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= Sian Breckin =
Sian Breckin ( born 1982 ) is a British film , television and theatre actress . From 1993 to 1999 , Breckin attended classes at the Roundhay School , and received A @-@ Level in the field of drama . She went on to study theatre at the British drama school called East 15 Acting School , and as part of her drama graduate showcase she acted in the production of After Miss Julie by Patrick Marber .
Donkey Punch directed by Olly Blackburn was Breckin 's feature film debut ; she starred alongside Jaime Winstone , Nichola Burley , Tom Burke and Julian Morris . Subsequent television appearances included roles on series The Bill , Inspector George Gently , The Royal and Heartbeat .
Breckin acted in the film Tender directed by Deborah Haywood , and in Alice by filmmaker Marianne Elliott . She had guest starring roles on the television series Doctors and Casualty , and appeared as PC Janet Taylor in DCI Banks . She starred as Kelly in the 2011 film Tyrannosaur directed by Paddy Considine . Breckin had a recurring role as Deena Hardman on the Soap opera Hollyoaks in 2012 . She and her fellow cast members of Hollyoaks helped to raise money for Centrepoint , a charity for the homeless .
= = Early life and education = =
Breckin 's mother and father reside in Gledhow , a district of north @-@ east Leeds , situated east of Chapel Allerton and west of Roundhay . In 2008 , Breckin had a residence in London and maintained a practice of visiting Leeds often .
From 1993 to 1999 , Breckin attended classes at the Roundhay School . In order to receive an A @-@ Level in the field of drama , Breckin continued to study at the Roundhay School until the age of 19 . She stated to the Yorkshire Evening Post that the drama programme at Roundhay School significantly helped her : " It was a new course , and so I did an extra year at school . We did a lot of plays at school and they fed our interest in drama . The teachers were really supportive and gave you confidence and if it hadn 't been for them I might have done something else . " After her studies at Roundhay School , Breckin went on to participate in acting workshops for one year at Stratford @-@ upon @-@ Avon .
Breckin attained an education in theatre at the British drama school called East 15 Acting School , located in Debden , Loughton , Essex . She studied at the drama school for three years . For her drama graduate " BA Acting Showcase " , Breckin portrayed the role of the character Annie in the production Inside Out by Kat Joyce ; as well as the role of Julie in the production of After Miss Julie by Patrick Marber . The Stage commented in a review that Breckin 's role as Annie was " played with conviction " .
= = Career = =
Breckin was directed by Olly Blackburn in the thriller film Donkey Punch ; she portrayed the character Lisa and starred alongside Jaime Winstone , Nichola Burley , Tom Burke and Julian Morris . She commented to the Yorkshire Evening Post about her experience acting in the film : " Filming it was such a wonderful experience . I learned an incredible amount and the team became very close . We are all incredibly proud of the film . " Breckin told the Irish Independent the intent was to portray realistic scenes in the film : " We wanted it as realistic as possible in terms of young people having fun . Sex isn 't glamorous . There are bits which are , and bits which are messy . " She commented to Sky News : " It 's about us , it 's about young people . Hopefully people can identify with that . It had to be that the audience can relate to my character , that they can see how she gets herself in certain situations and how easily that can happen . " Donkey Punch is Breckin 's first feature film . LoveFilm observed that Donkey Punch is " acted with conviction by a cast of newcomers " .
Breckin had a role in January 2008 on the television series The Bill . She appeared in 2009 on the programme Inspector George Gently , as character Audrey Chadwick . She played the character of Judith Ure in 2009 in the television series The Royal ; Breckin guest starred opposite series regular Damian O 'Hare who played Dr. Burnett , a physician tasked with diagnosing her pregnant character 's ailments . Breckin guest starred on the television drama Heartbeat playing the role of Janice Hopley opposite actor James Gaddas who portrayed her father .
Breckin starred in the film Tender , directed by Deborah Haywood . Marianne Elliott directed Breckin in a role in her 2010 short film titled Alice . Breckin portrayed the role of PC Janet Taylor in 2010 in the television series DCI Banks . She portrayed the character of Debs Hastings in a 2010 episode of the television series Doctors . She guest starred on the television series Casualty in 2010 , playing the part of Kim Rees .
Breckin starred as Kelly in the 2011 film Tyrannosaur directed by Paddy Considine . In 2012 , Breckin portrayed a villain character named Deena in the television series , Hollyoaks . In March 2012 , Breckin and her fellow cast members participated in a Sleep Out event in Childwall , Liverpool in the locality of Hollyoaks to raise money for Centrepoint , a charity for the homeless .
= = Filmography = =
= = = Film = = =
= = = Television = = =
= = = Theatre = = =
2005 , Annie in Inside Out by Kat Joyce
2005 , Julie in After Miss Julie by Patrick Marber
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= Golem Arcana =
Golem Arcana is a tabletop miniature wargaming game developed and published by Harebrained Schemes for iOS and Android devices . The game combines physical miniatures on a game board with a mobile app that much of the gameplay takes place in ; the physical pieces and the app communicate through the use of a Bluetooth stylus . Several elements of the game , including special abilities and optional missions , exist only within the app .
Golem Arcana was funded through a Kickstarter campaign that launched in September 2013 and went on to raise over $ 500 @,@ 000 . The game was released just under a year later , on 13 August 2014 . Both studio co @-@ founder Jordan Weisman and executive producer Ray Winninger had extensive experience developing both video games and tabletop games , and one of their primary motivations in creating Golem Arcana was to merge the two gaming types . They also sought to create a more social experience than could be found in traditional multiplayer video games .
The game received mixed reviews upon release . Critics were split in their take on the hybrid of physical pieces and the digital app , with some seeing it as a boon and others as a detriment . The game received praise for its visuals , lore , and ruleset , but also received criticism for its price .
= = Gameplay = =
Golem Arcana is a two to eight @-@ player miniature wargaming game that interfaces with a digital app through the use of a Bluetooth stylus . Players compete against one another in one of several scenario types , including eliminating the opponent 's golems or capturing and holding a specific area of the map . The ultimate goal of the game is to collect a set number of " victory points " , which are gathered by defeating opposing golems , completing scenario objectives , and as rewards for completing optional missions encountered through the app .
Each player controls a number of physical miniatures called golems , which are placed on a game board built with interchangeable map tiles . Each map tile is divided into nine squares arranged 3 by 3 , and has terrain features pre @-@ printed on it . Golems come in small , large , and very large sizes . Up to four small , two large , or one large and two small golems can share a square on a map tile . The very large " colossus " golems take up an entire square by themselves . Each golem comes with a card that lists the actions it can take . Another type of card , known as relics , allow players to active special abilities including healing and resurrection .
The golems , cards , and game board are covered in small magnetic dots . A Bluetooth stylus that comes with the starter kit reads the dots to transmit information from the board to a mobile app . Gameplay information such as the position of all of the golems , terrain and map effects , and the game 's rules are stored in the app , which uses that information to determine and present players with available moves , attack accuracy and damage , and other statistics . Players then use the stylus to choose where to move and what actions to take ; players still have to move the physical pieces on the board , but their moves are also reflected in the app .
The game also has several components that exist only within the app . The base game includes around 70 knights , which in the game 's lore are sorcerers that control the golems . Players pair each golem with one knight , or three knights for the " colossus " golems , and different knights provide golems with different bonuses . Players can also use spells , in the game 's lore by evoking ancestral gods called Ancient Ones . Ancient Ones are cast using mana , which can be acquired in several ways , including when a golem that the player controls is defeated or though missions that appear in the app . Players encounter missions , which provide optional objectives in exchange for victory points , while moving around the map . In some cases not completing the missions offers alternative rewards . Harebrained Schemes collects aggregate data on the decisions that players make in the game and uses it to alter the game 's lore .
= = Development = =
Golem Arcana was announced in July 2013 in a blog post on developer Harebrained Schemes ' website . The blog post indicated that the studio would return to Kickstarter to fund the game , and that most of the studio 's staff would continue to work on their other project , Shadowrun Returns , while a few would be split off to work on Golem Arcana . The Kickstarter campaign was launched on 10 September 2013 and ran until 15 October 2013 , with a funding goal of $ 500 @,@ 000 . Backers could get the base game by pledging at the $ 55 Kickstarter reward tier .
The game was released on 13 August 2014 , with the digital component available for both iOS and Android . In addition to the base game , a number of expansion sets have been released . Expansions sets contain three miniatures as well as cards and abilities . Harebrained Schemes has also released " Colossus " expansions , which contain one large miniature instead of the three normal @-@ sized ones . Expansions are planned for release at least through early 2016 .
Both studio co @-@ founder Jordan Weisman and executive producer Ray Winninger had experience developing both tabletop games and video games . One of the studio 's motivations for developing the game was to combine the two mediums , with Winninger explaining " One of the spaces we 're interested in exploring at Harebrained , and Golem is the first effort , is how can we take those tabletop games that we know and love so much and leverage technology to enhance that experience in some way . " Weisman and Winninger also stressed the social nature of the game . Winninger , comparing Golem Arcana to Skylanders , another game with both physical and digital components , stressed that Golem Arcana was less focused on components and more focused on the social experience . Weisman pointed to his disappointment that " kids ' idea of playing together after school these days usually means just meeting online from their own houses " in stressing that participants playing against each other in Golem Arcana would do so face @-@ to @-@ face .
= = Reception = =
Golem Arcana received mixed reviews upon release . Reviewers were divided on the game 's defining feature – the hybrid of physical miniature and digital app , but praised the game 's visuals , lore , and rules .
Writing for Rock , Paper , Shotgun , Robert Florence praised the app for calculating variables like movement range and tracking statistics like health and ability cooldowns , but spoke of a disconnect caused by constantly shifting focus between the screen and the board . While ultimately questioning the need for the physical components at all , Florence also saw the game as having potential in the future . Chris Hutton of Tom 's Guide took a much more negative view . Hutton found it cumbersome that the starter kit came with only one stylus and that only one device running the app could be synced to a given game at a time , necessitating that the screen and stylus be passed back and forth between players . He also found the stylus itself to be unresponsive , slowing the game down to the point that he lost interest . VentureBeat 's Jay Henningsen , on the other hand , had nothing but praise for the app and stylus . After fifteen minutes he found using the stylus to be " almost natural " , and found that the app handling all of the rules and stat @-@ keeping made for " one of the easiest experiences I ’ ve ever had getting into a new game " . He went on to say that players will look to see the technology spread to other miniature wargaming products .
One element that did receive near @-@ universal criticism was the game 's price of $ 80 for the base game . PC World called the price the game 's " biggest flaw " , Yahoo ! Tech called it " hefty " and " a steep investment " , and VentureBeat called it " quite the price tag " , but qualified their statement by pointing to the large number of items that come with the starter kit .
The game did receive praise for its visuals , storytelling , and rules . The Academy of Adventure Gaming Arts & Design awarded Golem Arcana the " Best Miniature Figure Rules " prize in the 2015 Origins Awards . In an otherwise negative review , Chris Hutton of Tom 's Guide praised the storyline and visuals , saying of the latter that " the colorful , interesting terrain created a unique universe " . Game Informer praised the game 's setting and its " gorgeous visual aesthetic " .
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= Amazing Stories Quarterly =
Amazing Stories Quarterly was a U.S. science fiction pulp magazine published from 1928 to 1934 . It was launched by Hugo Gernsback as a companion to his Amazing Stories , the first science fiction magazine , which had begun publishing in April 1926 . Amazing Stories had been successful enough for Gernsback to try a single issue of Amazing Stories Annual in 1927 , which had sold well , and he decided to follow it up with a quarterly magazine . The first issue of Amazing Stories Quarterly was dated Winter 1928 and carried a reprint of H.G. Wells ' When the Sleeper Wakes . Gernsback 's policy of running a novel in each issue was popular with his readership , though the choice of Wells ' novel was less so . Over the next five issues only one more reprint appeared : Gernsback 's own novel Ralph 124C 41 + , in the Winter 1929 issue . Gernsback went bankrupt in early 1929 , and lost control of both Amazing Stories and Amazing Stories Quarterly ; his assistant , T. O 'Conor Sloane , took over as editor . The magazine began to run into financial difficulties in 1932 , and the schedule became irregular ; the last issue was dated Fall 1934 .
Authors whose work appeared in Amazing Stories Quarterly include Stanton A. Coblentz , Miles J. Breuer , A. Hyatt Verrill , and Jack Williamson . Critical opinions differ on the quality of the fiction Gernsback and Sloane printed : Brian Stableford regards several of the novels as being important early science fiction , but Everett Bleiler comments that few of the stories were of acceptable quality . Milton Wolf and Mike Ashley are more positive in their assessment ; they consider the work Sloane published in the early 1930s to be some of the best in the new genre .
= = Publication history = =
Although science fiction ( sf ) had been published before the 1920s , it did not begin to coalesce into a separately marketed genre until the appearance in 1926 of Amazing Stories , a U.S. pulp magazine published by Hugo Gernsback . The new magazine was successful , and in 1927 Gernsback brought out a double @-@ sized Amazing Stories Annual , which also sold well . These successes convinced him to start a companion magazine to Amazing Stories , titled Amazing Stories Quarterly . The first issue , dated Winter 1928 , appeared on newsstands on January 5 that year .
Gernsback went bankrupt in early 1929 , and lost control of both Amazing Stories and Amazing Stories Quarterly . After a short period in receivership , they were acquired by Bergan Mackinnon , who sold them on to Bernarr Macfadden 's Teck Publications . T. O 'Conor Sloane , who had worked on both magazines for Gernsback , took over as editor . In 1932 the magazine , which was probably never very profitable , began to suffer from financial problems , and the quarterly schedule became irregular after the Winter 1932 issue . The last two issues were filled completely with reprints from early issues and from Amazing Stories . The last issue was dated Fall 1934 , though the decision to discontinue the magazine was not taken until some time later , as an editorial comment in the May 1935 issue of Amazing Stories mentioned that further issues might still appear .
= = Contents = =
The first issue of Amazing Stories Quarterly contained a reprint of H. G. Wells ' novel When the Sleeper Wakes , though for some reason Wells did not provide Gernsback with the revised text published in 1910 under the title The Sleeper Awakes ; the text printed was that of the original 1899 edition . The other material in the issue was original , and the following issues included material by Edmond Hamilton , Stanton A. Coblentz , R.F. Starzl , David H. Keller , S.P. Meek , J. Schlossel , and Clare Winger Harris , one of the earliest women writers of sf . Although readers ' reactions to the Wells novel were negative , they approved of Gernsback 's policy of publishing a novel in each issue . The only other reprint in the early days of the magazine was Gernsback 's own novel Ralph 124C 41 + , which appeared in the Winter 1929 issue . The novel , set in the year 2660 , was little more than a series of predictions about the future tied together by a minor plot . Gernsback included a letter column , and began a competition for the best editorials submitted by readers ; the first prize was awarded to Jack Williamson , later to become a successful science fiction writer but at that time just starting his career . Gernsback also started other departments to engage the readers , including book reviews , science quizzes , and science news . The last issue under Gernsback 's control was dated Spring 1929 ; under Sloane 's editorship , most of these nonfiction departments ceased .
According to Milton Wolf and Mike Ashley , historians of science fiction , over the next two years Sloane published some of the best sf of the early years of the field in Amazing Stories Quarterly . Wolf and Ashley cite " Paradox " , by Charles Cloukey , an early time @-@ travel story ; The Bridge of Light , by A. Hyatt Verrill , a novel about a lost civilization in South America ; The Birth of a New Republic , by Miles J. Breuer and Jack Williamson , in which a man of the 24th century reminisces about a revolt by the inhabitants of the Moon rebel against the Earth ; " Paradise and Iron " , by Breuer ; and White Lily , by Eric Temple Bell , under the pseudonym John Taine , about a form of crystal life that endangers the planet . After 1931 , according to Wolf and Ashley , the fiction in Amazing Stories Quarterly became less entertaining . Everett Bleiler , the author of a detailed review of the first ten years of science fiction magazines , is less complimentary , describing John W. Campbell , Jr . ' s space operas , which appeared from 1930 to 1932 , as " turgid " , and commenting that only a dozen or so of the stories in the magazine 's entire run " might have been considered worth reading if one could put oneself back in the 1930s , accepting the standards of the time " . Bleiler mentions three authors , Coblentz , Taine , and Breuer , as having produced notably original material , but adds that their work was " not strong enough for mainstream fiction " and had " too little action and too much sophistication for pulp " . Bleiler does however agree with Wolf and Ashley that the magazines 's quality declined over time . Brian Stableford , in the Science Fiction Encyclopedia , also highlights Coblentz , Taine and Breuer , along with Williamson and Verrill , among the magazine 's contributors ; Stableford regards their contributions as being among " the most important early pulp sf novels " .
= = Bibliographic details = =
Amazing Stories Quarterly was published by Hugo Gernsback 's Experimenter Publishing until Spring 1929 . A single issue appeared from Irving Trust , the trustee in Gernsback 's bankruptcy ; then four issues , from Fall 1929 to Summer 1930 , again under the Experimenter Publishing imprint , and then four more from Radio @-@ Science Publications . The last ten issues , from Fall 1931 to Fall 1934 , were published by Teck Publishing , of Washington and Dunellen . The magazine was in large pulp format throughout , and was 144 pages long , except for the last two issues , which were 128 pages . It was priced at 50 cents . The first six issues were edited by Hugo Gernsback ; from the Summer 1929 issue on , the editor was T. O 'Conor Sloane . There was a Canadian reprint of a single issue , Fall 1934 .
Another 27 issues of Amazing Stories Quarterly appeared from Ziff @-@ Davis from 1940 to 1943 , and also from 1949 to 1951 , but these were not original magazines , only rebound issues of Amazing Stories .
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= The Turk =
The Turk , also known as the Mechanical Turk or Automaton Chess Player ( German : Schachtürke , " chess Turk " ; Hungarian : A Török ) , was a fake chess @-@ playing machine constructed in the late 18th century . From 1770 until its destruction by fire in 1854 it was exhibited by various owners as an automaton , though it was eventually revealed to be an elaborate hoax . Constructed and unveiled in 1770 by Wolfgang von Kempelen ( Hungarian : Kempelen Farkas ; 1734 – 1804 ) to impress the Empress Maria Theresa of Austria , the mechanism appeared to be able to play a strong game of chess against a human opponent , as well as perform the knight 's tour , a puzzle that requires the player to move a knight to occupy every square of a chessboard exactly once .
The Turk was in fact a mechanical illusion that allowed a human chess master hiding inside to operate the machine . With a skilled operator , the Turk won most of the games played during its demonstrations around Europe and the Americas for nearly 84 years , playing and defeating many challengers including statesmen such as Napoleon Bonaparte and Benjamin Franklin . The operators within the mechanism during Kempelen 's original tour remain a mystery . The device was later purchased in 1804 and exhibited by Johann Nepomuk Mälzel . The chess masters who secretly operated it included Johann Allgaier , Boncourt , Aaron Alexandre , William Lewis , Jacques Mouret , and William Schlumberger .
= = Construction of the Turk = =
Kempelen was inspired to build the Turk following his attendance at the court of Maria Theresa of Austria at Schönbrunn Palace , where François Pelletier was performing an illusion act . An exchange afterward resulted in Kempelen promising to return to the Palace with an invention that would top the illusions .
The result of the challenge was the Automaton Chess @-@ player , known in modern times as the Turk . The machine consisted of a life @-@ sized model of a human head and torso , with a black beard and grey eyes , and dressed in Turkish robes and a turban – " the traditional costume " , according to journalist and author Tom Standage , " of an oriental sorcerer " . Its left arm held a long Turkish smoking pipe while at rest , while its right lay on the top of a large cabinet that measured about three @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half feet ( 110 cm ) long , two feet ( 60 cm ) wide , and two @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half feet ( 75 cm ) high . Placed on the top of the cabinet was a chessboard , which measured eighteen inches square . The front of the cabinet consisted of three doors , an opening , and a drawer , which could be opened to reveal a red and white ivory chess set .
The interior of the machine was very complicated and designed to mislead those who observed it . When opened on the left , the front doors of the cabinet exposed a number of gears and cogs similar to clockwork . The section was designed so that if the back doors of the cabinet were open at the same time one could see through the machine . The other side of the cabinet did not house machinery ; instead it contained a red cushion and some removable parts , as well as brass structures . This area was also designed to provide a clear line of vision through the machine . Underneath the robes of the Turkish model , two other doors were hidden . These also exposed clockwork machinery and provided a similarly unobstructed view through the machine . The design allowed the presenter of the machine to open every available door to the public , to maintain the illusion .
Neither the clockwork visible to the left side of the machine nor the drawer that housed the chess set extended fully to the rear of the cabinet ; they instead went only one third of the way . A sliding seat was also installed , allowing the director inside to slide from place to place and thus evade observation as the presenter opened various doors . The sliding of the seat caused dummy machinery to slide into its place to further conceal the person inside the cabinet .
The chessboard on the top of the cabinet was thin enough to allow for a magnetic linkage . Each piece in the chess set had a small , strong magnet attached to its base , and when they were placed on the board the pieces would attract a magnet attached to a string under their specific places on the board . This allowed the director inside the machine to see which pieces moved where on the chess board . The bottom of the chessboard had corresponding numbers , 1 – 64 , allowing the director to see which places on the board were affected by a player 's move . The internal magnets were positioned in a way that outside magnetic forces did not influence them , and Kempelen would often allow a large magnet to sit at the side of the board in an attempt to show that the machine was not influenced by magnetism .
As a further means of misdirection , the Turk came with a small wooden coffin @-@ like box that the presenter would place on the top of the cabinet . While Johann Nepomuk Mälzel , a later owner of the machine , did not use the box , Kempelen often peered into the box during play , suggesting that the box controlled some aspect of the machine . The box was believed by some to have supernatural power , with Karl Gottlieb von Windisch writing in his 1784 book Inanimate Reason that " [ o ] ne old lady , in particular , who had not forgotten the tales she had been told in her youth … went and hid herself in a window seat , as distant as she could from the evil spirit , which she firmly believed possessed the machine " .
The interior also contained a pegboard chess board connected to a pantograph @-@ style series of levers that controlled the model 's left arm . The metal pointer on the pantograph moved over the interior chessboard , and would simultaneously move the arm of the Turk over the chessboard on the cabinet . The range of motion allowed the director to move the Turk 's arm up and down , and turning the lever would open and close the Turk 's hand , allowing it to grasp the pieces on the board . All of this was made visible to the director by using a simple candle , which had a ventilation system through the model . Other parts of the machinery allowed for a clockwork @-@ type sound to be played when the Turk made a move , further adding to the machinery illusion , and for the Turk to make various facial expressions . A voice box was added following the Turk 's acquisition by Mälzel , allowing the machine to say " Échec ! " ( French for " check " ) during matches .
An operator inside the machine also had tools to assist in communicating with the presenter outside . Two brass discs equipped with numbers were positioned opposite each other on the inside and outside of the cabinet . A rod could rotate the discs to the desired number , which acted as a code between the two .
= = Exhibition = =
The Turk made its debut in 1770 at Schönbrunn Palace , about six months after Pelletier 's act . Kempelen addressed the court , presenting what he had built , and began the demonstration of the machine and its parts . With every showing of the Turk , Kempelen began by opening the doors and drawers of the cabinet , allowing members of the audience to inspect the machine . Following this display , Kempelen would announce that the machine was ready for a challenger .
Kempelen would inform the player that the Turk would use the white pieces and have the first move . Between moves the Turk kept its left arm on the cushion . The Turk could nod twice if it threatened its opponent 's queen , and three times upon placing the king in check . If an opponent made an illegal move , the Turk would shake its head , move the piece back and make its own move , thus forcing a forfeit of its opponent 's move . Louis Dutens , a traveller who observed a showing of the Turk , attempted to trick the machine " by giving the Queen the move of a Knight , but my mechanic opponent was not to be so imposed upon ; he took up my Queen and replaced her in the square from which I had moved her " . Kempelen made it a point to traverse the room during the match , and invited observers to bring magnets , irons , and lodestones to the cabinet to test whether the machine was run by a form of magnetism or weights . The first person to play against the Turk was Count Ludwig von Cobenzl , an Austrian courtier at the palace . Along with other challengers that day , he was quickly defeated , with observers of the match stating that the machine played aggressively , and typically beat its opponents within thirty minutes .
Another part of the machine 's exhibition was the completion of the knight 's tour , a famed chess puzzle . The puzzle requires the player to move a knight around a chessboard , touching each square once along the way . While most experienced chess players of the time still struggled with the puzzle , the Turk was capable of completing the tour without any difficulty from any starting point via a pegboard used by the director with a mapping of the puzzle laid out .
The Turk also had the ability to converse with spectators using a letter board . The director , whose identity during the period when Kempelen presented the machine at Schönbrunn Palace is unknown , was able to do this in English , French , and German . Carl Friedrich Hindenburg , a university mathematician , kept a record of the conversations during the Turk 's time in Leipzig and published it in 1789 as Über den Schachspieler des Herrn von Kempelen und dessen Nachbildung ( or On the Chessplayer of Mr. von Kempelen And Its Replica ) . Topics of questions put to and answered by the Turk included its age , marital status , and its secret workings .
= = Tour of Europe = =
Following word of its debut , interest in the machine grew across Europe . Kempelen , however , was more interested in his other projects and avoided exhibiting the Turk , often lying about the machine 's repair status to prospective challengers . Von Windisch wrote at one point that Kempelen " refused the entreaties of his friends , and a crowd of curious persons from all countries , the satisfaction of seeing this far @-@ famed machine " . In the decade following its debut at Schönbrunn Palace the Turk only played one opponent , Sir Robert Murray Keith , a Scottish noble , and Kempelen went as far as dismantling the Turk entirely following the match . Kempelen was quoted as referring to the invention as a " mere bagatelle " , as he was not pleased with its popularity and would rather continue work on steam engines and machines that replicated human speech .
In 1781 , Kempelen was ordered by Emperor Joseph II to reconstruct the Turk and deliver it to Vienna for a state visit from Grand Duke Paul of Russia and his wife . The appearance was so successful that Grand Duke Paul suggested a tour of Europe for the Turk , a request to which Kempelen reluctantly agreed .
The Turk began its European tour in 1783 , beginning with an appearance in France in April . A stop at Versailles preceded an exhibition in Paris , where the Turk lost a match to Charles Godefroy de La Tour d 'Auvergne , the Duc de Bouillon . Upon arrival in Paris in May 1783 , it was displayed to the public and played a variety of opponents , including a lawyer named Mr. Bernard who was a second rank in chess ability . Following the sessions at Versailles , demands increased for a match with François @-@ André Danican Philidor , who was considered the best chess player of his time . Moving to the Café de la Régence , the machine played many of the most skilled players , often losing ( e.g. against Bernard and Verdoni ) , until securing a match with Philidor at the Académie des Sciences . While Philidor won his match with the Turk , Philidor 's son noted that his father called it " his most fatiguing game of chess ever ! " The Turk 's final game in Paris was against Benjamin Franklin , who was serving as ambassador to France from the United States . Franklin reportedly enjoyed the game with the Turk and was interested in the machine for the rest of his life , keeping a copy of Philip Thicknesse 's book The Speaking Figure and the Automaton Chess Player , Exposed and Detected in his personal library .
Following his tour of Paris , Kempelen moved the Turk to London , where it was exhibited daily for five shillings . Thicknesse , known in his time as a skeptic , sought out the Turk in an attempt to expose the inner workings of the machine . While he respected Kempelen as " a very ingenious man " , he asserted that the Turk was an elaborate hoax with a small child inside the machine , describing the machine as " a complicated piece of clockwork ... which is nothing more , than one , of many other ingenious devices , to misguide and delude the observers " .
After a year in London , Kempelen and the Turk travelled to Leipzig , stopping in various European cities along the way . From Leipzig , it went to Dresden , where Joseph Friedrich Freiherr von Racknitz viewed the Turk and published his findings in Über den Schachspieler des Herrn von Kempelen und dessen Nachbildung , along with illustrations showing his beliefs about how the machine operated . It then moved to Amsterdam , after which Kempelen is said to have accepted an invitation to the Sanssouci palace in Potsdam of Frederick the Great , King of Prussia . The story goes that Frederick enjoyed the Turk so much that he paid a large sum of money to Kempelen in exchange for the Turk 's secrets . Frederick never gave the secret away , but was reportedly disappointed to learn how the machine worked . ( This story is almost certainly apocryphal ; there is no evidence of the Turk 's encounter with Frederick , the first mention of which comes in the early 19th century , by which time the Turk was also incorrectly said to have played against George III of England . ) It seems most likely that the machine stayed dormant at Schönbrunn Palace for over two decades , although Kempelen attempted unsuccessfully to sell it in his final years . Kempelen died at age 70 on 26 March 1804 .
= = Mälzel and the machine = =
Following the death of Kempelen , the Turk remained unexhibited until some time before 1804 when Kempelen 's son decided to sell it to Johann Nepomuk Mälzel , a Bavarian musician with an interest in various machines and devices . Mälzel , whose successes included patenting a form of metronome , had tried to purchase the Turk once before , before Kempelen 's death . The original attempt had failed , owing to Kempelen 's asking price of 20 @,@ 000 francs ; Kempelen 's son sold the machine to Mälzel for half this sum .
Upon acquiring the Turk , Mälzel had to learn its secrets and make some repairs to get it back in working order . His stated goal was to make explaining the Turk a greater challenge . While the completion of this goal took ten years , the Turk still made appearances , most notably with Napoleon Bonaparte .
In 1809 , Napoleon I of France arrived at Schönbrunn Palace to play the Turk . According to an eyewitness report , Mälzel took responsibility for the construction of the machine while preparing the game , and the Turk ( Johann Baptist Allgaier ) saluted Napoleon before the start of the match . The details of the match have been published over the years in numerous accounts , many of them contradictory . According to Bradley Ewart , it is believed that the Turk sat at its cabinet , and Napoleon sat at a separate chess table . Napoleon 's table was in a roped @-@ off area and he was not allowed to cross into the Turk 's area , with Mälzel crossing back and forth to make each player 's move and allowing a clear view for the spectators . In a surprise move , Napoleon took the first turn instead of allowing the Turk to make the first move , as was usual ; but Mälzel allowed the game to continue . Shortly thereafter , Napoleon attempted an illegal move . Upon noticing the move , the Turk returned the piece to its original spot and continued the game . Napoleon attempted the illegal move a second time , and the Turk responded by removing the piece from the board entirely and taking its turn . Napoleon then attempted the move a third time , the Turk responding with a sweep of its arm , knocking all the pieces off the board . Napoleon was reportedly amused , and then played a real game with the machine , completing nineteen moves before tipping over his king in surrender . Alternate versions of the story include Napoleon being unhappy about losing to the machine , playing the machine at a later time , playing one match with a magnet on the board , and playing a match with a shawl around the head and body of the Turk in an attempt to obscure its vision .
In 1811 , Mälzel brought the Turk to Milan for a performance with Eugène de Beauharnais , the Prince of Venice and Viceroy of Italy . Beauharnais enjoyed the machine so much that he offered to purchase it from Mälzel . After some serious bargaining , Beauharnais acquired the Turk for 30 @,@ 000 francs – three times what Mälzel had paid – and kept it for four years . In 1815 , Mälzel returned to Beauharnais in Munich and asked to buy the Turk back . Two versions of how much he had to pay exist , eventually working out an agreement . One version appeared in the France Letter Palamede . The complete story does not make a lot of sense since Mälzel visited Paris again , and he also could import his " Conflagration of Moscow " .
Following the repurchase , Mälzel brought the Turk back to Paris where he made acquaintances of many of the leading chess players at Café de la Régence . Mälzel stayed in France with the machine until 1818 , when he moved to London and held a number of performances with the Turk and many of his other machines . In London , Mälzel and his act received a large amount of press , and he continued improving the machine , ultimately installing a voice box so the machine could say " Échec ! " when placing a player in check .
In 1819 , Mälzel took the Turk on a tour of the United Kingdom . There were several new developments in the act , such as allowing the opponent the first move and eliminating the king 's bishop 's pawn from the Turk 's pieces . This pawn handicap created further interest in the Turk , and spawned a book by W. J. Hunneman chronicling the matches played with this handicap . Despite the handicap , the Turk ( operated by Mouret at the time ) ended up with forty @-@ five victories , three losses , and two stalemates .
= = Mälzel in America = =
The appearances of the Turk were profitable for Mälzel , and he continued by taking it and his other machines to the United States . In 1826 , he opened an exhibition in New York City that slowly grew in popularity , giving rise to many newspaper stories and anonymous threats of exposure of the secret . Mälzel 's problem was finding a proper director for the machine , having trained an unknown woman in France before coming to the United States . He ended up recalling a former director , William Schlumberger , from Alsace in Europe to come to America and work for him again once Mälzel was able to provide the money for Schlumberger 's transport .
Upon Schlumberger 's arrival , the Turk debuted in Boston , Mälzel spinning a story that the New York chess players could not handle full games and that the Boston players were much better opponents . This was a success for many weeks , and the tour moved to Philadelphia for three months . Following Philadelphia , the Turk moved to Baltimore , where it played for a number of months , including losing a match against Charles Carroll , a signer of the Declaration of Independence . The exhibition in Baltimore brought news that two brothers had constructed their own machine , the Walker Chess @-@ player . Mälzel viewed the competing machine and attempted to buy it , but the offer was declined and the duplicate machine toured for a number of years , never receiving the fame that Mälzel 's machine did and eventually falling into obscurity .
Mälzel continued with exhibitions around the United States until 1828 , when he took some time off and visited Europe , returning in 1829 . Throughout the 1830s , he continued to tour the United States , exhibiting the machine as far west as the Mississippi River and visiting Canada . In Richmond , Virginia , the Turk was observed by Edgar Allan Poe , who was writing for the Southern Literary Messenger . Poe 's essay " Maelzel 's Chess Player " was published in April 1836 and is the most famous essay on the Turk , even though many of Poe 's hypotheses were incorrect ( such as that a chess @-@ playing machine must always win ) .
Mälzel eventually took the Turk on his second tour to Havana , Cuba . In Cuba , Schlumberger died of yellow fever , leaving Mälzel without a director for his machine . Dejected , Mälzel died at sea in 1838 at age 66 during his return trip , leaving his machinery with the ship captain .
= = Final years and beyond = =
Upon the return of the ship on which Mälzel died , his various machines , including the Turk , fell into the hands of a friend of Mälzel 's , the businessman John Ohl . He attempted to auction off the Turk , but owing to low bidding ultimately bought it himself for $ 400 . Only when John Kearsley Mitchell from Philadelphia , Edgar Allan Poe 's personal physician and an admirer of the Turk , approached Ohl did the Turk change hands again . Mitchell formed a restoration club and went about the business of repairing the Turk for public appearances , completing the restoration in 1840 .
As interest in the Turk outgrew its location , Mitchell and his club chose to donate the machine to the Chinese Museum of Charles Willson Peale . While the Turk still occasionally gave performances , it was eventually relegated to the corners of the museum and forgotten about until 5 July 1854 , when a fire that started at the National Theater in Philadelphia reached the Museum and destroyed the Turk . Mitchell believed he had heard " through the struggling flames ... the last words of our departed friend , the sternly whispered , oft repeated syllables , ' echec ! echec ! ! ' "
John Gaughan , an American manufacturer of equipment for magicians based in Los Angeles , spent $ 120 @,@ 000 building his own version of Kempelen 's machine over a five @-@ year period from 1984 . The machine uses the original chessboard , which was stored separately from the original Turk and was not destroyed in the fire . The first public display of Gaughan 's Turk was in November 1989 at a history of magic conference . The machine was presented much as Kempelen presented the original , except that the opponent was replaced by a computer running a chess program .
= = Revealing the secrets = =
While many books and articles were written during the Turk 's life about how it worked , most were inaccurate , drawing incorrect inferences from external observation .
It was not until Dr. Silas Mitchell 's series of articles for The Chess Monthly that the secret was fully revealed . Mitchell , son of the final private owner of the Turk , wrote that " no secret was ever kept as the Turk 's has been . Guessed at , in part , many times , no one of the several explanations ... ever solved this amusing puzzle " . As the Turk was lost to fire at the time of this publication , Silas Mitchell felt that there were " no longer any reasons for concealing from the amateurs of chess , the solution to this ancient enigma " .
The most important biographical history about the Chess @-@ player and Mälzel was presented in The Book of the First American Chess Congress , published by Daniel Willard Fiske in 1857 . The account , " The Automaton Chess @-@ Player in America , " was written by Professor George Allen of Philadelphia , in the form of a letter to William Lewis , one of the former operators of the chess automaton .
In 1859 , a letter published in the Philadelphia Sunday Dispatch by William F. Kummer , who worked as a director under John Mitchell , revealed another piece of the secret : a candle inside the cabinet . A series of tubes led from the lamp to the turban of the Turk for ventilation . The smoke rising from the turban would be disguised by the smoke coming from the other candelabra in the area where the game was played .
Later in 1859 , an uncredited article appeared in Littell 's Living Age that purported to be the story of the Turk from French magician Jean Eugène Robert @-@ Houdin . This was rife with errors ranging from dates of events to a story of a Polish officer whose legs were amputated , but ended up being rescued by Kempelen and smuggled back to Russia inside the machine .
A new article about the Turk did not turn up until 1899 , when The American Chess Magazine published an account of the Turk 's match with Napoleon Bonaparte . The story was basically a review of previous accounts , and a substantive published account would not appear until 1947 , when Chess Review published articles by Kenneth Harkness and Jack Straley Battell that amounted to a comprehensive history and description of the Turk , complete with new diagrams that synthesized information from previous publications . Another article written in 1960 for American Heritage by Ernest Wittenberg provided new diagrams describing how the director sat inside the cabinet .
In Henry A. Davidson 's 1945 publication A Short History of Chess , significant weight is given to Poe 's essay which erroneously suggested that the player sat inside the Turk figure , rather than on a moving seat inside the cabinet . A similar error would occur in Alex G. Bell 's 1978 book The Machine Plays Chess , which falsely asserted that " the operator was a trained boy ( or very small adult ) who followed the directions of the chess player who was hidden elsewhere on stage or in the theater … "
More books were published about the Turk toward the end of the 20th century . Along with Bell 's book , Charles Michael Carroll 's The Great Chess Automaton ( 1975 ) focused more on the studies of the Turk . Bradley Ewart 's Chess : Man vs. Machine ( 1980 ) discussed the Turk as well as other purported chess @-@ playing automatons .
It was not until the creation of Deep Blue , IBM 's attempt at a computer that could challenge the world 's best players , that interest increased again , and two more books were published : Gerald M. Levitt 's The Turk , Chess Automaton ( 2000 ) , and Tom Standage 's The Turk : The Life and Times of the Famous Eighteenth @-@ Century Chess @-@ Playing Machine , published in 2002 . The Turk was used as a personification of Deep Blue in the 2003 documentary Game Over : Kasparov and the Machine .
= = Legacy and popular culture = =
Owing to the Turk 's popularity and mystery , its construction inspired a number of inventions and imitations , including Ajeeb , or " The Egyptian " , an American imitation built by Charles Hopper that President Grover Cleveland played in 1885 , and Mephisto , the self @-@ described " most famous " machine , of which little is known . The first imitation was made while Mälzel was in Baltimore . Created by the Brothers Walker , the " American Chess Player " made its debut in May 1827 in New York . El Ajedrecista was built in 1912 by Leonardo Torres y Quevedo as a chess @-@ playing automaton and made its public debut during the Paris World Fair of 1914 . Capable of playing rook and king versus king endgames using electromagnets , it was the first true chess @-@ playing automaton , and a precursor of sorts to Deep Blue .
The Turk was visited in London by Rev. Edmund Cartwright in 1784 . He was so intrigued by the Turk that he would later question whether " it is more difficult to construct a machine that shall weave than one which shall make all the variety of moves required in that complicated game " . Cartwright would patent the prototype for a power loom within the year . Sir Charles Wheatstone , an inventor , saw a later appearance of the Turk while it was owned by Mälzel . He also saw some of Mälzel 's speaking machines , and Mälzel later presented a demonstration of the speaking machines to the researcher and his teenage son . Alexander Graham Bell obtained a copy of a book by Kempelen on speaking machines after being inspired by seeing a similar machine built by Wheatstone ; Bell went on to file the first successful patent for the telephone .
A play , The Automaton Chess Player , was presented in New York City in 1845 . The advertising , as well as an article that appeared in The Illustrated London News , claimed that the play featured Kempelen 's Turk , but it was in fact a copy of the Turk created by J. Walker , who had earlier presented the Walker Chess @-@ player .
Raymond Bernard 's silent feature film The Chess Player ( The Chess Player , France 1927 ) weaves elements from the real story of the Turk into an adventure tale set in the aftermath of the first of the Partitions of Poland in 1772 . The film 's " Baron von Kempelen " helps a dashing young Polish nationalist on the run from the occupying Russians , who also happens to be an expert chess player , by hiding him inside a chess playing automaton called the Turk , closely based on the real Kempelen model . Just as they are about to escape over the border , the Baron is summoned to Saint Petersburg to present the Turk to the empress Catherine II . In an echo of the Napoleon incident , Catherine attempts to cheat the Turk , who wipes all the pieces from the board in response .
The Turk has also inspired works of literary fiction . In 1849 , just a few years before the Turk was destroyed , Edgar Allan Poe published a tale " Von Kempelen and His Discovery " . Ambrose Bierce 's short story " Moxon 's Master " , published in 1909 , is a morbid tale about a chess @-@ playing automaton that resembles the Turk . In 1938 , John Dickson Carr published The Crooked Hinge , a locked room mystery in his line of Dr. Gideon Fell detective novels . Among the puzzles presented included an automaton that operates in a way that is unexplainable to the characters . Gene Wolfe 's 1977 science fiction short story " The Marvellous Brass Chessplaying Automaton " also features a device very similar to the Turk . Robert Loehr 's 2007 novel " The Chess Machine " ( published in the UK as " The Secrets of the Chess Machine " ) focusses on the man inside the machine . F. Gwynplaine MacIntyre 's 2007 story " The Clockwork Horror " reconstructs Edgar Allan Poe 's original encounter with Mälzel 's chess @-@ player , and also establishes ( from contemporary advertisements in a Richmond newspaper ) precisely when and where this encounter took place .
Walter Benjamin alludes to the Mechanical Turk in the first thesis of his Theses on the Philosophy of History ( Über den Begriff der Geschichte ) , written in 1940 .
In 2005 , Amazon.com launched the Amazon Mechanical Turk . The web @-@ based software application coordinates programming tasks with human intelligence , inspired in part by the way Kempelen 's Turk operated . The program is designed to have humans perform tasks , such as color comparisons , that computers struggle with .
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= Kami , Perempuan =
Kami , Perempoean ( Perfected Spelling : Kami , Perempuan ; Indonesian for We , the Women ) is a 1943 stage play in one act by Armijn Pane . The six @-@ character drama revolves around a conflict between two couples , with the women considering the men cowards for not wanting to join the Defenders of the Homeland and the men afraid of how the women will react to them having secretly joined . Despite warnings from the women 's mother and father , the men prepare to leave for their training , with their partner 's blessings .
Written during the Japanese occupation of the Dutch East Indies ( now Indonesia ) , while Pane was an employee of the Cultural Centre in Jakarta , Kami , Perempuan is similar to contemporary plays owing to its openly pro @-@ Japanese message and emphasis on everyday issues experienced by average people . Discussions of the play have found it to be pro @-@ Japanese propaganda , suggesting that men should join the military to please their women , though it has also been suggested that the play is in fact a warning against accepting the Defenders of the Homeland as being for Indonesia . Kami , Perempuan was performed numerous times in 1943 , and its script has been compiled in a book .
= = Plot = =
Mahmud is sitting in his living room , lost in thought , as a newspaper hangs upside @-@ down in his hands . His wife , Aminah , enters , and asks him what he is doing . When he answers that he is reading the newspaper , Aminah turns it right @-@ side up and ridicules him . After she again interrupts him , Mahmud leaves the home .
Aminah 's parents come in soon afterwards and ask where Mahmud has gone , to which she replies " out " . Their discussion is interrupted when Aminah 's younger sister Sri comes in , upset , and tells them that she has just broken up with her fiance , Supono . Upon questioning her , the family learns that Pono had likewise been pushed to join the recently established Pembela Tanah Air ( PETA ; Protectors of the Homeland ) , and refused ; Sri had broken off their engagement rather than marry a coward , saying that if she were a man she would have certainly joined . Aminah implies that Mahmud has likewise refused to join .
Sri is left in the living room as Aminah and their mother go to tend to Aminah 's child , while their father goes to read the newspaper . Mahmud comes in , and quietly asks Sri to help him . He reveals that he had registered to join PETA several weeks prior and was to leave for training that very night , but was unsure of how Aminah would accept it . Sri tells him that she will ask her sister and has Mahmud hide in a wardrobe . After she leaves the room , Supono and Aminah enter from other doors . Supono , unknown to him , is in a similar situation to Mahmud , and Aminah convinces him to hide beneath a table as she asks Sri .
The sisters meet in the living room and discuss how they would feel if each of their partners were – hypothetically – to leave for PETA training . Sri insults Supono 's bravery , saying that he would never do it ; Aminah feels the same about Mahmud . Ultimately the sisters decide to answer together , both expressing approval . Hearing this , Mahmud and Supono leave their hiding places and shout " Live , Srikandi of Indonesia ! " The four are excited , and Sri and Supono prepare for a quick wedding . Aminah and Sri 's parents , however , are frightened upon hearing that the men will join PETA .
= = Characters = =
Mahmud , Aminah 's husband
Aminah , wife of Mahmud and sister of Sri
Sri , sister of Aminah and fiancée of Supono
Supono , fiancé of Sri
Aminah and Sri 's mother and father
= = Writing and publication = =
Kami , Perempuan was written by Armijn Pane , a Sumatra @-@ born journalist and man of letters . Before the Japanese occupation of the Dutch East Indies had begun in 1942 , Pane had made a name for himself in helping to establish the magazine Poedjangga Baroe in 1933 and with his novel Belenggu ( Shackles ; 1940 ) . His first stage play , Lukisan Masa ( Portrait of the Times ) , had been performed and published in May 1937 .
By 1942 Pane was one of the most prominent playwrights in Java , together with El Hakim ( pseud . Aboe Hanifah ) and Usmar Ismail . Their works often dealt with politics , a sense of nationalism , and the influence of one 's environment — particularly tradition , ethics , and religion . As with Kami , Perempuan , these works were oriented around everyday events and featured average people , as opposed to the earlier stories based in mythology and telling of gods and goddesses .
After the Cultural Centre ( in Indonesian , Poesat Keboedajaan ; in Japanese , Keimin Bunka Shidōsho ( 啓民文化指導所 ) ) opened in Jakarta on 1 April 1943 , Pane served as the head of its literature desk . This office was tasked with the establishment of a pro @-@ Japanese and pro @-@ Greater Asia culture . Numerous stage plays were written which promoted these ideals of the Empire of Japan , including Rd Ariffien 's Ratoe Asia and various works by Hinatsu Eitaro and D. Suradji .
Kami , Perempuan premiered in 1943 in Jakarta . It received multiple performances that year , some in Jakarta , some in other parts of Java . In 1950 Pane included Kami , Perempuan in his book Djinak @-@ Djinak Merpati dengan Tjerita2 Sandiwara Lain , a collection of his stage plays . For this publication Pane removed a scene in which two neighbours came to visit the family , which included further conversation . Pane considered this scene to be anti @-@ climactic , whereas without it the play 's title became more appropriate . Another , smaller , change to the play was the removal of the names of Japan 's enemies during World War II .
= = Themes = =
Indonesian literary critic Boen Sri Oemarjati finds Kami , Perempuan to be a romance which also shows the strength and virility of the Indonesian people . She concludes , however , that it is a work of propaganda , summarising its message as " Women with the spirit of Srikandi want their husbands to be as strong and virile as their own hearts " , and to do so they must join PETA . M. Yoesoef of the University of Indonesia likewise categorises the play as propaganda vehicle , emphasising the theme of women willing to surrender their lovers to PETA , for the good of the nation .
Chris Woodrich of Gadjah Mada University , meanwhile , argues that the play is a veiled warning against considering PETA as a nationalistic . Considering Pane 's position at the Cultural Bureau , Woodrich suggests that Pane would have been aware of the Japanese occupation government 's ultimate goal for PETA : to help defend the Indonesian archipelago against the Allies if necessary , a message which had to be conveyed implicitly owing to Pane 's own position and the Japanese occupation government 's strict censorship . Woodrich points to Aminah 's father , a former employee of the Dutch colonial government , and suggests that the character 's protests about joining PETA , seemingly in order to promote the safety and comfort of home , are actually based on an understanding of the colonial mindset and the accompanying manipulation ; in @-@ text , these protests can only be conveyed in implicit terms owing to the father 's fear of the Japanese government .
= = Explanatory notes = =
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= Cry Me a River ( Justin Timberlake song ) =
" Cry Me a River " is a song recorded by American singer and songwriter Justin Timberlake for his debut studio album , Justified ( 2002 ) . It was written by Timberlake and Scott Storch with producer Timbaland and was inspired by Timberlake 's former relationship with singer Britney Spears . Jive Records released the song to contemporary hit and rhythmic radio in the United States on November 25 , 2002 , as the album 's second single . Accompanied by an electric piano , beatbox , guitars , synthesizers , Arabian @-@ inspired riffs and Gregorian chants , " Cry Me a River " is an R & B song about a brokenhearted man who moves on from his last girlfriend , who had cheated on him with another man .
" Cry Me a River " received acclaim from music critics , who considered it a stand @-@ out track on Justified and praised Timbaland 's production . The song earned several lists of best of the year and the decade ( 2000s ) , while Rolling Stone included it on their 500 Greatest Songs of All Time at 484 . It won a Grammy Award for Best Male Pop Vocal Performance at the 2004 ceremony . The song peaked at number three on the US Billboard Hot 100 and Pop Songs charts and charted in the top ten in other countries . It was certified gold by the Australian Recording Industry Association ( ARIA ) and the Syndicat National de l 'Édition Phonographique ( SNEP ) .
Filmmaker Francis Lawrence directed the music video for " Cry Me a River " in Malibu , California . In the controversial video , Timberlake 's character invades the home of his ex @-@ lover and films himself having sexual relations with another woman . Spears alleged that the video was a publicity stunt , but Timberlake maintained that she did not inspire the production . The clip won the awards for Best Male Video and Best Pop Video at the 2003 MTV Video Music Awards . Timberlake performed " Cry Me a River " on his four major concert tours : The Justified World Tour ( 2003 – 04 ) , Justified / Stripped Tour ( 2003 ) , FutureSex / LoveShow ( 2007 ) , and The 20 / 20 Experience World Tour ( 2013 – 15 ) . The song has been covered by various recording artists , including Leona Lewis and Taylor Swift .
= = Writing and production = =
Timberlake and Scott Storch wrote " Cry Me a River " with Timbaland , who produced the song . Storch found working with Timberlake easy because of the song 's meaning . Reporters believed its lyrics were inspired by Timberlake 's romantic relationship with American recording artist Britney Spears , which ended in 2002 . Timberlake told MTV News , " I 'm not going to specifically say if any song is about anybody . I will say writing a couple of songs on the record helped me deal with a couple of things . To me songs are songs . They can stem from things that completely happened to you personally or they can stem from ideas that you think could happen to you . " In December 2011 , Timberlake admitted that he had written " Cry Me a River " after an argument with Spears : " I was on a phone call that was not the most enjoyable phone call . I walked into the studio and he [ Timbaland ] could tell I was visibly angry . " Timbaland recalled , " I was like , ' Man , don 't worry about it ' and he was like , ' I can 't believe she did that to me ' and he was like , ' You were my sun , you were my earth ' " .
" Cry Me a River " was recorded at Westlake Recording Studios in Los Angeles by Senator Jimmy D , while Carlos " Storm " Martinez served as the assistant engineer . Jimmy Douglass and Timbaland mixed the song at Manhattan Center Studios in New York City . Timberlake arranged the vocals and was a backup singer alongside Timbaland , Marsha Ambrosius , Tye Tribbett and Greater Anointing . Storch compared Timberlake 's vocals on " Cry Me a River " to R & B and rock singer Daryl Hall . Larry Gold provided the string arrangement and conducting , while Storch and Bill Pettaway played the clavinet and guitar , respectively .
= = Release and response = =
" Cry Me a River " was released as the second single from Justified . Jive Records serviced the song to contemporary and rhythmic radio in the United States on November 25 , 2002 . On December 23 , three remixes were released as a 12 @-@ inch single in Canada and France . On January 5 , 2003 , the song was sent to urban contemporary radio stations in the US . It was released as a CD single in Germany on January 23 . The single contains the album version of the song and the remixes on its 12 @-@ inch single release . A CD single , which included Johnny Fiasco 's remix of the song and two additional remixes of " Like I Love You " , was released on February 3 and 6 in the United Kingdom and Canada , respectively . " Cry Me a River " was released as a CD single in the US on February 18 . The single features the album version of the song , its instrumental and four remixes .
Following its release , there was media speculation that Spears had written a song as a response to " Cry Me a River " ; she denied the rumors , explaining , " You know , it 's funny . I read that I wrote this song and I wrote these lyrics and that 's not my style . I would never do that . " Annet Artani , who co @-@ wrote Spears ' 2003 song " Everytime " , stated that the song was written as a response to " Cry Me a River " . When asked during an interview with Diane Sawyer on PrimeTime in 2003 , if " Everytime " was about Timberlake , Spears responded , " I 'll let the song speak for itself . "
= = Composition and lyrical interpretation = =
" Cry Me a River " is an R & B song with an instrumentation that features clavinet , guitars , beatboxing , synthesizers , Arabian @-@ inspired riffs and Gregorian chants . The instruments are arranged into what critics described as a graceful and mysterious melody . Jane Stevenson of Jam ! said the single combines gospel and opera . Tyler Martin of Stylus Magazine enjoyed the way that the song unconventionally mixed a range of experimental sounds . According to Martin , the wave synth affects the real strings to create an unusual dissonance . The song 's chorus devolves into a choral reading in which Timberlake pleads over the group . " Cry Me a River " finishes with a Timbaland vocal sample .
