month . " One Night Love Affair " was the lowest charting single from Reckless .
= = Release and critical reception = =
Soon after its release , Reckless peaked at number six on the Billboard 200 in January 1985 before dropping out of the top ten . The success of the singles " Heaven " and " Summer of ' 69 " renewed interest in the album and it began climbing back up the chart , eventually reaching number one in August 1985 .
Reckless included the hit singles " Run to You " , " Heaven " , " Summer of ' 69 " , " One Night Love Affair " , " Somebody " , and " It 's Only Love " . All the singles had accompanying music videos , and each one charted on the Billboard Hot 100 , with " Run to You " , " Summer of ' 69 " , and " Heaven " peaking in the top ten . " Heaven " would become the most successful single from Reckless at the time of its release on the US music charts , reaching number one on the Billboard Hot 100 and number nine on the mainstream rock chart .
The single " It 's Only Love " was nominated for a Grammy Award for Best Rock Vocal Performance by a Duo or Group . In 1986 , the song won an MTV Video Music Award for Best Stage Performance . The album is Adams best @-@ selling album in the United States and was certified five times platinum .
= = Reckless tour = =
In December 1984 , Adams and his touring band which consists of Keith Scott , Dave Taylor , Pat Steward and Johnny Blitz played concerts in Chicago , Detroit , New York City and Philadelphia . In early 1985 , Adams ' started a tour throughout the United States and later in Japan , Australia , Europe and finally Canada after winning four Juno Awards . Later he headed south towards the American West Coast , culminating with two dates at the Paladium in Los Angeles .
After the tour in the United States Adams traveled to Ethiopia to aid famine relief efforts there . Adams later went to Europe for a fifty @-@ city concert tour with Tina Turner , culminating in April with his return to London to headline three sold @-@ out shows at the Hammersmith Odeon . Adams began the first leg of his tour entitled " World Wide in 85 " which started in Oklahoma . The tour ended in October . Adams would later visit Vancouver , and afterwards he returned to the American East Coast to play two sold @-@ out concerts in New York .
= = Track listing = =
All songs written and composed by Bryan Adams and Jim Vallance .
= = = 30th anniversary edition = = =
disc one
" Let Me Down Easy " - 03 : 40
" Teacher , Teacher " - 03 : 48
" The Boys Night Out " - 03 : 53
" Draw The Line " - 03 : 26
" Play To Win " - 03 : 28
" Too Hot To Handle " - 04 : 02
" Reckless " - 04 : 01
disc two - Live in Hammersmith Odeon 1985
" Remember " - 04 : 32
" The Only One " - 04 : 39
" It 's Only Love " - 03 : 50
" Kids Wanna Rock " - 03 : 16
" Long Gone " - 06 : 21
" Cuts Like A Knife " - 05 : 40
" Lonely Nights " - 03 : 55
" Tonight " - 06 : 13
" This Time " - 03 : 37
" The Best Was Yet To Come " - 02 : 43
" Heaven " - 04 : 04
" Run To You " - 04 : 30
" Somebody " - 04 : 20
" Straight From The Heart " - 03 : 17
" Summer Of ' 69 " - 04 : 40
= = = Super Deluxe Edition Box @-@ set = = =
DVD - Reckless - The Movie
" Run To You " ( Intro )
" This Time " - 3 : 17
" Summer Of ’ 69 " - 3 : 42
" Somebody " - 4 : 45
" Kids Wanna Rock " - 2 : 47
" Heaven " - 4 : 11
" Run To You " - 3 : 49
" One Night Love Affair " - 4 : 35
" It ’ s Only Love " - 6 : 55
Blu @-@ ray
The original album in Blu @-@ ray edition
= = Personnel = =
Bryan Adams – lead vocals , guitars , piano , harmonica , hand claps , foot stomping
Keith Scott – guitars , backing vocals
Jim Vallance – percussion
Dave Taylor – bass guitar
Pat Steward – drums , backing vocals
Tommy Mandel – keyboards
Jody Perpick – backing vocals , background sounds
Mickey Curry – drums
Tina Turner – lead vocals on " It 's Only Love "
Steve Smith – drums on " Heaven "
Engineering
Mike Fraser – engineering , mixing
Michael Sauvage – engineering , mixing
Bob Ludwig – mastering
= = Sales chart performance = =
|
= Aerosmith =
Aerosmith is an American rock band , sometimes referred to as " the Bad Boys from Boston " and " America 's Greatest Rock and Roll Band " . Their style , which is rooted in blues @-@ based hard rock , has come to also incorporate elements of pop , heavy metal , and rhythm and blues , and has inspired many subsequent rock artists . They were formed in Boston , Massachusetts in 1970 . Guitarist Joe Perry and bassist Tom Hamilton , originally in a band together called the Jam Band , met up with vocalist / pianist / harmonicist Steven Tyler , drummer Joey Kramer , and guitarist Ray Tabano , and formed Aerosmith . In 1971 , Tabano was replaced by Brad Whitford , and the band began developing a following in Boston .
They were signed to Columbia Records in 1972 , and released a string of gold and platinum albums , beginning with their 1973 eponymous debut album , followed by Get Your Wings in 1974 . In 1975 , the band broke into the mainstream with the album Toys in the Attic , and their 1976 follow @-@ up Rocks cemented their status as hard rock superstars . Two additional albums followed in 1977 and 1979 . Their first five albums have since attained multi @-@ platinum status . Throughout the 1970s , the band toured extensively and charted a dozen Hot 100 singles . By the end of the decade , they were among the most popular hard rock bands in the world and developed a loyal following of fans , often referred to as the " Blue Army " . However , drug addiction and internal conflict took their toll on the band , which led to the departures of Perry and Whitford in 1979 and 1981 , respectively ; they were replaced by Jimmy Crespo and Rick Dufay . The band did not fare well between 1980 and 1984 , releasing the album Rock in a Hard Place , which was certified gold but failed to match their previous successes .
Perry and Whitford returned to Aerosmith in 1984 and the band signed a new deal with Geffen Records . After a comeback tour , the band recorded Done with Mirrors ( 1985 ) , which won some critical praise but failed to come close to commercial expectations . It was not until the band 's collaboration with rap group Run – D.M.C. in 1986 , and the 1987 multi @-@ platinum release Permanent Vacation , that they regained the level of popularity they had experienced in the 1970s . In the late 1980s and 1990s , the band scored several hits and won numerous awards for music from the multi @-@ platinum albums Pump ( 1989 ) , Get a Grip ( 1993 ) , and Nine Lives ( 1997 ) , and embarked on their most extensive concert tours to date . The band also became a pop culture phenomenon with popular music videos and notable appearances in television , film , and video games . Their comeback has been described as one of the most remarkable and spectacular in rock ' n ' roll history . Additional albums followed in 2001 , 2004 , and 2012 . Since 2001 , the band has toured every year except 2008 . After 46 years of performing , the band continues to tour and record music , but is contemplating a farewell tour slated to begin in 2017 .
Aerosmith is the best @-@ selling American hard rock band of all time , having sold more than 150 million records worldwide , including over 70 million records in the United States alone . With 25 gold albums , 18 platinum albums , and 12 multi @-@ platinum albums , they hold the record for the most total certifications by an American group and are tied for the most multi @-@ platinum albums by an American group . The band has scored 21 Top 40 hits on the Billboard Hot 100 , nine number @-@ one Mainstream Rock hits , four Grammy Awards , six American Music Awards , and ten MTV Video Music Awards . They were inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame in 2001 , and were included among both Rolling Stone 's and VH1 's lists of the 100 Greatest Artists of All Time . In 2013 , the band 's principal songwriters , Tyler and Perry , were inducted into the Songwriters Hall of Fame .
= = History = =
= = = Formation ( 1964 – 1971 ) = = =
In 1964 , Steven Tyler formed his own band called the Strangeurs — later Chain Reaction — in New Hampshire . Meanwhile , Perry and Hamilton formed the Jam Band ( commonly known as " Joe Perry 's Jam Band " ) , which was based on free @-@ form and blues . Hamilton and Perry moved to Boston , Massachusetts in September 1969 . There they met Joey Kramer , a drummer from Yonkers , New York . Kramer knew Tyler and had always hoped to play in a band with him . Kramer , a Berklee College of Music student , decided to quit school to join Jam Band .
In 1970 , Chain Reaction and Jam Band played at the same gig . Tyler immediately loved Jam Band 's sound , and wanted to combine the two bands . In October 1970 , the bands met up again and considered the proposition . Tyler , who had been a drummer and backup singer in Chain Reaction , adamantly refused to play drums in this new band , insisting he would only take part if he could be frontman and lead vocalist . The others agreed , and a new band was born . The band moved into a home together at 1325 Commonwealth Avenue in Boston , where they wrote and rehearsed music together and relaxed in between shows .
The members of the band reportedly spent afternoons getting stoned and watching Three Stooges reruns . One day , they had a post @-@ Stooges meeting to try to come up with a name . Kramer said when he was in school he would write the word aerosmith all over his notebooks . The name had popped into his head after listening to Harry Nilsson 's album Aerial Ballet , which featured jacket art of a circus performer jumping out of a biplane . Initially , Kramer 's bandmates were unimpressed ; they all thought he was referring to the Sinclair Lewis novel they were required to read in high school English class . " No , not Arrowsmith , " Kramer explained . " A @-@ E @-@ R @-@ O ... Aerosmith . " The band settled upon this name after also considering " the Hookers " and " Spike Jones . "
Soon , the band hired Ray Tabano , a childhood friend of Tyler , as rhythm guitarist and began playing local shows . Aerosmith played their first gig in Mendon , Massachusetts at Nipmuc Regional High School ( now Miscoe Hill Middle School ) on November 6 , 1970 . In 1971 , Tabano was replaced by Brad Whitford , who also attended the Berklee School of Music and was formerly of the band Earth Inc . Whitford , from Reading , Massachusetts , had already played at Reading 's AW Coolidge Middle School . Other than a period from July 1979 to April 1984 , the line @-@ up of Tyler , Perry , Hamilton , Kramer , and Whitford has stayed the same .
= = = Record deal , Aerosmith , Get Your Wings and Toys in the Attic ( 1971 – 1975 ) = = =
After forming the band and finalizing the lineup in 1971 , the band started to garner some local success doing live shows . Originally booked through the Ed Malhoit Agency , the band signed a promotion deal with Frank Connelly and eventually secured a management deal with David Krebs and Steve Leber in 1972 . Krebs and Leber invited Columbia Records President Clive Davis to see the band at Max 's Kansas City in New York City . Aerosmith was not originally scheduled to play that night at the club , but they paid from their own pockets to secure a place on the bill , reportedly the only band ever to do so at Max 's . " No Surprize " from their Night in the Ruts album celebrates the moment their fame began .
Aerosmith signed with Columbia in mid @-@ 1972 for a reported $ 125 @,@ 000 and issued their debut album , Aerosmith . Released in January 1973 , the album peaked at number 166 . The album was straightforward rock and roll with well @-@ defined blues influences , laying the groundwork for Aerosmith 's signature blues rock sound . Although the highest @-@ charting single from the album was " Dream On " at number 59 , several tracks ( such as " Mama Kin " and " Walkin ' the Dog " ) would become staples of the band 's live shows and receive airplay on rock radio . The album reached gold status initially , eventually went on to sell two million copies , and was certified double platinum after the band reached mainstream success over a decade later . After constant touring , the band released their second album Get Your Wings in 1974 , the first of a string of multi @-@ platinum albums produced by Jack Douglas . This album included the rock radio hits " Same Old Song and Dance " and " Train Kept A @-@ Rollin ' " , a cover done previously by the Yardbirds . The album also contained several fan favorites including " Lord of the Thighs " , " Seasons of Wither " , and " S.O.S. ( Too Bad ) " , darker songs which have become staples in the band 's live shows . To date , Get Your Wings has sold three million copies .
It was 1975 's Toys in the Attic , however , that established Aerosmith as international stars competing with the likes of Led Zeppelin and the Rolling Stones . Originally derided as Rolling Stones knockoffs in part due to the physical resemblance between lead singers Steven Tyler and Mick Jagger , Toys in the Attic showed that Aerosmith was a unique and talented band in their own right . Toys in the Attic was an immediate success , starting with the single " Sweet Emotion " , which became the band 's first Top 40 hit . This was followed by a successful re @-@ release of " Dream On " which hit number 6 , becoming their best charting single of the 1970s . " Walk This Way " , re @-@ released in 1976 , reached the Top 10 in early 1977 .
In addition , " Toys in the Attic " and " Big Ten Inch Record " ( a song originally recorded by Bull Moose Jackson ) became concert staples . As a result of this success , both of the band 's previous albums re @-@ charted . Toys in the Attic has gone on to become the band 's bestselling studio album in the States , with certified U.S. sales of eight million copies . The band toured in support of Toys in the Attic , where they started to get more recognition . Also around this time , the band established their home base as " the Wherehouse " in Waltham , Massachusetts , where they would record and rehearse music , as well as conduct business .
= = = Rocks , Draw the Line and Live ! Bootleg ( 1976 – 1978 ) = = =
Aerosmith 's next album was 1976 's Rocks , which " captured Aerosmith at their most raw and rocking " . It went platinum swiftly and featured two FM hits , " Last Child " and " Back in the Saddle " , as well as the ballad " Home Tonight " , which also charted . Rocks has sold four million copies to date . Both Toys in the Attic and Rocks are highly regarded , especially in the hard rock genre , and appear on such lists as Rolling Stone 's 500 Greatest Albums of All Time , and are cited by members of Guns N ' Roses , Metallica , and Mötley Crüe as having large influences on their music . Kurt Cobain listed Rocks as one of the albums he thought were most influential to Nirvana 's sound in his journal in 1993 . Soon after Rocks was released , the band continued to tour heavily , this time headlining their own shows and playing to several large stadiums and rock festivals .
Aerosmith 's next album was 1977 's Draw the Line . The album 's recording was affected by the excesses of the band members , but the record still had memorable moments . The title track charted just shy of the Top 40 and remains a live staple , and " Kings and Queens " also charted . The album went on to sell 2 million copies . The band toured extensively in support of the album , however drug abuse and the fast @-@ paced life of touring and recording began affecting their performances . Lead singer Steven Tyler and lead guitarist Joe Perry became known as " the Toxic Twins " because of their notorious abuse of drugs on and off the stage . While continuing to tour and record into the late 1970s , Aerosmith acted in the movie version of Sgt. Pepper 's Lonely Hearts Club Band . Their cover of the Beatles hit " Come Together " was included in the album 's soundtrack and would be the band 's last Top 40 hit for nearly 10 years . The live release Live ! Bootleg , originally released as a double album , was put out in 1978 and captured the band 's rawness during the heyday of the Draw the Line tour . The stand @-@ alone single " Chip Away the Stone " was also released in 1978 and charted at number 77 .
= = = Departures of Perry and Whitford , Night in the Ruts and Rock in a Hard Place ( 1979 – 1984 ) = = =
In 1979 , the band started work on their next album , Night in the Ruts . Aerosmith decided to go on tour during a break in the recording schedule but tensions within the band were slowly coming to a head . The band 's touring schedule brought them to Cleveland Stadium on July 28 , 1979 , where they headlined the World Series of Rock festival . In a heated argument backstage , Joe Perry 's wife , Elissa , threw a glass of milk at Tom Hamilton 's wife , Terry . Following the show , Tyler and Perry got into a heated argument when Tyler confronted Perry about his wife 's antics , and after the course of the argument Perry quit the band and left ( while Tyler claims in his autobiography that he fired Perry from the band ) . In leaving , Perry took some of the music that he had written with him . Shortly after his departure Perry formed a new band called the Joe Perry Project .
Since there was still work to be done on Night in the Ruts , Aerosmith needed fill @-@ in musicians to take Perry 's place on the songs that needed to be recorded to complete the album . Rhythm guitarist Brad Whitford took over some of the lead parts and Richie Supa , the band 's longtime writing partner , filled in where needed until the band was able to hire Jimmy Crespo to take over as the full @-@ time guitarist . Night in the Ruts was released in November 1979 , but only managed to sell enough records to be certified Gold at the time ( it would eventually sell enough to be Platinum certified in 1994 ) . The only single the album spawned , a cover of " Remember ( Walking in the Sand ) " by the Shangri @-@ Las , peaked at # 67 on the Billboard Hot 100 .
The tour for Night in the Ruts commenced shortly thereafter but the band found themselves playing in smaller and smaller venues than they were before due to their popularity beginning to wane . Steven Tyler 's drug issues were starting to affect his performance and songwriting , and he reached bottom when he collapsed on stage during a show in Portland , Maine in 1980 and did not get up for the remainder of the set . Also in 1980 , Aerosmith released its Greatest Hits album . While the compilation didn 't chart very high initially , it gained popularity later and has gone on to become the band 's bestselling album in the United States , with sales of 11 million copies . In the fall of 1980 , Tyler was injured in a serious motorcycle accident , which left him hospitalized for two months , and unable to tour or record well into 1981 .
In 1981 , Aerosmith began work on their next album , which was titled Rock in a Hard Place and saw them reunite with producer Jack Douglas . Once again , though , they would be forced to deal with another departure . After the first song for the album , " Lightning Strikes " , was recorded Brad Whitford departed the band and decided to form a duo with Derek St. Holmes , with whom he recorded a self @-@ titled album that failed to garner much interest . Whitford later joined up with the Joe Perry Project and played with them in 1984 .
With Rick Dufay taking Whitford 's place , Rock in a Hard Place was released on August 1 , 1982 . The album reached # 32 on the Billboard 200 album chart . Only one single charted , the aforementioned " Lightning Strikes " , which peaked at number 21 on the Billboard Top Tracks chart . As with the tour for Night in the Ruts , Aerosmith was unable to book larger venues and instead had to rely on filling clubs and theaters , which they struggled to do . At a show in Worcester , Massachusetts , Tyler and Perry reunited and got high backstage before the show . Tyler was so intoxicated that he collapsed on stage again and , like before , could not get up .
On February 14 , 1984 , Perry and Whitford saw Aerosmith perform at Boston 's Orpheum Theater . Shortly thereafter , discussions began to reintegrate the two into the band and several months later , the original members of Aerosmith reunited . Steven Tyler recalls :
= = = Back in the Saddle reunion tour , Done with Mirrors and drug rehab ( 1984 – 1986 ) = = =
In 1984 , Aerosmith embarked on a reunion tour called the Back in the Saddle Tour , which led to the live album Classics Live II . While concerts on the tour were well @-@ attended , it was plagued with several incidents , mostly attributed to drug abuse by band members . Their problems still not behind them , the group was signed to Geffen Records and began working on a comeback . Despite the band signing on to a new record company , the band 's old label Columbia continued to reap the benefits of Aerosmith 's comeback , releasing the live companion albums Classics Live I and II and the collection Gems .
In 1985 , the band released the album Done with Mirrors , their first studio album since reuniting . While the album did receive some positive reviews , it only went gold and failed to produce a hit single or generate any widespread interest . The album 's most notable track , " Let the Music Do the Talking " , was in fact a cover of a song originally recorded by the Joe Perry Project and released on that band 's album of the same name . Nevertheless , the band became a popular concert attraction once again , touring in support of Done With Mirrors , well into 1986 . In 1986 , Tyler and Perry appeared on Run – D.M.C. ' s cover of " Walk This Way " , a track blending rock and roll with hip hop . In reaching number 4 on the Billboard Hot 100 , the song and its frequently @-@ aired video confirmed rap 's mainstream appeal and resurrected Aerosmith 's career by introducing the band 's music to a new generation .
Yet the band members ' drug problems still stood in their way . In 1986 , Tyler completed a successful drug rehabilitation program , after an intervention by his fellow band members , a doctor , and manager Tim Collins , who believed that the band 's future would not be bright if Tyler did not get treated . The rest of the band members also completed drug rehab programs over the course of the next couple of years . According to the band 's tell @-@ all autobiography , Collins pledged in September 1986 he could make Aerosmith the biggest band in the world by 1990 if they all completed drug rehab . Their next album was crucial because of the commercial disappointment of Done With Mirrors , and as the band members became clean , they worked hard to make their next album a success .
= = = Permanent Vacation and Pump ( 1987 – 1991 ) = = =
Permanent Vacation was released in September 1987 , becoming a major hit and the band 's bestselling album in over a decade ( selling 5 million copies in the U.S. ) , with all three of its singles ( " Dude ( Looks Like a Lady ) " , " Rag Doll " , and " Angel " ) reaching the Top 20 of the Billboard Hot 100 . Steven Tyler reveals in his autobiography that the album was " ... the first one we ever did sober . " Part of Permanent Vacation 's commercial success involved producer Bruce Fairbairn whose production touches ( such as sound effects and high @-@ quality recording ) added interest to the album and the use of outside songwriters such as Desmond Child , Jim Vallance , and Holly Knight who assisted the band with lyrics . While the group was initially hesitant to using outside songwriters , including Tyler being furious for Knight getting songwriting credits for changing one word ( " Rag Time " became " Rag Doll " ) , the method paid off , as Permanent Vacation became the band 's most successful album in a decade . The group went on a subsequent tour with labelmates Guns N ' Roses ( who have cited Aerosmith as a major influence ) , which was intense at times because of Aerosmith 's new struggle to stay clean amidst Guns N ' Roses ' well @-@ publicized , rampant drug use .
Aerosmith 's next album was even more successful . Pump , released in September 1989 , featured three Top Ten singles : " What It Takes " , " Janie 's Got a Gun " , and " Love in an Elevator " , as well as the Top 30 " The Other Side " , re @-@ establishing the band as a serious musical force . Pump was a critical and commercial success , eventually selling 7 million copies , spawning several music videos that were in regular rotation on MTV , and achieving four @-@ star ratings from major music magazines . Pump ranked as the fourth @-@ bestselling album of 1990 . The band also won its first Grammy in the category of Best Rock Performance by a Duo or Group with Vocal , for " Janie 's Got a Gun " . In addition , the video for " Janie 's Got a Gun " won two Video Music Awards and was ranked as one of the 100 greatest videos of all time by Rolling Stone , MTV , and VH1 . Like Permanent Vacation , Pump was produced by Bruce Fairbairn , who added production touches such as instrumental interludes that provided transitions between songs to give the album a more complete sound , as well as the Margarita Horns , who added horns to tracks such as " Love in an Elevator " and " The Other Side " . Rock critic Stephen Thomas Erlewine claimed that Pump " revels in [ pop concessions ] without ever losing sight of Aerosmith 's dirty hard rock core " , going on to say that , " such ambition and successful musical eclectism make Pump rank with Toys in the Attic and Rocks . " The recording process for Pump was documented in the video The Making of Pump , which has since been re @-@ released as a DVD . The music videos for the album 's singles were featured on the release Things That Go Pump in the Night , which quickly went platinum .
In support of Pump , the band embarked on the 12 @-@ month Pump Tour , which lasted for most of 1990 . On February 21 , 1990 , the band appeared in a " Wayne 's World " sketch on Saturday Night Live , debating the fall of communism and the Soviet Union , and performed their recent hits " Janie 's Got a Gun " and " Monkey on My Back " . The appearance of the band in the " Wayne 's World " sketch was later ranked by E ! as the number @-@ one moment in the history of the program . On August 11 , 1990 , the band 's performance on MTV 's Unplugged aired . In October 1990 , the Pump Tour ended , with the band 's first ever performances in Australia . That same year , the band was also inducted to the Hollywood Rock Walk . In November 1991 , the band appeared on The Simpsons episode " Flaming Moe 's " and released a box set titled Pandora 's Box . In coordination with the release of Pandora 's Box , the band 's 1975 hit " Sweet Emotion " was re @-@ mixed and re @-@ released as a single , and a music video was created to promote the single . Also in 1991 , the band performed their 1973 single " Dream On " with Michael Kamen 's orchestra for MTV 's 10th Anniversary special ; this performance was used as the official music video for the song . In 1992 , Tyler and Perry appeared live as guests of Guns N ' Roses during the latter 's 1992 worldwide pay @-@ per @-@ view show in Paris , performing a medley of " Mama Kin " ( which GN 'R covered in 1986 ) and " Train Kept @-@ A Rollin " .
= = = Get a Grip and Big Ones ( 1992 – 1995 ) = = =
The band took a brief break before recording their follow @-@ up to Pump in 1992 . Despite significant shifts in mainstream music at the beginning of the 1990s , 1993 's Get a Grip was just as successful commercially , becoming their first album to debut at number 1 and racking up sales of 7 million copies in a two @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half @-@ year timespan . The first singles were the hard rocking " Livin ' on the Edge " and " Eat the Rich " . Though many critics were unimpressed by the focus on the subsequent interchangeable power @-@ ballads in promoting the album , all three ( " Cryin ' " , " Crazy " and " Amazing " ) proved to be huge successes on radio and MTV . The music videos featured then up @-@ and @-@ coming actress Alicia Silverstone ; her provocative performances earned her the title of " the Aerosmith chick " for the first half of the decade . Steven Tyler 's daughter Liv Tyler was also featured in the " Crazy " video . Get a Grip would go on to sell more than 7 million copies in the U.S. alone , and over 20 million copies worldwide . The band won two Grammy Awards for songs from this album in the category of Best Rock Performance by a Duo or Group with Vocal : for " Livin ' on the Edge " in 1994 and " Crazy " in 1995 .
During the making of Get a Grip , the management and record company brought in a variety of professional songwriting collaborators to help give nearly all the songs on the album more commercial appeal , a trend which would continue until the early 2000s . However , this led to accusations of selling out that would continue throughout the 1990s . In addition to Aerosmith 's grueling 18 month world tour in support of Get a Grip , the band also did a number of things to help promote themselves and their album and appeal to youth culture , including the appearance of the band in the movie Wayne 's World 2 where they performed two songs , the appearance of the band and their music in the video games Revolution X and Quest for Fame , performing at Woodstock ' 94 , using their song " Deuces Are Wild " in The Beavis and Butt @-@ head Experience , and opening their own club , The Mama Kin Music Hall , in Boston , MA in 1994 . That same year saw the release of the band 's compilation for Geffen Records , entitled Big Ones featuring their biggest hits from Permanent Vacation , Pump , and Get a Grip , " Deuces Are Wild " from the Beavis and Butt @-@ head Experience , as well as two new songs , " Blind Man " and " Walk on Water " , both of which experienced great success on the rock charts .
= = = Nine Lives and " I Don 't Want to Miss a Thing " ( 1996 – 2000 ) = = =
Aerosmith had signed a $ 30 million contract for four records with Columbia Records / Sony Music in 1991 , but had only recorded three of their six contractual albums with Geffen Records at that point ( Done with Mirrors , Permanent Vacation , and Pump ) . Between 1991 and 1996 , they released two more albums with Geffen ( Get a Grip and Big Ones ) , which meant they now had five albums with Geffen under their belt ( along with a planned live compilation ) , which meant they could now begin recording for their new contract with Columbia . The band took time off with their families before working on their next album , Nine Lives , which was plagued with personnel problems , including the firing of manager Tim Collins , who , according to band members , had nearly caused the band to break up . The album 's producer was also changed from Glen Ballard to Kevin Shirley . Nine Lives was released in March 1997 . Reviews were mixed , and Nine Lives initially fell down the charts , although it had a long chart life and sold double platinum in the United States alone , fueled by its singles , " Falling in Love ( Is Hard on the Knees ) " , the ballad " Hole in My Soul " , and the crossover @-@ pop smash " Pink " ( which won the band their fourth Grammy Award in 1999 in the Best Rock Performance by a Duo or Group with Vocal category ) . It was followed by the over two @-@ year @-@ long Nine Lives Tour , which was plagued by problems including lead singer Steven Tyler injuring his leg at a concert , and Joey Kramer suffering second degree burns when his car caught fire at a gas station .
In 1998 , in the midst of setbacks during the Nine Lives Tour , the band released the single " I Don 't Want to Miss a Thing " , the love theme , written by Diane Warren for the 1998 film Armageddon , starring Steven Tyler 's daughter Liv . The song became Aerosmith 's first and only number 1 single when it debuted at the top position on the Billboard Hot 100 and stayed on top of the charts for four weeks . The song was nominated for an Academy Award in 1999 . The song helped open Aerosmith up to a new generation and remains a slow @-@ dance staple . 1998 also saw the release of the double @-@ live album , A Little South of Sanity , which was assembled from performances on the Get a Grip and Nine Lives tours . The album went platinum shortly after its release . The band continued with their seemingly neverending world tours promoting Nine Lives and the " I Don 't Want to Miss a Thing " single well into 1999 .
In 1999 , Aerosmith was featured in the Disney Hollywood Studios at Walt Disney World ( and later in 2001 at Disneyland Paris in the Walt Disney Studios Park ) ride , Rock ' n ' Roller Coaster Starring Aerosmith , providing the ride 's soundtrack and theme . On September 9 , 1999 , Steven Tyler and Joe Perry reunited with Run – D.M.C. and were also joined by Kid Rock for a collaborative live performance of " Walk This Way " at the MTV Video Music Awards , a precursor to the Girls of Summer Tour . The band celebrated the new millennium with a brief tour of Japan , and also contributed the song " Angel 's Eye " to the 2000 film Charlie 's Angels . In December 2000 , they wrapped up work on their next album .
= = = Just Push Play , O , Yeah ! and Rocksimus Maximus ( 2001 – 2003 ) = = =
The band entered their next decade by performing at the halftime show for Super Bowl XXXV , in January 2001 , along with pop stars ' N Sync , Britney Spears , Mary J. Blige , and Nelly . All of the stars collaborated with Aerosmith at the end for a performance of " Walk This Way " .
In March 2001 , the band released their 13th studio album Just Push Play , which quickly went platinum , fueled by the Top 10 single " Jaded " and the appearance of the title track in Dodge commercials . They were inducted to the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame soon after their album was released , in late March 2001 . Aerosmith is the only band to be inducted to the Hall of Fame with a song active in the charts ( " Jaded " ) . Later that year , the band performed as part of the United We Stand : What More Can I Give benefit concert in Washington D.C. for 9 / 11 victims and their families . The band flew back to Indianapolis for a show the same night , as part of their Just Push Play Tour .
The band started 2002 by ending the Just Push Play tour , and simultaneously recording segments for their Behind the Music special on VH1 , which not only chronicled the band 's history but also the band 's current activities and touring . The special was one of the few Behind the Musics to run two hours in length . In May , Aerosmith covered the " Theme from Spider @-@ Man " for the soundtrack of the 2002 film of the same name . On June 27 , the band performed at the official FIFA World Cup concert at Tokyo Stadium which took place during the 2002 FIFA World Cup held in Japan / Korea . In July 2002 , Aerosmith released a two @-@ disc career @-@ spanning compilation O , Yeah ! Ultimate Aerosmith Hits , which featured the new single " Girls of Summer " and embarked on the Girls of Summer Tour with Kid Rock and Run – D.M.C. opening . O , Yeah ! has since been certified double platinum . MTV honored Aerosmith with their mtvICON award in 2002 . Performances included Pink covering " Janie 's Got a Gun " . Shakira performed " Dude ( Looks Like a Lady ) " , Kid Rock played " Mama Kin " and " Last Child " , Train performed " Dream On " and Papa Roach covered " Sweet Emotion " . In addition , testimonials featured surprise guests Metallica , as well as Janet Jackson , Limp Bizkit singer Fred Durst , Alicia Silverstone and Mila Kunis .
In 2003 , Aerosmith co @-@ headlined with Kiss on the Rocksimus Maximus Tour , in preparation for release of their blues album . They also performed a song for Rugrats Go Wild , " Lizard Love " .
= = = Honkin ' on Bobo , Rockin ' the Joint and Devil 's Got a New Disguise ( 2004 – 2006 ) = = =
Aerosmith 's long @-@ promised blues album Honkin ' on Bobo was released in 2004 . This was a return to the band 's roots , including recording the album in live sessions , working with former producer Jack Douglas , and laying down their blues rock grit . It was followed by a live DVD , You Gotta Move , in December 2004 , culled from performances on the Honkin ' on Bobo Tour . " Dream On " was also featured in an advertising campaign for Buick in 2004 , targeting that marque 's market which is now composed largely of people who were teenagers when the song first charted .
2005 saw Steven Tyler appear in the film Be Cool . Joe Perry released his self @-@ titled solo album that same year . At the 2006 Grammy Awards , he was nominated for Best Rock Instrumental Performance for the track " Mercy " , but lost to Les Paul . In October 2005 , Aerosmith released a CD / DVD Rockin ' the Joint . The band hit the road for the Rockin ' the Joint Tour on October 30 with Lenny Kravitz for a fall / winter tour of arenas in the largest U.S. markets . The band planned to tour with Cheap Trick in the spring , hitting secondary markets in the U.S. Almost all of this leg of the tour was canceled , however . Dates were initially canceled one by one until March 22 , 2006 , when it was announced that lead singer Steven Tyler needed throat surgery , and the remaining dates on the tour were subsequently canceled .
Aerosmith commenced recording a new album on Armed Forces Day 2006 . Tyler and Perry performed with the Boston Pops Orchestra for their annual July 4 concert on the Esplanade in 2006 , a milestone as it was the first major event or performance since Steven Tyler 's throat surgery . Around this time , the band also announced that they would embark on the Route of All Evil Tour with Mötley Crüe in late 2006 . On August 24 , 2006 it was announced that Tom Hamilton was undergoing treatment for throat cancer . In order to make a full recovery , he sat out much of the Route of All Evil Tour until he was well again . Former Joe Perry Project bassist David Hull substituted for Hamilton until his return . On September 5 , 2006 , Aerosmith kicked off the Route of All Evil Tour with Mötley Crüe in Columbus , Ohio . The co @-@ headlining tour took both bands to amphitheaters across North America through November 24 . After that , a select few arena dates were added , some of which were with Mötley Crüe . The tour ended December 17 .
On October 17 , 2006 , the compilation album Devil 's Got a New Disguise : The Very Best of Aerosmith was released . The album contained previous hits with the addition of two new songs , " Devil 's Got a New Disguise " and " Sedona Sunrise " , which were older outtakes re @-@ recorded for the album . " Devil 's Got a New Disguise " peaked at number 15 on the Mainstream Rock Tracks chart . The album was intended to fulfill Aerosmith 's contract with Sony and tide fans over until the band 's new studio album was released .
= = = Touring , Guitar Hero : Aerosmith and unfinished album ( 2007 – 2009 ) = = =
In early 2007 , the band announced a new World Tour , their first for nearly a decade to include dates outside North America or Japan . The band performed at London 's Hard Rock Cafe in February 2007 to promote their European tour which included a night in Hyde Park as part of the Hyde Park Calling festival sponsored by Hard Rock Cafe . In the spring , the band toured Latin America to sold @-@ out stadium crowds . In the summer , the band toured Europe , performing at several major rock festivals and visiting some countries they had never played before . Additionally , the band played in Middle East countries such as the United Arab Emirates and India for the first time . The band also played a few select dates in California and Canada in late July . One such date , a July 21 concert in Prince Edward Island , was the largest in that province 's history . In September , the band performed eight dates in major markets in Northeastern North America . These shows were opened by Joan Jett . The band also played a private gig in Hawaii . A public show in Maui was canceled for logistical reasons , which spurred a class action lawsuit against the band . In April 2009 , Aerosmith agreed to compensate all ticket buyers of the canceled show with a free ticket to a rescheduled Maui show to be held on October 20 , 2009 , along with reimbursements of all out @-@ of @-@ pocket expenses related to the show .
On November 1 , 2007 , the band entered the studio to work on the final studio album of their current contract with Sony . At the time , it was believed that the album would include both re @-@ recorded tracks left off previous albums as well as brand new material . In an interview , guitarist Joe Perry revealed that in addition to creating a new album , the band was working closely with the makers of the Guitar Hero series to develop Guitar Hero : Aerosmith , a video game dedicated to the band 's music . The game was released on June 29 , 2008 and contains many of their most popular songs . Steven Tyler announced on VH1 Classic Radio on September 4 , 2008 that Aerosmith intends to enter the studio at the end of September 2008 to complete the band 's 15th studio album . Tyler also confirmed that the band plans to begin a new U.S. tour in June 2009 , in support of the as @-@ yet @-@ untitled album . This tour was supposed to be preceded by a concert in Venezuela on February 1 , 2009 . However , on January 15 , 2009 , Tyler said the band would be unable to play the gig because of a second knee injury of guitarist Joe Perry . In mid @-@ February 2009 , it was announced that the album would be produced by the famed Brendan O 'Brien and that the album would likely be recorded live , like their earlier records . Although the band had hoped to finish the album before the tour started in June 2009 , Perry said that the group " realized there wasn 't any chance of getting [ the album ] finished before we hit the road for the summer . " The tour featured ZZ Top as the opening act for most of the tour . The Aerosmith / ZZ Top Tour , presented by Guitar Hero : Aerosmith , was officially announced and the first dates released on April 8 , 2009 .
The tour was slated to take the band across North America from June to September 2009 . The tour featured the band perform nearly all of the songs on the band 's 1975 album Toys in the Attic during the first seven dates of the tour and also featured Joe Perry sing lead vocals on the 1976 deep cut " Combination " . The tour was plagued with several health problems , however . Guitarist Brad Whitford had to sit out the first seven dates of the tour in order to recover from head surgery , after injuring his head getting out of his car . On June 28 , 2009 , at the band 's seventh show of the tour at the Mohegan Sun Arena in Uncasville , Connecticut , lead singer Steven Tyler injured his leg , which required seven shows to be postponed . As soon as the band resumed the tour on July 15 , Whitford returned to the fold . However , Tom Hamilton had to depart the tour in order to recover from non @-@ invasive surgery . On August 5 , 2009 , Tyler was rushed to the hospital after falling from the stage at a concert in Sturgis , South Dakota . He was helped up by security staff and taken backstage , before guitarist Joe Perry told the audience the show was over . Tyler was airlifted to Rapid City Regional Hospital , where he received treatment for head and neck injuries and a broken shoulder . In the wake of Tyler 's injuries , the band was forced to postpone five shows in Western Canada . On August 14 , 2009 , Aerosmith announced that they had decided to cancel the rest of their U.S. tour dates with ZZ Top , due to Tyler 's injuries .
In the midst of the tour , Perry completed work on his fifth solo album , Have Guitar , Will Travel and drummer Joey Kramer released his autobiography , Hit Hard . Perry 's solo album was released on October 6 , 2009 .
After Tyler recovered from falling off stage , the band returned to the stage in mid @-@ October for two shows in Hawaii , one in Maui which was rescheduled from 2007 and finally played as part of a legal settlement , and an additional show which was played in Honolulu . In early November , the band played a concert in Abu Dhabi at the Grand Prix .
= = = Tyler @-@ Perry feud and Cocked , Locked , and Ready to Rock Tour ( 2009 – 2010 ) = = =
Tyler pulled out of a planned South American tour at the end of 2009 and seemed intent on pursuing solo projects , including his autobiography Does the Noise in My Head Bother You ? . Tyler told Classic Rock magazine , " I don 't know what I 'm doing yet , but it 's definitely going to be something Steven Tyler : working on the brand of myself – Brand Tyler . " Meanwhile , guitarist Joe Perry toured the United States at the end of 2009 , and Japan and the UK early in 2010 .
In November 2009 , Joe Perry stated that Tyler had not been in contact with the band and could be on the verge of quitting Aerosmith . Perry stated that the rest of the group was " looking for a new singer to work with . " It was reported that singer Lenny Kravitz had been approached for Steven Tyler 's position , which he then declined .
However , despite the rumors of him leaving the band , Tyler joined the Joe Perry Project onstage on November 10 , 2009 at the Fillmore New York at Irving Plaza , and Tyler and Perry performed the Aerosmith single " Walk This Way " together . According to sources at the event , Tyler assured the crowd that he was " not quitting Aerosmith " .
On December 22 , People magazine reported that Tyler had entered a rehabilitation facility to manage his addiction to painkillers , brought on by injuries to his knees , legs , and feet , that resulted from years of performing . In his statement , Tyler said he is grateful for the support he is receiving , is committed to getting things taken care of , and is eager to get back on stage and in the recording studio with his bandmates .
On January 20 , 2010 , Perry confirmed the band were about to audition for a new singer to replace Tyler . Perry said Tyler 's surgery to his legs would " take him out of the picture " for up to a year and a half , and in the meantime , the rest of the band wanted to continue performing . Perry also said that the band would be willing to continue working with Tyler in the future if the singer wanted to .
In response , Tyler 's attorney sent the band and its manager a " cease and desist " letter and threatened further legal action against both if the band did not discontinue this effort to replace Tyler .
On February 15 , 2010 , it was announced that Aerosmith were to headline Download Festival at Donington Park , England in June 2010 . Tyler was confirmed as the frontman for the show by festival promoter Andy Copping . It was announced that the band would precede the June 13 date with an appearance at the Sweden Rock Festival on June 10 in Sölvesborg . During the Donington show , Perry celebrated Tyler 's position as frontman , dubbing him " the best lead singer on the planet " . On February 24 , the band announced the first batch of dates for their upcoming Cocked , Locked , Ready to Rock Tour . The tour saw the band play seven dates in South and Central America in May , followed by eleven dates in Europe , in June and early July . The band performed in Colombia , Peru and Greece for the first time in their career on this tour . The band performed 24 concerts in North America in late July , August , and September . Many of the concerts were in locations the band canceled on in 2009 . As part of the tour , the band played Fenway Park in Boston with fellow Bostonians the J. Geils Band .
Problems on the band 's Cocked , Locked , and Ready to Rock Tour arose in August 2010 , including Tyler accidentally hitting Joe Perry in the head with his microphone stand at a show in Wantagh , New York and Perry bumping into Tyler at the Toronto show , which caused Tyler to tumble off the stage . Perry suffered a minor head injury at the Wantagh show and Tyler was helped back up by fans and Perry at the Toronto show , and both shows went on . Around the same time as these incidents , tension flared again between Perry and Tyler due to Tyler 's plans to become a talent judge on American Idol . Perry criticized Tyler for not consulting the rest of the band , saying that he " found out on the internet , like the rest of the world " and that nobody else in the band knew anything about it .
On August 18 , it was reported that Tyler officially signed on with the show . When asked about this in October , Perry declared he understood Tyler 's reasons and wished him luck , but stated that he would seek different projects – " I 'm tired of waiting around , so I 'm not passing up anything right now " .
While announcing the Cocked , Locked , and Ready to Rock Tour in 2009 , Tyler and Perry said that the next item on the agenda was a new Aerosmith album , the group 's first since 2004 's Honkin ' on Bobo . The group did some recording with producer Brendan O 'Brien in 2008 but halted because of Tyler 's health problems . Aerosmith bassist Tom Hamilton told the Boston Herald in September 2010 that Tyler believes he has the time and energy to continue fronting the band while also being a judge on American Idol .
Hamilton explained , " Steven 's been very emphatic in saying that the way his time is arranged on the show leaves room to work on a record . He 's been taking great pains to remind everybody of that , so hopefully that 's the way it will come out . " On November 5 , 2010 , Brad Whitford said the recording sessions will probably be in Los Angeles , where American Idol is headquartered , and a world tour would follow .
= = = Touring and Music from Another Dimension ! ( 2010 – 2013 ) = = =
In a November 2010 interview reported at NME.com , drummer Joey Kramer confirmed that the band had every intention to finish and release their long @-@ delayed album in 2011 , stating , " Really , at this point in time , the only thing that 's going to stop us is if someone out @-@ and @-@ out dies . Other than that , we 've already been through what we 've been through and stood the test of time . What else is there ? " On January 18 , 2011 , Tyler declared that " Joe ( Perry ) has got some licks and I 've got a bunch of songs that I 've written for solo and / or Aerosmith " and the band would start prepping the album that week . On March 20 , 2011 , Aerosmith announced a new greatest hits album , Tough Love : Best of the Ballads , which was released on May 10 , 2011 . On May 14 , 2011 , the band announced a tour of Latin America in the fall of 2011 . In June , Joe Perry announced that the band is going to meet at the recording studio to produce the next album of the band in July . On August 30 , it was announced that the new album will be released around May 2012 . The album will be produced by Jack Douglas , who produced four albums for the band in the 1970s . Aerosmith began their fall tour of Latin America and Japan on October 22 in Lima , Peru . As part of the tour , the band performed in Paraguay , Panama , and Ecuador for the first time in their careers . Their show in Asunción , Paraguay was postponed a day , after lead singer Steven Tyler sustained facial injuries after falling in his hotel room shower , due to a bout of food poisoning that dehydrated him and caused him to faint .
On March 11 , 2012 , Aerosmith was featured on an episode of 60 Minutes . The show included very candid interviews with the band members , interspersed with live performances from the band 's 2011 tour . Some of the comments the band members said about each other seemed to re @-@ ignite past tensions in the band . However , on March 22 , Joe Perry surprised Steven Tyler by performing " Happy Birthday " for him on American Idol , as an early birthday present for Tyler . On March 26 , Aerosmith announced a summer tour with Cheap Trick entitled the " Global Warming Tour " . On May 23 , Aerosmith debuted their new single , " Legendary Child " , on the season finale of American Idol . Shortly after , it was announced that their fifteenth studio album , Music from Another Dimension ! , would be released on November 6 , 2012 . On May 30 , Aerosmith and Cheap Trick performed for Walmart shareholders . Aerosmith 's " Global Warming Tour " began June 16 in Minneapolis and took the band to 26 locations across North America through August 12 . The band hinted that the tour would continue in October / November after the album release . On August 22 , Aerosmith released two singles simultaneously , the rocker " Lover Alot " and the ballad " What Could Have Been Love " . On September 22 , Aerosmith performed at the iHeartRadio music festival in Las Vegas . In advance of the release of their new album , the band performed on The Late Show with David Letterman and Today , and Tyler and Perry were interviewed on The Late Show and The View . In addition , Tyler , Perry and Whitford performed " Dream On " for the telethon Hurricane Sandy : Coming Together to raise funds for the victims of the namesake storm that struck the Northeastern United States . On November 5 , Aerosmith performed an outdoor concert in front of their old apartment at 1325 Commonwealth Avenue in Boston to celebrate the release of their album and their Boston roots . Music from Another Dimension ! was released on November 6 . Two days later , the band began the 2nd leg of their Global Warming Tour , which took the band to 14 North American locations through December 13 .
On January 21 , 2013 , Aerosmith released " Can 't Stop Lovin ' You " ( featuring Carrie Underwood ) as the fourth single from Music from Another Dimension ! . On February 20 , it was announced that the band 's principal songwriters Steven Tyler and Joe Perry would be recipients of the ASCAP Founders Award at the society 's 30th Annual Pop Music Awards on April 17 . Two days later , it was announced that the duo would be inducted into the Songwriters Hall of Fame at a ceremony to be held on June 13 .
In late April and early May 2013 , Aerosmith extended their Global Warming Tour to Australia , New Zealand , the Philippines , Indonesia , and Singapore . This marked the band 's first performances in Australia in 23 years , and the band 's first @-@ ever performances in the latter four countries . Tom Hamilton had to miss the last three Australian shows due to illness ; David Hull filled in for him . On May 5 , Aerosmith cancelled their first @-@ ever performance in Indonesia ( scheduled for May 11 ) due to safety concerns ; the actual threat was not released . On May 30 , Aerosmith performed as part of the " Boston Strong " charity concert for victims of the Boston Marathon bombings . The band also performed at the Greenbrier Classic in West Virginia on July 6 , at the Foxwoods Resort Casino in Connecticut on July 10 , four concerts in Japan in mid @-@ August , and as part of the Harley @-@ Davidson 110th Anniversary Concert series in Milwaukee on August 30 . In the fall of 2013 , Aerosmith extended their tour to Central and South America , including their first @-@ ever performances in Guatemala , El Salvador and Uruguay . Hamilton had to depart the Latin American tour due to illness .
In July 2013 , the band released the live concert DVD Rock for the Rising Sun , which also documented the band 's 2011 tour of Japan . The release was also screened in select theaters in October 2013 .
= = = Touring , future album , and solo endeavors ( 2014 – present ) = = =
On March 21 , 2014 , in tweets released by Joe Perry , Joey Kramer , and Slash , it was announced that Aerosmith would be touring North America with Slash ( along with Myles Kennedy & the Conspirators ) in the summer of 2014 . This followed a 17 @-@ date European tour that Aerosmith took from May 14 to July 2 . The North American tour , known as the Let Rock Rule Tour , sent Aerosmith to 21 locations from July 10 to September 12 .
Asked in May 2014 if Aerosmith will release a sixteenth studio album anytime soon , bassist Tom Hamilton replied , " I hope soon . But I really don 't know what we are doing because we no longer have a record contract . We are finished with Columbia . So , there is nothing written in stone . We 'll see what the fans want . " In an interview with Rolling Stone about what the future holds , Joe Perry admitted that , " I don 't even know if making new albums makes sense anymore . Maybe we 'll just release an EP every six months . I don 't know what the future looks like . "
On October 7 , 2014 , Perry released his autobiography Rocks : My Life in and Out of Aerosmith , co @-@ written by David Ritz . Perry promoted the book with a book @-@ signing tour that took him to 14 locations across the United States in the month of October .
On February 26 , 2015 , Aerosmith premiered the film Aerosmith Rocks Donington in 300 movie theaters across North America ; the concert video is from the band 's 2014 performance at Download Festival at Donington Park in Leicestershire , England . The video is set to be released on DVD / Blu @-@ ray on September 4 , 2015
On March 31 , 2015 , lead singer Steven Tyler stated that he was working on his first solo country album . On April 6 , it was announced that Tyler signed a record deal with Scott Borchetta 's Dot Records ( a division of the Big Machine Label Group ) . On May 13 , Tyler released the lead single , " Love is Your Name " , from his forthcoming solo debut album . He promoted the song on the Bobby Bones Show , iHeartMedia , CBS This Morning , Entertainment Tonight , and the American Idol season 14 finale .