" Cry Me a River " is written in the key of G ♯ minor , in alla breve , with a tempo of 74 beats per minute . The song 's vocal range spans from C ♯ 4 to B5 . Billboard magazine critics called " Cry Me a River " a bittersweet song , in which Timberlake 's " familiar tenor belting " is tempered with a soulful falsetto and a " convincingly aggressive rock @-@ spiked baritone " rasp . David Browne of Entertainment Weekly labeled the song " a haunted , pained farewell " .
Lyrically , the song is about a brokenhearted man who moves on from his past . A Rolling Stone reviewer called the song a " breakup aria " . According to Caroline Sullivan of The Guardian , " Cry Me a River " stands out for its " slow @-@ building sense of drama " , which highlights Timberlake at his " husky best " . The song begins with the phrase " You were my sun , you were my earth " , which according to Timbaland was Timberlake 's inspiration to write the song . Tanya L. Edwards of MTV News observed that Timberlake was wronged and said this is demonstrated by the lyrics : " You don 't have to say whatcha did / I already know , I found out from him / Now there 's just no chance . " The chorus contains the lines : " Told me you loved me , why did you leave me all alone / Now you tell me you need me when you call me on the phone . " Slant Magazine 's Sal Cinquemani called Timberlake 's 2007 single " What Goes Around ... Comes Around " an ostensible sequel to " Cry Me a River " both lyrically and musically . Jason Lipshutz of Billboard stated that aside from the presence of Timbaland 's " fantastically cluttered production " , the difference between " Cry Me a River " and Timberlake 's 2013 single " Mirrors " is clear : " 10 years ago , Timberlake was broken , and now he is whole " .
= = Reception and accolades = =
" Cry Me a River " received acclaim from critics . Jane Stevenson of Jam ! and Sal Cinquemani of Slant Magazine regarded it as a stand @-@ out track from Justified . Stephen Thomas Erlewine of AllMusic selected the song as a highlight in his review of Justified . Peter Robinson of NME called it a " twisted epic " and " an acidic , filthy little song teeming with spite and retribution , with Timbaland 's pounding . " Rolling Stone 's Ben Ratliff viewed his production of " Cry Me a River " as exceptional . Denise Boyd of BBC Music felt that the song 's lyrics play as large a role as Timbaland 's production , unlike other songs on Justified . David Browne of Entertainment Weekly concluded that the song is " a genuine stunner " that should leave Timberlake 's fellow ' N Syncers concerned that he truly may not need them any more . John Mitchell of MTV News called " Cry Me a River " and " What Goes Around ... Comes Around " " kiss @-@ off songs " , with Timberlake 's revenge on Spears present throughout the lyrics . For Pitchfork Media it was the 3rd best song of 2003 . According to Complex , the song " made people completely forget about ' N Sync and start asking what Timberlake would do next . " The single won a Grammy Award for Best Male Pop Vocal Performance at the 2004 award ceremony . It was nominated for Song of the Year at the 2003 MTV Europe Music Awards .
Rolling Stone ranked " Cry Me a River " at number 20 on their list of the 100 Best Songs of the 2000s ; a columnist for the magazine wrote that the real inspiration behind the song was the formation of the Timberlake – Timbaland team , " a match made in pop heaven " . In 2012 , the magazine placed it at number 484 on their list of " The 500 Greatest Songs of All Time " . VH1 ranked " Cry Me a River " at number 59 on their list of the 100 Greatest Songs of the 2000s . The Daily Telegraph listed the song at number 40 on the " 100 songs that defined the Noughties . "
In 2015 , Spotify re @-@ ranked Rolling Stone 's 500 Greatest Songs in two different lists . " Cry Me a River " ranked at number 14 on " by all Spotify users " and 10 on " streams from millennial users " .
= = Commercial performance = =
" Cry Me a River " debuted at number 44 on the US Billboard Hot 100 in the issue dated December 21 , 2002 , earning the Hot Shot Debut honor with 29 @.@ 6 million audience impressions . On February 1 , 2003 , the single reached a peak of number three , becoming Timberlake 's first solo single to reach that position . The song debuted on the US Pop Songs chart at number 37 in the issue dated December 14 , 2002 and reached a peak of three on February 1 , 2003 . For the issue dated December 28 , 2002 , " Cry Me a River " debuted at number 75 on the US Hot R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Songs chart . It reached a peak of 11 on March 8 , 2003 . It also peaked at number two on the US Hot Dance Club Songs , becoming Timberlake 's second top @-@ three song , after his debut single " Like I Love You " reached number one . As of August 2003 , remixes of the single have sold more than 61 @,@ 000 units in the United States .
The song debuted at number two on the Australian Singles Chart on March 9 , 2003 . It fell to number six in the following week . " Cry Me a River " became Timberlake 's first top @-@ three solo single on the chart . The song remained on the chart for 12 consecutive weeks . It was certified gold by the Australian Recording Industry Association ( ARIA ) for shipments of 35 @,@ 000 units . The single debuted at number 44 in New Zealand on March 9 , 2003 . After two weeks on the chart , it reached a peak of 11 . It remained on the chart for 11 weeks .
In the United Kingdom , " Cry Me a River " , debuted at number two on February 15 , 2003 . The next week it fell to number three , before returning to its original peak on March 1 , 2003 ; it stayed on the chart for 13 weeks . The song has sold over 365 @,@ 000 copies in the country as of 2015 . It debuted at number 14 on the French Singles Chart on April 5 , 2003 . After three weeks , " Cry Me a River " peaked at number six , and it stayed on the chart for 21 weeks . It was less successful on the Italian Singles Chart , where it peaked at number 14 and stayed on the chart for four weeks . " Cry Me a River " also peaked at number five in Belgium ( Wallonia ) , at number six in the Republic of Ireland and the Netherlands , at number seven in Belgium ( Flanders ) , and at number 10 in Germany , Norway , and Sweden .
= = Music video = =
= = = Development and synopsis = = =
The music video for " Cry Me a River " was directed by Francis Lawrence in Malibu , California , during the week of October 29 , 2002 . Lawrence created the video 's concept and told MTV News , " [ Justin and I ] had a conversation on the phone and all he said was he wanted to have some dancing in it , but to do my thing . He told me what the song was about , but in a [ general way ] as well . He just said it was a kiss @-@ off song and so I came up with this idea and he went for it " . Lawrence added that he also included some details in the video , including a reference to Spears 's tattoo , which Timberlake enjoyed . He explained that he and Timberlake did not mention names while creating the video , only discussing the song 's general beats . Lawrence also revealed that executives of Jive Records were nervous about some aspects of the video , such as Timberlake 's representation of a voyeur and the tone of some scenes he was portraying with a girl . " That 's the thing I liked most about this project , was that he was coming into it with a super clean @-@ cut image with ' N Sync and he 's such a nice guy and so handsome and what I was into doing was making him be a bit scary . Lurking around the house in the rain , throwing a rock through her window , being a peeping Tom , getting revenge and doing stuff that 's not really what a nice guy does . " The music video for " Cry Me a River " was released onto the iTunes Store on April 28 , 2003 .
The video begins with a blonde woman , played by model and actress Lauren Hastings ( allegedly portraying Britney Spears ) , walking out of her house hand @-@ in @-@ hand with an unidentified man . The couple leaves in the woman 's car ( a silver Porsche ) as Timberlake rolls down the window of a black Mercedes , from which he and his friend have been watching the woman . Timberlake breaks into the house by throwing a rock through a window and proceeds through the woman 's house , with anti @-@ gravity jumps and slides , not causing any other visible damage , except for kicking a picture frame of the woman across the living room . Then he searches some drawers and finds a video camera , while the driver of the car , Timbaland , signals for his female accomplice in the back of the car , played by model Kiana Bessa , to go in . She enters the house and goes with Timberlake to a bedroom , where she starts to undress and kiss him while being filmed . They stay in the bedroom for a moment ; then the accomplice exits the house but Timberlake stays . As the blonde woman returns , he follows her around the house and hides in a closet as she showers . He gets closer to her and touches the glass surrounding the shower . The blonde woman senses someone in the room and turns around , but Timberlake is gone . She leaves the bathroom and goes into her bedroom , where the video he made with his new lover plays on the television .
= = = Reception = = =
Peter Robinson of NME wrote that the video shows " what Justin looks like after he 's had sex . Clue : he looks pretty good . " According to Virginia Heffernan of The New York Times , Timberlake channels the character Neo from The Matrix film series , " pacing anxiously around wet and metallic interiors " . At the 2003 MTV Video Music Awards , the video for " Cry Me a River " won in the categories of Best Male Video and Best Pop Video . It had also been nominated for Video of the Year , Best Direction in a Video and Viewer 's Choice .
Following the release of the music video , Us Weekly ran a cover story titled Britney Vs . Justin : The War Is On . Timberlake denied that Spears inspired the video , saying , " The video is not about her . The video is about me . " However , Spears told Rolling Stone in October 2003 that she received a call from Timberlake saying there would be a look @-@ alike of her would be in a music video with him . She states that he reassured her by saying , " Don 't worry about it . It 's not a big deal " . Spears , who had not seen the video , says she allowed him to do so but became infuriated after watching it . She recalled that when she asked why he had made a video about her , he replied , " Well , I got a controversial video . " She stated that it was a great publicity stunt , commenting , " So he got what he wanted . I think it looks like such a desperate attempt , personally . " After the release of Spears ' video for " Toxic " ( 2003 ) , Jennifer Vineyard of MTV News said her video " [ made ] " Cry Me a River " look like child 's play " .
In 2013 , Billboard editor Jason Lipshutz opined the clip was " one of the more brilliant musical moments in pop music since the dawn of the century . The visual is JT 's most controversial music video to date . " He added , " The " Cry Me a River " video served a dual purpose for Timberlake : to court controversy , and to make its star seem more grown @-@ up . "
= = Live performances and cover versions = =
Timberlake performed " Cry Me a River " for the first time at the 13th annual Billboard Music Awards , held on December 9 , 2002 , at the MGM Grand Garden Arena in Las Vegas . He was accompanied by a string section and a 20 @-@ member choir . He also performed the song on the Justified World Tour ( 2003 – 04 ) , his first worldwide tour . The song was eighth on the set list of Justified / Stripped Tour ( 2003 ) , his joint North American tour with Christina Aguilera . Timberlake performed " Cry Me a River " on a promotional concert held at House of Blues in West Hollywood , California on June 17 , 2003 . He performed a rock @-@ inspired version of the song on Saturday Night Live on October 11 , 2003 ; and it was fourteenth on the set list of his second worldwide tour , FutureSex / LoveShow ( 2007 ) .
On October 23 , 2010 , while performing at the annual charity gig " Justin Timberlake and Friends " in Las Vegas , Timberlake began the show with a slow and " sultry " performance of " Cry Me a River " and segued into a cover of Bill Withers ' 1971 single " Ain 't No Sunshine " . He later resumed " Cry Me a River " before segueing into a cover of Drake 's 2010 song " Over " . Jillian Mapes of Billboard described the performance as " completely lovely in an effortless sort of way . " Timberlake performed " Cry Me a River " at concert he held during the 2013 Super Bowl weekend in New Orleans . Timberlake performed " Cry Me a River " in a medley with other of his songs at the 2013 MTV Video Music Awards . After the performance he accepted a Michael Jackson Video Vanguard Award at the ceremony . Timberlake included the single on the set list of his fifth worldwide concert tour , The 20 / 20 Experience World Tour ( 2013 – 15 ) .
The song was first covered by Welsh alternative metal band Lostprophets , recorded in a BBC Radio One session . It appears as a b @-@ side of the single Last Train Home , released in 2004 . American singer @-@ songwriter Taylor Swift performed a cover of " Cry Me a River " in Memphis , Tennessee , during the Speak Now World Tour ( 2011 – 12 ) . Justin Bieber recorded a cover of the song together with Kanye West 's 2007 single " Stronger " , which he posted on his YouTube account . Canadian rock band The Cliks also covered the song for their 2007 album Snakehouse . British singer Leona Lewis covered " Cry Me a River " during her debut concert tour The Labyrinth ( 2010 ) . The Sheffield Star described the version as a " beautifully , sitting quietly , almost a capella " . American indie pop duo Jack and White covered the song on their 2012 extended play Undercover . Recording artist Kelly Clarkson covered the song on September 1 , 2012 , as a fan request during her 2012 Summer Tour with The Fray . Alternative rock band Coldplay revealed that the single was an inspiration for the drumbeat of their song " Lost ! " . In January 2013 , American singer Selena Gomez performed an acoustic version of " Cry Me a River " at the UNICEF charity concert in New York City . In February 2015 , Scottish synthpop band Chvrches performed a cover of " Cry Me a River " on BBC Radio 1 's Live Lounge . American alternative metal band 40 Below Summer performed a cover of the song in their 2015 album Transmission Infrared .
= = Track listings = =
= = Credits and personnel = =
Recording and mixing
Recorded at Westlake Recording Studios , Los Angeles , California ; mixed at Manhattan Center Studios , New York City , New York ; strings recorded at The Studio , Philadelphia , Pennsylvania .
Personnel
Credits adapted from the liner notes of Justified , Jive Records .
= = Charts = =
= = Certifications = =
= = Radio and release history = =
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= Beyond Blunderdome =
" Beyond Blunderdome " is the eleventh season premiere of the American animated sitcom The Simpsons . It originally aired on the Fox network in the United States on September 26 , 1999 , and was watched in around 8 @.@ 1 million homes during the broadcast . In the episode , the Simpsons are given free tickets to a preview screening of Mel Gibson 's new film , a remake of Mr. Smith Goes to Washington . Gibson laments his current non @-@ violent role and wants someone to give him criticism . When Homer sees Gibson talking with Marge , he gives him a brutal review , leading Gibson to believe that Homer is the only man brave enough to give suggestions . As a result , he hires him to create a better ending . However , when the ending proves to be too controversial , Gibson and Homer end up on the run from studio executives with the film .
The episode was written by then @-@ showrunner Mike Scully and directed by Steven Dean Moore . The story was a parody of the film industry and its practice with test screenings and overly violent films . It featured several references to various films as well as other popular culture . Gibson guest starred as himself , and Jack Burns voiced a film studio executive named Edward Christian .
Since airing , the episode has received generally mixed reviews from critics , but Gibson was praised for his performance . It was released on the DVD collection The Simpsons Film Festival in 2002 , and The Simpsons – The Complete Eleventh Season in 2008 .
= = Plot = =
Homer test drives a new electric car so he can get a free gift . After destroying the car by driving into an ocean due to Homer thinking it is the same as an amphibious vehicle , the family returns to the dealer to receive the gift , which Homer forgets to open until he is in bed with Marge . It turns out to be free tickets to a preview screening of a new Mel Gibson film , a remake of Mr. Smith Goes to Washington , which makes Homer jealous as Marge expresses an attraction to Gibson . The audience members are given comment cards to fill and the filmmakers can change the film based on their reactions . The film is enjoyed by everyone but Homer , who only likes comedy or action movies . During the screening , Gibson , having come to the test screening unannounced due to being worried that the audience won 't like him playing a dramatic role , is assured by the producers that the film is wonderful . When Gibson flirts with Marge after the showing , Homer writes a negative review of the film . While reading the mostly positive comment cards after the movie , Gibson is certain that everyone loves him too much to tell him how to improve the film , but when he reads Homer 's comments , he is convinced that Homer was the only person brave enough to tell him the truth .
Gibson shows up at the Simpsons ' door and invites Homer and his family to come with him to Hollywood to change the film , while Homer thinks that he is out to take Marge from him . Homer and Gibson begin work on the film while the rest of the family explores Hollywood , where they encounter celebrities such as Ellen DeGeneres , Eddie , the dog from Frasier , and also spot Robert Downey Jr in a shoot @-@ out with police . When Homer 's ideas prove to be stupid and pointless , including giving a random dog a close @-@ up of its eyes shifting back and forth to show that he is evil , Gibson begins to wonder whether he made a mistake . However , he is enthusiastic when Homer tells him his ideas for the famous " filibuster " scene at the end . The next day , they present the new ending to the producers . In the new version , Mr. Smith goes berserk and slaughters every member of the United States Congress and the President in a mindless action movie sequence . The producers are horrified at this , saying that the film was meant to be the studio 's prestige picture . They attempt to burn the film reel , but Homer and Gibson , determined to save their film , run away with it .
They meet up with the rest of the family at Hollywood memorabilia museum . They steal a replica of the main villain 's car from The Road Warrior and engage in a ludicrous car chase through the streets of Hollywood , with the film executives on their trail . They attempt to distract the producers by throwing the Mel Gibson mannequin that was occupying the car at the producers , with Mel switching to his old Mad Max costume in the process , but this only works temporarily . Homer , taking an idea he believes to be from Braveheart , moons the executives along with Gibson so that they will stop their car out of disgust , but this fails and Homer 's buttocks is caught in the car 's hood . Homer and Gibson then attend the film 's premiere back in Springfield , but the entire audience walks out disgusted by the new ending , and the two men are even threatened with legal action from Jimmy Stewart 's granddaughter . Homer then tries to apologize to Gibson , but he does not blame him , arriving to the conclusion there is no place for violence @-@ lovers like them in Hollywood ; however , as soon as Homer suggests more nonsensical film ideas , Gibson kicks him out of his limousine and he lies on the ground shouting towards him that he fell out . The episode ends with a random dog given a close up of his eyes shifting back and forth .
= = Production and themes = =
" Beyond Blunderdome " was written by then @-@ showrunner Mike Scully and directed by Steven Dean Moore , airing as part of the eleventh season of The Simpsons ( 1999 – 2000 ) . It was Scully 's first writing credit since he took over as showrunner for the show . In comparison with other episode scripts , the staff writers did not change much of the original writing . The plot revolves around Mel Gibson doing a remake of the 1939 film Mr. Smith Goes to Washington . Karma Waltonen and Denise Du Vernay analysed the episode and wrote in the book The Simpsons in the Classroom : Embiggening the Learning Experience with the Wisdom of Springfield that " the episode is able to critique the practice of test screening , violence in film , and one of movies ' favorite standards – the car chase " , calling it " a ridiculous parody of an action @-@ film violence orgy " . Staff writer Tom Gammill came up with the idea for the violent version of Mr. Smith Goes to Washington , and Gibson throwing his Senator badge away at the end of the film , is a reference to the ending of the film Dirty Harry from 1971 . The idea for the set piece with electric cars at the beginning of the episode came from Kevin Nealon , who was a friend of former showrunner David Mirkin . One day , he came by and demonstrated his electric car for the writing staff .
The episode featured Mel Gibson as a guest voice . Scully had previously met him while writing jokes for a school fundraiser along with his wife Julie Thacker . Gibson and Daniel Stern were the hosts and needed jokes for the event . It turned out that Gibson was a fan of the show and watched it with his children . With that knowledge , it did not take Scully long to invite him to do a part . Gibson was willing to do the job and even came in on three separate occasions to do retakes – mostly because he knew his children would be watching . Unlike most guest voices , Gibson recorded the show along with the cast . On one occasion , it turned out that a joke written for Gibson actually did happen in real life . The writing staff wanted Gibson to say that he would urinate behind a dumpster , because it sounded like it would not be a classy thing to do for a movie star . He had , however , already done that during a couple of film premieres because he can feel trapped in a public toilet with a lot of fans . Gibson was surprised the writers knew about the story , but it turned out to be a coincidence . Otherwise , the episode frequently references films Gibson appeared in . After the studio cart crashes , Gibson says to Homer , " I 'm getting too old for this crap , " a reference to a line said by Danny Glover 's character Roger Murtaugh to Gibson 's character Martin Riggs in the Lethal Weapon film series . A poster for his film Braveheart is on the wall in the editing room and the Road Warrior car from the 1981 film Mad Max 2 is also featured . In addition to Gibson , Jack Burns guest starred in the episode , voicing a film studio executive named Edward Christian . His frequent use of the terms " Huh ? " and " You know what I mean ? " is a reference to a comedy routine performed by Burns and Avery Schreiber .
= = Cultural references = =
In the episode , there are many references to popular culture . The character Rainier Wolfcastle is seen filming Saving Irene Ryan , which is a reference to the 1998 film Saving Private Ryan and actress Irene Ryan from the sitcom The Beverly Hillbillies . Homer says , " you had me at ' hello ' , " a quote from the film Jerry Maguire ( 1996 ) , when Gibson asks for his help on his film . The airport is called " George Kennedy Airport " , which is a reference to actor George Kennedy , and his role in the film Airport ( 1970 ) and its three sequels ; Airport 1975 ( 1974 ) , Airport ' 77 ( 1977 ) , and The Concorde ... Airport ' 79 ( 1979 ) . When Homer and Gibson are being hunted by the executives they enter a car museum . The museum features the Batmobile from the television series Batman , General Lee from the series The Dukes of Hazzard , Herbie the Love Bug from the 1968 film The Love Bug and later films , the Monkeemobile from the series The Monkees , the Munster Koach from the series The Munsters , and the car from the series The Flintstones .
= = Release and reception = =
The episode originally aired on the Fox network in the United States on September 26 , 1999 , as the premiere of the eleventh season of The Simpsons . In its original broadcast , " Beyond Blunderdome " finished 48th in the ratings for the week of September 20 – 26 , 1999 , with a Nielsen rating of 8 @.@ 0 — equivalent to approximately 8 @.@ 1 million viewing households . It was the highest @-@ rated show on the Fox network that week , beating shows such as Futurama and King of the Hill . In comparison , the previous season premiere episode , " Lard of the Dance " , drew a Nielsen rating of 7 @.@ 2 points with 7 @.@ 1 million households watching . The episode had a lower rating than the overall rating for the entire eleventh season , which averaged 8 @.@ 2 million households . On March 12 , 2002 , the episode was released in the United States on a DVD collection titled The Simpsons Film Festival , along with the season four episode " Itchy & Scratchy : The Movie " , the season seven episode " 22 Short Films About Springfield " , and the season six episode " A Star is Burns " . On October 7 , 2008 , " Beyond Blunderdome " was released on DVD as part of the box set The Simpsons – The Complete Eleventh Season . Staff members Mike Scully , George Meyer , Ron Hauge , Matt Selman , and Steven Dean Moore participated in the DVD audio commentary for the episode . The episode had an alternate ending in which Apu suggests that they sell the failed film to India , since the people of India love violent , action @-@ packed American films . This ending was included on the eleventh season DVD set .
Since airing , the episode has received generally mixed reception from critics . The day after the premiere , Mark Lorando of The Times @-@ Picayune wrote that while it was " not the laugh riot The Simpsons have spoiled us to expect – our appetite for showbiz parodies is waning – the episode did have its moments . " He further added that he especially liked " the sign posted outside the movie studio gate : ' No Artistic Integrity Beyond This Point . ' " While reviewing the eleventh season of The Simpsons , DVD Movie Guide 's Colin Jacobson commented on the episode , writing that " Gibson actually does a good job here , and it ’ s amusing to see Homer ’ s terrible movie ideas . This isn ’ t classic Simpsons , but it starts the season on a pretty good note . " However , an article in Salon magazine from 2000 points to " Beyond Blunderdome " as the greatest precursor to that Homer would be more predominant as “ Jerkass Homer ” in the Scully era as showrunner , a Homer who " is not only dumb , but [ has also become ] disgusting and semi @-@ sociopathic . This is the Homer who , in the season opener [ ' Beyond Blunderdome ' ] , showed Marge 's wedding ring to Mel Gibson and stated , ' This is a symbol that as per our marriage , she 's my property and I own her . ' " Gibson 's performance has generally been praised . Simon Crerar of The Times listed his performance as one of the thirty @-@ three funniest cameos in the history of the show . Similarly , Total Film 's Nathan Ditum ranked Gibson 's performance as the seventh best guest appearance in the show 's history in a list of twenty people , calling it " Another ace self @-@ effacing appearance from a Hollywood high @-@ flyer " .
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= Japanese aircraft carrier Jun 'yō =
Jun 'yō ( 隼鷹 , " Peregrine Falcon " ) was a Hiyō @-@ class aircraft carrier of the Imperial Japanese Navy ( IJN ) . She was laid down as the passenger liner Kashiwara Maru ( 橿原丸 ) , but was purchased by the IJN in 1941 while under construction and converted into an aircraft carrier . Completed in May 1942 , the ship participated in the Aleutian Islands Campaign the following month and in several battles during the Guadalcanal Campaign later in the year . Her aircraft were used from land bases during several battles in the New Guinea and Solomon Islands Campaigns .
Jun 'yō was torpedoed in November 1943 and spent three months under repair . She was damaged by several bombs during the Battle of the Philippine Sea in mid @-@ 1944 , but quickly returned to service . Lacking aircraft , she was used as a transport in late 1944 and was torpedoed in December . Jun 'yō was under repair until March 1945 when the repairs were cancelled as uneconomical . She was then effectively hulked for the rest of the war . After the surrender of Japan in September , the Americans also deemed her not worth the cost to make her serviceable for use as a repatriation ship and she was broken up in 1946 – 47 .
= = Design and description = =
The ship was ordered in late 1938 as the fast luxury passenger liner Kashiwara Maru by Nippon Yusen Kaisha ( the Japan Mail Steamship Company ) in late 1938 . In exchange for a 60 % subsidy of her building costs by the Navy Ministry , she was designed to be converted to an auxiliary aircraft carrier , one of 10 such ships subsidized by the IJN .
Jun 'yō had a length of 219 @.@ 32 meters ( 719 ft 7 in ) overall . She had a beam of 26 @.@ 7 meters ( 87 ft 7 in ) and a draft of 8 @.@ 15 meters ( 26 ft 9 in ) . She displaced 24 @,@ 150 metric tons ( 23 @,@ 770 long tons ) at standard load . Her crew ranged from 1 @,@ 187 to 1 @,@ 224 officers and men . The ship was fitted with two Mitsubishi @-@ Curtis geared steam turbine sets with a total of 56 @,@ 250 shaft horsepower ( 41 @,@ 950 kW ) , each driving one propeller shaft , using steam provided by six Mitsubishi three @-@ drum water @-@ tube boilers . Jun 'yō had a designed speed of 25 @.@ 5 knots ( 47 @.@ 2 km / h ; 29 @.@ 3 mph ) , but reached 26 knots ( 48 km / h ; 30 mph ) during her sea trials . The ship carried 4 @,@ 100 metric tons ( 4 @,@ 000 long tons ) of fuel oil which gave her a range of 12 @,@ 251 nautical miles ( 22 @,@ 689 km ; 14 @,@ 098 mi ) at 18 knots ( 33 km / h ; 21 mph ) .
= = = Flight deck arrangements = = =
Jun 'yō 's flight deck was 210 @.@ 3 meters ( 690 ft 0 in ) long and had a maximum width of 27 @.@ 3 meters ( 89 ft 7 in ) . A large island was fitted on the starboard side that was integrated with , for the first time in a Japanese carrier , the ship 's funnel . The ship was designed with two superimposed hangars , each approximately 153 meters ( 502 ft 0 in ) long , 15 meters ( 49 ft 3 in ) wide and 5 meters ( 16 ft 5 in ) high . Each hangar could be subdivided by four fire curtains and they were fitted with fire fighting foam dispensers on each side . The hangars were served by two square aircraft elevators with rounded corners , 14 @.@ 03 meters ( 46 ft 0 in ) on each side .
The ship 's air group was originally intended to consist of 12 Mitsubishi A5M " Claude " fighters , plus 4 in storage , 18 Aichi D3A " Val " dive bombers , plus 2 in reserve , and 18 Nakajima B5N " Kate " torpedo bombers . This was revised to substitute a dozen Mitsubishi A6M Zero fighters , together with 3 more in storage , for the A5Ms by the time the ship commissioned in 1942 . As a result of the lessons learned from the Battle of Midway in June , the ship 's fighter complement was strengthened to 21 Zeros , and the other aircraft reduced to 12 D3As and 9 B5Ns . By the end of the year , 6 more Zeros replaced an equal number of D3As . Although it was possible to fit all these aircraft into the hangars , 8 or 9 were usually stored on the flight deck to reduce cramping below decks .
= = = Armor , armament and sensors = = =
As a conversion from an ocean liner , it was not possible to add much armor , although the ship had a double bottom . Two plates of Ducol steel , each 25 mm ( 0 @.@ 98 in ) thick , protected the sides of the ship 's machinery spaces . The ship 's aviation gasoline tanks and magazines were protected by one layer of Ducol steel . In addition , her machinery spaces were further subdivided by transverse and longitudinal bulkheads to limit any flooding .
The ship 's primary armament consisted of a dozen 40 @-@ caliber 12 @.@ 7 cm ( 5 @.@ 0 in ) Type 89 anti @-@ aircraft ( AA ) guns in six twin @-@ gun mounts on sponsons along the sides of the hull . Jun 'yō was also initially equipped with eight triple mounts for 25 mm Type 96 light AA guns , also in sponsons along the sides of the hull . In mid @-@ 1943 , four more triple mounts were added and another four triple mounts in late 1943 – early 1944 . Two of these last four mounts were mounted on the stern and the others were placed in front of and behind the island . A dozen single mounts were also added , some of which were portable and could be mounted on the flight deck . After the Battle of the Philippine Sea in June 1944 , the ship 's anti @-@ aircraft armament was reinforced with three more triple mounts , two twin mounts and eighteen single mounts for the 25 mm Type 96 gun . These guns were supplemented by six 28 @-@ round AA rocket launchers . In October 1944 , Jun 'yō had a total of 91 Type 96 guns ; 57 in nineteen triple mounts , 4 in two twin mounts , and 30 single mounts .
Two Type 94 high @-@ angle fire @-@ control directors , one on each side of the ship , were fitted to control the Type 89 guns . Each director mounted a 4 @.@ 5 @-@ meter ( 14 ft 9 in ) rangefinder . When Jun 'yō was first commissioned only the rangefinders were fitted and the directors were added later . Four Type 95 directors controlled the 25 mm guns and another pair were added in early 1943 . Early warning was provided by two Type 2 , Mark 2 , Model 1 early @-@ warning radars . The first of these was mounted on the top of the island in July 1942 , shortly after she was completed , and the other was added later in the year on the port side of the hull , outboard of the rear elevator . A smaller Type 3 , Mark 1 , Model 3 air search radar was added in 1944 .
= = Career = =
Jun 'yō 's keel was laid down by Mitsubishi on Slipway No. 3 at their shipyard in Nagasaki on 20 March 1939 . She was yard number 900 and had the name Kashiwara Maru at that time . The ship was purchased on 10 February 1941 by the Navy Ministry and she was temporarily referred to as No. 1001 Ship ( Dai 1001 bankan ) to keep her conversion secret . She was launched on 26 June 1941 and commissioned on 3 May 1942 as Jun 'yō .
Upon commissioning , the ship was assigned to the Fourth Carrier Division of the 1st Air Fleet , together with Ryūjō , under the command of Rear Admiral Kakuji Kakuta . She was tasked to support Operation AL , an attack planned to seize several Aleutian Islands to provide advance warning in case of an American attack from the Aleutians down the Kurile Islands while the main body of the American fleet was occupied defending Midway . Jun 'yō carried 18 A6M2 Zeros and 18 D3As for this operation . At dawn on 3 June , she launched 9 Zeros and a dozen D3As to attack Dutch Harbor on Unalaska Island . They had to turn back due to bad weather , although an American PBY Catalina reconnaissance aircraft was shot down by a Zero . A second airstrike was launched later in the day to attack a group of destroyers discovered by aircraft from the first attack , but they failed to find the targets . Another airstrike was launched on the following day by the two carriers that consisted of 15 Zeros , 11 D3As , and 6 B5Ns and successfully bombed Dutch Harbor . As the aircraft from Jun 'yō were regrouping after the attack , they were attacked by 8 Curtiss P @-@ 40 fighters that shot down 2 Zeros and a pair of D3As while losing 2 of their own . One more D3A got lost and failed to make it back to the carrier . Shortly after the aircraft were launched , the Americans attacked the carriers , but failed to inflict any damage . A Martin B @-@ 26 Marauder bomber and a PBY were shot down by Zeros , and a Boeing B @-@ 17 Flying Fortress bomber was shot down by flak during the attack .
Jun 'yō had initially been designated as an auxiliary aircraft carrier ( Tokusetsu kokubokan ) , but following the loss of four Japanese fleet carriers in the Battle of Midway , she was redesignated as a regular carrier ( Kokubokan ) in July . Captain Okada Tametsugu assumed command on 20 July 1942 . Upon arrival at Truk on 9 October , together with her sister ship Hiyō , the ship was assigned to the Second Carrier Division to begin operations against American forces in the Guadalcanal area as part of the 3rd Fleet . On 15 October , the two carriers reached the vicinity of Malaita Island in the Solomon Islands and their aircraft discovered a resupply convoy for Guadalcanal that was escorted by the destroyer Meredith . The A6M Zeros and D3As from the sisters attacked and sank the destroyer . The next day , they found the small seaplane tender , McFarland , in Lunga Roads offloading avgas into barges . Nine D3As attacked , blowing the ship 's stern off and destroying the barge . McFarland was not sunk , but required months of repairs . The two carriers were intended to play a prominent role in the Japanese effort to retake Guadalcanal Island and were assigned to the Advance Force for this operation . Their aircraft were supposed to provide air cover for a planned Japanese night attack to retake Henderson Field , and then be flown ashore .
In late October 1942 , during the Guadalcanal Campaign , Jun 'yō took part in the Battle of the Santa Cruz Islands . At this time , her air group consisted of eighteen Zeros , eighteen D3As and nine B5Ns . On 05 : 00 on 26 October 1942 , she had launched fourteen Zeros and a few D3As to land at Henderson Field on Guadalcanal , which had been falsely reported by the Imperial Japanese Army as in their hands , but they were greeted by Marine Grumman F4F Wildcats and all were shot down . At 09 : 30 , Jun 'yō launched another air strike that attacked the carrier Enterprise , the battleship South Dakota and the light cruiser San Juan , scoring hits on the latter two , but inflicting little substantial damage . Three D3As and a B5N were shot down by returning Douglas SBD Dauntless dive bombers . Kakuta ordered another air strike to be launched at 14 : 15 , using six B5Ns from the damaged Shōkaku and nine D3As from both carriers . Shortly afterwards , more aircraft were launched to attack the American ships , including six B5Ns and six D3As which were escorted by half a dozen Zeros . All of these aircraft attacked the carrier Hornet , which had been badly damaged by the attacks earlier in the day . American damage control measures had been partially successful , but one torpedo hit by a B5N from Shōkaku increased her list from 7 @.@ 5 ° to 14 @.@ 5 ° and near @-@ misses by the dive bombers started enough seams in her plating that her list increased to 18 ° . The Americans finally ordered the ship abandoned and the last wave of dive bombers hit Hornet twice more , but inflicted little further damage .
In mid @-@ November 1942 , Jun 'yō was tasked to provide air cover for the convoy bringing reinforcements for the Japanese forces on Guadalcanal during the three @-@ day @-@ long Naval Battle of Guadalcanal . The ship had twenty @-@ seven A6M3 Zeros , a dozen D3A2s and nine B5N2s for this task . Six of her Zeros were on Combat Air Patrol when the convoy was discovered by two SBDs from Enterprise and shot down one dive bomber after it had made its spot report . They were unable to protect the convoy against further attacks by aircraft based at Henderson Field ; seven transports were sunk and the remaining four transports were damaged before the end of the day . That afternoon , Enterprise had been discovered by a searching B5N and Junyo launched an air strike with her remaining aircraft , but they failed to locate the American carrier . In December 1942 – January 1943 , the carrier covered several convoys that brought reinforcements to Wewak , New Guinea and her air group was based there for several days to protect the forces there before returning to Truk on 20 January . The ship then covered the evacuation of forces from Guadalcanal through early February .
Jun 'yō briefly returned to Japan in February before she sailed for Truk on 22 March together with Hiyō . Her air group was detached to Rabaul on 2 April to participate in Operation I @-@ Go , a land @-@ based aerial offensive against Allied bases in the Solomon Islands and New Guinea . Before returning to Truk in the middle of the month , Jun 'yō 's aircraft claimed to have shot down sixteen American aircraft for the loss of seven A6Ms and two D3As and they sank the destroyer USS Aaron Ward . The ship 's air group was deployed to Buin , Papua New Guinea on 2 July in response to the American attack on Rendova Island on 30 June . Her fighters claimed 37 victories for the loss of nine aircraft before disbanding on 1 September . Leaving her aircraft behind , the carrier returned to Japan in late July .
Jun 'yō ferried aircraft to Sumatra in mid @-@ August and troops and equipment to the Caroline Islands in September and October . En route from Truk to Kure on 5 November 1943 , Jun 'yō was hit off Bungo Suido by a torpedo from the submarine Halibut . Four men were killed , but the damage was light , other than the disabled rudder . The ship was under repair and refit until 29 February 1944 at Kure . Meanwhile , her air group had been reconstituted at Singapore on 1 November with 24 Zeros , 18 D3As and 9 B5Ns . The aircraft transferred to Truk on 1 December and then to Kavieng at the end of December before reaching Rabaul on 25 January 1944 . Her fighters claimed 40 Allied aircraft shot down and an additional 30 probably destroyed , but the air group was virtually annihilated . The survivors were back at Truk on 20 February and the air group was disbanded .
In the meantime , the Japanese Navy had restructured its carrier air groups so that one air group was assigned to one carrier division and Air Group 652 was assigned to the 2nd Carrier Division with Hiyō , Jun 'yō and Ryūhō on 1 March . The air group was last in priority to be rebuilt and only had 30 Model 21 Zeros , 13 Model 52 Zeros and four D3As on hand on 1 April of its authorized 81 fighters , 36 dive bombers and 27 torpedo bombers . The ship conducted training for her aircraft in the Inland Sea until 11 May when she sailed for Tawi @-@ Tawi in the Philippines . The new base was closer to the oil wells in Borneo on which the Navy relied and also to the Palau and western Caroline Islands where the Japanese expected the next American attack . However , the location lacked an airfield on which to train the green pilots and American submarines were very active in the vicinity which restricted the ships to the anchorage .
= = = Battle of the Philippine Sea = = =
The Japanese fleet was en route to Guimares Island in the central Philippines on 13 June , where they intended to practice carrier operations in an area better protected from submarines , when Vice Admiral Jisaburō Ozawa learned of the American attack on the Mariana Islands the previous day . Upon reaching Guimares , the fleet refuelled and sortied into the Philippine Sea where they spotted Task Force 58 on 18 June . The Americans failed to locate Ozawa 's ships that day and the Japanese turned south to maintain a constant distance between them and the American carriers as Ozawa had decided on launching his air strikes early the following morning . At this time , Air Group 652 consisted of 81 Zeros , 27 D3As , 9 Yokosuka D4Y " Judy " dive bombers and 18 Nakajima B6N " Jill " torpedo bombers , roughly evenly divided among the three ships . The three carriers began launching their first air strike of 26 bomb @-@ carrying A6M2 Zeros , 16 A6M5 Zeros to escort the other aircraft and 7 B6Ns at about 09 : 30 . Most of these aircraft were misdirected and failed to find any American ships , although a dozen persisted in their search and found one of the American task groups . A B6N , 5 bomb @-@ carrying Zeros , and an escorting Zero were shot down by the defending fighters and no damage was inflicted on any American ships .
A second air strike of 27 D3As , 9 D4Ys , 2 B6Ns and 26 escorting Zeros was launched around 11 : 00 , accompanied by at least 18 A6Ms and B6Ns from Shōkaku and Zuikaku . They had also been given an erroneous spot report and could not find any American ships . The 652nd aircraft headed for airfield at Rota and Guam to refuel while those from the other two carriers headed back to them . A pair of Zeros and 6 D4Ys bound for Rota spotted the carriers Wasp and Bunker Hill en route and failed to inflict any damage on the American ships while losing 5 D4Ys to anti @-@ aircraft fire . Radar had spotted those aircraft headed for Guam and they were intercepted by 41 Grumman F6F Hellcats . Only a single A6M5 , 1 D4Y and 7 D3As of the 49 Japanese aircraft survived the encounter and landed .
At dusk , the Japanese turned away to the northwest to regroup and to refuel and the Americans turned west to close the distance . They discovered the retiring Japanese fleet during the afternoon of the following day and Vice Admiral Marc Mitscher ordered an air strike launched . They discovered the ships of the Second Carrier Division and hit Jun 'yō with two bombs near her island . The ship was not badly damaged , but the damage did stop flight operations . Air Group 652 claimed seven American aircraft shot down and four more probably shot down , but lost eleven Zeros , plus another three that had to ditch . The air group was disbanded on 10 July with many of its remaining personnel being assigned to Air Group 653 .
After repairs at Kure , Jun 'yō remained in the Inland Sea without aircraft until 27 October when she was tasked to transport material to Borneo . On 3 November , she was attacked by the submarine Pintado near Makung , but her escorting destroyer , Akikaze , deliberately intercepted the torpedoes and sank with no survivors . On her return voyage , the ship was unsuccessfully attacked by the submarines Barb and Jallao . On 25 November , she sailed for Manila via Makung to rendezvous with the battleship Haruna and the destroyers Suzutsuki , Fuyutsuki , and Maki . Having loaded 200 survivors of the battleship Musashi , Jun 'yō was attacked by the submarines Sea Devil , Plaice and Redfish early in the morning of 9 December 1944 . She was hit by three torpedoes that flooded several compartments and killed 19 men . These gave her a 10 ° – 12 ° list to starboard , but she was able to proceed on one engine . She reached Sasebo the following day and began repairs on 18 December .
The repairs were abandoned in March 1945 for lack of materials and the ship was moved from the dock to Ebisu Bay , Sasebo on 1 April . Efforts to camouflage the ship began on 23 April and she was reclassified as a guard ship on 20 June . Jun 'yō 's armament was ordered removed on 5 August and the ship was surrendered to the Allies on 2 September . An American technical team evaluated the ship 's condition on 8 October and deemed her a constructive total loss . Jun 'yō was stricken from the Navy List on 30 November and scrapped between 1 June 1946 and 1 August 1947 by the Sasebo Ship Company .
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= Jan Karol Chodkiewicz =
Jan Karol Chodkiewicz ( c . 1560 – 24 September 1621 ; Belarusian : Ян Караль Хадкевіч , Jan Karal Chadkievič , Lithuanian : Jonas Karolis Chodkevičius ) was a military commander of the Polish – Lithuanian Commonwealth army who was from 1601 Field Hetman of Lithuania , and from 1605 Grand Hetman of Lithuania , and was one of the most prominent noblemen and military commanders of the Polish – Lithuanian Commonwealth of his era . His coat of arms was Chodkiewicz , as was his family name .
He played a major role , often as the top commander of the Commonwealth forces , in the Wallachian campaign of 1599 – 1600 , the Polish – Swedish War of 1600 – 11 , the Polish – Muscovite War of 1605 – 18 , and the Polish – Ottoman War of 1620 – 21 . His most famous victory was the Battle of Kircholm in 1605 , in which he dealt a major defeat to a Swedish army three time the size of his own . He died on the front lines during the battle of Chocim , in the besieged Khotyn Fortress , a few days before the Ottomans gave up on the siege and agreed to negotiate .
= = Biography = =
= = = Early life = = =
Chodkiewicz was born around 1560 ( exact date of his birth is unknown ) as the son of Jan Hieronimowicz Chodkiewicz , Grand Marshal of Lithuania , castellan of Vilnius and Krystyna Zborowska , daughter of a Polish magnate family of Zborowscy . From 1573 he was a student at the Vilnius Jesuit College and the Vilnius University , and from 1586 to 1589 , together with his brother Aleksander , he continued his studies abroad at the University of Ingolstadt . He visited Padua before returning to the Polish – Lithuanian Commonwealth in 1590 .
He started his military career soon after returning to the Commonwealth , raising a rota of 50 to 100 men . He gained military experience in the fight against the rebellious Cossacks during the Severyn Nalyvaiko 's uprising under Field Crown Hetman Stanisław Żółkiewski . During that conflict he participated in the battle of Kaniów on April 14 , 1596 , and in the siege of the Cossack tabor near Lubny . In 1599 , he was appointed the Elder ( starost ) of Samogitia .
Chodkiewicz subsequently assisted Chancellor and Great Crown Hetman Jan Zamoyski in his victorious Wallachian campaign , in which Chodkiewicz participated in the battle of Ploiești on 15 October 1600 . For that campaign , he was given that year the high office of the Field Lithuanian Hetman , the second commander @-@ in @-@ chief of the Lithuanian detachment of the Polish – Lithuanian Commonwealth army .
= = = War in the North = = =
A year later , in 1601 , Chodkiewicz accompanied Zamoyski north , to the Duchy of Livonia ( Inflanty ) , where he commanded Lithuanian units on the right wing of the Commonwealth army in a victorious battle of Kokenhausen in late July that year in the war against Sweden . He oversaw the fighting in the Livonia theater after Zamoyski 's return to Poland in 1602 . In April 1603 , he captured Dorpat ( modern Tartu ) and defeated the Swedish forces at Biały Kamień ( the Battle of Weissenstein ) on 23 September 1604 . His crowning achievement was the great victory near the Dvina River in the Battle of Kircholm ( modern Salaspils ) on 27 September 1605 , when , with barely 4000 troops , mostly the heavy cavalry of Polish hussars , he annihilated a Swedish army three times the size of his force . For that feat he received letters of congratulation from Pope Paul V , most of the Catholic royalty of Europe , and even the sultan of Turkey and the shah of Persia . Soon afterward , he was rewarded with the rank of Grand Lithuanian Hetman , in addition to a number of royal land grants and leases .
Yet this great victory was virtually fruitless , owing to the domestic dissensions ; the Sejm ( Commonwealth parliament ) failed to agree on raising the funds needed for the war effort . Chodkiewicz was one of the magnates who remained loyal to king Sigismund III , and helped him to defeat the Sandomierz rebellion ( rokosz of Zebrzydowski ) in 1606 – 1607 . He commanded the right wing of the royal army during the Battle of Guzów on 6 – 7 July 1607 , in which the insurgents were defeated , and then quelled the unrest in the Grand Duchy of Lithuania , fighting against another rebellious magnate , Janusz Radziwiłł , until Radziwiłł negotiated a settlement with the king in 1608 . A fresh invasion of Livonia by the Swedes recalled him thither once more , and in 1609 he relieved Riga and recaptured Pernau . He improvised a small fleet and dealt a surprise blow to the Swedish Navy at the Battle of Salis .
= = = Wars in the East and South = = =
Meanwhile , the Dimitriad wars with Muscovy broke out . Instigated by King Zygmunt , the war was unpopular among Lithuanian magnates , and Chodkiewicz was no exception ; in fact his displeasure was so public and significant that he lost the royal favor for a time . Eventually their differences subsided , and Chodkiewicz was sent against the Muscovites , operating first near Smolensk and Pskov . Soon , the Polish – Lithuanian forces started garnering victories , such as the capture of Smolensk , and some , like Grand Crown Hetman Żółkiewski , planned for a grand Polish – Lithuanian – Muscovite Commonwealth . Chodkiewicz was tasked by the king with an advance on Moscow . However , the Sejm neglected to pay for the maintenance of the Army once more , with the result that some units mutinied . Chodkiewicz fought several inconclusive battles against the Muscovites in the fall of 1611 , and then retreated . Disappointed with that outcome , he became once again estranged from the king , and criticized the campaign at the Sejm of 1613 . Over the next few years , in the period of 1613 – 15 , Chodkiewicz defended the Commonwealth gains in the Smolensk area , and dealt with unrest in Lithuania . Not till the crown prince , Władysław arrived with tardy reinforcements did the war could assume a more offensive character once again . The army , nominally commanded by Władysław , but in practice under the experienced command of Chodkiewicz , took the fortress of Dorogobuzh on 11 October 1617 . The siege of Mozhaysk in December of subsequent year did not prove successful , and this marked the end of the conflict .
The Polish @-@ Muscovite War had no sooner been ended by the treaty of Deulino than Chodkiewicz was hastily dispatched southwards to defend the southern frontier against the Turks , who , in the opening phase of the Polish – Ottoman War , defeated Polish forces at Cecora , killing Hetman Zółkiewski . An army of 160 @,@ 000 Turks and 60 @,@ 000 Tatars led by Sultan Osman II in person advanced on the Polish frontier . Opposed it were the Commonwealth forces , numbering about 70 @,@ 000 , half of them a Cossack detachment under Cossack hetman Petro Konashevych @-@ Sahaidachny . Chodkiewicz crossed the Dnieper in September 1621 , and entrenched himself in the Khotyn Fortress , directly in the path of the Ottoman advance . During the Battle of Chocim Chodkiewcz resisted the sultan 's 200 @-@ thousand army for a whole month , . but the cost of victory was his life . A few days before the siege was raised and the Ottomans decided to open negotiations , the aged Grand Lithuanian Hetman , already suffering from illness since the very start of this campaign , died in the fortress on 24 September 1621 .
Chodkiewcz 's body was transported to Kamianets @-@ Podilskyi , where he was buried on 14 October 1621 . A few years later , in the summer of 1622 , his widow arranged for exhumation , and Chodkiewicz was reburied in Ostróg in June that year . In 1627 he was moved to a new chapel in Ostróg , where he reburied again . His body was evacuated from Ostróg during the Chmielnicki Uprising in 1648 , and returned there in 1654 . It was reburied yet again in a new tomb in Ostróg in 1722 .
= = Assessment and remembrance = =
In 1937 , Polish historian Wanda Dobrowolska , wrote in her Polish Biographical Dictionary entry on Chodkiewicz that he was one of the chief members of the " Great Hetman era " , renowned for his talent as a strategist and organizer . She notes that Chodkiewicz possessed an iron will , which he was able to impose on the troops under his command , and that he was an efficient commander , although more respected and feared than beloved by his troops . Dobrowolska notes that he was an energetic and explosive antithesis of the composed Żółkiewski , another great hetman of this era , whom Chodkiewicz disliked and competed with throughout his life .
Chodkiewicz was not particularly involved in the politics of the Commonwealth , although his high office and wealth gave him significant influence ; for the most part he used his political influence , and base of support in Lithuania , to gather support for his military plans , increased the size of the army , and personal gratifications . His life was dominated by warfare , if not on the front lines , then on the political scene against other Lithuanian magnates , particularly the Radziwiłł family and the Sejm politicians whom he held responsible for not passing enough taxes to support the army he wanted .
Over his career he acquired significant wealth , and funded a number of churches and other prestigious buildings . He often worked with the Jesuits , including funding their College in Kražiai . He strongly believed his service for the state should be rewarded with land grants , but at the same time he would often use his own money to pay for the army 's military expenses . In his private life he is remembered as a very proud individual , and for stressing his identity as a member of the Lithuanian nobility . He was a family man , devoted to his family , but his only son , from his marriage in 1593 to Zofia Mielecka , died aged 16 in 1613 , and she died in 1618 . He remarried in 1620 , wedding Anna Alojza Ostrogska in November 1620 , shortly before departing on his final campaign . Also that year his daughter Anna married a Lithuanian magnate , Jan Stanisław Sapieha .
Some poems and other works praising him were written during his lifetime , and a religious work was dedicated to him by the Jesuit Piotr Skarga . More works on Chodkiewicz were written in the years after his death . He was one of Wacław Potocki 's characters in his epic novel on the Chocim war ( Polish : Transakcja wojny chocimskiej ) , and he also appeared in the works of Julian Ursyn Niemcewicz and Zofia Kossak @-@ Szczucka , usually portrayed as a patriot and military genius .
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= Last Gasp ( Inside No. 9 ) =
" Last Gasp " is the fourth episode of the first series of British dark comedy anthology television programme Inside No. 9 . It first aired on 26 February 2014 on BBC Two . The story revolves around the ninth birthday of the severely ill Tamsin ( Lucy Hutchinson ) . Tamsin 's parents Jan ( Sophie Thompson ) and Graham ( Steve Pemberton ) have arranged with charity WishmakerUK for singer Frankie J Parsons ( David Bedella ) to visit as a treat for their daughter . Frankie dies after blowing up a balloon , leading to arguments between Graham , WishmakerUK representative Sally ( Tamsin Greig ) and Frankie 's assistant Si ( Adam Deacon ) over the now @-@ valuable balloon containing Frankie 's last breath . The story , written by Pemberton and Reece Shearsmith , was inspired by someone Pemberton had seen on television who collected air from different places . The episode is more comedic than others in the series , and critiques celebrity culture and human greed .
" Last Gasp " received a fairly negative critical response ; in retrospect , Shearsmith claimed that " people hated " the episode . Several critics , including Gerard Gilbert of The Independent , Jack Seale of Radio Times and comedy critic Bruce Dessau — though complimentary of Inside No. 9 generally — considered " Last Gasp " to be weaker than the previous three episodes , but not unwatchable . Other reviewers gave a more positive response , but a particularly scathing review by columnist Virginia Blackburn was published in the Daily Express . On its first showing , " Last Gasp " drew 872 @,@ 000 viewers , lower than any previous episode . Pemberton subsequently sold a balloon containing his own breath on eBay , with proceeds going to a Sport Relief charity .