On June 10 , Aerosmith embarked on the Blue Army Tour , which sent the band to 17 North American locations through August 7 , many of them in smaller venues in secondary markets that the band has either never performed in or hasn 't performed in many years . The band also played a one @-@ off show in Moscow on September 5 . On the tour , the band played several lesser @-@ known deep cuts .
After the tour , Tyler completed work on his solo album , We 're All Somebody from Somewhere , which was released on July 15 , 2016 . Prior to the album 's release , a second single , " Red , White & You " , was released in January 2016 , followed by the third single ( the title track ) in June 2016 . Meanwhile , Joe Perry has worked with Alice Cooper and Johnny Depp on the side project Hollywood Vampires , which released their eponymous debut album in September 2015 and performed at the 58th Grammy Awards on February 15 , 2016 . Brad Whitford re @-@ joined Derek St. Holmes for a handful of tour dates in November 2015 and a new Whitford / St. Holmes album that was made available to fans at their live performances and which is planned for wide release in 2016 . Tom Hamilton will be performing with Thin Lizzy on a handful of concert dates in Europe in the summer of 2016 . Tyler , Perry , Whitford , and Hamilton will all be on the road performing concerts in the summer of 2016 with their respective side projects . Meanwhile , Joey Kramer has been actively involved in his " Rockin ' & Roastin ' " coffee business , which opened a location in Newry , Maine in December 2015 and a second location in North Attleborough , Massachusetts in July 2016 .
Since December 2015 , in various interviews , Whitford , Tyler , and Perry all discussed the possibility of a farewell tour or " wind @-@ down tour " slated to start in 2017 . Perry has suggested the tour could last for two years and Tyler said it could potentially last " forever " ; Whitford and Tyler also discussed the potential of doing one last studio album .
On July 10 , 2016 , Perry collapsed onstage at a concert he was performing with the Hollywood Vampires on Coney Island in Brooklyn , New York . It is believed he suffered cardiac arrest , was revived , and rushed to the hospital , but was quickly upgraded to stable condition later that night . The Vampires continued the show without Perry that evening and will continue their tour , but canceled an appearance on The Late Show with Stephen Colbert . Perry is resting and expected to make a full recovery ; he is expected to return onstage soon .
From September through October 2016 , Aerosmith will embark on a 10 @-@ date tour of Latin America preceded by a September 16 performance at the Kaaboo Festival in San Diego , California .
= = Influence and legacy = =
Influenced by bands such as the Beatles , the Rolling Stones , the Yardbirds , Led Zeppelin and the New York Dolls , Aerosmith proved to be a major influence themselves on subsequently massively successful bands and musicians ; according to Perry , Eddie Van Halen once told him that his band Van Halen " started out on the suburban L.A. club circuit , playing Aerosmith songs " . Aerosmith 's influence was evident on the next generation of hard rock and heavy metal bands , namely Mötley Crüe , Ratt , Guns N ' Roses , Tesla , L.A. Guns , Cinderella , Faster Pussycat , Skid Row , Extreme ( themselves Boston natives ) , Warrant , the Black Crowes and the Quireboys , as well as Metallica , Metal Church and Testament . Especially , Guns N ' Roses and Velvet Revolver guitarist Slash has stated that Aerosmith is his favorite band , and Mötley Crüe 's Nikki Sixx has expressed massive admiration for the band and its early records in both The Dirt and The Heroin Diaries . Members of Nirvana , Pearl Jam , Stone Temple Pilots and Godsmack were also self @-@ professed early Aerosmith fans .
The interplay between Joe Perry and Brad Whitford has been inspiring to many bands , especially Guns N ' Roses . Joe Perry has received wide recognition and praise as a lead guitarist , and has shared the stage many times with Jimmy Page and Jeff Beck , who Perry cites as primary influences . He and Tyler were asked by Page to induct Led Zeppelin into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame ; during the ceremony , which took place in 1995 , Tyler and Perry delivered their speech and joined the band onstage for a brief set . During Beck 's and Metallica 's induction in 2009 , they invited Perry and Page to play the Yardbirds / Zeppelin / Aerosmith classic " Train Kept A @-@ Rollin ' " . Other collaborations , either by individual members of the band or by Aerosmith as a whole , have included Alice Cooper on his Trash album , Guns N ' Roses ( who opened for Aerosmith during their 1988 tour and had covered " Mama Kin " on their first release ) and B 'z . As a testimony to their importance in American popular culture as a whole , Aerosmith have also collaborated with popular non @-@ rock artists , such as Run @-@ DMC , Eminem ( " Sing for the Moment " ) , and Carrie Underwood , and performed with ' N Sync , Britney Spears , Mary J. Blige , and Nelly for the Super Bowl XXXV halftime show . Country artists Garth Brooks and Mark Chesnutt both scored hit singles with covers of Aerosmith songs ; Brooks in 1995 with " The Fever " , a reworking of Aerosmith 's 1993 song , and Chesnutt in 1999 with a cover of Aerosmith 's 1998 song " I Don 't Want to Miss a Thing " .
Like many of their 1970s contemporaries including Led Zeppelin and Alice Cooper , the members of Aerosmith were prone to excess and debauchery . Drug consumption was rampant ; the recording sessions for 1976 's Rocks and 1977 's Draw the Line were especially noted for their substance indulgence , including heroin . In the words of Bebe Buell , " They [ Aerosmith ] were like a gang of kids with their own planes , Porsches , millions of dollars , limitless resources . [ ... ] Mick Jagger and Jimmy Page had control , but these boys did not care . They won the prize , hands down , for the rowdiest rock ' n ' roll band in that era . No question . "
In the mid- to late @-@ 1970s , the band enjoyed tremendous popularity in the United States and in Japan , though they failed to make a big impression in Britain . Still , they were among the most popular hard rock acts in America in the late 1970s , along with Heart , Kiss , Ted Nugent , ZZ Top and Boston . Their massive popularity waned , however , following Joe Perry and Brad Whitford 's departures . Following both guitarists ' return to the band and its complete drug cleanup , Aerosmith made a prodigious return to success , once described as " the single most successful comeback in the history of heavy metal , if not all of popular music . " During both the 1970s and the 1987 – 1995 era , Aerosmith undertook grueling world tours that numbered in the triple digits numbers of dates , headlining or co @-@ headlining festivals along the way , such as the Texxas Jam in 1978 and 1987 , the Monsters of Rock festival at Castle Donington in 1990 and 1994 , and Woodstock ' 94 .
Initially resistant to this medium , the band later became renowned and received numerous awards for pioneering expansive , conceptual music videos , such as those for " Janie 's Got A Gun " ( directed by future Fight Club director David Fincher ) , " Livin ' on the Edge " , " Cryin ' " , " Amazing " , " Crazy " , " Falling in Love ( Is Hard on the Knees ) " , and " Pink " .
The band 's music has also been featured in several video games , such as episodes of the Dead or Alive and Grand Theft Auto series , and some video games are centered on the band , like Quest for Fame and Revolution X. Aerosmith was the first band to have its band @-@ centered Guitar Hero title , Guitar Hero : Aerosmith , which is considered to be the best @-@ selling band @-@ centric video game across both the Guitar Hero and Rock Band platforms .
= = Band members = =
= = Discography = =
Studio albums
Aerosmith ( 1973 )
Get Your Wings ( 1974 )
Toys in the Attic ( 1975 )
Rocks ( 1976 )
Draw the Line ( 1977 )
Night in the Ruts ( 1979 )
Rock in a Hard Place ( 1982 )
Done with Mirrors ( 1985 )
Permanent Vacation ( 1987 )
Pump ( 1989 )
Get a Grip ( 1993 )
Nine Lives ( 1997 )
Just Push Play ( 2001 )
Honkin ' On Bobo ( 2004 )
Music from Another Dimension ! ( 2012 )
= = Filmography and videography = =
In addition to recording and performing music , Aerosmith has also been involved with films , television , video games , and music videos . In 1978 , the band starred as the " Future Villain Band " in the film Sgt. Pepper 's Lonely Hearts Club Band . Later , when the band resurrected itself in the late 1980s and 1990s , Aerosmith made further appearances , including the " Wayne 's World " sketch on Saturday Night Live in 1990 , the " Flaming Moe 's " episode of The Simpsons in 1991 , and the film Wayne 's World 2 in 1993 . The band has also been featured in the 2005 hit comedy Be Cool , starring John Travolta , Uma Thurman , Dwayne " The Rock " Johnson , Cedric the Entertainer and Vince Vaughn . Steven Tyler plays a major role , helping Chili Palmer ( Travolta ) and Edie Athens ( Thurman ) bring pop music star Linda Moon ( Christina Milian ) into the limelight .
The band has been the subject of several video games including Revolution X in 1994 , Quest for Fame in 1995 , and Guitar Hero : Aerosmith , in June 2008 . The band has also made over 30 major music videos , and released seven home videos or DVDs .
= = Concert tours = =
= = Awards and achievements = =
Despite Aerosmith 's popularity and success in the 1970s , it wasn 't until their comeback in the late @-@ 1980s and 1990s when they started winning awards and major recognition . In 1987 , Aerosmith won the Soul Train Music Award for Best Rap – Single for the re @-@ mix of " Walk This Way " with Run @-@ D.M.C .. In 1990 , Aerosmith won their first Grammy award , for Best Rock Performance by a Duo or Group with Vocal , and went on to win a total of four such awards ( all of them in the 1990s ) for " Janie 's Got a Gun " , " Livin ' on the Edge " , " Crazy " , and " Pink " . Aerosmith is second only to U2 in the number of awards won in that category .
In addition , Aerosmith 's music videos won numerous awards throughout the 1990s . Aerosmith ranks as the ninth most successful artist ( and the third most successful group ) of all @-@ time at the MTV Video Music Awards ( VMAs ) , with ten such awards to date . Aerosmith is also the all @-@ time leader in the categories Best Rock Video ( with four such awards ) and Viewer 's Choice ( with three such awards ) . Aerosmith has also won once each in the categories Video of the Year , Best Group Video , and Best Video from a Film . The videos for which Aerosmith has won VMAs are " Janie 's Got a Gun " ( 2 awards ) , " The Other Side " , " Livin ' on the Edge " , " Cryin ' " ( 3 awards ) , " Falling in Love ( Is Hard on the Knees ) " , " Pink " , and " I Don 't Want to Miss a Thing " .
Over the course of their career ( primarily 1990 and after ) , Aerosmith has also collected six American Music Awards , four Billboard Music Awards , two People 's Choice Awards , sixteen Boston Music Awards , and numerous other awards and honors . Some of the high accolades Aerosmith have achieved include induction into Hollywood 's Rock Walk in 1990 , a declaration of " Aerosmith Day " in the state of Massachusetts by then @-@ Governor William Weld on April 13 , 1993 , induction into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame in 2001 , and being honored with the mtvICON award in 2002 .
In the fields of technology and video games , Aerosmith has achieved several feats . In 1994 , Aerosmith released the song " Head First " on the CompuServe online service , which is considered to be the first full @-@ length commercial product available online . In 2008 , Aerosmith became the first artist to have an entire Guitar Hero video game based around them with Guitar Hero : Aerosmith . Guitar Hero : Aerosmith is considered to be the best @-@ selling band @-@ centric video game across both the Guitar Hero and Rock Band platforms .
Aerosmith also holds several chart and album sales feats , including the second highest number of number @-@ one singles on the Mainstream Rock Tracks chart for a group with nine , the only number one debut on the Billboard Hot 100 by a rock group with " I Don 't Want to Miss a Thing " , the most gold albums by an American group , the most total certifications ( including gold , platinum , and multi @-@ platinum combined ) by an American group , and are tied with Van Halen for the most multi @-@ platinum albums by an American group . From the Recording Industry Association of America , Aerosmith has achieved 25 gold , 18 platinum , and 12 multi @-@ platinum album certifications , in addition to one diamond album , four gold singles , and one platinum digital single . Media often refer to Aerosmith , who have sold more than 150 million albums worldwide and 70 @.@ 2 million in the United States , as the best @-@ selling American rock band .
= = = Rankings = = =
" Dream On " , " Toys in the Attic " , and " Walk This Way " ( with Run @-@ D.M.C. ) are all listed on The Rock and Roll Hall of Fame 's 500 Songs that Shaped Rock and Roll .
In 1993 , " Rolling Stone 's list of the " Top 100 Music Videos " included " Walk This Way " ( w / Run @-@ D.M.C. ) at number 11 and " Janie 's Got a Gun " at number 95 .
In 1999 , MTV 's " 100 Greatest Videos Ever Made " included " Walk This Way " ( w / Run @-@ D.M.C. ) at number 5 and " Janie 's Got a Gun " at number 48 .
In 2000 , VH1 's " 100 Greatest Rock Songs " included " Walk This Way " at number 35 and " Dream On " at number 47 .
In 2000 , Aerosmith were ranked number 11 on VH1 's " 100 Greatest Artists of Hard Rock " .
In 2001 , " VH1 : 100 Greatest Videos " included " Walk This Way " ( w / Run @-@ D.M.C. ) at number 11 , " Crazy " at number 23 , and " Janie 's Got a Gun " at number 48 .
In 2003 , Rolling Stone 's The 500 Greatest Albums of All Time included Rocks at number 176 and Toys in the Attic at number 228 .
In 2004 , Rolling Stone 's The 500 Greatest Songs of All Time included " Dream On " at number 172 , " Walk This Way " ( with Run @-@ D.M.C. ) at number 287 , " Walk This Way " ( original ) at number 336 , and " Sweet Emotion " at number 408 .
In 2004 , Rolling Stone ranked Aerosmith number 57 on their list of the " 100 Greatest Artists of All Time " .
In 2008 , Rolling Stone ranked the original version of " Walk This Way " at number 34 on their list of the 100 Greatest Guitar Songs of All Time .
In 2013 , Ultimate Classic Rock website ranked " Sweet Emotion " number 1 in their Top 100 Classic Rock Songs chart .
|
= Typhoon Pongsona =
Typhoon Pongsona was the last typhoon of the 2002 Pacific typhoon season , and was the second costliest United States disaster in 2002 , only behind Hurricane Lili . The name " Pongsona " was contributed by North Korea for the Pacific tropical cyclone list and is the Korean name for the garden balsam . Pongsona developed out of an area of disturbed weather on December 2 , and steadily intensified to reach typhoon status on December 5 . On December 8 it passed through Guam and the Northern Mariana Islands while near its peak winds of 175 km / h ( 110 mph 10 @-@ min ) . It ultimately turned to the northeast , weakened , and became extratropical on December 11 .
Typhoon Pongsona produced strong wind gusts peaking at 278 km / h ( 173 mph 1 @-@ min ) , which left the entire island of Guam without power and destroyed about 1 @,@ 300 houses . With strong building standards and experience from repeated typhoon strikes , there were no fatalities directly related to Pongsona , although there was one indirect death from flying glass . Damage on the island totaled over $ 700 million ( 2002 USD , $ 921 million 2016 USD ) , making Pongsona among the five costliest typhoons on the island . The typhoon also caused heavy damage on Rota and elsewhere in the Northern Mariana Islands , and as a result of its impact the name was retired .
= = Meteorological history = =
During late November , an area of convection persisted about 625 kilometers ( 390 mi ) east @-@ southeast of Pohnpei . Satellite imagery indicated broad cyclonic turning in the lower levels of the atmosphere , and a trough was located near the surface . The disturbance developed rainbands and gradually became better organized . By December 2 , the system had an elongated low @-@ level circulation , located to the south of the convection . At 0600 UTC that day , the Japan Meteorological Agency ( JMA ) classified the system as a tropical depression about 735 km ( 450 mi ) east @-@ northeast of Pohnpei . Shortly thereafter , the Joint Typhoon Warning Center ( JTWC ) issued a Tropical Cyclone Formation Alert , and at 1800 UTC on December 2 the agency classified the system as Tropical Depression 31W . Initially the depression moved to the west @-@ northwest , and early on December 3 the JTWC classified the system as a tropical storm .
Initially , the circulation was exposed from the convection , although it was able to intensify into Tropical Storm Pongsona at 1200 UTC on December 3 while located 375 km ( 230 mi ) northeast of Pohnpei . It turned to the west on December 4 , due to a ridge to the north . It slowly intensified , developing an eye feature on December 5 . That day , both the JTWC and the JMA upgraded Pongsona to a typhoon about 1150 km ( 715 mi ) southeast of Guam .
While continuing generally to the west , the eye of Pongsona gradually became better organized . A baroclinic cyclone east of Japan weakened the ridge , which caused the typhoon to turn more to the northwest . By late on December 7 , Pongsona developed a well @-@ defined 55 km ( 35 mi ) wide eye as it approached Guam . After the typhoon underwent rapid deepening , the JTWC estimated that Pongsona reached peak winds of 240 km / h ( 150 mph 1 @-@ min sustained ) , making it a supertyphoon . At 0500 UTC on December 8 , the eyewall made landfall on Guam , and two hours later the northern portion of the eyewall crossed over nearby Rota . Around that time , the JMA estimated Pongsona attained a peak intensity of 175 km / h ( 110 mph 10 @-@ min winds ) just to the north of Guam . The typhoon turned to the north @-@ northwest through a weakness in the subtropical ridge a short distance west of the Northern Mariana Islands . On December 9 , convection began to weaken as Pongsona began interacting with a mid @-@ latitude system to its north . Dry air became entrained in the southwestern portion of the circulation , and the circulation became exposed from the diminishing convection . As a result , both the JTWC and the JMA declared Pongsona as an extratropical cyclone on December 11 about 1400 km ( 865 mi ) northwest of Wake Island .
= = Preparations = =
The Guam National Weather Service office issued a tropical storm watch for the Marshall Islands shortly after Pongsona developed into a tropical storm , and a day later watches were issued for Chuuk . On December 5 , the service issued tropical storm warnings for parts of the Federated States of Micronesia . As Pongsona became a typhoon , the Guam National Weather Service office issued a typhoon watch for Guam , Rota , Saipan , and Tinian , which was upgraded to a typhoon warning about 23 hours prior to the onset of tropical storm @-@ force winds ; typhoon warnings were also issued for the unpopulated island of Agrihan . By one day before the typhoon moved through the Mariana Islands , JTWC predicted Pongsona to pass well east of the area . Despite a more westward track than anticipated , forecasts remained stagnant until the morning of December 8 , when forecasters reluctantly predicted much greater threat to the Mariana Islands . As a result , many citizens felt they were unprepared and insufficiently warned for the typhoon .
Nine shelters throughout the Northern Mariana Islands were opened to accommodate families needing assistance . Several schools opened classrooms as evacuation centers . On Guam , ten schools were used as shelters , and on the day of impact 2 @,@ 271 people were in shelters . On Rota , 159 people sought shelter , and in Saipan , 549 were in shelters by the day of impact . The Guam Memorial Hospital officials advised all pregnant women within 32 weeks of their delivery date to check in . The Guam Office of Civil Defense filed the paperwork for the Federal Emergency Management Agency to declare the island a disaster area . Governor Carl T.C. Gutierrez took similar measures to declare a state of emergency for the area . Following experience from previous typhoons , Guam newspaper Pacific Daily News underwent preparations to provide internet updates for the storm , including reinforcing the building , maintaining sufficient food supplies for the staff , and stationing two reporters elsewhere on the island ; the paper was the only immediate source of information about the typhoon outside of Guam .
= = Impact = =
= = = Federated States of Micronesia = = =
Early in its duration , Pongsona first affected Pohnpei as a tropical storm . There , it produced heavy rains and gusty winds , though little damage was reported . Later , it brought tropical storm force winds to Chuuk . High waves from the storm washed over and covered some atolls .
= = = Guam = = =
Typhoon Pongsona maintained a 65 km ( 40 mi ) wide eye upon crossing the northern portion of the island of Guam ; the Andersen Air Force Base was in the eye for two hours . Sustained winds from the typhoon peaked at 232 km / h ( 144 mph ) with gusts peaking at 278 km / h ( 173 mph ) ; gusts of at least 160 km / h ( 100 mph ) affected the entire island . The lowest pressure on the island was 935 millibars ( 27 @.@ 61 inHg ) , making Pongsona the third most intense typhoon to strike Guam ; it is behind only a typhoon in 1900 ( 926 mbar , 27 @.@ 34 inHg ) and Typhoon Karen of 1962 ( 932 mbar , 27 @.@ 52 inHg ) .
Communications on the island failed due to the winds ; the entire island was left without power and phone service . The winds greatly damaged 715 power poles and 513 transformers , leaving about $ 52 million in electrical damage reported ( 2002 USD , $ 68 @.@ 4 million 2016 USD ) . The local weather office 's communication link was cut off after flooding damaged a telecommunication facility , causing the National Weather Service in Honolulu , Hawaii , to provide backup support by temporarily issuing warnings and advisories . Many anemometers near the northern coastline failed from the winds . The winds collapsed several walls at the Guam Memorial Hospital , resulting in major damage throughout the northern two @-@ thirds of the facility and several units being shut down . Several hotels , churches , and schools received moderate damage , and the Antonio B. Won Pat International Airport received damage to navigation equipment . Typhoon Pongsona also left 65 % of the island 's water wells inoperable , with most of Guam left without water service following the storm . Officials estimate the typhoon destroyed 1 @,@ 300 homes , severely damaged 1 @,@ 825 , and lightly damaged 4 @,@ 800 .
Tracking slowly across the center of the island , the intense inner rainbands dropped heavy rainfall which peaked at 650 mm ( 25 @.@ 61 in ) at the University of Guam . The precipitation led to record river flow on the Pago and Asan Rivers ; overflown rivers caused damage to some roads and bridges . The rainfall also caused extensive flooding in several villages . Pongsona produced a storm surge of up to 6 m ( 20 ft ) at some locations , with 3 – 4 m ( 9 – 13 ft ) recorded near the eyewall . Considerable storm surge flooding occurred from Tumon southward to Piti , leaving some buildings on the west coast of the island flooded with 1 m ( 4 ft ) of water . The combination of strong storm surge and rough waves caused considerable beach erosion and severe coastal damage .
Across Guam , damage totaled over $ 700 million ( 2002 USD , $ 921 million 2016 USD ) , placing it among the five costliest typhoons on the island . The typhoon injured 193 people , as reported by the Guam Department of Health ; most were lacerations and fractures caused by flying glass and other debris . There was one indirect death attributed to the storm , when a 71 @-@ year @-@ old woman was cut by flying glass and subsequently suffered a fatal heart attack ; medical help could not reach her due to the intensity of the storm . As six typhoons had passed directly over the island during the previous ten years , officials in Guam enacted strong building standards , keeping deaths and injuries to a minimum . The typhoon was considered by the public the worst typhoon to ever strike the island due to the large eye affecting most of the population .
= = = Northern Mariana Islands = = =
Pongsona produced sustained winds of 126 km / h ( 78 mph ) with a gust to 137 km / h ( 85 mph ) on Rota . The combination of winds and other effects from the typhoon destroyed 114 houses , severely damaged 154 , and caused minor damage to 306 ; on the island , about 200 families were left homeless . The typhoon produced a storm surge of 6 @.@ 7 m ( 22 ft ) at the village of Songsong , which crossed about 80 % of the southwestern peninsula on Rota . The surge caused moderate beach erosion on the island , and destroyed a fuel pier and a loading pipeline . Additionally , the typhoon caused severe crop damage on the island . In all , the typhoon caused ten minor injuries on Rota , and resulted in over $ 30 million in damage ( 2002 USD , $ 39 @.@ 5 million 2016 USD ) .
On Tinian , the passage of Pongsona destroyed two homes ; seven received major damage and another eight sustained minor damage . The winds damaged power lines , causing two island @-@ wide power outages . Major crop damage was reported .
On Saipan , two houses were destroyed and fifteen were damaged , seven severely . Sustained winds on the island peaked at 71 km / h ( 44 mph ) , which caused scattered power outages . Six minor injuries were reported , and damage totaled about $ 100 @,@ 000 ( 2002 USD , $ 132 thousand 2016 USD ) .
= = Aftermath = =
On the same day that Typhoon Pongsona struck Guam , President George W. Bush declared the island a major disaster area . Around the time of the cyclone passing over the island , 2 @,@ 271 residents were in shelters , and by the next day it increased to 3 @,@ 467 after people discovered their homes were uninhabitable . With thirteen Red Cross shelters across Guam , most remained in shelters for about three weeks before disaster tents were distributed . The American Red Cross worked with the United States Department of Agriculture to provide meals for shelter attendees for a two @-@ week period following the typhoon . Through the collaboration of federal and other agencies , disaster assistance on Guam totaled over $ 300 million ( 2003 USD , $ 335 million 2007 USD ) by 100 days after the typhoon struck , including $ 60 million ( 2002 USD , $ 78 @.@ 9 million 2016 USD ) in initial disaster response . Nearly 29 @,@ 000 individuals registered for disaster assistance , with the first assistance check arrived ten days after the disaster declaration . By three months after the storm , the United States Small Business Administration approved $ 130 million ( 2003 USD , $ 167 million 2016 USD ) in low @-@ interest loans .
During the height of the typhoon at Cabras Island on Guam , a gasoline tank caught fire , believed to be from friction caused by extremely high winds running through its ventilation system . The tank exploded , sending its lid airborne and spreading the fire to other nearby tanks . The proximity of the tanks as well as low water pressure hampered firefighting efforts , and the fire was extinguished five days later ; it resulted in three destroyed gasoline tanks with two more caught on fire . While the fire was burning , transportation of gasoline from the port to the rest of Guam was suspended resulting in a halt in gasoline sales for the general public .
On December 11 , 2002 , President Bush extended the disaster declaration to include the Northern Mariana Islands , which allocated emergency disaster aid for the territory . The declaration provided funding for 75 % of the budget for debris removal and emergency protective measures . Immediately following the typhoon , FEMA assigned various federal agencies to respond to the island of Rota . Officials airlifted about 3 @,@ 600 kg ( 8 @,@ 000 lbs ) of emergency supplies including tents , tarps , water containers , coolers , cooking kits and electrical equipment . Military personnel were transported to assist in recovery efforts . By four months after the typhoon , 749 individuals on the island registered through FEMA 's teleregistration number . The United States Small Business Administration approved 147 low – interest loans for $ 9 @.@ 1 million ( 2003 USD , $ 11 @.@ 7 million 2016 USD ) to individuals and businesses and for economic injury on Rota . In all , disaster aid to Rota totaled $ 17 @.@ 4 million ( 2003 USD , $ 22 @.@ 4 million . Additionally , President Bush authorized disaster assistance for the Federated States of Micronesia .
Due to the damage resulted from the storm , the name Pongsona was retired during the 38th session of the Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific and World Meteorological Organization typhoon committee in November 2005 ; it was replaced with the name Noul .
|
= Hurricane Kate ( 1985 ) =
Hurricane Kate was the final in a series of tropical cyclones to impact the United States during 1985 and the latest in any calendar year to strike the country at hurricane intensity on record . The eleventh named storm , seventh hurricane , and third major hurricane of the annual hurricane season , Kate originated from the interaction of an upper @-@ level trough and tropical wave northeast of Puerto Rico on November 15 . Though the system tracked erratically during the first hours of its existence , the intensification of a region of high pressure to the cyclone 's north caused Kate to turn westward . A favorable atmospheric pattern allowed the newly developed system to intensify to hurricane intensity on November 16 , and further to Category 2 intensity three days later . Kate made its first landfall on the northern coast of Cuba at this intensity prior to emerging as a slightly weaker storm during the evening hours of November 19 . Once clear of land , it began to strengthen quickly , becoming a Category 3 and reaching its peak intensity of 120 mph ( 195 km / h ) the following day . On November 21 , a cold front moving across the Mississippi Valley resulted in a north and eventual northeast turn of the cyclone , and Kate came ashore near Mexico Beach , Florida , as a minimal Category 2 hurricane with winds of 100 mph ( 160 km / h ) . Gradual weakening ensued as the cyclone moved along the Southeast United States coastline , and Kate transitioned to an extratropical cyclone on November 23 , a day after exiting the coastline of North Carolina .
The threat of Hurricane Kate in Cuba prompted the evacuation of 360 @,@ 000 people . Heavy rainfall in Cuba caused numerous mudslides and flooding , killing 10 people and leading to severe agriculture damage . Wind gusts over hurricane intensity resulted in widespread power outages , significant building damage , and major crop damage . Damage totaled roughly $ 400 million , making it the most damaging hurricane to strike the island in many decades . In preparation of the system , many hurricane watches and warnings were put into effect . Hundreds of thousands of residents were evacuated , and the governor of Florida declared a state of emergency for six counties in Florida ; this was later relinquished following the relatively minor impacts of Kate . In addition , many shelters were opened . When Kate struck the Florida Panhandle , it became the first hurricane to make landfall in that location since Hurricane Eloise in 1975 . Storm surge and flooding rains destroyed much of the oyster industry , causing many people to lose their jobs in the weeks after the storm . Gusts over 100 mph ( 160 km / h ) contributed to downed trees and building damage , while a combination of the wind and rain led to downed power poles . Across the remainder of the Southeast United States , several inches of rainfall led to flash flooding , damage to roadways , and major tree damage . Overall , Kate resulted in 15 fatalities and $ 700 million in damage .
= = Meteorological history = =
Before the formation of Hurricane Kate , a ridge was located across the southeastern United States for much of the autumn of 1985 ; concurrently , a major trough persisted across the western portion of the country . As a result , weather conditions across the Gulf of Mexico and western Atlantic Ocean in November were more typical of the pattern in late September , including sea surface temperatures of 81 ° F ( 27 ° C ) . On November 13 , a weak tropical wave began interacting with a trough to the northeast of the Lesser Antilles . It gradually organized due to the favorable conditions , and on November 15 , a Hurricane Hunters flight into the area indicated the development of a tropical cyclone . As gale force winds were already present , the system was immediately declared Tropical Storm Kate , about 240 miles ( 385 km ) northeast of San Juan , Puerto Rico .
With a ridge to its north , Kate tracked westward after developing , and an upper @-@ level low developed to the southwest of the storm . The combination of the two provided favorable outflow , allowing Kate to quickly intensify . On November 16 , the storm attained hurricane status while moving through the southeastern Bahamas . After continued strengthening , Kate made landfall at 0600 UTC on November 19 over north @-@ central Cuba with a well @-@ defined eye . When it moved ashore , Kate had a pressure of 967 mbar ( 28 @.@ 6 inHg ) and winds of about 110 mph ( 180 km / h ) . The hurricane maintained its well @-@ defined eye while moving across northern Cuba , and about 12 hours after making landfall , it emerged into the southeastern Gulf of Mexico just east of Havana . Over the next 24 hours , Kate re @-@ intensified off the southwest coast of Florida as it passed about 85 mi ( 135 km ) southwest of Key West . On November 20 , the Hurricane Hunters observed winds as strong as 125 mph ( 200 km / h ) , and a buoy recorded a gust of 136 mph ( 219 km / h ) ; this was the highest recorded wind gust from a buoy in the Gulf of Mexico until Hurricane Lili in 2002 . Based on these observations , it was estimated that Kate attained peak winds of about 120 mph ( 190 km / h ) around 1200 UTC on November 20 .
Hurricane Kate maintained peak intensity for about 18 hours . On November 21 , a cold front moving through the Mississippi Valley deflected the hurricane to the north and northeast . The combination of cooler waters and wind shear from the front weakened Kate to an intensity of 100 mph ( 160 km / h ) by the time the hurricane struck Crooked Island near Mexico Beach , Florida late on November 21 . After landfall , Kate continued to the northeast , crossing into Georgia and weakened into a tropical storm . Kate emerged from North Carolina into the Atlantic Ocean late on November 22 . Encountering even colder waters and continued shear , the storm weakened further while turning to the east @-@ southeast . On November 23 , Kate transitioned into an extratropical cyclone to the west of Bermuda , terminating at 1800 UTC that day .
Until 2011 , Kate 's was considered the second @-@ latest hurricane landfall in the United States , behind only a cyclone in 1925 that struck on December 1 ; however , a systematic reanalysis indicated the 1925 system was only a tropical storm . In turn , Kate took the record . With Kate 's landfall , the 1985 season had six hurricanes that struck the United States , only one short of the record seven in 1886 .
= = Preparations = =
By November 18 , a hurricane warning was in effect for the southeast and central Bahamas and the Turks and Caicos Islands . Flood warnings were issued for northern Puerto Rico and the Dominican Republic . In preparation for the hurricane 's arrival , officials forced 360 @,@ 000 people to evacuate in north @-@ central Cuba .
While Kate was moving through the Bahamas , the National Hurricane Center ( NHC ) issued a hurricane warning from Jupiter to Fort Myers , Florida , including the Florida Keys . Then @-@ Governor of Florida Bob Graham declared a state of emergency for six counties in South Florida . However , it was reversed following the relatively minor effects in South Florida . Officials recommended evacuation of the Florida Keys , leading to heavy traffic on the Overseas Highway and prompting the Red Cross to open 12 shelters . Three shelters were opened in Key West , but only 500 sought individuals utilized them during the storm . Most residents chose to endure the storm in their homes . In Fort Lauderdale , schools were closed and residents of mobile homes were required to leave .
Shortly after the storm reached its peak intensity on November 20 , the NHC issued a hurricane watch from Grand Isle , Louisiana , to Cedar Key , Florida . Later that day , a portion of the watch area was upgraded to a warning from Bay St. Louis , Mississippi to St. Marks , Florida . About 20 @,@ 000 employees on oil platforms in the Gulf of Mexico were evacuated , many by helicopter . The USS Lexington left port from Naval Air Station Pensacola to ride out the storm in open waters , and aircraft in the region were flown inland . About 100 @,@ 000 people along the Florida Panhandle were told to leave their houses after Governor Bob Graham issued evacuation orders in 13 counties . About 2 @,@ 000 people stayed in 34 shelters in Panama City . Roads in the region suffered traffic jams from the large volume of evacuees . Portions of the Florida Gulf Coast were threatened by Hurricane Elena earlier in the season , and some evacuees of that storm intended not to leave during Kate due to the poor shelter conditions they had experienced . Governor Graham activated 300 members of the Florida National Guard to prevent looting and to assist in evacuations . One person died from a stress @-@ induced heart attack in Chipley after evacuating . Outside of Florida , about 2 @,@ 200 people fled Grand Isle , Louisiana .
After Kate moved ashore , the NHC issued gale warnings along the East Coast of the United States from St. Augustine , Florida to Chincoteague , Virginia .
= = Impact = =
= = = Caribbean and Turks and Caicos Islands = = =
Early in its duration , Hurricane Kate sank one boat near Puerto Rico and disabled three others . The crew of five on the sunken boat were rescued after 17 hours . Several homes in northern Puerto Rico were damaged , forcing hundreds to evacuate . Flooding was also reported in Dominican Republic , including around the capital Santo Domingo .
Heavy rainfall and winds up to 60 mph ( 97 km / h ) were reported in the Turks and Caicos Islands . In Jamaica , heavy precipitation caused mudslides , which in turn blocked 23 major and minor roads and destroyed many bridges , culverts , and drains . Flooding in general caused severe damage to agriculture , especially in Clarendon , Manchester , Saint Ann , Saint Elizabeth , and Trelawny Parishes . Seven fatalities were reported , while the cost to repair damage was approximately $ 3 million ( 1985 USD ) .
As Kate moved across northern Cuba , it produced strong winds that peaked at 75 mph ( 120 km / h ) in Sagua La Grande . Wind gusts peaked at 104 mph ( 167 km / h ) in Varadero , and winds in the capital of Havana reached 70 mph ( 110 km / h ) . In Havana , high winds caused power outages and destroyed buildings . Waves of 9 feet ( 2 @.@ 7 m ) affected the city 's waterfront . Outside of Havana , the hurricane damaged sugar mills and much of the sugar cane crop ; throughout the island , the winds destroyed 3 @,@ 653 miles2 ( 9461 km2 ) of sugar cane and 34 @,@ 000 tonnes ( 37 @,@ 000 tons ) of sugar . The storm also destroyed 141 @,@ 000 tonnes ( 139 @,@ 000 long tons ; 155 @,@ 000 short tons ) of bananas and 87 @,@ 078 tonnes ( 85 @,@ 703 long tons ; 95 @,@ 987 short tons ) of other fruits and vegetables . Across the island , Kate damaged 88 @,@ 207 houses and destroyed 4 @,@ 382 others , affecting 476 @,@ 891 people . Many public buildings , including schools , were damaged . Throughout the country , Kate killed 10 people and injured about 50 people . Damage was estimated at $ 400 million , which was the highest total from all landfalling hurricanes from 1903 to 1998 , unadjusted for inflation .
= = = Florida = = =
As Kate passed to the southwest of Key West , the storm produced winds of 47 mph ( 76 km / h ) there , with unofficial wind gusts of 104 mph ( 167 km / h ) . Rainfall totals in southwest Florida were generally around 1 in ( 25 mm ) , although Key West reported 2 @.@ 08 in ( 53 mm ) of precipitation . High winds downed trees and power lines , leaving areas between Key West and Big Pine Key without power . Electrical outages contributed to a mobile home being destroyed by fire , and one person died through electrocution . Above @-@ normal tides caused minor flooding and erosion along the Florida Keys . Two people died after their boat capsized in the lower Keys .
Kate was the first hurricane to make landfall in the Florida Panhandle since Hurricane Eloise in 1975 . In the region , the hurricane dropped heavy rainfall along its path , peaking at 8 @.@ 32 in ( 211 mm ) in Panama City . While Kate moved ashore , it produced an 11 feet ( 3 @.@ 4 m ) storm surge at Cape San Blas , causing beach and dune erosion in Gulf County . Storm surge flooding left 150 houses uninhabitable in Wakulla County . The hurricane damaged a bridge to St. George Island that had been rebuilt after Hurricane Elena , and large portions of U.S. Routes 90 and 98 were washed out or damaged . Just two months after Elena ravaged the Apalachicola Bay shellfish harvesting industry , Hurricane Kate destroyed remaining oyster beds , leaving many oystermen in the area without jobs .
Strong winds buffeted the Florida Panhandle , accompanied by one tornado and several funnel clouds . In Panama City , wind gusts reached 78 mph ( 126 km / h ) , damaging two houses , a motel , and a fishing pier . The winds were strong enough to remove the roof of a two @-@ story federal building . Sustained winds blew 74 mph ( 119 km / h ) at Cape San Blas , with gusts up to 108 mph ( 174 km / h ) . Across the area , Kate severely damaged 242 buildings , mostly in Franklin County , where the storm ranked as the most devastating of the late 1900s . The storm compromised about 5 @.@ 4 mi ( 8 @.@ 7 km ) of roads in the county , and throughout the region many roads were washed out . The intense winds brought down numerous trees , some of them onto adjacent structures . One fallen tree struck a car , killing one person and injuring another . The winds also downed power poles and lines . About 90 percent of Florida 's capital city Tallahassee , or about 80 @,@ 000 people , lost power , and along the coast from Panama City to Apalachicola , the storm left about 30 @,@ 000 homes and businesses without electricity . Overall , the hurricane destroyed 325 homes along the panhandle , and about 500 buildings were severely damaged .
= = = Elsewhere = = =
Light rainfall of around 1 in ( 25 mm ) from the hurricane extended into southeastern Alabama . Rainfall was much heavier in Georgia , peaking at 7 @.@ 73 in ( 196 mm ) in Bainbridge . Portions of southwestern Georgia experienced heavy damage from flash flooding and winds , and several secondary roads were washed out . Gusts of 80 mph ( 130 km / h ) downed thousands of trees , and one fallen tree killed a man west of Thomasville . The cotton , soybean , and pecan crops suffered heavy losses , estimated at around $ 50 million . Property and utility damage was also assessed at $ 50 million , and damage from flash flooding was estimated at $ 1 million . There were scattered power outages in southern Georgia , affecting fewer than 3 @,@ 000 customers by Georgia Power Company 's estimation . While Kate was moving across southeastern Georgia , it produced a 62 mph ( 100 km / h ) wind gust in Savannah . The city also reported 1 @.@ 73 in ( 44 mm ) of rainfall .
Further northeast , Charleston , South Carolina reported a wind gust of 50 mph ( 80 km / h ) . The highest rainfall total in the state was 6 @.@ 56 in ( 167 mm ) in Hampton . The rains caused flash flooding that washed out secondary roads and a bridge . The storm knocked tree limbs onto power lines , which left about 48 @,@ 000 people without power . In Beaufort , trees fell onto four cars and a mobile home , and high waves sunk a boat . In Wilmington , North Carolina , the storm dropped 1 @.@ 99 in ( 51 mm ) of precipitation . Rains across the state caused generally minor flooding , although several cars were swept off roadways . Rising floodwaters prompted the evacuation of a nursing home in Kannapolis . Rainfall extended northward into Virginia . Damage throughout the United States was estimated at $ 300 million .
As an extratropical cyclone , Kate moved north of Bermuda and produced wind gusts of 26 mph ( 42 km / h ) on the island .
= = Aftermath = =
In the month after Hurricane Kate struck the island , the government of Cuba issued a request to the United Nations ( UN ) World Food Council for international assistance . In response , various UN member nations collectively provided $ 60 @,@ 000 for pesticides ; $ 250 @,@ 000 for herbicides , fungicides , and potato seeds ; and $ 1 @.@ 381 million in cooking oils and beans to fulfill the dietary needs of over 475 @,@ 000 people for 60 days . The Soviet Union also donated about $ 15 million worth of rice and wheat flour .
Hurricane Kate delayed a runoff mayoral election in Key West by two weeks . Shortly after the storm , the police departments of both Leon and Jackson Counties ordered a nightly curfew . Two disaster relief centers were opened in Franklin County , one in Apalachicola and the other in Eastpoint . On December 3 , 1985 , then @-@ President of the United States Ronald Reagan declared seven Florida counties as disaster areas , making them eligible to receive federal aid .
Due to the widespread power outages along the Florida Panhandle , electrical companies enlisted extra workers to repair downed lines . Officials had put a curfew in place for Tallahassee due to power outages created by the hurricane , and the curfew was lifted on November 24 after power was gradually restored and roads were cleared of debris . Police officers in the city arrested 20 people for violating curfew or creating unrest .
Some sections of coastline already suffering from severe erosion lost additional swaths of beach to a 10 @-@ foot ( 3 m ) storm surge and strong waves . Many fishermen before and after the storm encountered diminished fish catches after the hurricane .
|
= Music of the SaGa series =
SaGa is a series of science fiction role @-@ playing video games produced by Square , now Square Enix . The series originated on the Game Boy in 1989 as the creation of Akitoshi Kawazu . It has since continued across multiple platforms , from the Super Nintendo Entertainment System to the PlayStation 2 , and like the Final Fantasy series , the story in each SaGa game is independent of its counterparts . The music of the SaGa series consists of musical scores and arranged albums from various composers . Some of these composers have created soundtracks and pieces for other Square Enix franchises including the Final Fantasy series and Mana series . The SaGa series is divided up between the original series , released as the Final Fantasy Legend series in North America , the Romancing SaGa series , the SaGa Frontier series , and Unlimited SaGa .
The music of the original series was composed by Nobuo Uematsu , Kenji Ito , Ryuji Sasai , and Chihiro Fujioka . Ito went on to be the composer for the Romancing SaGa series , with each arranged album from the series arranged by a different artist off of Ito 's work . Ito composed the soundtrack for the first game of the SaGa Frontier series , but was replaced by Masashi Hamauzu for the second game of the series and Unlimited SaGa . Music from the original soundtracks of the SaGa games has been arranged as sheet music for the piano and published by DOREMI Music Publishing , while tracks from Romancing SaGa Minstrel Song were played at the Press Start -Symphony of Games- 2006 concert and Extra : Hyper Game Music Event 2007 concert in Tokyo and a piece from SaGa Frontier 2 was played at the fifth Symphonic Game Music Concert , held in Leipzig , Germany on August 22 , 2007 .
= = SaGa = =
The original SaGa series consists of Makai Toushi Sa · Ga ( lit . " Warrior in the Tower of the Spirit World ~ Sa · Ga " ) , released for the Game Boy in 1989 , Sa · Ga2 : Hihō Densetsu ( " Sa · Ga2 ~ The Treasure Legend " ) , and Jikuu no Hasha ~ Sa · Ga 3 [ Kanketsu Hen ] ( " The Ruler of Time and Space ~ Sa · Ga3 [ Final Chapter ] " ) , both of which were released for the Game Boy in 1990 . The three games were published in North America as The Final Fantasy Legend , Final Fantasy Legend II , and Final Fantasy Legend III . The original releases spawned only one album to date , a combined soundtrack album for all three games . Another album was released in Japan on September 9 , 2009 , SaGa 2 Hihou Densetsu Goddess of Destiny Original Soundtrack , which is the soundtrack album for the Nintendo DS remake of SaGa 2 , SaGa 2 Hihou Densetsu Goddess of Destiny . The soundtrack for the DS remake of SaGa 3 , SaGa 3 Jikuu no Hasha Shadow or Light Original Soundtrack , was released on January 12 , 2011 .
The music of SaGa 1 was composed by Nobuo Uematsu , and that of SaGa 2 by Uematsu and Kenji Ito , while the music of SaGa 3 was composed by Ryuji Sasai and Chihiro Fujioka . Uematsu has stated that while SaGa 1 's music could be made of better quality , the emphasis was on enjoying the game , and not solely its appearance or sound . The Game Boy 's sound hardware was different from that of the Famicom , which Uematsu was used to composing for at the time , with new stereo and waveforms and only three notes ; as a result , Uematsu struggled with deciding how to work with these , developing new themes for the music in the process despite SaGa 1 's director Akitoshi Kawazu 's desire to have the music be in the same vein as Square 's preceding Final Fantasy titles . Uematsu has stated that the Game Boy was a system he would like to compose for again . SaGa 2 was the first soundtrack or album that Kenji Ito worked on .
= = = All Sounds of SaGa = = =
All Sounds of SaGa is a compilation album of the soundtracks for The Final Fantasy Legend , Final Fantasy Legend II , and Final Fantasy Legend III . The first album of the two @-@ disc set is split between 15 tracks from SaGa 1 and 19 tracks from SaGa 2 , while the second disc holds 20 SaGa 3 tracks and an arranged medley of SaGa 1 tracks by Uematsu . The album was published on December 21 , 1991 by NTT Publishing / Square with a catalog number of N32D @-@ 007 / 8 and re @-@ released on December 15 , 2004 by NTT Publishing with a catalog number of NTCP @-@ 1004 / 5 . The album has a total length of 1 : 28 : 18 and 55 tracks .
The soundtrack was well received by reviewers such as Patrick Gann of RPGFan , who held that it contained some of the " best composition [ s ] " in any video game soundtrack . He credited the excellence of the soundtrack to the limited audio resources the composers had to work with on the Game Boy , which in his opinion forced them to be more creative in their compositions . He did note , however , that he felt that the extra arranged medley , while good , was not " anything special " . Kero Hazel from Square Enix Music Online had similar comments on the album , praising the composition of the album and its ability to " push the Game Boy sound hardware to its limit " , and also felt the arranged medley was lacking . Hazel added that in their opinion the sound quality of the recording equipment used was not as high @-@ quality as would be expected .
Track list
= = = SaGa 2 Hihou Densetsu Goddess of Destiny Original Soundtrack = = =
SaGa 2 Hihou Densetsu Goddess of Destiny Original Soundtrack is an album of music from the Nintendo DS remake of SaGa 2 , SaGa 2 Hihou Densetsu Goddess of Destiny . The album was released by Square Enix on September 9 , 2009 with the catalog number of SQEX @-@ 10171 . It includes music from the original game remixed for the DS by Kenji Ito as well as eight new tracks composed for the remake by Ito . The new tracks are " Future Quest " , " Muse 's Paradise " , " To the Lands of Another World " , " Thrill ! Surrounded By Enemies " , " The Whereabouts of the Fierce Battles " , " The Goddess of Destiny " , " Twilight Courtesan Journey " , and " Militant Meat " . The album contains 27 tracks and has a total duration of 1 : 02 : 10 .
The album was poorly received by Patrick Gann , who described it as , instead of an homage to the original sounds or a full remake with live instruments , a " half @-@ assed synth upgrade " which left the pieces sounding neither new nor classic , but instead just dated . He concluded that the " compositions are far more interesting in their original Game Boy format than on this new arrangement " .
= = = SaGa 3 Jikuu no Hasha Shadow or Light Original Soundtrack = = =
SaGa 3 Jikuu no Hasha Shadow or Light Original Soundtrack is an album of music from the Nintendo DS remake of SaGa 3 , SaGa 3 Jikuu no Hasha Shadow or Light . Square Enix released the album on January 12 , 2011 with the catalog number of SQEX @-@ 10221 . It includes music from the original game remixed for the DS by Ryuji Sasai and Kenji Ito , as well as new tracks composed by the two . The album contains 27 tracks and has a total duration of 1 : 12 : 03 .
The album was well received by Jayson Napolitano of Original Sound Version , who described it as a rock reinterpretation of the originals . He claimed that Ito " does a stellar job throughout " , and that Sasai , while not as consistent , also generally does a good job . He felt that there were only a few pieces that did not do a good job presenting their original works .
= = Romancing SaGa = =
The Romancing SaGa subseries of games consists of Romancing SaGa , released in 1992 for the Super Famicom , Romancing SaGa 2 , released on the Super Famicom in 1993 , and Romancing SaGa 3 , released on the Super Famicom in 1995 . An enhanced remake of the first game was made for the PlayStation 2 in 1995 called Romancing SaGa Minstrel Song ; this version was the only Romancing SaGa game to be published in North America . The series has sparked nine albums : a soundtrack album for each of the three games , an album of arrangements of Romancing SaGa 1 music in a French musical style , three albums of orchestral arrangements of music from Romancing SaGa 2 , 3 , and Minstrel Song , a promotional soundtrack album for Romancing SaGa 3 , and a single for " Minuet " , the theme song of Minstrel Song . The music for all of the Romancing SaGa series was composed by Kenji Ito , while each arranged album was arranged by a different artist and Minuet was written , composed and sung by Masayoshi Yamazaki . Ito created the music of each soundtrack based on images from the games , though he never played the games themselves .
= = = Romancing SaGa Original Sound Version = = =
Romancing SaGa Original Sound Version is a soundtrack album for Romancing SaGa . It was composed by Kenji Ito , with the exception of one track , " Heartful Tears " , which had been composed for SaGa 1 by Nobuo Uematsu and was arranged by Ito . The album covers 38 tracks and has a duration of 1 : 02 : 50 . It was first published by Square on February 21 , 1992 with the catalog number N25D @-@ 009 , and reprinted by NTT Publishing on November 25 , 1995 with the number PSCN @-@ 5036 and on October 1 , 2004 with the number NTCP @-@ 5036 . The first 34 tracks come from the game , while the last four tracks are bonus tracks from other games .
The soundtrack was well received by Patrick Gann , who noted Ito 's ability to push the audio hardware of the Super Nintendo to its limit , with various sound effects that were beyond what other similar games were using .
= = = La Romance = = =
Romancing SaGa La Romance is an album of music from Romancing SaGa arranged in a French musical style by Masaaki Mizuguchi . The original tracks were composed by Kenji Ito . The 11 @-@ track album has a length of 42 : 05 . It was first released on July 20 , 1992 by Square / NTT Publishing with a catalog number of N30D @-@ 025 . It was reprinted by NTT Publishing on November 25 , 1995 and October 1 , 2004 with the catalog numbers PSCN @-@ 5037 and NTCP @-@ 5037 .
The album received mixed reviews from critics . Eve C. of RPGFan disliked the album , calling it a " disappointment " and citing that in her opinion it did not sound French , that many of the tracks were " boring " , and that the arrangements were " mediocre " . Patrick Gann , however , said that he was impressed with the album , applauding the instrumentation and calling it " quite the CD " . Dave of Square Enix Music Online mostly agreed with Gann , calling it " extremely diverse " and full of " inspired arrangements " , marred only by a couple of disappointing tracks .
= = = Romancing SaGa 2 Original Sound Version = = =
Romancing SaGa 2 Original Sound Version is a soundtrack album for Romancing SaGa 2 . It was composed by Kenji Ito , with the exception of two tracks , " The Legend Begins " and " Heartful Tears " , which were composed by Nobuo Uematsu and arranged by Ito . The album covers 35 tracks and has a duration of 1 : 12 : 29 . It was first published by Square on December 3 , 1993 with the catalog number N25D @-@ 022 , and reprinted by NTT Publishing on November 25 , 1995 with the number PSCN @-@ 5038 and on October 1 , 2004 with the number NTCP @-@ 5038 . The first 30 tracks come from the game , while the next four tracks are bonus dance music tracks and the final track is a different version of the game 's prologue theme .
The soundtrack was warmly received by reviewers such as Patrick Gann , who said that " while no track on here is amazing , [ ... ] they are all at least fairly good " . He also enjoyed the " medieval / renaissance " feeling of the tracks , as well as the relative scarcity of " character themes " compared to the soundtracks of Romancing SaGa 1 and 3 .
= = = Eternal Romance = = =
Romancing SaGa 2 Eternal Romance is an album of arrangements of music from the Romancing SaGa 2 soundtrack . The album 's 10 tracks were arranged by Ryou Fukui , and were originally composed by Kenji Ito . The soundtrack has a length of 58 : 17 and was published by NTT Publishing three times : on February 21 , 1994 with a catalog number of N30D @-@ 025 , on November 25 , 1995 with the number PSCN @-@ 5039 , and on October 1 , 2004 as NTCP @-@ 5039 .
The album was appreciated by reviewers such as Dave of Square Enix Music Online , who called it " definitely worth listening to " and applauded the wide variety of instruments as well as the " thought " that went into the tracks . Patrick Gann , on the other hand , said that he felt confused while listening to the album , saying that while it was " interesting , even entertaining " , he felt that he was " on the outside of an inside joke " and that only fans of Ito 's music would appreciate the album .
= = = Romancing SaGa 3 Original Sound Version = = =
Romancing SaGa 3 Original Sound Version is a soundtrack album for Romancing SaGa 3 . It was entirely composed by Kenji Ito . The album covers 70 tracks over three discs and has a duration of 2 : 29 : 19 . It was first published by NTT Publishing on November 25 , 1995 with the catalog numbers PSCN @-@ 5033 ~ 5 , and reprinted by NTT Publishing on October 1 , 2004 with the numbers NTCP @-@ 5033 ~ 5 .
The album was well received by Patrick Gann , who termed it " above expectations " and " some of Ito 's finest work " . He highlighted the third disc and the character themes as the best tracks on the album .
Track list
= = = Windy Tale = = =
Romancing SaGa 3 Windy Tale is an arranged album of music from Romancing SaGa 3 . The pieces were arranged by Taro Iwashiro from tracks composed by Kenji Ito . The album 's 10 tracks cover a duration of 45 : 47 . It was first published by NTT Publishing on January 25 , 1996 with the catalog number PSCN @-@ 5043 , and reprinted by NTT Publishing on October 1 , 2004 with the number NTCP @-@ 5043 .
The album was well received by critics such as Eric Farand of RPGFan , who appreciated the slower feel of the album which in his opinion allowed it to focus on " delivering beautiful melodies " and made it " a pleasure to listen to " . Dave of Square Enix Music Online agreed , saying it took the original soundtrack and " improve [ d ] an already good album " . In his opinion , each track was " masterfully composed " and the album was " diverse " in genres .
= = = Prologue = = =
Romancing SaGa 3 Prologue is a promotional album of music from Romancing SaGa 3 . The tunes were composed by Kenji Ito . The album contains the character themes from the game , and was included in an identically @-@ titled book detailing the game 's story , characters and artwork . The album 's eight tracks cover a duration of 18 : 40 . It was published by NTT Publishing on November 11 , 1995 with the catalog number RSS @-@ 0001 .
= = = Romancing SaGa Minstrel Song Original Soundtrack = = =
Romancing SaGa Minstrel Song Original Soundtrack is an arranged album of music from Romancing SaGa Minstrel Song , the 2005 enhanced remake of Romancing SaGa . The tracks were primarily composed by Kenji Ito , with one track contributed by Tsuyoshi Sekito and one track contributed by Nobuo Uematsu , and were arranged from those compositions by Ito and Sekito . When Ito arranged the music of Romancing SaGa 1 for Minstrel Song , he felt that because of all of the fans who had played the original game and the change in audio hardware from the Super Famicom to the PlayStation 2 he did not want to simply re @-@ arrange the pieces , but instead tried to " re @-@ make " the soundtrack into something which could stand on its own from the original soundtrack and the game . He spent two years completing the remake . The game 's theme song , " Minuet " , is sung by Masayoshi Yamazaki . The album 's 103 tracks cover a duration of 3 : 47 : 32 across four discs . It was published by Universal Music on April 27 , 2005 with the catalog numbers UPCH @-@ 1411 ~ 4 .
The album was well received by critics such as Derek Strange of RPGFan , who described it as a " must @-@ have soundtrack " and complimented Ito in both arranging tracks from Romancing SaGa " to both sterling and awesome heights " and in composing new tracks that blended well with the older ones . Chris Greening of Square Enix Music Online agreed , saying that it exceeded expectations and was Ito 's " finest work to date " . Both reviewers cited the fourth disc as the weakest , with Chris referring to it as " mostly filler tracks " .
Track list
= = = Minuet = = =
Romancing SaGa Minstrel Song : Minuet is the single for " Minuet " , the theme song of Romancing SaGa Minstrel Song . The song was written , composed , and sung by Masayoshi Yamazaki . The album contains the original song , an acoustic version , and a karaoke version , all performed by Yamazaki . The album 's 3 tracks cover a duration of 14 : 18 . It was published by Universal Music on April 13 , 2005 with the catalog number UPCH @-@ 5303 , and also as a limited edition version with the catalog number of UPCH @-@ 9176 , and included a screensaver and wallpapers for a computer .
Like the soundtrack it was featured on , Minuet was well received by critics . Patrick Gann called it " strangely beautiful " , and described the genre as either " pop or neo @-@ renaissance " . He said that the acoustic version was his favorite version of the song on the album . Totz of Square Enix Music Online called it " a CD with one incredibly wonderful song " , but stated that he wished there were more works by Yamazaki on the album than just the one song . He concluded that while the album was definitely " worth it " from a " musical perspective " , but might not be from a " buyer 's perspective " .
= = SaGa Frontier = =
The SaGa Frontier subseries consists of SaGa Frontier , a 1997 PlayStation game , and SaGa Frontier 2 , released on the PlayStation in 1999 . SaGa Frontier was composed by Kenji Ito , the last SaGa game he has worked on besides the remake of Romancing SaGa 1 , while SaGa Frontier 2 saw the first work in the series by Masashi Hamauzu . The series has sparked three albums , which are the soundtrack albums to the two games and a collection of piano and orchestral arrangements of music from SaGa Frontier 2 . SaGa Frontier 2 was the first soundtrack from the SaGa series that Ito was not a composer for since SaGa 3 nine years prior and the second solo project by Hamauzu after Chocobo no Fushigina Dungeon . Hamauzu has stated that his intention for the soundtrack was to " compose outside the field of conventional ' game music ' , " and that to do this he " took a lot of chances in every possible way " . In the liner notes for the soundtrack album , Hamauzu explained that when he began the project he felt pressured to compose music in the same vein as the previous soundtracks in the series , but in the final months before finishing he decided to abandon any preconceived notions of what the music should sound like and instead to " express [ his ] own unique character " .
= = = SaGa Frontier Original Soundtrack = = =
SaGa Frontier Original Soundtrack is an album of music from SaGa Frontier , composed by Kenji Ito . The album 's 75 tracks cover a duration of 3 : 33 : 41 across three discs . The third disc contains a hidden track , track 0 , which can be found be rewinding the album back from track 1 . The album was published by DigiCube on April 21 , 1999 with the catalog number SSCX @-@ 10009 , and re @-@ released by Square Enix on February 1 , 2006 with the catalog numbers SQEX @-@ 10058 ~ 60 .
The album reached # 69 on the Japan Oricon charts . It was well received by critics such as RPGFan , which said that almost every track was " excellent " and complimented Ito on combining melodies and styles from his Romancing SaGa soundtracks with new styles to form a unique Frontier sound . Ashley Winchester of Square Enix Music Online was more hesitant , saying that while the score had a " lighthearted and easy listening quality " that made it " easy to digest " , it was also lacking any " real innovation " and its arrangements were " somewhat simpler " than expected .
Track list
= = = SaGa Frontier II Original Soundtrack = = =
SaGa Frontier II Original Soundtrack is an album of music from SaGa Frontier . The tracks were composed by Masashi Hamauzu . The album 's 76 tracks cover a duration of 3 : 05 : 14 across three discs . The album was published by DigiCube on April 21 , 1999 with the catalog number SSCX @-@ 10031 , and re @-@ released by Square Enix on February 1 , 2006 with the catalog numbers SQEX @-@ 10061 ~ 3 .
The album reached # 88 on the Japan Oricon charts . It was well received by critics such as Patrick Gann , who described Hamauzu 's inaugural work on the series as " different , but also extremely well @-@ done " . He said that the individual tracks were " darn good " and applauded the innovative synthesizer techniques used . Nathan Black of Square Enix Music Online also highly praised the album , calling it " excellent " and saying that it " amazed him " . Terming the soundtrack Hamauzu 's " first major work " , he ascribed the album 's quality to Hamauzu wanting to " take chances " and make a name for himself . He concluded that because of this there was nothing " bland " , " boring " or " predictable " about the soundtrack .
Track list
= = = Piano Pieces " SF2 " ~ Rhapsody on a Theme of SaGa Frontier 2 = = =
Piano Pieces " SF2 " ~ Rhapsody on a Theme of SaGa Frontier 2 is an arranged album of music from SaGa Frontier 2 . The tracks were composed and arranged by Masashi Hamauzu and performed by Naoko Endo , Daisuke Hara , Mikiko Saiki , Daisuke Karasuda , and Michiko Minakata . The album 's 24 tracks are broken up into groupings of tracks with the same name , with each group of tracks performed by a different person or group of people . Every grouping but the last consists of piano arrangements , while the last grouping , " Rhapsody on a Theme of SaGa Frontier 2 " , is a full orchestral arrangement . The album has a length of 50 : 44 . It was published by DigiCube on July 7 , 1999 with the catalog number SSCX @-@ 10033 . The album included a booklet with the full score to all of the piano arrangements in the album . It was reprinted by Square Enix on July 21 , 2010 , with the catalog number SQEX @-@ 10197 . This version of the album included an extra track number 25 , a new version of " ' β ' 1 " , which extended the length of the album to 52 : 52 .
The album was well received by critics such as Patrick Gann , who called it " amazing " and a " must @-@ have " . He felt that the " Rhapsody on a Theme " tracks were the best on the album . Aevloss of Square Enix Music Online said that each track was " of a consistently high standard " and that the album as a whole was better than the original soundtrack , which he held to be " very impressive " . He singled out the variety of styles used in the album as particularly worthy of praise .
= = Unlimited Saga = =
Unlimited Saga is the newest SaGa game , first published on the PlayStation 2 in 2002 and was composed for by Masashi Hamauzu ; it has not yet received any sequels . Unlimited Saga has sparked two albums , a soundtrack album and a promotional single . In the liner notes for the soundtrack album , Hamauzu estimated that he had completed the tunes for the soundtrack at a rate of one per day . He also noted that the game was Square Enix 's first " all streaming audio RPG " , which meant that the composer and synthesizer operator could use live recordings of each instrument in the final composition rather than using approximations created in a synthesizer . Despite this , some tracks , including " Judy 's Theme " , use only synthesized sounds as the synthesizer demo created prior to recording a live version sounded so real as to not need to be re @-@ recorded . Hamauzu said that the tracks that used live instruments almost exclusively were the ones that were " Latin " in style , such as " Anxiety towards a Wonder " and " Battle Theme IV " . Hamauzu also stated that for the soundtrack he reused several older pieces , with the oldest being " Mysterious Plan " which had been composed 10 years prior , though he said that amount of work that needed to be done to update the pieces required more effort than if he had composed a new piece instead .
= = = Unlimited Saga Original Soundtrack = = =
Unlimited Saga Original Soundtrack is an arranged album of music from Unlimited Saga . The tracks were composed by Masashi Hamauzu , with some tracks arranged for orchestral performance by Shiro Hamaguchi . Hamauzu described the major differences between this soundtrack and his previous works as being the result of changes in technology , which allowed him to include a wider variety of musical genres as well as " ample " acoustic instruments . He has said that his favorite tune from the soundtrack is " Soaring Wings " , the theme song for the game , particularly given the short amount of time he had to compose the soundtrack . When Hamauzu thought to use a song in the soundtrack , he decided to cast Mio Kashiwabara as the singer , despite having only met her once at the Tokyo University of Art festival two years before and never working with her . Despite her having never sung a non @-@ classical work before , he was very satisfied with how the song came out . The album 's 58 tracks cover a duration of 2 : 07 : 03 across two discs . The final four tracks of the album are arrangements of other pieces on the soundtrack . It was published by DigiCube on January 22 , 2003 with the catalog numbers SSCX @-@ 10078 ~ 9 .
The album reached # 115 on the Japan Oricon charts . It was well received by critics such as Jeff Tittsworth of RPGFan , who applauded its variety , saying that each track had a " distinct feel " even as the album as a whole felt " cohesive " . He also noted that each disc had its own feel , with the first disc containing more mellow and emotional pieces , while the second held " harder " rock , techno and jazz pieces , a dichotomy that he felt strengthened the album as a whole . James McCawley of RPGFan agreed ; while he preferred the sound of the second disc , he felt that together they created a stronger album which reflected " the split sides of Hamauzu 's musical character " . Chris Greening of Square Enix Music Online also enjoyed the album , calling it " an accomplished piece of experimentation that is also often satisfying on an emotional and melodic level " , though he added a caveat that if the listener did not enjoy electronic music , they would find the album " often wonderful but also hugely inconsistent " .
Track list
= = = Unlimited Saga Maxi Single CD = = =
Unlimited Saga Maxi Single CD is a promotional album of music from Unlimited Saga . All three tracks on the album were composed by Masashi Hamauzu , while " Unlimited SaGa Overture " was arranged for orchestra by Shiro Hamaguchi and " Soaring Wings " was sung by Mio Kashiwabara . The album contains a sampling of the tracks from the game . The album 's three tracks cover a duration of 9 : 29 . It was published by Square on December 12 , 2002 with the catalog number SQCD @-@ 30001 , and was included with the limited edition version of the game in Japan .
The single was poorly received by Chris Greening of Square Enix Music Online , who said that while it worked well as a promotional album , it did not work as a stand @-@ alone single after the release of the full soundtrack . He described it as " very limited " and " a pointless and thankfully obsolete album " .
= = Multiple series = =
Two albums have been or are planned to be produced that cover more than one SaGa series . The first , SaGa Battle Music Collection , is an album of battle music , while the second , the SaGa Series 20th Anniversary Original Soundtrack -Premium Box- is a box set of every soundtrack album produced to date from the SaGa series as a whole .
= = = SaGa Battle Music Collection = = =
SaGa Battle Music Collection is an album of battle music from across the SaGa series . The pieces were all composed by Kenji Ito ; the album does not include any tracks originally composed by other series composers such as Hamauzu or Uematsu . The album 's 14 tracks cover a duration of 46 : 39 and cover battle music from SaGa 2 , Romancing SaGa 1 , 2 , and 3 , SaGa Frontier , and Romancing SaGa Minstrel Song . The final two tracks of the album are piano solos by Ito , and are arrangements of themes common to the series as a whole . The album was produced as a promotional album for the release of Romancing SaGa Minstrel Song to be included with pre @-@ orders of the Japanese release of the game , and was published by Square Enix on April 21 , 2005 with the catalog number ROMA @-@ 0001 . The album was well received by Patrick Gann , who said that it included some of Ito 's most memorable tracks . He called it a " great idea " and said that it was " worth hunting down " .
= = = SaGa Series 20th Anniversary Original Soundtrack -Premium Box- = = =
The SaGa Series 20th Anniversary Original Soundtrack -Premium Box- is a soundtrack album collection of music from every released SaGa game . The compilation features 515 tracks on 20 CDs with a total length of 19 : 02 : 45 , and includes a DVD of developer interviews , a stand display showing an illustration painted by Tomomi Kobayashi , and materials to build a display box for the CDs . The set consists of all of the soundtrack albums from the SaGa series , with All Sounds of SaGa broken up into one disc per game , rather than the original two discs . The set was published on August 26 , 2009 to coincide with the 20th anniversary of the release of the first SaGa video game with the catalog numbers SQEX @-@ 10145 ~ 65 . Patrick Gann described it as an excellent collection that was worth the purchase for anyone who wanted to own the entire set and did not already have most of the albums , though he noted that as it included multiple composers and styles the compilation box would not be justified for everyone who liked just some of the music of the SaGa series .
= = Legacy = =
" Overture " from Romancing SaGa Minstrel Song was performed at the " Press Start -Symphony of Games- 2006 " concert in Tokyo on September 22 , 2006 . Kenji Ito performed " Passionate Rhythm " from Romancing SaGa Minstrel Song at the " Extra : Hyper Game Music Event 2007 " concert in Tokyo on July 7 , 2007 along with other performers . Music from SaGa Frontier 2 was played at the fifth Symphonic Game Music Concert , held in Leipzig , Germany on August 22 , 2007 . The FILMharmonic Orchestra and Choir was conducted by Andy Brick and featured Jaromir Klepac as the pianist ; they performed " Feldschlacht V " , or " Field Battle 1 " . Selections from Piano Pieces " SF2 " ~ Rhapsody on a Theme of SaGa Frontier 2 were played in a concert in Paris of Hamauzu 's work on May 22 , 2011 . An arrangement of " Main Theme " from SaGa I and " Save the World " from SaGa 2 was performed on July 9 , 2011 at the Symphonic Odysseys concert , which commemorated the music of Uematsu .
In addition to the albums produced , music from the original soundtracks of the SaGa games has been arranged for the piano and published by DOREMI Music Publishing . Books are available for Romancing SaGa 3 , Romancing SaGa Minstrel Song , SaGa Frontier , SaGa Frontier II , and Unlimited SaGa . The compositions from Unlimited SaGa were rewritten by Tadaomi Idogawa as beginning to intermediate level piano solos , though they are meant to sound as much like the originals as possible . The music for the other books was written by Asako Niwa for piano solos of similar difficulty .
|
= World Chess Championship 1972 =
The World Chess Championship 1972 was a match for the World Chess Championship between challenger Bobby Fischer of the United States and defending champion Boris Spassky of the Soviet Union . The match took place in the Laugardalshöll arena in Reykjavík , Iceland and has been dubbed the Match of the Century . Fischer became the first American born in the United States to win the world title , and the second American overall ( Wilhelm Steinitz , the first world champion , became a naturalized American citizen in 1888 ) . Fischer 's win also ended , for a short time , 24 years of Soviet domination of the World Championship .
The first game was played on July 11 , 1972 . The last game began on August 31 , was adjourned after 40 moves , and Spassky resigned the next day without resuming play . Fischer won the match 12 ½ – 8 ½ , becoming the eleventh undisputed World Champion .
In 2016 , former World Chess Champion Garry Kasparov commented on the global significance of the match , saying :
I think the reason you look at these matches probably was not so much the chess factor but to the political element , which was inevitable because in the Soviet Union , chess was treated by the Soviet authorities as a very important and useful ideological tool to demonstrate the intellectual superiority of the Soviet communist regime over the decadent West . That ’ s why the Spassky defeat [ ... ] was treated by people on both sides of the Atlantic as a crushing moment in the midst of the Cold War .
= = Background = =
The match was played during the Cold War , but during a period of increasing détente . The Soviet Chess School had long held a monopoly on the game at the highest level . Spassky was the latest in an uninterrupted chain of Soviet world chess champions , stretching back to the 1948 championship .
Fischer , an eccentric 29 @-@ year @-@ old American , was a vocal critic of the Soviet domination of chess , because he believed that Soviet players gained an unfair advantage by agreeing to short draws among themselves in tournaments . In August 1962 Sports Illustrated , and then in October the German magazine Der Spiegel , published a famous article by Fischer " The Russians Have Fixed World Chess " in which he expounded this view . Fischer himself rarely agreed to early draws in unclear positions .
The expectations on Spassky were enormous because for the Soviets , chess was part of the political system . While Fischer was often famously critical of his home country ( " Americans want to plunk in front of a TV and don 't want to open a book ... " ) , he too carried the burden of expectation because of the political significance of the match . No American had achieved the world championship since the first champion , Wilhelm Steinitz , became a naturalized American citizen in 1888 . The excitement surrounding the match was such that it was called the " Match of the Century " , even though the same term had been applied to the USSR vs. Rest of the World match just two years before .
Spassky , the champion , had lost the world championship match against Tigran Petrosian in 1966 . In 1968 , he won matches against Efim Geller , Bent Larsen , and Viktor Korchnoi to again win the right to challenge Petrosian for the title . This time Spassky triumphed , winning 12 ½ – 10 ½ . He is often said to have ( had ) a " universal style " , " involving an ability to play the most varied types of positions " . However , Garry Kasparov notes that " from childhood he clearly had a leaning toward sharp , attacking play , and possessed a splendid feel for the initiative . " Before the match , Fischer had played five games against Spassky , with two draws and Spassky winning three .
However , in the Candidates matches en route to becoming the challenger , Fischer had demolished world @-@ class grandmasters Mark Taimanov and Bent Larsen , each by a perfect score of 6 – 0 , a feat no one else had ever accomplished in any Candidates match . After that , Fischer had split the first five games of his match against former World Champion Tigran Petrosian , then closed out the match by winning the last four games . " No bare statement conveys the magnitude and impact of these results . ... Fischer sowed devastation . " From the last seven rounds of the Interzonal until the first game against Petrosian , Fischer won 20 consecutive games , nearly all of which were against top grandmasters .
Fischer also had a much higher Elo rating than Spassky . On the July 1972 FIDE rating list , Fischer 's 2785 was a record 125 points ahead of the number two player – Spassky , whose rating was 2660 . Fischer 's recent results and record Elo rating made him the pre @-@ match favorite . Other observers , however , noted that Fischer had never won a game against Spassky .
Spassky 's seconds for the match were Efim Geller , Nikolai Krogius and Iivo Nei . Fischer 's second was William Lombardy . His entourage also included lawyer Paul Marshall , who would play a significant role in the events surrounding the match , and USCF representative Fred Cramer . The match referee was Lothar Schmid .
For some time , it was doubtful that the match would be played at all . Shortly before the match , Fischer demanded that the players receive , in addition to the agreed @-@ upon prize fund of $ 125 @,@ 000 ( 5 / 8 to the winner , 3 / 8 to the loser ) and 30 % of the proceeds from television and film rights , 30 % of the box @-@ office receipts . He failed to arrive in Iceland for the opening ceremony on July 1 . Fischer 's behavior was seemingly full of contradictions , as it had been throughout his career . He finally flew to Iceland and agreed to play after a two @-@ day postponement of the match by FIDE President Max Euwe , a surprise doubling of the prize fund by British investment banker Jim Slater , and much persuasion , including a phone call by Henry Kissinger to Fischer . Many commentators , particularly from the USSR , have suggested that all this ( and his continuing demands and unreasonableness ) was part of Fischer 's plan to " psych out " Spassky . Fischer 's supporters say that winning the World Championship was the mission of his life , that he simply wanted the setting to be perfect for it when he took the stage , and that his behavior was the same as it had always been .
World @-@ class match play ( i.e. , a series of games between the same two opponents ) often involves one or both players preparing one or two openings very deeply , and playing them repeatedly during the match . Preparation for such a match also involves analysis of those opening lines known to be played by the opponent . Fischer had been famous for his unusually narrow opening repertoire : for example , almost invariably playing 1.e4 as White , and almost always playing the Najdorf Variation of the Sicilian Defence as Black against 1.e4. He surprised Spassky by repeatedly switching openings , and by playing openings that he had never , or only rarely , played before ( such as 1.c4 as White , and Alekhine 's Defence , the Pirc Defence , and the Paulsen Sicilian as Black ) . Even in openings that Fischer had played before in the match , he continually deviated from the variations he had previously played , almost never repeating the same line twice in the match .
= = 1970 Interzonal tournament = =
The Interzonal tournament was held in Palma de Mallorca , Spain , in November and December 1970 . The top six players of the interzonal ( shown in bold in the table below ) qualified for the Candidates Tournament . Bobby Fischer was originally unqualified to play in this event , as he had not participated in the 1969 US Championship ( Zonal ) . However , Benko ( and the reserve Lombardy ) gave up his spot , and FIDE President Max Euwe controversially allowed Fischer to participate instead . A compensation of US $ 1 @,@ 500 was paid to Benko for this to occur .
Portisch and Smyslov contested a six @-@ game playoff in Portorož , Yugoslavia in early 1971 for the reserve position for the Candidates Tournament . The match ended 3 – 3 ; Portisch was declared the winner because of a better tie @-@ break score in the main tournament .
= = 1971 Candidates Tournament = =
Petrosian as the loser of the last championship match and Korchnoi as runner @-@ up of the previous Candidates final were seeded directly into the tournament and joined by the top six from the Interzonal .
Fischer 's victory earned him the right to challenge reigning champion Spassky for the title .
= = 1972 World Championship match = =
= = = Schedule and results = = =
The match was played as the best of 24 games , with wins counting 1 point and draws counting ½ point , and would end when one of the players scored 12 ½ points . If the match ended in a 12 – 12 tie , the defending champion ( Spassky ) would retain the title . The first time control was 40 moves in 2 ½ hours . Three games per week were scheduled . Each player was entitled to three postponements for medical reasons during the match . Games were scheduled to start on Sunday , Tuesday , and Thursday . If a game was adjourned , it was to be continued the next day . Saturday was a rest day .
Fischer insisted that a Staunton chess set from Jaques of London be used . The chessboard had to be remade at Fischer 's request . The match was covered throughout the world . Fischer became a worldwide celebrity , described as the Einstein or Hitler of chess . His hotel received dozens of calls each day from women attracted to him , and Fischer enjoyed reading the numerous letters and telegrams that arrived with compliments or criticisms . Excitement grew as the match was postponed and people questioned whether Fischer would appear . Previously , he had come to the airport and , surrounded by reporters , left . The combination of " Will he play ? " and " American versus Russian " created excitement throughout the world .
= = = Games = = =
= = = = Game 1 : Spassky 1 Fischer 0 ( Nimzo @-@ Indian ) = = = =
The opening was a placid Nimzo @-@ Indian Defence , and after 17 ... Ba4 the game was even ( Filip ) . After a series of piece exchanges the position in the diagram was reached after 29.b5. It appeared to be a dead @-@ drawn ending , and no one would have been remotely surprised if the players had agreed to a draw here .
Shockingly , Fischer played 29 ... Bxh2 ? , a move that few players would consider in light of the obvious 30.g3 , trapping the bishop . In exchange for the lost bishop , Black is only able to obtain two pawns ( see chess piece relative value ) . Gligorić , Kasparov and other commentators have suggested that Fischer may have miscalculated , having planned 30 ... h5 31.Ke2 h4 32.Kf3 h3 33.Kg4 Bg1 , but overlooking that 34.Kxh3 Bxf2 35.Bd2 keeps the bishop trapped . Anatoly Karpov suggested that Spassky was afraid of Fischer and wanted to show that he could draw with the white pieces , while Fischer wanted to disprove that as the game headed for a stale draw . Owing to unusual features in the position , Fischer had good drawing chances despite having only two pawns for the bishop . However , the position became hopeless after he made at least one more bad move before the adjournment , which took place after move 40 . Fischer could still have drawn the game with the correct 39th or 40th move . He resigned on move 56 .
Spassky – Fischer , game 1 ; Nimzo @-@ Indian Defence , Main Variation ( ECO E56 )
1.d4 Nf6 2.c4 e6 3.Nf3 d5 4.Nc3 Bb4 5.e3 0 @-@ 0 6.Bd3 c5 7 @.@ 0 @-@ 0 Nc6 8.a3 Ba5 9.Ne2 dxc4 10.Bxc4 Bb6 11.dxc5 Qxd1 12.Rxd1 Bxc5 13.b4 Be7 14.Bb2 Bd7 15.Rac1 Rfd8 16.Ned4 Nxd4 17.Nxd4 Ba4 18.Bb3 Bxb3 19.Nxb3 Rxd1 + 20.Rxd1 Rc8 21.Kf1 Kf8 22.Ke2 Ne4 23.Rc1 Rxc1 24.Bxc1 f6 25.Na5 Nd6 26.Kd3 Bd8 27.Nc4 Bc7 28.Nxd6 Bxd6 29.b5 ( diagram ) Bxh2 30.g3 h5 31.Ke2 h4 32.Kf3 Ke7 33.Kg2 hxg3 34.fxg3 Bxg3 35.Kxg3 Kd6 36.a4 Kd5 37.Ba3 Ke4 38.Bc5 a6 39.b6 f5 40.Kh4 f4 41.exf4 Kxf4 42.Kh5 Kf5 43.Be3 Ke4 44.Bf2 Kf5 45.Bh4 e5 46.Bg5 e4 47.Be3 Kf6 48.Kg4 Ke5 49.Kg5 Kd5 50.Kf5 a5 51.Bf2 g5 52.Kxg5 Kc4 53.Kf5 Kb4 54.Kxe4 Kxa4 55.Kd5 Kb5 56.Kd6 1 – 0
= = = = Game 2 : Fischer forfeits = = = =
Following his loss Fischer made further demands on the organizers , including that all cameras be removed . When they were not , he refused to appear for game 2 , giving a default win to Spassky . His appeal was rejected . Karpov speculates that this forfeited game was actually a masterstroke on Fischer 's part , a move designed specifically to upset Spassky 's equanimity .
With the score now 2 – 0 in favor of Spassky , many observers believed that the match was over and Fischer would leave Iceland , and , indeed , Fischer looked to board the next plane out of Iceland , only to be dissuaded by his second , William Lombardy . His decision to stay in the match was attributed by some to another phone call from Kissinger and a deluge of cablegrams to Fischer . Spassky , owing to his sporting spirit and respect and sympathy for Fischer , agreed to play the third game in a small room backstage , out of sight of the spectators . According to Pal Benko and Burt Hochberg , this concession was a psychological mistake by Spassky .
= = = = Game 3 : Spassky 0 Fischer 1 ( Modern Benoni ) = = = =
This game proved to be the turning point of the match . After 11.Qc2 ( diagram ) , Fischer demonstrated his acute intuitive feel for the position with 11 ... Nh5 ! ? — a seemingly antipositional move allowing White to shatter Black 's kingside pawn structure , but Fischer 's assessment that his kingside attack created significant counterplay proved correct . Surprised by Fischer 's novelty , Spassky did not react in the best way . Instead of 15.Bd2 , 15.Ne2 ! ? was possible ( Zaitsev ) , or 15.f3 to prevent ... Ng4 . In particular , Spassky 's 18th move , weakening the light squares , was a mistake . The game was adjourned , and Spassky resigned the next day upon seeing that Fischer had sealed the best move , 41 ... Bd3 + ! The win was Fischer 's first ever win against Spassky .
Spassky – Fischer , game 3 ; Modern Benoni Defence , Classical Main Line ( ECO A77 )
1.d4 Nf6 2.c4 e6 3.Nf3 c5 4.d5 exd5 5.cxd5 d6 6.Nc3 g6 7.Nd2 Nbd7 8.e4 Bg7 9.Be2 0 @-@ 0 10 @.@ 0 @-@ 0 Re8 11.Qc2 ( diagram ) Nh5 12.Bxh5 gxh5 13.Nc4 Ne5 14.Ne3 Qh4 15.Bd2 Ng4 16.Nxg4 hxg4 17.Bf4 Qf6 18.g3 Bd7 19.a4 b6 20.Rfe1 a6 21.Re2 b5 22.Rae1 Qg6 23.b3 Re7 24.Qd3 Rb8 25.axb5 axb5 26.b4 c4 27.Qd2 Rbe8 28.Re3 h5 29.R3e2 Kh7 30.Re3 Kg8 31.R3e2 Bxc3 32.Qxc3 Rxe4 33.Rxe4 Rxe4 34.Rxe4 Qxe4 35.Bh6 Qg6 36.Bc1 Qb1 37.Kf1 Bf5 38.Ke2 Qe4 + 39.Qe3 Qc2 + 40.Qd2 Qb3 41.Qd4 Bd3 + 0 – 1
= = = = Game 4 : Fischer ½ Spassky ½ ( Sicilian Sozin ) = = = =
Fischer as White played the Sozin Attack against Spassky 's Sicilian Defence . Spassky sacrificed a pawn , and after 17 ... Bxc5 + had a slight advantage ( Nunn ) . Spassky developed a strong kingside attack , but failed to convert it into a win , the game ending in a draw .
Fischer – Spassky , game 4 ; Sicilian Defence , Sozin Attack ( ECO B88 )
1.e4 c5 2.Nf3 d6 3.d4 cxd4 4.Nxd4 Nf6 5.Nc3 Nc6 6.Bc4 e6 7.Bb3 Be7 8.Be3 0 @-@ 0 9 @.@ 0 @-@ 0 a6 10.f4 Nxd4 11.Bxd4 b5 12.a3 Bb7 13.Qd3 a5 14.e5 dxe5 15.fxe5 Nd7 16.Nxb5 Nc5 17.Bxc5 Bxc5 + 18.Kh1 Qg5 19.Qe2 Rad8 20.Rad1 Rxd1 21.Rxd1 h5 22.Nd6 Ba8 23.Bc4 h4 24.h3 Be3 25.Qg4 Qxe5 26.Qxh4 g5 27.Qg4 Bc5 28.Nb5 Kg7 29.Nd4 ( diagram ) Rh8 30.Nf3 Bxf3 31.Qxf3 Bd6 32.Qc3 Qxc3 33.bxc3 Be5 34.Rd7 Kf6 35.Kg1 Bxc3 36.Be2 Be5 37.Kf1 Rc8 38.Bh5 Rc7 39.Rxc7 Bxc7 40.a4 Ke7 41.Ke2 f5 42.Kd3 Be5 43.c4 Kd6 44.Bf7 Bg3 45.c5 + ½ – ½
= = = = Game 5 : Spassky 0 Fischer 1 ( Nimzo @-@ Indian ) = = = =
Another Nimzo @-@ Indian , this time the Hübner Variation : 4.Nf3 c5 5.e3 Nc6 6.Bd3 Bxc3 + 7.bxc3 d6 . Fischer rebuffed Spassky 's attempt to attack ; after 15 ... 0 @-@ 0 the game was even ( Adorján ) . Fischer obtained a blocked position where Spassky was saddled with weak pawns and his bishop pair had no prospects . After 26 moves , Spassky faced the position in the diagram , in which he blundered with 27.Qc2 ? ? , and resigned after Fischer 's 27 ... Bxa4 ! After 28.Qxa4 Qxe4 , Black 's dual threats of 29 ... Qxg2 # and 29 ... Qxe1 # would decide ; alternatively , 28.Qd2 ( or 28.Qb1 ) Bxd1 29.Qxd1 Qxe4 30.Qd2 a4 wins .
Spassky – Fischer , game 5 ; Nimzo @-@ Indian Defence , Hübner Variation ( ECO E41 )
1.d4 Nf6 2.c4 e6 3.Nc3 Bb4 4.Nf3 c5 5.e3 Nc6 6.Bd3 Bxc3 + 7.bxc3 d6 8.e4 e5 9.d5 Ne7 10.Nh4 h6 11.f4 Ng6 12.Nxg6 fxg6 13.fxe5 dxe5 14.Be3 b6 15 @.@ 0 @-@ 0 0 @-@ 0 16.a4 a5 17.Rb1 Bd7 18.Rb2 Rb8 19.Rbf2 Qe7 20.Bc2 g5 21.Bd2 Qe8 22.Be1 Qg6 23.Qd3 Nh5 24.Rxf8 + Rxf8 25.Rxf8 + Kxf8 26.Bd1 Nf4 ( diagram ) 27.Qc2 Bxa4 0 – 1
Thus Fischer had drawn level ( the score was now 2 ½ – 2 ½ ) , although FIDE rules stipulated that the champion retained the title if after 24 games the match ended in a tie .
After game 5 , Fischer hinted to Lombardy about a surprise he had in store for game 6 .
= = = = Game 6 : Fischer 1 Spassky 0 ( QGD Tartakower ) = = = =
Before the match began , the Soviet team that had been training Spassky debated about whether Fischer might play an opening move different from his usual 1.e4. " But when the question was raised as to whether 1 d4 or 1 c4 could be expected of Fischer , Spassky replied : ' Let 's not bother with such nonsense – I 'll play the [ Tartakower ] Defence . What can he achieve ? ... ' "
Fischer played 1.c4 ( instead of 1.e4 ) for only the third time in a serious game . With 3.d4 the game transposed to the Queen 's Gambit , surprising many who had never seen Fischer play the White side of that opening . In fact , he had previously openly condemned it .
Spassky played Tartakower 's Defense ( 7 ... b6 ) , his favorite choice in many tournaments and a line with which he had never lost . After 14.Bb5 ! ? ( introduced in Furman – Geller , Moscow 1970 ) , Spassky responded with 14 ... a6 ? ! . Geller had previously shown Spassky 14 ... Qb7 ! , the move with which Geller later beat Jan Timman at Hilversum 1973 , but Spassky apparently forgot about it . After 21.f4 Fischer had the upper hand ( Hort ) . After 26.f5 , White had a crushing attack .
Fischer – Spassky , game 6 ; Queen 's Gambit Declined , Tartakower Defense ( ECO D59 )
1.c4 e6 2.Nf3 d5 3.d4 Nf6 4.Nc3 Be7 5.Bg5 0 @-@ 0 6.e3 h6 7.Bh4 b6 8.cxd5 Nxd5 9.Bxe7 Qxe7 10.Nxd5 exd5 11.Rc1 Be6 12.Qa4 c5 13.Qa3 Rc8 14.Bb5 a6 15.dxc5 bxc5 16 @.@ 0 @-@ 0 Ra7 17.Be2 Nd7 18.Nd4 Qf8 19.Nxe6 fxe6 20.e4 ( diagram ) d4 21.f4 Qe7 22.e5 Rb8 23.Bc4 Kh8 24.Qh3 Nf8 25.b3 a5 26.f5 exf5 27.Rxf5 Nh7 28.Rcf1 Qd8 29.Qg3 Re7 30.h4 Rbb7 31.e6 Rbc7 32.Qe5 Qe8 33.a4 Qd8 34.R1f2 Qe8 35.R2f3 Qd8 36.Bd3 Qe8 37.Qe4 Nf6 38.Rxf6 gxf6 39.Rxf6 Kg8 40.Bc4 Kh8 41.Qf4 1 – 0
After this game , Spassky joined the audience in applauding Fischer 's win . This astounded Fischer , who called his opponent " a true sportsman " .
" Lombardy was ecstatic : ' " Bobby has played a steady , fluent game , and just watched Spassky make horrendous moves . Spassky has not met a player of Bobby 's genius and caliber before , who fights for every piece on the board ; he doesn 't give in and agree to draws like the Russian grandmasters . This is a shock to Spassky ' " .
According to C.H.O 'D . Alexander :
This game was notable for two things . First , Fischer played the Queen 's Gambit for the first time in his life in a serious game ; second , he played it to perfection , the game indeed casting doubt on Black 's whole opening system .
The win gave Fischer the lead ( 3 ½ – 2 ½ ) for the first time in the match .
= = = = Game 7 : Spassky ½ Fischer ½ ( Sicilian Najdorf ) = = = =
Spassky played 1.e4 for the first time in the match . Fischer defended aggressively with his favorite Poisoned Pawn Variation of the Najdorf Sicilian , and after 17 ... Nc6 had the upper hand ( Gipslis ) . He consolidated his extra pawn and reached a winning endgame , but then played carelessly , allowing Spassky to salvage a draw . In the final position , Fischer had two extra pawns but had to execute a draw by perpetual check in order to escape being checkmated by Spassky 's two rooks and knight .
Spassky – Fischer , game 7 ; Sicilian Defence , Najdorf Variation , Poisoned Pawn Variation ( ECO B97 )
1.e4 c5 2.Nf3 d6 3.d4 cxd4 4.Nxd4 Nf6 5.Nc3 a6 6.Bg5 e6 7.f4 Qb6 8.Qd2 Qxb2 9.Nb3 Qa3 10.Bd3 Be7 11 @.@ 0 @-@ 0 h6 12.Bh4 Nxe4 13.Nxe4 Bxh4 14.f5 exf5 15.Bb5 + axb5 16.Nxd6 + Kf8 17.Nxc8 Nc6 18.Nd6 Rd8 19.Nxb5 Qe7 20.Qf4 g6 21.a4 Bg5 22.Qc4 Be3 + 23.Kh1 f4 24.g3 g5 25.Rae1 Qb4 26.Qxb4 + Nxb4 27.Re2 Kg7 28.Na5 b6 29.Nc4 Nd5 30.Ncd6 Bc5 31.Nb7 Rc8 32.c4 Ne3 33.Rf3 Nxc4 34.gxf4 g4 35.Rd3 h5 36.h3 Na5 37.N7d6 Bxd6 38.Nxd6 Rc1 + 39.Kg2 Nc4 40.Ne8 + Kg6 41.h4 f6 42.Re6 Rc2 + 43.Kg1 Kf5 44.Ng7 + Kxf4 45.Rd4 + Kg3 46.Nf5 + Kf3 47.Ree4 Rc1 + 48.Kh2 Rc2 + 49.Kg1 ½ – ½
= = = = Game 8 : Fischer 1 Spassky 0 ( English Symmetrical ) = = = =
Fischer again played 1.c4 ; the game remained an English Opening rather than transposing to another opening as in game 6 . After 14 ... a6 the game was even . Spassky gave up an exchange with 15 ... b5 ? for little compensation in the way of a positional advantage , and it is unclear whether it was a sacrifice or a blunder . Fischer won , putting him ahead 5 – 3 .
Fischer – Spassky , game 8 ; English Opening , Symmetrical Defense ( ECO A39 )
1.c4 c5 2.Nc3 Nc6 3.Nf3 Nf6 4.g3 g6 5.Bg2 Bg7 6 @.@ 0 @-@ 0 0 @-@ 0 7.d4 cxd4 8.Nxd4 Nxd4 9.Qxd4 d6 10.Bg5 Be6 11.Qf4 Qa5 12.Rac1 Rab8 13.b3 Rfc8 14.Qd2 a6 15.Be3 b5 16.Ba7 bxc4 17.Bxb8 Rxb8 18.bxc4 Bxc4 19.Rfd1 ( diagram ) Nd7 20.Nd5 Qxd2 21.Nxe7 + Kf8 22.Rxd2 Kxe7 23.Rxc4 Rb1 + 24.Bf1 Nc5 25.Kg2 a5 26.e4 Ba1 27.f4 f6 28.Re2 Ke6 29.Rec2 Bb2 30.Be2 h5 31.Rd2 Ba3 32.f5 + gxf5 33.exf5 + Ke5 34.Rcd4 Kxf5 35.Rd5 + Ke6 36.Rxd6 + Ke7 37.Rc6 1 – 0
= = = = Game 9 : Spassky ½ Fischer ½ ( QGD Semi @-@ Tarrasch ) = = = =
The game was delayed when Spassky took time off ( pleading illness ) . The opening was the Semi @-@ Tarrasch Defense of the Queen 's Gambit Declined . Fischer played a theoretical novelty on the ninth move . After 13 ... 0 @-@ 0 the game was even ( Parma ) , and the game ended in a quiet draw after just 29 moves .
Spassky – Fischer , game 9 ; Queen 's Gambit Declined , Semi @-@ Tarrasch Defense ( ECO D41 )
1.d4 Nf6 2.c4 e6 3.Nf3 d5 4.Nc3 c5 5.cxd5 Nxd5 6.e4 Nxc3 7.bxc3 cxd4 8.cxd4 Nc6 9.Bc4 b5 ( diagram ) 10.Bd3 Bb4 + 11.Bd2 Bxd2 + 12.Qxd2 a6 13.a4 0 @-@ 0 14.Qc3 Bb7 15.axb5 axb5 16 @.@ 0 @-@ 0 Qb6 17.Rab1 b4 18.Qd2 Nxd4 19.Nxd4 Qxd4 20.Rxb4 Qd7 21.Qe3 Rfd8 22.Rfb1 Qxd3 23.Qxd3 Rxd3 24.Rxb7 g5 25.Rb8 + Rxb8 26.Rxb8 + Kg7 27.f3 Rd2 28.h4 h6 29.hxg5 ½ – ½
= = = = Game 10 : Fischer 1 Spassky 0 ( Ruy Lopez Breyer ) = = = =
Fischer played the Ruy Lopez , an opening on which he was a great expert . After 25 ... Qxa5 ? ! ( 25 ... axb5 ! ? 26.Rxb5 Ba6 gives Spassky a better chance ; Gligorić ) , Fischer obtained the upper hand by initiating a dangerous attack on Spassky 's king with 26.Bb3 ! ( Matanović ) , suddenly placing Black in a critical situation . Spassky sacrificed the exchange for a pawn , reaching a sharp endgame where his two connected passed pawns gave almost sufficient compensation for Fischer 's small material advantage . Spassky had drawing chances , but played inexactly , and Fischer won the game with precise play .
Fischer – Spassky , game 10 ; Ruy Lopez , Breyer Variation ( ECO C95 )
1.e4 e5 2.Nf3 Nc6 3.Bb5 a6 4.Ba4 Nf6 5 @.@ 0 @-@ 0 Be7 6.Re1 b5 7.Bb3 d6 8.c3 0 @-@ 0 9.h3 Nb8 10.d4 Nbd7 11.Nbd2 Bb7 12.Bc2 Re8 13.b4 Bf8 14.a4 Nb6 15.a5 Nbd7 16.Bb2 Qb8 17.Rb1 c5 18.bxc5 dxc5 19.dxe5 Nxe5 20.Nxe5 Qxe5 21.c4 Qf4 22.Bxf6 Qxf6 23.cxb5 Red8 24.Qc1 Qc3 25.Nf3 Qxa5 26.Bb3 ( diagram ) axb5 27.Qf4 Rd7 28.Ne5 Qc7 29.Rbd1 Re7 30.Bxf7 + Rxf7 31.Qxf7 + Qxf7 32.Nxf7 Bxe4 33.Rxe4 Kxf7 34.Rd7 + Kf6 35.Rb7 Ra1 + 36.Kh2 Bd6 + 37.g3 b4 38.Kg2 h5 39.Rb6 Rd1 40.Kf3 Kf7 41.Ke2 Rd5 42.f4 g6 43.g4 hxg4 44.hxg4 g5 45.f5 Be5 46.Rb5 Kf6 47.Rexb4 Bd4 48.Rb6 + Ke5 49.Kf3 Rd8 50.Rb8 Rd7 51.R4b7 Rd6 52.Rb6 Rd7 53.Rg6 Kd5 54.Rxg5 Be5 55.f6 Kd4 56.Rb1 1 – 0
= = = = Game 11 : Spassky 1 Fischer 0 ( Sicilian Najdorf ) = = = =
This game was a dramatic win for Spassky , his first since games 1 and 2 . As in game 7 , Fischer essayed his favorite Poisoned Pawn Variation ; Spassky surprised him with the startling 14.Nb1 ( given ! ! by many annotators at the time ) , retreating the knight to its starting position . Although later analysis showed that the move was only sufficient for equality if Black responded correctly , Fischer did not . If 15 ... Ne7 ! ? by Black then 16.N1d2 ! ? and the game is unclear ( Gipslis ) . After inferior defense by Fischer , Spassky trapped Fischer 's queen and handed him his only defeat ever as Black in the Poisoned Pawn .