= = Production = =
" Last Gasp " was inspired by someone Pemberton had seen on children 's programme Multi @-@ Coloured Swap Shop who collected apparently empty jars which actually contained air taken from different places . The idea , which he considered " bizarre " but " very special " , had " haunted " him . This gave him the idea of collecting the breath of celebrities . The death of Michael Jackson and the death of Amy Winehouse , along with the associated collecting of memorabilia , also served as inspiration . For Pemberton , the family and house in " Last Gasp " were very " normal " . The episode was filmed on location in what director David Kerr called an " utterly freezing " house . The finished episode , for Kerr , had a degree of " suburban darkness " in that , though the events unfold in a relatively unremarkable setting , the darker side of human nature is revealed . At the same time , the characters ' arguments lead to humour . Shearsmith described " Last Gasp " as like a My Family episode " gone wrong " .
As the format of Inside No. 9 requires new characters each week , the writers were able to attract actors who may have been unwilling to commit to an entire series . In addition to Pemberton — who played Graham , the father — " Last Gasp " starred Sophie Thompson as Jan , the mother ; Lucy Hutchinson as 9 @-@ year @-@ old Tamsin ; David Bedella as popstar Frankie J Parsons ; Tamsin Greig as Sally , of WishmakerUK ; and Adam Deacon as Si , Parsons 's assistant . It was the first episode of the programme not to star Shearsmith . For Kerr , the typical difficulty associated with the use of child actors was not present in " Last Gasp " ; for him , Hutchinson " was superb . She was brilliant ; she had maturity beyond her years . " Pemberton and Shearsmith had been keen to use Inside No. 9 as a vehicle to work with new people , and had been keen to collaborate with Greig for some time . Kerr said that " one of the real joys of Inside No. 9 " was the opportunity to see actors in very different roles to those in which they had previously starred . He used Greig as his example , saying that the character of Sally was somewhat different from the roles in which Greig had previously performed .
= = Plot = =
On the ninth birthday of the severely ill Tamsin , parents Graham and Jan struggle with a camcorder and blow up balloons . A charity called WishmakerUK has arranged for pop star Frankie J Parsons to visit Tamsin . Frankie arrives , much to the excitement of Jan , accompanied by his personal assistant Si and WishmakerUK representative Sally . Frankie visits Tamsin in her bedroom , and blows up a purple balloon for her . He begins to struggle for breath and then collapses from an intracranial aneurysm . Later , Graham makes tea for Jan and Sally . Jan is upset about Frankie 's death . Si says that no one can touch anything or call an ambulance until Frankie 's manager arrives . Tamsin , sitting in her wheelchair , holds the balloon ; and Graham and Si realise that it may be valuable . Si takes the balloon from Tamsin , and Graham ties it . Sally takes a call from her boss , but does not mention Frankie 's death . She makes excuses to have a colleague cover for her on her next assignment so that she can stay at the house . Graham and Si argue over the balloon , and Graham gives it to Sally , as he considers her " a neutral " . He looks online to work out how much the balloon and accompanying footage may be worth .
Later , Jan starts playing one of Frankie 's CDs , but Graham turns it off to talk about money with Si and Sally . Jan takes Tamsin outside . Tamsin worries that Frankie 's death is her fault because she asked him to blow up the balloon . She asks if Frankie 's soul will go to Heaven , and Jan says that it will . Inside , Si , Sally and Graham argue about how to split the money they will make from the balloon . The argument gets heated after Sally argues that the fact Tamsin will soon die should preclude her from getting a share . As Graham threatens to pop the balloon , Jan reappears and chastises him . Tamsin , who is now considered neutral , takes the balloon . Graham says they should all settle down and have lunch . In the kitchen , Sally and Jan talk about Sally 's work , and , in Tamsin 's bedroom , Graham and Si talk about Parsons , with Si revealing that Parsons was actually unpleasant to work for . There is a loud bang from outside , and everyone goes back into the lounge , erroneously thinking that the balloon has burst . Graham and Si take the balloon to an upstairs bedroom and tuck it into a bed , while Jan turns the music back on .
Everyone sits in silence , waiting for Parsons 's manager to arrive . Jan suggests that Graham blow up another balloon for Tamsin . Sally , Si and Graham realise that , with the camera footage they have , they can blow up all the purple balloons and sell them to multiple bidders . Jan screams when she sees movement in Tamsin 's bedroom , and it is realised that Frankie is still alive . Jan takes Tamsin out of the room and the remaining three agree , after panicked discussion , that they should kill Frankie . Si loses a coin toss and smothers Frankie with a cushion . Later , out on the street , Frankie 's body is put into an ambulance . Si says to Sally and Graham that he will be in touch and leaves . Sally and Graham discuss selling the camcorder footage , and Jan runs inside to see that Tamsin is not in her chair or room . Upstairs , Tamsin crawls onto the bed containing the balloon , carrying a heart @-@ shaped helium balloon . On the street , Sally , Graham and Jan see Tamsin opening the upstairs window . She releases the helium balloon with the balloon containing Frankie 's breath attached . The two float skyward as Graham films .
= = Themes and analysis = =
Comedy critic Bruce Dessau described the episode as containing " a nice if not very subtle critique " of the value of celebrity , and noted that there was " a flicker " of " The Pardoner 's Tale " , a story from writer Geoffrey Chaucer 's collection The Canterbury Tales . Rebecca McQuillan , writing in The Herald , felt the episode captures the " sheer unctuousness " of fandom . She added that , as the plot advances , the venal and vulgar attitudes which are initially hidden behind the characters ' fake grins are revealed . For her , the story takes place around Tamsin , who looks " worldly and disappointed with the human race " . David Chater , of The Times , identified celebrity worship and greed as the episode 's themes .
In South African newspaper The Star , the episode was identified as the most cynical of the first series . For the reviewer , it " parades before us the depravity to which the human animal will stoop , and explores how agendas can be furthered under the noble cover of altruism " . David Upton , writing for PopMatters , called it " easily the most acerbic and most overtly comic " episode of the series . He listed three reasons that the episode does not seem like something produced by Pemberton and Shearsmith : its avoidance of the horrific ; the fact that it does not star Shearsmith ; and its direct focus on celebrity culture , which Upton considers a modern phenomenon . Instead , he suggested that it feels closer to a story from Charlie Brooker 's anthology programme Black Mirror . The focus of " Last Gasp " on comedy to the exclusion of horror , for Upton , leaves it " stranded " when compared to the other episodes .
Some critics questioned the plausibility of the premise . Daily Express columnist Virginia Blackburn felt that there was potential for a comedic critique of the celebrity memorabilia market . Such a story , she suggested , would be based around selling the balloon — not the breath — something she felt may have happened . Paddy Shennan , writing for the Liverpool Echo , questioned the extent to which the ending would actually impact the characters , asking whether they could have nonetheless sold the fake balloons . For freelance journalist Dan Owen the premise " riff [ s ] on the fact [ that ] online auction sites like eBay often sell ludicrous items for huge amounts of money " . Owen argued that the episode 's plot offers an amusing way that such a sale could come about . Though not fraudulent , the sale would nonetheless be " highly disrespectful and money @-@ grabbing " .
= = Reception = =
Gerard Gilbert of The Independent , Jack Seale of Radio Times , Dessau and Owen all stressed that " Last Gasp " was weaker than the three previous episodes of Inside No. 9 . Seale claimed that there were " several sublime moments – but no knockout blow " , while Dessau wrote that " it doesn 't really go anywhere and it resolves itself a little too simplistically " , and Owen felt that the episode " didn 't manage to go anywhere very unexpected ... and just sort of ended " . All three suggested , however , that the episode still had its strengths ; for Seale , it was as " brilliantly acted and constructed as you 'd expect " , Dessau considered it watchable , and Owen felt it was enjoyable to watch with a number of funny moments . Shennan , writing for the Liverpool Echo , wrote that " perhaps there had to be a dud – or , at least , disappointing – episode sooner or later " , noting that you " can 't win ' em all " .
The acting in the episode was praised by Michael Hogan and Rachel Ward , who wrote in The Daily Telegraph that " with their gift for comedy , vulnerability and pathos , Tamsin Grieg [ sic ] and Sophie Thompson ... deliver excellent performances " . Similarly , Owen wrote that " the performances were good — especially from Thompson as the mousy housewife , and I liked the sour expressions from child star Hutchinson " . Nonetheless , he thought it regrettable than a real @-@ world musician had not been cast , especially as he considered it unlikely that Tamsin would admire Parsons . Awarding the episode three and a half out of five , he thought " the set @-@ up ... sublime , the central dilemma amusing , and the execution typically brilliant " . In the review published in The Star , " Last Gasp " was described as " hilarious " . The title , it was suggested , is appropriate , " as I caught myself gasping more than once as its foul contents unfolded " . Upton called the episode " a clever little piece " .
On the day it was shown , " Last Gasp " was selected as comedy " pick of the day " in the Daily Express , but , the following day , an extremely critical review of the episode by Virginia Blackburn was published in the newspaper . She felt that the episode was disappointing and wasted the talent of the actors , and that the concept was " the sort of idea you can imagine two students coming up with after the sixth pint ... and then feeling slightly embarrassed about it when they wake up the next morning " . She summed up the episode by saying that it was neither funny nor clever , and " is so utterly , irredeemably , naffly silly that it ends up being incredibly irritating and nothing else " .
An interview with Shearsmith and Pemberton was published on British comedy website Chortle.co.uk after Inside No. 9 won the Chortle Award for best TV show . The pair were asked if they would ever consider writing an episode with a happy ending . Shearsmith responded by saying " Yes , because that would be the biggest surprise of all ... But last year we had the Last Gasp , and that had quite a happy ending - and people hated that one ! " Similarly , Pemberton suggested that " people are disappointed if we don 't deliver something horrible " .
= = = Viewing figures = = =
Based on overnight viewing figures , " Last Gasp " drew a lower viewership than any previous episode of Inside No. 9 , with 872 @,@ 000 viewers . In most UK listings , it was preceded by Line of Duty , which drew 2 @.@ 2 million viewers ( 9 @.@ 7 % of the audience ) . However , the following episode of Inside No. 9 , " The Understudy " , drew a lower number of viewers still , with 720 @,@ 000 viewers . The final episode of the first series , " The Harrowing " , saw an increase in viewing figures , leaving " Last Gasp " with the second @-@ lowest viewership of the series , below the series average of 904 @,@ 000 people , and the slot average of 970 @,@ 000 people .
= = Charity auction = =
Pemberton listed a balloon containing his breath which had appeared on " Last Gasp " on eBay . Listed with the balloon was a copy of the episode 's poster signed by Pemberton and Shearsmith . The auction was held to raise money for Give It Up , a Sport Relief charity founded by comedian Russell Brand to help those recovering from alcoholism and drug addiction . The winning bid on the auction was for £ 265 @.@ 00 .
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= Qualifying Industrial Zone =
Qualifying Industrial Zones ( QIZ ) are industrial parks that house manufacturing operations in Jordan and Egypt . They are special free trade zones established in collaboration with neighboring Israel to take advantage of the free trade agreements between the United States and Israel . Under the trade agreements with Jordan as laid down by the United States , goods produced in QIZ @-@ notified areas can directly access US markets without tariff or quota restrictions , subject to certain conditions . To qualify , goods produced in these zones must contain a small portion of Israeli input . In addition , a minimum 35 % value to the goods must be added to the finished product . The concept was invented by Jordanian businessman Omar Salah .
The first QIZ , Al @-@ Hassan Industrial Estate in Irbid in northern Jordan , was authorized by the United States Congress in 1997 . As of January 2009 , there are five Qualifying Industrial Zones in Jordan and four QIZ designated regions in Egypt . The idea behind the establishment of QIZs was to foster a sense of prosperity and stability in Middle East through economic cooperation and employment .
The zones differ from other trade zones as they are stand @-@ alone entities within one country and not directly connected to other countries . In addition , their products are for exports and domestic consumption in any country , not limited to specific countries , and most importantly operate only under the authority and conditions laid down by the host government .
= = History = =
The concept behind a Qualifying Industrial Zone is credited to Omar Salah , a Jordanian businessman . In 1993 , in anticipation of the Israel – Jordan peace treaty , Salah traveled to Israel with the intention of doing business with Israeli businessmen . He was also interested in business ventures that could take advantage of the eight @-@ year @-@ old free trade agreement between the United States and Israel that allowed Israeli goods to enter the US markets duty @-@ free . After the treaty was signed in 1994 , a business venture was struck between Salah and Delta Galil , where labor was transferred to Irbid in northern Jordan , to take advantage of low labor costs that were forty to seventy percent lower than in Israel . Salah had envisioned that by exploiting Israeli resources such as labor , finances , and contacts , and then leveraging it to produce value @-@ added goods , the economy of Jordan would be benefited . In addition , he surmised that economic cooperation between the two nations would help foster peace in the region .
Salah set up a public share @-@ holding company Century Investments . For doing business with Israel , many Jordanian organizations criticized Salah and boycotted the purchase of output in Jordan . Despite the heavy criticism , Salah nevertheless received tacit support from King Abdullah of Jordan . To combat the boycott , Salah began to work with multinationals with a larger international stake . He then actively lobbied the Jordanian government to set negotiate a free trade agreement with the United States on the lines of the United States @-@ Israel Free Trade Area Implementation Act of 1985 . Faced with little enthusiasm by the Jordanian government , Salah scrutinized the Presidential Proclamation ( No. 6955 ) that was part of the Palestinian agreement signed between the Palestine Liberation Organization and Israel in 1993 . In the agreement , the areas on the border between Israel and Jordan were designated as " Qualifying Industrial Zones " , and goods produced here would not have tariff and quota restrictions to the US markets . Since the Hassan industrial estate in Irbid , where Salah had factories located , was situated far from the bordering areas , it did not qualify for QIZ status .
Salah then lobbied the Jordanian government for extending these regions into other parts of Jordan . Government officials were luke @-@ warm to the idea and told him that it would be " naive to assume " that the United States would give Jordan this status . Unfazed by this response , Salah traveled to the United States and lobbied hard with the US State Department , the White House , and the US Trade Representative that it was in US interests to extend the QIZ into Jordan 's interiors . Lawyers in the United States then told Salah that even if a small portion of Israeli territory was associated with a QIZ , the proposal might materialize . Soon , USTR officials began to travel to Jordan to work on the deal .
Finally , in 1997 , an agreement was signed at the Middle East and North Africa ( MENA ) conference at Doha that established a QIZ agreement with Jordan . On 6 March 1998 , the Al @-@ Hassan Zone in Irbid was designated the first QIZ in Jordan .
After the setting up of the first QIZ , few Jordanian companies took advantage of QIZ benefits due to the general hostility in doing business with Israel . Instead , Chinese and Indian companies quickly took advantage of the vacuum to set up business establishments . The lack of local enthusiasm was criticized by the Jordan Times for missing the " golden opportunity " . Gradually though , more Jordanian businesses began to set up business establishments as political hostilities began to be overshadowed by business economics . Soon after 1998 , an additional twelve sites were given QIZ status by USTR .
Positive results from the Jordanian QIZ led to the Government of Egypt negotiating a separate QIZ protocol with the United States in Cairo on 24 December 2004 . The protocol came into effect in February 2005 .
= = Regulations = =
Under the agreement ( P.L. 104 – 234 ) requires that articles eligible for QIZ status must be manufactured in or directly imported from the areas administered by the Palestine Authority or another notified QIZ and meet the several conditions .
To quality for this scheme a product must be substantially transformed in the manufacturing process . Material and processing costs incurred in a QIZ must total not less than 35 % of the appraised value of the product when imported into the United States . Of this 35 % , 15 % must be either US materials or materials from Israel , and / or Jordan or Egypt depending on the program . The remaining 20 % of the 35 % input must come from Israel and Jordan or Egypt . The remaining 65 % can come from any part of the world . All importers must also certify that the article meet conditions for duty exemption .
Under the sharing agreements , the manufacturer from the Jordanian side must contribute at least 11 @.@ 7 % of the final produce , and the manufacturer on the Israeli side must contribute 8 % ( 7 % on high @-@ tech products ) . Under the Israeli @-@ Egyptian agreement , 11 @.@ 7 % of the inputs must be made in Israel .
The clothing and textile industry has benefited most from this arrangement . As tariffs on these goods into the United States are relatively high , exporters have used the duty @-@ free benefits of QIZs to gain quick access to markets in the United States .
= = Jordan = =
On 6 March 1998 , the United States Trade Representative ( USTR ) designated the Al @-@ Hassan Industrial Estate in the northern city of Irbid as the first QIZ . Since then , an addition twelve QIZs have been also designated across the country . Prominent QIZs include the Al @-@ Hussein Ibn Abdullah II Industrial Estate at Al Karak , owned and operated by the Jordan Industrial Estate Corporation , the Jordan Cyber City in Irbid , the privately owned Al @-@ Tajamouat Industrial Estate at Amman , Ad @-@ Dulayl Industrial Park and El @-@ Zai Ready @-@ wear Manufacturing Company near Zarqa . Upcoming industrial parks include the Gateway QIZ on the northern border with Israel , Aqaba Industrial Estate at Aqaba , and the Mushatta International complex in Amman .
Jordan has seen a substantial economic growth since the QIZ were set up . Exports from Jordan to the United States grew from 15 million USD to over 1 billion USD in 2004 . Government sources have estimated that over 40 @,@ 000 jobs have been created with the set up of QIZs . Investment is currently valued at USD 85 – 100 million and expected to grow to $ 180 to $ 200 million . The success of QIZ have led to the United States and Jordan signing a Free Trade Agreement in 2001 that was approved by the US Congress .
Between 1998 and 2005 Jordan moved up from the United States ' thirteenth to eight largest trading partner among the 20 Middle @-@ East @-@ North African ( MENA ) entities . In 2005 , US exports to and imports from Jordan totalled an estimated $ 1 @.@ 9 billion : U.S. exports , at an estimated $ 646 million , were 1 @.@ 8 times their 1998 level ; US imports , at $ 1 @.@ 3 billion , were 80 times their 1998 level . Despite the 2001 FTA between the United States and Jordan , 75 % of Jordanian articles enter the United States through the QIZ program .
The apparel industry dominates both Jordan 's QIZs and total exports to the United States , accounting for 99 @.@ 9 % of all QIZ exports and 86 % of all Jordanian exports to the United States . The reason for this dominance is that QIZ products enter the United States free of duty , whereas , under the US – Jordan FTA , tariffs will not be fully eliminated until the end of the ten @-@ year phase @-@ in period , in 2011 .
= = Egypt = =
After the WTO phased out quantitative quotas on textile in 2004 under the Agreement on Textile and Clothing ( ATC ) . Egyptian textile and garment producers feared that their industry would be threatened by global competition from China and India . The flood of similar articles from these two nations to the United States could edge out Egyptian exports , and possibly result in the loss of 150 @,@ 000 job opportunities . This was estimated to cost some of the $ 3 @.@ 2 billion in US foreign direct investment in Egypt . Further , Egypt was in search of sources for increased economic growth and trade to provide jobs for its rapidly growing labor force .
Positive results from the Jordanian led to the Government of Egypt negotiating a QIZ protocol in Cairo on 24 December 2004 that came into effect in February 2005 . USTR has designated three QIZs in Egypt – the Greater Cairo Zone , the Alexandria Zone , and the Suez Canal Zone ( 69 CFR 78094 ) . On 4 November 2005 , the USTR designated a fourth zone in the Central Delta region and expanded the Greater Cairo and Suez Canal zones .
The protocol signed between the two nations is a non @-@ reciprocal arrangement and is expected to be a step towards the establishment of a Free Trade Agreement ( FTA ) between the two countries . However negotiations toward a US – Egyptian free trade agreement have recently been suspended over human rights issues .
The results have been positive . Israeli exports to Egypt rose over 30 % from USD 29 million in 2004 to USD 93 @.@ 2 million and exceeded USD 125 million in 2006 . As of 2008 ten QIZs have been set up in Egypt . Some estimate that approximately 20 % of companies based in QIZs are wholly owned by Jordanians .
= = Social impact = =
Although most experts note that companies based in QIZs hire foreign laborers , thousands of Jordanians , particularly women from the rural countryside , have found jobs at garment factories in QIZs . In a traditional society such as Jordan , many of these women had little previous work experience and were largely caretakers of their home . Despite the low wages paid by apparel factories in the QIZs , some women have been able to support their families . However , traditional attitudes toward a woman ’ s place in the home persist , and many families continue to prohibit female members from working in QIZs . ( See Women in Jordan ) In response , the Jordanian Ministry of Labor has worked to ease the adjustment of women moving from the home to a new job by providing free transportation to work , subsidizing the cost of food in QIZs , and paying for dormitories near factories to cut commuting times. and providing childcare The long @-@ term effect of female employment in QIZs are yet to be quantified , and there is some concern that over time , Jordanian women may have difficulty in achieving higher wages in a global economy where apparel manufacturers can easily relocate to cheaper labor markets .
When the QIZ program came into being in 1996 , observers regarded it as a vehicle to support the development of peaceful relations and normalization of commercial ties between Israel and the two Arab states ( Jordan and Egypt ) with which it had signed peace treaties . In both cases , however , a tenuous peace continues to prevail between Israel and the two Arab states . Since the conclusion of the Jordan – Israel peace treaty in October 1994 , large numbers of Jordanians , particularly fundamentalists , those of Palestinian origin , and members of the professional unions continue to oppose normalization with Israel and resist the expansion of commercial relations . With the establishment of 13 QIZs in Jordan , there has been an increase in the volume of bilateral trade , though the overall totals remain modest .
= = Criticisms = =
By far the biggest international criticism of QIZs in Jordan is the humanitarian crisis within the factories . A comprehensive report by the Institute for Global Labour and Human Rights found that Sri Lankan migrant workers were subject to " routine sexual abuse and rape . "
The United States Trade Representative ( USTR ) designation of 13 factories throughout Jordan ( under the US @-@ Jordan Free Trade Agreement ) has led to disastrous realities , gender inequality and gender based violence :
" There are over 30 @,@ 000 poor , mostly young women , foreign guest workers toiling in Jordan ‘ s largely foreign @-@ owned garment factories sewing clothing for export to the United States . Under the Free Trade Agreement , those garments enter the U.S. duty @-@ free .
" The guest workers are from Sri Lanka , Bangladesh , India , China , Nepal and Egypt . They earn less than three @-@ quarters the wage of Jordanian garment workers , who account for only 15 to 25 percent of the total garment workforce . Jordanians earn $ 1 @.@ 02 an hour while the foreign guest workers take home 74 ½ cents an hour . The Jordanians work eight hours a day , while the guest workers toil an average of 12 hours a day . "
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= Nigella Lawson =
Nigella Lucy Lawson ( born 6 January 1960 ) is an English journalist , broadcaster , television personality , gourmet , and food writer . She is the daughter of Nigel Lawson , a former Chancellor of the Exchequer , and Vanessa ( née Salmon ) Lawson , whose family owned the J. Lyons and Co. food and catering business . After graduating from Lady Margaret Hall , Oxford University , Lawson started work as a book reviewer and restaurant critic , later becoming the deputy literary editor of The Sunday Times in 1986 . She then embarked upon a career as a freelance journalist , writing for a number of newspapers and magazines . In 1998 , she brought out her first cookery book , How to Eat , which sold 300 @,@ 000 copies and became a best @-@ seller . She wrote her second book in 2000 , How to Be a Domestic Goddess , which won her the British Book Award for Author of the Year .
In 1999 , she hosted her own cooking show series , Nigella Bites , on Channel 4 , accompanied by another best @-@ selling cookbook . Nigella Bites won Lawson a Guild of Food Writers Award ; her 2005 ITV daytime chat show Nigella was met with a negative critical reaction and was cancelled after attracting low ratings . She hosted the Food Network 's Nigella Feasts in the United States in 2006 , followed by a three @-@ part BBC Two series , Nigella 's Christmas Kitchen , in the UK , which led to the commissioning of Nigella Express on BBC Two in 2007 . Her own cookware range , Living Kitchen , has a value of £ 7 million , and she has sold more than 3 million cookery books worldwide to date .
= = Early life and education = =
Lawson was born in Wandsworth , London , one of the daughters of Nigel Lawson , Baron Lawson of Blaby , a former Conservative MP , and a former Chancellor of the Exchequer in Margaret Thatcher 's government , and his first wife , Vanessa ( née Salmon ; 1936 – 1985 ) , a socialite , " celebrated beauty " and heiress to the J. Lyons and Co. fortune . Her parents both came from Jewish families . Her given name was originally suggested by her grandmother . Her family kept homes in Kensington and Chelsea .
Nigel and Vanessa Lawson divorced in 1980 . They both remarried : her father in 1980 to a House of Commons researcher , Therese Maclear ( to whom he was married until 2008 ) , and her mother , in the early 1980s , to philosopher A. J. Ayer ( they remained married until her mother 's death ) . As her father , Nigel , is a prominent political figure , some of the things she found frustrating were the judgements and pre @-@ conceptions about her . She has attributed her unhappiness as a child , in part , to the problematic relationship she had with her mother .
Lawson 's mother died of liver cancer in Westminster , London at the age of 48 . Lawson 's full @-@ blood siblings are her brother , Dominic , former editor of The Sunday Telegraph , sister Horatia , and sister Thomasina , who died of breast cancer in 1993 during her early thirties ; She has a half @-@ brother , Tom , and a half @-@ sister , Emily , her father 's children by his second wife . Lawson is a cousin to both George Monbiot and Fiona Shackleton through the Salmon family .
= = = Ancestry = = =
Taking part in the third series of the BBC family @-@ history documentary series , Who Do You Think You Are ? , Lawson sought to uncover some of her family 's ancestry . She traced her ancestors to Ashkenazi Jews who originate from eastern Europe and Germany , leaving Lawson surprised not to have Iberian @-@ Sephardi ancestry in the family as she had believed . She also uncovered that her maternal great @-@ great @-@ great grandfather , Coenraad Sammes ( later Coleman Joseph ) , had fled to England from Amsterdam in 1830 to escape a prison sentence following a conviction for theft . It was his daughter , Hannah , who married Samuel Gluckstein , father @-@ in @-@ law and business partner of Barnett Salmon and father of Isidore and Montague Gluckstein , who together with Barnett founded J. Lyons and Co. in 1887 .
= = = Education = = =
Lawson spent some of her childhood in the Welsh village of Higher Kinnerton . She had to move schools nine times between the ages of 9 and 18 , and consequently she described her school years as difficult . " I was just difficult , disruptive , good at school work , but rude , I suspect , and too highly @-@ strung " , Lawson reflected . She was educated at several independent schools , at among other places , Ibstock Place School , Queen 's Gate School and Godolphin and Latymer School . She worked for many department stores in London , and went on to graduate from the University of Oxford with a degree in medieval and modern languages . She lived in Florence , Italy for a period of time .
= = Career = =
= = = Early work = = =
Lawson originally worked in publishing , first taking a job under publisher Naim Attallah . At 23 , she began her career in journalism after Charles Moore had invited her to write for The Spectator . Her initial work at the magazine consisted of writing book reviews , after which period she became a restaurant critic there in 1985 . She became the deputy literary editor of The Sunday Times in 1986 at the age of 26 .
She occasionally drifted into the public 's eye , attracting publicity in 1989 when she admitted voting for Labour in an election as opposed to her father 's Conservative Party , and then criticised Margaret Thatcher in print . Regarding her political relationship with her father , Lawson has stated , " My father would never expect me to agree with him about anything in particular and , to be honest , we never talk about politics much . "
After her stint at The Sunday Times , she embarked upon a freelance writing career , realising that " I was on the wrong ladder . I didn 't want to be an executive , being paid to worry rather than think " . In the United Kingdom , she wrote for The Daily Telegraph , the Evening Standard , The Observer and The Times Literary Supplement , and penned a food column for Vogue and a makeup column for The Times Magazine , as well as working with Gourmet and Bon Appétit in the United States . After two weeks working on Talk Radio in 1995 , Lawson was sacked after she had stated her shopping was done for her , which was deemed incompatible with the radio station 's desired " common touch " .
= = = 1998 – 2002 : Cook book writing and Nigella Bites = = =
Lawson had an established sense of cooking from her childhood , having had a mother who enjoyed cooking . She conceived the idea of writing a cookbook after she observed a dinner party host in tears because of an unset crème caramel . How to Eat ( 1998 ) , featuring culinary tips on preparation and saving time , sold 300 @,@ 000 copies in the UK . The Sunday Telegraph dubbed it " the most valuable culinary guide published this decade . "
Its successor , How to be a Domestic Goddess ( 2000 ) , focuses primarily on baking . Of this second bestseller , The Times wrote of Lawson 's book , that it " is defined by its intimate , companionable approach . She is not issuing matronly instructions like Delia ; she is merely making sisterly suggestions " . Lawson rejected feminist criticism of her book , adding that " [ s ] ome people did take the domestic goddess title literally rather than ironically . It was about the pleasures of feeling like one rather than actually being one . " The book sold 180 @,@ 000 copies in four months , and won Lawson the title of Author of the Year at the British Book Awards in 2001 , fending off competition from authors such as J. K. Rowling . How to Eat and How to be a Domestic Goddess were published in the U.S. in 2000 and 2001 . As a result of the book 's success , The Observer took her on as a social affairs columnist .
Lawson next hosted her own cooking show television series , Nigella Bites , which ran from 1999 to 2001 on Channel 4 , followed by a Christmas special in 2001 . Victor Lewis @-@ Smith , a critic usually known for his biting comments , praised Lawson for being " formidably charismatic " . The first series of Nigella Bites averaged 1 @.@ 9 million viewers , and won her the Television Broadcast of the Year at the Guild of Food Writers Awards and the Best Television Food Show at the World Food Media Awards in 2001 . The show yielded an accompanying best @-@ selling recipe book , also called Nigella Bites , for which Waterstone 's book stores reported UK sales of over 300 @,@ 000 . The book won a W H Smith Award for Lifestyle Book of the Year .
The Nigella Bites series , which was filmed in her home in west London , was later broadcast on American television channels E ! and Style Network . Lawson said of the US release , " In the UK , my viewers have responded to the fact I 'm trying to reduce , not add to , their burden and I 'm looking forward to making that connection with Style viewers across the US " . Overall , Lawson was well received in the United States . Those who did criticise her often suggested she was too flirtatious ; a commentator from The New York Times said , " Lawson 's sexy roundness mixed with her speed @-@ demon technique makes cooking dinner with Nigella look like a prelude to an orgy " . The book of Nigella Bites became the second bestselling cook book of Christmas 2002 in America . The series was followed by Forever Summer with Nigella in 2002 on Channel 4 , the concept being , " that you cook to make you still feel as though you 're on holiday " .
In 2002 she also began to write a fortnightly cooking articles for The New York Times , and brought out a profitable line of kitchenware , called the Living Kitchen range , which is sold by numerous retailers . Her range 's value has continued to grow , starting at an estimated £ 2 million in 2003 .
= = = 2003 – 2006 : Nigella Feasts and BBC contract = = =
In November 2003 , Lawson oversaw the menu and preparations for a lunch hosted by Tony Blair at Downing Street for George W. Bush and his wife during their state visit to the UK . Laura Bush is said to be a fan of Lawson 's recipes and once included one of her soups as the starter for the 2002 presidential Christmas dinner . Lawson 's fifth book , Feast : Food that Celebrates Life , released in 2004 , made sales worth £ 3 million . London 's Evening Standard wrote that the book " works both as a practical manual and an engrossing read . ... Nobody else writes so openly about the emotional significance of food . " Lawson appeared frequently on American television in 2004 , conducting cookery slots on talk shows such as The Ellen DeGeneres Show .
In the UK in 2005 , Lawson started to host a daytime television chat show on ITV1 called Nigella , on which celebrity guests joined her in a studio kitchen . The first episode debuted with a disappointing 800 @,@ 000 viewers . The show was met with a largely negative critical reaction , and after losing 40 % of its viewers in the first week , the show was cancelled . She later commented to Radio Times that on her first show , she was almost too frightened to come out of her dressing room . Lawson added that having to pretend to be interested in the lives of the celebrities on her show became too much of an effort .
Her third food @-@ based television series , called Nigella Feasts , debuted on the USA 's Food Network in Autumn 2006 for a 13 @-@ week run . Time magazine wrote a favorable review of the show ; " the real appeal of Feasts ... is her unfussy , wry , practical approach to entertaining and quality comfort food . ... between the luscious camera shots and Lawson 's sensual enjoyment of eating , Feasts will leave you wishing for an invite " .
Lawson was next signed to BBC Two to host a three @-@ part cookery show entitled Nigella 's Christmas Kitchen , which began on 6 December 2006 and aired weekly . The first two episodes secured the second highest ratings of the week for BBC Two , with the first episode debuting with a strong 3 @.@ 5 million . The final episode went on to become the top show on BBC Two the week that it was aired . Nigella 's Christmas Kitchen won Lawson a second World Food Media Award in 2007 . Her influence as a food commentator was also demonstrated in late 2006 , when after she had lauded goose fat as being an essential ingredient for Christmas , sales percentages of the product increased significantly in the UK . Waitrose and Tesco both stated that goose fat sales had more than doubled , as well as Asda 's goose fat sales increasing by 65 % from the previous week . Similarly , after she advised using prunes in a recipe on Nigella 's Christmas Kitchen , Waitrose had increased sales of 30 % year on year .
= = = 2007 – 2009 : Nigella Express and Nigella 's Christmas = = =
Nigella 's Christmas Kitchen led to the commissioning of a 13 @-@ part cookery series entitled Nigella Express . She said " I wouldn 't describe them as junk " . The show became another ratings success and one of BBC Two 's top @-@ rated shows each week . The first episode debuted with 2 @.@ 85 million viewers , a high percentage above the channel 's slot average . The second episode 's viewing figures rose to 3 @.@ 3 million , and the series peaked at 3 @.@ 4 million on 22 October 2007 .
Her influence with the public was again demonstrated when sales of Riesling wine increased by 30 % in the UK after she had incorporated it into her Coq au Riesling recipe on Nigella Express . In December 2007 she appeared on BBC 's The Graham Norton Show and revealed that she had once eaten 30 pickled eggs for a £ 1 @,@ 000 bet , saying " How stupid to challenge me ! I made them all put their money on the table in front of me . The next day I had scrambled eggs for breakfast . "
Lawson came under criticism when viewers complained that she had gained weight since the debut episode of the series . The Guardian however , noted , " the food matches her appearance – flawless , polished and sexy " . The rights to Nigella Express were sold to Discovery Asia . The series was nominated at the 35th Daytime Emmy Awards in the United States for Outstanding Lifestyle Program , and Lawson herself for the Outstanding Lifestyle Host .
The accompanying book to Nigella Express was released in the UK in September 2007 , US in November 2007 , and in Australia in 2008 . Sharing the same name as the television series , the book became another best @-@ seller in the UK , and was outselling television chef Jamie Oliver by 100 @,@ 000 copies , according to Waterstone 's . It was reported that over 490 @,@ 000 copies had been sold by mid @-@ December in the UK . Furthermore , the book was number one for a period on Amazon UK 's bestselling books , and was ninth on their overall list of Christmas bestsellers in any category . Paul Levy of The Guardian wrote that the tone of the recipes was " just right . One of the appealing things about Nigella 's brief introductions to each of them is that she thinks not just as cook , but as eater , and tells you whether they 're messy , sticky or fussy . " In January 2008 , Lawson was estimated to have sold more than 3 million books worldwide . Her Christmas book was released in October 2008 and the television show in December of the same year . An American edition of the book " Nigella Christmas " with a different cover photograph was released in November 2009 with an accompanying book tour of several US cities and a special on the USA 's Food Network .
= = = 2010 – 2014 , Nigellissima and The Taste = = =
Lawson was featured as one of the three judges on a special battle of Iron Chef America , titled " The Super Chef Battle " , which pitted White House Executive Chef Cristeta Comerford and Iron Chef Bobby Flay against chef Emeril Lagasse and Iron Chef Mario Batali . This episode was originally broadcast on 3 January 2010 . Lawson 's cookbook Kitchen : Recipes from the Heart of the Home ( 2010 ) is a tie @-@ in with the TV series " Nigella Kitchen . " This was shown in the UK and on the Food Network in the United States .
Nigellissima : Instant Italian Inspiration was released in 2012 . The 8 part TV series entitled Nigellissima was broadcast by the BBC . Nigella Lawson obtained work experience in Italy during her gap year .
Lawson travelled to the United States in 2013 and starred alongside Anthony Bourdain in the reality cooking show The Taste . The UK version of the show began airing on 7 January 2014 on Channel 4 . Lawson was granted a visa to travel to the United States and traveled there for a continuation of the series . In 2014 Lawson was hired by a chocolate company to appear in an advertisement , the advertisement was filmed in New Zealand in May for a local confection manufacturer Whittaker 's .
= = = 2015- , Simply Nigella , Eurovision and MasterChef Australia = = =
The UK and US series of The Taste were both completed and in autumn 2015 Lawson began " Simply Nigella " , a BBC 2 show showing viewers how to cook a range of dishes that were simple to cook and similar to what viewers would make themselves . Lawson featured comfort food and dishes that were quick to prepare . She featured food that would make viewers feel better while they cooked it and also when they ate it .
On the 23rd May , Lawson was spokesperson for the United Kingdom revealing the voting results during the final of the Eurovision Song Contest 2015 . Lawson commented , " Yes , it 's true . Oui , c 'est vrai . Ja , das ist wahr . "
It was reported on 18 January 2016 , that Lawson would make a return to Australian television , joining series 8 of MasterChef Australia as a guest judge , alongside the returning judges .
= = Presenting style and image = =
Though Lawson has enjoyed a successful career in cookery , she is not a trained chef , and does not like being referred to as a " celebrity chef " . Furthermore , she does not see herself as a cook or an expert in her field . Throughout Lawson 's television programmes , she emphasises that she cooks for her own pleasure , for enjoyment , and that she finds cooking therapeutic . When deciding upon which recipes to feature in her books , she takes the view of the eater , stating , " If it 's something I don 't want to carry on eating once I 'm full , then I don 't want the recipe ... I have to feel that I want to cook the thing again " .
Lawson has adopted a casual approach to cooking , stating , " I think cooking should be about fun and family . ... I think part of my appeal is that my approach to cooking is really relaxed and not rigid . There are no rules in my kitchen . " One editor , highlighting the technical simplicity of Lawson 's recipes , noted that " her dishes require none of the elaborate preparation called for by most TV chefs " .
Lawson has become renowned for her flirtatious manner of presenting , although she argues " It 's not meant to be flirtatious . ... I don 't have the talent to adopt a different persona . It 's intimate , not flirtatious " . The perceived overt sexuality of her presentation style has led to Lawson 's being called the " queen of food porn " . Many commentators have alluded to Lawson 's attractiveness , and she was once named as one of the world 's most beautiful women . She has been referred to as " stunningly beautiful , warm , honest , likeable and amazingly normal " , as well as being described as having " flawless skin , perfect white teeth , a voluptuous body , ample height and lots of lush , brown hair " . Nigella Lawson has been voted , Sexiest Celebrity Chef . The media have also noted Lawson 's ability to engage with both male and female viewers ; The Guardian wrote , " Men love her because they want to be with her . Women love her because they want to be her " . The chef , Gary Rhodes , spoke out against Lawson by suggesting that her viewers are attracted to her smile rather than the cooking itself . Despite often being labelled as a domestic goddess , she insists that she exhibits very few of the qualities associated with the title .
One critic summarised , " her descriptions of food can be a tangle of adjectives " .
= = Personal life = =
= = = Relationships and children = = =
Lawson was in a relationship with human rights lawyer Geoffrey Robertson QC until 1988 , when he left her for novelist Kathy Lette .
Lawson met journalist John Diamond in 1986 , when they were both writing for The Sunday Times . They married in Venice in 1992 and have a daughter , Cosima and a son , Bruno . Diamond was diagnosed with throat cancer in 1997 and died in March 2001 , aged 47 . One of his last messages to Lawson was , " How proud I am of you and what you have become . The great thing about us is that we have made us who we are . " His death occurred during the filming of Nigella Bites ; " I took a fortnight off . But I 'm not a great believer in breaks " , Lawson explained ; she suffered a bout of depression following the funeral . After Diamond 's death , Lawson kept all of the press clippings in what she called her " Morbidobox " .
= = = Charles Saatchi = = =
Lawson married art collector Charles Saatchi in September 2003 . Lawson was not always happy for unspecified reasons and admitted in 2012 that she sometimes said , " Please God , get me through the ordeal that is today . "
In June 2013 , photographs were published by The Sunday People of Lawson being grabbed around the neck by Saatchi , during an argument outside a London seafood restaurant . According to a witness , Lawson was very distressed by the incident . Saatchi later described the pictures as showing only a " playful tiff " and his trying to emphasise a point . After a police investigation of the incident , Saatchi was cautioned for assault , and it was reported that Lawson had left the family home . Lawson said in court Saatchi subjected her to " intimate terrorism " , that he threatened to finish her unless she cleared him in court . Subsequently while giving evidence Lawson claimed casual cruelty and controlling behaviour by Saatchi which made her unhappy and drove her to occasional drug use . She cited as examples that Saatchi prevented her entertaining at home and punished her for going to a birthday party of a woman friend . She was not beaten but was left emotionally scarred .
Saatchi announced his divorce from Lawson in early July , stating that he had " clearly been a disappointment to Nigella during the last year or so " and the couple had " become estranged and drifted apart " . Lawson made no public comment in response ; however , court papers showed that it was Lawson who filed for divorce , citing ongoing unreasonable behaviour . On 31 July 2013 , seven weeks after the incident , the pair was granted a decree nisi , ending their ten @-@ year marriage . They reached a private financial settlement .
= = = Assistants ' fraud trial = = =
On 27 November 2013 , a trial of the former couple 's two personal assistants , Italian @-@ born sisters Elisabetta and Francesca Grillo , began in R v Grillo and Grillo . The Grillos were accused of fraudulently using the credit cards of Saatchi 's private company . During court proceedings in early December , the sisters claimed that Lawson had permitted their use of the credit cards in exchange for their silence regarding her drug use . Questions regarding Lawson 's drug use were allowed by the judge as part of the sisters ' " bad character " defence . Lawson admitted to taking cocaine and cannabis but denied she had been addicted , stating , " I found it made an intolerable situation tolerable . " On 20 December 2013 , the two sisters were acquitted . Scotland Yard confirmed that Lawson would not be the subject of an investigation based on claims made in court that she consumed cocaine . The decision will be reviewed if new evidence comes to light .
It has been alleged that Charles Saatchi started a smear campaign against Lawson in the British media , through PR man Richard Hillgrove , relating to her drug use that began even before the trial was over . Lawyers for Lawson have demanded that Hillgrove remove comments about her made in his blog . By contrast Nigella Lawson claimed in court that ending her marriage to Saatchi and creating tolerable conditions for herself and her family was the answer . Since she freed herself from , " a brilliant but brutal man . " Lawson maintains she is " totally cannabis , cocaine , any drug , free . "
= = = Interests and beliefs = = =
Saatchi was worth a reputed £ 100 million . It widely began circulating in the media in early 2008 that Lawson had been quoted as saying her two children should not inherit any of the fortune .
Although both of Lawson 's parents are Jewish , her upbringing was non observant and Lawson herself identifies as an atheist . In one of her newspaper articles , she has shown a liberal attitude to sexuality ( " most [ women ] simply have , somewhere , a fantasy about having sex , in a non @-@ defining , non @-@ exclusive way , with other women . " )
Lawson is a supporter of the Lavender Trust which gives support to young women with breast cancer . She first became involved with the charity in 2002 when she baked some lavender cupcakes to be auctioned at a fundraising event , which sold for a significant amount of money . She subsequently featured the recipe in her book Forever Summer with Nigella .
In December 2008 , Lawson caused controversy and was featured in various newspapers for publicly advocating wearing fur . She also remarked that she would love to kill a bear and then wear it .
It was revealed by leaked Whitehall documents in 2003 that Lawson declined an OBE from Queen Elizabeth II in 2001 . As the daughter of a life peer , Lawson is entitled to the courtesy style of " The Honourable " , and is thus named The Hon. Nigella Lawson ; however , she does not use this courtesy style .
Lawson has stated that she believes cooking is " a metaphor for life " , in the sense that " When you cook , you need structure [ ... ] but just as importantly you need to be able to loosen up and go with the flow [ ... ] you must not strive for perfection but , rather , acknowledge your mistakes and work out how you can rectify them " . She has described cooking as " a way of strengthening oneself " , in the sense that " being able to sustain oneself is the skill of the survivor " .
= = Television credits = =
= = Awards = =
2000 : British Book Award – Author of the Year for How to be a Domestic Goddess
2001 : WH Smith Book Award – How To Be A Domestic Goddess shortlisted for Lifestyle Book of the Year
2001 : Guild of Food Writers – Television Broadcast of the Year for Nigella Bites
2001 : World Food Media Award – Gold Ladle Best Television Food Show for Nigella Bites
2002 : WH Smith Book Awards – Lifestyle Book of the Year for Nigella Bites
2007 : World Food Media Award – Gold Ladle Best Food And / Or Drink Television Show for Nigella 's Christmas Kitchen
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= Isbul =
Isbul ( Bulgarian : Исбул ) ( fl . 820s – 830s ) was the kavhan , or first minister , of the First Bulgarian Empire during the reigns of Omurtag , Malamir and Presian I. Appointed to the kavhan office under Omurtag , Isbul was a regent or co @-@ ruler of the underage Malamir and his successor Presian .
Under Malamir and Presian , Isbul headed Bulgaria 's successful campaigns against the Byzantines in southern Thrace and Macedonia , which led to a significant territorial expansion of the Bulgarian realm . As a co @-@ ruler of Malamir , Isbul also financed the construction of a water conduit in the capital Pliska . As second @-@ in @-@ command , Isbul held enormous power and wealth , and was unusually often mentioned beside the name of the ruler in inscriptions . Due to his merits , Isbul has been described as an architect of medieval Bulgarian statehood by historians .
= = Biography = =
The office of the kavhan was a hereditary title in the First Bulgarian Empire , monopolised by the members of the tentatively known " Kavhan family " . In order to accede to that position , Isbul must have belonged to the Kavhan family , which is indirectly evidenced by his Bulgar name . Historian Plamen Pavlov theorises that Isbul may have begun his career under the ruler Krum ( r . 803 – 814 ) , and by the time of Krum 's son Omurtag ( r . 815 – 831 ) , Isbul was already an influential noble . As he is referred to as a kavhan and regent of the next ruler , Malamir ( r . 831 – 836 ) , it is conjectured that he had been appointed to the office at some point during Omurtag 's rule .
The earliest record of Isbul is the stone epigraph known as the Malamir Chronicle , which states that Malamir " ruled together with kavhan Isbul " . Malamir was the youngest son of Omurtag and must have been considered too young to rule by himself , so that a regent had to be appointed . Omurtag specified Malamir as his heir because his eldest son , Enravota , was a Christian . The Byzantines hoped to take advantage of Bulgaria 's instability at the time , caused by the presence of the underage Malamir on the throne , and broke the long @-@ lasting peace established with the Byzantine – Bulgarian Treaty of 815 , which they had initially reaffirmed upon Malamir 's accession . In 836 , Isbul was in charge of the Bulgarian forces which repulsed the Byzantine invasion and proceeded to raid into Byzantine territory .
As part of this campaign , Isbul and Malamir captured the Thracian fortresses of Probaton ( near Adrianople , modern Edirne ) and Bourdizon ( modern Babaeski ) . After conquering these two fortresses , the Bulgarian troops reached Philippopolis ( now Plovdiv ) . As the defence forces of the city had fled , Isbul and Malamir entered negotiations with the population in order to persuade them to cede the fortress . Pavlov is of the opinion that the war ended with a continuation of the peace of 815 . He believes that Byzantine Emperor Theophilos ( r . 829 – 842 ) was forced to make concessions to Bulgaria , which may have included the incorporation of Philippopolis and its close surroundings into the Bulgarian Empire .
During his time as co @-@ ruler and kavhan of Malamir , Isbul financed the construction of a water conduit ( aqueduct ) or fountain in Pliska , which he donated to Malamir . That construction was the occasion for a great feast , which the ruler organised , and for gifts to the nobility , all of it testifying to Isbul 's affluence . In the source about the construction , Isbul is hailed alongside Malamir : " May God let the God @-@ appointed ruler live a hundred years together with the kavhan Isbul " . Normally , such blessings were only directed at the ruler , and this is the only case from the First Bulgarian Empire which references another person . The inscription also mentions Isbul 's old age at the time .
After the surprise death of Malamir in 836 , the Bulgarian throne passed to Presian I ( 836 – 852 ) , who too was likely underage . As evidenced by the Presian Inscription from Philippi , Isbul retained his position as kavhan and his decisive influence in the Bulgarian court . In 837 , the Slavic tribe of the Smolyani ( Smolenoi ) , who inhabited the lower Nestos ( Mesta ) River and Western Thrace near Drama , rose against their Byzantine rulers . The inscription of Philippi mentions large @-@ scale Bulgarian activity in the lands of the Smolyani . The Bulgarian forces were led by Isbul , as well as the ichirgu @-@ boil ( commander of the capital garrison ) and the head priest . As the inscription is damaged , it is unclear who Presian and Isbul supported in that conflict . However , during this campaign the Bulgarian army conquered most of Macedonia including Philippi , where the inscription was found . From that point on , Isbul disappears from the sources , and there is no information about the date and circumstances of his death .
= = Assessment and legacy = =
In his biography of Isbul , Pavlov underlines his " extraordinary merits for the development of the Bulgarian state " and describes him as " one of the architects of medieval Bulgarian statehood during the years of its rise " . Romanian historian Florin Curta emphasises the similarity of Isbul 's role to that of 8th @-@ century Mayors of the Palace in the Frankish lands under the Merovingian dynasty .
Isbul Point on Livingston Island of the South Shetland Islands , Antarctica , was named in honour of kavhan Isbul by the Antarctic Place @-@ names Commission of Bulgaria . Isbul also features as a character in Aleksandar Raychev 's opera Khan Asparuh , which debuted at the Ruse Opera House in 1981 . In the opera , however , Isbul is erroneously described as the kavhan of the first Bulgarian ruler , Asparuh .
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= Courtney Love =
Courtney Michelle Love ( born Courtney Michelle Harrison , July 9 , 1964 ) is an American musician , actress , and visual artist . Prolific in the punk and grunge scenes of the 1990s , Love 's career has spanned over four decades . She became a fixture in alternative music as the frontwoman of Hole , drawing public attention for her uninhibited stage presence and confrontational lyrics , as well as her highly publicized personal life following her marriage to Kurt Cobain .
The daughter of psychotherapist Linda Carroll and Hank Harrison , Love had a nomadic early life ; she mainly grew up in Oregon and California , where she was in a series of short @-@ lived bands before landing roles in films by British director Alex Cox . After forming Hole in 1989 , she received substantial attention from underground rock press for the group 's debut album , produced by Kim Gordon , while the group 's second release , Live Through This ( 1994 ) , lent her a more high @-@ profile renown , receiving critical accolades and going multi @-@ platinum . In 1995 , she returned to acting , earning a Golden Globe Award nomination for her performance in Miloš Forman 's The People vs. Larry Flynt ( 1996 ) . Shortly after , Hole 's third release , Celebrity Skin ( 1998 ) , earned Love recognition as a mainstream musician and was nominated for multiple Grammy Awards .
Love continued to work as an actress , appearing in big @-@ budget pictures such as Man on the Moon ( 1999 ) and Trapped ( 2002 ) , and released her first solo album , America 's Sweetheart , in 2004 . In 2010 , she released Nobody 's Daughter as Hole , with a reformed band . Love debuted a new solo single in early 2014 , and also saw a return to acting in multiple TV series , including Empire .
= = Early life = =
Love was born Courtney Michelle Harrison on July 9 , 1964 , in San Francisco , California . Her mother , Linda Carroll ( née Risi ) , was employed at the UC San Francisco Hospital , and her father , Hank Harrison , was a publisher and road manager for the Grateful Dead . Love 's godfather is the founding Grateful Dead bassist Phil Lesh . Love 's mother , who was adopted as a child , was later revealed to be the biological daughter of novelist Paula Fox . Love 's great @-@ grandmother was screenwriter Elsie Fox , and Love learned in 2002 that , through marriage , her great uncle was actor Douglas Fairbanks . Love is of Cuban , Welsh , Irish , German , and English descent .
Love spent her early years in the Haight @-@ Ashbury district of San Francisco until her parents ' 1969 divorce , after which her father 's custody was withdrawn when her mother alleged that he had fed LSD to Love as a toddler . Love described her parents ' household as being full of " hairy , wangly @-@ ass hippies running around naked . " According to sources , Love 's mother , who was studying to be a psychologist , had Love in therapy by the age of two . In 1970 , her mother moved the family to the rural community of Marcola , Oregon where they lived on a commune along the Mohawk River , while her mother completed her degree at the University of Oregon . Love was legally adopted by her then @-@ stepfather , Frank Rodriguez , with whom her mother had Love 's two half @-@ sisters , Jaimee and Nicole , and adopted a brother Joshua , at three years old , from an African American family ; another half @-@ brother died in infancy of a heart defect when Love was ten . Love attended a Montessori school in Eugene , where she struggled academically and had trouble making friends . At age nine , she was diagnosed with mild autism .
In 1972 , Love 's mother divorced Rodriguez , remarried , and moved the family to New Zealand ; there , she enrolled Love at Nelson College for Girls , from which Love was eventually expelled . Love 's mother then sent her back to the United States , where she was raised in Portland , Oregon by her former stepfather and other family friends ; during this time , her mother gave birth to two of Love 's other half @-@ brothers , Tobias and Daniel . At age fourteen , Love was arrested for shoplifting a T @-@ shirt and was sent to Hillcrest Correctional Facility . She spent the following several years in foster care before becoming legally emancipated at age sixteen . She supported herself by working illegally as a stripper , adopting the last name " Love " to conceal her identity , which she came to use thereafter . She also worked various odd jobs , including picking berries at a farm in Troutdale , Oregon , and as a disc jockey . During this time , she enrolled at Portland State University , studying English and philosophy . Love has said that she " didn 't have a lot of social skills , " and that she learned them while frequenting gay clubs in Portland .