Spassky – Fischer , game 11 ; Sicilian Defence , Najdorf Variation , Poisoned Pawn Variation ( ECO B97 )
1.e4 c5 2.Nf3 d6 3.d4 cxd4 4.Nxd4 Nf6 5.Nc3 a6 6.Bg5 e6 7.f4 Qb6 8.Qd2 Qxb2 9.Nb3 Qa3 10.Bxf6 gxf6 11.Be2 h5 12 @.@ 0 @-@ 0 Nc6 13.Kh1 Bd7 ( diagram ) 14.Nb1 Qb4 15.Qe3 d5 16.exd5 Ne7 17.c4 Nf5 18.Qd3 h4 19.Bg4 Nd6 20.N1d2 f5 21.a3 Qb6 22.c5 Qb5 23.Qc3 fxg4 24.a4 h3 25.axb5 hxg2 + 26.Kxg2 Rh3 27.Qf6 Nf5 28.c6 Bc8 29.dxe6 fxe6 30.Rfe1 Be7 31.Rxe6 1 – 0
= = = = Game 12 : Fischer ½ Spassky ½ ( QGD Orthodox ) = = = =
A quiet Queen 's Gambit Declined . After 19.Be4 ! , Fischer had a slight advantage ( Yudovich ) , and after 24 ... a5 the game was even ( Polugaevsky ) . The game ended in an opposite @-@ colored bishops endgame draw after 55 moves .
Fischer – Spassky , game 12 ; Queen 's Gambit Declined , Orthodox Defence ( ECO D66 )
1.c4 e6 2.Nf3 d5 3.d4 Nf6 4.Nc3 Be7 5.Bg5 h6 6.Bh4 0 @-@ 0 7.e3 Nbd7 8.Rc1 c6 9.Bd3 dxc4 10.Bxc4 b5 11.Bd3 a6 12.a4 bxa4 13.Nxa4 Qa5 14.Nd2 Bb4 15.Nc3 c5 16.Nb3 Qd8 17 @.@ 0 @-@ 0 cxd4 18.Nxd4 Bb7 19.Be4 Qb8 ( diagram ) 20.Bg3 Qa7 21.Nc6 Bxc6 22.Bxc6 Rac8 23.Na4 Rfd8 24.Bf3 a5 25.Rc6 Rxc6 26.Bxc6 Rc8 27.Bf3 Qa6 28.h3 Qb5 29.Be2 Qc6 30.Bf3 Qb5 31.b3 Be7 32.Be2 Qb4 33.Ba6 Rc6 34.Bd3 Nc5 35.Qf3 Rc8 36.Nxc5 Bxc5 37.Rc1 Rd8 38.Bc4 Qd2 39.Rf1 Bb4 40.Bc7 Rd7 41.Qc6 Qc2 42.Be5 Rd2 43.Qa8 + Kh7 44.Bxf6 gxf6 45.Qf3 f5 46.g4 Qe4 47.Kg2 Kg6 48.Rc1 Ba3 49.Ra1 Bb4 50.Rc1 Be7 51.gxf5 + exf5 52.Re1 Rxf2 + 53.Kxf2 Bh4 + 54.Ke2 Qxf3 + 55.Kxf3 Bxe1 ½ – ½
= = = = Game 13 : Spassky 0 Fischer 1 ( Alekhine 's Defence ) = = = =
Fischer avoided the Sicilian Defence , with which he had lost game 11 , instead preferring Alekhine 's Defence . After 8 ... a5 ! 9.a4 ? ( 9.c3 ! ? and Black is only slightly better ; Gligorić ) dxe5 10.dxe5 Na6 ! 11 @.@ 0 @-@ 0 Nc5 , Fischer had the upper hand ( Bagirov ) . The game swung one way , then another , and was finally adjourned at move 42 with Fischer having an edge in a sharp position but no clear win . The Soviet team 's analysis convinced them that the position was drawn . Fischer stayed up until 8 a.m. the following morning analyzing it ( the resumption being at 2 : 30 p.m. ) . He had not found a win either . Amazingly , he managed to set traps for Spassky , who fell into them and lost . Spassky 's seconds were stunned , and Spassky himself refused to leave the board for a long time after the game was over , unable to believe the result . He remarked , " It is very strange . How can one lose with the opponent 's only rook locked in completely at g8 ? "
Lombardy noted the shock that Spassky was in after he resigned :
While Fischer dashed for his car , Spassky remained glued to his seat . A sympathetic Lothar Schmid came over , and the two shifted the pieces about with Boris demonstrating his careless mistakes . The two were left wondering how Bobby could have squeezed a win from a position which a night of competent analysis by a renowned Soviet team had showed to be a guaranteed draw .
Former World Champion Mikhail Botvinnik said that this game made a particularly strong impression on him . He called it " the highest creative achievement of Fischer " . He resolved a drawish opposite @-@ colored bishops endgame by sacrificing his bishop and trapping his own rook . " Then five passed pawns struggled with the white rook . Nothing similar had been seen before in chess " .
David Bronstein said " Of all the games from the match , the 13th appeals to me most of all . When I play through the game I still cannot grasp the innermost motive behind this or that plan or even individual move . Like an enigma , it still teases my imagination . "
Spassky – Fischer , game 13 ; Alekhine 's Defence , Modern Variation ( ECO B04 )
1.e4 Nf6 2.e5 Nd5 3.d4 d6 4.Nf3 g6 5.Bc4 Nb6 6.Bb3 Bg7 7.Nbd2 0 @-@ 0 8.h3 a5 9.a4 dxe5 10.dxe5 Na6 11 @.@ 0 @-@ 0 Nc5 12.Qe2 Qe8 13.Ne4 Nbxa4 14.Bxa4 Nxa4 15.Re1 Nb6 16.Bd2 a4 17.Bg5 h6 18.Bh4 Bf5 19.g4 Be6 20.Nd4 Bc4 21.Qd2 Qd7 22.Rad1 Rfe8 23.f4 Bd5 24.Nc5 Qc8 25.Qc3 e6 26.Kh2 Nd7 27.Nd3 c5 28.Nb5 Qc6 29.Nd6 Qxd6 30.exd6 Bxc3 31.bxc3 f6 32.g5 hxg5 33.fxg5 f5 34.Bg3 Kf7 35.Ne5 + Nxe5 36.Bxe5 b5 37.Rf1 Rh8 38.Bf6 a3 39.Rf4 a2 40.c4 Bxc4 41.d7 Bd5 42.Kg3 Ra3 + 43.c3 Rha8 44.Rh4 e5 45.Rh7 + Ke6 46.Re7 + Kd6 47.Rxe5 Rxc3 + 48.Kf2 Rc2 + 49.Ke1 Kxd7 50.Rexd5 + Kc6 51.Rd6 + Kb7 52.Rd7 + Ka6 53.R7d2 Rxd2 54.Kxd2 b4 55.h4 Kb5 56.h5 c4 57.Ra1 gxh5 58.g6 h4 59.g7 h3 60.Be7 Rg8 61.Bf8 ( diagram ) h2 62.Kc2 Kc6 63.Rd1 b3 + 64.Kc3 h1 = Q 65.Rxh1 Kd5 66.Kb2 f4 67.Rd1 + Ke4 68.Rc1 Kd3 69.Rd1 + Ke2 70.Rc1 f3 71.Bc5 Rxg7 72.Rxc4 Rd7 73.Re4 + Kf1 74.Bd4 f2 0 – 1
When Spassky and Fischer shook hands , many in the audience thought that they had agreed to a draw , thinking that 75.Rf4 draws . But 75 ... Rxd4 ! 76.Rxd4 Ke2 wins ; 75.Be5 Rd1 76.Kxb3 Re1 also wins for Black .
The next seven games ( games 14 through 20 ) were drawn . Fischer was unable to get the initiative . Spassky was choosing lines that Fischer was unable to break . With a three @-@ point lead , Fischer was content to inch towards the title , and Spassky seemed resigned to his fate . The off @-@ the @-@ board antics continued , including a lawsuit against Fischer for damages by Chester Fox , who had filming rights to the match ( Fischer had objected to what he said were noticeable camera noises , and the Icelandic hosts had reluctantly – they were to share in film revenues along with the two contestants – removed the television cameras ) , a Fischer demand to remove the first seven rows of spectators ( eventually , three rows were cleared ) , and Soviet claims that Fischer was using electronic and chemical devices to ' control ' Spassky , resulting in an Icelandic police sweep of the hall .
= = = = Game 14 : Fischer ½ Spassky ½ ( QGD Harrwitz ) = = = =
The game was postponed at Spassky 's request . Fischer was again White in a Queen 's Gambit Declined . After 18.Be5 ? ( 18.Nxb6 Qxb6 19.Be5 and Fischer keeps a slight advantage ; Gligorić ) Bxa4 ! 19.Qxa4 Nc6 ! Spassky had the upper hand ( Karpov ) . Fischer played carelessly and lost a pawn on move 21 . Spassky blundered it back on move 27 , however , and the game settled into a 40 @-@ move draw .
Fischer – Spassky , game 14 ; Queen 's Gambit Declined , Harrwitz Attack ( ECO D37 )
1.c4 e6 2.Nf3 d5 3.d4 Nf6 4.Nc3 Be7 5.Bf4 0 @-@ 0 6.e3 c5 7.dxc5 Nc6 8.cxd5 exd5 9.Be2 Bxc5 10 @.@ 0 @-@ 0 Be6 11.Rc1 Rc8 12.a3 h6 13.Bg3 Bb6 14.Ne5 Ne7 15.Na4 Ne4 16.Rxc8 Bxc8 17.Nf3 Bd7 18.Be5 Bxa4 19.Qxa4 Nc6 20.Bf4 Qf6 ( diagram ) 21.Bb5 Qxb2 22.Bxc6 Nc3 23.Qb4 Qxb4 24.axb4 bxc6 25.Be5 Nb5 26.Rc1 Rc8 27.Nd4 f6 28.Bxf6 Bxd4 29.Bxd4 Nxd4 30.exd4 Rb8 31.Rxc6 Rxb4 32.Kf1 Rxd4 33.Ra6 Kf7 34.Rxa7 + Kf6 35.Rd7 h5 36.Ke2 g5 37.Ke3 Re4 + 38.Kd3 Ke6 39.Rg7 Kf6 40.Rd7 Ke6 ½ – ½
= = = = Game 15 : Spassky ½ Fischer ½ ( Sicilian Najdorf ) = = = =
Fischer returned to the Najdorf Sicilian , but played the main line rather than the Poisoned Pawn Variation with which he had lost game 11 . At move 13 , Fischer sacrificed a pawn for counterplay , which Spassky accepted . After 19.c3 , Spassky had the upper hand ( Gipslis ) . After 28 ... Rd7 the game was even , but when Spassky took a second pawn with 29.Qxh5 ? ! it allowed Fischer a very strong attack . Spassky , on the brink of disaster , " found miraculous replies while in time pressure " and Fischer was only able to achieve a draw by threefold repetition after 43 moves . Two years later , Yugoslav grandmaster Dragoljub Velimirović improved on Spassky 's play with the piece sacrifice 14.Bxb5 ! ? , winning a crushing victory in Velimirović – Al Kazzaz , Nice Olympiad 1974 . Black in turn later improved on Fischer 's 12 ... 0 @-@ 0 @-@ 0 with 12 ... b4 .
Spassky – Fischer , game 15 ; Sicilian Defence , Najdorf Variation , Classical Main line ( ECO B99 )
1.e4 c5 2.Nf3 d6 3.d4 cxd4 4.Nxd4 Nf6 5.Nc3 a6 6.Bg5 e6 7.f4 Be7 8.Qf3 Qc7 9 @.@ 0 @-@ 0 @-@ 0 Nbd7 10.Bd3 b5 11.Rhe1 Bb7 12.Qg3 0 @-@ 0 @-@ 0 13.Bxf6 Nxf6 14.Qxg7 Rdf8 15.Qg3 b4 16.Na4 Rhg8 17.Qf2 Nd7 18.Kb1 Kb8 19.c3 Nc5 20.Bc2 bxc3 21.Nxc3 Bf6 22.g3 h5 23.e5 dxe5 24.fxe5 Bh8 25.Nf3 Rd8 26.Rxd8 + Rxd8 27.Ng5 Bxe5 28.Qxf7 Rd7 29.Qxh5 Bxc3 30.bxc3 Qb6 + 31.Kc1 Qa5 32.Qh8 + Ka7 33.a4 Nd3 + 34.Bxd3 Rxd3 35.Kc2 Rd5 36.Re4 Rd8 37.Qg7 Qf5 38.Kb3 Qd5 + 39.Ka3 Qd2 40.Rb4 Qc1 + 41.Rb2 Qa1 + 42.Ra2 Qc1 + 43.Rb2 Qa1 + ½ – ½
= = = = Game 16 : Fischer ½ Spassky ½ ( Ruy Lopez Exchange ) = = = =
Fischer played the Exchange Variation of the Ruy Lopez , a favorite line of his . After 17 ... Rfe8 the game was equal ( Gipslis ) . Spassky defended well , and after a tactical flurry in the endgame , ended up with the nominal advantage of an extra pawn in a rook ending known to be an easy book draw . Although a draw could have been agreed after move 34 , Spassky " used his symbolic material advantage for a little psychological torture " , prolonging the game until move 60 before agreeing to a draw .
Fischer – Spassky , game 16 ; Ruy Lopez , Exchange Variation ( ECO C69 )
1.e4 e5 2.Nf3 Nc6 3.Bb5 a6 4.Bxc6 dxc6 5 @.@ 0 @-@ 0 f6 6.d4 Bg4 7.dxe5 Qxd1 8.Rxd1 fxe5 9.Rd3 Bd6 10.Nbd2 Nf6 11.Nc4 Nxe4 12.Ncxe5 Bxf3 13.Nxf3 0 @-@ 0 14.Be3 b5 15.c4 Rab8 16.Rc1 bxc4 17.Rd4 Rfe8 18.Nd2 Nxd2 19.Rxd2 Re4 20.g3 Be5 21.Rcc2 Kf7 22.Kg2 ( diagram ) Rxb2 23.Kf3 c3 24.Kxe4 cxd2 25.Rxd2 Rb5 26.Rc2 Bd6 27.Rxc6 Ra5 28.Bf4 Ra4 + 29.Kf3 Ra3 + 30.Ke4 Rxa2 31.Bxd6 cxd6 32.Rxd6 Rxf2 33.Rxa6 Rxh2 34.Kf3 Rd2 35.Ra7 + Kf6 36.Ra6 + Ke7 37.Ra7 + Rd7 38.Ra2 Ke6 39.Kg2 Re7 40.Kh3 Kf6 41.Ra6 + Re6 42.Ra5 h6 43.Ra2 Kf5 44.Rf2 + Kg5 45.Rf7 g6 46.Rf4 h5 47.Rf3 Rf6 48.Ra3 Re6 49.Rf3 Re4 50.Ra3 Kh6 51.Ra6 Re5 52.Kh4 Re4 + 53.Kh3 Re7 54.Kh4 Re5 55.Rb6 Kg7 56.Rb4 Kh6 57.Rb6 Re1 58.Kh3 Rh1 + 59.Kg2 Ra1 60.Kh3 Ra4 ½ – ½
= = = = Game 17 : Spassky ½ Fischer ½ ( Pirc Defence ) = = = =
Fischer played the Pirc Defence for the first time in his career . After 18 ... Qc7 the game was unclear ( Parma ) . The game ended in a draw by the threefold repetition rule .
Spassky – Fischer , game 17 ; Pirc Defence , Austrian Attack ( ECO B09 )
1.e4 d6 2.d4 g6 3.Nc3 Nf6 4.f4 Bg7 5.Nf3 c5 6.dxc5 Qa5 7.Bd3 Qxc5 8.Qe2 0 @-@ 0 9.Be3 Qa5 10 @.@ 0 @-@ 0 Bg4 11.Rad1 Nc6 12.Bc4 Nh5 13.Bb3 Bxc3 14.bxc3 Qxc3 15.f5 Nf6 ( diagram ) 16.h3 Bxf3 17.Qxf3 Na5 18.Rd3 Qc7 19.Bh6 Nxb3 20.cxb3 Qc5 + 21.Kh1 Qe5 22.Bxf8 Rxf8 23.Re3 Rc8 24.fxg6 hxg6 25.Qf4 Qxf4 26.Rxf4 Nd7 27.Rf2 Ne5 28.Kh2 Rc1 29.Ree2 Nc6 30.Rc2 Re1 31.Rfe2 Ra1 32.Kg3 Kg7 33.Rcd2 Rf1 34.Rf2 Re1 35.Rfe2 Rf1 36.Re3 a6 37.Rc3 Re1 38.Rc4 Rf1 39.Rdc2 Ra1 40.Rf2 Re1 41.Rfc2 g5 42.Rc1 Re2 43.R1c2 Re1 44.Rc1 Re2 45.R1c2 ½ – ½
= = = = Game 18 : Fischer ½ Spassky ½ ( Sicilian Rauzer ) = = = =
The game opened with a Richter – Rauzer Attack . After 19 ... Ne5 the game was equal ( Matanović , Ugrinović ) . Like game 17 , the game ended in a draw by threefold repetition .
Fischer – Spassky , game 18 ; Sicilian Defence , Richter – Rauzer Attack ( ECO B69 )
1.e4 c5 2.Nf3 d6 3.Nc3 Nc6 4.d4 cxd4 5.Nxd4 Nf6 6.Bg5 e6 7.Qd2 a6 8 @.@ 0 @-@ 0 @-@ 0 Bd7 9.f4 Be7 10.Nf3 b5 11.Bxf6 gxf6 12.Bd3 Qa5 13.Kb1 b4 14.Ne2 Qc5 15.f5 a5 16.Nf4 a4 17.Rc1 Rb8 18.c3 b3 19.a3 Ne5 20.Rhf1 Nc4 21.Bxc4 Qxc4 22.Rce1 Kd8 23.Ka1 Rb5 24.Nd4 Ra5 25.Nd3 Kc7 26.Nb4 h5 27.g3 Re5 28.Nd3 Rb8 29.Qe2 Ra5 30.fxe6 fxe6 31.Rf2 ( diagram ) e5 32.Nf5 Bxf5 33.Rxf5 d5 34.exd5 Qxd5 35.Nb4 Qd7 36.Rxh5 Bxb4 37.cxb4 Rd5 38.Rc1 + Kb7 39.Qe4 Rc8 40.Rb1 Kb6 41.Rh7 Rd4 42.Qg6 Qc6 43.Rf7 Rd6 44.Qh6 Qf3 45.Qh7 Qc6 46.Qh6 Qf3 47.Qh7 Qc6 ½ – ½
= = = = Game 19 : Spassky ½ Fischer ½ ( Alekhine 's Defence ) = = = =
The second Alekhine 's Defence of the match , the game ended in a draw after 40 moves . After 18 ... Bg5 ! , Gligorić commented " a queer situation has arisen with many tactical possibilities for both sides . " After 19.Bh5 the position was unclear ( Bagirov ) . After 37 ... a6 , C.H.O 'D . Alexander wrote : " A miracle ; after all the excitements – two piece sacrifices by White and the counter @-@ sacrifice of a rook by Black – the players have reached a completely equal endgame with no chances for either side . "
Spassky – Fischer , game 19 ; Alekhine 's Defence , Modern Variation ( ECO B05 )
1.e4 Nf6 2.e5 Nd5 3.d4 d6 4.Nf3 Bg4 5.Be2 e6 6 @.@ 0 @-@ 0 Be7 7.h3 Bh5 8.c4 Nb6 9.Nc3 0 @-@ 0 10.Be3 d5 11.c5 Bxf3 12.Bxf3 Nc4 13.b3 Nxe3 14.fxe3 b6 15.e4 c6 16.b4 bxc5 17.bxc5 Qa5 18.Nxd5 Bg5 ( diagram ) 19.Bh5 cxd5 20.Bxf7 + Rxf7 21.Rxf7 Qd2 22.Qxd2 Bxd2 23.Raf1 Nc6 24.exd5 exd5 25.Rd7 Be3 + 26.Kh1 Bxd4 27.e6 Be5 28.Rxd5 Re8 29.Re1 Rxe6 30.Rd6 Kf7 31.Rxc6 Rxc6 32.Rxe5 Kf6 33.Rd5 Ke6 34.Rh5 h6 35.Kh2 Ra6 36.c6 Rxc6 37.Ra5 a6 38.Kg3 Kf6 39.Kf3 Rc3 + 40.Kf2 Rc2 + ½ – ½
= = = = Game 20 : Fischer ½ Spassky ½ ( Sicilian Rauzer ) = = = =
Another Richter – Rauzer , after 13 ... Nxd2 the game was equal ( Matanović , Ugrinović ) . Fischer was unable to make progress and Spassky got a better position . Fischer headed for a drawish endgame but Spassky twice avoided a draw by threefold repetition . After 54 moves , Fischer made an incorrect claim of threefold repetition , but Spassky agreed to a draw anyway . See Threefold repetition # Fischer versus Spassky .
Fischer – Spassky , game 20 ; Sicilian Defence , Richter – Rauzer Attack ( ECO B68 )
1.e4 c5 2.Nf3 Nc6 3.d4 cxd4 4.Nxd4 Nf6 5.Nc3 d6 6.Bg5 e6 7.Qd2 a6 8 @.@ 0 @-@ 0 @-@ 0 Bd7 9.f4 Be7 10.Be2 0 @-@ 0 11.Bf3 h6 12.Bh4 Nxe4 13.Bxe7 Nxd2 14.Bxd8 Nxf3 15.Nxf3 Rfxd8 16.Rxd6 Kf8 17.Rhd1 Ke7 18.Na4 Be8 19.Rxd8 Rxd8 20.Nc5 Rb8 21.Rd3 a5 22.Rb3 b5 23.a3 a4 24.Rc3 Rd8 25.Nd3 f6 26.Rc5 Rb8 27.Rc3 g5 28.g3 Kd6 29.Nc5 g4 30.Ne4 + Ke7 31.Ne1 Rd8 32.Nd3 Rd4 33.Nef2 h5 34.Rc5 Rd5 35.Rc3 Nd4 36.Rc7 + Rd7 37.Rxd7 + Bxd7 38.Ne1 e5 39.fxe5 fxe5 40.Kd2 Bf5 41.Nd1 Kd6 42.Ne3 Be6 43.Kd3 Bf7 44.Kc3 Kc6 45.Kd3 Kc5 46.Ke4 Kd6 47.Kd3 Bg6 + 48.Kc3 Kc5 49.Nd3 + Kd6 50.Ne1 Kc6 51.Kd2 Kc5 52.Nd3 + Kd6 53.Ne1 Ne6 54.Kc3 Nd4 ½ – ½
= = = = Game 21 : Spassky 0 Fischer 1 ( Sicilian Taimanov ) = = = =
This game turned out to be the last game . Fischer used a line of the Sicilian that he had never before played as Black , and further surprised Spassky with a novelty on move eight . After 14 ... Qxf6 the game was equal ( Taimanov ) . Spassky played badly in the endgame and the game was adjourned with a big advantage for Fischer . However , Fischer 's 40th move was not the best ; he should have played 40 ... Kg4 ! before ... h5 ( his actual 40th move ) . Had Spassky sealed 41.Kh3 ! ( preventing ... Kg4 ) , he would have had drawing chances . However , his 41.Bd7 ? would have allowed Black to win with 41 ... Kg4 followed by pushing his h @-@ pawn . On September 1 , the day scheduled for resumption of the game , arbiter Lothar Schmid informed Fischer and the audience that Spassky had resigned the game by telephone , making Fischer the winner of the match . Euwe expressed disappointment that Spassky had not arrived at the playing hall to congratulate Fischer in person .
Spassky – Fischer , game 21 ; Sicilian Defence , Taimanov Variation ( ECO B46 )
1.e4 c5 2.Nf3 e6 3.d4 cxd4 4.Nxd4 a6 5.Nc3 Nc6 6.Be3 Nf6 7.Bd3 d5 8.exd5 exd5 9 @.@ 0 @-@ 0 Bd6 10.Nxc6 bxc6 11.Bd4 0 @-@ 0 12.Qf3 Be6 13.Rfe1 c5 14.Bxf6 Qxf6 15.Qxf6 gxf6 16.Rad1 Rfd8 17.Be2 Rab8 18.b3 c4 19.Nxd5 Bxd5 20.Rxd5 Bxh2 + 21.Kxh2 Rxd5 22.Bxc4 Rd2 23.Bxa6 Rxc2 24.Re2 Rxe2 25.Bxe2 Rd8 26.a4 Rd2 27.Bc4 Ra2 28.Kg3 Kf8 29.Kf3 Ke7 30.g4 f5 31.gxf5 f6 32.Bg8 h6 33.Kg3 Kd6 34.Kf3 Ra1 35.Kg2 Ke5 36.Be6 Kf4 37.Bd7 Rb1 38.Be6 Rb2 39.Bc4 Ra2 40.Be6 h5 41.Bd7 0 – 1
The final score was 12 ½ – 8 ½ in favor of Fischer , making him the eleventh World Champion . Spassky won three games ( including the forfeit in game 2 ) , Fischer won seven games , and there were eleven draws .
= = In popular culture = =
The musical Chess , with lyrics by Tim Rice and music by Björn Ulvaeus and Benny Andersson , tells the story of two chess champions , referred to only as " The American " and " The Russian " . The musical is loosely based on the 1972 World Championship match between Fischer and Spassky .
During the 1972 Fischer – Spassky match , the Soviet bard Vladimir Vysotsky wrote an ironic two @-@ song cycle " Honor of the Chess Crown " . The first song is about a rank @-@ and @-@ file Soviet worker 's preparation for the match with Fischer ; the second is about the game . Many expressions from the songs have become catchphrases in Russian culture .
The 2015 film Pawn Sacrifice tells the story of Fischer 's attempts to defeat Russian Boris Spassky and become the World Champion . The film is directed by Edward Zwick and stars Tobey Maguire as Fischer and Liev Schreiber as Spassky .
In the sixth episode of season 3 of Drunk History , comedian Rich Fulcher recounts the 1972 World Championship match between Fisher and Spassky . " Games " . Drunk History . Season 3 . Episode 6 . 6 October 2015 . Comedy Central .
|
= Alden Tavern Site =
Alden Tavern Site is a historic site in Lebanon , Connecticut . The tavern was originally built in 1738 and owned by Captain Alden . By 1850 , it had passed to Alden 's descendent , Mr. Wattles . The Alden Tavern is well known for being the site of the horsewhipping of a captive General Richard Prescott , commander of the British troops of Rhode Island , by the tavern 's owner Captain Alden when he dined at Alden 's tavern . The site was added to the National Register of Historic Places in 1998 and listed under the " Event " and " Information Potential " criteria . It was listed as only having fieldstone foundations remaining . A parking lot was paved over the site in 2010 , adding 26 paved spaces and 70 spaces in overflow parking on a grass field . It is now known as the Alden Tavern Parking Lot by the town of Lebanon .
= = Owners = =
In the American Revolutionary War the tavern was run by Captain Alden . Around 1850 , it was owned by Mr. Wattles , a descendant of Captain Alden . The tavern 's last owner or date of destruction is unknown , but it was part of the town green by the 1903 publication of Butterworth 's book , Brother Jonathan .
= = Historical significance = =
The Alden Tavern is well known for being the site of the horsewhipping of a captive General Richard Prescott , commander of the British troops of Rhode Island , by the tavern 's owner Captain Alden . Several days after Prescott 's capture , he was escorted to General George Washington 's headquarters , but on the trip came to dine at Alden 's tavern . Several books detail different accounts and portrayals of the exchanges which led to Prescott 's whipping , all involving the Prescott being served " the common dish of corn and beans " and throwing the food on the floor . Three of Benson Lossing 's books recount this tale , in The Pictorial Field @-@ Book of the Revolution Volume 1 ( 1852 ) , Our Countrymen ( 1855 ) and Lives of Celebrated Americans : Comprising Biographies of Three Hundred and Forty Eminent Persons ( 1869 ) . It also appears in similar wording in The Boys of ' 76 : A History of the Battles of the Revolution by Charles Coffin in 1876 , with Prescott 's line being : " Do you give me the pigs ' feed " . The story has persisted and a fictional account was referenced in 2010 in Martha Finley 's Elsie Yachting with the Raymonds .
= = Fate = =
The site was added to the National Register of Historic Places on April 13 , 1998 and it was noted that fieldstone foundations remained . It was listed under the " Event " and " Information Potential " criteria with a period of significance between 1700 @-@ 1874 . The property is also listed as a contributing property for the Lebanon Green Historic District . The Alden Tavern site is now a parking lot on town @-@ owned property adjacent to Lebanon 's Community Center . Prior to the project , a phase 2 archaeological survey had to be completed , a notice for this survey was published in 2003 . The town received a Small Town Economic Assistance Program grant for $ 250 @,@ 000 to construct the parking lot . Coit Excavating won the contract with the lowest bid of $ 193 @,@ 000 and began construction in April 2010 and was expected to be completed by May 31 , 2010 . The paved parking lot has 26 spots with 70 more for overflow in a grass field . On December 6 , 2011 , the Selectmen 's Meeting the Board dissolved the committee because the project was successfully completed . It is now known as the Alden Tavern Parking Lot .
|
= Hay Castle =
Hay Castle is a medieval fortification and 17th @-@ century mansion house in the small town of Hay @-@ on @-@ Wye in Powys , Wales . Originally constructed as part of the Norman invasion of Wales , the castle was designed as a ringwork overlooking the town in either the late @-@ 11th or early @-@ 12th centuries . It was rebuilt in stone around 1200 by the de Braose family and then had a turbulent history , being attacked and burnt several times during the First and Second Barons ' Wars , the wars with the Welsh princes , the rebellion of Owain Glyndŵr and the Wars of the Roses . In the 17th century a Jacobean mansion house was built alongside the medieval keep and the property became a private home . Serious fires in 1939 and 1977 gutted the castle and , despite repairs in the 1980s , by the 21st century much of the building was derelict and unstable . Since 2011 it has been owned by the Hay Castle Trust who plan to renovate the property to form an arts and education centre .
= = History = =
= = = 11th – 16th centuries = = =
The Normans began to make incursions into South Wales from the late @-@ 1060s onwards , pushing westwards from their bases in recently occupied England . Their advance was marked by the construction of castles and the creation of regional lordships . The Norman adventurer Bernard de Neufmarché conquered Brecknock in 1091 and assigned the manor of Hay to one of his followers , Philip Walwyn . The first castle in Hay , later abandoned , was built by St Mary 's church outside the main settlement , where a motte known as Hay Tump still survives . The English lordship of Hay , known as Hay Anglicana , became a wealthy walled town and the lands passed by marriage to Miles of Gloucester and then into the de Braose family . In the late 11th or early 12th century , a new fortification was built inside Hay @-@ on @-@ Wye itself , on high ground around 200 metres ( 660 ft ) from the old motte , taking the form of an earth ringwork with a stone gate @-@ tower .
The de Braose dynasty expanded Hay Castle in stone around 1200 with a curtain wall reinforced by intramural timbers , turning the gate @-@ tower into a keep . The castle tenants used the chapel of St John in the town for their worship . During the First Barons ' War , Reginald de Braose joined the alliance against King John who successfully attacked the castle in 1215 . The Welsh prince Llewelyn the Great attacked and burnt the town and castle in 1231 and the castle was then rebuilt by Henry III in 1233 . During the Second Barons ' War , Prince Edward captured the castle in 1263 but it was recaptured and burnt by Simon de Montfort and Llywelyn ap Gruffudd the following year . It was further damaged by the Welsh rebellion led by Owain Glyndŵr around 1401 and in 1460 during the Wars of the Roses . By the time the antiquarian John Leland visited in the 16th century , the town of Hay was " wonderfully decaied " although the castle was described as having once " bene right stately " .
= = = 17th – 19th centuries = = =
Hay Castle was substantially expanded in the 17th century , creating a Jacobean mansion . Two explanations have been offered by historians for this redevelopment . One option is that during the first half of the 17th century , Howell Gwynne built a manor house to the west of the old keep , which was replaced by a new mansion in 1660 by James Boyle of Hereford . Another reverses this sequence , suggesting that James Boyle left the castle to Howell Gwynne in 1603 , and that the mansion was built at the beginning of the century . In either case , the Jacobean building was two storeys tall , three with its facade included , and featured seven dormer gables in a Dutch style and a large staircase . It was built from stone and incorporated the upper floors of the old keep into its design . Formal gardens were constructed outside the keep either around the start of the 17th century or after 1660 . In 1702 , the house was divided up among different tenants , and passed into the hands of the local Wellington family . Until 1812 , the basement of the keep was used to supplement the town gaol .
In 1809 , the industrialist Sir Joseph Bailey leased the castle , going on to purchase it outright in 1844 , and established a walled kitchen garden known as Castle Gardens to the south @-@ west of the main castle . It was used as a vicarage from 1825 onwards , including by Archdeacon William Bevan . The terraced gardens were maintained during the 19th century , with various trees planted behind the castle in the 1860s and 1870s , and a stable block was built within the grounds .
= = = 20th – 21st centuries = = =
Between 1904 and 1906 the castle was rented by the Morell family , after which it was occupied by the Dowager Lady Glanusk . The architect W. D. Caroe was employed to restore the house in 1910 and it was sold to the banker Benjamin Guiness in 1937 . A major fire then destroyed the interior of the eastern side of the castle in 1939 . Around 1961 , the castle was acquired by Richard Booth who used it as a bookstore and as a location for parties , with a holiday cottage in the grounds . Much of the walled garden was sold for development in 1975 , and another fire in 1977 destroyed the interior of the western half of the castle : repairs were carried out from the 1980s onwards .
In 2011 the castle was sold for around £ 2 million to the Hay Castle Trust , who intended to turn it into an arts and education centre . The firm of Rick Mather Architects were taken on in 2015 to manage the work at a projected cost of £ 4 @.@ 35 million , to include a new art gallery and a viewing point at the top of the keep . A grant of £ 528 @,@ 600 from the Heritage Lottery Fund in 2014 supported initial planning , and further grants were given by the Country Houses Foundation and the Headley Trust .
The castle site is now approximately 110 by 100 metres ( 360 by 330 ft ) across . As of 2015 , the derelict , roofless parts of the castle are in a poor structural condition and infested with ivy , with other parts suffering from death watch beetle . None of the earthworks or curtain wall survive , except for a small portion next to the gateway ; this fragment of wall is 6 feet ( 1 @.@ 8 m ) thick and shows the original bank to have been as much as 25 feet ( 7 @.@ 6 m ) high when viewed from the outside , but is now in danger of collapse . The wooden door on the left side of the gateway probably dates from around 1300 , and the right door from the early @-@ 17th century , but they are currently unusable . There are some limited remains of the old walled garden interspersed in the modern housing estate . The main castle site is protected under law as a Grade I listed building .
|
= Franklin Pierce =
Franklin Pierce ( November 23 , 1804 – October 8 , 1869 ) was the 14th President of the United States ( 1853 – 57 ) . Pierce was a northern Democrat who saw the abolitionist movement as a fundamental threat to the unity of the nation . His polarizing actions in championing and signing the Kansas – Nebraska Act and enforcing the Fugitive Slave Act failed to stem intersectional conflict , setting the stage for Southern secession .
Born in New Hampshire , Pierce served in the U.S. House of Representatives and the Senate until he resigned from the latter in 1842 . His private law practice in his home state was a success ; he was appointed U.S. Attorney for his state in 1845 . Pierce took part in the Mexican – American War as a brigadier general in the Army . Seen by Democrats as a compromise candidate uniting northern and southern interests , he was nominated as the party 's candidate for president on the 49th ballot at the 1852 Democratic National Convention . In the 1852 presidential election , Pierce and his running mate William R. King easily defeated the Whig Party ticket of Winfield Scott and William A. Graham .
While Pierce was popular and outgoing , his family life was a grim affair , with his wife Jane suffering from illness and depression for much of her life . All of their children died young , their last son being gruesomely killed in a train accident while the family was traveling shortly before Pierce 's inauguration . As president , Pierce simultaneously attempted to enforce neutral standards for civil service while also satisfying the diverse elements of the Democratic Party with patronage , an effort which largely failed and turned many in his party against him . Pierce was a Young America expansionist who signed the Gadsden Purchase of land from Mexico and led a failed attempt to acquire Cuba from Spain . He signed trade treaties with Britain and Japan , while his Cabinet reformed their departments and improved accountability , but these successes were overshadowed by political strife .
His popularity in the Northern states declined sharply after he supported the Kansas – Nebraska Act , which nullified the Missouri Compromise , while many whites in the South continued to support him . Passage of the act led to violent conflict over the expansion of slavery in the American West . Pierce 's administration was further damaged when several of his diplomats issued the Ostend Manifesto , calling for the annexation of Cuba , a document which was roundly criticized . Although Pierce fully expected to be renominated by the Democrats in the 1856 presidential election , he was abandoned by his party and his bid failed . His reputation in the North suffered further during the Civil War as he became a vocal critic of President Abraham Lincoln . Pierce , who had been a heavy drinker for much of his life , died of severe cirrhosis of the liver in 1869 . US historians and other political commentators generally rank Pierce 's presidency among the worst .
= = Early life and family = =
= = = Childhood and education = = =
Franklin Pierce was born on November 23 , 1804 , in a log cabin in Hillsborough , New Hampshire . He was a sixth @-@ generation descendant of Thomas Pierce , who had moved to the Massachusetts Bay Colony from Norwich , Norfolk , England , in about 1634 . Pierce 's father Benjamin , a Revolutionary War lieutenant , moved from Chelmsford , Massachusetts to Hillsborough after the war , purchasing 50 acres ( 20 ha ) of land . Pierce was the fifth of eight children born to Benjamin and his second wife , Anna Kendrick ( his first wife Elizabeth Andrews died in childbirth , leaving a daughter ) . Benjamin was by then a prominent Democratic @-@ Republican state legislator , farmer , and tavern @-@ keeper . During Pierce 's childhood his father was deeply involved in state politics , while two of his older brothers fought in the War of 1812 ; public affairs and the military were thus a major influence in his early life .
Pierce 's father , who sought to ensure that his sons were educated , placed Pierce in a school at Hillsborough Center in childhood and sent him to the town school at Hancock at the age of 12 . The boy was not fond of schooling . Growing homesick at Hancock , he walked 12 miles ( 19 km ) back to his home one Sunday . His father fed him dinner and drove him part of the distance back to school before kicking him out of the carriage and ordering him to walk the rest of the way in a thunderstorm . Pierce later cited this moment as " the turning @-@ point in my life " . Later that year he transferred to Phillips Exeter Academy to prepare for college . By this time he had built a reputation as a charming student , sometimes prone to misbehavior .
In fall 1820 , Pierce entered Bowdoin College in Brunswick , Maine , one of nineteen freshmen . He joined the Athenian Society , a progressive literary society , alongside Jonathan Cilley ( later elected to Congress ) and Nathaniel Hawthorne ( the author ) , with whom he formed lasting friendships . Last in his class after two years , he worked hard to improve his grades and in 1824 graduated in fifth place in a graduating class of fourteen . In Pierce 's junior year , John P. Hale , a later political ally and then rival of Pierce 's , also enrolled at Bowdoin . That year , Pierce organized and led an unofficial militia company , the Bowdoin Cadets , which included Cilley and Hawthorne . The unit performed drill on campus near the president 's house until the noise caused him to demand it halt . The students rebelled and went on strike , an event Pierce was suspected of leading . During his final year at Bowdoin , he spent several months teaching at a school in rural Hebron , Maine , where his students included future Congressman John J. Perry , and he earned his first salary .
After briefly reading law with former New Hampshire Governor Levi Woodbury , a family friend , in Portsmouth , he spent a semester at Northampton Law School in Northampton , Massachusetts , followed by a period of study in 1826 and 1827 under Judge Edmund Parker in Amherst , New Hampshire . He was admitted to the bar in late 1827 and began to practice in Hillsborough . Pierce lost his first case , but soon proved capable as a lawyer . Despite never being a legal scholar , his memory for names and faces served him well , as did his personal charm and deep voice . In Hillsborough , his law partner was Albert Baker , who had studied law under Pierce and was the brother of Mary Baker Eddy .
= = = State politics = = =
By 1824 , New Hampshire was a hotbed of partisanship , with figures such as Woodbury and Isaac Hill laying the groundwork for a party of Democrats in support of General Andrew Jackson . They opposed the established Federalists ( and their successors , the National Republicans ) , who were led by sitting President John Quincy Adams . The work of the New Hampshire Democratic Party came to fruition in March 1827 , when their pro @-@ Jackson nominee , Benjamin Pierce , won the support of the pro @-@ Adams faction and was elected governor of New Hampshire essentially unopposed . While the younger Pierce had set out to build a career as an attorney , he was fully drawn into the realm of politics as the 1828 presidential election between Adams and Jackson approached . In the state elections held in March 1828 , the Adams faction withdrew their support of Benjamin Pierce , voting him out of office , but Franklin Pierce won his first election : Hillsborough town moderator , a position to which he would be elected for six consecutive years .
Pierce actively campaigned in his district on behalf of Jackson , who carried both the district and the nation by large margins in the November 1828 election , even though he lost New Hampshire . The outcome further strengthened the Democratic Party , and Pierce won his first legislative seat the following year , representing Hillsborough in the New Hampshire House of Representatives . Pierce 's father , meanwhile , was elected again as governor , retiring after that term . The younger Pierce was appointed as chairman of the House Education Committee in 1829 and the Committee on Towns the following year . By 1831 the Democrats held a legislative majority , and Pierce was elected Speaker of the House . The young Speaker used his platform to oppose the expansion of banking , protect the state militia , and offer support to the national Democrats and Jackson 's re @-@ election effort . At the age of 27 , he was a star of the New Hampshire Democratic Party . Though attaining early political and professional success , in his personal letters he continued to lament his bachelorhood and yearned for a life beyond Hillsborough .
Like all white males in New Hampshire between the ages of 18 and 45 , Pierce was a member of the state militia , and was appointed aide de camp to Governor Samuel Dinsmoor in 1831 . He remained in the militia until 1847 , and attained the rank of colonel before becoming a brigadier general in the Army during the Mexican – American War . Interested in revitalizing and reforming the state militias , which had become increasingly dormant during the years of peace following the War of 1812 , Pierce worked with Alden Partridge , president of Norwich University , a military college in Vermont , and Truman B. Ransom and Alonzo Jackman , Norwich faculty members and militia officers , to increase recruiting efforts and improve training and readiness . Pierce served as a Norwich University trustee from 1841 to 1859 , and received the honorary degree of LL.D. from Norwich in 1853 .
In late 1832 , the Democratic Party convention nominated Pierce for one of New Hampshire 's five seats in the U.S. House of Representatives . This was tantamount to election for the young Democrat , as the National Republicans had faded as a political force , while the Whigs had not yet begun to attract a large following . Democratic strength in New Hampshire was also bolstered by Jackson 's landslide re @-@ election that year . New Hampshire had been a marginal state politically , but from 1832 through the mid @-@ 1850s became the most reliably Democratic state in the North , boosting Pierce 's political career . Pierce 's term began in March 1833 , but he would not be sworn in until Congress met in December , and his attention was elsewhere . He had recently become engaged and bought his first house in Hillsborough . Franklin and Benjamin Pierce were among the prominent citizens who welcomed President Jackson to the state on his visit in mid @-@ 1833 .
= = = Marriage and children = = =
On November 19 , 1834 , Pierce married Jane Means Appleton ( March 12 , 1806 – December 2 , 1863 ) , the daughter of Jesse Appleton , a Congregational minister and former president of Bowdoin College , and Elizabeth Means . The Appletons were prominent Whigs , in contrast with the Pierces ' Democratic affiliation . Jane was shy , devoutly religious , and pro @-@ temperance , encouraging Pierce to abstain from alcohol . She was somewhat gaunt , and constantly ill from tuberculosis and psychological ailments . She abhorred politics and especially disliked Washington , D.C. , creating a tension that would continue throughout Pierce 's political ascent .
Jane disliked Hillsborough as well , and in 1838 , the Pierces relocated to the state capital , Concord , New Hampshire . They had three sons , all of whom died in childhood . Franklin , Jr . ( February 2 – 5 , 1836 ) died in infancy , while Frank Robert ( August 27 , 1839 – November 14 , 1843 ) died at the age of four from epidemic typhus . Benjamin ( April 13 , 1841 – January 6 , 1853 ) died at the age of 11 in a train accident .
= = Congressional career = =
= = = U.S. House of Representatives = = =
Pierce departed in November 1833 for Washington , D.C. , where the Twenty @-@ third United States Congress convened its regular session on December 2 . Jackson 's second term was under way , and the House had a strong Democratic majority , whose primary focus was to prevent the Second Bank of the United States from being rechartered . The Democrats , including Pierce , defeated proposals supported by the newly formed Whig Party , and the bank 's charter expired . Pierce broke from his party on occasion , opposing Democratic bills to fund internal improvements with federal money . He saw both the bank and infrastructure spending as unconstitutional , with internal improvements the responsibility of the states . Pierce 's first term was fairly uneventful from a legislative standpoint , and he was easily re @-@ elected in March 1835 . When not in Washington , he attended to his law practice , and in December 1835 returned to the capital for the Twenty @-@ fourth Congress .
As abolitionism grew more vocal in the mid @-@ 1830s , Congress was inundated with petitions from anti @-@ slavery groups seeking legislative action to restrict slavery in the United States . From the beginning , Pierce found the abolitionists ' " agitation " to be an annoyance , and saw federal action against slavery as an infringement on southern states ' rights , even though he was morally opposed to slavery itself . He was also frustrated with the " religious bigotry " of abolitionists , who cast their political opponents as sinners . " I consider slavery a social and political evil , " Pierce said , " and most sincerely wish that it had no existence upon the face of the earth . " Still , he wrote in December 1835 , " One thing must be perfectly apparent to every intelligent man . This abolition movement must be crushed or there is an end to the Union . "
When Rep. James Henry Hammond of South Carolina looked to prevent anti @-@ slavery petitions from reaching the House floor , however , Pierce sided with the abolitionists ' right to petition . Nevertheless , Pierce supported what came to be known as the gag rule , which allowed for petitions to be received , but not read or considered . This passed the House in 1836 . He was attacked by the New Hampshire anti @-@ slavery Herald of Freedom as a " doughface " , which had the dual meaning of " craven @-@ spirited man " and " northerner with southern sympathies " . Pierce had stated that not one in five hundred New Hampshirites were abolitionists ; the article added up the number of signatures on petitions from that state and divided by the census figure . He was outraged when South Carolina Senator John C. Calhoun read the article on the Senate floor . After Pierce gave a speech indicating that most signatories were women and children , without the vote , Calhoun apologized .
= = = U.S. Senate = = =
The resignation in May 1836 of Senator Isaac Hill , who had been elected governor of New Hampshire , left a brief interim opening to be filled by the state legislature . With Hill 's term as senator due to expire in March 1837 , the legislature also had to fill the six @-@ year term to follow . Pierce 's candidacy for the Senate was championed by state Representative John P. Hale , a fellow Athenian at Bowdoin . After much debate , the legislature chose John Page to fill the rest of Hill 's term . In December 1836 , Pierce was elected to the full term , to commence in March 1837 , becoming at age 32 one of the youngest member in Senate history to that point . The election came at a difficult time for Pierce , as his father , sister , and brother were all seriously ill , while Jane continued to suffer from chronic poor health . As senator , he was able to help his old friend Nathaniel Hawthorne , who often struggled financially , procuring a sinecure as measurer of coal and salt at the Boston Customs House that allowed the author time to continue writing .
Pierce voted the party line on most issues . He was an able senator , but not an eminent one ; he was overshadowed by the Great Triumvirate of Calhoun , Henry Clay , and Daniel Webster , who dominated the Senate . Pierce entered the Senate at a time of economic crisis , as the Panic of 1837 had begun . He considered the depression a result of the banking system 's rapid growth , amidst " the extravagance of overtrading and the wilderness of speculation " . So that federal money would not support speculative bank loans , he supported newly elected Democratic president Martin Van Buren and his plan to create an independent treasury , a proposal which split the Democratic Party . Debate over slavery continued in Congress , and abolitionists proposed its end in the District of Columbia , where Congress had jurisdiction . Pierce supported a resolution by Calhoun against this proposal , which Pierce considered a dangerous stepping stone to nationwide emancipation . Meanwhile , the Whigs were growing in congressional strength , which would leave Pierce 's party with only a small majority by the end of the decade .
One topic of particular importance to Pierce was the military . He challenged a bill which would expand the ranks of the Army 's staff officers in Washington without any apparent benefit to line officers at posts in the rest of the country . He took an interest in military pensions , seeing abundant fraud within the system , and was named chairman of the Senate Committee on Military Pensions in the Twenty @-@ sixth Congress ( 1839 – 1841 ) . In that capacity , he urged the modernization and expansion of the Army , with a focus on militias and mobility rather than on coastal fortifications , which he considered outdated .
Pierce campaigned vigorously throughout his home state for Van Buren 's re @-@ election in the 1840 presidential election . The incumbent carried New Hampshire but lost the national vote to William Henry Harrison , the military hero , whose Whigs took a majority of seats in the Twenty @-@ seventh Congress . Harrison died after a month in office , and Vice President John Tyler succeeded him . Pierce and the Democrats were quick to challenge the new administration , questioning the removal of federal officeholders , and opposing Whig plans for a national bank . In December 1841 Pierce decided to resign from Congress , something he had been planning for some time . New Hampshire Democrats felt that no one should hold one of the state 's Senate seats for longer than one six @-@ year term . Thus , he had little likelihood of re @-@ election . Also , he was frustrated at being a member of the legislative minority and wished to devote his time to his family and law practice . His last acts in the Senate before resigning in February 1842 were to oppose a bill distributing federal funds to the states – believing that the money should go to the military instead – and to challenge the Whigs to reveal the results of their investigation of the New York Customs House , where the Whigs had probed for Democratic corruption for nearly a year but had issued no findings .
= = Party leader = =
= = = Lawyer and politician = = =
Despite his resignation from the Senate , Pierce had no intention of leaving public life . The move to Concord had given him more opportunities for cases , and allowed Jane a more robust community life . Jane had remained in Concord with her young son Frank and her newborn Benjamin for the latter part of Pierce 's Senate term , and this separation had taken a toll on the family . Pierce , meanwhile , had begun a demanding but lucrative law partnership with Asa Fowler during congressional recesses . Pierce returned to Concord in early 1842 , and his reputation as a lawyer continued to flourish . Known for his gracious personality , eloquence , and excellent memory , Pierce would attract large audiences to hear him in court . He would often represent poor people for little or no compensation .
Pierce remained involved in the state Democratic Party , which was split by several issues . Governor Hill , who represented the commercial , urban wing of the party , advocated the use of government charters to support corporations , granting them privileges such as limited liability and eminent domain for building railroads . The radical " locofoco " wing of his party represented farmers and other rural voters , who sought an expansion of social programs and labor regulations and a restriction on corporate privilege . The state 's political culture grew less tolerant of banks and corporations in the wake of the Panic of 1837 , and Hill was voted out of office . Pierce was closer to the radicals philosophically , and reluctantly served as attorney against Hill in a dispute regarding ownership of a newspaper — Hill lost , and founded his own , in which Pierce was a frequent target .
In June 1842 Pierce was named chairman of the State Democratic Committee . In the following year 's state election he helped the radical wing take over the state legislature . The party remained divided on several issues , including railroad development and the temperance movement , and Pierce took a leading role in helping the state legislature settle their differences . His priorities were " order , moderation , compromise , and party unity " , which he tried to place ahead of his personal views on political issues . As he would as president , Pierce valued Democratic Party unity highly , and saw opposition to slavery as a threat to that .
The surprise victory of dark horse Democratic candidate James K. Polk in the 1844 presidential election was welcome news to Pierce , who had befriended the former Speaker of the House while both served in Congress . Pierce had campaigned heavily for Polk during the election , and in turn Polk appointed him United States Attorney for New Hampshire . Polk 's most prominent cause was the annexation of Texas , an issue which caused a dramatic split between Pierce and his former ally Hale , now a U.S. Representative . Hale was so impassioned against adding a new slave state that he wrote a letter to 1 @,@ 400 Democrats in New Hampshire outlining his opposition to the measure . Pierce responded by re @-@ assembling the state Democratic convention to revoke Hale 's nomination for another term in Congress . The political firestorm led to Pierce cutting off ties with his longtime friend , and with his law partner Fowler , who was a Hale supporter . Hale refused to withdraw , and as a majority vote was needed for election in New Hampshire , the party split led to deadlock and a vacant House seat . Eventually , the Whigs and Hale 's Independent Democrats took control of the legislature , elected Whig Anthony Colby as governor and sent Hale to the Senate , much to Pierce 's anger .
= = = Mexican – American War = = =
Active military service was a long @-@ held dream for Pierce , who had admired his father 's and brothers ' service in his youth , particularly his older brother Benjamin 's , as well as that of John McNeil Jr . , husband of Pierce 's older half @-@ sister Elizabeth . As a legislator , he was a passionate advocate for volunteer militias . As a militia officer himself , he had experience mustering and drilling bodies of troops . When Congress declared war against Mexico in May 1846 , Pierce immediately volunteered to join , although no New England regiment yet existed . His hope to fight in the war was one reason he refused an offer to become Polk 's Attorney General . General Zachary Taylor 's advance slowed in northern Mexico , and General Winfield Scott proposed capturing the port of Vera Cruz and driving overland to Mexico City . Congress passed a bill authorizing the creation of ten regiments , and Pierce was appointed colonel and commander of the 9th Infantry Regiment in February 1847 , with Truman B. Ransom as lieutenant colonel and second @-@ in @-@ command .
On March 3 , 1847 , Pierce was promoted to brigadier general , and took command of a brigade of reinforcements for General Scott 's army , with Ransom succeeding to command of the regiment . Needing time to assemble his brigade , Pierce reached the already @-@ seized port of Vera Cruz in late June , where he prepared a march of 2 @,@ 500 men accompanying supplies to take to Scott . The three @-@ week journey inland was perilous , and the men fought off several attacks before joining with Scott 's army in early August , in time for the Battle of Contreras . The battle was disastrous for Pierce : his horse was suddenly startled during a charge , knocking him groin @-@ first against his saddle . The horse then tripped into a crevice and fell , pinning Pierce underneath and leaving him with a debilitating knee injury . The incident made it look like he had fainted , causing one soldier to call for someone else to take command , " General Pierce is a damned coward . " Pierce returned for the following day 's action , but again injured his knee , forcing him to hobble after his men , and by the time he caught up , the battle had mostly been won .
As the Battle of Churubusco approached , Pierce was ordered by Scott to the rear . He responded , " For God 's sake , General , this is the last great battle , and I must lead my brigade . " Scott yielded , and Pierce entered the fight tied to his saddle , but the pain in his leg became so great that he passed out on the field . The Americans won the battle and Pierce helped negotiate an armistice . He then returned to command and led his brigade throughout the rest of the campaign , eventually taking part in the capture of Mexico City in mid @-@ September , although his brigade was held in reserve for much of the battle . He spent much of that battle in the sick tent , plagued with acute diarrhea . Pierce remained in command of his brigade during the three @-@ month occupation of the city , while frustrated with the stalling of peace negotiations , and tried to distance himself from the constant conflict between Scott and the other generals .
Pierce was finally allowed to return to Concord in late December 1847 . He was given a hero 's welcome in his home state and issued his resignation from the Army , which was approved on March 20 , 1848 . His military exploits elevated his popularity in New Hampshire , but his injuries and subsequent troubles in battle led to accusations of cowardice which would long follow him . He had demonstrated competence as a general , especially in the initial march from Vera Cruz , but his short tenure and his injury left little for historians to judge his ability as a military commander .
Ulysses S. Grant , who had the opportunity to observe Pierce firsthand during the war , countered the allegations of cowardice in his memoirs , written several years after Pierce 's death : " Whatever General Pierce 's qualifications may have been for the Presidency , he was a gentleman and a man of courage . I was not a supporter of him politically , but I knew him more intimately than I did any other of the volunteer generals . "
= = = Return to New Hampshire = = =
Returning to Concord , Pierce resumed his law work ; in one notable case he defended the religious liberty of the Shakers , the insular sect who were being threatened with legal action over accusations of abuse . His role as a party leader , however , continued to take up most of his attention . He continued to wrangle with Senator Hale , who was stridently anti @-@ slavery and had opposed the war , stances that Pierce regarded as needless agitation .
The large Mexican Cession of land had divided the United States politically , with many in the North insisting that slavery not be allowed there ( and offering the Wilmot Proviso to ensure it ) , while others wanted slavery barred north of the Missouri Compromise line of 36 ° 30 ′ N. Both proposals were anathema to Southerners , and the controversy divided the Democrats . At the 1848 Democratic National Convention , the majority nominated former Michigan senator Lewis Cass for president , while a minority broke off to become the Free Soil Party , backing former president Van Buren . The Whigs chose General Zachary Taylor , a Louisianan , whose views on most political issues were unknown . Despite his past support for Van Buren , Pierce supported Cass , turning down the quiet offer of second place on the Free Soil ticket , and was so effective that Taylor , who was elected president , was held in New Hampshire to his lowest percentage in any state .
Senator Henry Clay , a Whig , hoped to put the slavery question to rest with what became known as the Compromise of 1850 , which would give some victories to both slaveholders and abolitionists , and gained the support of his fellow Whig , Webster . With the proposal stalled in the Senate , Illinois Senator Stephen A. Douglas led an effort to split it into separate bills so that each legislator could vote against the parts his state opposed without endangering the overall package . This was done , and the bills passed , to be signed by President Millard Fillmore ( who had succeeded Taylor after the president 's death earlier in 1850 ) . Pierce strongly supported the compromise , giving a well @-@ received speech in December 1850 pledging himself to " The Union ! Eternal Union ! " The same month , the Democratic candidate for governor , John Atwood , issued a letter opposing the Compromise , and Pierce helped to recall the state convention and remove Atwood from the ticket . The fiasco would compromise the election for the Democrats , who lost several races . Still , Pierce 's party retained its control over the state , and was well positioned for the upcoming presidential election .
= = Election of 1852 = =
As the 1852 presidential election approached , the Democrats were divided by the slavery issue , though most of the " Barnburners " who had left the party with Van Buren to form the Free Soil Party had returned . It was widely expected that the 1852 Democratic National Convention would result in deadlock , with no major candidate able to win the necessary two @-@ thirds majority . New Hampshire Democrats , including Pierce , supported his old teacher , Levi Woodbury , by then an Associate Justice of the Supreme Court , as a compromise candidate , but Woodbury 's death in September 1851 opened up an opportunity for Pierce 's allies to present him as a potential dark horse in the mold of Polk . New Hampshire Democrats felt that , as the state in which their party had most consistently gained Democratic majorities , they should supply the presidential candidate . Other possible standard @-@ bearers included Douglas , Cass , William Marcy of New York , James Buchanan of Pennsylvania , Sam Houston of Texas , and Thomas Hart Benton of Missouri .
Despite the backing of his home state , Pierce faced obstacles in gaining the nomination , as he had not held elective office in a decade , and lacked the front @-@ runners ' national reputation . He publicly declared that such a nomination would be " utterly repugnant to my tastes and wishes " , but given the desire of New Hampshire Democrats to see one of their own elected , knew that his position as a party leader would be endangered if he was unwilling to run . Thus , he quietly allowed his supporters to lobby for him , with the understanding that his name would not be entered at the convention unless it was clear none of the front @-@ runners could win . To broaden his potential base of southern support as the convention approached , he wrote letters reiterating his support for the Compromise of 1850 , including the controversial Fugitive Slave Act .
The convention assembled on June 1 in Baltimore , Maryland , and the deadlock occurred as expected . The first ballot was taken on June 3 . Of 288 delegates , Cass claimed 116 , Buchanan 93 , and the rest were scattered , without a single vote for Pierce . The next 34 ballots passed with no one near victory , and still no votes for Pierce . The Buchanan team decided to have their delegates vote for minor candidates , including Pierce , to demonstrate that no one but Buchanan could win . It was hoped that once delegates realized this , the convention would unite behind Buchanan . This novel tactic backfired after several ballots as Virginia , New Hampshire , and Maine switched to Pierce ; the remaining Buchanan forces began to break for Marcy , and before long Pierce was in third place . After the 48th ballot , North Carolina Congressman James C. Dobbin delivered an unexpected and passionate endorsement of Pierce , sparking a wave of support for the dark horse candidate . On the 49th ballot , Pierce received all but six of the votes , and thus gained the Democratic nomination for president . Delegates selected Alabama Senator William R. King , a Buchanan supporter , as Pierce 's running mate , and adopted a party platform that rejected further " agitation " over the slavery issue and supported the Compromise of 1850 .
When word reached New Hampshire of the result , Pierce found it difficult to believe , and his wife fainted . Their son Benjamin wrote to his mother hoping that Franklin 's candidacy would not be successful , as he knew she would not like to live in Washington .
The Whig candidate was General Scott , whom Pierce had served under in Mexico ; his running mate was Secretary of the Navy William A. Graham . The Whigs could not unify their factions as the Democrats had , and the convention adopted a platform almost indistinguishable from that of the Democrats , including support of the Compromise of 1850 . This incited the Free Soilers to field their own candidate , Senator Hale of New Hampshire , at the expense of the Whigs . The lack of political differences reduced the campaign to a bitter personality contest and helped to dampen voter turnout in the election to its lowest level since 1836 ; it was , according to Pierce biographer Peter A. Wallner , " one of the least exciting campaigns in presidential history " . Scott was harmed by the lack of enthusiasm of anti @-@ slavery northern Whigs for the candidate and platform ; New @-@ York Tribune editor Horace Greeley summed up the attitude of many when he said of the Whig platform , " we defy it , execrate it , spit upon it " .
Pierce kept quiet so as not to upset his party 's delicate unity , and allowed his allies to run the campaign . It was the custom at the time for candidates to not appear to seek the office , and he did no personal campaigning . Pierce 's opponents caricatured him as a coward and alcoholic ( " the hero of many a well @-@ fought bottle " ) , who was an anti @-@ Catholic . Scott , meanwhile , drew weak support from the Whigs , who were torn by their pro @-@ Compromise platform and found him to be an abysmal , gaffe @-@ prone public speaker . The Democrats were confident : a popular slogan was that the Democrats " will pierce their enemies in 1852 as they poked [ that is , Polked ] them in 1844 . " This proved to be true , as Scott won only Kentucky , Tennessee , Massachusetts and Vermont , finishing with 42 electoral votes to Pierce 's 254 . With 3 @.@ 2 million votes cast , Pierce won the popular vote with 50 @.@ 9 to 44 @.@ 1 percent . A sizable block of Free Soilers broke for Pierce 's in @-@ state rival , Hale , who won 4 @.@ 9 percent of the popular vote . The Democrats took large majorities in Congress .
= = Presidency = =
= = = Tragedy and transition = = =
Pierce began his presidency in mourning . Weeks after his election , on January 6 , 1853 , the President @-@ elect 's family had been traveling from Boston by train when their car derailed and rolled down an embankment near Andover , Massachusetts . Pierce and Jane survived , but in the wreckage found their only remaining son , 11 @-@ year @-@ old Benjamin , crushed to death , his body nearly decapitated . Pierce was not able to hide the gruesome sight from Jane . They both suffered severe depression afterward , which likely affected Pierce 's performance as president . Jane wondered if the train accident was divine punishment for her husband 's pursuit and acceptance of high office . She wrote a lengthy letter of apology to " Benny " for her failings as a mother . Jane would avoid social functions for much of her first two years as First Lady , making her public debut in that role to great sympathy at the public reception held at the White House on New Year 's Day , 1855 .
Jane remained in New Hampshire as Pierce departed for his inauguration , which she did not attend . Pierce , the youngest man to be elected president to that point , chose to affirm his oath of office on a law book rather than swear it on a Bible , as all his predecessors except John Quincy Adams had done . He was the first president to deliver his inaugural address from memory . In the address he hailed an era of peace and prosperity at home and urged a vigorous assertion of U.S. interests in its foreign relations , including the " eminently important " acquisition of new territories . " The policy of my Administration " , said the new president , " will not be deterred by any timid forebodings of evil from expansion . " Avoiding the word " slavery " , he emphasized his desire to put the " important subject " to rest and maintain a peaceful union . He alluded to his own personal tragedy , telling the crowd , " You have summoned me in my weakness , you must sustain me by your strength . "
= = = Administration and political strife = = =
In his Cabinet appointments , Pierce sought to unite a party that was squabbling over the fruits of victory . Most of the party had not originally supported him for the nomination , and some had allied with the Free Soil party to gain victory in local elections . Pierce decided to allow each of the party 's factions some appointments , even those that had not supported the Compromise of 1850 .
All of Pierce 's cabinet nominations were confirmed unanimously and immediately by the Senate . Pierce spent the first few weeks of his term sorting through hundreds of lower @-@ level federal positions to be filled . This was a chore , as he sought to represent all factions of the party , and could fully satisfy none of them . Partisans found themselves unable to secure positions for their friends , which put the Democratic Party on edge and fueled bitterness between factions . Before long , northern newspapers accused Pierce of filling his government with pro @-@ slavery secessionists , while southern newspapers accused him of abolitionism .
Factionalism between the pro- and anti @-@ administration Democrats ramped up quickly , especially within the New York Democratic Party . The more conservative Hardshell Democrats or " Hards " of New York were deeply skeptical of the Pierce administration , which was associated with Marcy ( who became Secretary of State ) and the more moderate New York faction , the Softshell Democrats or " Softs " .
Buchanan had urged Pierce to consult Vice President @-@ elect King in selecting the Cabinet , but Pierce did not do so — Pierce and King never communicated once they had been selected as candidates in June 1852 . By the start of 1853 , King was severely ill with tuberculosis , and went to Cuba to recuperate . His condition deteriorated , and Congress passed a special law , allowing him to be sworn in before the American consul in Havana on March 24 . Wanting to die at home , he returned to his plantation in Alabama on April 17 and died the next day . The office of vice president remained vacant for the remainder of Pierce 's term , as the Constitution then had no provision for filling the vacancy , making the Senate President pro tempore , initially David Atchison of Missouri , next in line to the presidency .
Pierce sought to run a more efficient and accountable government than his predecessors . His Cabinet members implemented an early system of civil service examinations which was a forerunner to the Pendleton Act passed three decades later . The Interior Department was reformed by Secretary Robert McClelland , who systematized its operations , expanded the use of paper records , and pursued fraud . Another of Pierce 's reforms was to expand the role of the U.S. attorney general in appointing federal judges and attorneys , which was an important step in the eventual development of the Justice Department . There was a vacancy on the Supreme Court — Fillmore , having failed to get Senate confirmation for his nominees , had offered it to newly elected Louisiana Senator Judah P. Benjamin , who had declined . Pierce also offered the seat to Benjamin , and when the Louisianan persisted in his refusal , nominated instead John Archibald Campbell , an advocate of states ' rights ; this would be Pierce 's only Supreme Court appointment .
= = = Economic policy and internal improvements = = =
Pierce charged Treasury Secretary James Guthrie with reforming the Treasury , which was inefficiently managed , with many unsettled accounts . Guthrie increased oversight of Treasury employees and tariff collectors , many of whom were withholding money from the government . Despite laws requiring funds to be held in the Treasury , large deposits remained in private banks under the Whig administrations . Guthrie reclaimed these funds , and sought to prosecute corrupt officials , with mixed success .
Secretary of War Jefferson Davis , at Pierce 's request , led surveys with the Corps of Topographical Engineers of possible transcontinental railroad routes throughout the country . The Democratic Party had long rejected federal appropriations for internal improvements , but Davis felt that such a project could be justified as a Constitutional national security objective . Davis also deployed the Army Corps of Engineers to supervise construction projects in the District of Columbia , including the expansion of the United States Capitol and building of the Washington Monument .
= = = Foreign and military affairs = = =
The Pierce administration fell in line with the expansionist Young America movement , with William L. Marcy leading the charge as Secretary of State . Marcy sought to present to the world a distinctively American , republican image . He issued a circular recommending that U.S. diplomats wear " the simple dress of an American citizen " instead of the elaborate diplomatic uniforms worn in the courts of Europe , and that they only hire American citizens to work in consulates . Marcy received international praise for his 73 @-@ page letter defending Austrian refugee Martin Koszta , who had been captured abroad in mid @-@ 1853 by the Austrian government despite his intention to become a U.S. citizen .
Davis , an advocate of a southern transcontinental route , persuaded Pierce to send rail magnate James Gadsden to Mexico to buy land for a potential railroad . Gadsden was also charged with re @-@ negotiating the provisions of the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo which required the U.S. to prevent Native American raids into Mexico from New Mexico Territory . Gadsden negotiated a treaty with Mexican President Antonio López de Santa Anna in December 1853 , purchasing a large swath of land to America 's southwest . Negotiations were nearly derailed by William Walker 's unauthorized expedition into Mexico , and so a clause was included charging the U.S. with combating future such attempts . Congress reduced the Gadsden Purchase to the region now comprising southern Arizona and part of southern New Mexico ; the price was cut from $ 15 million to $ 10 million . Congress also included a protection clause for a private citizen , Albert G. Sloo , whose interests were threatened by the purchase . Pierce opposed the use of the federal government to prop up private industry and did not endorse the final version of the treaty , which was ratified nonetheless . The acquisition brought the contiguous United States to its present @-@ day boundaries , excepting later minor adjustments .
Relations with the United Kingdom were tense , as American fishermen felt menaced by the British navy 's increasing enforcement of Canadian waters . Marcy completed a trade reciprocity agreement with British minister to Washington , John Crampton , which would reduce the need for aggressive coastline enforcement . Buchanan was sent as minister to London to pressure the British government , which was slow to support a new treaty . A favorable reciprocity treaty was ratified in August 1854 , which Pierce saw as a first step towards the American annexation of Canada . While the administration negotiated with Britain over the Canadian border , U.S. interests were also threatened in Central America , where the Clayton – Bulwer Treaty of 1850 had failed to keep Great Britain from expanding its influence . Gaining the advantage over Britain in the region was a key part of Pierce 's expansionist goals .
British consuls in the United States sought to enlist Americans for the Crimean War in 1854 , in violation of neutrality laws , and Pierce eventually expelled minister Crampton and three consuls . To the President 's surprise , the British did not expel Buchanan in retaliation . In his December 1855 message to Congress Pierce had set forth the American case that Britain had violated the Clayton @-@ Bulwer Treaty . The British , according to Buchanan , were impressed by the message and were rethinking their policy . Nevertheless , Buchanan was not successful in getting the British to renounce their Central American possessions . The Canadian treaty was ratified by Congress , the British Parliament , and by the colonial legislatures in Canada .
Pierce 's administration aroused sectional apprehensions when three U.S. diplomats in Europe drafted a proposal to the president to purchase Cuba from Spain for $ 120 million ( USD ) , and justify the " wresting " of it from Spain if the offer were refused . The publication of the Ostend Manifesto , which had been drawn up at the insistence of Secretary of State Marcy , provoked the scorn of northerners who viewed it as an attempt to annex a slave @-@ holding possession to bolster Southern interests . It helped discredit the expansionist policy of Manifest Destiny the Democratic Party had often supported .
Pierce favored expansion and a substantial reorganization of the military . Secretary of War Davis and Navy Secretary James C. Dobbin found the Army and Navy in poor condition , with insufficient forces , a reluctance to adopt new technology , and inefficient management . Under the Pierce administration , Commodore Matthew C. Perry visited Japan ( a venture originally planned under Fillmore ) in an effort to expand trade to the East . Perry wanted to encroach on Asia by force , but Pierce and Dobbin pushed him to remain diplomatic . Perry signed a modest trade treaty with the Japanese shogunate which was successfully ratified . The 1856 launch of the USS Merrimac , one of six newly commissioned steam frigates , was one of Pierce 's " most personally satisfying " days in office .
= = = Bleeding Kansas = = =
The greatest challenge to the country 's equilibrium during the Pierce administration was the passage of the Kansas – Nebraska Act . Organizing the largely unsettled Nebraska Territory , which stretched from Missouri to the Rocky Mountains , and from Texas north to what is now the Canadian border , was a crucial part of Douglas 's plans for western expansion . He wanted a transcontinental railroad with a link from Chicago to California , through the vast western territory . Organizing the territory was necessary for settlement as the land would not be surveyed nor put up for sale until a territorial government was authorized . Those from slave states had never been content with western limits on slavery , and felt it should be able to expand into territories procured with blood and treasure that had come , in part , from the South . Douglas and his allies planned to organize the territory and let local settlers decide whether to allow slavery . This would repeal the Missouri Compromise of 1820 , as most of it was north of the 36 ° 30 ′ N line the Missouri Compromise deemed " free " . The territory would be split into a northern part , Nebraska , and a southern part , Kansas , and the expectation was that Kansas would allow slavery and Nebraska would not . In the view of pro @-@ slavery Southern politicians , the Compromise of 1850 had already annulled the Missouri Compromise by admitting the state of California , including territory south of the compromise line , as a free state .
Pierce had wanted to organize the Nebraska Territory without explicitly addressing the matter of slavery , but Douglas could not get enough southern support to accomplish this . Pierce was skeptical of the bill , knowing it would result in bitter opposition from the North . Douglas and Davis convinced him to support the bill regardless . It was tenaciously opposed by northerners such as Ohio Senator Salmon P. Chase and Massachusetts ' Charles Sumner , who rallied public sentiment in the North against the bill . Northerners had been suspicious of the Gadsden Purchase , moves towards Cuba annexation , and the influence of slaveholding Cabinet members such as Davis , and saw the Nebraska bill as part of a pattern of southern aggression . The result was a political firestorm that did great damage to Pierce 's presidency .
Pierce and his administration used threats and promises to keep most Democrats on board in favor of the bill . The Whigs split along sectional lines ; the conflict destroyed them as a national party . The Kansas – Nebraska Act was passed in May 1854 and would come to define the Pierce presidency . The political turmoil that followed the passage saw the short @-@ term influence of the nativist and anti @-@ Catholic American Party , often called the Know Nothings , and the founding of the Republican Party .
Even as the act was being debated , settlers on both sides of the slavery issue poured into the territories so as to secure the outcome they wanted in the voting . The passage of the act resulted in so much violence between groups that the territory became known as Bleeding Kansas . Thousands of pro @-@ slavery Border Ruffians came across from Missouri to vote in the territorial elections although they were not resident in Kansas , giving that element the victory . Pierce supported the outcome despite the irregularities . When Free @-@ Staters set up a shadow government , and drafted the Topeka Constitution , Pierce called their work an act of rebellion . The president continued to recognize the pro @-@ slavery legislature , which was dominated by Democrats , even after a Congressional investigative committee found its election to have been illegitimate . He dispatched federal troops to break up a meeting of the Topeka government .
Passage of the act coincided with the seizure of escaped slave Anthony Burns in Boston . Northerners rallied in support of Burns , but Pierce was determined to follow the Fugitive Slave Act to the letter , and dispatched federal troops to enforce the return to his Virginia owner despite furious crowds .
The midterm congressional elections of 1854 and 1855 were devastating to the Democrats ( as well as to the Whig Party , which was on its last legs ) . The Democrats lost almost every state outside the South . The administration 's opponents in the North worked together to return opposition members to Congress , though only a few northern Whigs gained election . In Pierce 's New Hampshire , hitherto loyal to the Democratic Party , the Know @-@ Nothings elected the governor , all three representatives , dominated the legislature , and returned Hale to the Senate . Anti @-@ immigrant fervor brought the Know @-@ Nothings their highest numbers to that point , and some northerners were elected under the auspices of the new Republican Party .
= = = 1856 election = = =
Pierce fully expected to be renominated by the Democrats . In reality his chances of winning the nomination were slim , let alone re @-@ election . The administration was widely disliked in the North for its position on the Kansas – Nebraska Act , and Democratic leaders were aware of Pierce 's electoral vulnerability . Nevertheless , his supporters began to plan for an alliance with Douglas to deny James Buchanan the nomination . Buchanan had solid political connections and had been safely overseas through most of Pierce 's term , leaving him untainted by the Kansas debacle .
When balloting began on June 5 at the convention in Cincinnati , Ohio , Pierce expected a plurality , if not the required two @-@ thirds majority . On the first ballot , he received only 122 votes , many of them from the South , to Buchanan 's 135 , with Douglas and Cass receiving the rest . By the following morning fourteen ballots had been completed , but none of the three main candidates were able to get two @-@ thirds of the vote . Pierce , whose support had been slowly declining as the ballots passed , directed his supporters to break for Douglas , withdrawing his name in a last @-@ ditch effort to defeat Buchanan . Douglas , only 43 years of age , believed that he could be nominated in 1860 if he let the older Buchanan win this time , and received assurances from Buchanan 's managers that this would be the case . After two more deadlocked ballots , Douglas 's managers withdrew his name , leaving Buchanan as the clear winner . To soften the blow to Pierce , the convention issued a resolution of " unqualified approbation " in praise of his administration and selected his ally , former Kentucky Representative John C. Breckinridge , as the vice @-@ presidential nominee .
Pierce endorsed Buchanan , though the two remained distant ; he hoped to resolve the Kansas situation by November to improve the Democrats ' chances in the general election . He installed John W. Geary as territorial governor , who drew the ire of pro @-@ slavery legislators . Geary was able to restore order in Kansas , though the electoral damage had already been done — Republicans used " Bleeding Kansas " and " Bleeding Sumner " ( the brutal caning of Charles Sumner by South Carolina Representative Preston Brooks in the Senate chamber ) as election slogans . The Buchanan / Breckinridge ticket was elected , but the Democratic percentage of the popular vote in the North fell from 49 @.@ 8 percent in 1852 to 41 @.@ 4 in 1856 as Buchanan won only five of sixteen free states ( Pierce had won fourteen ) , and in three of those , Buchanan won because of a split between the Republican candidate , former California senator John C. Frémont and the Know Nothing , former president Fillmore .
Pierce did not temper his rhetoric after losing the nomination . In his final message to Congress , delivered in December 1856 , he vigorously attacked Republicans and abolitionists . He took the opportunity to defend his record on fiscal policy , and on achieving peaceful relations with other nations . In the final days of the Pierce administration , Congress passed bills to increase the pay of army officers and to build new naval vessels , also expanding the number of seamen enlisted . It also passed a tariff reduction bill he had long sought . Pierce and his cabinet left office on March 4 , 1857 , the only time in U.S. history that the original cabinet members all remained for a full four @-@ year term .
= = Later life = =
= = = Post @-@ presidency = = =
After leaving the White House , the Pierces remained in Washington for more than two months , staying with former Secretary of State Marcy . Buchanan altered course from the Pierce administration , replacing all of his appointees . The Pierces eventually moved to Portsmouth , New Hampshire , where Pierce had begun to speculate in property . Seeking warmer weather , he and Jane spent the next three years traveling , beginning with a stay in Madeira and followed by tours of Europe and the Bahamas . In Rome , he visited Nathaniel Hawthorne ; the two men spent much time together and the author found the retired president as buoyant as ever .
Pierce never lost sight of politics during his travels , commenting regularly on the nation 's growing sectarian conflict . He insisted that northern abolitionists stand down to avoid a southern secession , writing that the bloodshed of a civil war would " not be along Mason and Dixon 's line merely " , but " within our own borders in our own streets " . He also criticized New England Protestant ministers , who largely supported abolition and Republican candidates , for their " heresy and treason " . The rise of the Republican Party forced the Democrats to defend Pierce ; during his debates with Republican Senate candidate Abraham Lincoln in 1858 , Douglas called the former president " a man of integrity and honor " .
As the Democratic Convention of 1860 approached , some asked Pierce to run as a compromise candidate that could unite the fractured party , but Pierce refused . As Douglas struggled to attract southern support , Pierce backed Cushing and then Breckinridge as potential alternatives , but his priority was a united Democratic Party . The split Democrats were soundly defeated for the presidency by the Republican candidate , Lincoln . In the months between Lincoln 's election , and his inauguration on March 4 , 1861 , Pierce looked on as several southern states began plans to secede . He was asked by Justice Campbell to travel to Alabama and address that state 's secession convention . Due to illness he declined , but sent a letter appealing to the people of Alabama to remain in the Union , and give the North time to repeal laws against southern interests and to find common ground .
= = = Civil War = = =
After efforts to prevent the Civil War ended with the firing on Fort Sumter , Northern Democrats , including Douglas , endorsed Lincoln 's plan to bring the Southern states back into the fold by force . Pierce wanted to avoid war at all costs , and wrote to Van Buren , proposing an assembly of former U.S. presidents to resolve the issue , but this suggestion was not acted on . " I will never justify , sustain or in any way or to any extent uphold this cruel , heartless , aimless , unnecessary war , " Pierce wrote to his wife . Pierce publicly opposed President Lincoln 's order suspending the writ of habeas corpus , arguing that even in a time of war , the country should not abandon its protection of civil liberties . This stand won him admirers with the emerging Northern Peace Democrats , but others saw the stand as further evidence of Pierce 's southern bias .
In September 1861 , Pierce traveled to Michigan , visiting his former Interior Secretary , McClelland , former senator Cass , and others . A Detroit bookseller , J. A. Roys , sent a letter to Lincoln 's Secretary of State , William H. Seward , accusing the former president of meeting with disloyal people , and saying he had heard there was a plot to overthrow the government and establish Pierce as president . Later that month , the pro @-@ administration Detroit Tribune printed an item calling Pierce " a prowling traitor spy " , and intimating that he was a member of the pro @-@ Confederate Knights of the Golden Circle . No such conspiracy existed , but a Pierce supporter , Guy S. Hopkins , sent to the Tribune a letter purporting to be from a member of the Knights of the Golden Circle , indicating that " President P. " was part of a plot against the Union . Hopkins intended for the Tribune to make the charges public , at which point Hopkins would admit authorship , thus making the Tribune editors seem overly partisan and gullible . Instead , the Tribune editors forwarded the Hopkins letter to government officials . Seward then ordered the arrest of possible " traitors " in Michigan , which included Hopkins . Hopkins confessed authorship of the letter and admitted the hoax , but despite this , Seward wrote to Pierce demanding to know if the charges were true . Pierce denied them , and Seward hastily backtracked . Later , Republican newspapers printed the Hopkins letter in spite of his admission that it was a hoax , and Pierce decided that he needed to clear his name publicly . When Seward refused to make their correspondence public , Pierce publicized his outrage by having a Senate ally , California 's Milton Latham , read the letters between Seward and Pierce into the Congressional record , to the administration 's embarrassment .
The institution of the draft and the arrest of outspoken anti @-@ administration Democrat Clement Vallandigham further incensed Pierce , who gave an address to New Hampshire Democrats in July 1863 vilifying Lincoln . " Who , I ask , has clothed the President with power to dictate to any one of us when we must or when we may speak , or be silent upon any subject , and especially in relation to the conduct of any public servant ? " , he demanded . Pierce 's comments were ill @-@ received in much of the North , especially as his criticism of Lincoln 's aims coincided with the twin Union victories at Gettysburg and Vicksburg . Pierce 's reputation in the North was further damaged the following month when the Mississippi plantation of the Confederate president , Jefferson Davis , was seized by Union soldiers . Pierce 's correspondence with Davis , all pre @-@ war , revealing his deep friendship with Davis and predicting that civil war would result in insurrection in the North , was sent to the press . Pierce 's words hardened abolitionist sentiment against him .
Jane Pierce died of tuberculosis in Andover , Massachusetts in December 1863 ; she was buried at Old North Cemetery in Concord , New Hampshire . Pierce was further grieved by his close friend Nathaniel Hawthorne 's death in May 1864 ; he was with Hawthorne when the author died unexpectedly . Hawthorne had controversially dedicated his final book to Pierce . Some Democrats tried again to put Pierce 's name up for consideration as the 1864 presidential election unfolded , but he kept his distance ; Lincoln easily won a second term . When news spread of Lincoln 's assassination in April 1865 , a mob gathered outside Pierce 's home in Concord , demanding to know why he had not raised a flag as a public mourning gesture . Pierce grew angry , expressing sadness over Lincoln 's death but denying any need for a public gesture . He told them that his history of military and public service proved his patriotism , which was enough to quiet the crowd .
= = = Final years and death = = =
Pierce 's drinking worsened his health in his last years , and he grew increasingly spiritual . He had a brief relationship with an unknown woman in mid @-@ 1865 . During this time , he used his influence to improve the treatment of Davis , now a prisoner at Fortress Monroe in Virginia . He also offered financial help to Hawthorne 's son Julian , as well as to his own nephews . On the second anniversary of Jane 's death , Pierce was baptized into his wife 's Episcopal faith at St. Paul 's Church in Concord . He found this church to be less political than his former Congregational denomination , which had alienated Democrats with anti @-@ slavery rhetoric . He took up the life of an " old farmer " , as he called himself , buying up property , drinking less while farming it himself , and hosting visiting relatives . He spent most of his time in Concord and his cottage at Little Boar 's Head on the coast , sometimes visiting Jane 's relatives in Massachusetts . Still interested in politics , he expressed support for Andrew Johnson 's Reconstruction policy and supported the president 's acquittal in his impeachment trial ; he later expressed optimism for Johnson 's successor , Ulysses S. Grant .
Pierce 's health began to decline again in mid @-@ 1869 ; he resumed heavy drinking despite his deteriorating physical condition . He returned to Concord that September , suffering from severe cirrhosis of the liver , knowing he would not recover . A caretaker was hired ; none of his family members were present in his final days . He died at 4 : 35 am on October 8 . President Grant , who later defended Pierce 's service in the Mexican War , declared a day of national mourning . Newspapers across the country carried lengthy front @-@ page stories examining Pierce 's colorful and controversial career . Pierce was interred next to his wife and two of his sons in the Minot enclosure at Concord 's Old North Cemetery .
In his last will , which he signed January 22 , 1868 , Pierce left a large number of specific bequests such as paintings , swords , horses , and other items to friends , family , and neighbors . Much of his $ 72 @,@ 000 estate ( equal to $ 1 @,@ 280 @,@ 000 today ) went to his brother Henry 's family , and to Hawthorne 's children and Pierce 's landlady . Henry 's son Frank Pierce received the largest share .
= = Sites , memorials , and honors = =
In addition to his LL.D. from Norwich University , Pierce also received honorary doctorates from Bowdoin College ( 1853 ) and Dartmouth College ( 1860 ) .
Two places in New Hampshire have been listed on the National Register of Historic Places specifically because of their association with Pierce . The Franklin Pierce Homestead in Hillsborough is a state park and a National Historic Landmark , open to the public . The Franklin Pierce House in Concord , where Pierce died , was destroyed by fire in 1981 , but is nevertheless listed on the register . The Pierce Manse , his Concord home from 1842 to 1848 , is open seasonally and maintained by a volunteer group , " The Pierce Brigade " .
Several institutions and places have been named after Pierce , mostly in New Hampshire . The Franklin Pierce University in Rindge , New Hampshire , was chartered in 1962 . The University of New Hampshire School of Law was founded in 1973 as the Franklin Pierce Law Center . When the school was renamed in 2010 , a Franklin Pierce Center for Intellectual Property was established . There is a Mt . Pierce in the Presidential Range of New Hampshire 's White Mountains , renamed from Mt . Clinton in 1913 . The small town of Pierceton , Indiana , was founded in the 1850s and honors President Pierce .
= = Legacy = =
After Pierce died , he mostly passed from the American consciousness , except as one of a series of presidents whose disastrous tenures led to civil war . Pierce 's presidency is widely regarded as a failure ; he is often described as one of the worst presidents in American history . The public placed him third @-@ to @-@ last among his peers in C @-@ SPAN surveys ( 2000 and 2009 ) . Part of his failure was in allowing a divided Congress to take the initiative , most disastrously with the Kansas – Nebraska Act . Although he did not lead that fight — Senator Douglas did — Pierce paid the cost in damage to his reputation . The failure of Pierce , as president , to secure sectional conciliation helped bring an end to the dominance of the Democratic Party that had started with Jackson , and led to a period of over seventy years when the Republicans mostly controlled national politics .
Historian Eric Foner says , " His administration turned out to be one of the most disastrous in American history . It witnessed the collapse of the party system inherited from the Age of Jackson "
Biographer Roy Nichols argues :
As a national political leader Pierce was an accident . He was honest and tenacious of his views but , as he made up his mind with difficulty and often reversed himself before making a final decision , he gave a general impression of instability . Kind , courteous , generous , he attracted many individuals , but his attempts to satisfy all factions failed and made him many enemies . In carrying out his principles of strict construction he was most in accord with Southerners , who generally had the letter of the law on their side . He failed utterly to realize the depth and the sincerity of Northern feeling against the South and was bewildered at the general flouting of the law and the Constitution , as he described it , by the people of his own New England . At no time did he catch the popular imagination . His inability to cope with the difficult problems that arose early in his administration caused him to lose the respect of great numbers , especially in the North , and his few successes failed to restore public confidence . He was an inexperienced man , suddenly called to assume a tremendous responsibility , who honestly tried to do his best without adequate training or temperamental fitness .
Despite a reputation as an able politician and a likable man , during his presidency Pierce served only as a moderator among the increasingly bitter factions that were driving the nation towards civil war . To Pierce , who saw slavery as a question of property rather than morality , the Union was sacred ; because of this , he saw the actions of abolitionists , and the more moderate Free Soilers , as divisive and as a threat to the constitutionally @-@ guaranteed rights of southerners . Although he criticized those who sought to limit or end slavery , he rarely rebuked southern politicians who took extreme position or opposed northern interests .
David Potter concludes that the Ostend Manifesto and the Kansas – Nebraska Act were " the two great calamities of the Franklin Pierce administration ... Both brought down an avalanche of public criticism . " More important , says Potter , they permanently discredited Manifest Destiny and " popular sovereignty " as political doctrines . Historian Kenneth Nivison , writing in 2010 , takes a more favorable view of Pierce 's foreign policy , stating that his expansionism prefaced those of later presidents William McKinley and Theodore Roosevelt , who served at a time when America had the military might to make her desires stick . " American foreign and commercial policy beginning in the 1890s , which eventually supplanted European colonialism by the middle of the twentieth century , owed much to the paternalism of Jacksonian Democracy cultivated in the international arena by the Presidency of Franklin Pierce . "
Historian Larry Gara , who authored a book on Pierce 's presidency , wrote in the former president 's entry in American National Biography Online :
He was president at a time that called for almost superhuman skills , yet he lacked such skills and never grew into the job to which he had been elected . His view of the Constitution and the Union was from the Jacksonian past . He never fully understood the nature or depth of Free Soil sentiment in the North . He was able to negotiate a reciprocal trade treaty with Canada , to begin the opening of Japan to western trade , to add land to the Southwest , and to sign legislation for the creation of an overseas empire [ the Guano Islands Act ] . His Cuba and Kansas policies led only to deeper sectional strife . His support for the Kansas @-@ Nebraska Act and his determination to enforce the Fugitive Slave Act helped polarize the sections . Pierce was hard @-@ working and his administration largely untainted by graft , yet the legacy from those four turbulent years contributed to the tragedy of secession and civil war .
|
= National War Memorial ( South Australia ) =
The National War Memorial is a monument in the city centre of Adelaide , South Australia , commemorating those who served in the First World War . Opened in 1931 , the memorial is located on the corner of North Terrace and Kintore Avenue , on the edge of the central business district and adjacent to the grounds of Government House . Memorial services are held at the site throughout the year , with major services on both Anzac Day ( 25 April ) and Remembrance Day ( 11 November ) .
First proposed in 1919 , the memorial was funded by the Parliament of South Australia , making it the first Australian state war memorial to be confirmed after the war . The design of the memorial was selected through two architectural competitions . The first competition , in 1924 , produced 26 designs — all of which were lost before judging could be completed after fire destroyed the building in which they were housed . A second competition , in 1926 , produced 18 entries , out of which the design by the architectural firm Woods , Bagot , Jory & Laybourne @-@ Smith was selected as the winner .
The design — effectively a frame for two scenes depicted through Rayner Hoff 's marble reliefs and bronze statues — shows the prelude and the epilogue to war , depicting both the willingness of youth to answer the call of duty and the extent of the sacrifices which they made . In this , the work is not displaying a material victory , but instead a victory of the spirit . At the insistence of W. F. J. McCann , president of the Returned Soldiers ' League , bronze tablets were cast to line the walls of an inner shrine , on which are listed the names of all South Australians who died during the Great War .
= = History = =
Almost 35 @,@ 000 South Australians served in the First World War . This number amounted to 8 @.@ 5 % of the South Australian population at the time , or 37 @.@ 7 % of men between the ages of 18 and 44 . Of those who served , over 5 @,@ 000 South Australians died . In response to these deaths , Archibald Peake , the premier of South Australia , asked the state parliament to fund a memorial commemorating the victory and the sacrifice of those who had fought and fallen . The motion was presented in March 1919 , and it received unanimous support in the House of Assembly and the Legislative Council . With the passing of this motion , the South Australian Government became the first in Australia to elect to build a memorial to the soldiers of the First World War .
It was decided by parliament that the new memorial should be referred to as the " National War Memorial " , even though it was to be a purely South Australian monument , and in spite of the term already being used to describe the memorial to the South African War of 1899 – 1902 . There have been at least two perspectives offered as to why the term National was employed . First , as Donald Richardson observed , the name may have been chosen to emphasise the government 's intention that the memorial should commemorate all who served during the war , not just those who came from South Australia ; and second , Ken Inglis argued that the name may have reflected the perception ( still held in spite of federation ) that the " province is a nation " .
= = = 1924 competition = = =
The National War Memorial Committee was formed in order to bring the proposal to fruition , and in February 1924 the committee announced an architectural competition to find the design of the new memorial . In the preamble to the conditions of entry , it was stated that the new memorial was to serve the purpose of " perpetually commemorating the Victory achieved in the Great War , 1914 – 1918 , the Supreme and personal sacrifice of those who participated in that War , and the National effort involved in such activities " .
Entry was open to South Australians who were British subjects , and those intending to submit designs were required to file a statement of intent prior to 29 February 1924 . The competition closed on 30 September 1924 , and there was a one @-@ guinea entry fee . Three assessors were nominated to judge the entries : the South Australian Architect @-@ in @-@ Chief , A. E. Simpson ; local architect Herbert Louis Jackman ( representing the South Australian Institute of Architects ) ; and Sir William Sowden .
The committee specified a budget of £ 25 @,@ 000 ( previously figures of both £ 5 @,@ 000 and £ 100 @,@ 000 had been discussed ) , and the conditions of entry stated that the memorial was to be situated at the entrance to Government House on the corner of King William Street and North Terrace , placing it just behind the existing memorial to the South African War . This location was counter to previous suggestions : a 1919 survey of architects had proposed that the memorial should be built on Montefiore Hill , while in 1923 the plans for the memorial involved erecting it at the rear of Government House , rather than at the front .
The committee left open the form that the memorial would take , beyond stating that the memorial was not to be " utilitarian in character " , and debate over the form led to the emergence of a number of suggestions , many of which were covered in the media of the day . These included Dame Nellie Melba 's proposal to build a carillon of bells ; a suggestion by Simpson Newland to turn Anzac Highway into a " Way of Honour " by adding triumphal arches to each end ; and Walter Charles Torode 's plan to build a 30 meter high " metal and marble " monument on the top of Mount Lofty with an electric car to carry people to the summit .
In the end a total of 28 architectural firms registered their intent to submit entries to the competition — a lower number than expected , but Richardson suggests this may have been due to work on proposals for the new Adelaide railway station . Out of those 28 , a total of 26 firms submitted designs by the deadline . On 10 November 1924 , before judging could be completed , the Richards Building in Currie Street was destroyed by fire , taking with it all 26 proposals .
Although most of the judging had been completed before the fire , suggestions at the time that the committee could use what they had learned from the entrants to propose a new competition with greater clarity as to the requirements led to naught : a 1925 letter to the then Premier John Gunn reveals that there was little to be learned from the competition , as the assessors had found that none of the designs were suitable .
= = = 1926 competition = = =
Little progress had been made on the memorial by 1926 . While some debate occurred in respect to the form that the memorial would take , the focus of the discussions concerned the location of the memorial , and this centered on the future of Government House and the role of the Governor . A number of left @-@ wing politicians argued that the grounds of Government House should be turned over to the State and used to build the memorial while the conservatives desired to retain the status quo . By 1925 the National War Memorial committee was prepared to accept the Government House grounds as the site of the memorial , but they delayed making an announcement . This proved to be fortuitous , as legal issues prevented the plan from going ahead . Instead a portion of the grounds , located at the corner of North Terrace and Kintore Avenue , was put aside for the purpose . ( The plan to move the Governor and to use the grounds as part of a larger war memorial were revisited , over 80 years later , in 2007 ) .
In 1926 , after pressure from the returned soldiers , a second competition was announced . Once again the budget was set at £ 25 @,@ 000 . As per the first competition , all entrants had to be South Australian British subjects , and all entries were to be judged anonymously , but this time there was to be only one assessor : John Smith Murdoch , the chief architect for the Commonwealth of Australia . In deference to the previous competition , the top five entrants from 1924 were each given £ 75 upon the submission of a new design , and all of the designs were insured by the government for £ 100 each .
With entries restricted to South Australians , only 18 designs were received — a figure that was " correspondingly fewer " than those received in other states where the competitions were open to all Australians . Nevertheless , in his Assessor 's Report , Murdoch acknowledged that the quality of some of the proposals was such that they " probably would not have been exceeded had the competition been more open " . After examining the submissions , on 15 January 1927 , the design by Louis Laybourne Smith , ( one of the principals at the architectural firm Woods , Bagot , Jory & Laybourne – Smith ) , was selected by Murdoch as the winner .
Woods , Bagot , Jory & Laybourne @-@ Smith had entered the 1924 competition with an arch designed by Walter Bagot , but in 1926 Bagot was away in Europe . Thus Laybourne @-@ Smith was responsible for drawing and submitting the final design , although he was clear to highlight the role Bagot played in the " architectural conception " of the monument . While the firm was to be awarded 6 % of the cost of the memorial , they refused all but enough to cover their own expenses , asking instead that residues ( approximately £ 1000 ) be placed in a trust fund to pay for the upkeep of the work . While this is seen as an altruistic act , Richardson noted that Laybourne @-@ Smith was both a member of the National War Committee and sat on the sub @-@ committee which drafted the rules of the competition , and thus it may have been considered " improper " to accept the money .
When announced to the public the design was " universally hailed as a masterpiece " . Nevertheless , in writing his report on the result of the judging , Murdoch stated of the winning architect that he " depends almost entirely on the sculptor to tell the story of the memorial , employing in his design no more architecture than that required to successfully frame and set his sculptural subjects , and to provide accommodation to the extent asked for by the conditions " . This view was echoed by Inglis , who described the architecture as " essentially a frame for statuary " — an approach that he felt was " unusual " for an architect . As a result of this dependency on the sculpture , some of the other contestants expressed concerns , arguing that the contest was about architectural works rather than sculptural ones , even though the conditions of the competition specifically allowed for sculpture in the proposals .