In 1981 , Love was granted a small trust fund that had been left by her adoptive grandparents , which she used to travel to Dublin , Ireland , where her biological father was living . While there , she enrolled in courses at Trinity College , studying theology for two semesters . She would later receive honorary patronage from Trinity 's University Philosophical Society in 2010 . In the United Kingdom , she became acquainted with musician Julian Cope and his band , The Teardrop Explodes , in Liverpool and briefly lived in his house . " They kind of took me in , " she recalled . " I was sort of a mascot ; I would get them coffee or tea during rehearsal . " In Cope 's autobiography , Head @-@ On , Love is referred to as " the adolescent . " After spending a year abroad , Love returned to Portland . In 1983 , she took a short @-@ lived job working as an erotic dancer in Taiwan , but was deported after the club was shut down by the government .
= = Career = =
= = = 1981 – 1987 : Early projects = = =
Love initially began several music projects in the 1980s , first forming Sugar Babylon ( later Sugar Babydoll ) in Portland with friends Ursula Wehr and Robin Barbur . In 1982 , Love attended a Faith No More concert in San Francisco , and convinced the members to let her join as a singer . The group recorded material with Love as a vocalist , but , according to the band 's keyboardist Roddy Bottum , wanted a " male energy , " and Love was subsequently kicked out of the band ; she and Bottum , however , maintained a friendship in the years after . Love later formed the Pagan Babies with friend Kat Bjelland , whom she met at the Satyricon club in Portland in 1984 : " The best thing that ever happened to me in a way , was Kat , " Love said . Love asked Bjelland to start a band with her as a guitarist , and the two moved to San Francisco in June 1985 , where they recruited Love 's friend , bassist Jennifer Finch , and drummer Janis Tanaka . According to Bjelland , " [ Courtney ] didn 't play an instrument at the time " aside from keyboards , so Bjelland would transpose Love 's musical ideas on guitar for her . The group played several house shows and recorded one 4 @-@ track demo before disbanding in late 1985 . Following Pagan Babies , Love moved to Minneapolis where Bjelland had formed the group Babes in Toyland , and briefly worked as a concert promoter before returning to California .
Deciding to shift her focus to acting , Love enrolled at the San Francisco Art Institute , where she studied film with George Kuchar and was featured in one of his short films , titled Club Vatican . In 1985 , she submitted an audition tape for the role of Nancy Spungen in the Sid Vicious biopic Sid and Nancy ( 1986 ) , and was given a minor supporting role by director Alex Cox . After filming Sid and Nancy in New York City , Love worked at a peep show in Times Square and squatted at the ABC No Rio social center and Pyramid Club in the East Village . The same year , Cox cast her in a leading role in his following film , Straight to Hell ( 1987 ) , a spaghetti western starring Joe Strummer and Grace Jones , which was filmed in Spain in 1986 . The film caught the attention of Andy Warhol , who featured Love in an episode of Andy Warhol 's Fifteen Minutes with Robbie Nevil in a segment titled " C 'est la Vie . " She also had a part in the 1988 Ramones music video for " I Wanna Be Sedated " , appearing as a bride among dozens of party guests .
In 1988 , Love aborted her acting career and left New York , returning to the west coast , citing the " celebutante " fame she 'd attained as the central reason . " I hated it , " she recalled . " It was misery itself . " She returned to stripping in the small town of McMinnville , Oregon , where she was recognized by customers at the bar ; this prompted Love to go into isolation , and she relocated to Anchorage , Alaska : " I decided to move to Alaska because I needed to get my shit together and learn how to work , " Love said in retrospect . " So I went on this sort of vision quest . I got rid of all my earthly possessions . I had my bad little strip clothes and some big sweaters , and I moved into a trailer with a bunch of other strippers . "
= = = 1988 – 1991 : Beginnings of Hole = = =
At the end of 1988 , Love taught herself to play guitar and relocated to Los Angeles , where she placed an ad in a local music zine , reading : " I want to start a band . My influences are Big Black , Sonic Youth , and Fleetwood Mac . " Love recruited lead guitarist Eric Erlandson ; Lisa Roberts , her neighbor , as bassist ; and drummer Caroline Rue , whom she met at a Gwar concert . Love named the band Hole after a line from Euripedes ' Medea , as well as a conversation she had had with her mother , in which she told her that she " couldn 't walk around with a hole inside herself . "
Love continued to work at strip clubs in the band 's formative stages , saving money to purchase a backline and a touring van , and rehearsed at a studio in Hollywood that was loaned to her by the Red Hot Chili Peppers . Hole played their first show in November 1989 at Raji 's , a rock club in central Hollywood . The band 's debut single , " Retard Girl " , was issued in April 1990 through the Long Beach indie label Sympathy for the Record Industry , and was given air @-@ time by Rodney Bingenheimer 's local station , KROQ . That fall , the band appeared on the cover of Flipside , a Los Angeles @-@ based punk fanzine . In the spring of 1991 , the band released their second single , " Dicknail " , through Sub Pop Records .
With no wave , noise rock and grindcore bands being major influences on Love , Hole 's first studio album , Pretty on the Inside , captured a particularly abrasive sound and contained disturbing lyrics , described by Q magazine as " confrontational [ and ] genuinely uninhibited . " The record was released in September 1991 on Caroline Records , produced by Kim Gordon of Sonic Youth , with assistant production from Gumball 's Don Fleming . Though Love would later say it was " unlistenable " and " [ un ] melodic , " the album received generally positive critical reception from indie and punk rock critics and was labeled one of the twenty best albums of the year by Spin magazine . It also gained a following in the United Kingdom , charting at 59 on the UK Albums Chart , and its lead single , " Teenage Whore " , entered the country 's indie chart at number one . The underlying feminist slant of the album 's songs led many to mistakenly tag the band as being part of the riot grrl movement , a movement that Love did not associate with . In support of the record , the band toured in Europe headlining with Mudhoney , and opening in the United States for The Smashing Pumpkins . They also performed at the Whisky a Go Go opening for Sonic Youth , and at CBGB in New York City . Love designed and distributed flyers promoting the shows , which included cutouts of women and young girls , as well as scattered lyrics and quotes from poems .
= = = 1992 – 1995 : Breakthrough = = =
After the release of Pretty on the Inside , Love began dating Kurt Cobain and became pregnant . During Love 's pregnancy , Hole recorded a cover of " Over the Edge " for a Wipers tribute album , and recorded their fourth single , " Beautiful Son , " which was released in April 1993 . Love and Cobain married in February 1992 , and after the birth of the couple 's daughter , Frances Bean Cobain , relocated to Carnation , Washington , and then to Seattle . On September 8 , 1993 , Love and Cobain made their only public performance together at the Rock Against Rape benefit in Hollywood , performing two duets , both acoustic versions , of " Pennyroyal Tea " and " Where Did You Sleep Last Night . " Love also performed electric versions of two new Hole songs , " Doll Parts " and " Miss World " , both of which were written for the band 's upcoming second release .
In October 1993 , Hole recorded their second album , titled Live Through This , in Atlanta , Georgia . The album featured a new lineup , with bassist Kristen Pfaff and drummer Patty Schemel . Live Through This was released on Geffen 's subsidiary DGC label in April 1994 , four days after Love 's husband , Cobain , was found dead of a self @-@ inflicted shotgun wound in their home . Two months later , in June 1994 , bassist Kristen Pfaff died of a heroin overdose , and Love recruited Melissa Auf der Maur for the band 's impending tour . Throughout the months preceding the tour , Love was rarely seen in public , spending time at her Seattle home , or visiting the Namgyal Buddhist Monastery in New York .
Live Through This was a commercial and critical success , hitting platinum sales in April 1995 and receiving numerous critical accolades . The success of the record combined with Cobain 's suicide resulted in a high level of publicity for Love , and she was featured on Barbara Walters ' 10 Most Fascinating People in 1995 . At Hole 's performance on August 26 , 1994 at the Reading Festival — Love 's first public performance following her husband 's death — she appeared onstage , tear @-@ drenched , with outstretched arms , mimicking crucifixion . John Peel wrote in The Guardian that Love 's disheveled appearance " would have drawn whistles of astonishment in Bedlam , " and that her performance " verged on the heroic ... Love steered her band through a set which dared you to pity either her recent history or that of the band ... the band teetered on the edge of chaos , generating a tension which I cannot remember having felt before from any stage . " The band performed a series of riotous concerts during the tour , with Love frequently appearing hysterical onstage , flashing crowds , stage diving , and getting into fights with audience members . In retrospect , Love said she " couldn 't remember much " of the shows as she was using drugs heavily at the time .
In February 1995 , Hole performed a well @-@ reviewed acoustic set on MTV Unplugged at the Brooklyn Academy of Music , and continued to tour late into the year , concluding their world tour with an appearance at the 1995 MTV Video Music Awards , where they were nominated for Best Alternative Video for " Doll Parts " .
= = = 1996 – 2000 : Acting and mainstream success = = =
After Hole 's world tour concluded in 1996 , Love made a return to acting , first in small roles in the Jean @-@ Michel Basquiat biopic Basquiat , and the drama Feeling Minnesota ( 1996 ) , before landing the co @-@ starring role of Larry Flynt 's wife , Althea , in Miloš Forman 's critically acclaimed 1996 film The People vs. Larry Flynt .
" I went for that part so hard , " she recalled , " because I felt a need for atonement for some cultural damage that had arisen out of me and things that I had done . By doing that role , I felt that , personally and creatively , I could exemplify why this was the most un @-@ glorious , unglamorous , fucked @-@ up thing . And then , bang ! , I was done with all that . I could fuck off and do something else . "
Despite Columbia Pictures ' reluctance to hire Love due to her troubled past , she received critical acclaim for her performance in the film after its release in December 1996 , earning a Golden Globe nomination for Best Actress , and a New York Film Critics Circle Award for Best Supporting Actress . Critic Roger Ebert called her work in the film " quite a performance ; Love proves she is not a rock star pretending to act , but a true actress . " She won several other awards from various film critic associations for the film , and consequently adopted a more polished public image ; during this time , she also had endeavors in fashion , modeling for Versace advertisements and appearing in Vogue Italia .
In late 1997 , Hole released a compilation album , My Body , the Hand Grenade , featuring rare singles and b @-@ sides , and an EP titled The First Session which consisted of the band 's first recording session in 1990 . In September 1998 , Hole released their third studio album , Celebrity Skin , which marked something of a transformation for Love , featuring a stark power pop sound as opposed to the group 's earlier punk rock influences . Love divulged her ambition of making an album where " art meets commerce ... there are no compromises made , it has commercial appeal , and it sticks to [ our ] original vision . " She said she was influenced by Neil Young , Fleetwood Mac , and My Bloody Valentine when writing the album . The Smashing Pumpkins ' Billy Corgan helped co @-@ write several songs on the album . Celebrity Skin was well received by critics ; Rolling Stone called the album " accessible , fiery and intimate — often at the same time ... a basic guitar record that 's anything but basic . " Celebrity Skin went on to go multi @-@ platinum , and topped " Best of Year " lists at Spin and the The Village Voice . The album garnered the band their only No. 1 hit single on the Modern Rock Tracks chart with the title track " Celebrity Skin . " The band promoted the album through MTV performances and at the 1998 Billboard Music Awards . Hole toured with Marilyn Manson on the Beautiful Monsters Tour in 1999 , but dropped out of the tour nine dates in after a dispute over production costs between Love and Manson ; Hole resumed touring with Imperial Teen .
Before the release and promotion of Celebrity Skin , Love and Fender designed a low @-@ priced Squier brand guitar , called Vista Venus . The instrument featured a shape inspired by Mercury , a little @-@ known independent guitar manufacturer ; Stratocaster , and Rickenbacker 's solid body guitars and had a single @-@ coil and a humbucker pickup , and was available in 6 @-@ string and 12 @-@ string versions . In an early 1999 interview , Love said about the Venus : " I wanted a guitar that sounded really warm and pop , but which required just one box to go dirty ... And something that could also be your first band guitar . I didn 't want it all teched out . I wanted it real simple , with just one pickup switch . " In 1999 , Love was awarded an Orville H. Gibson award for Best Female Rock Guitarist . During this time , she also starred opposite Jim Carrey in the Andy Kaufman biopic Man on the Moon ( 1999 ) , which was followed with a role as William S. Burroughs 's wife Joan Vollmer in Beat ( 2000 ) alongside Kiefer Sutherland .
After touring for Celebrity Skin finished , Auf der Maur left the band to tour with The Smashing Pumpkins ; Hole 's touring drummer Samantha Maloney left soon after . Love and Erlandson released the single " Be A Man " — an outtake from the Celebrity Skin sessions — for the soundtrack of the Oliver Stone film Any Given Sunday ( 1999 ) . The group became dormant in the following two years , and Love starred in several more films , including in Julie Johnson ( 2001 ) as Lili Taylor 's lesbian lover , for which she won an Outstanding Actress award at L.A. ' s Outfest , and in the thriller Trapped ( 2002 ) , alongside Kevin Bacon and Charlize Theron . In May 2002 , Hole officially announced their breakup amid continuing litigation with Universal Music Group over their record contract .
= = = 2001 – 2011 : Solo work , Hole revival = = =
With Hole in disarray , Love began a " punk rock femme supergroup " called Bastard during autumn 2001 , enlisting Schemel , Veruca Salt co @-@ frontwoman Louise Post , and bassist Gina Crosley . Though a demo was completed , the project never reached fruition .
In 2002 , Love began composing an album with songwriter Linda Perry of 4 Non @-@ Blondes , titled America 's Sweetheart , also reuniting with drummer Patty Schemel . Love signed with Virgin Records to release it , and initially recorded it in France , but was forced by the label to re @-@ record the entire album in the summer of 2003 . America 's Sweetheart was released in February 2004 , and received mixed reviews from critics . Charles Aaron of Spin called it a " jaw @-@ dropping act of artistic will and a fiery , proper follow @-@ up to 1994 's Live Through This " and awarded it eight out of ten stars , while The Village Voice said : " [ Love is ] willing to act out the dream of every teenage brat who ever wanted to have a glamorous , high @-@ profile hissyfit , and she turns those egocentric nervous breakdowns into art . Sure , the art becomes less compelling when you 've been pulling the same stunts for a decade . But , honestly , is there anybody out there who fucks up better ? " The album sold less than 100 @,@ 000 copies . Love has publicly expressed her regret over the record several times , calling it " a crap record " and reasoning that her drug issues at the time were to blame . Shortly after the record was released , Love told Kurt Loder on TRL : " I cannot exist as a solo artist . It 's a joke . " Love also collaborated on a manga comic titled Princess Ai , illustrated by Misaho Kujiradou and Ai Yazawa , which was released in July 2004 .
In 2006 , Love released a memoir , titled Dirty Blonde , and started recording what was going to be her second solo album , How Dirty Girls Get Clean , collaborating again with Perry and Smashing Pumpkins vocalist / guitarist Billy Corgan in the writing and recording . Love had written several songs , including an anti @-@ cocaine song titled " Loser Dust " , during her time in rehab in 2005 . She told Billboard : " My hand @-@ eye coordination was so bad [ after the drug use ] , I didn 't even know chords anymore . It was like my fingers were frozen . And I wasn 't allowed to make noise [ in rehab ] ... I never thought I would work again . " Some tracks and demos from the album ( initially planned for release in 2008 ) were leaked on the internet in 2006 , and a documentary entitled The Return of Courtney Love , detailing the making of the album , aired on the British television network in the fall of that year . A rough acoustic version of " Never Go Hungry Again " , recorded during an interview for The Times in November , was also released . Incomplete audio clips of the song " Samantha " , originating from an interview with NPR , were also distributed on the internet in 2007 .
In June 2009 , NME published an article detailing Love 's plan to reunite Hole and release a new album , Nobody 's Daughter . In response , former Hole guitarist Eric Erlandson stated in Spin magazine that contractually no reunion could take place without his involvement ; therefore Nobody 's Daughter would remain Love 's solo record , as opposed to a " Hole " record . Love responded to Erlandson 's comments in a Twitter post , claiming " he 's out of his mind , Hole is my band , my name , and my Trademark " . Nobody 's Daughter was released worldwide as a Hole album on April 27 , 2010 . For the new line @-@ up , Love recruited guitarist Micko Larkin , Shawn Dailey ( bass guitar ) , and Stu Fisher ( drums , percussion ) . Nobody 's Daughter featured material written and recorded for Love 's unfinished solo album , How Dirty Girls Get Clean , including " Pacific Coast Highway " , " Letter to God " , " Samantha " , and " Never Go Hungry " , although they were re @-@ produced in the studio with Larkin and engineer Michael Beinhorn . The album 's subject matter was largely centered on Love 's tumultuous life between 2003 and 2007 , and featured a polished folk @-@ rock sound , and featuring more acoustic guitar work than found on previous Hole albums .
The first single from Nobody 's Daughter was " Skinny Little Bitch " , released in promotion of the album in March 2010 . The album received mixed reviews . Robert Sheffield of Rolling Stone gave the album three out of five stars , saying that Love " worked hard on these songs , instead of just babbling a bunch of druggy bullshit and assuming people would buy it , the way she did on her 2004 flop , America 's Sweetheart . " Sal Cinquemani of Slant Magazine also gave the album three out of five stars , saying " It 's Marianne Faithfull 's substance @-@ ravaged voice that comes to mind most often while listening to songs like " Honey " and " For Once in Your Life . " The latter track is , in fact , one of Love 's most raw and vulnerable vocal performances to date ... the song offers a rare glimpse into the mind of a woman who , for the last 15 years , has been as famous for being a rock star as she 's been for being a victim . " Love and the band toured internationally from 2010 into late 2012 promoting the record , after which she dropped the Hole name and returned to a solo career .
= = = 2012 – present : Career expansion = = =
In May 2012 , Love debuted an art collection at Fred Torres Collaborations in New York titled " And She 's Not Even Pretty " , which contained over forty drawings and paintings by Love composed in ink , colored pencil , pastels , and watercolors . She then collaborated with Michael Stipe on the track " Rio Grande " for Johnny Depp 's sea shanty album Son of Rogues Gallery and also contributed guest vocals and co @-@ wrote a track on Fall Out Boy 's album , Save Rock and Roll ( 2013 ) .
After solo performances in December 2012 and January 2013 , Love appeared in advertisements for Yves Saint Laurent alongside Kim Gordon and Ariel Pink . Love completed a solo tour of North America in the summer of 2013 , which was purported to be in promotion of an upcoming solo album ; however , it was ultimately dubbed a " greatest hits " tour , and featured songs from Love 's and Hole 's back catalogue . Love told Billboard at the time that she had recorded eight songs in the studio . " [ These songs ] are not my usual ( style ) , " Love said . " I don 't have any Fleetwood Mac references on it . Usually I always have a Fleetwood Mac reference as well as having , like , Big Black references . These are very unique songs that sort of magically happened . "
On April 22 , 2014 , Love debuted the song " You Know My Name " on BBC Radio 6 to promote her tour of the United Kingdom . It was released as a double A @-@ side single with the song " Wedding Day " on May 4 , 2014 on her own label Cherry Forever Records via Kobalt Label Services . The tracks were produced by Michael Beinhorn , and feature Tommy Lee on drums . In an interview with the BBC , Love revealed that she and former Hole guitarist Eric Erlandson had reconciled , and had been rehearsing new material together , along with former bassist Melissa Auf der Maur and drummer Patty Schemel , though did not confirm a reunion of the band . On May 1 , 2014 , in an interview with Pitchfork , Love commented further on the possibility of Hole reuniting , saying : " I 'm not going to commit to it happening , because we want an element of surprise . There 's a lot of i 's to be dotted and t 's to be crossed . "
In 2014 , Love was cast in several television series in supporting parts , including the FX series Sons of Anarchy , Revenge , and in Lee Daniels ' network series Empire in a recurring guest role as Elle Dallas . The track " Walk Out on Me " featuring Love was included on the Empire : Original Soundtrack from Season 1 album , which debuted at number 1 on the Billboard 200 . Love 's contribution to the album was critically acclaimed . Alexis Petridis of The Guardian praised the track , saying : " The idea of Courtney Love singing a ballad with a group of gospel singers seems faintly terrifying ... the reality is brilliant . Love ’ s voice fits the careworn lyrics , effortlessly summoning the kind of ravaged darkness that Lana Del Rey nearly ruptures herself trying to conjure up . "
In addition to television acting , Love collaborated with theater producer Todd Almond , starring in Kansas City Choir Boy , a collaborative " pop opera " which showed at the Manhattan arts center Here during their annual Prototype festival in January 2015 . The show toured later in the year , with performances in Boston and Los Angeles .
In the spring of 2015 , Love joined Lana Del Rey on her Endless Summer Tour , performing as an opener on the tour 's eight west coast shows . During her tenure on Del Rey 's tour , Love debuted a new single , " Miss Narcissist , " released on Wavves ' independent label Ghost Ramp . She also was cast in a supporting role in James Franco 's film The Long Home , based on William Gay 's novel of the same name , marking her first film role in over ten years . In January 2016 , Love released a clothing line in collaboration with Sophia Amoruso titled " Love , Courtney , " featuring eighteen pieces reflecting Love 's style over the course of her career . In May 2016 , it was announced that Love was cast in a lead role in The Possibility of Fireflies , an adaptation of the novel by Dominique Paul , directed by Deborah Chow .
= = Musical style = =
= = = Songwriting and lyrics = = =
Spin 's October 1991 review of Hole 's first album noted Love 's layering of harsh and abrasive riffs buried more sophisticated musical arrangements . In 1998 , Love stated that Hole had " always been a pop band . We always had a subtext of pop . I always talked about it , if you go back ... what 'll sound like some weird Sonic Youth tuning back then to you was sounding like the Raspberries to me , in my demented pop framework " .
Love writes from a female 's point of view , and her lyrics have been described as " literate and mordant " and noted by scholars for " articulating a third @-@ wave feminist consciousness . " She has repeatedly stated that lyrics are the most important component of songwriting for her , saying : " I want it to look just as good on the page as it would if it was in a poetry book " . A great deal of her songwriting has been diaristic in nature . Common themes present in Love 's songs during her early career included body image , rape , suicide , conformity , elitism , pregnancy , prostitution , and death . In a 1991 interview with Everett True , Love said : " I try to place [ beautiful imagery ] next to fucked up imagery , because that 's how I view things ... I sometimes feel that no one 's taken the time to write about certain things in rock , that there 's a certain female point of view that 's never been given space " . Her later work was more lyrically introspective . Celebrity Skin and America 's Sweetheart deal with celebrity life , Hollywood , and drug addiction , while continuing Love 's interest in vanity and body image . Nobody 's Daughter was lyrically reflective of Love 's past relationships and her struggle to sobriety , with the majority of its lyrics written while she was in rehab in 2006 . Poetry has often been a major influence on her writing ; Love said she had " always wanted to be a poet , but there was no money in it . " She has named the works of T.S. Eliot and Charles Baudelaire as influential .
= = = Voice and instruments = = =
Love possesses a contralto vocal range , and her vocal style has been described as " raw and distinctive . " She has referred to herself as " a shit guitar player " , further commenting : " I can write a song , but I have trouble with the execution of it " . According to Love , she never wanted to be a singer , but rather aspired to be a skilled guitarist : " I 'm such a lazy bastard though that I never did that " , Love said . " I was always the only person with the nerve to sing , and so I got stuck with it " . She has been regularly noted by critics for her husky vocals as well as her " banshee [ -like ] " screaming abilities . Her vocals have been compared to those of Johnny Rotten , and David Fricke of Rolling Stone described them as " lung @-@ busting " and " a corrosive , lunatic wail " . Upon the release of Hole 's 2010 album , Nobody 's Daughter , Amanda Petrusich of Pitchfork compared Love 's raspy , unpolished vocals to those of Bob Dylan .
Love has often played Fender guitars throughout her career , including a Jaguar and a vintage 1965 Jazzmaster , the latter of which was purchased by the Hard Rock Cafe and is on display in New York City . Love is seen playing her Jazzmaster in the music video for " Miss World . " Earlier in Hole 's career , between 1989 and 1991 , Love primarily played a Rickenbacker 425 because she " preferred the 3 / 4 neck " , but she destroyed the guitar onstage at a 1991 concert opening for The Smashing Pumpkins . She also often played a guitar made by Mercury , an obscure company that manufactured custom guitars , which she purchased in 1992 . Fender 's Vista Venus , designed by Love in 1998 , was partially inspired by Rickenbacker guitars as well as her Mercury . Love 's setup has included Fender tube gear , Matchless , Ampeg , Silvertone and a solid @-@ state 1976 Randall Commander . During her 2010 and more recent tours , Love has played a Rickenbacker 360 onstage .
= = = Influences = = =
Love has been candid about her diverse musical influences , the earliest being Patti Smith and the Pretenders , whom she discovered while in juvenile hall . As a teenager , she named Flipper , Kate Bush , Soft Cell , Joni Mitchell , Lou Reed , and Dead Kennedys among her favorite artists , as well as several new wave and post @-@ punk bands , such as Echo and the Bunnymen , The Smiths , Siouxsie and the Banshees , Television , Bauhaus , and Joy Division . While in Ireland at age fifteen , she saw The Virgin Prunes perform live in Dublin , and said the experience " framed her [ music career ] . " Her varying genre interests were illustrated in a 1991 interview with Flipside , in which she stated : " There 's a part of me that wants to have a grindcore band and another that wants to have a Raspberries @-@ type pop band " . Love also embraced the influence of experimental artists and punk rock groups , including Sonic Youth , Swans , Big Black , Diamanda Galás , the Germs , and The Stooges . While writing Celebrity Skin , Love was mainly influenced by Neil Young and My Bloody Valentine . She also cited her contemporary PJ Harvey as an influence , saying , " The one rock star that makes me know I 'm shit is Polly Harvey . I 'm nothing next to the purity that she experiences . "
= = Personal life = =
= = = Relationships and marriages = = =
She was briefly married to James Moreland ( vocalist of The Leaving Trains ) in 1989 for several months , but has said that Moreland was a transvestite and that their marriage was " a joke " , ending in an annulment filed by Love . After forming Hole in 1989 , Love and bandmate Eric Erlandson had a romantic relationship for over a year , and she also briefly dated Billy Corgan in 1991 , with whom she has maintained a volatile friendship over the years .
Her most documented romantic relationship was with Kurt Cobain . It is uncertain when they first met ; according to Love , she first met Cobain at a Dharma Bums show in Portland where she was doing a spoken word performance . According to Michael Azerrad , the two met at the Satyricon nightclub in Portland in 1989 , though Cobain biographer Charles Cross stated the date was actually February 12 , 1990 , and that Cobain playfully wrestled Love to the floor after she commented to him in passing that he looked like Dave Pirner of Soul Asylum . Love 's bandmate Eric Erlandson stated that both he and Love were formally introduced to Cobain in a parking lot after a Butthole Surfers concert at the Hollywood Palladium in 1991 . The two later became reacquainted through Jennifer Finch , one of Love 's longtime friends and former bandmates .
Love and Cobain began dating in the fall of 1991 , and were married on Waikiki Beach in Honolulu , Hawaii , on February 24 , 1992 . Love wore a satin and lace dress once owned by actress Frances Farmer , and Cobain wore green pajamas . Six months later , on August 18 , the couple 's only child , a daughter , Frances Bean Cobain , was born . In April 1994 , Cobain died of a self @-@ inflicted gunshot wound in their Seattle home while Love was in rehab in Los Angeles . During their marriage , and after Cobain 's death , Love became something of a hate @-@ figure among some of Cobain 's fans . In reflecting on their relationship , Love said : " I think that it looked like it was headed for doom , but it didn 't feel like it was headed for doom on a daily basis . We went mountain biking ; we would go camping . We were damn normal . " After his cremation , Love divided portions of Cobain 's ashes , some of which she kept in a teddy bear and in an urn . Another portion of his ashes was taken by Love to the Namgyal Buddhist Monastery in Ithaca , New York in 1994 , where they were ceremonially blessed by Buddhist monks and mixed into clay which was made into memorial sculptures .
Between 1996 and 1999 , Love dated her The People vs. Larry Flynt co @-@ star Edward Norton , and was also linked to comedian Steve Coogan in the early 2000s .
= = = Health = = =
Love has struggled with substance abuse problems throughout her life . She took numerous opiates in her early adult years , and tried cocaine at age 19 . She became addicted to heroin in the early 1990s , and her addiction was thrust into media spotlight in 1992 when Vanity Fair published an article by journalist Lynn Hirschberg which stated that Love was addicted to heroin during her pregnancy ; this resulted in the custody of Love and Cobain 's newborn daughter , Frances , being temporarily withdrawn in a Los Angeles County court and placed with Love 's sister . Love claimed she was misquoted in the piece , and asserted that she had immediately quit using the drug during her first trimester after she discovered she was pregnant .
Love quit using heroin in 1996 at the insistence of director Miloš Forman when she was cast in a leading role in The People vs. Larry Flynt . Love was ordered to take multiple urine tests under the supervision of Columbia Pictures while filming the movie , and passed all of them . On July 9 , 2004 , Love 's 40th birthday , she attempted to commit suicide at her Manhattan apartment , and was taken to Bellevue Hospital , allegedly incoherent , and put on a 72 @-@ hour watch . According to police , she was believed to be a potential " danger to herself , " but was deemed mentally sound and released to a rehab facility two days later . In 2005 and 2006 , after making several public appearances clearly intoxicated ( namely on the Late Show with David Letterman and the Comedy Central Roast of Pamela Anderson ) and suffering drug @-@ related arrests and probation violations , Love was sentenced to six months in lockdown rehab due to struggles with prescription drugs and cocaine . She has stated she has been sober since 2007 , and in May 2011 , confirmed her sobriety .
= = = Legal troubles = = =
Love 's legal troubles have been widely publicized throughout her career . On July 4 , 1995 , at the Lollapalooza Festival in George , Washington , Love punched musician Kathleen Hanna in the face after alleging she had made a joke about her daughter . Love was charged with assault , to which she pleaded guilty , and was sentenced to anger management classes . The same year , she was arrested in Melbourne after disrupting a Qantas Airlines flight after getting into an argument with a stewardess . In 1998 , Love punched Los Angeles Times journalist Belissa Cohen in the face after she attempted to take a photo of her at a party , though the suit was settled out of court for an undisclosed sum .
Several years later , in February 2003 , Love was banned from Virgin Airlines by founder Richard Branson after being arrested at Heathrow Airport for disrupting a flight . The same year , in October , in the midst of what Love would later admit was a serious cocaine and prescription drug addiction , she was arrested in Los Angeles after breaking several windows of her producer and then @-@ boyfriend James Barber 's home , and was charged with being under the influence of a controlled substance . The ordeal resulted in custody of daughter Frances Bean being withdrawn from Love . In 2004 , Love was arrested in New York City for allegedly striking a fan with a microphone stand at a concert .
In 2009 , fashion designer Dawn Simorangkir brought a libel suit against Love concerning a defamatory post Love made on her Twitter account , which was settled for $ 450 @,@ 000 . Six years later , Simorangkir filed another lawsuit against Love for further defamatory Twitter posts , and Love paid a further $ 350 @,@ 000 in recompense . A similar suit was brought against Love by her former attorney Rhonda Holmes in 2014 , who also accused Love of online defamation , seeking $ 8 million in damages . It was the first case of alleged Twitter @-@ based libel in U.S. history to make it to trial . The jury , however , found in Love 's favor .
On June 17 , 2015 , Deadline.com reported that Courtney Love , Kurt Cobain 's widow , had sent cease and desist letters against theaters showing Soaked in Bleach claiming , “ A false accusation of criminal behavior is defamatory … which entitles Ms. Cobain to both actual and presumed damages " . The letter also states " We hereby demand again that you immediately cease any and all plans for exhibition or promotion of the Film . If we do not hear from you within five days , we are required to immediately pursue all available civil legal remedies on behalf of our client against you . " To date no lawsuit has been filed on Ms. Cobain 's behalf . The producers of the film responded to the letters by — in part — stating , “ Courtney Love ’ s uninformed accusations and efforts to discredit the film are totally off base . Courtney Love and her lawyers clearly don ’ t like that the film presents a compelling case for re @-@ opening the investigation into Kurt ’ s death . They should respect the First Amendment and let people decide for themselves . ”
= = = Religious and political views = = =
Love has practiced several religions , including Catholicism , Episcopalianism and New Age religions , but has said that Buddhism is the " most transcendent " path for her . She has studied and practiced both Tibetan and Nichiren Buddhism since 1989 , and is a member of the Soka Gakkai International , a global lay Buddhist organization .
Love is a Democrat . In 2000 , she gave a speech at the Million Mom March to advocate stricter gun control laws in the United States , calling the country 's gun laws " nihilistic and barbaric " , and urging stringent registration of guns , licensing of gun owners , and thorough evaluation of legal and mental health records . In 2016 , Love endorsed Hillary Clinton 's presidential campaign .
In 2000 , Love also publicly advocated for reform of the record industry in a personal letter published by Salon . In the letter , Love stated : " It 's not piracy when kids swap music over the Internet using Napster or Gnutella or Freenet or iMesh or beaming their CDs into a My.MP3.com or MyPlay.com music locker . It 's piracy when those guys that run those companies make side deals with the cartel lawyers and label heads so that they can be " the labels ' friend , " and not the artists . " In a subsequent interview with Carrie Fisher , Love divulged that she was interested in starting a union for recording artists , and also discussed race relations in the music industry , advocating for record companies to " put money back into the black community [ whom ] white people have been stealing from for years . " She also cited Limp Bizkit 's Fred Durst as an example of " a white guy [ getting ] to express a black man 's rage with all the privileges of [ being ] a white guy . " Love has also consistently advocated for LGBT rights , and identifies as a feminist .
= = Philanthropy = =
In 1993 , Love and husband Kurt Cobain performed an acoustic set together at the Rock Against Rape benefit in Los Angeles , which raised awareness and provided resources for victims of sexual abuse . Love has also contributed to amfAR 's AIDS research benefits and held live musical performances at their events . In 2009 , Love performed a benefit concert for the RED Campaign at Carnegie Hall alongside Laurie Anderson , Rufus Wainwright , and Scarlett Johansson , with proceeds going to AIDS research . In May 2011 , she attended Mariska Hargitay 's Joyful Heart Foundation event for victims of child abuse , rape , and domestic violence , donating six of husband Kurt Cobain 's personal vinyl records for auction .
Love has also participated with LGBT youth charities , specifically with the Los Angeles Gay and Lesbian Center , where she has taken part in performances at the center 's " An Evening with Women " events . The proceeds of the event help provide food and shelter for homeless youth ; services for seniors ; legal assistance ; domestic violence services ; health and mental health services , and cultural arts programs . Love participated with Linda Perry for the event again in 2012 , relating her experiences as a nomadic teenager and having to live on the street :
This really resonates with me , [ because ] I was a kid from Oregon , and I came to Hollywood like a lot of people do , and you know , what happens is that we end up on the street ... and if you 're gay , or lesbian , or transgendered — the more " outside " you are , the more screwed you are in a lot of ways ... Seven thousand kids in Los Angeles a year go out on the street , and forty percent of those kids are gay , lesbian , or transgendered . They come out to their parents , and become homeless . [ The charity helps them ] get sent to the right foster care , they can get medical help , food , clothing ... and for whatever reason , I don 't really know why , but gay men have a lot of foundations , I 've played many of them — but the lesbian side of it doesn 't have as much money and / or donors , so we 're excited that this has grown to cover women and women 's affairs .
= = Cultural impact = =
Love had a significant impact on female @-@ fronted alternative acts and performers , particularly the Riot grrrl movement , with Hole 's first album , Pretty on the Inside . She has been cited as particularly influential to young female instrumentalists , once infamously proclaiming : " I want every girl in the world to pick up a guitar and start screaming . " " I strap on that motherfucking guitar and you cannot fuck with me . That 's my feeling , " she said . In The Electric Guitar : A History of an American Icon , it is noted that ,
" [ Love ] truly lived up to Paul Westerberg 's ( The Replacements ) assessment of pretty girls ' playing makeup / wearing guitar ' ... She frequently stood on stage , microphone in hand and foot on monitor , and simply let her Fender guitar dangle around her neck . She truly embodied the empowerment that came with playing the electric guitar ... Love depended heavily upon her male lead guitar foil Eric Erlandson , but the rest of her band remained exclusively female throughout several lineup changes . "
Time deemed Hole 's Live Through This to be supplemented by " primal guitar riffs and high @-@ IQ lyrics . " Having sold over 3 million records in the United States alone , Hole became one of the most successful rock bands of all time fronted by a woman . In 2015 , the Phoenix New Times declared Love the number one greatest female rock star of all time , saying : " To build a perfect rock star , there are several crucial ingredients : musical talent , physical attractiveness , tumultuous relationships , substance abuse , and public meltdowns , just to name a few . These days , Love seems to have rebounded from her epic tailspin and has leveled out in a slightly more normal manner , but there 's no doubt that her life to date is the type of story people wouldn 't believe in a novel or a movie . " Simon Castles of The Sydney Morning Herald commented on Love 's cultural status and media ridicule , writing : " [ She ] has been painted as part grunge Baby Jane , part Yoko Ono for Generation X , and part Lady Macbeth ... what Courtney Love did do was live wild . She took drugs and trusted others could look after themselves . She flirted with self @-@ destruction . She got into fights . She burned with ambition . She flaunted her sexuality and was upfront with her desire . "
Among the alternative musicians who have cited Love as an influence are : Scout Niblett ; Brody Dalle of The Distillers ; Dee Dee Penny of Dum Dum Girls ; and Nine Black Alps . Contemporary female pop artists Lana Del Rey , Avril Lavigne , Tove Lo , and Sky Ferreira have also cited Love as an influence . Love has frequently been recognized as the most high @-@ profile contributor of feminist music during the 1990s , and for " subverting [ the ] mainstream expectations of how a woman should look , act , and sound . " According to music journalist Maria Raha , " Whether you love Courtney [ Love ] or hate her , Hole was the highest @-@ profile female @-@ fronted band of the ' 90s to openly and directly sing about feminism . " She has also been noted as a gay icon since the mid @-@ 1990s , and has jokingly referred to her fanbase as consisting of " females , gay guys , and a few advanced , evolved heterosexual men " .
Love 's aesthetic image , particularly in the early 1990s , also became influential , and was dubbed " kinderwhore " by critics and media . The subversive fashion mainly consisted of thrift shop babydoll dresses accompanied by smeared makeup and red lipstick ; MTV reporter Kurt Loder described Love as looking like " a debauched rag doll " onstage . Love later said she had been influenced by the fashion of Chrissy Amphlett of the Divinyls .
The artist Barbara Kruger used one of Love 's quotes on her NYC bus project . Indie pop punk band The Muffs named their second album , Blonder and Blonder ( 1995 ) after a quote by Love , and a recording of Love talking about a stolen dress appears as the track " Love " on the band 's 2000 compilation album Hamburger . There is also a band named after her .
= = Discography = =
Hole
Pretty on the Inside ( 1991 )
Live Through This ( 1994 )
Celebrity Skin ( 1998 )
Nobody 's Daughter ( 2010 )
Courtney Love
America 's Sweetheart ( 2004 )
= = Filmography = =
|
= Jupiter trojan =
The Jupiter trojans , commonly called Trojan asteroids or just Trojans , are a large group of asteroids that share the orbit of the planet Jupiter around the Sun . Relative to Jupiter , each trojan librates around one of Jupiter 's two stable Lagrangian points , L4 , lying 60 ° ahead of the planet in its orbit , and L5 , 60 ° behind . Jupiter trojans are distributed in two elongated , curved regions around these Lagrangian points with an average semi @-@ major axis of about 5 @.@ 2 AU .
The first Jupiter trojan discovered , 588 Achilles , was spotted in 1906 by German astronomer Max Wolf . A total of 6 @,@ 178 Jupiter trojans have been found as of January 2015 . By convention they are each named after a mythological figure from the Trojan War , hence the name " Trojan " . The total number of Jupiter trojans larger than 1 km in diameter is believed to be about 1 million , approximately equal to the number of asteroids larger than 1 km in the asteroid belt . Like main @-@ belt asteroids , Jupiter trojans form families .
Jupiter trojans are dark bodies with reddish , featureless spectra . No firm evidence of the presence of water , or any other specific compound on their surface has been obtained , but it is thought that they are coated in tholins , organic polymers formed by the Sun 's radiation . The Jupiter trojans ' densities ( as measured by studying binaries or rotational lightcurves ) vary from 0 @.@ 8 to 2 @.@ 5 g · cm − 3 . Jupiter trojans are thought to have been captured into their orbits during the early stages of the Solar System 's formation or slightly later , during the migration of giant planets .
The term " trojan " has come to be used more generally to refer to other small Solar System bodies with similar relationships to larger bodies : for example , there are both Mars trojans and Neptune trojans , and Saturn has trojan moons . NASA has announced the discovery of an Earth trojan . The term " Trojan asteroid " is normally understood to specifically mean the Jupiter trojans because the first Trojans were discovered near Jupiter 's orbit and Jupiter currently has by far the most known Trojans .
= = Observational history = =
In 1772 , Italian @-@ born mathematician Joseph @-@ Louis Lagrange , in studying the restricted three @-@ body problem , predicted that a small body sharing an orbit with a planet but lying 60 ° ahead or behind it will be trapped near these points . The trapped body will librate slowly around the point of equilibrium in a tadpole or horseshoe orbit . These leading and trailing points are called the L4 and L5 Lagrange points . However , no asteroids trapped in Lagrange points were observed until more than a century after Lagrange 's hypothesis . Those associated with Jupiter were the first to be discovered .
E. E. Barnard made the first recorded observation of a trojan , ( 12126 ) 1999 RM11 ( identified as A904 RD at the time ) , in 1904 , but neither he nor others appreciated its significance at the time . Barnard believed he saw the recently discovered Saturnian satellite Phoebe , which was only two arc @-@ minutes away in the sky at the time , or possibly an asteroid . The object 's identity was not realized until its orbit was calculated in 1999 .
The first recognized discovery of a trojan occurred in February 1906 , when astronomer Max Wolf of Heidelberg @-@ Königstuhl State Observatory discovered an asteroid at the L4 Lagrangian point of the Sun – Jupiter system , later named 588 Achilles . In 1906 – 1907 two more Jupiter trojans were found by fellow German astronomer August Kopff ( 624 Hektor and 617 Patroclus ) . Hektor , like Achilles , belonged to the L4 swarm ( " ahead " of the planet in its orbit ) , whereas Patroclus was the first asteroid known to reside at the L5 Lagrangian point ( " behind " the planet ) . By 1938 , 11 Jupiter trojans had been detected . This number increased to 14 only in 1961 . As instruments improved , the rate of discovery grew rapidly : by January 2000 , a total of 257 had been discovered ; by May 2003 , the number had grown to 1 @,@ 600 . As of February 2014 there are 3 @,@ 898 known Jupiter trojans at L4 and 2 @,@ 049 at L5,
= = Nomenclature = =
The custom of naming all asteroids in Jupiter 's L4 and L5 points after famous heroes of the Trojan War was suggested by Johann Palisa of Vienna , who was the first to accurately calculate their orbits . Asteroids in the L4 group are named after Greek heroes ( the " Greek node or camp " or " Achilles group " ) , and those at the L5 point are named after the heroes of Troy ( the " Trojan node or camp " ) . Confusingly , 617 Patroclus was named before the Greece / Troy rule was devised , and a Greek name thus appears in the Trojan node . The Greek node also has one " misplaced " asteroid , 624 Hektor , named after a Trojan hero .
= = Numbers and mass = =
Estimates of the total number of Jupiter trojans are based on deep surveys of limited areas of the sky . The L4 swarm is believed to hold between 160 – 240 @,@ 000 asteroids with diameters larger than 2 km and about 600 @,@ 000 with diameters larger than 1 km . If the L5 swarm contains a comparable number of objects , there are more than 1 million Jupiter trojans 1 km in size or larger . For the objects brighter than absolute magnitude 9 @.@ 0 the population is probably complete . These numbers are similar to that of comparable asteroids in the asteroid belt . The total mass of the Jupiter trojans is estimated at 0 @.@ 0001 of the mass of Earth or one @-@ fifth of the mass of the asteroid belt .
Two more recent studies indicate , however , that the above numbers may overestimate the number of Jupiter trojans by several @-@ fold . This overestimate is caused by ( 1 ) the assumption that all Jupiter trojans have a low albedo of about 0 @.@ 04 , whereas small bodies may actually have an average albedo as high as 0 @.@ 12 ; ( 2 ) an incorrect assumption about the distribution of Jupiter trojans in the sky . According to the new estimates , the total number of Jupiter trojans with a diameter larger than 2 km is 6 @.@ 3 ± 1 @.@ 0 × 104 and 3 @.@ 4 ± 0 @.@ 5 × 104 in the L4 and L5 swarms , respectively . These numbers would be reduced by a factor of 2 if small Jupiter trojans are more reflective than large ones .
The number of Jupiter trojans observed in the L4 swarm is slightly larger than that observed in L5 . However , because the brightest Jupiter trojans show little variation in numbers between the two populations , this disparity is probably due to observational bias . However , some models indicate that the L4 swarm may be slightly more stable than the L5 swarm .
The largest Jupiter trojan is 624 Hektor , which has an average diameter of 203 ± 3 @.@ 6 km . There are few large Jupiter trojans in comparison to the overall population . With decreasing size , the number of Jupiter trojans grows very quickly down to 84 km , much more so than in the asteroid belt . A diameter of 84 km corresponds to an absolute magnitude of 9 @.@ 5 , assuming an albedo of 0 @.@ 04 . Within the 4 @.@ 4 – 40 km range the Jupiter trojans ' size distribution resembles that of the main @-@ belt asteroids . An absence of data means that nothing is known about the masses of the smaller Jupiter trojans . The size distribution suggests that the smaller Trojans are the products of collisions by larger Jupiter trojans .
= = Orbits = =
Jupiter Trojans have orbits with radii between 5 @.@ 05 and 5 @.@ 35 AU ( the mean semi @-@ major axis is 5 @.@ 2 ± 0 @.@ 15 AU ) , and are distributed throughout elongated , curved regions around the two Lagrangian points ; each swarm stretches for about 26 ° along the orbit of Jupiter , amounting to a total distance of about 2 @.@ 5 AU . The width of the swarms approximately equals two Hill 's radii , which in the case of Jupiter amounts to about 0 @.@ 6 AU . Many of Jupiter trojans have large orbital inclinations relative to Jupiter 's orbital plane — up to 40 ° .
Jupiter trojans do not maintain a fixed separation from Jupiter . They slowly librate around their respective equilibrium points , periodically moving closer to Jupiter or farther from it . Jupiter trojans generally follow paths called tadpole orbits around the Lagrangian points ; the average period of their libration is about 150 years . The amplitude of the libration ( along the Jovian orbit ) varies from 0 @.@ 6 ° to 88 ° , with the average being about 33 ° . Simulations show that Jupiter trojans can follow even more complicated trajectories when moving from one Lagrangian point to another — these are called horseshoe orbits ( currently no Jupiter Trojan with such an orbit is known ) .
= = = Dynamical families and binaries = = =
Discerning dynamical families within the Jupiter Trojan population is more difficult than it is in the asteroid belt , because the Jupiter trojans are locked within a far narrower range of possible positions . This means that clusters tend to overlap and merge with the overall swarm . However , by 2003 roughly a dozen dynamical families were identified . Jupiter @-@ trojan families are much smaller in size than families in the asteroid belt ; the largest identified family , the Menelaus group , consists of only eight members .
In 2001 , 617 Patroclus was the first Jupiter Trojan to be identified as a binary asteroid . The binary 's orbit is extremely close , at 650 km , compared to 35 @,@ 000 km for the primary 's Hill sphere . The largest Jupiter Trojan — 624 Hektor — likely is a contact binary with a moonlet .
= = Physical properties = =
Jupiter trojans are dark bodies of irregular shape . Their geometric albedos generally vary between 3 and 10 % . The average value is 0 @.@ 056 ± 0 @.@ 003 for the objects larger than 57 km , and 0 @.@ 121 ± 0 @.@ 003 ( R @-@ band ) for those smaller than 25 km . The asteroid 4709 Ennomos has the highest albedo ( 0 @.@ 18 ) of all known Jupiter trojans . Little is known about the masses , chemical composition , rotation or other physical properties of the Jupiter trojans .
= = = Rotation = = =
The rotational properties of Jupiter trojans are not well known . Analysis of the rotational light curves of 72 Jupiter trojans gave an average rotational period of about 11 @.@ 2 hours , whereas the average period of the control sample of asteroids in the asteroid belt was 10 @.@ 6 hours . The distribution of the rotational periods of Jupiter trojans appeared to be well approximated by a Maxwellian function , whereas the distribution for main @-@ belt asteroids was found to be non @-@ Maxwellian , with a deficit of periods in the range 8 – 10 hours . The Maxwellian distribution of the rotational periods of Jupiter trojans may indicate that they have undergone a stronger collisional evolution compared to the asteroid belt .
However , in 2008 a team from Calvin College analyzed the light curves of a debiased sample of ten Jupiter trojans , and found a median spin period of 18 @.@ 9 hours . This value was significantly higher than that for main @-@ belt asteroids of similar size ( 11 @.@ 5 hours ) . The difference could mean that the Jupiter trojans possess a lower average density , which may imply that they formed in the Kuiper belt ( see below ) .
= = = Composition = = =
Spectroscopically , the Jupiter trojans mostly are D @-@ type asteroids , which predominate in the outer regions of the asteroid belt . A small number are classified as P or C @-@ type asteroids . Their spectra are red ( meaning that they reflect more light at longer wavelengths ) or neutral and featureless . No firm evidence of water , organics or other chemical compounds has been obtained as of 2007 . However , 4709 Ennomos has an albedo slightly higher than the Jupiter @-@ trojan average , which may indicate the presence of water ice . In addition , a number of other Jupiter Trojans , such as 911 Agamemnon and 617 Patroclus , have shown very weak absorptions at 1 @.@ 7 and 2 @.@ 3 μm , which might indicate the presence of organics . The Jupiter trojans ' spectra are similar to those of the irregular moons of Jupiter and , to certain extent , comet nuclei , though Jupiter trojans are spectrally very different from the redder Kuiper belt objects . A Jupiter trojan 's spectrum can be matched to a mixture of water ice , a large amount of carbon @-@ rich material ( charcoal ) , and possibly magnesium @-@ rich silicates . The composition of the Jupiter trojan population appears to be markedly uniform , with little or no differentiation between the two swarms .
A team from the Keck Observatory in Hawaii announced in 2006 that it had measured the density of the binary Jupiter trojan 617 Patroclus as being less than that of water ice ( 0 @.@ 8 g / cm3 ) , suggesting that the pair , and possibly many other Trojan objects , more closely resemble comets or Kuiper belt objects in composition — water ice with a layer of dust — than they do the main @-@ belt asteroids . Countering this argument , the density of Hektor as determined from its rotational lightcurve ( 2 @.@ 480 g / cm3 ) is significantly higher than that of 617 Patroclus . Such a difference in densities is puzzling and indicates that density may not be a good indicator of asteroid origin .
= = Origin and evolution = =
Two main theories have emerged to explain the formation and evolution of the Jupiter trojans . The first suggests that the Jupiter trojans formed in the same part of the Solar System as Jupiter and entered their orbits while it was forming . The last stage of Jupiter 's formation involved runaway growth of its mass through the accretion of large amounts of hydrogen and helium from the protoplanetary disk ; during this growth , which lasted for only about 10 @,@ 000 years , the mass of Jupiter increased by a factor of ten . The planetesimals that had approximately the same orbits as Jupiter were caught by the increased gravity of the planet . The capture mechanism was very efficient — about 50 % of all remaining planetesimals were trapped . This hypothesis has two major problems : the number of trapped bodies exceeds the observed population of Jupiter trojans by four orders of magnitude , and the present Jupiter trojan asteroids have larger orbital inclinations than are predicted by the capture model . However , simulations of this scenario show that such a mode of formation also would inhibit the creation of similar trojans for Saturn , and this has been borne out by observation : to date no trojans have been found near Saturn .
The second theory , part of the Nice model , proposes that the Jupiter trojans were captured during planetary migration , which happened about 500 – 600 million years after the Solar System 's formation . The migration was triggered by the passage of Jupiter and Saturn through the 1 : 2 mean @-@ motion resonance . During this period Uranus , Neptune and to some extent Saturn moved outward , whereas Jupiter moved slightly inward . Migrating giant planets destabilized the primordial Kuiper belt , throwing millions of objects into the inner Solar System . In addition , their combined gravitational influence would have quickly disturbed any pre @-@ existing Jupiter trojans . In this theory , the present Jupiter trojan population eventually accumulated from runaway Kuiper belt objects as Jupiter and Saturn moved away from the resonance .
The long @-@ term future of the Jupiter trojans is open to question , because multiple weak resonances with Jupiter and Saturn cause them to behave chaotically over time . In addition , collisional shattering slowly depletes the Jupiter trojan population as fragments are ejected . Ejected Jupiter trojans could become temporary satellites of Jupiter or Jupiter @-@ family comets . Simulations show that the orbits of up to 17 % of Jupiter trojans are unstable over the age of the Solar System . Levison et al. believe that roughly 200 ejected Jupiter trojans greater than 1 km in diameter might be traveling the Solar System , with a few possibly on Earth @-@ crossing orbits . Some of the escaped Jupiter trojans may become Jupiter @-@ family comets as they approach the Sun and their surface ice begins evaporating .