= = = Construction = = =
Construction of the memorial began in 1928 with the cut and placement of marble blocks from Macclesfield and Angaston . The South Australian Monumental Works were chosen to work on the construction , with Alan Tillett as the principal . Although no sculptor was named in the winning proposal , it did make mention of a possible candidate — who later proved to be Rayner Hoff , a Sydney @-@ based sculptor born in England . Rayner Hoff produced the designs for the sculptures from his Sydney studio , with the bronze castings from Hoff 's plaster models being produced by the South Australian firm A. W. Dobbie and Company . ( Hoff had expressed reservations that a South Australian company would be capable of handling bronzes of the required size , but a test casting of the lion 's head from the memorial was sufficient to overcome his concerns ) . The two angel reliefs sculpted from the Angaston marble were produced by Julius Henschke in situ from Hoff 's designs , expressed through one @-@ third sized plaster models which Henschke then scaled to suit .
Significant delays occurred during construction after a strike by the stonemasons . The stonemasons were demanding a 44 @-@ hour week and to be paid at " outside rates " , ( rates of pay for stonemasons were based on whether or not the work was to be constructed on site in the open air , or inside under cover — Tillet was paying the lower " inside rates " , even though most of the work was to be conducted on the site ) . However , Tillet had tendered on the basis of a 48 @-@ hour week at inside rates , and paying extra would have caused significant financial problems . Tillet eventually won after the dispute went before the courts , but the strike had caused considerable financial damage to Tillet 's company , which went into receivership in 1930 and stayed in that state until after the memorial was completed .
The South Australian Government had dedicated £ 25 @,@ 000 for the memorial . It was estimated that bulk of the expense would be masonry at £ 15 @,@ 300 with sculptural work and landscaping requiring £ 8 @,@ 500 and £ 1 @,@ 200 respectively . However , the final cost of construction pushed this out to approximately £ 30 @,@ 000 .
= = = Opening = = =
The National War Memorial in South Australia became the fourth state World War I memorial to be opened when it was unveiled in 1931 . Inglis notes that this is in keeping with the size of the constituency , arguing that " [ t ] he larger the constituency that each of these collective tributes had to represent , the later it was built " . It was unveiled before a crowd of almost 75 @,@ 000 on Anzac Day , 25 April 1931 , ( the 16th anniversary of the Gallipoli landing ) , by the Governor Sir Alexander Hore @-@ Ruthven . The crowd , " as huge a crowd as anyone could remember assembling in the city " , was unable to fit in front of the memorial , so many thousands assembled at the Cross of Sacrifice in Pennington Gardens to await a later ceremony . Hore @-@ Ruthven was introduced by the acting state premier , Bill Denny MC , whose involvement in the unveiling , according to Inglis , was unusual for a Labor politician .
= = = Commemorative activities = = =
The first dawn service to be conducted at the memorial was held on Anzac Day 1935 , and was attended by 200 – 300 people .
= = = Restoration work = = =
In 2001 , the memorial 's 70th anniversary year , a three @-@ month remedial project was undertaken , restoring the bronze and stonework details and reinforcing the foundations . The work was completed just days before the Remembrance Day services . In 2002 the architects responsible for the restoration , Bruce Harry & Associates , were awarded a Heritage merit award for their work on the memorial by the Royal Australian Institute of Architects .
= = Design = =
The rules of the competition limited the space for the memorial to the " one half acre " of land that was excised from the grounds of Government House . The design submitted by Woods , Bagot , Jory & Laybourne Smith easily met this requirement , as the memorial was designed to fit on an ellipse with a major axis of 18 @.@ 3 m ( 60 ft ) in length and a minor axis of 15 @.@ 5 m ( 51 ft ) . Standing at a height of over 14 m ( 46 ft ) , the structure was carefully placed back from North Terrace to provide space for " public gatherings of a ceremonial nature " and to allow for the proposed widening of the street .
The monument has two sides , referred to by the architects as the reverse and the obverse of the work , which they likened to the two sides of a coin . These two aspects represent the prologue and the epilogue of war . Each side features a relief carved from Angaston marble and framed by the " rough @-@ hewn " arch carved out of marble from Macclesfield , while the granite steps leading up to the monument are constructed of Harcourt granite , as specified in the original proposal . ( The architects had preferred the local West Island granite , but acknowledged that the Harcourt granite was " the best available " unless the government would agree to reopen the quarry on West Island ) . The materials were chosen in order to provide continuity with Parliament House , located a short distance away along North Terrace .
To represent the prologue to the war , the obverse of the monument ( the side facing North Terrace ) features a relief of the Spirit of Duty appearing as a vision before the youth of South Australia , represented in the work by a sculptural group consisting of a girl , a student and a farmer abandoning the " symbols of their craft " . The three are depicted in normal dress , as they are not yet soldiers and are currently unprepared for the war that is to come , and they are facing away from the world as they look to the vision before them . In Bagot 's original plan , submitted for the 1924 competition , there was to be but a single nude figure kneeling before the vision ( for which Bagot posed while in Europe ) , but Laybourne @-@ Smith 's 1926 submission became grander in its scope . In addition , Bagot 's original designs were naturalistic , with the Spirit of Duty depicted as a female figure , but under Hoff 's direction the figure was changed to male , and the style of the reliefs was changed to Art Deco — a " radically new " art style for Australia at the time . Hoff , however , presented the sculptural group in the original naturalistic style , thus providing a " bridge between the Renaissance @-@ style architecture and the Art Deco of the reliefs " .
On the reverse side of the monument , facing away from the traffic , is a relief carved into the marble representing the epilogue of the war and depicting the Spirit of Compassion as a winged spirit of womanhood bearing aloft a stricken youth . Beneath the figure is situated the Fountain of Compassion , the flow of water representing the " constant flow of memories " , while the lion 's head from which it emerges , ( and which bears the Imperial Crown ) , is representative of the British Commonwealth of Nations .
The designers acknowledged that the symbolism — especially that of the reverse side — does not represent " victory " in the traditional sense . They stated that the " Arch of Triumph which was built in honour of a Caesar , a Napoleon , no longer expresses the feelings of modern democracy after an international struggle " . Instead , the memorial represented a spiritual victory , in which was displayed a " willingness to serve and to sacrifice " .
Within the memorial the architects added an inner shrine , or Record Room , in which could be recorded the names of the South Australians who fell during the war . While the design did not specify the exact form that this would take , in the completed memorial these names are inscribed in the bronzes that line the walls . The design also allowed for a cenotaph within the inner shrine , which the designers suggested could either be used as a symbolic representation of the unknown soldier or as the marker to an actual grave , although this aspect was never realised .
The monument is designed to honour both the war dead and all who served in the war — one face being inscribed to those who died in the war , while the other is dedicated to " all who served " . On the obverse side is inscribed the words " To perpetuate the courage , loyalty , and sacrifice of those who served in the Great War 1914 – 1918 " , while the reverse states " All honour give to those who , nobly striving , nobly fell that we might live " . Above the two entrances to the inner shrine were to be inscribed the names of the major theaters in which Australians served in the Great War . Originally it was suggested that this was to be Egypt , Gallipoli and Palestine on one side , with France on the other , but in the final work Belgium was added to the list .
Although the central square mile of the City of Adelaide is designed to the points of the compass , the monument sits at a 45 degree angle to North Terrace . The architects provided two reasons for this . First , it was observed that " monuments suffer materially from monotonous lighting " when they face to the south ; and second , the placing of the monument to face a north @-@ west direction allows it to be in line with both the Cross of Sacrifice and St. Peter 's Cathedral . In addition to these two arguments , Richardson also notes that the diagonal positioning of the memorial permits the dawn sun to fall on the facade .
= = Adjacent memorials = =
Although the National War Memorial was initially proposed as a memorial to those who served in " The Great War " , the site has since grown to incorporate a number of smaller memorials . These include a memorial to the Battle of Lone Pine ; the " French Memorial " , which commemorates those who fought and died in France during the first and second World Wars ; an honour roll of those who died in World War II ; and the " Australian Armed Forces Memorial " , encompassing the Malayan Emergency of 1948 – 1960 , the Korean War , the Indonesia @-@ Malaysia confrontation in Borneo , and the Vietnam War . In addition , the wall which surrounds the northern and western sides of the site features the six " Crosses of Memory " — a series of " simple wooden crosses " commemorating the Siege of Tobruk from 1941 and the 10th , 27th , 48th and 50th battalions of 1916 .
|
= History of the Great Wall of China =
The history of the Great Wall of China began when fortifications built by various states during the Spring and Autumn ( 771 – 476 BC ) and Warring States periods ( 475 – 221 BC ) were connected by the first emperor of China , Qin Shi Huang , to protect his newly founded Qin dynasty ( 221 – 206 BC ) against incursions by nomads from Inner Asia . The walls were built of rammed earth , constructed using forced labour , and by 212 BC ran from Gansu to the coast of southern Manchuria .
Later dynasties adopted different policies towards northern frontier defense . The Han ( 202 BC – 220 AD ) , the Northern Qi ( 550 – 574 ) , the Sui ( 589 – 618 ) , and particularly the Ming ( 1369 – 1644 ) were among those that rebuilt , re @-@ manned , and expanded the Walls , although they rarely followed Qin 's routes . The Han extended the fortifications furthest to the west , the Qi built about 1 @,@ 600 kilometres ( 990 mi ) of new walls , while the Sui mobilised over a million men in their wall @-@ building efforts . Conversely , the Tang ( 618 – 907 ) , the Song ( 960 – 1279 ) , the Yuan ( 1271 – 1368 ) , and the Qing ( 1644 – 1911 ) mostly did not build frontier walls , instead opting for other solutions to the Inner Asian threat like military campaigning and diplomacy .
Although a useful deterrent against raids , at several points throughout its history the Great Wall failed to stop enemies , including in 1644 when the Manchu Qing marched through the gates of Shanhai Pass and replaced the most ardent of the wall @-@ building dynasties , the Ming , as rulers of China .
The Great Wall of China visible today largely dates from the Ming dynasty , as they rebuilt much of the wall in stone and brick , often extending its line through challenging terrain . Some sections remain in relatively good condition or have been renovated , while others have been damaged or destroyed for ideological reasons , deconstructed for their building materials , or lost due to the ravages of time . For long an object of fascination for foreigners , the wall is now a revered national symbol and a popular tourist destination .
= = Geographical considerations = =
The conflict between the Chinese and the nomads , from which the need for the Great Wall arose , stemmed from differences in geography . The 15 " isohyet marks the extent of settled agriculture , dividing the fertile fields of China to the south and the semi @-@ arid grasslands of Inner Asia to the north . The climates and the topography of the two regions led to distinct modes of societal development .
According to the model by sinologist Karl August Wittfogel , the loess soils of Shaanxi made it possible for the Chinese to develop irrigated agriculture early on . Although this allowed them to expand into the lower reaches of the Yellow River valley , such extensive waterworks on an ever @-@ increasing scale required collective labour , something that could only be managed by some form of bureaucracy . Thus the scholar @-@ bureaucrats came to the fore to keep track of the income and expenses of the granaries . Walled cities grew up around the granaries for reasons of defence along with ease of administration ; they kept invaders out and ensured that citizens remained within . These cities combined to become feudal states , which eventually united to become an empire . Likewise , according to this model , walls not only enveloped cities as time went by , but also lined the borders of the feudal states and eventually the whole Chinese empire to provide protection against raids from the agrarian northern steppes .
The steppe societies of Inner Asia , whose climate favoured a pastoral economy , stood in stark contrast to the Chinese mode of development . As animal herds are migratory by nature , communities could not afford to be stationary and therefore evolved as nomads . According to the influential Mongolist Owen Lattimore this lifestyle proved to be incompatible with the Chinese economic model . As the steppe population grew , pastoral agriculture alone could not support the population , and tribal alliances needed to be maintained by material rewards . For these needs , the nomads had to turn to the settled societies to get grains , metal tools , and luxury goods , which they could not produce by themselves . If denied trade by the settled peoples , the nomads would resort to raiding or even conquest .
Potential nomadic incursion from three main areas of Inner Asia caused concern to northern China : Mongolia to the north , Manchuria to the northeast , and Xinjiang to the northwest . Of the three , China 's chief concern since the earliest times had been Mongolia – the home of many of the country 's fiercest enemies including the Xiongnu , the Xianbei , the Khitans , and the Mongols . The Gobi Desert , which accounts for two @-@ thirds of Mongolia 's area , divided the main northern and southern grazing lands and pushed the pastoral nomads to the fringes of the steppe . On the southern side ( Inner Mongolia ) , this pressure brought the nomads into contact with China .
For the most part , barring intermittent passes and valleys ( the major one being the corridor through Zhangjiakou and the Juyong Pass ) , the North China Plain remained shielded from the Mongolian steppe by the Yin Mountains . However , if this defence were breached , China 's flat terrain offered no protection to the cities on the plain , including the imperial capitals of Beijing , Kaifeng , and Luoyang . Heading west along the Yin Mountains , the range ends where the Yellow River circles northwards upstream in the area known as the Ordos Loop – technically part of the steppe , but capable of irrigated agriculture . Although the Yellow River formed a theoretical natural boundary with the north , such a border so far into the steppe was difficult to maintain . The lands south of the Yellow River — the Hetao , the Ordos Desert , and the Loess Plateau — provided no natural barriers on the approach to the Wei River valley , the oft @-@ called cradle of Chinese civilization where the ancient capital Xi 'an lay . As such , control of the Ordos remained extremely important for the rulers of China : not only for potential influence over the steppe , but also for the security of China proper . The region 's strategic importance combined with its untenability led many dynasties to place their first walls here .
Although Manchuria is home to the agricultural lands of the Liao River valley , its location beyond the northern mountains relegated it to the relative periphery of Chinese concern . When Chinese state control became weak , at various points in history Manchuria fell under the control of the forest peoples of the area , including the Jurchens and the Manchus . The most crucial route that links Manchuria and the North China Plain is a narrow coastal strip of land , wedged between the Bohai Sea and the Yan Mountains , called the Shanhai Pass ( literally the " mountain and sea pass " ) . The pass gained much importance during the later dynasties , when the capital was set in Beijing , a mere 300 kilometres ( 190 mi ) away . In addition to the Shanhai Pass , a handful of mountain passes also provide access from Manchuria into China through the Yan Mountains , chief among them the Gubeikou and Xifengkou ( Chinese : 喜峰口 ) .
Xinjiang , considered part of the Turkestan region , consists of an amalgamation of deserts , oases , and dry steppe barely suitable for agriculture . When influence from the steppe powers of Mongolia waned , the various Central Asian oasis kingdoms and nomadic clans like the Göktürks and Uyghurs were able to form their own states and confederations that threatened China at times . China proper is connected to this area by the Hexi Corridor , a narrow string of oases bounded by the Gobi Desert to the north and the high Tibetan Plateau to the south . In addition to considerations of frontier defence , the Hexi Corridor also formed an important part of the Silk Road trade route . Thus it was also in China 's economic interest to control this stretch of land , and hence the Great Wall 's western terminus is in this corridor — the Yumen Pass during Han times and the Jiayu Pass during the Ming dynasty and thereafter .
= = Pre @-@ Imperial China ( 7th century – 221 BC ) = =
One of the first mentions of a wall built against northern invaders is found in a poem , dated from the seventh century BC , recorded in the Classic of Poetry . The poem tells of a king , now identified as King Xuan ( r . 827 – 782 BC ) of the Western Zhou dynasty ( 1046 – 771 BC ) , who commanded General Nan Zhong ( 南仲 ) to build a wall in the northern regions to fend off the Xianyun . The Xianyun , whose base of power was in the Ordos region , were regarded as part of the charioteering Rong tribes , and their attacks aimed at the early Zhou capital region of Haojing were probably the reason for King Xuan 's response . Nan Zhong 's campaign was recorded as a great victory . However , only a few years later in 771 BC another branch of the Rong people , the Quanrong , responded to a summons by the renegade Marquess of Shen by over @-@ running the Zhou defences and laying waste to the capital . The cataclysmic event killed King Xuan 's successor King You ( 795 – 771 BC ) , forced the court to move the capital east to Chengzhou ( 成周 , later known as Luoyang ) a year later , and thus ushered in the Eastern Zhou dynasty ( 770 – 256 BC ) . Most importantly , the fall of Western Zhou redistributed power to the states that had acknowledged Zhou 's nominal rulership . The rule of the Eastern Zhou dynasty was marked by bloody interstate anarchy . With smaller states being annexed and larger states waging constant war upon one another , many rulers came to feel the need to erect walls to protect their borders . Of the earliest textual reference to such a wall was the State of Chu 's wall of 656 BC , 1 @,@ 400 metres ( 4 @,@ 600 ft ) of which were excavated in southern Henan province in the modern era . The State of Qi also had fortified borders up by the 7th century BC , and the extant portions in Shandong province had been christened the Great Wall of Qi . The State of Wei built two walls , the western one completed in 361 BC and the eastern in 356 BC , with the extant western wall found in Hancheng , Shaanxi . Even non @-@ Chinese peoples built walls , such as the Di state of Zhongshan and the Yiqu Rong ( 義渠 ) , whose walls were intended to defend against the State of Qin .
Of these walls , those of the northern states Yan , Zhao , and Qin were connected by Qin Shi Huang when he united the Chinese states in 221 BC .
The State of Yan , the easternmost of the three northern states , began to erect walls after the general Qin Kai drove the Donghu people back " a thousand li " during the reign of King Zhao ( 燕昭王 ; r . 311 – 279 BC ) . The Yan wall stretched from the Liaodong peninsula , through Chifeng , and into northern Hebei , possibly bringing its western terminus near the Zhao walls . Another Yan wall was erected to the south to defend against the Zhao ; it was southwest of present @-@ day Beijing and ran parallel to the Juma River for several dozen miles .
The Zhao walls to the north were built under King Wuling of Zhao ( r . 325 – 299 BC ) , whose groundbreaking introduction of nomadic cavalry into his army reshaped Chinese warfare and gave Zhao an initial advantage over his opponents . He attacked the Xiongnu tribes of Linhu ( 林胡 ) and Loufan ( 樓煩 ) to the north , then waged war on the state of Zhongshan until it was annexed in 296 BC . In the process , he constructed the northernmost fortified frontier deep in nomadic territory . The Zhao walls were dated in the 1960s to be from King Wuling 's reign : a southern long wall in northern Henan encompassing the Yanmen Pass ; a second line of barricades encircling the Ordos Loop , extending from Zhangjiakou in the east to the ancient fortress of Gaoque ( 高闕 ) in the Urad Front Banner ; and a third , northernmost line along the southern slopes of the Yin Mountains , extending from Qinghe in the east , passing north of Hohhot , and into Baotou .
Qin was originally a state on the western fringe of the Chinese political sphere , but it grew into a formidable power in the later parts of the Warring States period when it aggressively expanded in all directions . In the north , the state of Wei and the Yiqu built walls to protect themselves from Qin aggression , but were still unable to stop Qin from eating into their territories . The Qin reformist Shang Yang forced the Wei out of their walled area west of the Yellow River in 340 BC , and King Huiwen of Qin ( r . 338 – 311 BC ) took 25 Yiqu forts in a northern offensive . When King Huiwen died , his widow the Queen Dowager Xuan ( 宣太后 ) acted as regent because the succeeding sons were deemed too young to govern . During the reign of King Zhaoxiang ( r . 306 – 251 BC ) , the queen dowager apparently entered illicit relations with the Yiqu king and gave birth to two of his sons , but later tricked and killed the Yiqu king . Following that coup , the Qin army marched into Yiqu territory at the queen dowager 's orders ; the Qin annihilated the Yiqu remnants and thus came to possess the Ordos region . At this point the Qin built a wall around their new territories to defend against the true nomads even further north , incorporating the Wei walls . As a result , an estimated total of 1 @,@ 775 kilometres ( 1 @,@ 103 mi ) of Qin walls ( including spurts ) extended from southern Gansu to the bank of the Yellow River in the Jungar Banner , close to the border with Zhao at the time .
The walls , known as Changcheng ( 長城 ) – literally " long walls " , but often translated as " Great Wall " – were mostly constructed of tamped earth , with some parts built with stones . Where natural barriers like ravines and rivers sufficed for defence , the walls were erected sparingly , but long fortified lines were laid where such advantageous terrains did not exist . Often in addition to the wall , the defensive system included garrisons and beacon towers inside the wall , and watchtowers outside at regular intervals . In terms of defence , the walls were generally effective at countering cavalry shock tactics , but there are doubts as to whether these early walls were actually defensive in nature . Nicola Di Cosmo points out that the northern frontier walls were built far to the north and included traditionally nomadic lands , and so rather than being defensive , the walls indicate the northward expansions of the three northern states and their desire to safeguard their recent territorial acquisitions . This theory is supported by the archeological discovery of nomadic artifacts within the walls , suggesting the presence of pre @-@ existing or conquered barbarian societies . It is entirely possible , as Western scholars like di Cosmo and Lattimore suggest , that nomadic aggression against the Chinese in the coming centuries was partly caused by Chinese expansionism during this period .
= = Qin dynasty ( 221 – 206 BC ) = =
In 221 BC , the state of Qin completed its conquest over the other Warring States and united China under Qin Shi Huang , the first emperor of China . These conquests , combined with the Legalist reforms started by Shang Yang in the 4th century BC , transformed China from a loose confederation of feudal states to an authoritarian empire . With the transformation , Qin became able to command a far greater assembly of labourers to be used in public works than the prior feudal kingdoms . Also , once unification was achieved , Qin found itself in possession of a large professional army with no more internal enemies to fight and thus had to find a new use for them . Soon after the conquests , in the year 215 BC , the emperor sent the famed general Meng Tian to the Ordos region to drive out the Xiongnu nomads settled there , who had risen from beyond the fallen marginal states along the northern frontier . Qin 's campaign against the Xiongnu was preemptive in nature , since there was no pressing nomadic menace to be faced at the time ; its aim was to annexe the ambiguous territories of the Ordos and to clearly define the Qin 's northern borders . Once the Xiongnu were chased away , Meng Tian introduced 30 @,@ 000 settler families to colonize the newly conquered territories .
Wall configurations were changed to reflect the new borders under the Qin . General Meng Tian erected walls beyond the northern loop of the Yellow River , effectively linking the border walls of Qin , Zhao , and Yan . Concurrent to the building of the frontier wall was the destruction of the walls within China that used to divide one warring state from another — contrary to the outer walls , which were built to stabilize the newly united China , the inner walls threatened the unity of the empire . In the following year , 214 BC , Qin Shi Huang ordered new fortifications to be built along the Yellow River to the west of the Ordos while work continued in the north . This work was completed probably by 212 BC , signalled by Qin Shi Huang 's imperial tour of inspection and the construction of the Direct Road ( 直道 ) connecting the capital Xianyang with the Ordos . The result was a series of long walls running from Gansu to the seacoast in Manchuria .
Details of the construction were not found in the official histories , but it could be inferred that the construction conditions were made especially difficult by the long stretches of mountains and semi @-@ desert that the Great Wall traversed , the sparse populations of these areas , and the frigid winter climate . Although the walls were rammed earth , so the bulk of the building material could be found in situ , transportation of additional supplies and labour remained difficult for the reasons named above . The sinologist Derk Bodde posits in The Cambridge History of China that " for every man whom Meng Tian could put to work at the scene of actual construction , dozens must have been needed to build approaching roads and to transport supplies . " This is supported by the Han dynasty statesman Zhufu Yan 's description of Qin Shi Huang 's Ordos project in 128 BC :
... the land was brackish and arid , crops could not be grown on them . ... At the time , the young men being drafted were forced to haul boats and barges loaded with baggage trains upstream to sustain a steady supply of food and fodder to the front . ... Commencing at the departure point a man and his animal could carry thirty zhong ( about 176 kilograms ( 388 lb ) ) of food supply , by the time they arrived at the destination , they merely delivered one dan ( about 29 kilograms ( 64 lb ) ) of supply . ... When the populace had become tired and weary they started to dissipate and abscond . The orphans , the frail , the widowed and the seniors were desperately trying to escape from their appallingly derelict state and died on the wayside as they wandered away from their home . People started to revolt .
The settlement of the north continued up to Qin Shi Huang 's death in 210 BC , upon which Meng Tian was ordered to commit suicide in a succession conspiracy . Before killing himself , Meng Tian expressed regret for his walls : " Beginning at Lintao and reaching to Liaodong , I built walls and dug moats for more than ten thousand li ; was it not inevitable that I broke the earth 's veins along the way ? This then was my offense . "
Meng Tian 's settlements in the north were abandoned , and the Xiongnu nomads moved back into the Ordos Loop as the Qin empire became consumed by widespread rebellion due to public discontent . Owen Lattimore concluded that the whole project relied upon military power to enforce agriculture on a land more suited for herding , resulting in " the anti @-@ historical paradox of attempting two mutually exclusive forms of development simultaneously " that was doomed to fail .
= = Han dynasty ( 206 BC – 220 AD ) = =
In 202 BC , the former peasant Liu Bang emerged victorious from the Chu – Han Contention that followed the rebellion that toppled the Qin dynasty , and proclaimed himself Emperor of the Han dynasty , becoming known as Emperor Gaozu of Han ( r . 202 – 195 BC ) to posterity . Unable to address the problem of the resurgent Xiongnu in the Ordos region through military means , Emperor Gaozu was forced to appease the Xiongnu . In exchange for peace , the Han offered tributes along with princesses to marry off to the Xiongnu chiefs . These diplomatic marriages would become known as heqin , and the terms specified that the Great Wall ( determined to be either the Warring States period Qin state wall or a short stretch of wall south of Yanmen Pass ) was to serve as the line across which neither party would venture . In 162 BC , Gaozu 's son Emperor Wen clarified the agreement , suggesting the Xiongnu chanyu held authority north of the Wall and the Han emperor held authority south of it . Sima Qian , the author of the Records of the Grand Historian , describes the result of this agreement as one of peace and friendship : " from the chanyu downwards , all the Xiongnu grew friendly with the Han , coming and going along the Long Wall " . However , Chinese records show that the Xiongnu often did not respect the agreement , as the Xiongnu cavalry numbering up to 100 @,@ 000 made several intrusions into Han territory despite the intermarriage .
To Chinese minds , the heqin policy was humiliating and ran contrary to the Sinocentric world order like " a person hanging upside down " , as the statesman Jia Yi ( d . 169 BC ) puts it . These sentiments manifested themselves in the Han court in the form of the pro @-@ war faction , who advocated the reversal of Han 's policy of appeasement . By the reign of Emperor Wu ( r . 141 – 87 BC ) , the Han felt comfortable enough to go to war with the Xiongnu . After a botched attempt at luring the Xiongnu army into an ambush at the Battle of Mayi in 133 BC , the era of heqin @-@ style appeasement was broken and the Han – Xiongnu War went into full swing .
As the Han – Xiongnu War progressed in favour of the Han , the Wall became maintained and extended beyond Qin lines . In 127 BC , General Wei Qing invaded the much @-@ contested Ordos region as far as the Qin fortifications set up by Meng Tian . In this way , Wei Qing reconquered the irrigable lands north of the Ordos and restored the spur of defences protecting that territory from the steppe . In addition to rebuilding the walls , archeologists believe that the Han also erected thousands of kilometres of walls from Hebei to Inner Mongolia during Emperor Wu 's reign . The fortifications here include embankments , beacon stations , and forts , all constructed with a combination of tamped @-@ earth cores and stone frontages . From the Ordos Loop , the sporadic and non @-@ continuous Han Great Wall followed the northern edge of the Hexi Corridor through the cities of Wuwei , Zhangye , and Jiuquan , leading into the Juyan Lake Basin , and terminating in two places : the Yumen Pass in the north , or the Yang Pass to the south , both in the vicinity of Dunhuang . Yumen Pass was the most westerly of all Han Chinese fortifications – further west than the western terminus of the Ming Great Wall at Jiayu Pass , about 460 kilometres ( 290 mi ) to the east . The garrisons of the watchtowers on the wall were supported by civilian farming and by military agricultural colonies known as tuntian . Behind this line of fortifications , the Han government was able to maintain its settlements and its communications to the Western Regions in central Asia , generally secure from attacks from the north .
The campaigns against the Xiongnu and other nomadic peoples of the west exhausted the imperial treasury , and the expansionist policies were reverted in favour of peace under Emperor Wu 's successors . The peace was largely respected even when the Han throne was usurped by the minister Wang Mang in 9 AD , beginning a brief 15 @-@ year interregnum known as the Xin dynasty ( 9 – 23 ) . Despite high tensions between the Xin and the Xiongnu resulting in the deployment of 300 @,@ 000 men on the Great Wall , no major fighting broke out beyond minor raids . Instead , popular discontent led to banditry and , ultimately , full @-@ scale rebellion . The civil war ended with the Liu clan on the throne again , beginning the Eastern Han dynasty ( 25 – 220 ) .
The restorer Emperor Guangwu ( r . 25 – 57 AD ) initiated several projects to consolidate his control within the frontier regions . Defense works were established to the east of the Yanmen Pass , with a line of fortifications and beacon fires stretching from Pingcheng County ( present @-@ day Datong ) through the valley of the Sanggan River to Dai County , Shanxi . By 38 AD , as a result of raids by the Xiongnu further to the west against the Wei River valley , orders were given for a series of walls to be constructed as defences for the Fen River , the southward course of the Yellow River , and the region of the former imperial capital , Chang 'an . These constructions were defensive in nature , which marked a shift from the offensive walls of the preceding Emperor Wu and the rulers of the Warring States . By the early 40s AD the northern frontiers of China had undergone drastic change : the line of the imperial frontier followed not the advanced positions conquered by Emperor Wu but the rear defences indicated roughly by the modern ( Ming dynasty ) Great Wall . The Ordos region , northern Shanxi , and the upper Luan River basin around Chengde were abandoned and left to the control of the Xiongnu . The rest of the frontier remained somewhat intact until the end of the Han dynasty , with the Dunhuang manuscripts ( discovered in 1900 ) indicating that the military establishment in the northwest was maintained for most of the Eastern Han period .
= = Period of Disunity to the Sui dynasty ( 220 – 618 ) = =
Following the end of the Han dynasty in 220 , China disintegrated into warlord states , which in 280 were briefly reunited under the Western Jin dynasty ( 265 – 316 ) . There are ambiguous accounts of the Jin rebuilding the Qin wall , but these walls apparently offered no resistance during the Wu Hu uprising , when the nomadic tribes of the steppe evicted the Chinese court from northern China . What followed was a succession of short @-@ lived states in northern China known as the Sixteen Kingdoms , until they were all consolidated by the Xianbei @-@ led Northern Wei dynasty ( 386 – 535 ) .
As Northern Wei became more economically dependent on agriculture , the Xianbei emperors made a conscious decision to adopt Chinese customs , including passive methods of frontier defence . In 423 , a defence line over 2 @,@ 000 li ( 1 @,@ 080 kilometres ( 670 mi ) ) long was built to resist the Rouran ; its path roughly followed the old Zhao wall from Chicheng County in Hebei Province to Wuyuan County , Inner Mongolia . In 446 , 100 @,@ 000 men were put to work building an inner wall from Yanqing , passing south of the Wei capital Pingcheng , and ending up near Pingguan on the eastern bank of the Yellow River . The two walls formed the basis of the double @-@ layered Xuanfu – Datong wall system that protected Beijing a thousand years later during the Ming dynasty .
The Northern Wei collapsed in 535 due to civil insurrection to be eventually succeeded by the Northern Qi ( 550 – 575 ) and Northern Zhou ( 557 – 580 ) . Faced with the threat of the Göktürks from the north , from 552 to 556 the Qi built up to 3 @,@ 000 li ( about 1 @,@ 600 kilometres ( 990 mi ) ) of wall from Shanxi to the sea at Shanhai Pass . Over the course of the year 555 alone , 1 @.@ 8 million men were mobilized to build the Juyong Pass and extend its wall by 450 kilometres ( 280 mi ) through Datong to the eastern banks of the Yellow River . In 557 a secondary wall was built inside the main one . These walls were built quickly from local earth and stones or formed by natural barriers . Two stretches of the stone @-@ and @-@ earth Qi wall still stand in Shanxi today , measuring 3 @.@ 3 metres ( 11 ft ) wide at their bases and 3 @.@ 5 metres ( 11 ft ) high on average . In 577 the Northern Zhou conquered the Northern Qi and in 580 made repairs to the existing Qi walls . The route of the Qi and Zhou walls would be mostly followed by the later Ming wall west of Gubeikou , which includes reconstructed walls from Qi and Zhou . In more recent times , the reddish remnants of the Zhou ramparts in Hebei gave rise to the nickname " Red Wall " .
The Sui took power from the Northern Zhou in 581 before reuniting China in 589 . Sui 's founding emperor , Emperor Wen of Sui ( r . 581 – 604 ) , carried out considerable wall construction in 581 in Hebei and Shanxi to defend against Ishbara Qaghan of the Göktürks . The new walls proved insufficient in 582 when Ishbara Qaghan avoided them by riding west to raid Gansu and Shaanxi with 400 @,@ 000 archers . Between 585 and 588 Emperor Wen sought to close this gap by putting walls up in the Ordos Mountains ( between Suide and Lingwu ) and Inner Mongolia . In 586 as many as 150 @,@ 000 men are recorded as involved in the construction . Emperor Wen 's son Emperor Yang ( r . 604 – 618 ) continued to build walls . In 607 – 8 he sent over a million men to build a wall from Yulin to near Huhhot to protect the newly refurbished eastern capital Luoyang . Part of the Sui wall survives to this day in Inner Mongolia as earthen ramparts some 2 @.@ 5 metres ( 8 ft 2 in ) high with towers rising to double that . The dynastic history of Sui estimates that 500 @,@ 000 people died building the wall , adding to the number of casualties caused by Emperor Yang 's projects including the aforementioned redesign of Luoyang , the Grand Canal , and two ill @-@ fated campaigns against Goguryeo . With the economy strained and the populace resentful , the Sui dynasty erupted in rebellion and ended with the assassination of Emperor Yang in 618 .
= = Tang dynasty ( 618 – 907 ) = =
Frontier policy under the Tang dynasty reversed the wall @-@ building activities of most previous dynasties that had occupied northern China since the third century BC , and no extensive wall building took place for the next several hundred years .
Soon after the establishment of the Tang dynasty , during the reign of Emperor Taizong ( r . 626 – 649 ) , the threat of Göktürk tribesmen from the north prompted some court officials to suggest drafting corvée labourers to repair the aging Great Wall . Taizong scoffed at the suggestion , alluding to the Sui walls built in vain : " The Emperor Yang of Sui made the people labor to construct the Great Wall in order to defend against the Turks , but in the end this was of no use . " Instead of building walls , Taizong claimed he " need merely to establish Li Shiji in Jinyang for the dust on the border to settle . " Accordingly , Taizong sent talented generals like Li Shiji with mobile armies to the frontier , while fortifications were mostly limited to a series of walled garrisons , such as the euphemistically @-@ named " cities for accepting surrender " ( 受降城 , shòuxiáng chéng ) that were actually bases from which to launch attacks . As a result of this military strategy , the Tang grew to become one of the largest of all the Chinese empires , destroying the Göktürks of the Eastern Turkic Khaganate and acquiring territory stretching all the way to Kazakhstan .
Nevertheless , records show that in the Kaiyuan era ( 713 – 742 ) of Emperor Xuanzong 's reign , the general Zhang Yue built a wall 90 li ( 48 kilometres ( 30 mi ) ) to the north of Huairong ( 懷戎 ; present @-@ day Huailai County , Hebei ) , although it remains unclear whether he erected new walls or only reinforced the existing Northern Qi walls .
The Great Wall , or the ruins of it , features prominently in the subset of Tang poetry known as biansai shi ( 邊塞詩 , " frontier verse " ) written by scholar @-@ officials assigned along the frontier . Emphasizing the poets ' loneliness and longing for home while hinting at the pointlessness of their posts , these frontier verses are characterized by imagery of desolate landscapes , including the ruins of the now @-@ neglected Great Wall — a direct product of Tang 's frontier policy .
= = Song and the conquest dynasties ( 907 – 1368 ) = =
= = = The northern walls of the Khitan , Jurchens , and Tanguts = = =
After the Tang dynasty ended in 907 , the northern frontier area remained out of Han Chinese hands until the establishment of the Ming dynasty in 1368 . During this period , non @-@ Han " conquest dynasties " ruled the north : the Khitan Liao dynasty ( 907 – 1125 ) and the succeeding Jurchen Jin dynasty ( 1115 – 1234 ) in the east and the Tangut Western Xia ( 1038 – 1227 ) in the west , all of which had built walls against the north .
In 907 , the Khitan chieftain Abaoji succeeded in getting himself appointed khaghan of all Khitan tribes in the north , laying the foundations to what would officially become the Liao dynasty . In 936 , the Khitan supported the Shanxi rebel Shi Jingtang in his revolt against the Shatuo Turkic Later Tang , which had destroyed the usurpers of the Tang in 923 . The Khitan leader , Abaoji 's second son Yelü Deguang , convinced Shi to found a new dynasty ( the Later Jin , 936 – 946 ) , and received the crucial border region known as the Sixteen Prefectures in return . With the Sixteen Prefectures , the Khitan now possessed all the passes and fortifications that controlled access to the plains of northern China , including the main Great Wall line .
Settling in the transitional area between agricultural lands and the steppe , the Khitans became semi @-@ sedentary like their Xianbei predecessors of the Northern Wei , and started to use Chinese methods of defence . In 1026 walls were built through central Manchuria north of Nong 'an County to the banks of the Songhua River . When the Jurchens , once Liao vassals , rose up to overthrow their masters and established the Jin dynasty , they continued Liao 's wall @-@ building activities with extensive work begun before 1138 . Further wall construction took place in 1165 and 1181 under the Jin Emperor Shizhong , and later from 1192 to 1203 during the reign of his successor Emperor Zhangzong .
This long period of wall @-@ building burdened the populace and provoked controversy . Sometime between 1190 and 1196 , during Zhangzong 's reign , the high official Zhang Wangong ( 張萬公 ) and the Censorate recommended that work on the wall be indefinitely suspended due to a recent drought , noting : " What has been begun is already being flattened by sandstorms , and bullying the people into defence works will simply exhaust them . " However , Chancellor Wanyan Xiang ( 完顏襄 ) convinced the emperor of the walls ' merits based on an optimistic cost estimate – " Although the initial outlay for the walls will be one million strings of cash , when the work is done the frontier will be secure with only half the present number of soldiers needed to defend it , which means that every year you will save three million strings of cash ... The benefits will be everlasting " – and so construction continued unabated . All this work created an extensive systems of walls , which consisted of a 700 kilometres ( 430 mi ) " outer wall " from Heilongjiang to Mongolia and a 1 @,@ 000 kilometres ( 620 mi ) network of " inner walls " north and northeast of Beijing . Together , they formed a roughly elliptical web of fortifications 1 @,@ 400 kilometres ( 870 mi ) in length and 440 kilometres ( 270 mi ) in diameter . Some of these walls had inner moats ( from 10 to 60 metres ( 33 to 197 ft ) in width ) , beacon towers , battlements , parapets , and outward @-@ facing semicircular platforms protruding from the wall — features that set the Jin walls apart from their predecessors .
In the west , the Tanguts took control of the Ordos region , where they established the Western Xia dynasty . Although the Xia were not traditionally known for building walls , in 2011 archeologists uncovered 100 kilometres ( 62 mi ) of walls at Ömnögovi Province in Mongolia in what had been Western Xia territory . Radiocarbon analysis showed that they were constructed from 1040 to 1160 . The walls were as tall as 2 @.@ 75 metres ( 9 ft 0 in ) at places when they were discovered , and may have been around 2 metres ( 6 ft 7 in ) taller originally . They were built with mud and saxaul ( a desert shrub ) in one section , and dark basalt blocks in another , suggesting that the rocks may have been quarried from nearby extinct volcanoes and transported to the construction site . Archaeologists have not yet found traces of human activity around this stretch of wall , which suggests that the Xia wall in this location may have been incomplete and not ready for use .
= = = The old Great Walls as Song boundary lines = = =
Han Chinese power during the tumultuous post @-@ Tang era was represented by the Song dynasty ( 960 – 1279 ) , which completed its unification of the Chinese states with the conquest of Wuyue in 971 . Turning to the north after this victory , in 979 the Song eliminated the Northern Han , ultimate successors to the Later Jin , but were unable to take the Sixteen Prefectures from the Liao dynasty . As a result of Song 's military aggression , relations between the Song and Liao remained tense and hostile . One of the battlegrounds in the Song – Liao War was the Great Wall Gap ( 長城口 ) , so named because the southern Yan wall of the Warring States period crossed the Juma River here into Liao territory . The Great Wall Gap saw action in 979 , 988 – 989 , and 1004 , and a Song fortress was built there in 980 . Intermittent wars between the Song and the Liao lasted until January 1005 , when a truce was called and led to the Treaty of Chanyuan . This agreement , among other things , required the Song to pay tribute to the Liao , recognized the Song and Liao as equals , and demarcated the Song – Liao border , the course of which became more clearly defined in a series of subsequent bilateral agreements . Several stretches of the old Great Walls , including the Northern Qi Inner Wall near the Hengshan mountain range , became the border between the Song and the Liao .
In the northwest , the Song were in conflict with the Western Xia , since they occupied what the Song considered as Chinese land lost during the Tang dynasty . The Song utilized the walls built during the reign of Qin 's King Zhaoxiang of the Warring States period , making it the Song – Western Xia border , but the topography of the area was not as sharp and distinct as the Song – Liao defences to the east . The border general Cao Wei ( 曹瑋 ; 973 – 1030 ) deemed the Old Wall itself insufficient to slow a Tangut cavalry attack , and had a deep trench dug alongside . This trench , between 15 and 20 metres ( 49 and 66 ft ) in width and depth , proved an effective defence , but in 1002 the Tanguts caught the Song patrollers off guard and filled the trench to cross the Old Wall . Later , in 1042 , the Tanguts turned the trench against the Song by removing the bridges over it , thereby trapping the retreating army of Ge Huaimin ( 葛懷敏 ) before annihilating it at the Battle of Dingchuan Fortress ( 定川寨 ) .
Despite the war with the Western Xia , the Song also settled land disputes with them by referring to prior agreements , as with the Liao . However , soon after the Jin dynasty overthrew the Liao dynasty , the Jurchens sacked the Song capital in 1127 during the Jin – Song wars , causing the Song court to flee south of the Yangtze River . For the next two and a half centuries , the Great Wall played no role in Han Chinese geopolitics .
= = = The onset of the Mongols = = =
In the 13th century , the Mongol leader Genghis Khan , once a vassal of the Jurchens , rose up against the Jin dynasty . In the ensuing Mongol conquest of the Jin dynasty , the nomadic invaders avoided direct attacks on the Jin fortifications . Instead , when they could , the Mongols simply rode around the walls ; an effective example of this tactic is in 1211 , when they circumvented the substantial fortress in Zhangjiakou and inflicted a terrible defeat upon the Jin armies at the Battle of Yehuling . The Mongols also took advantage of lingering Liao resentment against the Jin ; the Khitan defenders of the garrisons along the Jin walls , such as those in Gubeikou , often preferred to surrender to the Mongols rather than fight them . The only major engagement of note along the main Great Wall line was at the heavily defended Juyong Pass : instead of laying siege , the Mongol general Jebe lured the defenders out into an ambush and charged in through the opened gates . In 1215 , Genghis Khan besieged , captured , and sacked the Jin capital of Yanjing ( modern @-@ day Beijing ) . The Jin dynasty eventually collapsed following the siege of Caizhou in 1234 . Western Xia had already fallen in 1227 , and the Southern Song resisted the Mongols until 1279 .
With that , the Yuan dynasty , established by Genghis Khan 's grandson Khublai Khan , became the first foreign dynasty to rule all of China . Despite being the head of the Mongol Empire , Khublai Khan 's rule over China was not free from the threat of the steppe nomads . The Yuan dynasty faced challenges from rival claimants to the title of Great Khan and from rebellious Mongols in the north . Khublai Khan dealt with such threats by using both military blockades and economic sanctions . Although he established garrisons along the steppe frontier from the Juyan Lake Basin in the far west to Yingchang in the east , Khublai Khan and the Yuan emperors after him did not add to the Great Wall ( except for the ornate Cloud Platform at Juyong Pass ) . When the Venetian traveller Marco Polo wrote of his experiences in China during the reign of Khublai Khan , he did not mention a Great Wall .
= = Ming dynasty ( 1368 – 1644 ) = =
= = = The early walls = = =
In 1368 , the Hongwu Emperor ( Zhu Yuanzhang , r . 1368 – 98 ) ousted the Mongol @-@ led Yuan dynasty from China to inaugurate the Ming dynasty . The Mongols fled back to Mongolia , but even after numerous campaigns , the Mongol problem remained .
During his early reign , Hongwu set up the " eight outer garrisons " close to the steppe and an inner line of forts more suitable for defence . The inner line was the forerunner to the Ming Great Wall . In 1373 , as Ming forces encountered setbacks , Hongwu put more emphasis on defence and adopted Hua Yunlong 's ( 華雲龍 ) suggestion to establish garrisons at 130 passes and other strategic points in the Beijing area . More positions were set up in the years up Hongwu 's death in 1398 , and watchtowers were manned from the Bohai Sea to Beijing and further onto the Mongolian steppes . These positions , however , were not for a linear defence but rather a regional one in which walls did not feature heavily , and offensive tactics remained the overarching policy at the time . In 1421 , the Ming capital was relocated from Nanjing in the south to Beijing in the north , partly to better manage the Mongol situation . Thus defenses were concentrated around Beijing , where stone and earth began to replace rammed earth in strategic passes . A wall was erected by the Ming in Liaodong to protect Han settlers from a possible threat from the Jurched @-@ Mongol Oriyanghan around 1442 . In 1467 – 68 , expansion of the wall provided further protection for the region from against attacks by the Jianzhou Jurchens in the northeast .
Meanwhile , the outer defenses were gradually moved inward , thereby sacrificing a vital foothold in the steppe transitional zone . Despite the withdrawal from the steppe , the Ming military remained in a strong position against the nomads until the Tumu Crisis in 1449 , which caused the collapse of the early Ming security system . Over half of the campaigning Chinese army perished in the conflict , while the Mongols captured the Zhengtong Emperor . This military debacle shattered the Chinese military might that had so impressed and given pause to the Mongols since the beginning of the dynasty , and caused the Ming to be on the defensive ever since .
The deterioration of the Ming military position in the steppe transitional zone gave rise to nomadic raids into Ming territory , including the crucial Ordos region , on a level unprecedented since the dynasty 's founding . After decades of deliberation between an offensive strategy and an accommodative policy , the decision to build the first major Ming walls in the Ordos was agreed upon as an acceptable compromise the 1470s .
Yu Zijun ( 余子俊 ; 1429 – 1489 ) first proposed constructing a wall in the Ordos region in August 1471 , but not until 20 December 1472 did the court and emperor approve the plan . The 1473 victory in the Battle of Red Salt Lake ( 紅鹽池 ) by Wang Yue ( 王越 ) deterred Mongol invasions long enough for Yu Zijun to complete his wall project in 1474 . This wall , a combined effort between Yu Zijun and Wang Yue , stretched from present day Hengcheng ( 橫城 ) in Lingwu ( northwestern Ningxia province ) to Huamachi town ( 花馬池鎮 ) in Yanchi County , and from there to Qingshuiying ( 清水營 ) in northeastern Shaanxi , a total of more than 2000 li ( about 1 @,@ 100 kilometres ( 680 mi ) ) long . Along its length were 800 strong points , sentry posts , beacon @-@ fire towers , and assorted defences . 40 @,@ 000 men were enlisted for this effort , which was completed in several months at a cost of over one million silver taels . This defence system proved its initial worth in 1482 , when a large group of Mongol raiders were trapped within the double lines of fortifications and suffered a defeat by the Ming generals . This was seen as a vindication of Yu Zijun 's strategy of wall @-@ building by the people of the border areas . By the mid @-@ 16th century , Yu 's wall in the Ordos had seen expansion into an extensive defence system . It contained two defence lines : Yu 's wall , called the " great border " ( 大邊 , dàbiān ) , and a " secondary border " ( 二邊 , èrbiān ) built by Yang Yiqing ( 楊一清 ; 1454 – 1530 ) behind it .
Following the success of the Ordos walls , Yu Zijun proposed construction of a further wall that would extend from the Yellow River bend in the Ordos to the Sihaiye Pass ( 四海冶口 ; in present @-@ day Yanqing County ) near the capital Beijing , running a distance of more than 1300 li ( about 700 kilometres ( 430 mi ) ) . The project received approval in 1485 , but Yu 's political enemies harped on the cost overruns and forced Yu to scrap the project and retire the same year . For more than 50 years after Yu 's resignation , political struggle prevented major wall constructions on a scale comparable to Yu 's Ordos project .
However , wall construction continued regardless of court politics during this time . The Ordos walls underwent extension , elaboration , and repair well into the 16th century . Brick and stone started to replace tamped earth as the wall building material , because they offered better protection and durability . This change in material gave rise to a number of necessary accommodations with regard to logistics , and inevitably a drastic increase in costs . Instead of being able to draw on local resources , building projects now required brick @-@ kilns , quarries , and transportation routes to deliver bricks to the work site . Also , masons had to be hired since the local peasantry proved inadequate for the level of sophistication that brick constructions required . Work that originally could be done by one man in a month with earth now required 100 men to do in stone .
= = = The Walls of Xuanfu – Datong and the western reaches = = =
With the Ordos now adequately fortified , the Mongols avoided its walls by riding east to invade Datong and Xuanfu ( 宣府 ; present @-@ day Xuanhua , Hebei Province ) , which were two major garrisons guarding the corridor to Beijing where no walls had been built . The two defence lines of Xuanfu and Datong left by the Northern Qi and the early Ming had deteriorated by this point , and for all intents and purposes the inner line was the capital 's main line of defence .
From 1544 to 1549 , Weng Wanda ( 翁萬達 ; 1498 – 1552 ) embarked on a defensive building program on a scale unprecedented in Chinese history . Troops were re @-@ deployed along the outer line , new walls and beacon towers were constructed , and fortifications were restored and extended along both lines . Firearms and artillery were mounted on the walls and towers during this time , for both defence and signalling purposes . The project 's completion was announced in the sixth month of 1548 . At its height , the Xuan – Da portion of the Great Wall totalled about 850 kilometres ( 530 mi ) of wall , with some sections being doubled @-@ up with two lines of wall , some tripled or even quadrupled . The outer frontier was now protected by a wall called the " outer border " ( 外邊 , wàibiān ) that extended 380 kilometres ( 240 mi ) from the Yellow River 's edge at the Piantou Pass ( 偏頭關 ) along the Inner Mongolia border with Shanxi into Hebei province ; the " inner border " wall ( 內邊 , nèibiān ) ran southeast from Piantou Pass for some 400 kilometres ( 250 mi ) , ending at the Pingxing Pass ; a " river wall " ( 河邊 , hébiān ) also ran from the Piantou Pass and followed the Yellow River southwards for about 70 kilometres ( 43 mi ) .
As with Yu Zijun 's wall in the Ordos , the Mongols shifted their attacks away from the newly strengthened Xuan – Da sector to less well @-@ protected areas . In the west , Shaanxi province became the target of nomads riding west from the Yellow River loop . The westernmost fortress of Ming China , the Jiayu Pass , saw substantial enhancement with walls starting in 1539 , and from there border walls were built discontinuously down the Hexi Corridor to Wuwei , where the low earthen wall split into two . The northern section passed through Zhongwei and Yinchuan , where it met the western edge of the Yellow River loop before connecting with the Ordos walls , while the southern section passed through Lanzhou and continued northeast to Dingbian . The origins and the exact route of this so @-@ called " Tibetan loop " are still not clear .
= = = From Beijing to Shanhai Pass = = =
In 1550 , having once more been refused a request for trade , the Tümed Mongols under Altan Khan invaded the Xuan – Da region . However , despite several attempts , he could not take Xuanfu due to Weng Wanda 's double fortified line while the garrison at Datong bribed him to not attack there . Instead of continuing to operate in the area , he circled around Weng Wanda 's wall to the relatively lightly defended Gubeikou , northeast of Beijing . From there Altan Khan passed through the defences and raided the suburbs of Beijing . According to one contemporary source , the raid took more than 60 @,@ 000 lives and an additional 40 @,@ 000 people became prisoners . As a response to this raid , the focus of the Ming 's northern defences shifted from the Xuan – Da region to the Jizhou ( 薊州鎮 ) and Changping Defence Commands ( 昌平鎮 ) where the breach took place . Later in the same year , the dry @-@ stone walls of the Jizhou – Changping area ( abbreviated as " Ji @-@ Chang " ) were replaced by stone and mortar . These allowed the Chinese to build on steeper , more easily defended slopes and facilitated construction of features such as ramparts , crenelations , and peepholes . The effectiveness of the new walls was demonstrated in the failed Mongol raid of 1554 , where raiders expecting a repeat of the events of 1550 were surprised by the higher wall and stiff Chinese resistance .
In 1567 Qi Jiguang and Tan Lun , successful generals who fended off the coastal pirates , were reassigned to manage the Ji – Chang Defense Commands and step up the defences of the capital region . Under their ambitious and energetic management , 1200 brick watchtowers were built along the Great Wall from 1569 to 1571 . These included the first large @-@ scale use of hollow watchtowers on the Wall : up until this point , most previous towers along the Great Wall had been solid , with a small hut on top for a sentry to take shelter from the elements and Mongol arrows ; the Ji – Chang towers built from 1569 onwards were hollow brick structures , allowing soldiers interior space to live , store food and water , stockpile weapons , and take shelter from Mongol arrows .
Altan Khan eventually made peace with China when it opened border cities for trade in 1571 , alleviating the Mongol need to raid . This , coupled with Qi and Tan 's efforts to secure the frontier , brought a period of relative peace along the border . However , minor raids still happened from time to time when the profits of plunder outweighed those of trade , prompting the Ming to close all gaps along the frontier around Beijing . Areas of difficult terrain once considered impassable were also walled off , leading to the well @-@ known vistas of a stone @-@ faced Great Wall snaking over dramatic landscapes that tourists still see today .
Wall construction continued until the demise of the Ming dynasty in 1644 . In the decades that led to the fall of the Ming dynasty , the Ming court and the Great Wall itself had to deal with simultaneous internal rebellions and the Manchu invasions . In addition to their conquest of Liaodong , the Manchus had raided across the Great Wall for the first time in 1629 , and again in 1634 , 1638 , and 1642 . Meanwhile , the rebels led by warlord Li Zicheng had been gathering strength . In the early months of 1644 , Li Zicheng declared himself the founder of the Shun and marched towards the Ming capital from Shaanxi . His route roughly followed the line of the Great Wall , in order to neutralize its heavily fortified garrisons . The crucial defences of Datong , Xuanfu , and Juyong Pass all surrendered without a fight , and the Chongzhen Emperor hanged himself on 25 April as the Shun army entered Beijing . At this point , the largest remaining Ming fighting force in North China was in Shanhai Pass , where the Great Wall meets the Bohai Sea . Its defender Wu Sangui , wedged between the Shun army within and the Manchus without , decided to surrender to the Manchus and opened the gates for them . The Manchus , having thus entered through the Great Wall , defeated Li Zicheng at the Battle of Shanhai Pass and seized Beijing on June 5 . They eventually defeated both the rebel @-@ founded Shun dynasty and the remaining Ming resistance , establishing their rule over all of China as the Qing dynasty .
Opinions about the Wall 's role in the Ming dynasty 's downfall are mixed . Historians such as Arthur Waldron and Julia Lovell are critical of the whole wall @-@ building exercise in light of its ultimate failure in protecting China ; the former compared the Great Wall with the failed Maginot Line of the French in World War II . However , independent scholar David Spindler notes that the Wall , being only part of a complex foreign policy , received " disproportionate blame " because it was the most obvious relic of that policy .
= = Qing dynasty ( 1644 – 1911 ) = =
The usefulness of the Great Wall as a defence line against northern nomads became questionable under the Qing dynasty , since their territory encompassed vast areas inside and outside the wall : China proper , Manchuria , and Mongolia were all under Qing control . So instead , the Great Wall became the means to limit Han Chinese movement into the steppes . In the case of Manchuria , considered to be the sacred homeland by the ruling Manchu elites , some parts of the Ming Liaodong Wall were repaired so it could serve to control Han Chinese movement into Manchuria alongside the newly erected Willow Palisade .
Culturally , the wall 's symbolic role as a line between civilized society and barbarism was suppressed by the Qing , who were keen to weaken the Han culturalism that had been propagated by the Ming . As a result , no special attention was paid to the Great Wall until the mid @-@ Qing dynasty , when Westerners started to show interest in the structure .
= = = Western appreciation of the Wall = = =
The existence of a colossal wall in Asia had circulated in the Middle East and the West even before the first Europeans arrived in China by sea . The late antiquity historian Ammianus Marcellinus ( 330 ? – 395 ? ) mentioned " summits of lofty walls " enclosing the land of Seres , the country that the Romans believed to be at the eastern end of the Silk Road . In legend , the tribes of Gog and Magog were said to have been locked out by Alexander the Great with walls of steel . Later Arab writers and travellers , such as Rashid @-@ al @-@ Din Hamadani ( 1248 – 1318 ) and Ibn Battuta ( 1304 – 377 ) , would erroneously identify the Great Wall in China with the walls of the Alexander romances . This indicated that Arabs may have heard about China 's Great Wall during earlier periods of China 's history , and associated it with the wall in the Gog and Magog legend , a tale that found its way into the Quran .
Soon after Europeans reached Ming China in the early 16th century , accounts of the Great Wall started to circulate in Europe , even though no European would see it with their own eyes for another century . The work A Treatise of China and the Adjoyning Regions by Gaspar da Cruz ( c . 1520 – 70 ) offered an early discussion of the Great Wall in which he noted , " a Wall of an hundred leagues in length . And some will affirme to bee more than a hundred leagues . " Another early account written by Bishop Juan González de Mendoza ( 1550 – 1620 ) reported a wall five hundred leagues long , but suggested that only one hundred leagues were man @-@ made , with the rest natural rock formations . The Jesuit priest Matteo Ricci ( 1552 – 1610 ) mentioned the Great Wall once in his diary , noting the existence of " a tremendous wall four hundred and five miles long " that formed part of the northern defences of the Ming Empire .
Europeans first witnessed the Great Wall in the early 1600s . Perhaps the first recorded instance of a European actually entering China via the Great Wall came in 1605 , when the Portuguese Jesuit brother Bento de Góis reached the northwestern Jiayu Pass from India . Ivan Petlin 's 1619 deposition for his Russian embassy mission offers an early account based on a first @-@ hand encounter with the Great Wall , and mentions that in the course of the journey his embassy travelled alongside the Great Wall for ten days .
Early European accounts were mostly modest and empirical , closely mirroring contemporary Chinese understanding of the Wall . However , when the Ming Great Wall began to take on a shape still recognizable today , foreign accounts of the Wall slid into hyperbole . In the Atlas Sinensis published in 1665 , the Jesuit Martino Martini described elaborate but atypical stretches of the Great Wall and generalized such fortifications across the whole northern frontier . Furthermore , Martini erroneously identified the Ming Wall as the same wall built by Qin Shi Huang in the 3rd century BC , thereby exaggerating both the Wall 's antiquity and its size . This misconception was compounded by the China Illustrata of Father Athanasius Kircher ( 1602 – 80 ) , which provided pictures of the Great Wall as imagined by a European illustrator . All these and other accounts from missionaries in China contributed to the Orientalism of the eighteenth century , in which a mythical China and its exaggerated Great Wall feature prominently . The French philosopher Voltaire ( 1694 – 1774 ) , for example , frequently wrote about the Great Wall , although his feelings towards it oscillate between unreserved admiration and condemnation of it as a " monument to fear " . The Macartney Embassy of 1793 passed through the Great Wall at Gubeikou on the way to see the Qianlong Emperor in Chengde , who was there for the annual imperial hunt . One of the embassy 's members , John Barrow , later founder of the Royal Geographical Society , spuriously calculated that the amount of stone in the Wall was equivalent to " all the dwelling houses of England and Scotland " and would suffice to encircle the Earth at the equator twice . The illustrations of the Great Wall by Lieutenant Henry William Parish during this mission would be reproduced in influential works such as Thomas Allom 's 1845 China , in a series of views .
Exposure to such works brought many foreign visitors to the Great Wall after China opened its borders as a result of the nation 's defeat in the Opium Wars of the mid @-@ 19th century at the hands of Britain and the other Western powers . The Juyong Pass near Beijing and the " Old Dragon Head , " where the Great Wall meets the sea at the Shanhai Pass , proved popular destinations for these wall watchers .
The travelogues of the later 19th century in turn further contributed to the elaboration and propagation of the Great Wall myth . Examples of this myth 's growth are the false but widespread belief that the Great Wall of China is visible from the Moon or Mars .
= = Modern China ( 1911 – present ) = =
The Xinhai Revolution in 1911 forced the abdication of the last Qing Emperor Puyi and ended China 's last imperial dynasty . The revolutionaries , headed by Sun Yat @-@ sen , were concerned with creating a modern sense of national identity in the chaotic post @-@ imperial era . In contrast to Chinese academics such as Liang Qichao , who tried to counter the West 's fantastic version of the Great Wall , Sun Yat @-@ sen held the view that Qin Shi Huang 's wall preserved the Chinese race , and without it Chinese culture would not have developed enough to expand to the south and assimilate foreign conquerors . Such an endorsement from the " Father of Modern China " started to transform the Great Wall into a national symbol in the Chinese consciousness , though this transformation was hampered by conflicting views of nationalism with regard to the nascent " new China . "
The failure of the new Republic of China fanned disillusionment with traditional Chinese culture and ushered in the New Culture Movement and the May Fourth Movement of the mid @-@ 1910s and 1920s that aimed to dislodge China 's future trajectory from its past . Naturally , the Great Wall of China came under attack as a symbol of the past . For example , an influential writer of this period , Lu Xun , harshly criticized the " mighty and accursed Great Wall " in a short essay : " In reality , it has never served any purpose than to make countless workers labour to death in vain ... [ It ] surrounds everyone . "
Sino @-@ Japanese conflict ( 1931 – 45 ) gave the Great Wall a new lease of life in the eyes of the Chinese . During the 1933 defence of the Great Wall , inadequately @-@ equipped Chinese soldiers held off double their number of Japanese troops for several months . Using the cover of the Great Wall , the Chinese – who were at times only armed with broadswords – were able to beat off a Japanese advance that had the support of aerial bombardment . With the Chinese forces eventually overrun , the subsequent Tanggu Truce stipulated that the Great Wall was to become a demilitarized zone separating China and the newly created Japanese puppet state of Manchukuo . Even so , the determined defence of the Great Wall made it a symbol of Chinese patriotism and the resoluteness of the Chinese people . The Chinese Communist leader Mao Zedong picked up this symbol in his poetry during his " Long March " escaping from Kuomintang prosecution . Near the end of the trek in 1935 , Mao wrote the poem " Mount Liupan " that contains the well @-@ known line that would be carved in stone along the Great Wall in the present day : " Those who fail to reach the Great Wall are not true men " ( 不到长城非好汉 ) . Another noteworthy reference to the Great Wall is in the song " The March of the Volunteers " , whose words came from a stanza in Tian Han 's 1934 poem entitled " The Great Wall " . The song , originally from the anti @-@ Japanese movie Children of Troubled Times , enjoyed continued popularity in China and was selected as the provisional national anthem of the People 's Republic of China ( PRC ) at its establishment in 1949 .
In 1952 , the scholar @-@ turned @-@ bureaucrat Guo Moruo laid out the first modern proposal to repair the Great Wall . Five years later , the renovated Badaling became the first section to be opened to the public since the establishment of the PRC . The Badaling Great Wall has since become a staple stop for foreign dignitaries who come to China , beginning with Nepali prime minister Bishweshwar Prasad Koirala in 1960 , and most notably the American president Richard Nixon in his historic 1972 visit to China . To date , Badaling is still the most visited stretch of the Great Wall .
Other stretches did not fare so well . During the Cultural Revolution ( 1966 – 76 ) , hundreds of kilometres of the Great Wall — already damaged in the wars of the last century and eroded by wind and rain — were deliberately destroyed by fervent Red Guards who regarded it as part of the " Four Olds " to be eradicated in the new China . Quarrying machines and even dynamite were used to dismantle the Wall , and the pilfered materials were used for construction .
As China opened up in the 1980s , reformist leader Deng Xiaoping initiated the " Love our China and restore our Great Wall " campaign ( 爱我中华 ， 修我长城 ) to repair and preserve the Great Wall . The Great Wall was designated as a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1987 . However , while tourism boomed over the years , slipshod restoration methods have left sections of the Great Wall near Beijing " looking like a Hollywood set " in the words of the National Geographic News . The less prominent stretches of the Great Wall did not get as much attention . In 2002 the New York @-@ based World Monuments Fund put the Great Wall on its list of the World 's 100 Most Endangered Sites . In 2003 the Chinese government began to enact laws to protect the Great Wall .
= = Historiography = =
In China , one of the first individuals to attempt a multi @-@ dynastic history of the Great Wall was the 17th @-@ century scholar Gu Yanwu . More recently , in the 1930s and 1940s , Wang Guoliang ( 王國良 ) and Shou Pengfei ( 壽鵬飛 ) produced exhaustive studies that culled extant literary records to date and mapped the courses of early border walls . However , these efforts were based solely on written records that contain obscure place names and elusive literary references .
The rise of modern archeology has contributed much to the study of the Great Wall , either in corroborating existing research or in refuting it . However these efforts do not yet give a full picture of the Great Wall 's history , as many wall sites dating to the Period of Disunity ( 220 – 589 ) had been overlaid by the extant Ming Great Wall .
Western scholarship of the Great Wall was , until recently , affected by misconceptions derived from traditional accounts of the Wall . When the Jesuits brought back the first reports of the Wall to the West , European scholars were puzzled that Marco Polo had not mentioned the presumably perennial " Great Wall " in his Travels . Some 17th @-@ century scholars reasoned that the Wall must have been built in the Ming dynasty , after Marco Polo 's departure . This view was soon replaced by another that argued , against Polo 's own account , that the Venetian merchant had come to China from the south and so did not come into contact with the Wall . Thus , Father Martino Martini 's mistaken claim that the Wall had " lasted right up to the present time without injury or destruction " since the time of Qin was accepted as fact by the 18th @-@ century philosophes .
Since then , many scholars have operated under the belief that the Great Wall continually defended China 's border against the steppe nomads for two thousand years . For example , the 18th @-@ century sinologist Joseph de Guignes assigned macrohistorical importance to such walls when he advanced the theory that the Qin construction forced the Xiongnu to migrate west to Europe and , becoming known as the Huns , ultimately contributed to the decline of the Roman Empire . Some have attempted to make general statements regarding Chinese society and foreign policy based on the conception of a perennial Great Wall : Karl Marx took the Wall to represent the stagnation of the Chinese society and economy , Owen Lattimore supposed that the Great Wall demonstrated a need to divide the nomadic way of life from the agricultural communities of China , and John K. Fairbank posited that the Wall played a part in upholding the Sinocentric world order .
Despite the significance that the Great Wall seemed to have , scholarly treatment of the Wall itself remained scant during the 20th century . Joseph Needham bemoaned this dearth when he was compiling the section on walls for his Science and Civilisation in China : " There is no lack of travelers ' description of the Great Wall , but studies based on modern scholarship are few and far between , whether in Chinese or Western languages . " In 1990 , Arthur Waldron published the influential The Great Wall : From History to Myth , where he challenged the notion of a unitary Great Wall maintained since antiquity , dismissing it as a modern myth . Waldron 's approach prompted a re @-@ examination of the Wall in Western scholarship . Still , as of 2008 , there is not yet a full authoritative text in any language that is devoted to the Great Wall . The reason for this , according to The New Yorker journalist Peter Hessler , is that the Great Wall fits into neither the study of political institutions ( favoured by Chinese historians ) nor the excavation of tombs ( favoured by Chinese archeologists ) . Some of the void left by academia is being filled by independent research from Great Wall enthusiasts such as ex @-@ Xinhua reporter Cheng Dalin ( 成大林 ) and self @-@ funded scholar David Spindler .
|
= Geography of South Dakota =
South Dakota is a state located in the north @-@ central United States . It is usually considered to be in the Midwestern region of the country . The state can generally be divided into three geographic regions : eastern South Dakota , western South Dakota , and the Black Hills . Eastern South Dakota is lower in elevation and higher in precipitation than the western part of the state , and the Black Hills are a low , isolated mountain group in the southwestern corner of the state . Smaller sub @-@ regions in the state include the Coteau des Prairies , Coteau du Missouri , James River Valley , the Dissected Till Plains , and the Badlands . Geologic formations in South Dakota range in age from two billion @-@ year @-@ old Precambrian granite in the Black Hills to glacial till deposited over the last few million years . South Dakota is the 17th @-@ largest state in the country .
South Dakota has a humid continental climate in the east and in the Black Hills , and a semi @-@ arid climate in the west outside of the Black Hills , featuring four very distinct seasons , and the ecology of the state features plant and animal species typical of a North American temperate grassland biome . A number of areas under the protection of the federal or state government , such as Badlands National Park , Wind Cave National Park , and Custer State Park , are located in the state .
In 2011 , the population of South Dakota was estimated to be 824 @,@ 082 , and the state ranks fifth @-@ lowest in both total population as well as population density in the United States . Sioux Falls , with a population of just over 150 @,@ 000 , is the largest city in the state . Rapid City ranks as South Dakota 's second @-@ largest city , and Pierre is the state capital . Historically a very agricultural state , the service and tourism sectors have grown in economic importance in recent years .
= = Location and size = =
South Dakota is situated in the north @-@ central United States , and is considered to be a part of the Midwest by the U.S. Census Bureau , although the Great Plains region also covers the state . Additionally , the culture , economy , and geography of western South Dakota has more in common with the West than the Midwest . The state has a total land area of 77 @,@ 116 sq. miles ( 199 @,@ 905 km2 ) , making it the 17th largest in the Union . South Dakota is bordered to the north by North Dakota ; to the south by Nebraska ; to the east by Iowa and Minnesota ; and to the west by Wyoming and Montana . The western border is the Black Hills meridian , a north @-@ south line set out at a certain distance from Washington , D.C. , to separate South Dakota from Montana and Wyoming during the transition to statehood .
Two time zones cover South Dakota ; the state is split roughly in half between the Central Time Zone ( UTC @-@ 6 ) in the east and the Mountain Time Zone ( UTC @-@ 7 ) in the west . The boundary between the two zones runs south down the Missouri River until Pierre , at which point the boundary roughly continues due south while the river turns southeast .
The North American continental pole of inaccessibility is in Bennett County , located 1024 mi ( 1650 km ) from the nearest coastline , between Allen and Kyle ( Oglala Lakota County ) at 43 @.@ 36 ° N 101 @.@ 97 ° W / 43 @.@ 36 ; -101.97 ( Pole of Inaccessibility North America ) .
= = Regions = =
South Dakota can generally be divided into three regions : eastern South Dakota , western South Dakota , and the Black Hills . The Missouri River serves as a somewhat stark boundary in terms of geographic , social and political differences between eastern and western South Dakota , and the geography of the Black Hills differs from its surroundings to such an extent that it can be considered separate from the rest of western South Dakota . South Dakotans also at times combine the Black Hills with the rest of western South Dakota , and refer to the two resulting regions , divided by the Missouri , as West River and East River .
Eastern South Dakota is generally wetter and features lower topography than the western part of the state . Smaller geographic regions of this area include the Coteau des Prairies , the Dissected Till Plains , and the James River Valley . The Coteau des Prairies is a higher region bordered on the east by the Minnesota River Valley and on the west by the James River Basin . Numerous glacial lakes cover the Coteau , and it is largely drained by the Big Sioux River , a tributary of the Missouri . Further to the west , the James River Basin is mostly low , flat , highly eroded land , following the flow of the James River through South Dakota from north to south . The Dissected Till Plains , an area of rolling hills and fertile soil that covers much of Iowa and Nebraska , also extends into the southeastern corner of South Dakota .
The Coteau du Missouri lies between the James River Basin of the Drift Prairie and the Missouri River . This region is the southern section of a large plateau extending into Canada .
The Great Plains cover most of the western two @-@ thirds of South Dakota . West of the Missouri River the landscape becomes more rugged and consists of rolling hills , plains , ravines , and steep flat @-@ topped hills called buttes . These buttes sometimes rise 400 to 600 feet ( 120 to 180 m ) above the plains . In the south , east of the Black Hills , lie the South Dakota Badlands .
The Black Hills are in the southwestern part of South Dakota and extend into Wyoming . This range of low mountains covers 6 @,@ 000 sq. miles ( 15 @,@ 500 km2 . ) with mountains that rise from 2 @,@ 000 to 4 @,@ 000 feet ( 600 to 1 @,@ 200 m ) above their bases . The highest point in South Dakota , Harney Peak ( 7 @,@ 242 ft or 2 @,@ 207 m above sea level ) , is in the Black Hills . This is the highest point in the United States east of the Rocky Mountains . Other Black Hills mountains that are over 7 @,@ 000 ft ( 2 @,@ 133 m ) in elevation include Bear Mountain , Crooks Tower , Terry Peak , and Crows Nest Peak . The Black Hills are rich in minerals such as gold , silver , copper , and lead . The Homestake Mine , the largest and deepest gold mine in North America , was located in the Black Hills and produced over $ 1 billion in gold since it started operation in 1876 . The mine is now a scientific laboratory .
= = Geology = =
South Dakota geologic formations and deposits range in age from several billion to several thousand years , and the age of the rocks generally decreases as one moves from west to east across the state . The oldest geologic formations in the state were created over two billion years ago during the Precambrian , and consist of metamorphic and igneous rocks . These form the central core of the Black Hills , but they can also be found in two isolated locations in eastern South Dakota near Milbank and Sioux Falls . Formations from the Paleozoic Era form the outer ring of the Black Hills ; these were created between roughly 540 and 250 million years ago . This area features rocks such as limestone which were deposited here when the area formed the shoreline of an ancient inland sea .
Outside of the Black Hills , much of western South Dakota features rock formed during the Mesozoic Era , from 250 million to 66 million years ago . At the time , much of western and central South Dakota was again covered by a shallow inland sea . Marine skeletons from this ocean settled to the seafloor and were compacted to form the sedimentary rocks in the area today . During this period , the Black Hills , which had been pushed up to an elevation of around 15 @,@ 000 feet ( 4 @,@ 500 m ) , lost around 6 @,@ 000 feet ( 1 @,@ 800 m ) worth of rock layers due to erosion . Many of these sediments ended up in the same area as the marine deposits from the inland sea , and both contribute to western South Dakota 's present @-@ day geological makeup . In several areas in western South Dakota , tertiary deposits may also be found . These were formed between 66 and 2 @.@ 5 million years ago from eroded mountains to the west . There is also volcanic material deposited here that presumably came from the Yellowstone area . These layers of sedimentary rock are distinctly visible in the multi @-@ colored rocks and cliffs of Badlands National Park .
Layers deposited during the Pleistocene epoch , starting around two million years ago , cover most of eastern South Dakota . These are the youngest rock and sediment layers in the state , and are the product of several successive periods of glaciation which deposited a large amount of rocks and soil , known as till , over the area . The thickness of the glacial till layer ranges between 100 and 900 feet ( 30 and 270 m ) . This till is also what makes agriculture more prevalent in eastern South Dakota as it is extremely fertile .
Much of the human history of South Dakota was shaped by its geology . Gold seekers founded most of the larger cities around the Black Hills , and quarrying was an important economic activity in several areas in eastern South Dakota . Mines and quarries in present @-@ day South Dakota produce gold , Sioux quartzite , Milbank granite , sand , gravel , limestone , mica , and uranium . The state also produces a very limited amount of oil and natural gas .
= = Rivers and lakes = =
The Missouri River is the largest and longest river in the state . Other major South Dakota rivers include the Cheyenne , the James , the Big Sioux , and the White . Essentially all of South Dakota 's rivers are part of the Missouri River Valley . Dams on the Missouri River create four large reservoirs : Lake Oahe , Lake Sharpe , Lake Francis Case , and Lewis and Clark Lake . Hydroelectricity generated from power plants at the dams provides approximately half of the electricity used by South Dakotans .
The vast majority of South Dakota 's natural lakes are located in the eastern half of the state , and most are the product of the most recent ice age . The title of largest natural lake is somewhat disputed ; Lake Thompson is larger than Lake Poinsett , but Lake Poinsett has maintained its current size for a much longer period of time . Other major natural lakes include Lake Kampeska , Waubay Lake , Lake Madison , Lake Whitewood , and Lake Herman . Additionally , two large lakes , Big Stone Lake and Lake Traverse , form part of the border between South Dakota and Minnesota . The continental divide separating the drainage basin of Hudson Bay from that of the Gulf of Mexico is situated between these two lakes .
= = Ecology = =
Much of South Dakota , with the notable exception of the Black Hills , is dominated by a temperate grasslands biome . Although grasses and crops cover most of this region , deciduous trees such as cottonwoods , elms , and willows are common near rivers and in shelter belts . In open , uncultivated areas of the plains , grasses such as buffalograss , western wheatgrass , switchgrass , big bluestem and little bluestem thrive . Mammals in this area include bison , deer , pronghorn , coyotes , beavers , and prairie dogs , while reptiles include the snapping turtle , the box turtle , and various types of snakes . The prairie rattlesnake is South Dakota 's only venomous snake . Rivers and lakes of the grasslands support populations of walleye , carp , pike , and bass , along with other species . The Missouri River also contains the pre @-@ historic paddlefish , and chinook salmon , native to the Pacific Northwest , have been successfully introduced in Lake Oahe .
= = = Tall grass prairies = = =
With the state 's highest precipitation , southeastern South Dakota once had 3 @-@ foot ( 0 @.@ 91 m ) to 6 @-@ foot ( 1 @.@ 8 m ) -tall grasses , herbs , and low shrubs . The region has plenty of groundwater and , because of common spring floods , does not have many burrowing animals . Before modern agriculture , the tall grass prairies had large numbers of big bluestem , little bluestem , Indian grass , switchgrass , sand dropseed , and other tall grasses . Flood plains along the Missouri and Big Sioux Rivers are habitat for wild rye , bluejoint , and panicgrass . The tall grass prairies have wild rose and buck bush shrubs , and goldenrod , sunflower , cinquefoil , and milkweed herbs . Marsh hawks , bobolink , short @-@ eared owl , and short @-@ billed marsh wren birds make their home in this prairie , and jackrabbits , cottontail rabbits , meadow mice , and deer are common animal life .
= = = Mid and tall grass prairies = = =
Plants in the mid and tall grass prairies grow 1 foot ( 0 @.@ 30 m ) to 3 feet ( 0 @.@ 91 m ) tall . Precipitation here averages 18 inches ( 460 mm ) to 22 inches ( 560 mm ) per year . This region is a transition zone between the tall grasses to the southeast and the mid and short grasses to the west . In this zone , the eastern portion and river valleys have characteristics of the tall grass region , and the western part as well as well @-@ drained land have similarities to the mid and short grass prairies . Common grasses here are needlegrass and needle @-@ and @-@ thread grass .
= = = Mid and short grass prairies = = =
Plants in the mid and tall grass prairies average about 6 inches ( 150 mm ) with a maximum height of about 1 foot ( 0 @.@ 30 m ) . Short grasses live in well @-@ drained regions and mid grasses are in lowlands . Porcupine grass , needlegrass , western wheatgrass and prairie June grass are the predominant grasses , while the lead plant and prairie rose are the most common shrubs . Prairie clover and goldenrod are herbs in this region ; the pineapple flower and pasque flower are seasonal flowers . The pasque flower is the South Dakota state flower . While antelope and bison were common in prior centuries , modern animal life consists of deer , jackrabbit , skunk , badger , pocket gopher , and weasel . Pheasants , ducks , geese , sparrows , hawks , owls , and larks are the common birds , while bull snakes and blue racers have replaced the prairie rattler as the most common reptiles .
= = = Short and mid grass prairies = = =
Steppe grasslands predominate in the western two @-@ thirds of South Dakota . Precipitation is irregular and averages 13 inches ( 330 mm ) to 18 inches ( 460 mm ) per year . Hailstorms , blizzards , and thunderstorms rush across the prairie , which has little shelter for plants or animals . Nevertheless , many animals make their home here : among them , grey wolf , coyote , antelope , jackrabbit , kit fox , and bison . The rattlesnake and bull snake live in this prairie , as well as the blue racer . Many birds have their habitat here : geese , ducks , falcons , hawks , turkey buzzards , owls , sparrows , larks , blackbirds , and more . Evening primroses , prairie lilies , blazing star , aster , goldenrod , sunflower , and wild onions are common plants . So too are wild alfalfa , buffalo bean , and prairie clover legumes . Vegetation is predominantly blue grama , little bluestem , bunchgrass , buffalograss , wheatgrass , and green needleleaf .
= = = The coniferous Black Hills = = =
Due to higher elevation and precipitation , the ecology of the Black Hills differs significantly from that of the plains . The mountains are thickly blanketed by coniferous needleleaf evergreens : various types of pines — including ponderosa ( covering 1 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 acres ( 400 @,@ 000 ha ) , or 80 % of the Black Hills forest ) , lodgepole , white , and timber — as well as western red cedar and spruces . Western yellow ponderosa is the most important lumber tree in the area . The South Dakota state tree is the Black Hills spruce . The Red Valley is home to blue @-@ joint and bluegrasses , and wild plum , Juneberry , and chokecherry shrubs grow in the Hills . Violets , thistles , and horse mint are prevalent herbs . Vines grow widely : the woodbine , bittersweet , and wild grape , which is the pattern for Black Hills gold jewelry .
Black Hills mammals include deer , elk ( wapiti ) , bighorn sheep , mountain goats , and mountain lions , while the streams and lakes contain several species of trout . Cottontail rabbits and wood rabbits live throughout the Hills , as do squirrels , raccoons , chipmunks , and porcupines . Wild burro and bobcat can be found , as well as bison in limited quantity . Woodpecker , robin , sparrow , jay , bobwhite , and wren are Black Hills birds .
= = = Birds = = =
South Dakota 's varied geography is inhabited by many species of birds . The state bird , the ring @-@ necked pheasant , has adapted particularly well to the area after being introduced from China , and growing populations of bald eagles are spread throughout the state , especially near the Missouri River . The wild turkey is another large bird found in many areas of the state . The numerous lakes and wetlands of eastern South Dakota support migratory populations of Canada geese , snow geese , mallards , pelicans , and wood ducks . The prairie serves as home to songbirds such as meadowlarks ( both the eastern and western varieties ) , goldfinches , and bluebirds , and the open landscape of the plains also suits many carnivorous birds , such as hawks , falcons , and owls .
= = Climate = =
South Dakota has a continental climate , semi @-@ arid in the west outside of the Black Hills , with four distinct seasons , ranging from very cold winters to hot summers . During the summers , the average high temperature throughout the state is often close to 90 ° F ( 32 ° C ) , although it generally cools down to near 60 ° F ( 15 ° C ) at night . It is not unusual for South Dakota to have severe hot , dry spells in the summer with the temperature climbing above 100 ° F ( 38 ° C ) several times every year . Winters are cold with January high temperatures averaging below freezing and low temperatures averaging below 10 ° F ( - 12 ° C ) in most of the state . The highest temperature recorded in the state was 120 ° F ( 49 ° C ) on July 5 , 1936 in Gann Valley , and the lowest was – 58 ° F ( - 50 ° C ) on February 17 , 1936 in McIntosh .
Average annual precipitation in South Dakota ranges from semi @-@ arid in the northwestern part of the state ( around 15 inches , or 381 mm ) to semi @-@ humid around the southeast portion of the state ( around 25 inches , or 635 mm ) , although a small area centered on Lead in the Black Hills has the highest precipitation at nearly 30 inches ( 762 mm ) per year .
South Dakota summers bring frequent thunderstorms which can be severe with high winds , thunder , and hail . The eastern part of the state is often considered part of tornado alley , and South Dakota experiences an average of 29 tornadoes per year . Winters are somewhat more stable , although severe weather in the form of blizzards and ice storms can occur during the season . Severe weather in the state can occasionally turn deadly . Between 1950 and 1994 , 11 people were killed by tornadoes in the state , and the 1972 Black Hills flood tore through central Rapid City , killing 238 people and causing hundreds of millions of dollars in damage .
= = Protected areas = =
South Dakota contains several sites that are protected by the National Park Service . Two national parks have been established in South Dakota , both of which are located in the southwestern part of the state . Badlands National Park was created in 1978 . The park features a highly eroded , brightly colored landscape surrounded by semi @-@ arid grasslands . Wind Cave National Park , established in 1903 in the Black Hills , contains an extensive cave network as well as a large herd of bison . Mount Rushmore National Memorial in the Black Hills was established in 1925 . The well @-@ known attraction features a mountain carved by sculptor Gutzon Borglum to resemble four former U.S. presidents . Other areas managed by the National Park Service include Jewel Cave National Monument near Custer , the Lewis and Clark National Historic Trail , the Minuteman Missile National Historic Site , which features a decommissioned nuclear missile silo , and the Missouri National Recreational River . In addition to the National Park Service , the United States Forest Service manages several areas in the state . South Dakota contains two national forests , Black Hills National Forest and a small section of Custer National Forest , and three national grasslands : Buffalo Gap , Dakota Prairie , and Fort Pierre .
South Dakota also contains numerous state parks , all of which are managed by the South Dakota Department of Game , Fish , and Parks . Custer State Park in the Black Hills is a large state park with over 71 @,@ 000 acres , and includes Sylvan Lake , Needles Highway , and a wildlife loop featuring a large bison herd and the " begging burros " , among other species . Other notable parks in the state include Bear Butte State Park near Sturgis and Lewis and Clark State Recreation Area near Yankton .
= = Human geography = =
According to the U.S. Census Bureau , in 2010 South Dakota had a population of 814 @,@ 180 . As of the 2010 census , the state ranked fifth @-@ lowest in the United States in both total population as well as population density . The center of population of South Dakota is located in Buffalo County , in the unincorporated county seat of Gannvalley .
The five largest ancestry groups in South Dakota are : German ( 40 @.@ 7 % ) , Norwegian ( 15 @.@ 3 % ) , Irish ( 10 @.@ 4 % ) , Native American ( 8 @.@ 3 % ) , and English ( 7 @.@ 1 % ) . German @-@ Americans are the largest ancestry group in most parts of the state , although there are also large Scandinavian populations in some counties . American Indians , largely Lakota , Dakota , and Nakota ( Sioux ) are predominant in several counties , mostly in the western part of the state . South Dakota has the third @-@ highest proportion of Native Americans of any state .
Rural areas in South Dakota are experiencing a trend of falling populations , despite an overall increase in population . The effect of rural flight has not been spread evenly through South Dakota , however . Although most rural counties and small towns have lost population , the Sioux Falls area and the Black Hills have gained population . In fact , Lincoln County , near Sioux Falls , is the ninth fastest @-@ growing county ( by percentage ) in the United States . The growth in these areas has compensated for losses in the rest of the state , and South Dakota 's total population continues to increase steadily , albeit at a slower rate than the national average .
= = = Cities and counties = = =
South Dakota is relatively notable for its lack of large urban centers . Sioux Falls , the largest city in the state , only ranks as the 152nd largest in the country , and the state 's third @-@ largest city , Aberdeen , has a population of less than 25 @,@ 000 . However , because the population in many rural areas has decreased over the last 50 years , and many cities in the state have grown at a rapid pace ; the population has become more concentrated and less rural than it once was . According to 2007 census estimates , the three most populous counties in the state , Minnehaha , Pennington , and Lincoln , were home to 38 @.@ 8 % of South Dakotans , while in 1910 , those counties held only 9 @.@ 3 % of the population .
Sioux Falls is the largest city in South Dakota , with an estimated 2007 population of 151 @,@ 505 , and a metropolitan area population of 227 @,@ 171 . The city is located in the southeast corner of the state , and was founded in 1856 . The economy of Sioux Falls , originally focused on agri @-@ business and quarrying , has recently become largely centered on retail and financial services . Rapid City , with a 2007 estimated population of 63 @,@ 997 , and a metropolitan area population of 120 @,@ 279 , is the second @-@ largest city in the state . It is located on the eastern edge of the Black Hills in western South Dakota , and was founded in 1876 . Rapid City 's economy is largely based on tourism and defense spending , due to the close proximity of tourist attractions in the Black Hills and Ellsworth Air Force Base . The next eight largest cities in the state , in order of descending 2007 population , are Aberdeen ( 24 @,@ 410 ) , Watertown ( 20 @,@ 530 ) , Brookings ( 19 @,@ 463 ) , Mitchell ( 14 @,@ 832 ) , Pierre ( 14 @,@ 032 ) , Yankton ( 13 @,@ 643 ) , Huron ( 10 @,@ 902 ) , and Vermillion ( 10 @,@ 251 ) . Pierre is the state capital , and Brookings and Vermillion are the locations of the state 's two largest universities . Of the ten largest cities in the state , Rapid City is the only one located west of the Missouri River .
= = = Economy = = =
South Dakota 's early economy relied heavily on the soil , minerals and ecology of the area , as nearly all of the earliest white settlers in the area were farmers , miners , or trappers . Although other economic sectors have risen in prominence in recent years , early dependence on the land laid the foundation for the future economic activity of the state .
Agriculture has historically been a key component of the South Dakota economy . Although other industries have expanded rapidly in recent decades , agricultural production is still very important to the state 's economy , especially in rural areas . The five most valuable agricultural products in South Dakota are cattle , corn ( maize ) , soybeans , wheat , and hogs . Agriculture @-@ related industries such as meat packing and ethanol production also have a considerable economic impact on the state . South Dakota is one of the largest producers of ethanol in the nation .
Another important sector in South Dakota 's economy is tourism . Many travel to visit the national parks , state parks , and national monuments in the state , particularly those of the Black Hills region . South Dakota 's location between national parks in the west and large cities to the east also contributes to the state 's tourism and hospitality industry . In 2006 , tourism provided an estimated 33 @,@ 000 jobs in the state and contributed over two billion US $ to the economy of South Dakota .
= = = Transportation = = =
South Dakota has a total of 83 @,@ 609 miles ( 134 @,@ 556 km ) of highways , roads , and streets , along with 679 miles ( 1 @,@ 093 km ) of interstate highways . Two major interstates pass through South Dakota : Interstate 90 , which runs east and west ; and Interstate 29 , running north and south in the eastern portion of the state . Also located in the state are the shorter interstates 190 and 229 . Several major U.S. highways pass through the state . U.S. routes 12 , 14 , 16 , 18 , and 212 travel east and west , while U.S. routes 81 , 83 , 85 and 281 run north and south . Railroads have played an important role in South Dakota transportation since the mid @-@ nineteenth century . Some 4 @,@ 420 miles ( 7 @,@ 113 km ) of railroad track were built in South Dakota during the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries , but only 1 @,@ 839 miles ( 2 @,@ 959 km ) of railroad are currently operational . South Dakota 's largest commercial airports are located at Sioux Falls and Rapid City .
|
= Enlightenment ( Doctor Who ) =
Enlightenment is the fifth serial of the 20th season in the British science fiction television series Doctor Who , which aired on BBC1 in four twice @-@ weekly parts from 1 March 1983 to 9 March 1983 . The 127th serial of the series , Enlightenment was the third of three loosely connected serials known as the Black Guardian Trilogy . It was written by Barbara Clegg and directed by Fiona Cumming .
In the serial , alien time traveller the Doctor ( Peter Davison ) and his companions Tegan Jovanka ( Janet Fielding ) and Vislor Turlough ( Mark Strickson ) encounter a group of god @-@ like immortals who are racing historical Earth sailing vessels through space , crewed by humans they had plucked out of time , in an attempt to win the prize of the titular enlightenment . Turlough is under the control of the Black Guardian ( Valentine Dyall ) , but struggles with the Guardian 's orders to kill the Doctor .
The serial 's production was beset by problems caused by industrial action taken by electricians at the BBC during filming . It was eventually finished three months behind schedule , but the unavailability of several actors for new filming dates forced the production team to recast their parts at short notice . Enlightenment averaged of 6 @.@ 8 million viewers per episode on its first transmission and received generally positive reviews from critics . The story was novelised by its writer , Barbara Clegg , as part of the ongoing Target Books range in 1984 and was released on video and DVD in 1993 and 2009 respectively .
= = Plot = =
Following interference from the White ( Cyril Luckham ) and Black ( Valentine Dyall ) Guardians , the TARDIS materialises in what appears to be the hold of a ship . The Fifth Doctor ( Peter Davison ) leaves companion Tegan ( Janet Fielding ) in the TARDIS while he and Turlough ( Mark Strickson ) leave to explore .
The Doctor discovers the crew remember nothing of coming aboard , have been below decks the whole time , and that the ship they are on has been entered in some sort of race . Tegan leaves the TARDIS and encounters the ship 's first mate , Marriner ( Christopher Brown ) , who offers to take her to her friends , while the Doctor and Turlough encounter Captain Striker ( Keith Barron ) . In the ship 's wheelhouse , the Doctor sees a map of the racecourse , complete with " marker buoys " which he recognises as the planets of Earth 's solar system . Marriner then operates anachronistic electronic controls and a viewscreen activates to show the other contestants — a Greek trireme , a 17th Century pirate ship , and other vessels from other times , all floating in deep space and using solar wind propulsion .
The Doctor discovers that the ship 's officers are Eternals , beings who live in the " trackless wastes of eternity , " as opposed to the Doctor and his companions , who are " Ephemerals . " When one of the other ships explodes the Doctor begins to suspect sabotage . Tegan feels ill , so Marriner escorts her to a room , which contains items from the TARDIS and her rooms in Brisbane and realises Marriner has been reading her mind .
The Doctor discovers that Eternals use Ephemerals for their thoughts and ideas . The Eternals have lived for so long that they are unable to think for themselves and need human minds to give them existence . The prize for winning the race is Enlightenment , the wisdom to know everything . The TARDIS is discovered by the Eternals , who make it vanish . Trapped on board the Edwardian ship for the moment , the Doctor and his companions go on board deck in space suits . Turlough hears the voice of the Black Guardian taunting him and unable to take the strain , he leaps overboard into space .
Turlough is rescued by the Buccaneer , the pirate ship commanded by Captain Wrack ( Lynda Baron ) . Wrack sends her first mate to present one of the other competitors with a jewelled sword , and to deliver party invitations to the other captains . Marriner offers to escort Tegan and the Doctor to the party as one of the ships draws level with the Buccaneer . Wrack shows Turlough a locked chamber with a vacuum shield , and he hears the voice of the Black Guardian through the door as the rival ship explodes , apparently hit by an asteroid . The Doctor again suspects foul play as the ship was also challenging the Buccaneer .
Arriving on board the Buccaneer , the Doctor and Tegan mingle while Turlough sneaks off to examine the locked chamber . Following Turlough , the Doctor discovers a device he believes that Wrack uses to transmit power to destroy the other ships , using some sort of focus . The pair recall that the captains of both destroyed ships had received red crystals as gifts from Wrack , leading the Doctor to believe that the crystals are the focus . Before they can act on it , however , they are captured by Wrack 's first mate . Meanwhile , Wrack has managed to lure Tegan away from the party to her wheelhouse and freezes her in time while she plants a crystal in her tiara .
Confronted by Wrack , Turlough accuses the Doctor of being a spy and claims he was trying to capture the Doctor . The Doctor , Tegan and Marriner return to their ship but Wrack reads Turlough 's mind , discovering he is lying , and is about to kill him , only for Turlough to tell her that he , too , serves the Black Guardian . As the ships near the crystalline space station of the Enlighteners , the Buccaneer pulls level with the Edwardian Ship , and Wrack takes Turlough into her chamber , this time letting him witness her summoning the power of the Black Guardian . The Doctor , seeing the Buccaneer pull close , discovers the crystal in Tegan 's tiara . The Doctor smashes it , but only manages to multiply its power by the number of fragments .
The Doctor hurls the pieces overboard as they explode . Suddenly , the wind dies , and Wrack pulls ahead of the Edwardian ship . The Eternals return the TARDIS to the Doctor and he travels to the Buccaneer . He tries to reason with Wrack , but her first mate shows up with Turlough , and she orders that the Doctor be thrown into space . As Tegan watches from the Edwardian ship , two bodies are ejected into space , and the Buccaneer reaches the finish . The human crews of the ships vanish .
The Enlighteners are the Black and White Guardians , and the winner is the Doctor , who brought the ship in with Turlough 's help when Wrack and her first mate met with an " accident . " The Doctor , however , refuses the diamond crystal containing Enlightenment , and the White Guardian dismisses Striker and Marriner , who vanish back into eternity . As Turlough helped the Doctor , he is entitled to a portion of the prize . The Black Guardian reminds Turlough of their bargain , and says that he can give up the diamond , or sacrifice the Doctor to gain both Enlightenment and the TARDIS . Turlough hurls the diamond at the Black Guardian , who vanishes in screams and flames . The Doctor points out that Enlightenment was not the diamond , but the choice itself .
= = = Continuity = = =
To commemorate the show 's anniversary , every story during Season 20 included the return of an enemy from The Doctor 's past . During this trilogy ( begun in the serial Mawdryn Undead , and concluding with Enlightenment ) , the enemy was the Black Guardian , who was last encountered by the fourth incarnation of the Doctor at the conclusion of The Key to Time saga in the 1979 serial The Armageddon Factor . The story also saw the return of the White Guardian , who had also not been seen since 1979 . To date , neither character , nor the Eternals , have appeared in the show again .
= = Production = =
= = = Conception and writing = = =
After penning a number of radio and TV scripts , including episodes of Crossroads and Waggoner 's Walk , Barbara Clegg submitted a story idea to Doctor Who script editor Eric Saward , an acquaintance from the BBC drama department . Interested in writing for the series , Clegg had been inspired when distant relatives had stayed with her and demanded constant entertainment during their visit , basing the character of the Eternals upon them . Initially titled The Enlighteners , her submission involved ships racing through space that , with the addition of the Black Guardian sub @-@ plot , eventually evolved into the story as screened . Saward and series producer John Nathan @-@ Turner liked Clegg 's ideas , and they commissioned the script in September 1981 . The first episode was delivered by Clegg in October and the three following episodes arriving in January 1982 . The serial was now scheduled to conclude a three @-@ story trilogy featuring the Black Guardian , and Clegg duly wrote the recurring characters into her scripts . By May 1982 there were problems with a script by Pat Mills , Song of the Space Whale , which had been intended to open the Black Guardian trilogy . Mills ' script was eventually dropped and the production team considered moving The Enlighteners forward in the season to replace it , necessitating considerable re @-@ wites . Peter Grimwade was eventually commissioned to write Mawdryn Undead to replace The Song of the Space Whale , and The Enlighteners was confirmed as the fifth serial of the season . The first draft of Part One did not contain any of the material concerning the Guardians , and Turlough was a peripheral figure , with the script focussing on the relationship between Marriner and Tegan . With pre @-@ production underway , Saward changed the story title to Enlightenment in September 1982 , a title he felt was more enigmatic . Saward also rewrote portions of the script pertaining to the story @-@ arc , particularly the final confrontation scenes at the end of Part Four . Peter Moffatt had been originally scheduled as the serials director , but following the problems with the Space Whale script he was asked to helm its replacement due to his experience , and so Fiona Cumming was asked to take over Enlightenment .