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= Kulintang =
Kulintang is a modern term for an ancient instrumental form of music composed on a row of small , horizontally laid gongs that function melodically , accompanied by larger , suspended gongs and drums . As part of the larger gong @-@ chime culture of Southeast Asia , kulintang music ensembles have been playing for many centuries in regions of the Eastern Malay Archipelago — the Southern Philippines , Eastern Indonesia , Eastern Malaysia , Brunei and Timor , although this article has a focus on the Philippine Kulintang traditions of the Maranao and Maguindanao peoples in particular . Kulintang evolved from a simple native signaling tradition , and developed into its present form with the incorporation of knobbed gongs from Sunda . Its importance stems from its association with the indigenous cultures that inhabited these islands prior to the influences of Hinduism , Buddhism , Islam , Christianity or the West , making Kulintang the most developed tradition of Southeast Asian archaic gong @-@ chime ensembles .
Technically , kulintang is the Maguindanao , Ternate and Timor term for the idiophone of metal gong kettles which are laid horizontally upon a rack to create an entire kulintang set . It is played by striking the bosses of the gongs with two wooden beaters . Due to its use across a wide variety groups and languages , the kulintang is also called kolintang by the Maranao and those in Sulawesi , kulintangan , gulintangan by those in Sabah and the Sulu Archipelago and totobuang by those in central Maluku .
By the twentieth century , the term kulintang had also come to denote an entire Maguindanao ensemble of five to six instruments . Traditionally the Maguindanao term for the entire ensemble is basalen or palabunibunyan , the latter term meaning “ an ensemble of loud instruments ” or “ music @-@ making ” or in this case “ music @-@ making using a kulintang . ”
= = Geographic extent = =
Kulintang belongs to the larger unit / stratum of “ knobbed gong @-@ chime culture ” prevalent in Southeast Asia . It is considered one of the region ’ s three major gong ensembles , alongside the gamelan of western Indonesia and piphat of Thailand , Burma , Cambodia and Laos , which use gongs and not wind or string instruments to carry the melodic part of the ensemble . Like the other two , kulintang music is primarily orchestral with several rhythmic parts orderly stacked one upon another . It is also based upon the pentatonic scale . However , kulintang music differs in many aspects from gamelan music , primarily in the way the latter constructs melodies within a framework of skeletal tones and prescribed time interval of entry for each instruments . The framework of kulintang music is more flexible and time intervals are nonexistent , allowing for such things as improvisations to be more prevalent .
Because kulintang @-@ like ensembles extended over various groups with various languages , the term used for the horizontal set of gongs varied widely . Along with it begin called kulintang , it is also called kolintang , kolintan , kulintangan , kwintangan , k ’ lintang , gong sembilan , gong duablas , momo , totobuang , nekara , engkromong , kromong / enkromong and recently kakula / kakula nuada . Kulintang @-@ like instruments are played by the Maguindanao , Maranao , Iranun , Kalagan , Kalibugan and more recently the Tboli , Blaan and Subanao of Mindanao , the Tausug , Samal , Sama / Badjao , Yakan and the Sangir / Sangil of the Sulu , the Ambon , Banda , Seram , Ternate , Tidore , and Kei of Maluku , the Bajau , Suluk , Murut , Kadazan @-@ Dusun , Kadayah and Paitanic Peoples of Sabah , the Malays of Brunei , the Bidayuh and Iban / Sea Dayak of Sarawak , the Bolaang Mongondow and Kailinese / Toli @-@ Toli of Sulawesi and other groups in Banjarmasin and Tanjung in Kalimantan and Timor .
= = Instrument = =
= = = Description = = =
The instrument called the “ kulintang ” ( or its other derivative terms ) consist of a row / set of 5 to 9 graduated pot gongs , horizontally laid upon a frame arranged in order of pitch with the lowest gong found on the players ’ left . The gongs are laid in the instrument face side up atop two cords / strings running parallel to the entire length of the frame , with bamboo / wooden sticks / bars resting perpendicular across the frame , creating an entire kulintang set called a " pasangan " .
The gongs weigh roughly from two pounds to three pounds each , and have dimensions of 6 to 10 inches for their diameters and 3 to 5 inches for their height . Traditionally they were made from bronze but due to the disruption and loss of trade routes between the islands of Borneo and Mindanao during World War II , resulting in loss of access to necessary metal ores , and the subsequent post @-@ war use of scrap metal , brass gongs with shorter decaying tones are now commonplace .
The kulintang frame is known as an " antangan " by the Maguindanao ( which means to “ arrange ” ) and " langkonga " by the Maranao . The frame can be crude , made from simple bamboo / wooden poles , or it can be highly decorated and rich with traditional okil / okir motifs or arabesque designs . The frame is a necessary part of the instrument , and functions as a resonator .
It is considered taboo to step or cross over the antangan while the kulintang gongs are placed on it .
= = = Technique = = =
The kulintang is played by striking the bosses of the gongs with two wooden beaters . When playing the kulintang , the Maguindanao and Maranao would always sit on chairs while for the Tausug / Suluk and other groups that who play the kulintangan , they would commonly sit on the floor . Modern techniques include twirling the beaters , juggling them in midair , changing the arrangement of the gongs either before or while playing , crossings hands during play or adding very rapid fire strokes all in an effort to show off a player ’ s grace and virtuosity .
= = = Casting = = =
Kulintang gongs are made using the cire perdue method , a lost @-@ wax process used for casting the individual gongs . The first phase is the creation of wax molds of the gongs . In the past , before the availability of standardized wax sheets made specifically for foundry use , the molds were made out of either beeswax ( talo ) or candle wax ( kandilà ) . The wax mold is covered with a special mixture of finely powdered coal / mud , which is applied on the wax surface using a brush .
The layers are then left to dry under the sun , after which the entire mold is heated in a furnace to melt away the wax and hardening the coal / mud mixture , leaving behind a hollowed shell . With this hardened mold , molten bronze is poured down the mold ’ s mouth cavity , cooled to a certain degree , then the coal / mud is broken apart , revealing a new gong . The gong is then refined , cleaned , and properly identified by the blacksmith ( pandáy ) . Finally , the gongs are refined using the tongkol process , tuning these either by hammering the boss from the inside to slightly raise its pitch , or by hammering the boss from the outside to lower the pitch . The correct tuning is found by ear , with players striking a sequence of gongs , looking for a melodic contour they are familiar with .
= = = Tuning = = =
Unlike westernized instrumentation , there is no set tuning for kulintang sets throughout the Philippines . Great variation exist between each set due to differences in make , size and shape , alloy used giving each kulintang set a unique pitch level , intervals and timbre . Though the tuning varies greatly , there does exist some uniformity to contour when same melody heard on different kulintang sets . This common counter results in similar interval relationships of more or less equidistant steps between each of the gongs . This tuning system , not based upon equal temperament or upon a system of standard pitches but on a similar / certain pattern of large and small intervals , could also be found among the gamelan orchestras of western Indonesia . In fact , though the Maguindanao , Maranao and Tausug artists technically have no concept of scale ( because emphasis placed on the concept of “ rhythmic modes ” ) , the Pelog and Slendro scales of Java were found to be most satisfactory to their own varying pentatonic / heptatonic scales .
= = = Notation system = = =
Because this music was catered for by acephalous societies , kulintang repertory was unfettered by an indigenous notation system . Compositions were passed down orally from generation to generation negating the need for notation for the pieces . Recent attempts have been made to transcribe the music using cipher notation , with gongs indicated by a numbering system for example , starting from 1 to 8 with the lowest gong starting at number 1 for an eight gong kulintang set .
= = = Feminine instrument = = =
The kulintang is traditionally considered a women ’ s instrument by many groups : the Maguindanao , Maranao , Tausūg / Suluk , Samal , Badjao / Sama , Iranun , Kadazan , Murut , Bidayuh and Iban . Traditionally , the playing of the kulintang was associated with graceful , slow , frail and relaxed movements that showed elegance and decorum common among females . Nowadays , the traditional view of kulintang as strictly for women has waned as both women and men play all five instruments , with some of the more renowned kulintang players being men .
= = Performance = =
The main purpose for kulintang music in the community is to function as social entertainment at a nonprofessional , folk level . This music is unique in that it is considered a public music in the sense everyone is allowed to participate . Not only do the players play , but audience members are also expected to participate . These performances are important in that they bring people in the community and adjacent regions together , helping unify communities that otherwise may not have interacted with one another . Traditionally , when performers play kulintang music , their participation is voluntary . Musicians see performances as an opportunity to receive recognition , prestige and respect from the community and nothing more .
Generally , performances can be classified as either formal ones or informal . During formal performances adherents follow a traditional set of rules that would govern playing and it usually involved people from outside the home . Informal performances are quite the opposite . The strict rules that normally govern play are often ignored and the performers are usually between people well acquainted with one another , usually close family members . These performances usually were times when amateurs practiced on the instruments , young boys and girls gathered the instruments , substituting the kulintang with the saronay and inubab . Ensembles didn ’ t necessary have to have five instruments like formal performances : they could be composed of only four instruments ( three gandingan gongs , a kulintang , an agung , and a dabakan ) , three instruments ( a kulintang , a dabakan , and either an agung or three gandingan gongs ) or simply just one instrument ( kulintang solo ) .
= = Social functions = =
Kulintang music generally could be found as the social entertainment at a host of different occasions . It is used during large feasts , festive / harvest gatherings , for entertainment of visiting friends and relatives , and at parades . Kulintang music also accompanies ceremonies marking significant life events , such as weddings and returnees from the Hajj . Kulintang music also plays a significant role during state functions , used during official celebrations , entertaining of foreign dignitaries and important visitors of distant lands , court ceremonies of either the sultanate or village chieftains , enthroning / coronations of a new leader and the transferral of a sultanate from one family to another .
Kulintang music is prohibited from being played inside mosques and during Islamic rites / observances / holidays , such as the fasting month of Ramadan , where playing is only allowed at night when people are allowed to eat after Iftar . It is also prohibited during the mourning period of the death of important person , during funerals , and during the peak times of the planting and harvest season .
= = = Other uses = = =
Kulintang instrument has uses other than public performances . It also is used to accompany healing ceremonies / rituals ( pagipat ) / animistic religious ceremonies . Though this practice has died out among the Maranao due to its non @-@ Islamic nature , some areas in Mindanao , Sabah and Maluku still practice this ancient tradition .
Kulintang music can be used for communicating long distance messages from one village or longhouse to another . Called apad , these renditions mimic the normal speaking tones of the Maguindanao language , creating a specific message or , through the use of double entendre , a social commentary understood by nearly any adult native Maguindanao speaker . However , apad is falling into disuse because times have changed , and the necessity of its use for long @-@ distance communication purposes has faded away . Anun as a music without a message , is used instead to express sentiments and feelings , and has come more and more into use due to its compatibility with the musical elaborations and idiosyncratic styles of the times .
Kulintang music was also crucial in relation to courtships due to the very nature of Islamic custom , which did not allow for unmarried men and women to intermingle . Traditionally , unmarried daughters were kept in a special chamber in the attic called a lamin , off @-@ limit to visitors and suitors . It was only when she was allowed to play during kulintang performances that suitors were allowed to view her . Because of this , kulintang music was rare socially approved vehicles for interaction among the sexes .
Musical contest , particularly among the Maguindanao , have become a unique feature of these kulintang performances . They occur at almost all the formal occasions mentioned above , particularly weddings . What has made the Maguindanao stand out from the other groups is that they practice solo gong contest – with individual players showcasing their skill on the various ensemble instruments – the agung , gandingan and the kulintang – as opposed to only group contest , where performers from one town and another town are pitted against each other .
= = Compositions = =
= = = Rhythmic modes = = =
Kulintang music has no set compositions due to its concept of rhythmic modes . A rhythmic mode ( or designation or genre or pattern ) is defined as a musical unit that binds together the entire five instrument ensemble . By adding together the various rhythms of each instrument , one could create music and by changing one of the rhythms , one could create different music . This is the basis of the rhythmic mode .
= = = Improvisation = = =
The kulintang player ’ s ability to improvise within the parameters of a rhythmic mode is a must . As with gamelan orchestras , each kulintang mode has a kind of theme the kulintang player “ dresses up ” by variations of ornamentation , manipulating segments by inserting repetitions , extensions , insertions , suspensions , variations and transpositions . This occurs at the discretion of the kulintang player . Therefore , the kulintang player functions not only as the one carrying the melody , but also as the conductor of the entire ensemble . She determines the length of each rendition and could change the rhythm at any time , speeding up or slowing down , accord to her personal taste and the composition she plays .
This emphasis on improvisation was essential due traditional role of the music as entertainment for the entire community . Listeners in the audience expected players to surprise and astound them by playing in their own unique style , and by incorporating improvisation to make newer versions of the piece . If a player simply imitated a preceding player , playing patterns without any improvisation , the audience members would believe she / he to be repetitious and mundane . This also explains why set performance pieces for musical productions are different in some respect — young men / women would be practicing before an event , therefore rarely relying on improvisations .
= = = Maguindanao and Maranao compositions = = =
Though allowing such a variety of rhythms would lead to an innumerable amount of patterns , generally one could categorize these rhythmic modes on the basis on various criteria such as the number of beats in a recurring musical phrase , differences in the melodic and rhythmic groups with the musical phrase , differences in the rhythmic emphasis , and differences in the opening formulas and cadential patterns . For the Maguindanao , three to five typical genres can be distinguished : Duyug , Sinulog , Tidtu , Binalig and Tagonggo . The Maranao on the other hand have only three typical genres — Kapromayas / Romayas , Kapagonor / Onor , and Katitik Pandai / Kapaginandang .
These general genres could be further grouped among each other into styles / subcategories / stylistic modifiers , which are differentiated from one another based on instrumentation , playing techniques , function and the average age and gender of the musicians as well . Generally , these styles are differentiated by what is considered traditional or “ old , ” and more contemporary or “ new . ”
Old styles are considered slow , well @-@ pronounced and dignified like the Maguindanao ’ s kamamatuan and the Maranao ’ s andung . Genres classified under this style have moderate tempos , are rhythmically oriented , balanced , lack many improvisations and are usually played by the older folks and are therefore always played first , to give due respect to the older generation .
New styles such as the Maguindanao ’ s kagungudan and the Maranao ’ s bago , are considered fast , rhythmic and showy . Generally genres under this classification have faster tempos with an emphasis on power and speed , are highly rhythmic and pulsating , and are highly improvised with musicians employing different rhythmic / melodic formulae not used with old patterns . “ Young ” musicians , specifically young men , gravitate toward this style because of its emphasis on virtuosity and one ’ s individualism . Generally played after all kamamatuan pieces have been played to give younger musicians the opportunity to participate . Tagunggo not classified under one of these styles , being more ritualistic than recreational in nature . Tagunggo is a rhythmic mode often used to accompany trance and dance rituals such as sagayan . During the playing of these pieces , a ritual specialist would dance in rhythm with the music calling on the help of ancestral spirits ( tunong ) .
= = = Sulu @-@ type kulintangan compositions = = =
Sulu @-@ type compositions on the kulintangan are found among the Tausug , Samal , Yakan , Sama / Badjao , Iranun and Kadazan @-@ Dusun . Though there exist no identifiable rhythmic or melodic differences between patterns with names such as the Maguindanao , each group has their own music compositions . For instance , the Tausug have three identifiable compositions — Kuriri , Sinug , and Lubak @-@ Lubak — the Yakan have two — Tini @-@ id and Kuriri — and the Dusun have three — Ayas , Kudidi and Tidung . Though these melodies vary even within groups like the Maguindanao and Maranao , one theme which characterizes the Sulu @-@ type is the exchange of short melodic phrases between the kulintangan and the Agungs , where both instruments imitate and duplicate each other 's rhythms very quickly . This is clearly seen in the Tausug Sinug and Yakan Tini @-@ id and Kuriri compositions where this sort of jousting becomes a game of skill and virtuoso playing .
= = = Composition titles = = =
The kulintang repertoire has no fixed labels because the music itself is not considered a fixed entity . Due to the fact it is orally transmitted , the repertoire itself is considered something always in a state of flux due to two primary reasons . First , standardized titles weren ’ t considered a priority . Though to the musicians themselves the melodies would sound similar , the labels they would place on a particular rhythmic mode or style could vary even from household to household within that same village . For the musicians , the emphasis is on the excitement and pleasure of playing the music without much regard to what the piece was referred to as . Secondly , because musicians improvised their pieces regularly , modes and styles were continually revised and changed as they were passed on to a newer generation of musicians , making the pieces and therefore the labels attached to them relevant only during a certain frame of time .
Such issues made attempts to codify the compositions in a uniform manner impossible . An example of this could be found among the Maguindanao where the word binalig is used by contemporary musicians as a name for one of the rhythmic modes associated with kangungudan but it has also been used as a term designating a “ new ” style . Another example concerns the discrepancy among “ old ” and “ new ” genres . With “ new pieces ” continuously proliferating even up till now , pieces only created decades ago are now considered “ old ” even though this is considered a tradition spanning many centuries . These differences could sometimes make discussing this repertoire and the modes and styles within it a bit confounding .
= = History = =
Kulintang music is considered an ancient tradition that predates the influences of Hinduism , Buddhism , Islam , Christianity , and the West . In the Philippines , it represents the highest form of gong music attained by Filipinos and in North Maluku , it is said to have existed for centuries .
As ancient as this music is , there has never been substantial data recorded regarding the kulintang ’ s origins . The earliest historical accounts of instruments resembling those of the present day kulintang are in the writings of various European explorers from the 16th century who would have seen such instruments used in passing .
Because of limited data concerning gong music prior to European exploration , theories abound as to when the prototypes of what is now the present day kulintang came to be . One theory suggest that the bronze gong had an ancient history in Southeast Asia , arriving in the Malay archipelago two or even three thousand years ago , making its way to the Philippines from China in the 3rd century AD . Another theory lays doubt to the former claim , suggesting the kulintang could not have existed prior to the 15th century due to the belief that Javanese gong tradition , which is what the kulintang was believed to be derived from , developed only by the 15th century .
Though different theories abound as to the exact centuries the kulintang was finally realized , there is a consensus that kulintang music developed from a foreign musical tradition which was borrowed and adapted to the indigenous music tradition already present in the area . It ’ s likely the earliest gongs used among the indigenous populace had no recreational value but were simply used for making signals and sending messages .
Kulintang music likely evolved from this simple signaling tradition , transitioning into a period consisting of one player , one @-@ gong type ensembles ( like those found among the Ifugao of Luzon or Tiruray of Mindanao ) , developing into a multi @-@ gong , multiplayer ensemble with the incorporation of concepts originating from Sunda and finally transforming into the present day kulintang ensemble , with the addition of the d ’ bakan , babndir and musical concepts of Islam via Islam traders .
= = = Origin of the gong = = =
The kulintang gong itself is believed to have been one of those foreign musical elements incorporated into kulintang music , derived from the Sundanese kolenang due to its striking similarities . Along with the fact that they play important roles in their respectively ensembles , both the kulintang and kolenang show striking homogeneity in tapered rims ( as opposed to pronouncedly tapered Javanese bonang and non @-@ tapered Laotian khong vong gongs ) . Even the word kulintang is believed to be just an altered form of the Sundanese word kolenang .
It was these similarities that lead theorists to conclude that the kulintang was originally imported to the Philippines during the migration of the kolenang through the Malay Archipelago . Based on the etymology , two routes have been proposed as the route for the kulintang to Mindanao : One from Sunda , through Banjermasin , Brunei and the Sulu Archipelago , a route where the word “ kulintangan ” is commonly used for the horizontal row of gongs ; The other from Sunda , thru , Timor , Sulawesi , Moluccas and Mindanao where the word kolintang / kulintang is commonly seen .
= = = Future = = =
The tradition of kulintang music has been waning throughout the Eastern Malay Archipelago , and has become extinct in some places . Sets of five bronze gong @-@ chimes and a gong making up the totobuang ensembles of Buru island in Central Maluku have also come to disuse . Kolintang sets of bossed kettle gongs were once played in Gorontalo , North Sulawesi long ago but that has all but disappeared , replaced by what locals are presently familiar with — a slab @-@ key instrument known as a kolintang .
The extent of past kulintang tradition in the Philippines , particularly in the Northern and Central islands of Luzon and the Visayas , will never be fully known due to the harsh realities of three hundred years of Spanish colonization . The fact that there are areas which were able to keep kulintang tradition alive during European colonization has caused some observers to aptly term this music “ the music of resistance . ”
Today , the existence of kulintang music is threatened by the influence of globalization , and the introduction of Western and foreign ideals into the region . Younger generations would rather listen to American music , or bike in the streets with other children than spend time practicing and imitating on the traditional instruments of their parents .
However , Philippine kulintang music has had a revival of sorts due to the work of Philippine @-@ born , U.S.-educated musicians / ethnomusicologists Master Danongan " Danny " Kalanduyan and Usopay Cadar , as well as their predecessor Professor José Maceda . Through the work of Professor Robert Garfias , both Cadar and Kalanduyan began teaching and performing traditional kulintang music in the United States during the late 20th century ; quite unexpectedly , the music became a bridge between contemporary Filipino American culture and ancient Philippine tribal traditions .
Both Kalanduyan and Cadar have been impressed that so many people lacking Maguindanaon or Maranao background , and some who are not even Filipino , have become dedicated students and supporters of their cultural heritage . An additional surprise came after a decade @-@ long series of American @-@ based kulintang students traveled to Mindanao to perform , sparking a kulintang renaissance in the Philippines . The groundwork for this Renaissance originated as early as 1978 through the work of one of the early cultural pioneers and activists amongst Filipino Americans , Robert Kikuchi @-@ Yngojo . It was his dedication in the early 80 's that created the cultural awareness in the Fil @-@ Am community of San Franccisco that sparked a cultural movement . The knowledge of outsiders playing traditional kulintang has encouraged the younger generation of musicians in the Philippines , both in Mindanao and in Taguig , Metro Manila . Enthusiastic appreciation by foreigners has given life to a dying tradition , and the music has become a unifying force in the Philippine diaspora . For the first time in history , kulintang music is now formally taught to music students at several universities located throughout Metro Manila .
= = Composition of various ensembles = =
The makeup of kulintang ensembles throughout the region varies between the various cultural groups . Generally , they consist of five to six instruments dominated of course by a melody @-@ playing gong row that functions as a lead / central melodic instrument for the entire ensemble .
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= Zindagi Na Milegi Dobara =
Zindagi Na Milegi Dobara ( English : Will Not Get Second Life ) is a 2011 Indian coming @-@ of @-@ age comedy @-@ drama film directed by Zoya Akhtar and produced by Farhan Akhtar and Ritesh Sidhwani of Excel Entertainment . The film features an ensemble cast including Hrithik Roshan as Arjun , Abhay Deol as Kabir and Farhan Akhtar as Imraan . It also stars Katrina Kaif as Laila , Kalki Koechlin as Natasha , and Ariadna Cabrol as Nuria along with Naseeruddin Shah making a special appearance . Made on a budget of ₹ 550 million ( US $ 8 @.@ 2 million ) , the film was shot in Spain , India , Egypt and the United Kingdom .
The story follows three friends , Arjun , Kabir , and Imraan who have been inseparable since childhood . They set off to Spain on a bachelor trip and meet Laila , who falls in love with Arjun and helps him overcome his problem of workaholism . Kabir and his fiancée experience significant misunderstanding in the meanwhile , which they soon overcome . As part of the trip , each friend chooses a dangerous sport for the group to partake .
The music and score was composed by Shankar @-@ Ehsaan @-@ Loy with lyrics by Javed Akhtar . Initially expected to hit theatres on 27 May 2011 , the release of the film was pushed back to 24 June , and once again to 15 July due to technical glitches in post @-@ production . The film had a worldwide release in 1800 screens and was a critical and commercial success . It grossed ₹ 1 @.@ 53 billion ( US $ 23 million ) worldwide . After its theatrical run , the film was nominated for and won several awards in various categories .
= = Plot = =
The film opens with Kabir ( Abhay Deol ) proposing to Natasha ( Kalki Koechlin ) . Their families meet at the engagement party where Natasha learns that Kabir is planning a three @-@ week bachelor road trip to Spain with his school friends Imran ( Farhan Akhtar ) and Arjun ( Hrithik Roshan ) . Kabir explains that the three have a long @-@ standing pact , and that during the road trip , each of them will have to pick an adventure sport which all three will try together . Initially , Arjun is reluctant to take trip as he does not want to lose his pay for missing work . It is later revealed that Arjun 's former girlfriend left him due to his workaholism and his obsession with money . Imran has an additional personal agenda on the trip , to find his biological father Salman Habib ( Naseeruddin Shah ) , an artist in Spain .
They fly to Spain separately , where they plan to visit Costa Brava , Seville , and Pamplona . On the way to Costa Brava , Imran and Kabir find it annoying that Arjun works even during the trip . Imran nonchalantly throws Arjun 's mobile phone out of their car while he is in the middle of an official call . This leads to a heated argument . Arjun , in a fit of rage , accuses Imran of having an affair , four years prior , with Arjun 's previous girlfriend Sonali ( a topic which was very sensitive both to Arjun and Imraan ) . After being pacified by Kabir and reaching their destination , they meet an Anglo Indian named Laila ( Katrina Kaif ) on a beach . Imran flirts with her and makes Arjun jealous . Kabir reveals that he has chosen deep sea diving as their first sport , and they later find that Laila is their diving instructor . Arjun , who cannot swim and is aquaphobic , receives assistance from Laila . She helps him overcome his fears and finish the sport successfully . Upon a request by Laila , they attend the La Tomatina festival with her in Buñol and meet Nuria ( Ariadna Cabrol ) , who falls in love with Imraan . Meanwhile , Natasha becomes suspicious of Kabir 's involvement with Laila when she sees them via webcam and crashes his bachelor party trip , much to Kabir 's discomfort in front of his friends . Imran spends time with Nuria , and Arjun with Laila . After the boys leave , Laila realises she has fallen in love with Arjun and chases them on a bike , not wanting to regret their partition if they do not meet in future . She and Arjun express their feelings for each other with a passionate kiss .
On the way to Seville , Kabir drops Natasha at the airport , while Arjun and Imran notice that something is wrong between them . The trio visit Seville for sky diving , Arjun 's choice . During the task , Imraan is forced to confront his acrophobia and hesitates to take part . However , they complete it without any obstacles . After skydiving , the three men go to a bar and get into a fight with a stranger on whom they had tried to pull a prank . They are jailed after the fight . Salman Habib bails them out and takes them to his home . While speaking to Imraan , Salman reveals that he never wanted the responsibility of a married life with kids , while Imran 's mother did , which is why he never contacted Imran . Imran , heartbroken , realises how his actions must have hurt Arjun four years back . He apologises to Arjun . Arjun , realising that Imran 's apology is heartfelt , hugs him and forgives him .
The trio learn of the bull run in Pamplona , which is Imran 's choice — baffling Kabir and Arjun . Imran calls up Laila , who comes along , surprising Arjun . When confronted by his friends , Kabir confesses to the other two that he is still not ready for a marriage , and that Natasha had gotten the wrong idea ( of him proposing to her ) on seeing the ring that he had bought for his mother as a birthday present . On the morning of the bull run , Imran suggests they make a pact to make a promise if they survive the event . Imran vows to publish his poetry ( he is secretly a poet ) , Arjun vows to go to Morocco with Laila , and Kabir promises to tell Natasha that he does not want to marry her . As they complete the event , the friends gain a renewed sense of their relationships with each other , with others they know , and with themselves .
During the credits , Imran , Kabir , Nuria and Natasha are shown attending the wedding of Arjun and Laila in Morocco and the song Sooraj ki Baahon Me plays . Natasha is seen with a new man , and Kabir and Natasha are still friends . Imran 's poems are revealed throughout the story after each sporting event showing that he had published them .
= = Cast = =
Hrithik Roshan as Arjun Saluja , a financial broker
Abhay Deol as Kabir Dewan , an architect
Farhan Akhtar as Imraan Qureshi , a show @-@ tunes writer
Katrina Kaif as Laila
Kalki Koechlin as Natasha Aurora , an interior designer
Ariadna Cabrol as Nuria
Naseeruddin Shah as Salman Habib
Deepti Naval as Rahila Qureshi
Anisa Butt as Tanya Aurora
Ravi Khemu as Kabir 's Father
Suhel Seth as Natasha 's Father
= = Production = =
= = = Development = = =
The scripting of the film , tentatively titled as Running with the bulls , was completed in November 2009 after three months of work . Zoya and Kagti incorporated real life observations , and specially wrote the character of Imraan for her brother Farhan Akhtar . Akhtar wrote the dialogues for the film . The theme of the film was " about three guys on the verge of making commitments in life " , according to him . They used Javed Akhtar 's poetry as a voice @-@ over because they felt the poetry adds depth to the character and lends voice to their feelings . A special poem was penned down for Katrina 's character , after she was cast in the project . The first choice for the location of principal filming was Mexico , but was later changed to Spain since the climax features running with the bulls and Zoya wanted a country that blended history , culture and sports . The release date of the film was rescheduled thrice because the originally selected editor , Chandan Arora , fell ill and they had to redo the editing .
= = = Casting = = =
Initially , Imran Khan and Ranbir Kapoor were supposed to play two of the three leads , but they declined because they wished to star together in their own production . Farhan Akhtar , Zoya 's brother had worked with her in her debut film Luck By Chance , and was also the dialogue writer of the film , hence Zoya felt that he would know what she exactly wanted from the film . He was the first actor to be cast in the film . He defined his role as a " fun character " and a " guy who for the longest time takes nothing seriously . " Hrithik was chosen for another lead role , since he was a favourite actor of hers . After finalizing the two , she needed someone " who could not just fit in with them visually but also bring something new to the table . " She sought Abhay for the role , as he was her friend and had worked with her before in Reema Kagti 's Honeymoon Travels Pvt. Ltd .
For the role of Laila , Zoya wanted someone with an " accent " , who would be willing to do scuba diving , and was a half Indian and half Caucasian girl . A lot of girls were auditioned for it in New York and London . Later , in a party , she met Katrina Kaif , and chose her . Her role was reportedly described as " a free- spirited girl , a wanderer at heart and a bohemian gypsy by nature . " Zoya had wanted to work with Kalki ever since seeing her in Dev D and That Girl in Yellow Boots . She felt that Kalki would fit the bill for the character of Natasha , since she had " the sense of comedy , but not over the top . " Ariadna was chosen for the role of Nuria , since she was liked for her work in the 2009 Spanish film Eloise . The full cast of the film was confirmed by April 2010 .
= = = Filming = = =
The principal shooting of Zindagi Na Milegi Dobara , which began in June 2010 , took place in Barcelona , Pamplona , Buñol , and Andalusia in Spain , the UK , Egypt and Mumbai . Cinematographer Carlos Catalan , who had worked with Zoya in Luck By Chance , wanted all three actors to appear tanned because he " didn 't want everything glossed over " and wanted to make the film as realistic as possible .
Katrina 's introduction scene was shot on a nudist beach . During the filming , they requested that beach @-@ goers stay out of the frame so that the film would not face objections from the Indian censor board . The La Tomatina festival of Buñol was re @-@ created for the song " Ik Junoon " . Almost sixteen tons of tomatoes worth ₹ 10 million ( US $ 150 @,@ 000 ) were flown in from Portugal for the shoot . A scene involving a kiss between Hrithik and Katrina was shot even though the couple were initially reluctant to do so . The filming of the song " Señorita " took place in Alájar , a town in the province of Huelva . The crew warned the locals about the song 's volume because the shooting took place at night . In the third day of shooting , the locals came dressed in costumes , and the mayor of Alájar joined them for the shoot . The climax of the film , which features the Encierro , was shot at Pamplona . The final schedules were at Vashi and Alibag in Mumbai in December 2010 .
= = Soundtrack = =
Composer trio Shankar @-@ Ehsaan @-@ Loy composed the soundtrack for the film , who had also collaborated with Akhtar in Rock On ! ! and Karthik Calling Karthik . The lyrics were written by Javed Akhtar . For the vocals of the flamenco song " Señorita " , the trio roped in Maria del Mar Fernández , a Spanish flamenco singer , in what was her film singing debut . The song also marked the singing debut of Abhay Deol , who rendered the song along with the other two leads , Hrithik Roshan and Farhan Akhtar . The soundtrack met with positive response following its launch from critics , and garnered a significant notice in the music charts .
= = Marketing = =
The trailer of the film was revealed with the prints of Ready , and released online on 15 May 2011 . Excel Entertainment teamed up with Aircel to make promos of the film available on mobile and Internet . The trailer got over 55 million views within 48 hours of its release . Two more promos , one for the song Ik Junoon and one for the song Senorita , were released on 27 May . The music launch and promotion event took place at Nirmal Lifestyle , Mulund , Mumbai . The promos of Khaabon Kay Parinday and Dil Dhadakne Do were released the following week . Farhan Akhtar and Ritesh Sidhwani visited Facebook India to promote the movie . A press conference promoting the film was held on 1 July at Chandigarh . Two dialogue promos of the movie were released on 3 July . The cast and crew embarked on a road trip from Mumbai to Delhi on 7 July via Surat , Vadodra , Ahmedabad , Udaipur , Ajmer and Jaipur that culminated with a concert at Gurgaon . It is believed that British Auto manufacturer Land Rover , which is now owned by Tata Motors , sponsored the Land Rover Discovery driven by the cast members during the trip . A premier at the 12th IIFA Awards was planned before the worldwide release , but it was not executed .
The film 's marketers released branded promotions with Mountain Dew , Gillette and ING Vysya Bank .
The official game for Zindagi Na Milegi Dobara , based on the La Tomatina festival , was released by Jump Games on 19 July 2011 and made available for all leading mobile platforms .
= = Release = =
Zindagi Na Milegi Dobara was initially scheduled to release on 27 May , but was postponed to 24 June and further to 15 July 2011 . It released in 1800 screens worldwide . A special screening of the film was shown at the residence of Shahrukh Khan on 16 July , the birthday of Katrina Kaif . The event was attended by several celebrities besides the film 's cast and crew themselves . However , the Shiv Sena criticised the event as it was held three days after the 2011 Mumbai bombings . The producers of the film donated a cheque containing the collections of the film from around 10 theatres in Mumbai to the Maharashtra government as a mark of charity to the victims of the blasts . On 24 March 2012 , ZNMD was screened exclusively at the Bucks New University in High Wycombe , UK .
The DVD of the film was released on 30 August 2011 . It is available in Dolby Digital 5 @.@ 1 and Stereo formats with English and Arabic subtitles . The Blu @-@ ray disc is also available .
= = = Critical reception = = =
The film garnered mostly positive reviews from critics . Based on 81 reviews , review aggregate site desimartini.com gave the film the verdict , " A feel good film with a glittering star cast and amazing camera work . Funny dialogues and the chemistry between the three leads make ZNMD an enjoyable experience . " The site 's average audience rating is 3 @.@ 5 / 5 .
Pratim D. Gupta of The Telegraph called Zindagi Na Milegi Dobara " a beautifully scripted journey of catharsis " and praised director Zoya Akhtar for being " fearless in the way she shoots " . In his review for Hindustan Times , Mayank Shekhar praised the film as " a game @-@ changer for Hindi films since Dil Chahta Hai , and wrote " What you take home are memorable , amusing moments of three truly adventurous amigos we 've all grown up with . And will continue to " giving it 4 stars . Shivesh Kumar of IndiaWeekly awarded the movie 4 stars . Taran Adarsh of Bollywood Hungama gave the film 3 @.@ 5 / 5 stars , calling it a film for " a more evolved , mature and cinema @-@ literate audience that 's geared up to embrace and support newer genres of cinema . " Nikhat Kazmi of The Times of India gave the film 3 @.@ 5 / 5 stars and lauded its lead performances : " If Abhay is the anchor of the group , Farhan 's funster role is full of beans and Hrithik 's metamorphosis from uptight , money @-@ minded stock broker to carefree vagabond is a class act . "
S Chatterjee of NDTV , gave the film 3 / 5 stars and maintained that the film 's philosophy is quite old and praised Zoya Akhtar 's direction , stating " Zoya Akhtar , by investing the tale with a delightful lightness of touch and dollops of gentle wit , brings a degree of freshness to bear upon the plot . " Shaikh Ayaz of Rediff rated the film 3 @.@ 5 / 5 stars and felt that Zoya Akhtar had put together a familiar plot but the film 's fresh energy is entertaining . He wrote , " Akhtar 's invigorating characters pump in fresh energy into a film that could have been strictly mediocre " . Kaveree Bamzai of India Today , too was full of praise for Akhtar 's direction and said " By the time I finished watching Zindagi Na Milegi Dobara I was convinced that no one can make a romance as beautifully as a woman " , giving the film 4 stars .
Film critic Subhash K Jha rated it 3 @.@ 5 / 5 and quoted : " Zoya , God bless her aesthetics , sucks us into the beauty of the moment , not giving us any reason to believe that life 's most precious truths are swathed in squalor . " Blessy Chettiar of DNA India , noted the music of the film and Farhan Akhtar 's acting as highlights of the film : " For all this , the storywriters use heavy doses of symbolism . Deep @-@ sea diving at Costa Brava , sky @-@ diving in Sevilla and the San Fermin bull run in Pamplona , not to forget the Tomatina festival in Bunyol , where Arjun finally lets go . Fears are drowned , let open in the sky and finally at the mercy of raging bulls " , he wrote , giving it 3 stars . Rajeev Masand of CNN @-@ IBN stated , " Zindagi Na Milegi Dobara takes the light @-@ hearted tone of a fun , all @-@ boys road trip through Spain to give you a deep and heartfelt message on why we should live life by seizing the moment and following our hearts . " He also praised the performance of the cast , highlighting it as one of the main positives of the film , but points out that the film 's length " sucks some fun of out of the ride " and gave a rating of 3 @.@ 5 stars . On the contrary , Raja Sen of Rediff held that the film " tried too hard to be cool " and gave it 1 @.@ 5 / 5 stars .
Ryan Gilbey of The Guardian was broadly positive about the film : " It 's still playing to full houses , and you can see why . Slick it may be . But tourist board employees representing the various Spanish cities flattered in the movie are not the only ones who will come out grinning . " , though he found the movie " stubbornly un @-@ macho " for a buddy film . The National reviewer Kaleem Aftab , in his 4 star review , noted " Throwing together road trip , romcom and buddy @-@ buddy action in a single picture may sound like an ill @-@ conceived masala mash @-@ up , but like any good dish , the ingredients are blended together with affection to create one of the best feel @-@ good movies of the year . "
= = = Box office = = =
In India , the film was released along with Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows – Part 2 . It opened well in the multiplexes , as the occupancy ranged from 70 to 100 percent , despite receiving average opening in the single screens except in the metro cities . The film grossed ₹ 525 million ( US $ 7 @.@ 8 million ) in its opening three @-@ day weekend , including ₹ 73 @.@ 9 million ( US $ 1 @.@ 1 million ) its first day , and a net total of ₹ 265 million ( US $ 3 @.@ 9 million ) on the third day . After ten days of worldwide run , it grossed ₹ 1 @.@ 08 billion ( US $ 16 million ) . In 17 days , it grossed over ₹ 700 million ( US $ 10 million ) in India . With no significant competition other than Singham , Zindagi Na Milegi Dobara remained No. 2 at the box office for 4 weeks after its release . It was one of the highest grossing Bollywood films of 2011 in India and internationally . The film was declared a super @-@ hit in India and Overseas territories .
Zindagi Na Milegi Dobara grossed ₹ 120 million ( US $ 1 @.@ 8 million ) overseas in three days , which made it the biggest opening for an Indian film in 2011 . The film reached top @-@ twenty lists in the US and UK . It grossed £ 896 @,@ 289 in UK , $ 3 @,@ 103 @,@ 656 in USA , $ 387 @,@ 384 in Australia and $ 136 @,@ 380 in New Zealand . As of January 2012 , the film has grossed $ 7 @.@ 25 million overseas .
The film grossed ₹ 1 @.@ 53 billion ( US $ 23 million ) worldwide , surpassing Hrithik 's Dhoom 2 in the worldwide gross , becoming the ninth highest worldwide grosser of all time for a Bollywood film , as of October 2011 .
= = = Legal issues = = =
After the release of the film , PETA objected to the bull running scene in the film and sought support from fans via their Twitter page to ban the film . PETA spokesperson Poorva Joshipura spoke about the event and said " We will now be contacting the Ministry of Information and Broadcasting and Central Board of Film Certification to take action . " The film 's producer Ritesh Sidhwani , retorted by saying " We had submitted all the papers to the Animal Welfare Board India that stated that none of the animals were injured or hurt in any way and only then , the censor board cleared the movie . We are only showing the culture of Spain . " Spanish @-@ American artist Charo sent a letter to Zoya Akhtar on behalf of PETA requesting her to remove all the scenes which related to the running of the bulls .
= = Accolades = =
Post theatrical run , Zindagi Na Milegi Dobara won two awards at the 59th National Film Awards in the Best Audiography and Best Choreography categories . Noted regional ceremonies had the film winning several awards , mainly for the ' Best Film ' and ' Best Director ' . These included the Filmfare Awards , Stardust Awards , Zee Cine Awards , IIFA Awards , NDTV Indian of the Year Awards , Screen Awards , Apsara Film & Television Producers Guild Awards and the Asian Film Awards .
= = Sequel = =
Following the film 's release , Zoya Akhtar expressed an idea to make a sequel of the film . Speaking about it , she said " You never know , I might or may not make a sequel . It all depends on the right content . " It has been reported that the characters are expected to reprise their roles in the sequel , if it is officially launched . In an interview with the Hindustan Times , Hrithik expressed an idea for the basic plot of the sequel . He said that it could be set five years after ZNMD and that the original characters would have grown older , having a reason to go on another trip . It has also been agreed upon that a proper script is required , as it is not a part of the " commercial field " of cinema . However , no official confirmations have been made regarding the sequel , despite requests from many viewers . After the IIFA ceremony , Farhan Akhtar commented that there was " no necessity " for the sequel . Later in 2013 , in an interview with HindustanTimes , Zoya expressed interest in scripting for the sequel after completing the shooting of her second movie Dil Dhadakne Do released in June 2015 .
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= Baby Not on Board =
" Baby Not on Board " is the fourth entry in the seventh season of the animated television series Family Guy . It premiered on the Fox network in the United States on November 2 , 2008 . The episode features Stewie ( voiced by Seth MacFarlane ) after he is accidentally left at home when the Griffins head for the Grand Canyon . The family soon notice his absence , and they rush home ; however , Peter ( also voiced by MacFarlane ) makes it more difficult for his family because of his immature behavior . Meanwhile , Stewie realizes how much he depends on his family while he is alone .
The episode was written by Mark Hentemann and directed by Julius Wu . It received mixed reviews from critics for its storyline and cultural references . According to Nielsen ratings , it was viewed in 9 @.@ 97 million homes in its original airing . The episode featured a guest performance by Jon Benjamin , along with several recurring guest voice actors for the series . " Baby Not on Board " was released on DVD along with eight other episodes from the season on June 16 , 2009 .
= = Plot = =
Peter visits the Quahog Mini @-@ Mart where Chris works after a visit to the local spa . After he threatens to sue the store for Chris ' " sexual remarks " ( in fact a legitimate medical question regarding one of his testicles ) , Peter is given an unlimited gas coupon for a year by Carl . Peter begins to take advantage of the card , even taking a trip into space , until Lois suggests that the family travel to the Grand Canyon . They leave early the next morning but inadvertently leave Stewie behind at home , only realizing that when they visit the site of 9 / 11 . They first contact Joe but cannot get a hold of him . They then contact Cleveland and Quagmire to look after Stewie . After not receiving any calls from either of them , Lois insists that the family return home to Stewie . While driving the car , Peter somehow enters the car next to them , causing the Griffins ' car to crash . When the family attempts to ride a train home , Peter spends the last of the money that they saved on curtain rings . Lois becomes angered and blames all their misfortunes on Peter 's stupidity , only to feel ashamed when he informs her that everyone else respects him for who he is . Eventually , Brian is able to get the family a ride in a pickup truck bound for Quahog .
Meanwhile , Stewie finds out that he has been left alone , and takes his solitude to his advantage . When Cleveland and Quagmire arrive , Stewie believes that they are intruders and sprays tear gas all around them to knock them out . Stewie realizes his mistake , however , and he chains them to the Griffins ' basement wall of his house and forcing them to watch the DirecTV help channel on a continuous loop . When Stewie consumes all of the food in the house , he applies for a job at McBurgertown the local Fast food restaurant , but is fired for stealing food ( despite his insistence it was due to be thrown out anyway ) . Eventually , Stewie realizes how much he depends on his family and is thrilled to see them return . The episode ends with a scene of Cleveland and Quagmire reciting what is said on TV , and Cleveland telling Quagmire , " Did I tell you I 'm getting a spinoff ? " .
= = Production = =
" Baby Not on Board " was written by eventual series showrunner and executive producer Mark Hentemann , who joined the show as a writer in its third season . It was directed by Julius Wu on his first episode of the season , although he would go on to direct the episode " 420 " later in the season . Series regulars Peter Shin and James Purdum served as supervising directors for the episode . The episode marked the first time since the show 's creation that celebrities do not feature wide , circular eyes . The staff wanted to make the celebrities look more realistic in contrast to the regular characters ; a good example of this can be seen on Patrick Swayze 's character design for the episode . The Standards and Practices had a problem with Peter saying " masturbate " , so staff writers edited it to " rub one out " . The episode revealed that the character Cleveland Brown was going to start in his own show , which turned out to be the Family Guy spin @-@ off , The Cleveland Show , which later premiered in September 2009 .
" Baby Not on Board " , along with the first eight episodes of the seventh season , were released on DVD by 20th Century Fox in the United States and Canada on June 16 , 2009 , one month after it had completed broadcast on television . The " Volume 7 " DVD release features bonus material including deleted scenes , animatics , and commentaries for every episode .
In addition to the regular cast , voice actor Jon Benjamin , actor Joe Flaherty , and actor Jacob Pressman guest starred in the episode . Recurring voice actors Alexandra Breckenridge , writer Steve Callaghan , writer Danny Smith , writer Alec Sulkin , and writer John Viener made minor appearances . Recurring guest voice actors Adam West and Patrick Warburton made guest appearances as well .
= = Cultural references = =
" Baby Not on Board " makes several media references . The plot itself is inspired by the film Home Alone . At the Quahog Day Spa , Peter mentions that he needs the sauna 's treatment after a stressful morning ; the scene cuts to a non @-@ sequitur that parodies the opening scene of Back to the Future . Another scene in the spa references the film Ghost ; representations of the film 's stars , Patrick Swayze and Demi Moore , are on top of Peter 's back giving him a massage . After Lois chastises Peter , he recites the speech John Candy made in Planes , Trains , and Automobiles nearly verbatim . Chris asks his friend why in the Lord of the Rings films Frodo and Gandalf walk to get to Mordor instead of taking the Eagle that was used at the end of the story . When driving to the Grand Canyon , the family sings Bette Midler 's " The Rose " . When Stewie chains Cleveland and Quagmire to the basement wall , he forces them to watch the DirecTV help channel .
When Lois says they haven 't heard from Joe , he is seen screaming the Rifleman 's Creed at his wheelchair like marines do with their rifles in the movie Apocalypse Now and the bootcamp sequence in Full Metal Jacket . When the Griffins return home to Stewie , the background music is an instrumental of " Somewhere In My Memory " by John Williams , which scores a similar scene in Home Alone . When Stewie is exploring the house he finds a Hustler magazine under his brother 's bed , curious of what a vagina looks like. after seeing a page of the magazine , however , he instantly becomes disgusted by the sight of a vagina on one of the pages , retrieves a submachine gun from hammerspace , and shoots the magazine , reducing the it to scraps of paper with the whole magazine of the weapon . Stewie mentions that Aquaman is pretty useless if the crime does not take place on water . Other references included jokes about the television series Lost and actors Robin Williams and Sean Connery .
= = Reception = =
In its original broadcast on Fox in the United States on November 2 , 2008 , " Baby Not on Board " was watched by 9 @.@ 97 million homes and acquired a 5 @.@ 0 Nielsen rating , the audience measurement systems developed to determine the audience size and composition of television programming in the United States , making it the highest rated episode of the season .
The episode received mixed reviews from television sources and critics . Steve Heisler of The A.V. Club gave the episode a C , calling it " without a doubt , the most meta episode I 've seen in quite some time " and said that " if Family Guy wants to make the show itself the butt of every joke , it needs to ramp up the conflict and tone down on the flights of fancy – most of those are funny for a bit , but excess can ruin just about anything . " Another complaint of the episode were the Back to the Future references and the storyline .
Ahsan Haque of IGN gave the episode a much more negative review , calling it " definitely one of the worst Family Guy episodes in years " . He criticized the jokes , calling some pointless and most of them tasteless , saying that the funnier moments of the episode were not enough to make it a worthwhile episode . Robin Pierson of The TV Critic also gave the episode a negative review , calling it " pointless television " , but said that it did feature some entertaining jokes .
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= The Sopranos =
The Sopranos is an American crime drama television series created by David Chase . Revolving around the fictional character and family of New Jersey @-@ based Italian American mobster Tony Soprano ( James Gandolfini ) , the show portrays the difficulties he faces as he tries to balance the conflicting requirements of his home life and his criminal organization . These are often highlighted during his therapy sessions with psychiatrist Jennifer Melfi ( Lorraine Bracco ) . The series features Tony 's family members , mafia colleagues , and rivals in prominent roles and story arcs , most notably his wife Carmela ( Edie Falco ) and protégé Christopher Moltisanti ( Michael Imperioli ) .
After the pilot was ordered in 1997 , the show premiered on the premium cable network HBO in the United States on January 10 , 1999 , and ran its six seasons with 86 episodes to June 10 , 2007 . The series then went through syndication and has been broadcast on A & E in the United States and internationally . The Sopranos was produced by HBO , Chase Films , and Brad Grey Television . It was primarily filmed at Silvercup Studios , New York City , and on location in New Jersey . The executive producers throughout the show 's run were David Chase , Brad Grey , Robin Green , Mitchell Burgess , Ilene S. Landress , Terence Winter , and Matthew Weiner .
The Sopranos is widely regarded as the greatest television series of all time . The series also won a multitude of awards , including Peabody Awards for its first two seasons , 21 Primetime Emmy Awards and five Golden Globe Awards . A staple of 2000s American popular culture , the series has been the subject of critical analysis , controversy , and parody . It has spawned books , a video game , high @-@ charting soundtrack albums , and a large amount of assorted merchandise . Several members of the show 's cast and crew who were previously largely unknown to the public have had successful careers after The Sopranos . In 2013 , the Writers Guild of America named The Sopranos the best @-@ written TV series of all time , while TV Guide ranked it the best television series of all time .
= = Production = =
= = = Conception = = =
Before creating The Sopranos , David Chase had worked as a television producer for more than 20 years . He had been employed as a staff writer / producer for several television series ( including Kolchak : The Night Stalker , Switch , The Rockford Files , I 'll Fly Away , and Northern Exposure ) and had co @-@ created one short @-@ lived original series , Almost Grown , in 1988 . He made his television directorial debut in 1986 with the " Enough Rope for Two " episode of Alfred Hitchcock Presents revival . He also directed episodes of Almost Grown and I 'll Fly Away in 1988 and 1992 , respectively . In 1996 , he wrote and directed the television film The Rockford Files : Punishment and Crime . He served as showrunner for I 'll Fly Away and Northern Exposure in the 1990s . Chase won his first Emmy Award in 1978 for his work on The Rockford Files ( shared with fellow producers ) and his second for writing the 1980 television film Off the Minnesota Strip . By 1996 , he was a coveted showrunner .
The story of The Sopranos was initially conceived as a feature film about " a mobster in therapy having problems with his mother . " After some input from his manager , Lloyd Braun , Chase decided to adapt it into a television series . In 1995 , Chase signed a development deal with production company Brillstein @-@ Grey and wrote the original pilot script .
Drawing heavily from his personal life and his experiences growing up in New Jersey , Chase has stated that he tried to " apply [ his own ] family dynamic to mobsters . " For instance , the tumultuous relationship between series protagonist Tony Soprano and his mother , Livia , is partially based on Chase 's relationship with his own mother . Chase was also in therapy at the time and modeled the character of Dr. Jennifer Melfi after his own psychiatrist . Chase had been fascinated by organized crime and the mafia from an early age , witnessing such people growing up , and having been raised on classic gangster films like The Public Enemy and the crime series The Untouchables . The series is partly inspired by the Boiardo family , a prominent New Jersey organized crime family when Chase was growing up , and partly on New Jersey 's DeCavalcante family . Chase has mentioned American playwrights Arthur Miller and Tennessee Williams as influences on his and the show 's writing and Italian director Federico Fellini as an important influence on the show 's cinematic style . The series was named after high school friends of his . Like the majority of the characters on the show , Chase is Italian @-@ American . His original family name is DeCesare .
Chase and producer Brad Grey , then of Brillstein @-@ Grey , pitched The Sopranos to several networks ; Fox showed interest but passed on it after Chase presented them the pilot script . Chase and Grey eventually pitched the show to Chris Albrecht , at the time president of HBO Original Programming , who decided to finance the shooting of a pilot episode .
The pilot episode — originally referred to as " Pilot " but renamed to " The Sopranos " on the DVD release — was shot in 1997 ; Chase directed it himself . After the pilot was finished and shown to the HBO executives , the show was put on hold for several months . During this time , Chase considered asking HBO for additional funding to shoot 45 more minutes of footage and release The Sopranos as a feature film . In December 1997 , HBO decided to produce the series and ordered 12 more episodes for a 13 @-@ episode season . The show premiered on HBO on January 10 , 1999 with the pilot episode . The Sopranos was the second hour @-@ long television drama series produced by HBO , the first being the prison drama Oz .
= = = = Baer v. Chase = = = =
Robert Baer ( a former North Jersey prosecutor and municipal judge ) lost a breach of contract lawsuit he filed against Chase in federal court in Trenton , New Jersey , alleging he helped create the show , but Baer won a ruling that a jury should decide if and how much Baer should be paid for services as a location scout , researcher , and consultant . The gist of Baer 's argument : in addition to Chase 's own sources and ideas , some characters , settings , and storylines portrayed in The Sopranos were allegedly inspired by tours and conversations the series creator had with Tony Spirito ( " a restaurateur and admitted gambler who says he often did ' favors ' such as chauffeuring for wiseguys he had known all his life . His old pals included reputed notorious figure John ' Uncle Johnny ' Riggi and Louis ' Fat Lou ' LaRasso , a late underboss of the DeCavalcante crime family " ) , Thomas Koczur ( a homicide detective for the Elizabeth Police Department ) , and people Spirito and Koczur introduced Chase to , in addition to communications and input provided by Baer , who 'd introduced Chase to Spirito and Koczur in the first place .
= = = Casting = = =
Like the characters they portray on the show , many of the actors on The Sopranos are Italian @-@ American . Many cast members had appeared together in films and television series before joining the cast of The Sopranos . The series shares a total of 27 actors with the 1990 Martin Scorsese gangster film , Goodfellas , including main cast members Lorraine Bracco , Michael Imperioli , and Tony Sirico .
The main cast was put together through a process of auditions and readings . Actors often did not know whether Chase liked their performances or not . Michael Imperioli , who beat out several actors for the part of Christopher Moltisanti , recalls " He 's got a poker face , so I thought he wasn 't into me , and he kept giving me notes and having me try it again , which often is a sign that you 're not doing it right . I thought , I 'm not getting this . So he said , ' Thank you , ' and I left . I didn 't expect to hear back . And then they called . " Chase also said he wanted Imperioli because he had been in Goodfellas . James Gandolfini was invited to audition for the part of Tony Soprano after casting director Susan Fitzgerald saw a short clip of his performance in the 1993 film True Romance . Lorraine Bracco , who had played the role of mob wife Karen Hill in Goodfellas , was originally asked to play the role of Carmela Soprano . She took the role of Dr. Jennifer Melfi instead because she wanted to try something different and felt the part of the highly educated Dr. Melfi would be more of a challenge for her . Tony Sirico , who has a criminal background , signed on to play Paulie Walnuts as long as his character was not to be a " rat " . Chase invited musician " Little Steven " Van Zandt ( known as the guitarist of Bruce Springsteen 's E Street Band ) to audition for a part in his series after seeing him live at the 1997 Rock & Roll Hall of Fame ceremony and being impressed with his appearance and presence . Van Zandt , who had never acted before , originally auditioned for the role of Tony Soprano but felt the role should go to an experienced actor . Van Zandt eventually agreed to star on the show as mob consigliere Silvio Dante and his real @-@ life spouse Maureen was cast as his on @-@ screen wife , Gabriella .
With the exception of Oscar nominee Bracco ( Goodfellas ) , Dominic Chianese ( The Godfather Part II , along with stage work ) and Emmy @-@ winner Nancy Marchand ( Lou Grant ) , the cast of the debut season of the series consisted of largely unknown actors . After the breakthrough success of the show , many cast members were noted for their acting ability and received mainstream attention for their performances . Subsequent seasons saw some established actors ( Joe Pantoliano , Robert Loggia , Steve Buscemi , Frank Vincent ) join the starring cast along with well @-@ known actors in recurring roles such as Peter Bogdanovich , John Heard , Robert Patrick , Peter Riegert , Annabella Sciorra , and David Strathairn . Several well @-@ known actors appeared in just one or two episodes , such as Lauren Bacall , Daniel Baldwin , Annette Bening , Polly Bergen , Sandra Bernhard , Charles S. Dutton , Jon Favreau , Janeane Garofalo , Hal Holbrook , Tim Kang , Elias Koteas , Ben Kingsley , Linda Lavin , Ken Leung , Julianna Margulies , Sydney Pollack , Wilmer Valderamma , Alicia Witt and Burt Young .
= = = Crew = = =
Series creator and executive producer David Chase served as showrunner and head writer for the production of all six seasons of the show . He was deeply involved with the general production of every episode and is noted for being a very controlling , demanding and specific producer . In addition to writing or co @-@ writing 2 – 7 episodes per season , Chase would oversee all the editing , consult with episode directors , give actors character motivation , approve casting choices and set designs and do extensive but uncredited re @-@ writes of episodes written by other writers . Brad Grey served as executive producer alongside Chase , but had no creative input on the show . Many members of the creative team behind The Sopranos were handpicked by Chase , some being old friends and colleagues of his ; others were selected after interviews conducted by producers of the show .
Many of the show 's writers worked in television prior to joining the writing staff of The Sopranos . Writing team and married couple Robin Green and Mitchell Burgess , who worked on the series as writers and producers from the first to the fifth season , had previously worked with Chase on Northern Exposure . Terence Winter , who joined the writing staff during the production of the second season and served as executive producer from season five onwards , practiced law for two years before deciding to pursue a career as a screenwriter . He eventually caught the attention of Chase through writer Frank Renzulli . Matthew Weiner , who served as staff writer and producer for the show 's fifth and sixth seasons , wrote a spec script for the series Mad Men in 2000 . The script was passed on to Chase who , after reading it , was so impressed that he immediately offered Weiner a job as a writer for The Sopranos . Cast members Michael Imperioli and Toni Kalem , who portray Christopher Moltisanti and Angie Bonpensiero , respectively , also wrote episodes for the show . Imperioli wrote five episodes of seasons two through five and Kalem wrote one episode of season five . Other writers the show employed throughout its run include Frank Renzulli , Todd A. Kessler ( known as the co @-@ creator of Damages ) , writing team Diane Frolov and Andrew Schneider ( worked with Chase on Northern Exposure ) and Lawrence Konner , who co @-@ created Almost Grown with Chase in 1988 . In total , 20 writers or writing teams ( 22 people ) are credited with writing episodes of The Sopranos . Of these , two ( Tim Van Patten and Maria Laurino ) receive a single story credit and eight are credited with writing a sole episode . The most prolific writers of the series were Chase ( 30 credited episodes , including story credits ) , Winter ( 25 episodes ) , Green and Burgess ( 22 episodes ) , Weiner ( 12 episodes ) and Renzulli ( 9 episodes ) .
Before directing The Sopranos , many of the directors had worked on other television series and in independent films . The most frequent directors of the series were Tim Van Patten ( 20 episodes ) , John Patterson ( 13 episodes ) , Allen Coulter ( 12 episodes ) , and Alan Taylor ( 9 episodes ) , all of whom have a background in television . Recurring cast members Steve Buscemi and Peter Bogdanovich also directed episodes of the series intermittently . Chase directed two episodes himself , the pilot episode and the series finale . Both episodes were photographed by the show 's original director of photography Alik Sakharov ; he later alternated episodes with Phil Abraham . The show 's photography and directing is noted for its feature film @-@ quality . This look was achieved by Chase collaborating with Sakharov : " David wanted a look that would have its own two feet . [ ... ] From the pilot , we would sit down with the whole script and break the scenes down into shots . That 's what you do with feature films . "
= = = Music = = =
The Sopranos is noted for its eclectic music selections and has received considerable critical attention for its effective use of previously recorded songs . Chase personally selected all of the show 's music with producer Martin Bruestle and music editor Kathryn Dayak , sometimes also consulting Steven Van Zandt . The music was usually selected once the production and editing of an episode was completed , but on occasion sequences were filmed to match preselected pieces of music .
The show 's opening theme is " Woke Up This Morning " ( Chosen One Mix ) , written by , remixed and performed by British band Alabama 3 . With few exceptions , a different song plays over the closing credits of each episode . Many songs are repeated multiple times through an episode , such as " Living on a Thin Line " by The Kinks in the season three episode " University " and " Glad Tidings " by Van Morrison in the season five finale " All Due Respect " . Other songs are heard several times throughout the series . A notable example is " Con te partirò " , performed by Italian singer Andrea Bocelli , which plays several times in relation to the character of Carmela Soprano . While the show utilizes a wealth of previously recorded music , it is also notable for its lack of originally composed incidental music , compared to other television programs .
Two soundtrack albums containing music from the series have been released . The first , titled The Sopranos : Music from the HBO Original Series , was released in 1999 . It contains selections from the show 's first two seasons and reached # 54 on the U.S. Billboard 200 . A second soundtrack compilation , titled The Sopranos - Peppers and Eggs : Music From The HBO Series , was released in 2001 . This double @-@ disc album contains songs and selected dialogue from the show 's first three seasons . It reached # 38 on the U.S. Billboard 200 .
= = = Sets and locations = = =
The majority of the exterior scenes taking place in New Jersey were filmed on location , with the majority of the interior shots — including most indoor shots of the Soprano residence , the back room of the strip club Bada Bing ! , and Dr. Melfi 's psychiatrist 's office — filmed at Silvercup Studios in New York City .
The pork store , a frequent hangout for the mobsters on the show , was in the pilot episode known as Centanni 's Meat Market , an actual butchery in Elizabeth , New Jersey . After the series was picked up by HBO , the producers leased a building with a store front in Kearny , New Jersey . For the remainder of the production period , this building served as the shooting location for scenes outside and inside the pork store , now renamed Satriale 's . After the series ended , the building was demolished .
Bada Bing ! , a strip club owned and operated by the character Silvio Dante on the show , is an actual strip club on Route 17 in Lodi , New Jersey . Exteriors and interiors ( except for the back room ) were shot on location . The club is called Satin Dolls and was an existing business before the show started . The club continued to operate during the eight years the show was filmed there . As such , a business arrangement was worked out with the owner . Locations manager Mark Kamine recalls that the owner was " very gracious " as long as the shooting did not " conflict with his business time . " Scenes set at the restaurant Vesuvio , owned and operated in the series by character Artie Bucco , were in the first episode filmed at a restaurant called Manolo 's located in Elizabeth . After the destruction of Vesuvio within the context of the series , Artie opened a new restaurant called Nuovo Vesuvio ; exterior scenes set there were filmed at an Italian restaurant called Punta Dura located in Long Island City . All the exterior and some interior shots of the Soprano residence were filmed on location at a private residence in North Caldwell , New Jersey .
= = = Title sequence = = =
Tony Soprano is seen emerging from the Lincoln Tunnel and passes through the tollbooth for the New Jersey Turnpike . Numerous landmarks in and around Newark and Elizabeth , New Jersey , are then shown passing by the camera as Tony drives down the highway . The sequence ends with Tony pulling into the driveway of his suburban home . Chase has said that the goal of the title sequence was to show that this particular mafia show was about New Jersey , as opposed to New York , where most similar dramas have been set .
In the first three seasons , between Tony leaving the tunnel and entering the Turnpike , an image of the World Trade Center towers is visible in his side rear @-@ view mirror . After the September 11 , 2001 attacks , this shot was removed , beginning with the show 's fourth season .
In a 2010 issue of TV Guide , the show ’ s opening title sequence ranked # 10 on a list of TV 's top 10 credits sequences , as selected by readers .
= = Cast and characters = =
The Sopranos features a large cast of characters , many of whom get significant amounts of character development — regardless of level of importance . Some only appear in certain seasons , while others appear ( sporadically or constantly ) throughout the entire series . All characters were created by David Chase , unless otherwise noted .
Tony Soprano ( James Gandolfini ) is the series ' protagonist . Tony is one of the capos ( and the unofficial underboss ) of the New Jersey @-@ based DiMeo crime family , at the beginning of the series ; he eventually becomes its undisputed boss . He is also the patriarch of the Soprano household . Throughout the series , Tony struggles to balance the conflicting requirements of his family — wife Carmela , daughter Meadow , son A. J. , and mother Livia — with those of the Mafia family he controls . Because he is prone to bouts of clinical depression , after a fainting spell ( triggered by a panic attack ) , Tony 's physician refers him for treatment from psychiatrist Dr. Jennifer Melfi ( Lorraine Bracco ) , in the show 's first episode . She treats Tony to the best of her ability despite the fact that they routinely clash over various issues . Melfi is usually thoughtful , rational and humane — a stark contrast to Tony 's personality . Tony , a serial womanizer , occasionally divulges his sexual attraction to Dr. Melfi ; Melfi harbors some degree of attraction to Tony , too , but never admits or acts on it . Melfi is far more attracted to Tony 's dangerousness and power . She is drawn to the challenge of helping such an unusual client , and naively assumes that their doctor @-@ patient relationship will not affect her personal life in any way .
Adding to Tony 's complicated life is his relationship with his wife Carmela ( Edie Falco ) , which is strained by his constant infidelity and her struggle to reconcile the reality of Tony 's business ( which she is often in denial of ) , with the affluent lifestyle and higher social status it brings her . Both have up @-@ and @-@ down relationships with their two children : the intelligent @-@ but @-@ rebellious Meadow ( Jamie @-@ Lynn Sigler ) , and underachiever A.J. ( i.e. , Anthony , Jr . ) ( Robert Iler ) , whose everyday teenage issues are further complicated by their eventual knowledge of their father 's criminal activities and reputation .
The starring cast includes members of Tony 's extended family , including : his disapproving , manipulative mother , Olivia " ' Livia " Soprano ( Nancy Marchand ) ; his aimless , histrionic older sister , Janice ( Aida Turturro ) ; his paternal uncle Corrado " Junior " Soprano ( Dominic Chianese ) , nominal boss of the crime family following the death of then @-@ acting boss Jackie Aprile , Sr. ; cousin Tony Blundetto ( Steve Buscemi ) ; and , Christopher Moltisanti ( Michael Imperioli ) , often referred to as Tony 's " nephew " ( but is actually his cousin by marriage ) . Both ' Livia and Janice are scheming , treacherous , shrewd manipulators with major @-@ yet @-@ unaddressed psychological issues of their own . The single @-@ mindedly ambitious Uncle Junior is chronically frustrated by having not been made boss of the DiMeo family , despite old @-@ school mob traditions entitling him to the position by virtue of seniority . He feels his authority is perpetually undermined by Tony 's greater influence in the organization , and barely contains his seething jealousy at having to watch both his younger brother ( Tony 's father ) and now Tony , himself , leapfrog him in the organization . As their professional tensions escalate , Uncle Junior employs increasingly desperate , behind @-@ the @-@ scenes measures to solve his problems with Tony , who still idolizes his uncle , and wants to retain Junior 's affection and approval . Uncle Junior and Christopher are fixtures in Tony 's real family , as well as his crime family , so their actions in one realm often create further conflicts in the other . Christopher , an entitled , insecure DiMeo associate who is as ambitious as he is insubordinate and incompetent , is also a chronic substance abuser . Tony Blundetto is a well @-@ respected DiMeo family soldier who returns after completing a lengthy prison sentence ; he leaves prison committed to " going straight " ( to Tony 's dismay ) , but also has an intense violent streak .
Tony 's close circle within the DiMeo crime family includes : Silvio Dante ( Steven Van Zandt ) , who runs the family 's strip club headquarters , and other businesses ; Paulie " Walnuts " Gualtieri ( Tony Sirico ) , a tough , short @-@ tempered , aging soldier who is fiercely loyal to Tony ; and , Salvatore " Big Pussy " Bonpensiero ( Vincent Pastore ) , a veteran gangster who runs an automotive body shop . Silvio is Tony 's consigliere and best friend . Paulie " Walnuts " and " Big Pussy " ( often called just , " Pussy " ) have worked with Tony and his father ; Also in Tony 's criminal organization are : Patsy Parisi ( Dan Grimaldi ) , and Furio Giunta ( Federico Castelluccio ) . Patsy is a soft @-@ spoken soldier with a head for figures ; Furio , an Italian national who joins the family later in the series , serves as Tony 's violent enforcer and bodyguard .
Other significant characters in the DiMeo family include : Bobby " Bacala " Baccalieri ( Steven R. Schirripa ) ; Richie Aprile ( David Proval ) ; Ralph Cifaretto ( Joe Pantoliano ) ; Eugene Pontecorvo ( Robert Funaro ) ; and Vito Spatafore ( Joseph R. Gannascoli ) . Bobby is a subordinate of Uncle Junior 's whom Tony initially bullies , but later accepts into his inner circle . Ralph is a clever , ambitious top @-@ earner ; but , his arrogance and obnoxious , disrespectful , and unpredictably violent tendencies turn Tony resentful . Richie Aprile is released from prison in season 2 , and quickly makes waves . Pontecorvo is a young soldier who becomes a " made " man alongside Christopher . Spatafore works his way up through the ranks to become top earner of the Aprile crew , but is secretly gay .
Friends of the Soprano family include : Herman " Hesh " Rabkin ( Jerry Adler ) ; Adriana La Cerva ( Drea de Matteo ) ; Rosalie Aprile ( Sharon Angela ) ; Angie Bonpensiero ( Toni Kalem ) , along with Artie ( John Ventimiglia ) and Charmaine Bucco ( Kathrine Narducci ) . Hesh is an invaluable adviser and friend to Tony , as he was when Tony 's father ran things . Adriana is Christopher 's loyal and long @-@ suffering girlfriend ; the two have a volatile relationship , but appear destined to stay together . Christopher often ignores Adriana 's advice , and winds up regretting it . Rosalie is the widow of previous DiMeo boss Jackie Aprile , Sr. , and a very close friend of Carmela . Angie is Salvatore Bonpensiero 's wife ; she later goes into " business " for herself , and quite successfully . Artie & Charmaine are childhood friends of the Sopranos , and owners of the popular restaurant , Vesuvio . Charmaine wishes to have no association with Tony and his crew due to fears that Tony 's criminal ways will ultimately ruin everything she and Artie have achieved . Artie , however — a law @-@ abiding , hard @-@ working man — is drawn to his childhood friend Tony 's glamorous , seemingly carefree lifestyle . Charmaine bitterly resents Artie 's chronic tendency to disregard her wishes while catering to Tony 's ; their marriage suffers greatly , as a result . Charmaine also had a brief sexual encounter with Tony ( when he and Carmela had temporarily broken @-@ up ) when all four were teenagers .
John " Johnny Sack " Sacramoni ( Vince Curatola ) , Phil Leotardo ( Frank Vincent ) and " Little " Carmine Lupertazzi , Jr . ( Ray Abruzzo ) are all significant characters from the New York City @-@ based Lupertazzi crime family , which shares a good amount of its business with the Soprano organization . Although the Lupertazzis ' and DiMeos ' interests are often at odds , Tony maintains a cordial , business @-@ like relationship with " Johnny Sack " , preferring to make mutually @-@ beneficial deals , not war . Johnny Sack 's second @-@ in @-@ command and eventual successor , Phil Leotardo , is less friendly and harder for Tony to do business with . Little Carmine is the son of the family 's first boss , and vies for power with its other members .
= = Episodes = =
= = = Season 1 = = =
When Tony Soprano collapses after suffering a panic attack , he begins therapy with Dr. Jennifer Melfi . Details of Tony 's upbringing — with his father 's influence looming large on his development as a gangster , but more so that Tony 's mother , Livia , was vengeful and possibly psychopathic — are revealed . His complicated relationship with his wife Carmela is also explored , as well as her feelings regarding her husband 's cosa nostra ties . Meadow and Anthony Jr . — Tony 's children — gain increasing knowledge of their father 's mob dealings . Later , federal indictments are brought as a result of someone in his organization talking to the FBI .
After ordering the execution of Brendan Filone and the mock execution of Chris Moltisanti , Tony 's uncle Corrado " Junior " Soprano is installed as boss of the family ( following the death of previous boss Jackie Aprile , Sr. from cancer ) , even though Tony actually controls most things from behind the scenes . Furious at Corrado 's plan to have him killed , Tony responds to the attempt on his life with a violent reprisal , and confronts his mother for her role in plotting his downfall ; she appears to have a psychologically @-@ triggered stroke . " Junior " is arrested by the FBI on non @-@ related charges .
= = = Season 2 = = =
Jackie 's brother Richie Aprile is released from prison at the beginning of the second season , and proves to be uncontrollable in the business arena ; he also starts a relationship with Tony 's sister Janice , who has arrived from Seattle . Tony 's friend " Big Pussy " returns to New Jersey after a conspicuous absence .
Christopher Moltisanti becomes engaged to his girlfriend Adriana La Cerva . Matthew Bevilaqua and Sean Gismonte , two low @-@ level associates dissatisfied with their perceived lack of success in the Soprano crew , try to make a name for themselves by attempting to kill Christopher . Their plan backfires ; Christopher kills Sean and , though critically wounded , survives their attack . Tony and Big Pussy locate Matthew and assassinate him . However , a witness goes to the FBI and identifies Tony .
Junior is placed under house arrest as he awaits trial . Richie , frustrated with Tony 's authority over him , entreats Junior to have Tony killed . Junior feigns interest , then informs Tony of Richie 's intentions , leaving Tony with another problem to address . However , the situation is defused unexpectedly when Janice kills Richie in a violent argument ; Tony and his men conceal all evidence of the murder , and Janice returns to Seattle .
Tony , realizing Big Pussy is an FBI informant , murders him on board a boat ( with assistance from Silvio Dante and Paulie Gualtieri ) , then wraps his corpse in chains and throws it overboard .
= = = Season 3 = = =
Following the " disappearance " of Aprile crew capo Richie Aprile , the return of the ambitious Ralph Cifaretto , having spent an extended period of leisure time in Miami , marks the third season . He renews a relationship with Rosalie Aprile , the widow of the deceased acting boss Jackie Aprile , Sr. , and former capo of the Aprile crew , which bears his name . With Richie assumed to have joined the Witness Protection Program , Ralph unofficially usurps control over the Aprile crew , proving to be an exceptionally dexterous earner for the crew . While Ralph 's competitive merit would seemingly have him next in line to ascend to capo , his insubordination inclines Tony not to promote him and instead gives the promotion to the unqualified , but complacent , Gigi Cestone , causing much resentment and tension between him and Ralph . Livia dies of a stroke .
Jackie Aprile , Jr. becomes involved with Meadow and then descends into a downward spiral of recklessness , drugs and crime . Tony initially attempts to act as a mentor to Jackie but becomes increasingly impatient with his escalating misbehavior , particularly as Jackie 's relationship with Meadow begins to become serious . Inspired by a story from Ralph about how Tony , Jackie Sr. , and Silvio Dante got made , Jackie and his friends Dino Zerilli and Carlo Renzi make a similar move and attempt to rob Eugene Pontecorvo 's Saturday night card game , so they can gain recognition from the family , possibly getting them respected and made as well . The plan takes a turn for the worse when Jackie panics due to the heckling of the card dealer " Sunshine " and shoots him to death . Dino and Carlo are killed during the robbery , but Jackie manages to escape . Tony decides to give Ralph the decision regarding Jackie Jr . ' s punishment . Despite his role as a surrogate father , Ralph decides to have Jackie Jr. killed .
Ralph ultimately crosses the line when , in a cocaine @-@ induced rage , he gets into a confrontation with girlfriend Tracee and beats her to death . She may have been pregnant with his child at the time . This infuriates Tony to the point where he violates traditional mafia code by striking him repeatedly in front of the entire family . Bad blood temporarily surfaces between the two but is shortly resolved after Gigi Cestone dies of an aneurysm , thereby forcing Tony to reluctantly promote Ralph to capo .
Tony begins an affair with Gloria Trillo , who is also a patient of Dr. Melfi . Their relationship is brief and tumultuous . Meanwhile , Dr. Melfi is raped . Junior is diagnosed with stomach cancer ; following chemotherapy , it goes into remission . A.J. continues to get in trouble at school — despite success on the football team — which culminates in his expulsion .
= = = Season 4 = = =
Tony and Christopher stake out the retirement party of Detective Lieutenant Barry Haydu , the man who murdered Christopher 's father . Tony gives Christopher Haydu 's address . When Christopher asks why he had been allowed to live all these years , Tony says that he had been valuable , but that he has outlived his worth . Christopher waits inside Haydu 's home and ambushes him as he returns from his party . Haydu vehemently denies murdering Christopher 's father , but struggles to get away , yelling " I 'm sorry ! " when Christopher goes to shoot him .
New York underboss Johnny Sack becomes enraged after learning Ralph Cifaretto made an inappropriate joke about his wife 's weight . He seeks permission from boss Carmine Lupertazzi to have Ralph clipped , but is denied . Johnny orders the hit anyway . Tony receives the okay from Carmine to hit Johnny Sack for insubordination . Junior Soprano tips Tony to use an old outfit in Providence for the work . After catching his wife eating sweets secretly , instead of following the diet plan , Johnny Sack gives in , and bloodshed is averted .
Tony and Ralph invest in a race horse named Pie @-@ O @-@ My , who wins several races and makes them both a great deal of money . However , when Ralph 's 12 @-@ year @-@ old son Justin is severely injured when an arrow plunges into his chest , Tony comes to believe Ralph burned Pie @-@ O @-@ My in a stable fire to collect $ 200 @,@ 000 in insurance money . Tony confronts Ralph the following morning and Ralph denies setting the fire . The two engage in a violent brawl , culminating in Tony strangling Ralph to death . Tony and Christopher dispose of the body ; they bury his head and hands at Mikey Palmice 's father 's farm and throw his body into a quarry .
While he is leaving court , Uncle Junior is hit in the head with a boom mic and falls down several steps . Tony advises him to take advantage of the opportunity , act mentally incompetent , and employ it as a ruse for not continuing the trial . Later , Eugene Pontecorvo intimidates a juror , resulting in a deadlocked jury , forcing the judge to declare a mistrial .
Following the death of Bobby Baccalieri 's wife , Janice pursues a romantic relationship with him . Christopher 's addiction to heroin deepens , prompting his associates and family to organize an intervention , after which he enters a drug rehabilitation center . Adriana befriends a woman who is an undercover FBI agent . When the friendship ends , the woman reveals herself as an FBI agent and tells Adriana the only way to stay out of prison is to become an informant . Adriana agrees and starts sharing information with the FBI .
Carmela , whose relationship with Tony is tense due to financial worries and Tony 's infidelities , develops a mutual infatuation with Furio Giunta . Furio , incapable of breaking his own moral codes and that of the Neapolitan mafia , clandestinely returns home to Italy . After Tony 's former mistress calls their home , Carmela throws Tony out . Tony is approached by Johnny Sack with a proposal to murder Carmine , which Tony turns down .
= = = Season 5 = = =
A string of new characters are introduced , including Tony 's cousin Tony Blundetto , who simultaneously along with other mafiosi , is released from prison . Among the others released are former DiMeo crime family capo Michele " Feech " La Manna , Lupertazzi family capo Phil Leotardo , and semi @-@ retired Lupertazzi consigliere Angelo Garepe . Tony offers Tony B. a job , but he respectfully declines , as he is determined to lead a straight life . He initially begins to take courses to earn a degree in massage therapy and aspires to open up his own massage parlor . After Carmine Lupertazzi dies of a stroke , his death leaves a vacancy for boss of the Lupertazzi family , which will soon be fought over by underboss Johnny Sack and Carmine 's son Carmine Lupertazzi , Jr .. After Feech proves to be an insubordinate presence , Tony arranges for him to be sent back to prison by setting him up with stolen property , violating his parole .
The war between Johnny Sack and Carmine , Jr. begins when Johnny has Phil kill " lady shylock " Lorraine Calluzzo . Tony B. ' s attempt to stay straight comes to a head when he gets into a brawl with his employer Sungyon Kim . Tony informs Tony B. that " it 's hard working with strangers . " Angelo , who was a good friend to Tony B. in prison , and Lupertazzi capo Rusty Millio offer Tony B. the job of taking out Joey Peeps in retaliation for Lorraine 's death . Tony B. initially declines but , desperate to earn , accepts the job . He catches Joey outside a bordello , shoots him , and quickly flees the scene . Johnny believes Tony B. is involved , and retaliates by having Phil and his brother Billy Leotardo kill Angelo . Tony B. finds the Leotardo brothers and opens fire , killing Billy and wounding Phil .
Still separated from Carmela , Tony is living at his parents ' house . Carmela , now the sole authority figure in the home , becomes frustrated as her rules lead A.J. to resent her ; eventually she allows him to live with his father . She has a brief relationship with Robert Wegler , A.J. ' s guidance counselor ; he breaks it off abruptly when he suspects that she is manipulating him to improve A.J. ' s grades . Tony and Carmela reconcile ; Tony promises to be more loyal and agrees to pay for a piece of real estate Carmela wishes to develop .
Tony gets Meadow 's boyfriend Finn De Trolio a summer job at a construction site , which is run by Aprile crew capo Vito Spatafore . Finn comes in early one morning and catches Vito performing fellatio on a security guard . Vito tries to buddy up to Finn so that he does not say anything to anybody else . He even asks Finn to a Yankees game , which Finn does not attend . Finn soon quits the job out of fear .
After covering up a murder that occurred at The Crazy Horse , Adriana is arrested and pressured by the FBI to wear a wire to avoid being charged as an accomplice . She refuses to wear a wire and informs the FBI that she may be able to persuade her fiancé Christopher to co @-@ operate and become an informant against Tony . She confesses to Christopher that she has been informing and that the FBI would give them new identities if they would testify . Christopher is grief @-@ stricken and nearly kills her . He leaves the apartment , saying he needs time to think . Tony has Silvio pick up Adriana under the pretense of taking her to see Christopher , but instead drives her out to the woods and executes her . Adriana ’ s betrayal and subsequent execution is too much for Christopher to handle and he briefly returns to drug abuse to deal with the pain .
Phil Leotardo and his henchmen beat Benny Fazio while trying to acquire the whereabouts of Tony B. ; Phil also threatens to have Christopher taken out if Tony B. ' s whereabouts are not disclosed soon . To avoid any more of his guys getting hurt and to pacify New York , Tony tracks Tony B. to their Uncle Pat 's farm and shoots him . Phil , however , is furious that he did not get the opportunity to do it himself . Tony and Johnny meet at Johnny 's house in a reconciliatory manner , but Johnny is arrested by Federal agents , while Tony escapes .
= = = Season 6 = = =
Uncle Junior , now senile and confused , shoots Tony at the beginning of the season . Rendered comatose , Tony dreams he is a salesman on a business trip , where he mistakenly exchanges his briefcase and identification with a man named Kevin Finnerty . Tony 's recovery from the shooting changes his outlook , and he tries to mend his ways . However , he is faced with more problems in his business life .
Once out of the hospital , Johnny Sack 's daughter gets married and the Soprano family attends . There , Tony is shown very exhausted when taking off his shoes through security . In the process , he collapses to the ground , but is not hurt . Before the wedding , Johnny Sack is approved to leave prison for six hours to see his daughter get married , but has to pay for the metal detectors and the presence of the U.S. marshals at the event . As his daughter is about to drive away , the SUV that was escorting Johnny to the wedding blocks the car from leaving and an altercation begins in the driveway . In a moment of weakness and despair , Johnny Sack cries as he is put back into handcuffs and driven back to prison , greatly diminishing the respect his crew and Tony 's crew have for him .
Vito Spatafore is outed as homosexual after running into a friend at a New York night club . The rumor spreads quickly , and once word gets to Meadow that everyone else knows , she tells Tony and Carmela about the incident between Finn and Vito with the security guard . Finn then has to sit in front of Tony 's entire crew and tell them what happened with the guard , solidifying their thoughts on Vito 's sexuality . Tony is urged to deal with the problem by Phil Leotardo , now acting boss of New York with Johnny Sack in prison . Once Vito is outed , he runs away from the city and hides out in a New Hampshire town where he claims to be writing a book and meets with the locals . Vito also starts a romantic relationship with a male cook at a local diner . Eventually , Vito returns to New Jersey and asks Tony to allow him to return to work , albeit in Atlantic City . He continues to maintain that he is not a homosexual . Tony mulls over the decision to let him work , as well as whether to let him live . When Tony fails to act , Phil intervenes and kills Spatafore . When one of the members of the New York family , Fat Dom Gamiello , pays a visit to the Jersey office and won 't stop making jokes about Vito and his death , the two members of Tony 's crime family who are present kill Fat Dom out of anger at the disrespect he has shown . Once more , it appears that the families are on the verge of all @-@ out war .
During the first half of the season Chris and Carmine head to Los Angeles to try to sign Ben Kingsley for a film they are trying to make called Cleaver , which is basically a mix of The Godfather and Saw . But Kingsley passes on the picture . While in Los Angeles Chris goes back to using cocaine for a short period of time .
Tony considers killing several of his associates for relatively minor infractions . Christopher is unable to leave the mob , deflecting his problems by relapsing into drug addiction and kills his friend from Narcotics Anonymous , J. T. Dolan . He is then seriously injured in a car accident while driving under the influence of narcotics . Tony , the sole passenger , is not badly hurt , and suffocates Christopher to death . A.J. is dumped by his fiancée and slips into depression , culminating in a failed suicide attempt in the backyard pool . Dr. Melfi is convinced by friends that Tony is making no progress and may even be using talking therapy for his own sociopathic benefit . She drops him as a patient .
Johnny Sack dies from lung cancer while imprisoned , and Leotardo then consolidates his position in the Lupertazzi family by having his rivals for the leadership killed . Phil then officially takes over , igniting a resumption of the past feud with Tony and refusing to compromise with Tony on a garbage deal . When Tony assaults a Lupertazzi soldier for harassing Meadow while she is on a date , Phil decides it 's time to decapitate the Soprano crew . He orders the executions of Bobby Baccalieri , who is shot to death ; Silvio , who ends up comatose ; and Tony , who goes into hiding . A deal is brokered whereby the rest of the Lupertazzi family agrees to ignore the order to kill Tony , giving Tony an opportunity to go after Phil . An FBI agent informs Tony of Phil 's location , allowing Tony to have him killed . Tony suspects that Carlo , a capo from New Jersey , has become an informant in an attempt to help out his son , who has recently been caught for dealing ecstasy . Tony meets his lawyer , who informs him that subpoenas are being given to New Jersey and New York crews alike .
Tony , Carmela , and AJ meet for dinner , while the Journey song " Don 't Stop Believin ' " plays in the background . The camera cuts away from the Soprano family and presents vignettes of other diners . As the tension increases , Meadow is shown struggling with parking then crossing the street to the restaurant . A man , who had been previously shown at the counter specifically taking notice of Tony , is shown entering the restroom , the door of which is directly facing and approximately 90 degrees to the table at which Tony and his family are sitting . As Meadow walks up to the door , the screen goes to Tony . The diner door opens with a bell ringing , Tony looks up and the show smash cuts to black and after a few seconds the credits roll in silence .
Chase 's decision to end the last episode abruptly with just a black screen was controversial . While Chase has insisted that it was not his intention to stir controversy , the ambiguity over the ending and question of whether Tony was murdered has continued for years after the finale 's original broadcast and has spawned numerous websites devoted to finding out his true intention .
= = Reception , effect and legacy = =
= = = Ratings = = =
The Sopranos was a major ratings success . Despite being aired on premium cable network HBO , which is available in significantly fewer American homes than regular networks , the show frequently attracted equal or larger audiences than most popular network shows of the time . Nielsen ratings for the show 's first four seasons are not entirely accurate , however , as prior to January 2004 Nielsen reported aggregate numbers for cable networks , meaning people watching other HBO channels than the main one , on which The Sopranos aired , would be included in the ratings estimates .
= = = Critical response = = =
Many critics have asserted that The Sopranos is the greatest and most groundbreaking television series of all time . The writing , acting , and directing have often been singled out for praise . The show has also received considerable attention from critics and journalists for its mature and artistic content , technical merit , music selections , cinematography , and willingness to deal with difficult and controversial subjects including crime , family , gender roles , mental illness , and American and Italian American culture . The Sopranos is credited for creating a new era in the mafia genre deviating from the traditional dramatized image of the gangster in favor of a simpler , more accurate reflection of mob life . The series sheds light on Italian family dynamics through the depiction of Tony 's tumultuous relationship with his mother . Edie Falco 's character Carmela Soprano is praised in Kristyn Gorton 's essay " Why I Love Carmela Soprano " for challenging Italian @-@ American gender roles . New Yorker editor David Remnick described The Sopranos as mirroring the " mindless commerce and consumption " of modern America .
The Sopranos has been called " perhaps the greatest pop @-@ culture masterpiece of its day " by Vanity Fair contributor Peter Biskind . Remnick called the show " the richest achievement in the history of television . " In 2002 , TV Guide ranked The Sopranos fifth on their list of the " Top 50 TV Shows of All Time , " while the series was only in its fourth season . In 2007 , Channel 4 ( UK ) named The Sopranos the greatest television series of all time .
The first season of the series received overwhelmingly positive reviews . Following its initial airing in 1999 , The New York Times stated , " [ The Sopranos ] just may be the greatest work of American popular culture of the last quarter century . " In 2007 , Roger Holland of PopMatters wrote , " the debut season of The Sopranos remains the crowning achievement of American television . "
Time Out New York ' s Andrew Johnston had high praise for the series , stating : " Together , Chase and his fellow writers ( including Terence Winter and Mad Men creator Matthew Weiner ) produced the legendary Great American Novel , and it ’ s 86 episodes long . " Johnston asserted the preeminence of The Sopranos as opposed to Deadwood and The Wire in a debate with critics Alan Sepinwall and Matt Zoller Seitz .
In November and December 2009 , a large number of television critics named The Sopranos the best series of the decade and all time in articles summarizing the decade in television . In numbered lists over the best television programs , The Sopranos frequently ranked first or second , almost always competing with The Wire . In 2013 , TV Guide ranked The Sopranos No. 2 in its list of The 60 Greatest Dramas of All Time , In the same year , the Writers Guild of America named it the best @-@ written television series of all time and TV Guide ranked it as the greatest show of all time .
Certain episodes have frequently been singled out by critics as the show 's best . These include the pilot , titled " The Sopranos " , " College " and " I Dream of Jeannie Cusamano " of the first season ; " The Knight in White Satin Armor " and " Funhouse " of the second ; " Employee of the Month " , " Pine Barrens " and " Amour Fou " of the third ; " Whoever Did This " and " Whitecaps " of the fourth ; " Irregular Around the Margins " and " Long Term Parking " of the fifth and " Members Only " , " Join the Club " , " Kennedy and Heidi " , " The Second Coming " and " The Blue Comet " of the sixth season .
= = = Awards and nominations = = =
The Sopranos won and was nominated for a large number of awards over the course of its original broadcast . It was nominated for the Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Drama Series in every year it was eligible , and is the first cable TV series to receive a nomination for the award . After being nominated for and losing the award in 1999 , 2000 , 2001 , and 2003 ( losing the first time to The Practice and the last three to The West Wing ) , The Sopranos won the award in 2004 , and again in 2007 . Its 2004 win made The Sopranos the first series on a cable network to win the award , while its 2007 win made the show the first drama series since Upstairs , Downstairs in 1977 to win the award after it had finished airing . The show earned 21 nominations for Outstanding Writing for a Drama Series and won the award six times , with creator David Chase receiving three awards .
The Sopranos won at least one Emmy Award for acting in every eligible year except 2006 and 2007 . James Gandolfini and Edie Falco were each nominated six times for Outstanding Lead Actor and Actress , respectively , both winning a total of three awards . Joe Pantoliano won an Emmy for Outstanding Supporting Actor in 2003 , and Michael Imperioli and Drea de Matteo also won Emmys in 2004 for their supporting roles on the show . Other actors who have received Emmy nominations for the series include Lorraine Bracco ( in the Lead Actress and Supporting Actress categories ) , Dominic Chianese , Nancy Marchand , Aida Turturro , Tim Daly , John Heard , Annabella Sciorra and Steve Buscemi , who was also nominated for directing the episode " Pine Barrens " .
In 1999 and 2000 , The Sopranos earned two consecutive George Foster Peabody Awards . Only three other series have won the award in consecutive years : Northern Exposure , The West Wing , and Breaking Bad . The show also received numerous nominations at the Golden Globe Awards ( winning the award for Best Drama Series in 2000 ) and the major guild awards ( Directors , Producers , Writers , and Actors ) .
= = = Influence on television industry = = =
The Sopranos had a significant impact on the shape of the American television industry . It has been characterized by critics as one of the most influential artistic works of the 2000s ( decade ) and is credited with allowing other drama series with similarly mature content to achieve mainstream recognition . It has also often been cited as one of the television series that helped turn serial television into a legitimate art form on the same level as feature films , literature and theater . TIME editor James Poniewozik wrote in 2007 , " This mafia saga showed just how complex and involving TV storytelling could be , inspiring an explosion of ambitious dramas on cable and off . " Also in 2007 , Maureen Ryan of PopMatters described The Sopranos as " the most influential television drama ever " and wrote " No one @-@ hour drama series has had a bigger impact on how stories are told on the small screen , or more influence on what kind of fare we ’ ve been offered by an ever @-@ growing array of television networks . " Hal Boedeker , also writing for PopMatters in 2007 , stated that the series was " widely influential for revealing that cable would accommodate complex series about dark characters . The Sopranos ushered in Six Feet Under , The Shield , Rescue Me and Big Love . "
The series helped establish HBO as producers of critically acclaimed and commercially successful original television series . Michael Flaherty of The Hollywood Reporter has stated that The Sopranos " helped launch [ HBO 's ] reputation as a destination for talent looking for cutting @-@ edge original series work . "
= = = Depiction of stereotypes = = =
The show has been frequently criticized for perpetuating negative stereotypes about Italian Americans . Virtually all major Italian American organizations , including the National Italian American Foundation , Order Sons of Italy in America , Unico National and the Italic Institute of America voiced their concern that The Sopranos presents , as reality , a very distorted and harmful stereotype of Italian Americans and their cultural values .
In 2000 , Essex County officials denied producers permission to film on county @-@ owned property , arguing that the show depicts Italian Americans in a " less than favorable light . " In 2002 , organizers of the New York City Columbus Day Parade won an injunction to keep Mayor Michael Bloomberg from inviting cast members of The Sopranos to participate in the parade .
Fairleigh Dickinson University 's PublicMind found , in an August 2001 national survey , that 37 % of the 800 people polled said they watched the show regularly , and 65 % of this group ( 192 people , or 24 % of the total ) disagreed that the show portrayed Italian Americans in a negative way . Professor William Roberts , an academic associated with the poll , and author of several books on modern Italian history commented that : " The show 's inflated image of organized crime casts a shadow over both the state and its Italian @-@ American community . "
At the end of the series the PublicMind conducted a second national survey on the Soprano series . In this poll 41 % of the 776 people polled said they watched the show regularly , and 61 % of this group ( 194 people , or 25 % of the total ) disagreed with the idea that the show portrayed Italian Americans in a negative light . Professor Roberts , by then chair of Fairleigh Dickinson 's Public Administration Institute , stated that : " The show helped to perpetuate one of the more problematic and stereotypical images of Italian Americans . Both Italian and Italian @-@ American cultures have much more diverse and interesting heritages than the American public generally realizes . "
Humanities professor Camille Paglia , herself an Italian American , has spoken negatively about The Sopranos , arguing that its depiction of Italian @-@ Americans was inaccurate , inauthentic , dated and racist .
Chase has defended his show , saying that it is not meant to stereotype all Italian Americans , only to depict a small criminal subculture .
= = DVD and Blu @-@ ray Disc releases = =
All six seasons were released as DVD box sets , with the final season released in two parts ; two different versions of the complete series were also released .
In addition , the sixth season ( both parts 1 and 2 ) were also released on Blu @-@ ray Disc and HD DVD in 2006 and 2007 , respectively . The first season was released on Blu @-@ ray in 2009 . A complete series box set was released on Blu @-@ ray on November 4 , 2014 .
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= Pale Blue Dot =
Pale Blue Dot is a photograph of planet Earth taken on February 14 , 1990 , by the Voyager 1 space probe from a record distance of about 6 billion kilometers ( 3 @.@ 7 billion miles , 40 @.@ 5 AU ) , as part of the Family Portrait series of images of the Solar System .
In the photograph , Earth 's apparent size is less than a pixel ; the planet appears as a tiny dot against the vastness of space , among bands of sunlight scattered by the camera 's optics .
Voyager 1 , which had completed its primary mission and was leaving the Solar System , was commanded by NASA to turn its camera around and take one last photograph of Earth across a great expanse of space , at the request of astronomer and author Carl Sagan .
= = Background = =
In September 1977 , NASA launched Voyager 1 , a 722 @-@ kilogram ( 1 @,@ 592 lb ) robotic spacecraft on a mission to study the outer Solar System and eventually interstellar space . After encountering the Jovian system in 1979 and the Saturnian system in 1980 , the primary mission was declared complete in November of the same year . Voyager 1 was the first space probe to provide detailed images of the two largest planets and their major moons .
The spacecraft , travelling at 40 @,@ 000 miles per hour ( 64 @,@ 000 km / h ) , is the farthest man @-@ made object from Earth and the first one to leave the Solar System . Its mission has been extended and continues to this day , with the aim of investigating the boundaries of the Solar system , including the Kuiper belt , the heliosphere and interstellar space . Operating for 38 years , 10 months and 17 days as of today ( July 24 , 2016 ) , it receives routine commands and transmits data back to the Deep Space Network .
Voyager 1 was initially expected to work only through the Saturn encounter . When the spacecraft passed the planet in 1980 , Sagan proposed the idea of the space probe taking one last picture of Earth . He pointed out that such a picture would not have had much scientific value , as the Earth would appear too small for Voyager 's cameras to make out any detail , but it could have been meaningful nevertheless as a perspective on our place in the universe .
Although many in NASA 's Voyager program were supportive of the idea , there were doubts that taking a picture of Earth so close to the Sun risked damaging the spacecraft 's imaging system irreparably . It was not until 1989 that Sagan 's idea was put into practice , but then instrument calibrations delayed the process further , and the personnel who devised and transmitted the radio commands to Voyager 1 were also being laid off or transferred to other projects . Finally , NASA Administrator Richard Truly interceded to ensure that the photograph was taken .
= = Camera = =
Voyager 1 's Imaging Science Subsystem ( ISS ) , now disabled , consisted of two cameras : a 200 mm focal length , low @-@ resolution wide @-@ angle camera ( WA ) , used for spatially extended imaging , and a 1500 mm high @-@ resolution narrow @-@ angle camera ( NA ) – the one that took Pale Blue Dot – intended for detailed imaging of specific targets . Both cameras were of the slow @-@ scan vidicon tube type and were fitted with eight colored filters , mounted on a filter wheel placed in front of the tube .
The challenge for NASA 's imaging team was that , as the mission progressed , the objects being photographed were getting farther away from the spacecraft , therefore appearing fainter and requiring longer exposures and even slewing ( panning ) of the cameras to achieve good quality . The telecommunication capability also decreased with distance , limiting the number of data modes that could be used by the imaging system .
After taking the Family Portrait series of images , which included Pale Blue Dot , NASA mission managers commanded Voyager 1 to power its cameras down , as the spacecraft was not going to fly near anything else of significance for the rest of its mission , while other instruments that were still collecting data needed power for the long journey to interstellar space .
= = Photograph = =
The design of the command sequence to be relayed to the spacecraft and the calculations for each photograph 's exposure time were developed by space scientists Candy Hansen of NASA 's Jet Propulsion Laboratory ( JPL ) and Carolyn Porco of the University of Arizona . After the planned imaging sequence was taken on February 14 , 1990 , the data from the camera was stored initially in an on @-@ board tape recorder . Transmission to Earth was also delayed by the Magellan and Galileo missions being given priority over the use of the Deep Space Network . Then , between March and May 1990 , Voyager 1 returned 60 frames back to Earth , with the radio signal travelling at the speed of light for nearly five and a half hours to cover the distance .
Three of the frames received showed the Earth as a tiny point of light in empty space . Each frame had been taken using a different color filter : blue , green and violet , with exposure times of 0 @.@ 72 , 0 @.@ 48 and 0 @.@ 72 seconds respectively . The three frames were then recombined to produce the image that became Pale Blue Dot .
Of the 640 @,@ 000 individual pixels that compose each frame , Earth takes up less than one ( 0 @.@ 12 pixels , according to NASA ) . The light bands across the photograph are an artifact , the result of sunlight scattering off parts of the camera and its sunshade , due to the relative proximity between the Sun and the Earth . Voyager 's point of view was approximately 32 ° above the ecliptic . Detailed analysis suggested that the camera also detected the Moon , although it is too faint to be visible without special processing .
The pale blue color of the dot is the result of polarization and scattering of the light reflected from Earth . The polarization in turn depends on various factors such as cloud cover , exposed areas of oceans , forests , deserts , snow fields etc .
Pale Blue Dot , which was taken with the narrow @-@ angle camera , was also published as part of a composite picture created from a wide @-@ angle camera photograph showing the Sun and the region of space containing the Earth and Venus . The wide @-@ angle image was inset with two narrow @-@ angle pictures : Pale Blue Dot and a similar photograph of Venus . The wide @-@ angle photograph was taken with the darkest filter ( a methane absorption band ) and the shortest possible exposure ( 5 milliseconds ) , to avoid saturating the camera 's vidicon tube with scattered sunlight . Even so , the result was a bright burned @-@ out image with multiple reflections from the optics in the camera and the Sun that appears far larger than the actual dimension of the solar disk . The rays around the Sun are a diffraction pattern of the calibration lamp which is mounted in front of the wide @-@ angle lens .
= = Distance = =
According to NASA 's Jet Propulsion Laboratory 's HORIZONS tool , the distances between Voyager 1 and the Earth on February 14 and May 15 , 1990 , were as follows :
= = Reflections by Sagan = =
During a public lecture held at his Cornell University on October 13 , 1994 , Carl Sagan presented the image to the audience and shared his reflections on the deeper meaning behind the idea of the pale blue dot :
We succeeded in taking that picture , and , if you look at it , you see a dot . That 's here . That 's home . That 's us . On it , everyone you ever heard of , every human being who ever lived , lived out their lives . The aggregate of all our joys and sufferings , thousands of confident religions , ideologies and economic doctrines , every hunter and forager , every hero and coward , every creator and destroyer of civilizations , every king and peasant , every young couple in love , every hopeful child , every mother and father , every inventor and explorer , every teacher of morals , every corrupt politician , every superstar , every supreme leader , every saint and sinner in the history of our species , lived there – on a mote of dust , suspended in a sunbeam .
The earth is a very small stage in a vast cosmic arena . Think of the rivers of blood spilled by all those generals and emperors so that in glory and in triumph they could become the momentary masters of a fraction of a dot . Think of the endless cruelties visited by the inhabitants of one corner of the dot on scarcely distinguishable inhabitants of some other corner of the dot . How frequent their misunderstandings , how eager they are to kill one another , how fervent their hatreds . Our posturings , our imagined self @-@ importance , the delusion that we have some privileged position in the universe , are challenged by this point of pale light .
[ ... ] To my mind , there is perhaps no better demonstration of the folly of human conceits than this distant image of our tiny world . To me , it underscores our responsibility to deal more kindly and compassionately with one another and to preserve and cherish that pale blue dot , the only home we 've ever known .
Sagan also titled his 1994 book Pale Blue Dot : A Vision of the Human Future in Space after the photograph .
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= Ralph Merrifield =
Ralph Merrifield ( 22 August 1913 – 9 January 1995 ) was an English museum curator and archaeologist . Described as " the father of London 's modern archaeology " , Merrifield was a specialist in both the archaeology of Roman London and the archaeology of magical practices , publishing six books on these subjects over the course of his life .
Born in Brighton , Merrifield began his archaeological career as an assistant at Brighton Museum while attaining an external degree in anthropology from the University of London . He served in the Royal Air Force during World War II , and then in 1950 became the Assistant Keeper of the Guildhall Museum in London . In 1956 , he relocated to Accra to organise the opening of the new National Museum of Ghana , before returning to work at the Guildhall Museum . Here he produced a synthesis of known material on the archaeology of Roman London , published as The Roman City of London in 1965 .
In 1975 , following the amalgamation of the Guildhall Museum with the London Museum to establish the new Museum of London , Merrifield was appointed Senior Keeper , and soon after was promoted to the position of Deputy Director . In 1978 , he retired from this position but remained active within the archaeological community , publishing both The Archaeology of Ritual and Magic in 1987 as well as further studies of Roman London . Also giving public lectures across the country , he was a keen supporter of the Standing Conference on London Archaeology , a body designed to monitor what he saw as the negative impact that English Heritage was having on the city 's archaeology .
= = Biography = =
= = = Early life and the Guildhall Museum : 1913 – 74 = = =
Merrifield was born on 22 August 1913 in the Southern English coastal city of Brighton . He was raised primarily by his mother , his father having died when Merrifield was three years old . He undertook his sixth form studies at the Municipal School for Boys , and it was whilst doing , in 1930 , that he began working at the Brighton Museum as an assistant to the museum curator H. S. Toms , himself a former assistant of the archaeologist Augustus Pitt Rivers . Inspired by the museum 's ethnographic collection which he had helped catalogue , Merrifield embarked on a University of London external degree which he completed in 1935 ; although its main focus was in anthropology , the degree had also allowed him to take intermediate courses in botany . It was during this that he developed a keen interest in the archaeological evidence for both religion and for the magical practices that took place in Britain 's past .
Following the outbreak of the Second World War , in 1940 Merrifield was conscripted into the Royal Air Force and in 1943 he was transferred to its intelligence division , specialising in the interpretation of aerial photographs . As a result of this , he was posted to both India and Java . After the conflict ended in 1945 , he returned to work at Brighton Museum .