Once production began it became apparent that Part One and Part Two were under @-@ running so more dialogue was written to fill in the time . It was originally intended that the character of Jackson would not reappear after the second episode , but during filming Saward became concerned that it appeared that he had been executed and so he and Clegg rewrote Part Three to include him . Part Three also looked to be under running so scenes from Part Four were brought forward and the final scenes with the Guardians were extended to compensate .
= = = Casting = = =
Cumming came up with the idea that the Eternals would not blink and cast actors who she believed could provide detached performances . Cumming recalled Peter Sallis had played a similarly detached character in the 1974 BBC drama The Pallisers , and cast him in the role of Striker . Sallis was present during the rehearsals for the serial but when production was delayed he was unavailable for the new filming dates , being committed to filming Last of the Summer Wine and was forced to drop out of the production , being replaced by Keith Barron . Lynda Baron was cast as Captain Wrack , having previously participated in Doctor Who in the 1966 serial The Gunfighters , as the voice that sings the " Ballad of the Last Chance Saloon " heard throughout that story . Tony Caunter , who had previously played Thatcher in The Crusade and Morgan in Colony in Space was given the role of Jackson , with Christopher Brown and David Rhule being cast as Marriner and Wrack 's sidekick Mansell respectively . Similarly to Sallis , David Rhule was unavailable for the revised filming dates in January , so singer Leee John replaced him at short notice , despite having no previous acting experience .
Valentine Dyall had originally played the Black Guardian in the 1979 serial The Armageddon Factor , the character 's first appearance in the series , and reprised the role for season 20 , appearing in Mawdryn Undead , Terminus and Enlightenment . Similarly Cyril Luckham reprised the role of the White Guardian , that he had previously played in the 1979 serial The Ribos Operation .
= = = Design = = =
The interior sets of the boats were not built specifically for the programme , but were pulled together from stock items from various prop warehouses . Cumming had originally hoped to simulate the rocking of the ships by mounting the sets on rollers but the idea was dropped due to costs , with the effect achieved by moving the cameras instead . The photo of Tegan 's Aunt Vanessa , one of the items created by Marriner from the contents of her mind , was shot specifically for the filming , requiring Dolore Whiteman ( who had played the character in Logopolis ) to be contracted for a one @-@ day photoshoot . The models of the boats , used in the racing sequences , were props sourced by visual effects designer Mike Kelt following extensive research at the National Maritime Museum . The ships were mounted on rods for filming , while the oars were battery operated . The model of Davey 's ship remained intact , with explosion being a filmed effect that was edited into the sequence . Kelt was shocked by the dilapidated state of the TARDIS console prop , and was worried about damaging it while filming the explosion from Part One , and asked producer John Nathan @-@ Turner if he could replace it but was told there was no money available .
The anachronistic wetsuits on the Edwardian ship were actually heavy @-@ duty overalls that had been painted black . Janet Fielding struggled with the low cut ball @-@ gown she wore during filming as it threatened to expose her breasts on a number of occasions . The ball gown worn by Baron was made especially for the serial and was the most expensive costume on display . The newspaper found by the Doctor in Part One was a reprint of The Times from September 1901 , while the food and drink served during the party scenes was all real .
= = = Filming = = =
The serial began principal filming in early November 1982 , with filming divided into two main blocks . The first block was shot on film at Ealing Studios between 3 – 5 November and consisted of the deck scenes and a number of model shots . Actor Mark Strickson was injured while filming the scene of Turlough throwing himself overboard , when the Kirby wire he was suspended from broke , leaving him only able to walk with difficulty for several weeks . The studio work was scheduled to run from 6 November until mid December and consisted of all the interior scenes and those in the TARDIS . By mid @-@ November however the electricians union the EEPTU , had begun strike action which disrupted the filming of a number of BBC productions including Enlightenment and potentially meaning the final three serials of the season would have to be abandoned . The electricians dispute was settled by December , but it had badly affected the series recording schedule . The crew were able to shoot the following serial The King 's Demons on schedule , meaning that there was only one recording block left for the part @-@ completed Enlightenment and Eric Saward 's season finale ; The Return . With some filming already completed , and its importance in concluding the Black Guardian story @-@ arc , it was decided that Enlightenment should take precedence and so it had its second production block moved to January 1983 , while The Return was abandoned . Due to the delays , the serial only finished filming around a month before its transmission date , meaning that composer Malcolm Clarke only received the first episode for scoring a week before broadcast , having to rely on musical cues he had recorded weeks earlier without having seen any footage .
= = Themes = =
Writer Barbara Clegg based the Eternals on a wealthy group of her relatives , who upon visiting her had demanded constant entertainment , treating other family members almost as " lesser beings " . Clegg also drew inspiration from the Bible 's Book of Genesis , deriving the prize of enlightenment from The Tree of Knowledge within it , while having read about Solar winds she decided to use them as the basis of propulsion for space vessels . Clegg highlighted the nature of enlightenment , showing it not to be knowledge , as the Eternals believe , but wisdom , as demonstrated by Turlough 's rejection of the Black Guardian .
The story echoes a recurring theme from the show ; that of bored , god @-@ like beings playing with the lives of mortals for the purpose of amusement . In their book About Time , Lawrence Miles and Tat Wood liken this to a prevalent strand of children 's fiction , where magical worlds are held together by the rules of the children who visit them . Miles and Wood also highlight the political elements of the story , likening the portrayal of the Eternals to the view of the upper classes as " effete parasites feeding off the labour ( and in this case the imagination ) of the proles . " The Doctor then , acts as part of the class struggle , helping the workers gain freedom while the gentry get their comeuppance .
In his essay Love is a Stranger , published in the first volume of the Doctor Who Magazine — Special Edition , David Bailey highlights the central theme that " ... the lives of little people are precious , special and worth fighting for ... ... the Eternals may have unimaginable power at their fingertips but they lack , and are jealous of , one thing : the ability to live , and die . " The hollowness of immortality was a thread that ran through Season 20 , with the earlier story Mawdryn Undead showing Mawdryn trapped in an endless cycle of painful regeneration , while in The Five Doctors , Borusa 's prize of immortality results in little more than a living death . The horror of eternal life is brought home when the Black Guardian threatens Turlough with immortality as a punishment for failure , something that drives him to try and commit suicide rather than face eternity .
= = Broadcast = =
Enlightenment was first broadcast in a twice @-@ weekly slot on BBC One during the first two weeks of March 1983 . The story episodes averaged 6 @.@ 8 million viewers , with the highest viewing figures being 7 @.@ 3 million for the final episode . The episodes averaged 67 @.@ 5 % on BARB 's Appreciation Index , with Part Four once again achieving the highest figures .
= = = Key = = =
= = = Archive = = =
The BBC holds all four episodes on D @-@ 3 tape , recorded from the original two @-@ inch broadcast tapes .
= = Reception = =
Reviewing the story for Doctor Who Magazine 's 200 Golden Moments special edition , Jeremy Bentham described it as being epic in scale , suggesting it played to the original strengths of the series ; " performance , period set design and claustrophobic mood ... " . He likens Enlightenment to the work of Stanley Kubrick , saying " ... it felt grand , it felt lonely , and yes , it felt epic . " On reappraising the story for the same magazine following its release on DVD , Gary Gillatt was equally as effusive , calling it " ... one of Doctor Who 's finest serials . " He highlights the performance of Keith Barron as Captain Striker as being " a master class of under @-@ stated menace " and " pitch perfect " , juxtaposing this with the over @-@ the @-@ top pantomime villainy of Lynda Baron as Captain Wrack , with the two captains balancing each other out perfectly .
Writing for the Radio Times , Mark Braxton was less enamoured of some of the performances , suggesting that Baron and Valentine Dyall turn in ' hammy ' interpretations of their characters , while Leee John " ... makes heavy weather of the simplest activities : helming the ship seems to require the most bizarre posturing . " He had mixed views on the story as a whole , saying that " Enlightenment has promising components that come together and briefly create a little magic , then vanish again , like ships that pass in the night . " DVD Talk 's John Sinnott had similarly mixed views on the serial , although conceding that " ... While it doesn 't all succeed , they give it a good try and more things work than don 't . " Sinnott also singled out the performance of Keith Barron for particular praise , along with the relationship between Marriner and Tegan .
In their book About Time , Lawrence Miles and Tat Wood have equally mixed feelings about the serial , praising the setting and the performances of Barron and Brown , and suggesting that it " ... carries on the tradition of putting symbols from the world we know into disconcerting environments ... ... ( it ) completes the grand illusion of making the history and the fantasy feel like part of the same continuum . " They are less complimentary about other elements however , citing the conclusion as feeling " rushed and tacked on " with too much emphasis on the Guardians and little on the fates of the Eternals . They also dismiss the reveal of enlightenment as being the nature of Turlough 's choice , as coming " perilously close to tweeness " and accuse it of being " cod @-@ mythologic moralising " .
Enlightenment was placed in 72nd position in Doctor Who Magazine 's Mighty 200 reader survey in 2009 , which ranked every Doctor Who serial to that point in order of preference .
= = Commercial releases = =
= = = In print = = =
A novelisation of this serial , written by story author Barbara Clegg , was published by Target Books in May 1984 , with a cover by Andrew Skilleter , and was numbered 85 in the ongoing range . It was the first Doctor Who novelisation to be penned by a woman . On its publication Doctor Who Magazine was underwhelmed by the book , claiming in their review that " In many ways , it falls into the familiar Terrance Dicks pitfalls , being a straight forward reworking of the script with " said " following all the speeches . For all its faults , Enlightenment remains a good read , simply because of the strength of the story ... " The book was repackaged as part of The Sixth Doctor Who Gift Set later in 1984 , along with three other Doctor Who novels ; The Dominators , Mawdryn Undead and The Five Doctors .
= = = Home media = = =
Enlightenment was released on VHS in February 1993 . It was subsequently released on DVD as part of the Black Guardian Trilogy , along with preceding stories Mawdryn Undead and Terminus on 10 August 2009 . The second disc of the DVD includes a " Special Edition " version of the story ; a movie @-@ style edit featuring new CGI graphics throughout , with a newly recorded introduction by director Fiona Cumming . Doctor Who Magazine was not enthusiastic about the new edit suggesting , that " ... what is special about it is up for debate . " The reviewer disparaged the new special effects , stating that " ... this is ironic as there are few Doctor Who stories less in need of replacement effects than Enlightenment . The original model work is gorgeous , while this substitute material is crude and unsophisticated in comparison . " Alongside the special edition , the DVD contained a number of extra features , including a Making of ... documentary and extended interviews with director Fiona Cumming , writer Barbara Clegg and actor Mark Strickson , a documentary on the Guardians plus an excerpt from the Russell Harty Christmas Party TV special featuring Peter Davison . This serial was also released as part of the Doctor Who DVD Files in issue 57 on 9 March 2011 .
= = = Reviews = = =
Enlightenment reviews at Outpost Gallifrey
Enlightenment reviews at The Doctor Who Ratings Guide
= = = Target novelisation = = =
On Target — Enlightenment
|
= Prussian uprisings =
The Prussian uprisings were two major and three smaller uprisings by the Prussians , one of the Baltic tribes , against the Teutonic Knights that took place in the 13th century during the Prussian Crusade . The crusading military order , supported by the Popes and Christian Europe , sought to conquer and convert the pagan Prussians . In the first ten years of the crusade five of the seven major Prussian clans fell under the control of the less numerous Teutonic Knights . However , the Prussians rose against their conquerors on five occasions .
The first uprising was supported by Duke Swietopelk II , Duke of Pomerania . The Prussians were successful at first , reducing the Knights to only five of their strongest castles . Conversely , the duke suffered a series of military defeats and was eventually forced to make peace with the Teutonic Knights . With Duke Swietopelk 's support for the Prussians broken , a prelate of Pope Innocent IV then negotiated a peace treaty between the Prussians and the Knights . However , this treaty was never honored or enforced , especially after the Battle of Krücken at the end of 1249 .
The second uprising , known in historiography as " The Great Prussian Uprising " , was prompted by the 1260 Battle of Durbe , the largest defeat suffered by the Teutonic Knights in the 13th century . This uprising was the longest , largest , and most threatening to the Teutonic Order , who again were reduced to five of their strongest castles . Reinforcements for the Knights were slow to arrive , despite repeated encouragements from Pope Urban IV , and the position of the Order looked set to worsen . Luckily for the Order , the Prussians lacked unity and a common strategy and reinforcements finally reached Prussia in around 1265 . One by one , Prussian clans surrendered and the uprising was ended in 1274 .
The later three lesser uprisings depended on foreign help and were suppressed within one or two years . The last uprising in 1295 effectively ended the Prussian Crusade and Prussia became a Christian German @-@ speaking territory , which assimilated native Prussians and a number of settlers from different German states .
= = Background = =
Although the Prussians repelled early incursions by the Order of Dobrzyń , they were outnumbered by attacks from Poland , Russians in the southeast and the Teutonic Knights from the west . The Teutonic Order was called to the Culmerland ( Chełmno Land ) in 1226 by Konrad I of Masovia , who started a number of attacks and crusades against the Prussians and later asked the Knights to protect him from retaliatory raids by the Prussians . Preoccupied with crusades in the Holy Land , the Teutonic Knights arrived only in 1230 . Their first task was to build a base on the left bank of Vistula at Vogelsang , opposite of Toruń ( Thorn ) , which was completed a year later . Led by Hermann Balk , the Knights did not repeat the mistakes of the previous Order and did not push eastwards into the forest of the interior . They would further build fortified log ( later brick and stone ) castles along major rivers and the Vistula Lagoon to serve as basis for future expansion . In 1231 – 1242 , forty such castles were built . The Prussians faced major difficulties in capturing these castles as they were accustomed only to battling in open fields . Most conflicts occurred either in summer or winter . Heavily @-@ armoured knights could not travel and fight on land soaked by water from melting snow or autumn rains . Summer campaigns were most dangerous as the Knights would immediately build new castles in the conquered territory . The Teutonic Knight 's strategy proved successful : in ten years , five of the seven major Prussian clans fell under control of the less @-@ numerous Teutonic Knights . However , the Prussians further resisted the conquerors , leading to five uprisings over the following fifty years .
= = The First Prussian Uprising ( 1242 – 1249 ) = =
The First Prussian Uprising was influenced by three major events . Firstly , the Teutonic Knights lost the Battle of the Ice on Lake Peipus to Alexander Nevsky in April 1242 . Secondly , southern Poland was devastated by a Mongol invasion in 1241 ; Poland lost the Battle of Legnica and the Teutonic Knights lost one of its most trusted allies that often supplied troops . Thirdly , Duke Swantopolk II of Pomerania was fighting against the Knights , who supported his brothers ' dynastic claims against him . It has been implied that the new castles of the Knights were competing with his lands over the trade routes along the Vistula River . While some historians embrace the Swantopolk – Prussian alliance without hesitation , others are more careful . They point out that the historical information came from documents written by the Teutonic Knights and must have been ideologically charged to persuade the Pope to declare a crusade not only against the pagan Prussians but also against the Christian duke .
Prussians besieged Teutonic castles and managed to capture all except for Elbing ( Elbląg ) and Balga in the eastern regions of Natangia , Barta and Warmia ; Thorn ( Toruń ) , Culm ( Chełmno ) , and Rehden ( Radzyń Chełmiński ) in the western parts . In December 1242 , the Knights were able to capture Sartowice , Swantopolk 's castle on the banks of the Vistula . The ensuing five @-@ week siege of Sartowice failed to recapture the fortress and Swantopolk lost 900 men . In the spring of 1243 , Swantopolk also lost the castle at Nakel ( Nakło nad Notecią ) , which dominated trade on the Noteć River . In the face of these losses , the duke was forced to make short @-@ lived truce . In the summer of 1243 , Prussians with Sudovian help raided the Culmerland ( Chełmno Land ) and , on their way back , defeated the pursuing Teutonic Knights on June 15 on the banks of the Osa River . Some 400 Teutonic soldiers perished , including their marshal . Swantopolk , encouraged by the defeat , gathered an army of 2 @,@ 000 men and unsuccessfully besieged Culm ( Chełmno ) .
The Teutonic Knights managed to gather a coalition against Swantopolk : Dukes of Masovia were given territories in Prussia , Dukes of Greater Poland received Nakel , and Dukes of Pomerellia , brothers of Swantopolk , hoped to regain their inheritance . Swantopolk built a castle at Zantyr , where Nogat separated from the Vistula , and launched a blockade of Elbing and Balga . While the castle withstood Teutonic attacks , the blockade was smashed by cogs . In late 1245 Swantopolks 's army suffered a great defeat at S ( ch ) wetz Świecie , and another one in early 1246 , where 1 @,@ 500 Pomeranians were killed . Swantopolk II asked for truce and Pope Innocent IV appointed his chaplain , Jacob of Liège , the future Pope Urban IV , to handle the peace negotiations . However , the war was renewed in 1247 when large Teutonic reinforcements arrived in Prussia . On Christmas Eve of 1247 the Knights besieged and overwhelmed a major Pomesanian fortress , which they later renamed Christburg ( Dzierzgoń ) , and newly arrived Henry III , Margrave of Meissen subdued the Pogesanians . Swantopolk retaliated and destroyed Christburg , but the Knights rebuilt it in a new location . Both Prussian and Swantopolk 's armies failed to capture the new castle . Otto III of Brandenburg raided Warmia and Natangia forcing the locals to surrender .
The peace talks that begun in 1247 achieved little , but a new truce was arranged in September 1248 and peace was made on November 24 , 1248 . Swantopolk had to return lands seized from his brothers , allow Teutonic Knights to pass through his domains , stop charging tolls on ships using the Vistula , and stop any aid to the Prussians . Prussians were compelled to sign the Treaty of Christburg on February 7 , 1249 . The treaty provided personal freedom and rights to newly converted Christians . It formally ended the uprising , but already in November 1249 the Natangians defeated the Knights at the Battle of Krücken . The skirmishes lasted until 1253 and some sources cite this year as the end of the uprising . At that point the treaty ceased its political power but remained an interesting historical document .
= = The Great Prussian Uprising ( 1260 – 1274 ) = =
= = = Preparation and tactics = = =
The major revolt began on September 20 , 1260 . It was triggered by the Lithuanian and Samogitian military victory against the joint forces of the Livonian Order and Teutonic Knights in the Battle of Durbe . As the uprising was spreading through Prussian lands , each clan chose a leader : the Sambians were led by Glande , the Natangians by Herkus Monte , the Bartians by Diwanus , the Warmians by Glappe , the Pogesanians by Auktume . One clan that did not join the uprising was the Pomesanians . The uprising was also supported by Skalmantas , leader of the Sudovians . However , there was no one leader to coordinate efforts of these different forces . Herkus Monte , who was educated in Germany , became the best known and most successful of the leaders , but he commanded only his Natangians .
The Prussians besieged the many castles that the Knights had built and could not send large armies to fight in the west . Prussians were not familiar with Western European siege tactics and machinery and relied on siege forts , built around the castle , to cut the supplies to the garrisons . The Teutonic Knights could not raise large armies to deliver supplies to the starving garrisons and smaller castles began to fall . Those castles were usually destroyed and the Prussians manned just a few castles , notably one in Heilsberg ( Lidzbark Warmiński ) , because they lacked technology to defend the captured castles and organization to provide food and supplies to stationed garrisons . On August 29 , 1261 Jacob of Liège , who negotiated the Treaty of Christburg after the first uprising , was elected as Pope Urban IV . He , having an inside scope on events in Prussia , was especially favourable to the Teutonic Knights and issued 22 papal bulls in three years of his papacy calling for reinforcements to the Knights . However , the reinforcements were slow to come as dukes of Poland and Germany were preoccupied with their own disputes and the Livonian Order was fighting the Semigallian uprising .
= = = Early Prussian success = = =
The first reinforcement to the Teutonic forces arrived in early 1261 , but was wiped out on January 21 , 1261 by Herkus Monte in the Battle of Pokarwis . In January 1262 reinforcements arrived from the Rhineland , led by Wilhelm VII , Duke of Jülich , who was obliged by Pope Alexander IV to fulfil his crusader duties in Prussia . This army broke the Siege of Königsberg but as soon as the army returned home , the Sambians resumed the siege and were reinforced by Herkus Monte and his Natangians . Herkus was later injured and the Natangians retreated , leaving the Sambians unable to stop supplies reaching the castle and the siege eventually failed . Prussians were more successful capturing castles deeper into the Prussian territory ( with an exception of Wehlau , now Znamensk ) , and the Knights were left only with strongholds in Balga , Elbing , Culm , Thorn , and Königsberg . Most castles fell in 1262 – 1263 , and Bartenstein fell in 1264 . The Prussians destroyed captured forts instead of using them for their own defence , so the end of successful sieges meant that large Prussian forces did not have to stay near their home and were then free to operate in other parts of Prussia , raiding the Culmerland and Kuyavia .
A recovered Herkus Monte raided Culmerland with a large force and took many prisoners in 1263 . On his way back to Natangia , Herkus and his men were confronted by a contingent of their enemies . In the Battle of Löbau that ensued , Prussians killed forty knights , including the Master and the Marshal . The Prussians also received help from Lithuanians and Sudovians . In summer of 1262 Treniota and Shvarn attacked Masovia , killing Duke Siemowit I , and raided Culmerland , provoking Pogesanians to join the uprising . However , assassination of Mindaugas and subsequent dynastic fights prevented Lithuanians from further campaigns . Skalmantas , leader of Sudovians , raided Culm ( Chełmno ) in 1263 and in 1265 .
= = = Turning point = = =
The year of 1265 was the turning point in the uprising : more substantial reinforcements for the Teutonic Knights finally started arriving in Prussia and Sambia gave up the fight . Teutonic castles in Königsberg and Wehlau on the Pregel River cut off the region from the rest of Prussia . Supplies to Königsberg were brought by sea , and the castle served as the basis for raids in surrounding Samland ( Sambia ) . The Livonian Order sent troops to Königsberg and the joint forces defeated the Sambians in a decisive battle forcing them to surrender . In 1265 reinforcements arrived from Germany : armies of Duke Albrecht of Braunschweig and Margrave Albert of Meissen arrived in Prussia , but were unable to achieve much . In 1266 Otto III and John I , co @-@ rulers of Brandenburg , built a castle in the Natangian lands between Balga and Königsberg and named it Brandenburg ( since 1945 Ushakovo ) . Due to bad weather they did not organize campaigns into Prussian lands .
When the Dukes returned home , Brandenburg was captured by Glappe and his Warmians . The very next year Otto returned to rebuild the castle . However , both John and Otto died before the end of 1267 , and Otto 's son was killed in a tournament . Subsequent Dukes of Brandenburg were not as supportive of the Knights . In 1266 Duke Swantopolk , the supporter of the Prussians during the First Uprising , died and his sons Mestwin and Warcisław briefly joined the Prussians in the uprising . In 1267 King Ottokar II of Bohemia , who already participated in the Prussian Crusade in 1254 and who was promised by Pope Urban IV all Prussian lands he could conquer , finally arrived in Prussia . His only achievement was forcing Duke Mestwin to reconcile with the Teutonic Knights . His large army was unable to campaign due to an early thaw : heavily armed knights could hardly fight during the wet and swampy spring season .
The warfare with the Prussians relied on guerilla raids in the border regions . Small groups of men , a dozen to a hundred , made quick raids on farms , villages , border posts , etc . This was a positional warfare where neither side could defeat the other , but the Teutonic Knights relied on future reinforcements from Germany and Europe , while Prussians were draining their local resources . After the massacre of surrendered Teutonic soldiers in the Battle of Krücken in 1249 , the Knights refused to negotiate with the Prussians . The Prussians were also unable to coordinate their efforts and develop a common strategy : while each clan had its own leader , there was no one to lead all the clans . The Natangians had to watch for attacks from Balga , Brandenburg , Wehlau , and Königsberg while the Warmians were threatened by garrisons at Christburg and Elbing . This way only Diwane and his Bartians were able to continue the war in the west . They made several minor expeditions to Culmerland each year .
= = = The end of the uprising = = =
The major Prussian offensive was organized in 1271 together with Linka , leader of the Pogesanians . The Bartian infantry and Pogesanians besieged a border castle , but were fended off by the Knights from Christburg . The Prussians who managed to escape joined their cavalry while the Knights set up a camp on the opposite bank of the Dargune River ( Dzierzgoń River ) , blocking the route home . When Christians retired for the night , one half of the Prussian army crossed the river in a distance , in order to attack the Knights from the rear , while the other half charged straight across the river . The Knights were encircled . The Battle of Paganstin saw twelve knights and 500 men killed . The Prussians immediately assaulted Christburg and almost captured it . The Prussians were still looting the surrounding area when cavalry from Elbing arrived . Many of the Prussian infantry perished while cavalry escaped . Despite these losses , Diwane was soon back and blocked roads leading to Christburg hoping to starve the castle . Diwane was killed during a siege of a small post at Schönsee ( Wąbrzeźno ) in 1273 .
In the winter of 1271 – 1272 reinforcements arrived from Meissen , led by Count Dietrich II . The army invaded Natangia and besieged an unnamed Natangian castle . While the assault claimed 150 lives of the crusaders , most of Natangian resistance was broken and the region was decimated . Herkus Monte , with a small group of his followers , was forced to withdraw to the forests of southern Prussia . Within a year he was finally captured and hanged . The last Prussian leader , Glappe of Warmians , was also hanged when his siege campaign on Brandenburg ( now Ushakovo ) was attacked from the rear . The last tribe standing were the Pogesanians , who made a surprise raid into Elbing and ambushed its garrison . In 1274 the Knights made a great expedition to avenge this raid , capturing the rebel headquarters at Heilsberg ( Lidzbark Warmiński ) and ending the uprising .
The Knights proceeded to rebuild and strengthen castles destroyed by the Prussians . A number of Prussians escaped either to Sudovia or to Lithuania , or were resettled by the Knights . Many free peasants were made into serfs . Local nobles had to convert and give hostages , and only a few of them were granted privileges to retain their noble status . From 1274 to 1283 the Teutonic Knights conquered Skalvians , Nadruvians , and Sudovians / Yotvingians .
= = Further uprisings and aftermath = =
After the Great Uprising , the Prussians rose a number of times against the Knights , but these uprisings were much smaller in scale and posed no real danger to the Teutonic Knights , who could concentrate on further conquests . The number of uprisings is variously considered to be two or three .. They were suppressed within a year or two and showed exhaustion and division of the Prussian tribes . The third uprising in 1276 was provoked by Skalmantas , leader of the Sudovians , who successfully raided Teutonic lands . The next year he , with help from the Lithuanians , led 4 @,@ 000 men into the Culmerland ( Chełmno Land ) . The uprising failed to spread after Theodoric , vogt of Sambia , convinced the Sambians not to join the insurrection ; Natangians and Warmians had also accepted baptism and promised their loyalty to the Knights . The Pogesanians alone continued the fight and were crushed . Survivors with their Bartian chief escaped to Hrodna in the Grand Duchy of Lithuania where they joined some of the Bartians , Skalvians , and all of the Nadruvians , who fled there after the Great Uprising .
The last two Prussian attempts to rid itself of the Teutonic rule were made relying on the foreign powers who were enemies of the Knights . The first one in 1286 , also known as the fourth uprising , depended upon help from the Duke of Rügen , the grandson of Swantopolk . The plot was soon revealed and the Bartians and Pogesanians suffered the consequences . In 1295 the last uprising was limited to Natangia and Sambia and depended upon help from Vytenis , Grand Duke of Lithuania . The rebels captured Bartenstein ( Bartoszyce ) by surprise and plundered as far as Königsberg , but were never a serious threat . By that time Prussian nobility was already baptized and pro @-@ Teutonic to the extent that peasants killed them first before attacking the Knights .
This last attempt effectively ended the Prussian Crusade and the Knights concentrated on conquering Samogitia and Lithuania . Lithuanian historians note that fierce resistance by the Prussians won time for the young Lithuanian state to mature and strengthen so it could withstand the hundred @-@ year crusade , culminating in the 1410 Battle of Grunwald , with minimal territorial losses . The Prussian lands were repopulated by colonists from Germany , who after the 16th century eventually outnumbered the natives . It is estimated that around 1400 Prussians numbered 100 @,@ 000 and comprised about half of the total population in Prussia . The Prussians were subject to Germanization and assimilation and eventually became extinct sometime after the 16th century . It is believed that the Prussian language became extinct sometime at the beginning of the 18th century .
|
= Amy 's Choice ( Doctor Who ) =
" Amy 's Choice " is the seventh episode in the fifth series of British science fiction television series Doctor Who , first broadcast on BBC One on 15 May 2010 . It was written by sitcom writer Simon Nye and directed by Catherine Morshead .
In the episode , lead characters the Doctor , a time travelling alien played by Matt Smith , and his human travelling companions Amy ( Karen Gillan ) and her fiancé Rory ( Arthur Darvill ) , are in a trap set by the mysterious " Dream Lord " ( Toby Jones ) , wherein they repeatedly fall asleep and wake up in a different reality . In one , Amy and Rory are happily married but pursued by elderly people possessed by aliens , while in another they are on board the Doctor 's time machine , the TARDIS , where they anticipate being frozen to death by a nearby astronomical phenomenon . They must decide which is the real reality and die in the dream , to wake up in reality and escape the trap . At the episode 's conclusion , the Dream Lord is ultimately revealed to be a manifestation of the Doctor 's dark side and self @-@ loathing .
Nye wrote the episode to explore and to test Amy 's relationships with both the Doctor and Rory . Showrunner Steven Moffat suggested that Nye , a comedy writer by trade , build the episode around a split dream concept , and encouraged Nye to create a " monster " for the episode , which influenced his writing of the retirement home dream . The dream scenes in Amy and Rory 's village was filmed in Skenfrith , Wales and used CGI and prosthetics . " Amy 's Choice " was seen by 7 @.@ 55 million viewers on BBC One and BBC HD and received generally mixed reviews from critics . The most positive praised the episode 's surrealism and commended it as one of the year 's strongest scripts , but other reviewers felt the episode 's horror or monsters unsatisfying .
= = Plot = =
= = = Synopsis = = =
The Doctor , Amy , and Rory find themselves flickering between two realities , falling asleep at the sound of birdsong in one and waking in the other . In the first reality , Amy and Rory stopped travelling with the Doctor five years previously , are happily married , and Amy is heavily pregnant . They find themselves in their hometown of Leadworth being chased by the Eknodine , an alien race that have disguised themselves as the elderly of the town . The Eknodine are able to turn anyone into dust by blowing a poisonous liquid on them . In the other reality , they are trapped in the powerless TARDIS drifting towards a freezing cold star which will kill them . During one of their experiences in the TARDIS @-@ reality they are met by the " Dream Lord " , an apparition who tells them that he has created a dream reality in contrast to their actual reality . The three must determine which is the dream reality and kill themselves in it to return to the other reality . However , if they choose wrong they will be killed in both .
The Dream Lord keeps Amy awake in the TARDIS reality while the Doctor and Rory fall asleep and return to the Leadworth reality . The Dream Lord questions Amy as to whom she would choose between Rory and the Doctor . He states that she must choose between the worlds ; one leads to a peaceful married life with Rory while the other leads to adventure and excitement with the Doctor . Amy returns to Leadworth and rejoins Rory in defending her house from the Eknodine whilst the Doctor is trying to rescue people from Leadworth in a motor @-@ caravan . As Amy believes she is going into labour , Rory is sprayed by the Eknodine and turns to dust . Amy decides that she is willing to risk her own life for the chance of seeing Rory again and concludes the Leadworth reality is false . Amy and the Doctor drive the motor @-@ caravan into the house , leading to their assumed deaths . The three wake up again on the TARDIS where they are congratulated by the Dream Lord , who then reactivates the TARDIS . After the Dream Lord 's departure Amy and Rory are surprised by the Doctor when he directs the TARDIS to self @-@ destruct , apparently killing them all .
The three wake up again on the TARDIS , no longer in any danger . The Doctor realises both realities were false since the Dream Lord had no power over the real world and was a manifestation of his darker side . The three were influenced by psychic pollen that had fallen in the TARDIS time rotor and heated up , creating the Dream Lord and the false realities . Rory comes to realise that Amy killed herself in the Leadworth reality out of love for him , and the two confess their love for each other . The Doctor sees the Dream Lord smile at him through his reflection .
= = = Continuity = = =
The Dream Lord describes the Doctor sarcastically as " The Oncoming Storm " , a name coined by his archenemies the Daleks , and first mentioned in the Seventh Doctor novel Love and War and subsequently on @-@ screen in " The Parting of the Ways " , where it was attributed to the Daleks . He also says to the Doctor , " You 're probably a vegetarian ! " in a butcher 's shop and calls him " veggie " , referring to The Two Doctors , in which the Sixth Doctor announced that he and Peri would eat a vegetarian diet from then on . The Dream Lord also teases the Doctor 's relationship with Elizabeth I. This began in " The Shakespeare Code " where Elizabeth I wished to behead the Doctor and continued in The End of Time , which alluded to the possibility the two were married . The marriage between the two was seen 3 years later in " The Day of the Doctor " .
= = Production = =
= = = Writing = = =
" Amy 's Choice " was written by Simon Nye , who is known for writing the sitcom Men Behaving Badly . Nye attended read @-@ throughs of previous episodes to capture the character and " voice " of the Doctor and Amy . Nye admitted to restraining himself in the change from comedy to science fiction , but said it was " fun " and " hugely liberating " . Showrunner Steven Moffat originally gave Nye the premise of the episode for it to fit in the series arc , which was to challenge the Doctor and Amy 's relationship . Nye states that Rory 's " death " scene is essentially where Amy realises her feelings for Rory . Nye wanted to prove that Amy really loved Rory , and he was " not just a cypher boyfriend or fiancé " .
Moffat suggested the idea of the dream split to Nye , who was also influenced by his own dreams and sometimes wondering if they were real . Nye believed that the dream world was consistent with other alternate universes within Doctor Who . Moffat also instructed Nye to come up with a monster , and Nye chose the elderly people possessed by the Eknodine , reflecting his own fear of old people as a child , but he made clear that he did not intend to make children scared of their grandparents .
= = = Filming and effects = = =
" Amy 's Choice " was the last episode of the fifth series to be filmed , and the editing finished the week it aired . The read @-@ through for the episode took place on 17 February 2010 in the Upper Boat Studios along with the read @-@ through for episode eleven , marking the final two read @-@ throughs for the series . The dream sequences taking place in the fictional town of Upper Leadworth were filmed in Skenfrith , Wales .
Karen Gillan had to wear a latex prosthetic stomach bump for the scenes which depicted Amy as pregnant . She claimed it made her feel more mature and act ridiculously , and cited it as her favourite part of filming the series . Arthur Darvill wore a wig for the aged Rory , which was trimmed to look " more masculine " and pulled back in a ponytail . The Eknodine were CGI and the scenes were simply filmed with the actors opening their mouths . The scene in which Rory hits Eknodine @-@ inhabited Mrs Hamil with a plank was filmed first of all with Darvill missing actress Joan Linder , and then again with Linder 's stunt double , whom he was allowed to hit . There was only one prop of the plank , and fortunately all the necessary shots were completed before Darvill accidentally broke it .
= = = Cast notes = = =
Nick Hobbs , who appeared as Mr Nainby in this episode , previously played Aggedor alongside Jon Pertwee 's Third Doctor in the stories The Curse of Peladon and The Monster of Peladon . Hobbs has also previously appeared as a lorry driver in The Claws of Axos and operated the Wirrn prop for The Ark in Space .
= = Broadcast and reception = =
" Amy 's Choice " was first broadcast on BBC One in the United Kingdom on Saturday , 15 May 2010 from 6 : 25 p.m. to 7 : 10 p.m. In the United States it was shown on sister station BBC America on 5 June 2010 . In the UK , preliminary overnight ratings for the episode totalled 6 @.@ 2 million viewers ; 5 @.@ 9 million on BBC One and 0 @.@ 3 million on BBC HD . Based on these estimated figures , viewership was about the same as the previous week . When final ratings were calculated , it was shown BBC One held 7 @.@ 063 million viewers , the sixth most viewed programme for the week , and 485 @,@ 000 viewers on BBC HD , the highest viewed programme of the week for that channel . This gave " Amy 's Choice " final consolidated ratings of 7 @.@ 55 million viewers . The episode was also given an Appreciation Index of 84 .
" Amy 's Choice " was released in Region 2 on DVD and Blu @-@ ray format with the following episodes " The Hungry Earth " and " Cold Blood " on 2 August 2010 . It was then re @-@ released as part of the complete series five DVD on 8 November 2010 .
= = = Critical reception = = =
" Amy 's Choice " received generally mixed reviews from critics . Gavin Fuller , writing for The Daily Telegraph , was positive about the episode , calling it " probably the strongest all @-@ round script we 've had this year , chock full of good lines " . He added , " The concept of aliens inhabiting elderly people and turning them psychotic was wittily realised , particularly the bizarre sight of them laying siege to Amy and Rory 's cottage with household and gardening implements " . He concluded that it " was one of those stories that you would only find in Doctor Who , and shows once again that the series can provide genuine thought @-@ provoking , interesting drama alongside its thrills and spills " .
Matt Wales of IGN rated the episode 8 @.@ 5 out of 10 and described it as " surreal , fantastical , intriguing , witty , emotional and , at times , genuinely unsettling " . Unlike Martin , he said it was " impressive enough on pacing alone " and made a " brisk , refreshing 45 @-@ minute episode " . However , he criticised the ending for being " glossed over so quickly " and found Upper Leadworth hard to believe . Keith Phipps , writing on The A.V. Club , graded the episode a B and stated it was " a solid ... entry in what 's been a generally terrific season of Doctor Who " . He praised Toby Jones ' performance as the Dream Lord , saying that " in lesser hands , he might have come off as a copycat version of Star Trek 's Q , but Jones makes the part his own " . However , he thought its weakness was the pace and " the retirement home @-@ dwelling bad guys , who ultimately seem like a geriatric , and not that frightening , variation on the same old shambling zombies . "
Daniel Martin , reviewing the episode for The Guardian , described it as " at least partially successful " . He praised Karen Gillan 's performance , saying that she " is capable of more than one @-@ liners and physical comedy – and brings something to your eye , too " . However , he thought that the episode lacked ideas and storylines usually found in the show , and criticised the sitcom @-@ style dialogue . Patrick Mulkern , writing for the Radio Times , was " distinctly underwhelmed " , comparing it to " one of the more disappointing episodes of The Sarah Jane Adventures " . He " particularly disliked the demonising of elderly people " . Upon rewatching , however , although " previous gripes " remained , he did appreciate some the " more subdued " background music from Murray Gold , the script 's " tight structure and several amusing lines " , and " the realisation that , for the first time , the Doctor is travelling with a couple in love " .
SFX Magazine 's Jordan Farley gave the episode 3 and a half out of 5 stars , saying the direction " never quite [ struck ] the right balance between absurdist humour and sinister nightmare " and the camera was " a little flat " with a strange angle . He was displeased with the discovery that it had all been a hallucination and stated that Rory 's death and other instances of horror " never shock in the way you might expect " . However , he praised Smith for being " on blindingly good form " while portraying the Doctor 's quirkier traits , considered that Gillan and Darvill were " fast becoming the most likeable companion couple in Doctor Who history " , and said Jones was " a lot of fun to watch " despite not seeming to be completely the Doctor 's dark side .
= = = Reviews = = =
" Amy 's Choice " reviews at The Doctor Who Ratings Guide
|
= Project M ( video game ) =
Project M is a video game modification ( mod ) of the 2008 fighting game Super Smash Bros. Brawl for the Wii , created by the community group known as the Project M Development Team ( PMDT or PMDev Team ; previously known as the Project M Back Room ) . It is designed to retool Brawl to play more like its two predecessors , Super Smash Bros. ( 1999 ) and Super Smash Bros. Melee ( 2001 ) , in response to fan objections to Brawl 's physics , slower @-@ paced gameplay , larger use of chance elements , and mechanics of certain attacks . Project M brings back the characters Mewtwo and Roy , who were present in Melee but did not return for Brawl . In addition , it features a new art style for in @-@ game menus and allows players to choose certain characters individually when they are only accessible as extensions of other ones in Brawl .
Development started in early 2010 with the goals of reworking the character Falco Lombardi to play like his Melee incarnation and increasing the accessibility of the gameplay style , but the project quickly evolved to a full @-@ scale reworking of Brawl . The game 's first demo build was released on February 7 , 2011 , and development continued until December 1 , 2015 , when the mod 's development team announced it would cease further development of Project M. The game has received positive comments from reviewers , amassed a player base of over 500 @,@ 000 , surpassed three million downloads , and been played in many professional tournaments .
= = Gameplay = =
Super Smash Bros. Brawl , which Project M modifies , is a fighting game with an unconventional battle system . Players battle in arenas of varying sizes and levels of complexity , controlling characters with a variety of play styles . They can attack one another with their own repertoires of special moves , or with a basic attack . Attacks can be avoided by jumping or using a short @-@ lived shield move . Unlike most fighting games , Brawl does not include standard health gauges , but a percentage counter ; there is no point at which a character is automatically knocked out from the counter getting too high , but they will be knocked farther with increasing damage . Being knocked off the screen — or falling off oneself — causes a knock @-@ out . Players may use items for offensive purposes , such as guns and swords , or for healing purposes , such as food and heart containers . The stages , characters , and items are drawn from Nintendo 's video game franchises such as Mario , Pokémon , The Legend of Zelda , and Metroid , along with Sega 's Sonic the Hedgehog series and Konami 's Metal Gear series . The victor of a match has no standard determining factor . Rather , depending on the settings , victory may be reached , for example , by being the last player alive using a stock system , or by achieving the most KOs after a set amount of time .
Super Smash Bros. Melee , Brawl 's predecessor in the Super Smash Bros. series , has a similar gameplay style , but there are major differences in areas such as control , general movement styles , and character balancing . Project M was designed to incorporate elements of Melee while still being distinctive in its own right . The designers ' " about " page lists a number of aspects from Melee that they aimed to carry over , including fast @-@ paced gameplay , " flowing , natural movement " , a " great deal of control " in the player 's movements , a balance of offense and defense — though they favored offense over defense slightly — and a complex system of combo attacks . In addition , some characters who had been present in Melee but scrapped for Brawl were brought back . The game files can be downloaded from its official website and exported to the player 's console via an SD card . Players who own an NTSC Wii can install the game without any software modifications , but they must delete all custom stages created in Brawl because of the way files are stored .
= = Development = =
A large number of competitive Super Smash Bros. Melee players were disappointed upon the release of its sequel Brawl six @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half years after the release of Melee . The general consensus among competitive players was that the latter game 's developers had reworked the older battling system to better appeal to casual gamers , by making the attacks and movement of the game significantly slower in general and adding a greater degree of randomness , luck , and unpredictability , in contrast to Melee , which has more straightforward , skill @-@ based gameplay . Of particular infamy was a new " tripping " mechanic , by which a character occasionally and randomly slips and falls when changing their direction while running .
Project M first began as a development project to rework the character Falco to play like his older incarnation in Super Smash Bros. Melee . The designers ' goal at the time was for the game to be accessible to newcomers and encourage people to get better at the game , which was accomplished by creating a character roster that is more balanced . The mod 's first demo was announced on January 15 , 2011 , with a release date of late January or early February in time for the Pound 5 tournament , where it was featured . It featured 14 of the 39 characters in Super Smash Bros. Brawl , as well as new stages Brawl had not included . It was later given a solid date of February 7 , 2011 . A patch was later created to fix the demo 's bugs and fine @-@ tune the player 's control of their movement direction after being attacked .
By the release of the game 's second demo in March 2011 , the team 's goals for the mod had expanded to a total overhaul of Brawl to better match Melee 's gameplay mechanics . A newer build added 11 characters and was first playable at the Genesis 2 tournament . The second demo , released on April 15 , 2012 , added four new characters as well as more stages and changes in multiple characters ' gameplay mechanics . Players of this second demo reported a number of bugs , but these were fixed shortly afterwards in version 2 @.@ 1 . A demo version numbered 2 @.@ 5 was announced on September 10 , 2012 ; it featured changes such as balance updates , aesthetic improvements , stage updates , and palette swaps for the characters . Version 2 @.@ 5 was released on December 28 .
Originally as part of an April Fool 's Day joke , the PMDT announced that a new " Turbo mode " — inspired by a YouTube video called " Melee Impossible " that showed off powerful combos — would be featured in the upcoming version 3 @.@ 0 . The designers set up a Turbo Tuesday video series showing off the mode with various characters , such as Mario and Ike , once a week . A 2 @.@ 6 demo was announced on June 26 , 2013 , and it was released on July 17 , 2013 . The designers hoped to feature the Turbo mode in this update , but it was not ready in time . The designers added a " Clone Engine " to the game that allowed them to make the character Roy ( whose only appearance in the Super Smash Bros. series at the time was in Melee ) . They designed Roy by taking a clone of a pre @-@ existing character and changing the clone into the desired result , along with using the same use of the engine to make the character Mewtwo but with major edits to its model ( due to it and Lucario having different movesets ) . The designers explained that they would not use this to make characters such as those who first appear in Super Smash Bros. for Nintendo 3DS and Wii U in order to avoid cease @-@ and @-@ desist letters from Nintendo . The designers added new alternate costumes for a number of characters , including Dr. Mario , who was previously cut from Brawl , for Mario . It was given a release date of December 9 , 2013 , and a final character count of 41 ( more than any previous Super Smash Bros. game at the time ) . Senior designer Corey Archer stated that there would probably be only one more update before he considers Project M complete ; he suggested that this update may contain new Nintendo characters .
Version 3 @.@ 5 was released on November 14 , 2014 . This revision refines the game 's user interface , adds new stages and costumes , adds a few new original musical pieces , redesigns several stages from the original Super Smash Bros. using new HD visuals , and implements new modes such as a debug mode and " All @-@ Star Versus , " a mode allowing players to use a different character on every life . A public beta of Version 3 @.@ 6 was released on June 23 , 2015 . It added more costumes and stages , new music , a new in @-@ game announcer , and the ability for players to choose between the modified and unmodified versions of stages before battle among other changes . This was the first non @-@ demo version of Project M which has had a public beta before final release . Version 3 @.@ 6 was officially released on August 16 , 2015 and included even more additional content on top of what was present in the Beta release . Included were additional balance stages , a brand new Wario Land stage , more music , a new announcer to replace the one used in the Beta and various tweaks and fixes to bugs and errors found during the 3 @.@ 6 Beta period .
On December 1 , 2015 , the PMDT announced it would cease further development of Project M , effective immediately , in favor of beginning development on an original project . The development team denied allegations that legal threats from Nintendo were the cause of the project 's termination . According to the team 's attorney and business consultant , Ryan Morrison , the decision was not made as a result of a cease @-@ and @-@ desist notice or legal action by Nintendo . One member of the development team stated that the mod 's cancellation was to prevent future legal issues .
= = = Characters = = =
Project M includes a number of adjustments and tweaks intended to make the characters from Super Smash Bros. Melee and Brawl more balanced , as well as add touches that felt more true to their games of origin . For example , the staff felt that the character Wario in Brawl took too much influence from the WarioWare series of games and not enough from his older appearances in Wario Land series of games , so they changed him to better reflect the Wario Land games . Mario was redesigned to be a cross between his Melee incarnation and his heavier @-@ hitting clone from the same game , Dr. Mario . Peach was changed to make her turnip attacks more similar to Melee than Brawl , after Brawl 's advent had diminished their usefulness . Bowser , a character who was generally not considered viable for tournament play in previous games , was given armor and increased attack power and made larger . This gave him the ability to reach enemies easier while making him an easier target for opponents . Yoshi was given an improved recovery and defense . While Ganondorf 's strength was changed to function closer to that of his Melee counterpart , his neutral special has also been changed to a floating descent in the air and a backhand to deflect projectiles on the ground . Additionally , the characters Mewtwo and Roy , who had been present in Melee but were cut from the cast in Brawl , were added back to the roster and given new abilities to make the previously low @-@ tier characters more viable .
= = Reception = =
The Project M Developmenet Team claimed that the 2 @.@ 0 demo had received 46 @,@ 000 downloads by May 23 , 2012 , and 100 @,@ 000 by December 9 , 2013 . As of November 15 , 2014 , Project M version 3 @.@ 0 has been downloaded over 920 @,@ 000 times . The version 3 @.@ 6 beta has been downloaded over 106 @,@ 791 times , and version 3 @.@ 5 has been downloaded over 615 @,@ 809 times as of July 25 , 2015 .
Project M 2 @.@ 5 was featured for a special invitation 16 @-@ person tournament at Apex 2013 . Version 3 @.@ 0 was featured the following year as well , but was omitted from inclusion at Apex 2015 , prompting negative reactions from players .
The game has received positive attention from the media . Ryan Rigney of Wired called it the best iteration of Super Smash Bros. and felt that it successfully transforms Brawl into a serious competitive game . Similarly , Patricia Hernandez of Kotaku called it the " best Smash Bros. mod around " and remarked that it " improves the game so much , it practically seems new . " Jordan Devore of Destructoid stated that it was one of the highest @-@ quality mods he had ever seen . Zach Betka from GamesRadar called the game " beautiful " and enjoyed the presence of " many edits that will make the average Smash fan squeal " .
Mentioning Project M on the official Nintendo Miiverse Internet forum will result in an automatic ban for discussing " criminal content " .
|
Subsets and Splits
No community queries yet
The top public SQL queries from the community will appear here once available.