In 1950 , Merrifield took a post as Assistant Keeper of the Guildhall Museum in London , a job that he would retain until 1975 . At the time the museum lacked a premises , with Merrifield assisting the Keeper Norman Cook in establishing an exhibit at the Royal Exchange in 1954 . During these post @-@ war years the city 's archaeological community was largely preoccupied with salvaging the Roman and Medieval structures that were damaged by The Blitz and the subsequent urban redevelopment . In 1951 Merrifield married Lysbeth Webb , a colleague at the Guildhall Museum , and together they went on to have one son and one daughter .
In November 1956 , Merrifield was sent to Accra in Ghana to establish the National Museum of Ghana . The museum was due to be constructed in time for the day of Ghana 's officially achieved independence in April 1957 , with its exhibits having previously been part of the University Museum of Ghana , however upon arrival Merrifield found that the construction was delayed . Returning to the Guildhall after six months , he campaigned for the archaeological excavation of sites prior to their redevelopment , resulting in the establishment of the Department of Urban Archaeology at the Guildhall Museum in 1973 .
In 1962 , he published his first important academic paper , a study of Roman coins found at the bottom of the River Walbrook . Although not a specialist in any one particular aspect of Romano @-@ British archaeology , he was able to synthesise a wide range of evidence to develop a picture of life in Londinium , the Roman settlement located in the City of London , publishing The Roman City of London in 1965 . The project had been suggested to him two years previously by the publisher Ernest Benn , and represented the first detailed study of Roman London to be published for 35 years . To produce it , Merrifield had catalogued all known Romano @-@ British remains in the city , further providing suggestions for where additional archaeological remains were likely located . The archaeologist W. F. Grimes described it as " a landmark in the study of Roman London " while the later archaeologist Harvey Sheldon called it " a masterful historical synthesis " . The book established Merrifield 's reputation to a wider audience . He followed this with two works aimed at a general audience , Roman London ( 1969 ) , in which he looked at evidence for Romano @-@ British occupation across the wider Greater London area , and then The Archaeology of London ( 1975 ) , in which he surveyed the archaeological evidence of the region from the Palaeolithic through to the Early Middle Ages .
= = = Museum of London and retirement : 1975 – 95 = = =
In 1975 he became the Senior Keeper of the Museum of London , being promoted to the position of Deputy Director in 1977 , and being responsible for designing the Museum 's first Roman gallery . From 1976 to 1978 he served as President of the London and Middlesex Archaeological Society . Merrifield retired in 1978 , and a festschrift , entitled Collectanea Londiniensia : Studies in London Archaeology and History Presented to Ralph Merrifield , was published in his honour . Recognising his many years service to the archaeological field , the University of London awarded him an honourary doctorate .
During his retirement , he continued to take an active role in researching London 's past . In 1983 , he published London : City of the Romans , in which he updated his account of Londinium with information obtained over the previous decade and a half . His book The Archaeology of Ritual and Magic appeared in 1987 , and was written to combat what Merrifield identified as a widespread neglect of ritual aspects in the archaeological record . Concurring with Merrifield 's assessment about this widespread neglect , the later archaeologist Roberta Gilchrist described it as a " rare contribution " to the discipline . The historian of religion Hilda Ellis Davidson praised the " cautious and balanced arguments " of Merrifield 's work , opining that it should be read by every archaeologist as a corrective to what she thought was their widespread ignorance of folklore .
Merrifield was uneasy with the changes made to London 's archaeological establishment by English Heritage during the early 1990s , strongly supporting the establishment of the Standing Conference on London Archaeology to monitor English Heritage 's actions . He also continued to talk on archaeological subjects , with his final lecture , " Magic Protection of the Home " , being given to extra @-@ mural students in Northampton in December 1994 . Following a short illness , he died of cardiac arrest in King 's College Hospital , London , on 9 January 1995 , leaving behind his wife , children , and grandchildren .
= = Legacy = =
Merrifield came to be known as the " father of London 's modern archaeology " , with Harvey Sheldon describing him as the " father figure " of London archaeology . According to fellow archaeologist W. F. Grimes , it was Merrifield 's " work in and about London " which earned him " an honoured place in British Archaeology " . In Merrifield 's obituary in British Archaeology magazine , Max Hebditch , the Director of the Museum of London , described him as being both " generous with his knowledge and friendship " and " energetic and active to the end " . Sheldon stated that he was " universally loved and admired " , having done " more than anyone else , both by example and influence " , to place London 's archaeology on a firm footing . Writing in The Independent , Peter Marsden commented on Merrifield 's " quiet manner " which " obscured a steely determination " to advance scholarship .
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= Half @-@ Life 2 : Episode Two =
Half @-@ Life 2 : Episode Two is a first @-@ person shooter video game , the second episode in a series of sequels to the 2004 Half @-@ Life 2 . It was developed by Valve Corporation in tandem with Episode One , the first game in the series , and released in 2007 via Valve 's Steam content distribution platform . The episode was released both separately and as a part of a bundled package , The Orange Box .
Episode Two gameplay consists of expansive environments , travel and reduced linear play , continuing Valve 's policy of orienting each episode around a particular theme or set of technologies . Following the closing events of Episode One , it sees Gordon Freeman and the series ' other major characters moving away from City 17 to the surrounding countryside .
The retail version was released on October 10 , 2007 , in North America and Russia for Windows and Microsoft 's Xbox 360 after repeated delays . The version for the PlayStation 3 was to be released " around two or three weeks later , " as it was produced separately at the Electronic Arts UK studio , according to Valve marketing director Doug Lombardi . This version was further delayed . For the rest of the world , the release date was October 18 . The Steam version was released worldwide on October 10 , 2007 .
= = Gameplay = =
As with its predecessors , the game is played in the first person as series protagonist Gordon Freeman against transhuman troops , known as the Combine , and other hostile alien creatures . Levels are linear but add a more open environment , consisting of puzzles and first @-@ person shooter game @-@ play . Sequences involving vehicles are interspersed throughout the game , breaking up moments of combat .
One of the focal points of Episode Two was meant to be increased use of vehicles in open areas . However , the game retains its original linear style until the final battle . Episode Two has more puzzles than Episode One , including the biggest physical puzzle yet in the series — a damaged unstable bridge . The game features numerous " achievements " ( similar to PlayStation 3 's Trophies and Xbox Live 's Achievements ) for carrying out certain tasks . Some are essential to game progress , such as helping fight off an antlion invasion , or defeating the first Hunters . Others are optional tricks or feats the player can perform , such as killing a Combine soldier with their own grenade or running down a certain number of enemies with the car .
= = = Enemies = = =
Episode Two featured a new Hunter enemy , which had just been seen briefly in a recorded message in Episode One . The Hunter serves as one of the most dangerous enemies within the game and as means of emotional development for Alyx Vance . The Hunter is a powerful and resilient enemy which players must often run from while seeking a means to fight back ; Episode Two 's environments are designed with this in mind .
An interview in the August 2006 issue of PC Gamer magazine revealed that the Hunter stands 8 feet ( 2 @.@ 4 m ) tall . Erik Johnson , the game 's project lead , states that the Hunters are " big and impressive , but they can go anywhere the player can go , " as the player can encounter them both indoors and outdoors . Ted Backman , senior artist for Valve , talks about how the Hunter can express emotions , being a somewhat non @-@ human character . " We want the Hunter to be able to express nervousness or aggression , [ to show you ] whether it 's aggressive , hurt , or mad . " Hunters are very aggressive and they tend to operate in packs , but can also be found supporting other Combine troops . Late in the game , they can be found escorting Striders , using their flechette guns to protect the Striders that the player is trying to attack .
Hunters primarily attack the player by bracing themselves and firing bursts from their flechette cannon . Four flechettes can vaporize an ordinary human soldier . If they do not strike a living target , the flechette charge up for several seconds and then explode , dealing minor damage to everything nearby . Hunters may also conduct a charging attack or strike with their legs if the player gets too close . Hunters are vulnerable to all weapons , but to compensate , are still quite resilient , making explosives and the pulse rifle 's charged energy ball the most attractive options . Objects thrown with the gravity gun are also effective , especially if the player catches some of their flechettes with the object before hurling it ( one of the in @-@ game Achievements ) . In outdoor environments , they can be run over with a vehicle .
Two new forms of antlion appear in the game . The first is the glow @-@ in @-@ the @-@ dark antlion grub , a harmless , worm @-@ like creature which functions as a minor health pickup and a light source . Killing all 333 of these earns an Achievement . The second is the worker antlion ( or ' acidlion ' ) whose body produces a powerful and poisonous acid . In addition to a ranged acid spit attack , they also explode when killed , launching acid around them in a short radius , making them dangerous close @-@ combat opponents . Although they are thematically similar to the bullsquids of the original Half @-@ Life , they are functionally closer to the poison headcrab — as an enemy that the player will instinctively prioritize as a target . A new antlion guardian , which has glow @-@ in @-@ the @-@ dark features , was also added . This " Guardian " hunts and attacks Gordon Freeman as the player endeavors to take the larval extract the Guardian protects . The vortigaunt that accompanies the player forbids him from harming the guardian , fearing the extract will be ruined if he does . The player must therefore accomplish his goal while being harried by a creature he cannot eliminate , though the player is eventually given the chance to kill it .
= = = Weapons = = =
Episode Two features no new additions to Gordon Freeman 's inventory , but introduces a new form of Gravity Gun ' ammunition ' , the ' Magnusson Device ' , named after the egotistical head of the White Forest base rocket project , Dr. Magnusson . Prior to the game 's release , this weapon had been referred to as the ' Strider Buster ' . The item is useless on its own — it must be deployed via the gravity gun . Level designer Dario Casali describes it as a ' sticky bomb that you fire at a Strider 's underbelly that will draw power from the Strider 's internal power source . ' In @-@ game , the device will stick so long as it contacts the Strider 's body , and will instantly destroy it when fired upon with any other of the player 's weapons . However , Hunter escorts will prioritize them as targets , either destroying them in the player 's grasp or shooting already @-@ attached ones off .
Valve 's developers said new weapons were not a priority . The gravity gun was the direction of innovation they were most interested in , and objects like saw blades and flares were more interesting additions to the game . This policy was implemented with the Magnusson Device and more varied Gravity Gun ' ammunition ' such as logs and half @-@ height butane tanks , which are easier to aim than full @-@ size fuel drums .
= = = Vehicles = = =
Large sections of the game feature a car which resembles a gutted @-@ and @-@ rebuilt 1969 Dodge Charger . It appears to have been tuned for performance . A radar system is installed later in the game , allowing the player to locate Rebel supply caches . In the final battle , a rear @-@ mounted storage rack for Magnusson Devices is added and the radar is adjusted to track enemies and Magnusson Device dispensers . A homing unit is also installed so the player can quickly locate the car in the chaos of the final battle via a readout in the Hazardous Environment suit .
= = Synopsis = =
= = = Setting = = =
In contrast to Episode One 's entirely urban setting , Episode Two sets the action in rural areas , villages , forests , as well as mining facilities and mountain caves . The exact location remains vague , with signs in Russian still hinting at a Eastern European setting , although gas pumps with the prices displayed in Swedish have added to the confusion . The gameplay is in parts , and , to an extent less geographically linear than in the previous games , with the climactic fight in particular taking place across an entire map rather than in an enclosed arena .
= = = Plot = = =
Continuing the plot of Half @-@ Life 2 and Episode One , Episode Two consists of seven chapters telling the story of Gordon Freeman and Alyx Vance 's journey to a large Lambda Resistance base called White Forest . The Combine 's Earth occupation forces have used the destruction of the Citadel to begin opening a massive super portal which , if allowed to reach critical size , would allow the Combine to call in reinforcements from their homeworld and destroy the Resistance . However , as explained by Dr. Kleiner 's broadcast in Episode One , it has also caused a communications blackout , leaving the Combine isolated and disorganized in the meantime . In addition , Combine Advisors , some of them still unhatched from their pods , are scattered about the region after evacuating the Citadel . A crucial part of the plot is the Combine 's message home , which was copied by Alyx and Gordon before making their escape , that the Combine sacrificed the Citadel to send . It contains data on the Combine portal code , which the Resistance can use to collapse the portal before it forms completely .
After Gordon and Alyx climb out of the wreckage of the train they used to escape City 17 , they proceed away from the former city on foot . At an old transmission station , the duo temporarily establish communication with Dr. Kleiner and Eli Vance , who are currently at White Forest . After an update of events at the now @-@ destroyed Citadel , as well discovering the importance of the transmission packet copy that Alyx had made , they are cut off as Combine sweep the area , forcing them to move . At an abandoned mine , Alyx is critically wounded by a Hunter . A vortigaunt discovers them , and leads them to an underground Resistance shelter . The vortigaunts there have the power to heal Alyx ; however , Gordon must first venture into the nearby antlion colony to recover the larval extract necessary for the healing procedure .
Gordon retrieves the extract and the vortigaunts begin to heal Alyx . While they are distracted , the G @-@ Man is able to contact Gordon for the first time since the start of Episode One . He hints at Alyx 's importance to his own long @-@ term plans , revealing that he saved Alyx 's life at Black Mesa despite objections from an unspecified third party . The G @-@ Man then instructs an unconscious Alyx to tell her father to " prepare for unforeseen consequences . "
After Alyx has recovered , she and Gordon proceed to White Forest . They arrive before a convoy of Combine troops , despite being slowed by multiple ambushes , road blocks , and a near @-@ death encounter with an Advisor . There , Alyx and Gordon are reunited with D0g , Dr. Kleiner , and Eli Vance . The player is also formally introduced to Dr. Arne Magnusson , another former Black Mesa scientist who is egotistical , verbose , and authoritarian . The team of scientists are preparing a rocket , which they plan to use in conjunction with the Combine portal code and the satellite array launched by Gordon in Half @-@ Life , to close the Combine superportal .
After Gordon fends off an initial Combine attack on the base , Alyx gives Dr. Kleiner the message from Judith Mossman which she recovered at the Citadel in Episode One . It contains footage and the current coordinates of the Borealis , an Aperture Science research vessel which , as Kleiner explains , one day suddenly vanished into thin air along with part of the surrounding drydock . Although it is not explained what technology the ship contains , Kleiner insists that it should be used to aid the Resistance effort , while Eli counters that it is impossible to control and must be destroyed . Regardless , they agree that Alyx and Gordon will travel to the Borealis and attempt to find Mossman . Alyx then unconsciously delivers the G @-@ Man 's message to her father , who is physically shaken . After having Alyx leave temporarily , Eli reveals to Gordon that it was the G @-@ Man , whom he refers to as " our mutual friend , " who provided Black Mesa with the test sample that caused the " resonance cascade " ( the Black Mesa incident ) in Half @-@ Life , and whispered that same strange warning to him just as Gordon entered the test chamber . He promises to further discuss this with Gordon after the superportal is closed .
While the rocket is being prepared , White Forest comes under attack by a dozen Striders escorted by Hunters . Gordon engages and destroys them using experimental explosive charges created by Magnusson . The rocket is successfully launched and the super portal is closed , isolating Combine forces on Earth from their homeworld . Alyx and Gordon then prepare to leave for the Borealis , at which point Eli again warns Gordon about the ship 's " cargo " . The three of them head into a hangar , intending to board an old helicopter which Alyx has restored . However , a pair of Advisors burst into the hangar and restrain them . Alyx and Gordon watch helplessly as Eli is killed by one of the Advisors , but as the second Advisor prepares to kill Alyx , D0g bursts in through the roof and attacks it , causing both Advisors to flee . The game fades out slowly as Alyx , sobbing , clutches her father 's body .
= = Development = =
Episode Two was developed simultaneously with Episode One by a development team led by David Speyrer . This schedule of simultaneous development aided them in streamlining the story between the two games to create an immersive storyline . The technology used was the same for both games , allowing the development teams to quickly fix any technical problems that might arise from either game ; this happened often because of the multi @-@ platform release .
An announcement was made on July 13 , 2006 stating that Episode Two would be released on Xbox 360 and PlayStation 3 in addition to the PC , where previous iterations of the series separated . It was originally rumored that Episode Two would be delayed until 2008 . On June 14 , 2007 , however , Valve confirmed the release date for Episode Two to be October 9 , 2007 for all announced platforms . Valve handled the development of the game for the PC and Xbox 360 , while Electronic Arts British office in Chertsey worked on the PlayStation 3 version of the game . It was announced on September 7 , 2007 that the PlayStation 3 version of the game would be delayed because the development studio behind the game was in the United Kingdom , away from Valve 's development team , and therefore lagged behind in its schedule . Valve 's marketing director , Doug Lombardi , gave assurance that the Xbox 360 , PlayStation 3 , and PC versions of the game would be identical in functionality and performance .
= = = Audio = = =
Episode Two 's soundtrack was composed by Kelly Bailey , who also composed the music for the Half @-@ Life series ' other installments . The music is used sparingly throughout , played primarily during scenes of major plot development or particularly important action sequences , such as an early fight with a massive wave of Antlions or speeding down train tracks while being fired on by a helicopter . The soundtrack is included in the Russian edition of The Orange Box and is also sold separately . An audio commentary is also featured , as in Episode One and Lost Coast .
A notable change to the vocal cast is the inclusion of actor Tony Todd as the voice of the Vortigaunts . He replaces Louis Gossett , Jr. in the role . Actor Adam Baldwin voices several of the civilian and rebel NPCs , most notably the character who informs the player of the Striders ' locations in the penultimate chapter .
= = Reception = =
Half @-@ Life 2 : Episode 2 received critical acclaim . The game had an average score of 90 @.@ 68 % based on 22 reviews on the review aggregator GameRankings . On Metacritic , the game had an average score of 90 out of 100 , based on 21 reviews .
Dan Adams of IGN rated the game 9 @.@ 4 out of 10 and praised its improved visuals and expansive environments , but cited the short six @-@ hour length as a drawback . He said : " Any way you look at it , Episode Two stands out , even among the Half @-@ Life series , as something special ... a burly experience packed into roughly six hours or so that offers up all the diversity , level design , and thoughtful gameplay we 've known while making sure to propel the story forward and leave us wanting more . " Bit @-@ tech.net awarded the game a 10 out of 10 score , citing approval of how the story turns and the introduction of side stories and new characters . 1UP.com praised the game , noting that the game 's " entire five @-@ hour experience " was " vivid , emotionally engaging , and virtually unsurpassed . " PC Gamer UK also applauded Episode Two , noting it " is the most sumptuous chapter of the Half @-@ Life saga , and by a country mile . " The New York Times enjoyed the gameplay , saying , " The battles in Episode 2 of Half @-@ Life 2 often require as much ingenuity as they do fast reflexes . "
Computer and Video Games commented on the game 's graphics , saying that although the game 's engine was " starting to look its age , " its " wonderful art design and the odd bit of technical spit @-@ shine ensure that Episode Two [ ... ] doesn 't lose any of its wow factor . " They also noticed that the game " goes about fixing a lot of the niggling complaints we had about Episode One , " especially applauding the open forests and rocky hills from Episode Two .
Several reviewers noted shortcomings . The New York Times commented on the story for Episode Two , noting , " While it sows a few seeds for the final episode of the trilogy , the game lacks the driving force of the previous episode . " GameSpy criticized the game , saying it is " a little more inconsistent than its predecessors , " and that the opening segments of the game were " arguably the weakest " parts .
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= Bay duiker =
The bay duiker ( Cephalophus dorsalis ) , also known as the black @-@ striped duiker and the black @-@ backed duiker , is a forest @-@ dwelling duiker native to western and southern Africa . It was first described by British zoologist John Edward Gray in 1846 . Two subspecies are identified . The bay duiker is reddish brown and has a moderate size . Both sexes reach 44 – 49 centimetres ( 17 – 19 in ) at the shoulder . The sexes do not vary considerably in their weights either ; the typical weight range for this duiker is 18 – 23 kilograms ( 40 – 51 lb ) . Both sexes possess a pair of spiky horns , measuring 5 – 8 centimetres ( 2 @.@ 0 – 3 @.@ 1 in ) . A notable feature of this duiker is the well @-@ pronounced solid stripe of black extending from the back of the head to the tail .
The bay duiker is a nocturnal animal . It tends to remain solitary , but pairs can also be observed . The leopard is the main predator of this duiker . The bay duiker mainly prefers fruits , but may also feed on animal matter such as bird eggs . Females may conceive by the age of eighteen months . Breeding occurs throughout the year . Gestation lasts for about 240 days , following which generally a single offspring is born . The lifespan of the bay duiker averages 17 to 18 years .
The bay duiker prefers old @-@ growth or primary forests . It has been historically overhunted across its range for bushmeat . The survival of the bay duiker is also threatened by human settlement and agricultural expansion due to this duiker 's preference for old @-@ growth forests , and habitat degradation . The bay duiker is , however , still a common duiker species , and is classified as Near Threatened by the International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources ( IUCN ) .
= = Taxonomy and etymology = =
The scientific name of the bay duiker is Cephalophus dorsalis . The bay duiker is classified under the genus Cephalophus and the family Bovidae . It was first described by British zoologist John Edward Gray in 1846 . The generic name probably comes from the combination of the New Latin word cephal , meaning head , and the Greek word lophos , meaning crest . The specific name dorsalis is a Latin word referring to the back surface of an object . The common name " duiker " comes from the Afrikaans word duik , or Dutch dūken ( both mean " diver " ) owing to the tendency of this antelope to seek cover in bushes . The bay duiker is also known as the black @-@ striped duiker and the black @-@ backed duiker .
A 2001 phylogenetic study divided Cephalophus into three distinct lineages : the giant duikers , east African red duikers and west African red duikers . The bay duiker was classified as a giant duiker along with the yellow @-@ backed duiker ( C. silvicultor ) , Abbott 's duiker ( C. spadix ) , and Jentink 's duiker ( C. jentinki ) . In 2012 , Anne R. Johnston ( of the University of Orleans ) and colleagues constructed a cladogram of the subfamily Cephalophinae ( duiker ) based on mitochondrial analysis . They showed that within the " giant duiker " group , the bay duiker formed a clade with Jentink 's duiker , and the zebra duiker is sister to this clade . Similarly , Abbott 's duiker and yellow @-@ backed duiker form a clade sister to Sylvicapra . The bay duiker and Jentink 's duiker probably evolved during the Pleistocene , less than 2 @.@ 5 million years ago .
Although it is possible that the species is monotypic , a 2003 paper identified two subspecies of the bay duiker :
C. d. dorsalis ( Gray , 1846 ) : Western bay duiker , found in western Africa
C. d. castaneus { Thomas , 1892 ) : Eastern bay duiker , found in central Africa
= = Description = =
The bay duiker is a moderately sized antelope ; the typical head @-@ and @-@ body length is 76 – 103 centimetres ( 30 – 41 in ) . Both sexes reach 44 – 49 centimetres ( 17 – 19 in ) at the shoulder . The sexes do not vary considerably in their weights either ; the typical weight range for this duiker is 18 – 23 kilograms ( 40 – 51 lb ) . Hence , sexual dimorphism in this species is not as remarkable as in other bovids , though females are often larger than males . The tail , black on the outside but white in the inner parts , is 9 – 11 centimetres ( 3 @.@ 5 – 4 @.@ 3 in ) long . The tail of the eastern bay duiker terminates in a white tuft . Both sexes possess a pair of spiky horns , measuring 5 – 8 centimetres ( 2 @.@ 0 – 3 @.@ 1 in ) . Rowland Ward , however , recorded a maximum horn length of 12 @.@ 3 centimetres ( 4 @.@ 8 in ) from Yokadouma ( Cameroon ) . The horns of females are generally narrower .
Both sexes have a bright reddish brown coat . The ventral parts and the flanks are all reddish brown , and the legs dark brown . A notable feature of this duiker is the well @-@ pronounced solid stripe of black extending from the back of the head to the tail . This stripe is narrower in females . Due to its nocturnal nature , the bay duiker has large conspicuous eyes . Whiskers can be observed above the eyes and around the nostrils . The patches of white fur around the whiskers are in sharp contrast to the dark reddish face . Juveniles have a dark coat , that develops the stripes and chestnut to reddish brown colour gradually . The face is marked by a dark region from the nose to the forehead , separated from the rest of the face by two light brown furrows extending above or circling its eyes . Above the eyes and on the lips and chin white spots can be seen . The head has a diminutive crest ( a tuft of hair ) , and is dark brown . The eastern bay duiker is larger and heavier than the western bay duiker , with larger ears and darker colouration . The dorsal stripe is wider and lighter in colour in the eastern bay duiker .
The bay duiker is similar to several other duikers . The red duiker can not be readily distinguished from the bay duiker . Though Ogilby 's duiker resembles the bay duiker in size and pelage colour , the ventral side is paler and the dorsal stripe starts from the shoulders instead of the back of the head . Additionally , the body posture and horn characteristics of the two species differ to a large extent . The bay duiker as well as the Ogilby 's duiker are remarkably similar to the black duiker , except for the pelage colouration . The dorsal stripe of Peters 's duiker also begins at the shoulders but widens to cover the whole of the rump , as does the fainter stripe on the white @-@ bellied duiker . The bay duiker can be easily told apart from the black @-@ fronted duiker and Weyns 's duiker , that lack stripes .
= = Ecology and behaviour = =
The bay duiker is a nocturnal animal , and consequently little is known of its behavioural patterns . During the day , the bay duiker rests against trees or in thickets . It tends to remain solitary , but pairs can also be observed . The bay duiker exhibits remarkable alertness . It depends heavily on its sense of smell for foraging and detecting potential danger . Individuals communicate through preorbital gland secretions and excrement . The leopard is the main predator of this duiker . Eagles and mandrills may also prey on the bay duiker . An alarmed individual becomes motionless , and might leap to flee .
= = = Diet = = =
The bay duiker mainly prefers fruits . It feeds on the large fruits of Irvingia species ( wild mango ) , Detarium macrocarpum and the spherical fruits of Mammea africana . Other fruits the duiker may eat are those of Ricinodendron heudelotii and oil @-@ palms , the orange ones of Chrysophyllum beguei , the olive @-@ like ones of Pseudospondias longifolia , the green plums of Panda oleosa and those of Cola rostrata , that resemble cocoa pods . The bay duiker extracts the pulp from the seeds , making a grating sound . If the seeds are large , the duiker spits them out . Smaller seeds such as those of Antrocaryon species may be ingested . A 1989 study found that the soft seeds of plants such as Drypetes gossweileri , Staudtia gabonensis , Dacryoides buettneri , Ongokea gore , Santiria trimera , Annonidium mannii and Pentaclethra macrophylla are preferred . There have been reports of the bay duiker preying on birds ( without feeding on the legs and wings ) and the embryo of unhatched eggs , carrion , remains of African porcupines and kusimanses , termites , beetles and ants . Dog food may serve as supplement for captive individuals .
= = = Reproduction = = =
Females may conceive by the age of eighteen months . Breeding occurs throughout the year , and no clear peaks are known . A study in Gabon recorded birth peaks before or during maximum abundance of fruits . In central Africa , births peak in January and February . Oestrus lasts for just eighteen hours . The rutting male pursues a female in oestrus continuously . The male might be humming and may move its foreleg outward . If receptive , the female will allow the male to mount by shifting her tail to a side .
Gestation lasts for about 240 days , following which generally a single offspring is born . The infant weighs nearly 1 @,@ 600 – 1 @,@ 690 grams ( 56 – 60 oz ) , and its coat is dark reddish brown . The brighter reddish brown to chestnut colour develops by five to six months . For the first few weeks after its birth , the infant is kept concealed in dense vegetation when the mother is away . The offspring can start taking solid food within a few weeks . Weaning occurs at around three @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half months . The lifespan of the bay duiker averages 17 to 18 years .
= = Habitat and distribution = =
The bay duiker prefers old @-@ growth or primary forests . Home ranges of females are around 0 @.@ 2 – 0 @.@ 4 square kilometres ( 0 @.@ 077 – 0 @.@ 154 sq mi ) large , and those of males are twice the size of those of females . This duiker formerly occurred in the lowland forested areas ( warm , moist rainforests ) of Guinea . Nowadays , the bay duiker can be found in moist forested islands and riparian forests in the savannas of Guinea and northeastern Sudan . The bay duiker is native to several countries in western and southern Africa : Angola , Cameroon , Central African Republic , The Democratic Republic of the Congo , Côte d 'Ivoire , Equatorial Guinea , Gabon , Ghana , Guinea , Guinea @-@ Bissau , Liberia , Nigeria , Sierra Leone and Togo . It is feared to be extinct in Uganda .
= = Threats and conservation = =
The bay duiker has been historically overhunted across its range for bushmeat . A 2007 study of the extinction of the bay duiker in the Ipassa Makokou Biosphere Reserve ( Gabon ) held overhunting responsible for the elimination of the species from the reserve . The survival of the bay duiker is also threatened by human settlement and agricultural expansion due to this duiker 's preference for old @-@ growth forests , and habitat degradation .
The habitat of the bay duiker has depleted to a large extent due to deforestation . The bay duiker , unlike the other duiker species , is still found in significant numbers , and is classified as Near Threatened by the International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources ( IUCN ) . The Washington Convention ( CITES ) enlists the species in Appendix II . In 1999 , Rod East of the IUCN SSC Antelope Specialist Group estimated the total population at 725 @,@ 000 . The most significant population occurs only in the Taï National Park ( Côte d 'Ivoire ) . Protected areas where bay duikers occur include : Sapo National Park ( Liberia ) ; Kakum National Park ( Ghana ) ; Campo Ma 'an National Park , Dja Faunal Reserve and Lobéké National Park ( Cameroon ) ; Dzanga @-@ Sangha Special Reserve and Bangassou ( Central African Republic ) ; Monte Alén National Park ( Equatorial Guinea ) ; Lopé National Park and Minkébé National Park ( Gabon ) ; Odzala National Park and Nouabalé @-@ Ndoki National Park ( Congo @-@ Brazzaville ) ; Ituri Rainforest , Kahuzi @-@ Biéga , Maiko and Salonga National Parks ( Congo @-@ Kinshasa ) .
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= Len Boyd =
Leonard Arthur Miller " Len " Boyd ( 11 November 1923 − 14 February 2008 ) was an English professional footballer who played 333 games in the Football League in the 1940s and 1950s . After serving in the Royal Navy during the Second World War , Boyd signed for Second Division club Plymouth Argyle , where he spent two seasons playing as an inside forward . When he began playing as a wing half , a position to which he was better suited , he attracted attention , and soon secured a transfer to the First Division with Birmingham City for what was for Plymouth a record fee .
Though his club was soon relegated , Boyd established himself in the first team and was appointed captain . He was chosen to represent England at " B " international level . An industrious , dynamic player , described by his goalkeeper Gil Merrick as " a good player and a bloody good captain " , Boyd led the team to the championship of the Second Division in the 1954 – 55 season and to the FA Cup Final and sixth place in the league , still , as of 2013 , Birmingham 's record league placing , the following year . He played only once more for Birmingham , forced to retire by the back injury which had disrupted his final season with the club .
= = Playing career = =
= = = Early career = = =
Boyd was born in Plaistow , east London . He played for the West Ham Schools team alongside Ken Green , who was later to be a Birmingham team @-@ mate , and as a youth played for Ilford F.C. The outbreak of the Second World War when Boyd was 15 delayed his entry into football as a career . He joined the Royal Navy , and while serving in Malta was spotted playing for a Navy team by a Plymouth Argyle supporter , who recommended him to the club . After a trial , Boyd signed professional forms in December 1945 .
He made his debut on 12 October 1946 , taking over at centre @-@ half from Alf Miller for a Second Division game away at Leicester City which Plymouth lost 4 – 1 . In his first season , Boyd played 16 league games , mainly in the inside left position , and scored four of his five Plymouth goals . He played regularly on the right side of the forward line in the following season , but failed to score , and was regarded as " a promising but not exceptional inside @-@ forward " . When manager Jack Tresadern switched him to right half for the 1948 – 49 season , it became clear he was better suited to that position . After three consecutive seasons helping the Devon club avoid relegation from the Second Division , Boyd was sold to First Division club Birmingham City in January 1949 for a fee of £ 17 @,@ 500 , the first five @-@ figure fee ever received by Plymouth for a player .
= = = Birmingham City = = =
He went straight into the first team as replacement for Frank Mitchell who had joined Chelsea earlier that month , and made his debut in a goalless draw away at Preston North End . In the 1949 – 50 season , his first full season with Birmingham , he established himself in the first team but was unable to prevent his new team 's relegation to the Second Division . When Fred Harris retired at the end of that season , manager Bob Brocklebank appointed Boyd as his successor as club captain , a post which he retained for the remainder of his Birmingham career .
Under Boyd 's captaincy Birmingham reached the semifinals of the 1950 – 51 FA Cup , when they were defeated by the powerful Blackpool side of Stanley Matthews and Stan Mortensen only after a replay . They twice came close to winning promotion , missing out by three points in the 1950 – 51 season and then on goal average the following year . Boyd 's performances were rewarded with selection for England B against Netherlands B , a match played in front of a crowd of 60 @,@ 000 at the Olympic Stadium in Amsterdam , but this , and a selection as reserve for a Football League representative side in 1954 , was as close as he came to full international honours .
Manager Brocklebank significantly strengthened Birmingham 's playing staff , but although the club nearly reached another semifinal in the 1952 – 53 FA Cup , losing in the sixth round to Tottenham Hotspur after two replays , their league results failed to improve . In late 1954 , Arthur Turner was appointed manager , and his ability to instil a positive approach in the players transformed a team stagnating in mid @-@ table into one needing to win the last game of the season , away at Doncaster Rovers , in order to be promoted as champions on goal average . Boyd led the team to a 5 – 1 win , later recalling :
The ground was packed and alive with supporters wearing the colours of Birmingham City . We knew we would win – and so too did those fans – and our performance that day was quite brilliant .
The same squad of players carried their promotion form into the 1955 – 56 season in the First Division , achieving the club 's highest league finish of sixth place , and reaching the FA Cup final . They became attractive to the media ; after the FA Cup semifinal victory , Boyd signed an exclusive contract committing himself and his team @-@ mates to appearing only on BBC programmes in the weeks leading up to the final .
Fellow wing half Roy Warhurst injured a thigh in the sixth round at Arsenal and played no further part in the season . Boyd himself had for some time been suffering from a debilitating back problem , and relied on injections to keep him playing ; he missed five of the last seven games of the season , but was passed fit on the Wednesday before the game . In the event , Boyd played , in Warhurst 's position at left @-@ half , and the 22 @-@ year @-@ old Johnny Newman came in on the right . With Warhurst missing and Boyd out of position and not fully match @-@ fit , Birmingham 's strength and balance was disrupted , leaving them particularly vulnerable to Manchester City 's unconventional style of play , known as the " Revie Plan " . At half @-@ time , a row erupted between the manager and some of the players , Boyd included , about their fitness ; in the second half , whether due to physical and mental exhaustion or the effects of the row , Birmingham were soundly beaten .
On their return to Birmingham , the team received a civic welcome ; Boyd told the thousands outside the Council House that the team felt they had let the supporters down . Though the crowd roared " No ! " , recriminations followed . Speaking fifty years later , goalkeeper Gil Merrick refused to attribute blame for the loss to Boyd 's lack of fitness :
The reason why we lost , in my opinion , was nothing to do with Boydy who some claimed was unfit . Why we didn 't perform in the second half was mainly because nothing was said in the dressing room at half time about stopping the damage caused by Don Revie . He was a good player and ran the game but at half time we should have talked about stopping him . Tackles should have been talked about , but they weren 't . It was a lack of tackles that caused us to fold in the second half , and that 's all I 'm going to say . Don 't put all the onus on Len Boyd . Len was a good player and a bloody good captain .
Boyd played only one more game for the club , two weeks after the Cup Final . Not risked in their first game in the Inter @-@ Cities Fairs Cup , against Internazionale on a hard pitch in the San Siro , he played in their next , a 1 – 0 win against a Zagreb Select XI in Yugoslavia . Following a favourable specialist 's report during the close season , Boyd took part in pre @-@ season training , but his back still troubled him . On 17 August 1956 , the day before Birmingham were to open their 1956 – 57 League campaign , Boyd 's contract with the club was terminated at his own request .
= = Style of play = =
Boyd was a tall man with a long stride . He was hard @-@ working , combining industry with composure and skill on the ball . His dynamism was regularly mentioned ; The Times ' match report of the 1953 FA Cup sixth round replay against Tottenham Hotspur , a 2 – 2 draw in which Boyd scored the equalising goal and had his name taken , attributed Birmingham 's second @-@ half comeback to their captain 's performance :
And behind it all there was the constant driving force of Boyd , their captain , at right @-@ half . Boyd , in fact , one would say , was the final hero of a desperate day . Up in attack and back in defence he played a magnificent game to inspire and keep his colleagues going .
Against Arsenal in the 1956 cup run he was " a champion who covered every inch of Highbury 's mud , a dynamo and a man of steel " , and , later the same season , The Times ' correspondent wondered rhetorically " was there ever such a human dynamo at wing @-@ half ? "
Birmingham based their success of the 1950s on " their acutely drilled and disciplined defence – founded upon the authority of their half @-@ backs Boyd , Smith and Warhurst " , though these three did much more than protect their defenders .
... the towering young Smith , centre @-@ half in the England Intermediate ( Under 23 ) XI , is flanked by two men , Boyd and Warhurst , who keep the ball flowing forward quickly all the time . There are no superfluous frills about them . Their accent is on a quick release along the lines of longitude . They are the real driving force .
They acquired a fearsome reputation : Boyd himself once played four matches carrying an injury which turned out to be a hairline fracture of his leg . Team @-@ mate Alex Govan , preferring to describe Boyd as " hard , very hard " rather than a " dirty player " , recalled :
I used to think ' thank God I 'm playing in front of them and not against them ' ! Birmingham probably had the hardest defenders in the First Division in those days , with Len , Trevor Smith , Roy Warhurst , Jeff Hall and Ken Green – no one liked the idea of playing against them .
= = Life outside football = =
Boyd was married to Dolly , and had two children . He enjoyed oil @-@ painting as a hobby . According to Govan , " Len was a typical cockney really . He was hard on the pitch but soft off the field , he wouldn 't do anybody a bad turn . "
Boyd suffered from a fear of flying , which had on occasion caused difficulties in his football career . Chosen by the Birmingham County Football Association for a representative match in Hamburg in 1953 , the players were already at the airport when he requested to be omitted from the side . While his teammates flew to Birmingham 's Fairs Cup match in Milan , Boyd travelled across the English Channel by boat and then across France and into Italy by train .
When Boyd retired from professional football , the Birmingham City directors " had stated their readiness to help him in any venture he decided to take up " . He chose to enter the licensed trade , and kept a public house in Birmingham . Having once said that " if I can 't play in first @-@ class football , I don 't want to play any football at all " , after two @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half years out of the game he changed his mind . In early 1959 he attempted a comeback with Leicestershire side Hinckley Athletic , but found himself unable to play a full game . He remained involved with football for a few more years , acting as coach and scout for Redditch of the West Midlands ( Regional ) League between 1960 and 1965 . Settling in Melton Mowbray , Leicestershire , he went on to become one of the town 's first traffic wardens . In later life he moved into a care home in Melton , where he died in February 2008 at the age of 84 .
= = Honours = =
with Birmingham City
Football League Second Division champions : 1954 – 55
FA Cup finalists : 1956
= = Career statistics = =
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= The Jersey Devil ( The X @-@ Files ) =
" The Jersey Devil " is the fifth episode of the first season of the American science fiction television series The X @-@ Files . It premiered on the Fox network on October 8 , 1993 . It was written by series creator Chris Carter , directed by Joe Napolitano , and featured guest appearances by Gregory Sierra , Wayne Tippit and Claire Stansfield . Although the episode is the series ' second " Monster @-@ of @-@ the @-@ Week " story — after the earlier " Squeeze " — it was the first to have been written by Carter .
The show centers on FBI special agents Fox Mulder ( David Duchovny ) and Dana Scully ( Gillian Anderson ) who work on cases linked to the paranormal , called X @-@ Files . In this episode , Mulder and Scully investigate seemingly cannibalistic murders in New Jersey . The two later come across what seems to be an evolutionary relict which may have inspired tales of the Jersey Devil .
Chris Carter was inspired to write " The Jersey Devil " after reading an essay by E. O. Wilson regarding ants ; Carter , in turn , wrote a story that posed whether mankind was hellbent on its own extinction . The concept of mankind being carnivores and eating its own tail evolved into the idea of using an evolutionary mutation that was a throwback to the Neanderthal . The purpose of the scenes with Scully going on a date were to show the life she was passing on to work on the X @-@ Files and to open up Scully to the audience .
= = Plot = =
In New Jersey in 1947 , a man is attacked while fixing a flat tire on the road near the woods . His corpse is later found with his leg chewed off , and a hairy humanoid is killed nearby .
Back in present @-@ day Washington D.C. , Scully brings to Mulder 's attention news about a body found in New Jersey with its arm and shoulder missing . Upon arriving at the Atlantic City morgue , Scully and Mulder discover that the body was eaten by a human . However , the local detective , Thompson , denies the agents access to the investigation . Scully returns to Washington to attend her godson 's birthday party , while Mulder stays in New Jersey . At the party , Scully meets Rob , the divorced father of one of the guests . Meanwhile , Mulder questions homeless people about the case . A man shows him a drawing of a humanoid and tells him that he saw it and that the other homeless people and cops know about it . Mulder gives his hotel room key to the man and sleeps in the alley , where he sees a shadowy , human @-@ like creature . He chases the creature , but is arrested before he can catch it .
The next morning , Mulder calls Scully to come bail him out . Afterwards , Scully brings Mulder to meet with Dr. Diamond , a professor of anthropology at the University of Maryland , before going on a date with Rob . The local park ranger contacts Mulder after finding the corpse of a wild man in the woods who he believes could be the Jersey Devil . Scully and Mulder bring the ranger and Dr. Diamond to the morgue , where the body has mysteriously vanished . Mulder believes that the Jersey Devil they are hunting is actually the creature 's mate who has headed into Atlantic City in search of food after her mate 's death . The agents , along with the ranger and Dr. Diamond , search for the creature in an abandoned building . While they are searching the building , Detective Thompson arrives with a SWAT team .
Mulder spots the creature and chases after her . He is attacked by the creature , which wounds him before Scully scares her away . The creature then escapes into the woods . Scully , Mulder , Dr. Diamond and the ranger manage to find the creature , which again escapes after being shot with a tranquilizer dart . However , the SWAT team soon finds and kills her . Mulder asks Detective Thompson why he killed the creature ; he responds that it is the same reason one would kill a rabid animal . The autopsy reveals no prehistoric bone structure , although human bones are located within her digestive tract . The autopsies of the male and female creatures also reveals that they likely had children . Mulder leaves to talk to an ethnobiologist at the Smithsonian ; Scully turns down a second date with Rob to join him . Meanwhile in the woods , the child of the creatures appears , watching a father and son hiking .
= = Production = =
Writer and series creator Chris Carter decided that rather than trying to present a typical Bigfoot @-@ like creature , he would present the Jersey Devil as a missing link . Carter was inspired to write the episode by an essay by E. O. Wilson regarding ants and a story he wrote that posed whether mankind was hellbent on its own extinction . The concept of mankind being carnivores and eating its own tail evolved into the idea of using an evolutionary mutation that was a throwback to the Neanderthal . A Greg Cannom werewolf outfit from a previous project was used for the costume of the creature .
The purpose of the scenes with Scully going on a date were to show the life she was passing on to work on the X @-@ Files and to open up Scully to the audience . Carter explained that he " tried to develop a love interest for Scully only to heighten the sexual tension between her and Mulder " . The scenes with Mulder in Atlantic City were shot against a blue screen in Vancouver , with stock casino footage added in in post @-@ production .
During filming , Claire Stansfield , who played the titular creature , was intended to appear nude , necessitating several solutions to be found for different scenes — some were shot with the actress wearing a nude @-@ colored outfit , while others were shot with her hair tied in such a manner as to keep her breasts covered . Several scenes for the episode were filmed in a Vancouver mansion , which served as an office , town @-@ house and restaurant . This same mansion was used for exterior shots in the later first season episode " Fire " . The forest scenes were filmed in a remote area accessible only by large trucks , while all of the exterior city scenes were filmed in and around a sheet metal store .
= = Broadcast and reception = =
" The Jersey Devil " premiered on the Fox network on October 8 , 1993 , and was first broadcast in the United Kingdom on BBC Two on October 17 , 1994 . The episode earned a Nielsen household rating of 6 @.@ 6 with a 12 share — meaning that in the US , 6 @.@ 6 percent of television @-@ equipped households , and 12 percent of all households actively watching television , were watching the program . It was viewed by 6 @.@ 2 million households .
In a retrospective of the first season in Entertainment Weekly , " The Jersey Devil " was rated a C , with the episode being called " corny " , and full of " needless philosophizing " ; it was noted however that the sub @-@ plot concerning Scully 's private life set the stage for the series ' future . Keith Phipps , writing for The A.V. Club , had mixed feeling about the episode , rating it a C. He felt that the scenes featuring Scully 's private life and Mulder speaking to a group of homeless people were effectively done , although the episode overall was " pretty silly " and took " a decent idea to a dead end " . Producer James Wong was critical of the episode , feeling that it " ran out of steam in the middle . It didn 't go anywhere ; there weren 't enough complications to it " , though he added that it had been " beautifully shot " .
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= William S. Sadler =
William Samuel Sadler ( June 24 , 1875 – April 26 , 1969 ) was an American surgeon , self @-@ trained psychiatrist and author who helped publish The Urantia Book . The book is said to have resulted from Sadler 's relationship with a man through whom he believed celestial beings spoke at night . It drew a following of people who studied its teachings .
A native of Indiana , Sadler moved to Michigan as a teenager to work at the Battle Creek Sanitarium . There he met the physician and health @-@ food promoter John Harvey Kellogg , co @-@ inventor of corn flakes breakfast cereal , who became his mentor . Sadler married Kellogg 's niece , Lena Celestia Kellogg , in 1897 . He worked for several Christian organizations and attended medical school , graduating in 1906 . Sadler practiced medicine in Chicago with his wife , who was also a physician . He joined several medical associations and taught at the McCormick Theological Seminary . Although he was a committed member of the Seventh @-@ day Adventist Church for almost twenty years , he left the denomination after it disfellowshipped his wife 's uncle in 1907 . Sadler and his wife became speakers on the Chautauqua adult education circuit in 1907 , and he became a highly paid , popular orator . He eventually wrote over 40 books on a variety of medical and spiritual topics advocating a holistic approach to health . Sadler extolled the value of prayer and religion but was skeptical of mediums , assisting debunker Howard Thurston , and embraced the scientific consensus on evolution .
In 1910 , Sadler went to Europe and studied psychiatry for a year under Sigmund Freud . Sometime between 1906 and 1911 , Sadler attempted to treat a patient with an unusual sleep condition . While the patient was sleeping he spoke to Sadler and claimed to be an extraterrestrial . Sadler spent years observing the sleeping man in an effort to explain the phenomenon , and eventually decided the man had no mental illness and that his words were genuine . The man 's identity was never publicized , but speculation has focused on Sadler 's brother @-@ in @-@ law , Wilfred Kellogg . Over the course of several years , Sadler and his assistants visited the man while he slept , conversing with him about spirituality , history , and cosmology , and asking him questions . A larger number of interested people met at Sadler 's home to discuss the man 's responses and to suggest additional questions . The man 's words were eventually published in The Urantia Book , and the Urantia Foundation was created to assist Sadler in spreading the book 's message . It is not known who wrote and edited the book , but several commentators have speculated that Sadler played a guiding role in its publication . Although it never became the basis of an organized religion , the book attracted followers who devoted themselves to its study , and the movement continued after Sadler 's death .
= = Early life and education = =
Sadler was born June 24 , 1875 , in Spencer , Indiana , to Samuel Cavins Sadler and Sarah Isabelle Wilson . Of English and Irish descent , he was raised in Wabash , Indiana . Samuel did not enroll his son in public schools . Despite his lack of formal education , Sadler read many books about history as a child and became a skilled public speaker at a young age . Samuel was a convert to the Seventh @-@ day Adventist Church , and William was baptized into the denomination in 1888 and became devoutly religious .
In 1889 , William Sadler moved to Battle Creek , Michigan , to work at the Battle Creek Sanitarium , where he served as a bellhop and helped in the kitchen . He also attended Battle Creek College for one year when he was 16 . Both institutions had strong ties to his church and Sadler was mentored by local Adventist businessman John Harvey Kellogg , who heavily influenced Sadler 's views . Sadler 's early writings about health are similar to ideas advanced by John Kellogg , including the concept of autointoxication , and the idea that caffeine has negative health effects . He similarly condemned the consumption of tobacco , meat , and alcohol . Although Sadler did drink later in his life .
Sadler graduated from Battle Creek College in 1894 and subsequently worked for John Kellogg 's brother , William K. Kellogg as a health @-@ food salesman . Sadler , a skilled salesman , persuaded William Kellogg to market his products through demonstrations in retail stores . In 1894 , he oversaw the establishment of Life Boat Mission , a mission that Kellogg founded on State Street in Chicago . Sadler operated the mission and published Life Boat Magazine ; its sales were intended to provide funds for Kellogg 's Chicago Medical Mission . Sadler also contributed articles to other Adventist publications , including the Review and Herald . Around 1895 , Sadler attended Moody Bible Institute in Chicago , Illinois , where he trained to be an evangelist , ultimately becoming an ordained minister in 1901 .
In 1897 , Sadler married John Kellogg 's niece , Lena Celestia Kellogg , a nurse whom he had met four years previously . Their first child , William , called Willis , born in 1899 , died a ten months later . Their second child , William S. Sadler Jr . , was born in 1907 . The couple had been interested in medicine for several years , but the loss of their child inspired them to pursue medical careers . In 1901 , they moved to San Francisco to attend medical school at Cooper Medical College . In San Francisco , he served as the " superintendent of young people 's work " for the church 's California conference and the president of a local Medical Missionary society . The couple also operated a home for Christian medical students . In 1904 , they returned to the Midwest , where they attended medical school , each earning a Doctor of Medicine degree two years later . Sadler was an early adopter of Freudian psychoanalysis , and believed that experiences individuals have as infants play a key role in their minds as adults , although he did not accept many of Freud 's ideas about sexuality or religion .
Although Sadler was a committed Adventist for much of his early life , he stayed less involved after John Kellogg was excommunicated in 1907 in the wake of a conflict with Ellen G. White , the church 's founder . The Sadlers became disenchanted with the church and subsequently criticized it . Sadler rejected some Adventist teachings , such as White 's status as a prophetess and the importance of Saturday as Sabbath . He retained a positive view of White and rejected allegations that she was a charlatan .
= = Career = =
By 1912 , Sadler and his wife , both doctors by then , operated a joint practice in Chicago that catered to children 's and women 's health issues . Sadler initially focused on surgery , performing surgeries with his wife , but widened his practice to include psychiatric counseling in 1930 and became a consulting psychiatrist at Columbus Hospital . As a psychiatrist , Sadler advocated an eclectic mix of techniques , applying the theories of Sigmund Freud , Carl Jung , Alfred Adler , and Adolf Meyer . Sadler believed that religious faith was beneficial to mental health , and specifically promoted prayer , which he believed to be most effective in the context of Christian faith . However , he thought that religious beliefs were deleterious to mental health if based on fear .
Sadler and his wife moved into an Art Nouveau @-@ style house — the first steel @-@ frame residence in Chicago — on Diversey Parkway in 1912 . The couple operated their medical practice in the building . He was a member of the American Association for the Advancement of Science and of medical associations including the American Medical Association , the American Psychiatric Association , the American Pathological Society , and the American College of Surgeons . Sadler was also a member of the faculty of McCormick Theological Seminary , and taught pastoral psychology . He argued that pastors should be educated in basic psychiatry so they could recognize symptoms of mental illness in congregants . His students later recalled him as an engaging and humorous public speaker .
Sadler wrote about many topics . In 1909 , he published his first book , an evangelical work , titled Self @-@ Winning Texts , or Bible Helps for Personal Work . In the 1910s , he regularly worked all night on his writing projects . In addition to 42 books , most of which were about personal health issues , he wrote magazine articles . Many of Sadler 's books focused on popular self @-@ help topics ; historian Jonathan Spiro deems Sadler 's The Elements of Pep a " quintessential book of the 1920s " . In 1936 , Sadler published Theory and Practice of Psychiatry , a 1 @,@ 200 @-@ page work in which he attempted to provide a comprehensive outline of psychiatry .
Sadler also wrote about race : he had an interest in eugenics , likely owing to Kellogg 's interest in the concept , and Madison Grant 's book The Passing of the Great Race . Sadler wrote several works about eugenics , endorsing and heavily borrowing from Grant 's views , which posited that the " Nordic race " was superior to others . In his writings , Sadler contended that some races were at a lower stage of evolution — closer to Neanderthals than were other races — and were consequently less civilized and more aggressive . Sadler argued that alcoholism and " feeblemindedness , insanity , and delinquency " were hereditary traits and that those who possessed them were breeding at a much faster rate than " superior human beings " . He feared that this issue could threaten the " civilization we bequeath our descendants " . He also believed that the majority of criminals were mentally ill .
In 1907 , Sadler began giving lectures on the Chautauqua adult @-@ education circuit , which featured itinerant speakers discussing self @-@ help and morality . Sadler often spoke about attaining physical and mental health without drugs . He also promoted hydrotherapy and discussed moral issues that related to men . Sadler , his wife , her sister , and a friend , formed a four @-@ member lecture company that gave two- or three @-@ day engagements , sometimes accompanied by an orchestra . Newspapers published favorable reviews of the productions . The lectures proved to be a lucrative endeavor : it was rumored that he became one of the best @-@ paid Chautauqua speakers .
Sadler believed that mediums were a source of false comfort and , after World War I ended , fought against the increased popularity of communication with the dead . In the 1910s and 1920s , attempting to expose purported clairvoyants became one of Sadler 's favorite pastimes and he regularly worked with a Northwestern University psychologist and Howard Thurston , then a prominent magician , while investigating psychics . Sadler may have met the magician Harry Houdini ( who was also a skeptic ) around this time .
= = Urantia revelation = =
According to the origin story of The Urantia Book , sometime between 1906 and 1911 , a woman consulted Sadler about her husband 's deep sleeping , prompting Sadler to observe him while he slept . He noticed that the sleeping man made unusual movements ; the man then purportedly spoke to Sadler in an unusual voice and claimed to be a " visitor ... from another planet " . Observers related that the man later claimed to carry messages from several celestial beings . Sadler suspected that the man 's words were drawn from his mind and sought a scientific explanation for the phenomenon . Although he examined the man for psychiatric problems , he was unable to make a satisfactory diagnosis . Sadler and five others subsequently visited the man on a regular basis , speaking with him as he slept . In 1925 , a large handwritten document was discovered in the patient 's house ; papers were said to appear in the house for years afterwards . Sadler brought the papers to his house and did not allow anyone to take them away , although some were allowed to read them on site . Sadler presumed that the documents were the product of automatic handwriting from the man 's subconscious , but changed his mind after further analysis . He made no public statements about their authenticity for years .
In 1924 , Sadler began hosting Sunday tea gatherings at his home , which could accommodate fifty guests . Many attendees worked in the medical establishment , and typically adhered to a progressive ideology . The group often held a forum to discuss the patient with the sleep issue and devise questions for him . The observers withheld the man 's name from the group , but relayed some of his statements . In 1925 , the forum , which then had thirty members , closed their meetings to visitors and began to require a pledge of secrecy . Sadler instructed forum members not to publicize what they learned , telling them that they had an incomplete picture of what was occurring . He also feared that the patient would face criticism if his identity were known . His identity has never been confirmed ; Joscelyn Godwin , of Colgate University , and skeptic Martin Gardner posit that the sleeping man was Wilfred Kellogg , the husband of Lena 's sister Anna .
In 1935 , Sadler concluded that the papers found in the sleeping patient 's house were not a hoax , citing their " genuineness and insight " , and arguing that the sleeping man was not a medium for the dead , but was used by living beings to communicate . Papers ceased appearing in the sleeping man 's house in the 1930s ; Sadler then took a clear role as leader of the discussion group . The forum discontinued their discussion meetings in 1942 , and The Urantia Book was published in 1955 ; it purportedly contained information from the celestial beings who had spoken through the sleeping man . The Urantia Book presents itself as the fifth " epochal " revelation God has given to humanity , and states that its purpose is to help humanity evolve to a higher form of life . It has four sections . The first section covers the nature of God and the universe , the second describes the portions of the universe nearest to Earth and Lucifer 's rebellion , the third details the history of Earth and human religions , and the fourth provides an account of Jesus 's life and accompanying doctrines . Sadler maintained that the teachings of the book were " essentially Christian " and " entirely harmonious with ... known scientific facts " . Although Sadler had left the Adventist church by the time The Urantia Book was published , its teachings are broadly consistent with some aspects of Adventist theology , such as soul sleep and annihilationism . Journalist Brook Wilensky @-@ Lanford argues in her 2011 profile of the Urantia movement that Sadler 's departure from the Adventist church gave him the desire to build a new religious movement , citing the emphasis that Sadler placed on the discussion of the Garden of Eden in The Urantia Book as evidence of his desire to start anew . Sadler hoped that the content of the revelation would convince people of its worth , and did not attempt to win supporters by emphasizing its author . Wilensky @-@ Lanford argues that Sadler attempted to avoid placing an individual at the center of his beliefs owing to his disappointment in Ellen White ; however , Gardner believes that Sadler placed his faith in Wilfred Kellogg as he had in White .
Until her death in 1939 , Sadler 's wife Lena was a regular forum participant . One member subsequently objected to Sadler 's leadership , alleging that he became hungry for power after his wife 's death . In the early 1950s , the Urantia Foundation was established to publish The Urantia Book . Hubert Wilkins , a friend of Sadler who had a keen interest in the book , contributed the initial funding for publication costs . Rather than create an organized religion , the foundation 's leadership opted for what they called " slow growth " ; early adherents sought to educate people about the book 's teachings rather than found a church @-@ like organization . Sadler also disavowed proselytizing and publicity , although he wrote several works about the content of The Urantia Book . In 1958 , Sadler published a defense of the book , citing his experience exposing frauds and maintaining that the book was free of contradictions . Since his death , several reading groups , seminars , and churches have been established to study the book and to spread its message .
The authorship of the Urantia papers is disputed . Journalist Brad Gooch argues in his 2002 profile of the Urantia movement that Sadler was the author of The Urantia Book , citing similarities between some of its passages and contents of Sadler 's earlier writings . Gardner believes that Sadler wrote part of the papers , but heavily edited and revised most of them . He also contends that Sadler refused to include some material provided to him for inclusion in the book , and that he plagiarized from other works . Ken Glasziou , a supporter of the Urantia Foundation , contends that statistical evidence of the text and Sadler 's other works indicates that he did not write , or extensively edit , The Urantia Book .
= = Final years = =
In 1952 , Sadler 's final book , Courtship and Love , was published by Macmillan Publishers . He wrote another title , A Doctor Talks With His Patient , but after it was rejected by a publisher , he decided to stop writing . In March 1957 , Sadler was appointed as the superintendent of Barboursville State Hospital in Barboursville , West Virginia , where he stayed until July 1958 .
As he grew older , Sadler generally remained in good health , with the exception of a condition that led to the removal of an eye . He died on April 26 , 1969 , at 93 years of age . Christensen recalls that Sadler was visited by friends and family while on his deathbed ; he spoke to them of his confidence in a joyful life after death . He received a full @-@ column obituary in the Chicago Tribune , which discussed his success as a doctor but not his association with The Urantia Book .
= = Reception = =
By the time of his death , Sadler was acclaimed for his accurate prediction of the advent of organ transplantation decades before the practice became commonplace . Members of the Urantia movement have also held high opinions of Sadler , sometimes idolizing him . In her 2003 profile of the Urantia movement , Lewis states that descriptions of Sadler by members of the movement could suggest that he possessed charismatic authority and is revered as " the chosen " . Gooch deems Sadler the " Moses of the Urantia movement " and casts him as " one of America 's homegrown religious leaders , an original along the lines of Joseph Smith " . He also applauds Sadler 's writings about mediums , describing Sadler 's book The Truth About Spiritualism as " one of the strongest attacks ever written on fraudulent mediums and their methods " .
Gooch believes there is a contradiction between Sadler 's advocacy of science and reason and his support of the avant @-@ garde theological , " inter @-@ planetary " contents of The Urantia Book . Gardner describes Sadler 's life story as " riveting " and summarizes him as an " intelligent , gifted " person who proved to be " gullible " about alleged supernatural revelations . He contends that Sadler eventually developed megalomania that was unrecognized by those around him and argues that Sadler succumbed to hubris and began to believe that he was a prophet , divinely chosen as the founder and leader of a new religion . Lewis disputes this characterization , maintaining that Sadler and those around him sought only to clarify and explain the teachings of the Bible .
= = Selected works = =
— — ( 1909 ) . Self @-@ Winning Texts , or Bible Helps for Personal Work . Central Bible Supply Company . OCLC 5579892 .
— — ( 1914 ) . Worry and nervousness : or , The Science of Self @-@ Mastery . A. C. McClurg . OCLC 14780503 .
— — ( 1915 ) . Physiology of Faith and Fear , or , The Mind in Health and Disease . A. C. McClurg . OCLC 19675023 .
— — ( 1918 ) . Long heads and round heads ; or , What 's the matter with Germany . A.C. McClurg . OCLC 6456079 .
— — ( 1922 ) . Race Decadence . A. C. McClurg . OCLC 373314 .
— — ( 1925 ) . The Elements of Pep . American Publishers Corporation . OCLC 11462621 .
— — ( 1929 ) . The Mind at Mischief . Funk and Wagnalls . OCLC 717887 .
— — ( 1936 ) . Theory and Practice of Psychiatry . Mosby . OCLC 1377525 .
— — ( 1938 ) . Living a Sane Sex Life . American Publishers Corporation . OCLC 5131693 .
— — ( 1945 ) . Modern Psychiatry . Mosby . OCLC 488958227 .
— — ( 1952 ) . Courtship and Love . Macmillan . OCLC 1454173 .
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= Fountain of the Great Lakes =
Fountain of the Great Lakes or Spirit of the Great Lakes Fountain is an allegorical sculpture by Lorado Taft in the Art Institute of Chicago South Stanley McCormick Memorial Court south of the Art Institute of Chicago Building in the Loop community area of Chicago in Cook County , Illinois , United States . It is a bronze work of art created between 1907 @-@ 1913 . The fountain depicts five women arranged so that the water flows through them in the same way water passes through the Great Lakes . Note that the Great Lakes waterflow starts in Lake Superior at 600 feet ( 180 m ) above sea level and continues eastward through each lake until it reaches Lake Ontario and then passes into the St. Lawrence River . The Fountain is one of Taft 's best known works .
The fountain was originally installed facing south where it remained until 1963 when it was moved next to the Morton Wing addition facing west where it sits today . In its original location it was visible from the Jackson and Michigan Avenue intersection once known as " route center " to the south . The fountain was commissioned by the Benjamin Ferguson fund and one surface references the title B. F. Ferguson Fountain of the Great Lakes . There is a relief sculpture of Benjamin Ferguson on the rear panel that has been hidden from view since the fountain was moved .
As the first commission from the Ferguson Fund , it experienced various funding delays . Additionally , the legal environment for land use in Grant Park was in flux at the time the commission was made , which caused delays in location selection . Once erected , the fountain received largely positive reviews , but a few critics questioned symbolism of the sculpture . Others were caught up in sociopolitical subtexts of the day , with regard to obscenity laws as it related to public art and this semi @-@ nude work .
= = Background = =
Benjamin Ferguson 's 1905 $ 1 million charitable trust gift to " memorialize events in American History " funded The Fountain , and many other public works in Chicago . As the city attempted to determine a policy for the fund 's use , Taft argued for fountains , allegorical statuary , discreetly placed portrait busts , and the adornment of bridges and park entrances in order to create long @-@ lasting beauty in addition to supporting the style of art he pursued . By September 1905 his name was linked in the press to the fund as a possible deserving recipient of its first commission . During the 1905 – 1906 year he began to place greater emphasis on sculpture in the classes he taught at the School of the Art Institute of Chicago , while simultaneously refining earlier allegorical .
The fountain is Taft 's response to Daniel Burnham 's complaint at the Columbian Exposition in 1893 that the sculptors charged with ornamenting the fairgrounds failed to produce anything that represented the great natural resources of the west , especially the Great Lakes . In Spring 1902 , Taft had assigned his students a work entitled Spirit of the Great Lakes . Five women had molded individual figures in response to an assignment and joined them in a tiered group with an imagined waterflow from the containers that they held . By mid @-@ January 1906 , Taft cast a plaster version , which he exhibited to Ferguson Fund Trestee Charles L. Hitchinson on January 17 at Taft 's Midway Studios . By the end of January , The Art Institute of Chicago displayed the work during its annual local works exhibition . It gained support during its four @-@ week display and won the Chicago Municipal Art League top sculpture award , and along with two other bust works he won the Society of Chicago Artists ' Medal for general excellence . The Municipal art League exhibition Chairperson , Mrs. William F. Grower , decided to form a subcommittee to help satisfy public support for the work to be the first Ferguson fund commission . However , even after the probate court released the bequest to the trustees on May 23 , 1906 , no commission was made because the trustees were undecided between a statuary and a portrait commission .
Additionally , Grant Park has been protected since 1836 by " forever open , clear and free " legislation that has been affirmed by several Illinois Supreme Court rulings . Aaron Montgomery Ward twice sued the city of Chicago to force it to remove buildings and structures from Grant Park and to keep it from building new ones . The second suit was still pending in 1906 and the legal cloud regarding deliberations of architectural limitations in Grant Park caused inaction . While the trustees remained silent , Taft sought wider public support by publishing a picture of Spirit of the Great Lakes in Century Magazine , which drew interest from Buffalo , New York as a host of the final work . By February 1907 , Buffalo Illustrated Times published a cover with an image of the work and a caption describing the anticipation of the Beautifying Buffalo Society for obtaining the work for the city . However , by the end of 1907 Taft and his connections with the Trust Fund resolved his commission .
On October 31 , 1907 , the Ferguson Trust Board voted Taft a commission , and on December 16 , he signed a $ 38 @,@ 000 contract to commence work . The commission was the first commission from the Ferguson fund . Despite the financial agreement it would be some time before a determination of a site for the work . Ward 's suit continued to loom over the deliberations . One proposal was to locate it in Grant Park south of the Art Institute and another was to locate it at the 35th Street and Grand Boulevard ( Now Martin Luther King , Jr . Drive ) intersection that now hosts the Chicago Landmark and National Register of Historic Places @-@ listed Victory Monument . The 1909 Art Institute annual report mentioned a proposal for a sunken garden with a focal fountain south of the Institute . Legal issues regarding land use intensified in 1910 , and the Art Institute began to make modest plans for the fountain almost attached to the south wall of its own building . For the next few years there was little mention of the fountain as Taft focused on other work . Then in May 1913 , the fountain model at Taft 's Midway Studios was disassembled and taken to Jules Berchem 's foundry for bronze casting . Shepley , Rutan and Coolidge designed the base for the sculpture . It was subsequently assembled by mid @-@ August in preparation for a September 9 , 1913 dedication date .
In 1963 with the construction of the new Morton wing of the Art Institute of Chicago Building , the fountain was moved from its south facing position adjacent to the original building that was visible from the Historic Michigan Boulevard District to the west wall of the new wing in a position facing westward . The sculpture was positioned so that the plaque on the back , which reads that the " fund must be used for erecting and maintaining enduring statuary and monuments " , is no longer legible .
Although Taft is now better remembered for his books such as The History of American Sculpture , which is regarded as the first comprehensive work on the subject in the title , he was in his day well known for portraits and allegorical public sculpture , especially public fountains . The fountain was produced in the period following his assignment to design sculptures for William Le Baron Jenney 's Horticultural Building when he designed several large @-@ scale public works , including Fountain of Time .
At the time of the dedication , Taft described the Ferguson Fund commission to sculpt the fountain as a turning point in his career that led to increased publicity , more commissions , and growing recognition in the community , which combined to give him the encouragement for further commitment to the arts . He hoped that the Fountain of the Great Lakes would mark a new era of civic beautification and that it would also mark the beginning of the Chicago school of sculpture . The dream that Chicago would be the epicenter of the sculpting universe had been bred during the World 's Columbian Exposition twenty years earlier and rekindled with the Ferguson bequest . Fountain of the Great Lakes was a major career accomplishment for Taft , which propelled him beyond the level of a portraitist .
= = Critical response = =
The general opinion of Fountain of the Great Lakes was positive with some describing it as a cultural achievement for Taft and Chicago . The detractors conceded that as a figural composition , it was ideal in an Old World way . Critics voiced concern over the sculpture 's confusion and decorum . One of the basic problems for the critics was the propriety of the symbolism of artistic and attractive bronze figures posed as bodies of water . There had for some time been discussion of the depictions representing relative elevations and the flows of the waters as they seem to do . There were grumblings for closer association of the figures to the lakes by use of physical features , directional orientation and definite contours . Harriet Monroe , a general supporter of Taft 's artistic efforts , was disappointed in the lack of representative geographic configuration and the lack of spirit of the lakes as inland seas . With respect to this specific piece she had gone from being an ardent supporter who felt the model was " stupendous " to finding herself in " doubt " about the work . Taft 's human form depictions of the lake failed to capture the imagery of contemporary literature as it related to the power and fury of nature and the heroism of those struggling against those forces in works such as those of Hamlin Garland , Charles Eugene Banks , Willa Cather , or Robert Morss Lovett . Taft 's representations of Lakes with quiet trickling water was in keeping with his general theme of quiet dignity for public sculpture . On the day of the dedication the Chicago Daily News expressed this point with a photomontage juxtaposition of Taft 's fountain and Lake Michigan in all its fury .
After one got past the symbolism of the ladies as lakes , complaints existed about the lack of recognition of the contemporary form of female representation in art and literature which had gone from the Lillian Russell @-@ type to the Gibson Girl to the Lillie Langtry image while Taft had apparently chosen " packing house ladies " as his female form . When Taft presented live depictions of his sculptures with quintets of women , he faced complaints that three of his five sculptural compositions had nude upper torsos , while his live representations were fully clothed . The degree to which nudity in public art was more for the " sake of nudity than for the sake of art . " was a contemporary issue involving confiscated Paul Chabas fully nude painting , the Roman Catholic Church , critics , art dealers and collectors . All this led to a 1913 amendment to the Chicago municipal obscenity laws proposed by Mayor of Chicago Carter Harrison , Jr. to the Chicago City Council , which passed three months before the dedication of Taft 's partially nude fountain . Chicago Tribune writers stood behind Taft 's fountain using humor against what they described as a " streak of over @-@ accentuated puritanism " that could adversely affect public art .
Taft had Beaux @-@ Arts training that lent itself well to allegorical sculpture . For Fountain of the Great Lakes , Taft claimed an inspiration from the Greek mythology . Danaus ordered his 49 daughters to kill their husbands and condemned them to delivering water to a bottomless vessel in Hades . This was in keeping with Taft 's penchant for classical inspiration although this was a loose association where the number of daughters was reduced from 49 to 5 and the artist 's task did not seem to be nearly as cruel as the mythological one .
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= Cannibal Holocaust =
Cannibal Holocaust is a 1980 Italian cannibal exploitation horror film directed by Ruggero Deodato from a screenplay by Gianfranco Clerici . It stars Carl Gabriel Yorke , Robert Kerman , Francesca Ciardi , Perry Pirkanen , and Luca Barbareschi . Influenced by the works of Mondo director Gualtiero Jacopetti , the film was inspired by Italian media reporting of Red Brigade terrorism . The coverage included news reports Deodato believed to be staged , an idea which became an integral aspect of the film 's story . Cannibal Holocaust was filmed primarily in the Amazon rainforest of Colombia with indigenous tribes interacting with American and Italian actors .
The film tells the story of a missing documentary film crew who had gone to the Amazon to film cannibal tribes . A rescue mission , led by the New York University anthropologist Harold Monroe , recovers the film crew 's lost cans of film , which an American television station wishes to broadcast . Upon viewing the reels , Monroe is appalled by the team 's actions , and after learning their fate , he objects to the station 's intent to air the documentary . The presentation of the film team 's lost footage , functioning similar to a flashback , revolutionized the found footage style of narrative filmmaking , later popularized by such films as The Blair Witch Project .
Cannibal Holocaust achieved notoriety as its graphic violence aroused a great deal of controversy . After its premiere in Italy , it was ordered to be seized by a local magistrate , and Deodato was arrested on obscenity charges . He was later charged with making a snuff film due to rumors that claimed some actors were killed on camera . Although Deodato was later cleared , the film was banned in Italy , Australia , and several other countries due to its portrayal of graphic brutality , sexual assault , and real depictions of violence toward animals . Some nations have since revoked the ban , though it is still upheld in several countries . Critics have suggested that the film is a commentary about civilized versus uncivilized society .
= = Plot = =
In 1979 , an American film crew disappears in the Amazon rainforest while on an expedition to film a documentary about indigenous cannibal tribes . The team consists of Alan Yates , the director ; Faye Daniels , his girlfriend and script girl ; and two cameramen , Jack Anders and Mark Tomaso . Harold Monroe , an anthropologist at New York University , agrees to lead a rescue team in hopes of finding the missing filmmakers alive . In anticipation of his arrival , the military conducts a raid on a local tribe known as the Yacumo and takes a young Yacumo male hostage in order to help negotiate with the natives . Monroe flies in via floatplane and is introduced to his guides , Chaco and his assistant , Miguel .
After several days of trekking through the jungle , the group encounters the Yacumo tribe . They arrange the release of their hostage in exchange for being taken to the Yacumo village . Once there , the group initially meets hostility and learns that the film team had caused great unrest among the people . The next day , Monroe and his guides head deeper into the rainforest to locate two warring cannibal tribes , the Ya ̧ nomamö and the Shamatari . They encounter a group of Shamatari warriors and follow them to a riverbank where they save a smaller group of Ya ̧ nomamö from certain death . Grateful , the Ya ̧ nomamö invite Monroe and his team back to their village , yet they treat the outsiders with suspicion . To gain their trust , Monroe bathes naked in a river . A group of friendly Ya ̧ nomamö women emerge to join him and playfully bathe with him . After , they take him to a shrine where he discovers the rotting remains of the missing American filmmakers . Upset and angered , Monroe decides it is of utmost importance to recover the films . He confronts the Ya ̧ nomamö , during which time he plays a tape recorder of tribal music for them . The intrigued natives agree to trade it for the first team 's surviving reels of film during a cannibalistic ceremony , in which Monroe has to take part .
Back in New York , executives of the Pan American Broadcasting System invite Monroe to host a broadcast of the documentary to be made from the recovered film . Monroe insists on viewing the raw footage first . The executives first introduce him to Alan 's work by showing an excerpt from his previous documentary , The Last Road to Hell . One of the executives tells Monroe that Alan staged the scene to get more exciting footage . Monroe then views the recovered footage , which first follows the group 's trek through the jungle . After walking for days , their guide , Felipe , is bitten by a venomous snake . The group amputates Felipe 's leg with a machete in an attempt to save his life , but he quickly dies and is left behind . The remaining four succeed in locating the Yacumo . Jack shoots one in the leg so they can easily follow him to the village . Once they arrive , the film crew forces the entire tribe into a hut and burn it down in order to stage a massacre for their film . Monroe expresses concern over the staged scenes and poor treatment of the natives , but his worries are ignored .
Monroe finishes viewing the footage and expresses his disgust to station executives about their decision to air the documentary . To convince them otherwise , he shows the remaining , unedited footage , which only he has seen . The final two reels begin with the team locating a young Ya ̧ nomamö girl , whom the men film and gang @-@ rape as Faye tries to intervene . Afterward , they encounter the same girl impaled on a wooden pole by a riverbank , where they claim the natives killed her . They move on and are attacked by the Ya ̧ nomamö in revenge for the girl 's rape and death . Jack is hit by a spear , and Alan shoots him so the team can film how the natives mutilate his corpse . As the three surviving team members try to escape the scene , Faye is captured . Alan insists that they try to rescue her . Mark continues to film as she is raped , beaten to death and beheaded . The Ya ̧ nomamö immediately locate the last two team members as the footage ends with Alan 's bloody face . Disturbed by what they have seen , the executives order the footage destroyed . As Monroe leaves the station , he ponders to himself , wondering " who the real cannibals are . "
= = Cast = =
= = Production = =
Production began in 1979 , when Deodato was contacted by German film producers to make a film similar to Jungle Holocaust , which was also directed by Deodato . He accepted the project and immediately went in search of a producer , choosing his friend Francesco Palaggi . The two first flew to Colombia to scout for filming locations . Leticia was chosen as the principal filming location after Deodato met a Colombian documentary filmmaker at the airport in Bogotá , who suggested the town as a location ideal for filming . Other locations had been considered , specifically the locations where the film Burn ! , directed by Gillo Pontecorvo , had been shot , but Deodato rejected these locations due to lack of suitable rainforest . Leticia was only accessible by aircraft , and from there , the cast and crew had to travel by boat to reach the set . The locale presented many problems for the production , in particular the heat and sudden rain storms , which sporadically delayed filming .
= = = Development and writing = = =
Deodato said he conceived of the film while talking to his son about news coverage of the terrorism of the Red Brigades . Deodato thought that the media focused on portraying violence with little regard for journalistic integrity and believed that the media staged certain news angles in order to obtain more sensational footage . He reflected this behavior in the film team in Cannibal Holocaust , whom he said symbolized the Italian media .
The Italian screenwriter Gianfranco Clerici wrote the script under the working title Green Inferno . He had collaborated with Deodato in his previous films Ultimo mondo cannibale and The House on the Edge of the Park , the latter of which was filmed before Cannibal Holocaust but released afterward . The names of certain characters in the film were changed from Clerici 's screenplay : the name " Mark Williams " was changed to " Mark Tomaso " , and " Shanda Tommaso " was changed to " Faye Daniels " .
Clerici also wrote several scenes that did not make the film 's final cut . One of which depicted a group of Ya ̧ nomamö cutting off the leg of a Shamatari warrior and feeding him to piranhas in the river . This scene was to take place directly after Monroe 's team rescues a smaller group of Ya ̧ nomamö from the Shamatari . Attempts were made to film this scene , but the underwater camera did not operate properly , and the piranha were difficult to control . As a result , Deodato abandoned his efforts , and still photographs taken during the scene are its only known depiction .
= = = Casting = = =
For the film , Deodato cast several inexperienced actors from the Actors Studio in New York City . Luca Giorgio Barbareschi and Francesca Ciardi were cast in part because they were Italian actors who also spoke English . Deodato decided to make the film in English to appeal to a wider audience and to lend the film credibility . However , he also needed to establish a European nationality so the film could be more easily distributed among European countries . Under Italian law , for the film to be recognized as Italian , Deodato had to have at least two native Italian @-@ speaking actors to star in the film .
Deodato also hired Perry Pirkanen and another actor from the Actors Studio to play Jack Anders and Alan Yates respectively . The latter dropped out shortly before the production team left for the Amazon ( he appears in the film as an ex @-@ colleague of Yates ) . Casting director Bill Williams chose Carl Gabriel Yorke for the role . Yorke , a stage actor who had studied under Uta Hagen and appeared in three national tours of One Flew Over the Cuckoo 's Nest , was chosen in part because he was the right size for the costumes and boots , which had already been purchased . Because Cannibal Holocaust was a non @-@ Union production , Yorke originally wanted to be credited under the alias Christopher Savage .
Robert Kerman had years of experience working in adult films under the pseudonym R. Bolla , including the well @-@ known Debbie Does Dallas . Kerman was recommended to Deodato for his previous film , The Concorde Affair , in which Kerman played an air traffic controller . Kerman went on to star in the Italian cannibal films Eaten Alive ! and Cannibal Ferox , both directed by Umberto Lenzi . Kerman 's then @-@ girlfriend , Kate ( last name unknown ) , was cast as one of the station executives , as the production needed an actress to be available in both New York City and Rome .
= = = Direction = = =
Deodato drew influence from the works of Paolo Cavara , Gualtiero Jacopetti , and Franco Prosperi , documentary filmmakers of whom Deodato was a fan . Prosperi and Jacopetti produced several Mondo films , which are documentaries similar to the one made in Cannibal Holocaust . These documentaries focused on sensationalistic and graphic content from around the world , including bizarre local customs , death , and general cruelty . Deodato followed suit in ways of similar content , such as graphic violence and animal slayings . Although fictional , Deodato created a similar exposé of worldly violence , such as Cavara 's , Prosperi 's and Jacopetti 's Mondo Cane .
Deodato filmed Cannibal Holocaust using the cinéma vérité technique he learned from his mentor Roberto Rossellini , a style which production designer Massimo Antonello Gelend called " hyperrealistic . " Film historian David Kerekes contends that the film 's sense of reality is based on the direction and the treatment of the film team 's recovered footage , noting that the " shaky hand @-@ held camerawork commands a certain realism , and ' The Green Inferno , ' the ill @-@ fated team 's film @-@ within @-@ a @-@ film here , is no exception , " and that " this very instability gives the ' Green Inferno ' film its authentic quality . " David Carter of the cult horror webzine Savage Cinema says that Deodato 's methods added a first @-@ person quality to the film team 's footage , claiming , " The viewer feels as if they are there with the crew , experiencing the horrors with them . " Deodato was proud of other aspects of the cinematography , namely the numerous moving shots using a standard , shoulder @-@ mounted camera ( that is , without the use of a steadicam ) .
Kerekes noted the animal slaughter and inclusion of footage from The Last Road to Hell as adding to the sense of reality of the film . Lloyd Kaufman of Troma Entertainment compares these scenes to Vsevolod Pudovkin 's theory of montage , saying , " In Cannibal Holocaust , we see the actors kill and rip apart a giant sea turtle and other animals . [ ... ] The brain has been conditioned to accept that which it 's now seeing as real . This mixture of real and staged violence , combined with the handheld camerawork and the rough , unedited quality of the second half of the movie , is certainly enough to convince someone that what they are watching is real . " Deodato says he included the execution footage in The Last Road to Hell to draw further similarities to Cannibal Holocaust and the Mondo filmmaking of Gualtiero Jacopetti .
Certain scenes in Cannibal Holocaust have also been noted as being similar to scenes in Antonio Climati 's Mondo film Savana violenta , specifically the scene in which Monroe bathes naked in the river and the scene of the forced abortion rite . The cinéma vérité style used heavily in Cannibal Holocaust was also used before in Climati 's first Mondo film , Ultime grida dalla savana , in a scene where a tourist is attacked and killed by a pride of lions . Another scene , in which a native man is captured , tortured , and murdered by mercenaries in South America , uses a similar filming style , and both scenes may have been influential on Deodato 's direction .
= = = Filming = = =
Principal photography began on 4 June 1979 . The scenes featuring the film team were shot first with handheld 16mm cameras in a cinéma vérité style that mimicked an observational documentary . After shooting with the film team was completed , Kerman flew down to film his scenes in the rainforest and then to New York to film exterior shots in the city . The interior shots of New York were later filmed in a studio in Rome . Production on the film was delayed numerous times while filming in the Amazon . After the original actor to play Alan Yates dropped out , filming was halted for two weeks as new casting calls began , and the crew awaited the arrival of Yorke from New York City . During principal filming with Kerman , the father of the actor who played Miguel was murdered , and production was again halted as the actor flew back to Bogotá to attend his father 's funeral .
Tensions on the Amazonian set were high , due in part to the location and to the content of the film itself . Yorke describes the set as having " a level of cruelty unknown to me , " while Kerman described Deodato as remorseless and uncaring ; he and Deodato got into long , drawn @-@ out arguments every day of shooting , usually because of remarks made by Deodato . These tensions were further heightened by unscrupulous payment practices . Yorke 's first payment for the film came in the form of Colombian pesos and was less than what had been agreed upon . Yorke refused to continue shooting until he was paid fairly in United States dollars . The native extras also went unpaid for their work despite their involvement in numerous dangerous scenes , including a scene in which they were forced to stay inside a burning hut for a prolonged period of time . Robert Kerman also noted unfair treatment of the natives by Deodato , stating , " He was a sadist . He was particularly sadistic to people that couldn 't answer back , people that were Colombian , [ and ] people that were Italian but could be sent home " .
One particular aspect that led to disagreement amongst the crew was the genuine killing of animals . Kerman stormed off the set while the death of the coatimundi was filmed , and Yorke refused to participate in the killing of the pig , which he was originally scripted to execute , leaving the duty to Luca Barbareschi . When it was shot , the squeal of the pig subsequently caused Yorke to botch a long monologue , and retakes were not an option because they had no access to additional pigs . Perry Pirkanen cried after filming the butchering of a turtle , and crew members vomited off camera when a squirrel monkey was killed for the film . Actress Francesca Ciardi also objected to the film 's sexual content and did not want to bare her breasts during the sex scene between her and Carl Yorke . When she refused to comply with Deodato 's direction , he dragged her off the set and screamed at her in Italian . She had earlier suggested that she and Yorke actually have sex in the jungle before filming , in order to relieve the tension of the upcoming scene . When Yorke declined , she grew upset with him , alienating him for the rest of the shoot .
= = = Music = = =
The film 's soundtrack was composed entirely by Italian composer Riz Ortolani , whom Deodato specifically requested because of Ortolani 's work in Mondo Cane , particularly the film 's main theme , " Ti guarderò nel cuore " ( also known as " More " ) . The music itself is a variety of styles , from a gentle melody in the " Main Theme " , to a sad and flowing score in " Crucified Woman " , and faster and more upbeat tracks in " Cameraman 's Recreation " , " Relaxing in the Savannah " , and " Drinking Coco " . The instrumentals are equally mixed , ranging from full orchestras to electronics and synthesizers . Mondo Records and Death Waltz released the Official Soundtrack ( OST ) on vinyl in 2015 .
= = Reaction = =
Cannibal Holocaust premiered on 7 February 1980 in the Italian city of Milan . Although the courts confiscated the film based on a citizen 's complaint , the initial audience reaction was positive . After seeing the film , director Sergio Leone wrote a letter to Deodato , which stated ( translated ) , " Dear Ruggero , what a movie ! The second part is a masterpiece of cinematographic realism , but everything seems so real that I think you will get in trouble with all the world . " In the ten days before it was seized , the film had grossed approximately $ 200 million ; in Japan it grossed $ 21 milion , becoming the second highest @-@ grossing film of that time after E.T. the Extraterrestrial .
= = = Critical response = = =
Critics remain split on their stances of Cannibal Holocaust . Supporters of the film cite it as a serious and well @-@ made social commentary on the modern world . Sean Axmaker praised the structure and set @-@ up of the film , saying , " It 's a weird movie with an awkward narrative , which Deodato makes all the more effective with his grimy sheen of documentary realism , while Riz Ortolani 's unsettlingly lovely , elegiac score provides a weird undercurrent . " Jason Buchanan of Allmovie said , " While it 's hard to defend the director for some of the truly repugnant images with which he has chosen to convey his message , there is indeed an underlying point to the film , if one is able to look beyond the sometimes unwatchable images that assault the viewer . "
Detractors , however , criticize the over @-@ the @-@ top gore and the genuine animal slayings ; they also point to an alleged hypocrisy that the film presents . Nick Schager criticized the brutality of the film , saying , " As clearly elucidated by its shocking gruesomeness — as well as its unabashedly racist portrait of indigenous folks it purports to sympathize with [ the real indigenous peoples in Brazil whose names were used in the film — the Ya ̧ nomamö and Shamatari — are not fierce enemies as portrayed in the film , nor is either tribe truly cannibalistic , although the Ya ̧ nomamö do partake in a form of post @-@ mortem ritual cannibalism ] — the actual savages involved with Cannibal Holocaust are the ones behind the camera . "
Robert Firsching of Allmovie made similar criticisms of the film 's content , saying , " While the film is undoubtedly gruesome enough to satisfy fans , its mixture of nauseating mondo animal slaughter , repulsive sexual violence , and pie @-@ faced attempts at socially conscious moralizing make it rather distasteful morally as well . " Slant Magazine 's Eric Henderson said it is " artful enough to demand serious critical consideration , yet foul enough to christen you a pervert for even bothering . " Cannibal Holocaust currently holds a 65 % " Fresh " rating on the film review aggregate website Rotten Tomatoes , with an average rating of 5 @.@ 1 / 10 .
In recent years , Cannibal Holocaust has received accolades in various publications as well as a cult following . The British film magazine Total Film ranked Cannibal Holocaust as the tenth greatest horror film of all time , and the film was included in a similar list of the top 25 horror films compiled by Wired . The film also came in eighth on IGN 's list of the ten greatest grindhouse films .
= = = Interpretations = = =
Cannibal Holocaust is seen by some as social commentary on various aspects of modern civilization by comparing Western society to that of the cannibals . David Carter says " Cannibal Holocaust is not merely focused on the societal taboo of flesh eating . The greater theme of the film is the difference between the civilized and the uncivilized . Though the graphic violence can be hard for most to stomach , the most disturbing aspect of the film is what Deodato is saying about modern society . The film asks the questions ' What is it to be ' civilized ' ? ' and ' Is it a good thing ? ' " Mark Goodall , author of Sweet & Savage : The World Through the Shockumentary Film Lens , also contends the film 's message is " the rape of the natural world by the unnatural ; the exploitation of ' primitive ' cultures for western entertainment . "
Deodato 's intentions regarding the Italian media coverage of the Red Brigades have also fallen under critical examination and has been expanded to include all sensationalism . Carter explores this , claiming that " [ The lack of journalistic integrity ] is shown through the interaction between Professor Monroe and the news agency that had backed the documentary crew . They continually push Monroe to finish editing the footage because blood and guts equal ratings . " Lloyd Kaufman claims that this form of exploitative journalism can still be seen in the media today and in programming such as reality television . Goodall and film historians David Slater and David Kerekes have also suggested that Deodato was attempting to comment on the documentary works of Antonio Climati with his film .
Despite these interpretations , Deodato has said in interviews that he had no intentions in Cannibal Holocaust but to make a film about cannibals . Actor Luca Barbareschi asserts this as well and believes that Deodato only uses his films to " put on a show " . Robert Kerman contradicts these assertions , however , stating that Deodato did tell him of political concerns involving the media in the making of this film .
These interpretations have also been criticized as hypocritical and poor justification for the film 's content , as Cannibal Holocaust itself is highly sensationalized . Firsching claims that " The fact that the film 's sole spokesperson for the anti @-@ exploitation perspective is played by porn star Robert Kerman should give an indication of where its sympathies lie " , while Schager says Deodato is " pathetically justifying the unrepentant carnage by posthumously damning his eaten filmmaker protagonists with a ' who are the real monsters – the cannibals or us ? ' anti @-@ imperialism morale " .
= = Controversy = =
Since its original release , Cannibal Holocaust has been the target of censorship by moral and animal activists . Other than graphic gore , the film contains several scenes of sexual violence and genuine cruelty to animals , issues which find Cannibal Holocaust in the midst of controversy to this day . Due to this notoriety , Cannibal Holocaust has been marketed as having been banned in over 50 countries . In 2006 , Entertainment Weekly magazine named Cannibal Holocaust as the 20th most controversial film of all time .
= = = Snuff film allegations = = =
Ten days after its premiere in Milan , Cannibal Holocaust was confiscated under the orders of a local magistrate , and Ruggero Deodato was arrested and charged with obscenity . As all copies were to be turned over to the authorities , the film was distributed internationally via subterfuge . In January 1981 , during the film 's theatrical run in France , the magazine Photo suggested that certain deaths depicted in the film were real , which would have made Cannibal Holocaust a snuff film . Following the publication of the Photo article , the charges against Deodato were amended to include murder . The courts believed that the actors who portrayed the missing film crew and the native actress featured in the impalement scene were killed for the camera .
Compounding matters was the fact that the supposedly deceased actors had signed contracts with the production which ensured that they would not appear in any type of media , motion pictures , or commercials for one year following the film 's release . This was done in order to promote the idea that Cannibal Holocaust was truly the recovered footage of missing documentarians . During the subsequent court proceedings , questions arose as to why the actors were in no other media if they were alive as Deodato claimed .
To prove his innocence , Deodato had Luca Barbareschi get in contact with the other three actors , and the four of them were interviewed for an Italian television show . Deodato also explained in court how the special effect in the impalement scene was achieved : a bicycle seat was attached to the end of an iron pole , upon which the actress sat . She then held a short length of balsa wood in her mouth and looked skyward , thus giving the appearance of impalement . Deodato also provided the court with pictures of the girl interacting with the crew after the scene had been filmed . After they were presented with this evidence , the courts dropped all murder charges against Deodato .
= = = Censorship = = =
Although the snuff film allegations were disproven , the courts decided to ban Cannibal Holocaust due to the genuine animal slayings , citing animal cruelty laws . Deodato , Franco Palaggi , Franco Di Nunzio , Gianfranco Clerici , producer Alda Pia and United Artists Europa representative Sandro Perotti each received a four @-@ month suspended sentence after they were all convicted of obscenity and violence . Deodato fought in the courts for three additional years to get his film unbanned . In 1984 , the courts ruled in favor of Deodato , and Cannibal Holocaust was granted a rating certificate of VM18 for a cut print . It would later be re @-@ released uncut .
Cannibal Holocaust also faced censorship issues in other countries around the world . In 1981 , video releases were not required to pass before the British Board of Film Censors ( BBFC ) , which had power to ban films in the United Kingdom . Cannibal Holocaust was released straight @-@ to @-@ video there , thus circumventing the possible banning of the film . In 1983 , the Department of Public Prosecutions compiled a list of 72 video releases that were not brought before the BBFC for certification and declared them prosecutable for obscenity . This list of " video nasties " included Cannibal Holocaust , which was successfully prosecuted and banned . The film was not approved for release in the UK until 2001 , albeit with nearly six minutes of mandated cuts . In 2011 , the BBFC waived all but one of these previous edits and passed Cannibal Holocaust with fifteen seconds of cuts . It was determined that the only scene that breached the BBFC 's guidelines was the killing of a coatimundi , and the BBFC acknowledged that previous cuts were reactionary to the film 's reputation .
The film was also banned in Australia , Norway , Finland , New Zealand , and several other countries in 1984 . In 2005 , the Office of Film and Literature Classification in Australia revoked the ban , passing Cannibal Holocaust with an R18 + rating for the uncut print , including the consumer advice , " High level sexual violence , high level violence , animal cruelty . " In 2006 , the film was rejected for classification and banned in its entirety by the OFLC in New Zealand . Cuts to retain an R18 classification were offered by the Office , but they were eventually refused .
= = = Animal cruelty = = =
Many of the censorship issues with Cannibal Holocaust concern the on @-@ screen killings of animals , which remains a controversial issue . Deodato himself has condemned his past actions , saying " I was stupid to introduce animals . " Although six animal deaths appear onscreen , seven animals were killed for the production , as the scene depicting the monkey 's death was shot twice , resulting in the death of two monkeys . Both of the animals were eaten by indigenous cast members , who consider monkey brains a delicacy . The animals killed onscreen were :
A coati ( mistaken for a muskrat in the film ) , killed with a knife .
A large turtle , decapitated and its limbs , shell , and entrails removed .
A tarantula , killed with a machete .
A boa constrictor , killed with a machete .
A squirrel monkey , decapitated with a machete .
A pig , shot in the head with a shotgun at point blank range .
Film historian Andrew DeVos has argued that the animal deaths have been harshly condemned because of the film 's classification as exploitation , whereas animal mutilations in films perceived by critics to be classics or art films are often ignored . DeVos cites several examples of this double standard , including Rules of the Game , El Topo , and Apocalypse Now . The BBFC made a similar conclusion regarding the censorship of scenes in which the deaths were quick and painless , noting , " Removing these sequences would be inconsistent with the BBFC 's decisions to permit quick clean kills in several other films , such as Apocalypse Now . "
= = Legacy = =
Cannibal Holocaust was innovative in its plot structure , specifically with the concept of the " found footage " being brought back to civilization and later viewed to determine the fate of the crew that shot it . This was later popularized as a distinct style in Hollywood cinema by The Last Broadcast and The Blair Witch Project , both of which use similar storytelling devices . Each film uses the idea of a lost film team making a documentary in the wilderness , and their footage returned . Advertisements for The Blair Witch Project also promoted the idea that the footage is genuine . Deodato has acknowledged the similarities between his film and The Blair Witch Project , and though he holds no malice against the producers , he is frustrated at the publicity that The Blair Witch Project received for being an original production . The producers of The Last Broadcast have denied that Cannibal Holocaust was a major influence . Nonetheless , the film was cited by director Paco Plaza as a source of inspiration for the found footage films REC and REC 2 .
Cannibal Holocaust has been regarded as the apex of the cannibal genre , and it bears similarities to subsequent cannibal films made during the same time period . Cannibal Ferox also stars Kerman and Pirkanen , and star Giovanni Lombardo Radice says it was made based on the success of Cannibal Holocaust . Cannibal ferox has also been noted as containing similar themes to Cannibal Holocaust , such as comparison of Western violence to perceived uncivilized cultures and anti @-@ imperialism . In a mixed review , film journalist Jay Slater claims , " Certainly a tough customer , Cannibal Ferox still fails where Deodato succeeds . [ ... ] Lenzi attempts to tackle cultural defilement and racial issues , but Cannibal Ferox is nothing more than a shoddy exercise in sadism and animal cruelty . " Reviewer Andrew Parkinson also notes , " At the end , there is a basic attempt to validate Cannibal Ferox , posing that old chestnut of whether civilised man is actually more savage than the uncivilised tribespeople . "
Cannibal Holocaust also spawned numerous and similar unofficial sequels within the genre . These films were originally released under different titles that were then changed for various releases , although none have been directed by or associated with Deodato . The first of said films came in 1985 with Mario Gariazzo 's Schiave bianche : violenza in Amazzonia . Known in English as Amazonia : The Catherine Miles Story , it has also been released as Cannibal Holocaust 2 : The Catherine Miles Story . Slater also notes similarities between the score in Amazonia and Riz Ortolani 's score in Cannibal Holocaust . In 1988 , mondo director Antonio Climati made his film Natura contro , which was released as Cannibal Holocaust II in Thailand and the United Kingdom . Italian director Bruno Mattei also made two straight @-@ to @-@ video films back to back in 2003 , which have been released as Cannibal Holocaust sequels in Japan .
In 2005 , Deodato officially announced that he planned to make a companion piece to Cannibal Holocaust entitled Cannibals . Deodato was originally hesitant about directing his new film , as he thought that he would make it too violent for American audiences . While in Prague filming his cameo appearance in Hostel : Part II , however , Deodato viewed the first film and decided that he would direct after all , citing Hostel as a similarly violent film that made a mainstream release in America . Although the screenplay , written by Christine Conradt , was completed , a financial conflict between Deodato and the film 's producer led to the project 's cancellation .
Eli Roth 's 2013 film The Green Inferno takes its title from the fictional film in Cannibal Holocaust and is an homage to this and other grindhouse cannibal films of the era .
The film 's influence has extended to other media as well . In 2001 , Death metal band Necrophagia released a song entitled " Cannibal Holocaust " from the eponymous record . British Author Saurav Dutt also published Cannibal Metropolis , a novel inspired by Cannibal Holocaust set in an urban location . Like Cannibal Holocaust , the novelization features explicit scenes of violence , horror , and rape .
= = Alternate versions = =
Due to its graphic content , there are several different versions of Cannibal Holocaust in circulation which are edited to varying degrees . In the UK , the film was originally released on VHS by Go Video in 1982 with approximately six minutes of cuts . These cuts were self @-@ imposed by the distributor , possibly due to technical limitations of the tape . In 2001 , the film was passed for release on DVD by the BBFC with 5 minutes and 44 seconds of cuts to remove scenes of animal cruelty and sexual violence ; all but 15 seconds of these cuts were waived for a re @-@ release in 2011 . The latter release also includes a new edit sponsored by Deodato which reduces the violence toward animals . The DVD released by Grindhouse Releasing contains a " Cruelty Free " version of the film . Other versions also contain alternate footage shot specifically for Middle Eastern markets that does not depict nudity .
There are multiple versions of the Last Road to Hell segment of the film , which causes variances even among uncensored releases . An extended version of The Last Road to Hell includes approximately ten seconds of footage not seen in an alternate , shorter version . This additional footage includes a wide @-@ angle shot of firing @-@ squad executions , a close @-@ up of a dead victim , and extended footage of bodies being carried into the back of a truck . The longer version also includes different titles that correctly name the film team as they appear in the final film , while the shorter version gives the names of the film team that originally appear in the script .
The longer version of The Last Road to Hell is no longer found in the film 's negatives , but it was included in the original Dutch Ultrabit DVD release by EC Entertainment in 1999 . This digital version has since been re @-@ released and licensed for other various DVD releases in Europe . The Grindhouse Releasing DVD release in the United States and the Siren Visual release in Australia have the shorter version of The Last Road to Hell within the feature film but include the extended version in the special features on the first disc .
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= History of the Jews in Mauritius =
Judaism is a minor religion in Mauritius . The first Jews arrived from Haifa , British Palestine ( now Israel ) , in the 1940s because they were denied entry to Palestine by the British Government . There currently are about 43 Jews in total in Mauritius . There is a synagogue in Curepipe , and a Jewish cemetery in Bambous .
= = History = =
= = = Patria and World War II = = =
In September 1940 , the Atlantic , Milos , and Pacific , picked up 3 @,@ 600 Jews from Vienna , Gdańsk and Prague in Tulcea , Romania , to be sent to Palestine . The Jews that arrived in Palestine came without entry permits and were subsequently denied entry by the British government , specifically Sir Harold MacMichael , who was the High Commissioner . The British decided to deport the immigrants to either Trinidad and Tobago or Mauritius , both British colonies . On 25 November 1940 , the first ship carrying the 1 @,@ 800 Jews to Mauritius , the Patria , was accidentally bombed by the Haganah , who wanted the Jews to stay in Palestine . Their intentions were to cripple the ship . There were 260 fatalities and 172 injuries . There were only enough lifeboats for 805 , since the capacity was 805 when the Patria was a French ship . When the British repossessed the boat , they increased the capacity to 1 @,@ 800 but still had the same number of lifeboats .
The surviving Jews were sent to Atlit detainee camp . The remaining 1 @,@ 584 refugees from the Atlantic who were not on the Patria were initially also imprisoned in Atlit , but were sent to Mauritius on 9 December 1940 . When they arrived , they were sent to a detainment camp in Beau @-@ Bassin .
In the camp , the detainees suffered from tropical diseases and inadequate food and clothing . Jewish organizations such as the South African Jewish Board of Deputies , the Jewish Agency , and the Zionist Federation , sent food , clothing , medicine , and religious items to the detainees . Initially , a ban on interaction between the sexes was enforced ; the men were held in a former jailhouse and the women in adjacent iron huts . After the ban was lifted , 60 children were born in the camp . In total , 128 prisoners died in the camp , and were buried in the Jewish section of St. Martin Cemetery . At the end of World War II , the detainees were given the choice of returning to their former homes in Europe or immigrating to Palestine . Most chose Palestine , and on August 6 , 1945 , 1 @,@ 320 landed in Haifa .
= = = Present = = =
According to the population census of 2011 , there are 43 Jews in Mauritius . The current community is unrelated to the 1940s fugitives . The first Bar Mitzvah in Mauritius since World War II took place in 2000 .
There is also one synagogue in Curepipe , the Amicale Maurice Israel Center , which was opened in 2005 . The Saint Martin Cemetery in Saint Martin near Beau @-@ Bassin , is the only Jewish cemetery in Mauritus . The bodies of the 127 died detainees as well as other Jewish people are buried there . Part of this has been fictionalised in Natacha Appanah 's ' The Last Brother ' . It relates the childhood experiences of Raj and David , a little boy from Prague .
Many , if not most Mauritians are unaware of the existence of such a graveyard in Mauritius . Each grave recalls the story of deportee life in an alien country , the result of mass deportation from Haifa by the British of refugees who escaped Nazi barbarity , only to find themselves in jail in a tiny British island colony where they died of disease instead of creating new lives for themselves in Palestine / Israel .
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= House sparrow =
The house sparrow ( Passer domesticus ) is a bird of the sparrow family Passeridae , found in most parts of the world . A small bird , it has a typical length of 16 centimetres ( 6 @.@ 3 inches ) and a mass of 24 – 39 @.@ 5 grams ( 0 @.@ 85 – 1 @.@ 39 ounces ) . Females and young birds are coloured pale brown and grey , and males have brighter black , white , and brown markings . One of about 25 species in the genus Passer , the house sparrow is native to most of Europe , the Mediterranean region , and much of Asia . Its intentional or accidental introductions to many regions , including parts of Australia , Africa , and the Americas , make it the most widely distributed wild bird .
The house sparrow is strongly associated with human habitations , and can live in urban or rural settings . Though found in widely varied habitats and climates , it typically avoids extensive woodlands , grasslands , and deserts away from human development . It feeds mostly on the seeds of grains and weeds , but it is an opportunistic eater and commonly eats insects and many other foods . Its predators include domestic cats , hawks , owls , and many other predatory birds and mammals .
Because of its numbers , ubiquity and association with human settlements , the house sparrow is culturally prominent . It is extensively , and usually unsuccessfully , persecuted as an agricultural pest , but it has also often been kept as a pet as well as being a food item and a symbol of lust and sexual potency , as well as of commonness and vulgarity . Though it is widespread and abundant , its numbers have declined in some areas . The animal 's conservation status is listed as least concern on the IUCN Red List .
= = Description = =
= = = Measurements and shape = = =
The house sparrow is typically about 16 cm ( 6 @.@ 3 in ) long , ranging from 14 to 18 cm ( 5 @.@ 5 to 7 @.@ 1 in ) . It is a compact bird with a full chest and a large rounded head . Its bill is stout and conical with a culmen length of 1 @.@ 1 – 1 @.@ 5 cm ( 0 @.@ 43 – 0 @.@ 59 in ) , strongly built as an adaptation for eating seeds . Its tail is short , at 5 @.@ 2 – 6 @.@ 5 cm ( 2 @.@ 0 – 2 @.@ 6 in ) long . The wing chord is 6 @.@ 7 – 8 @.@ 9 cm ( 2 @.@ 6 – 3 @.@ 5 in ) , and the tarsus is 1 @.@ 6 – 2 @.@ 5 cm ( 0 @.@ 63 – 0 @.@ 98 in ) . In mass , the house sparrow ranges from 24 to 39 @.@ 5 g ( 0 @.@ 85 to 1 @.@ 39 oz ) . Females usually are slightly smaller than males . The median mass on the European continent for both sexes is about 30 g ( 1 @.@ 1 oz ) , and in more southerly subspecies is around 26 g ( 0 @.@ 92 oz ) . Younger birds are smaller , males are larger during the winter , and females are larger during the breeding season . Birds at higher latitudes , colder climates , and sometimes higher altitudes are larger ( under Bergmann 's rule ) , both between and within subspecies .
= = = Plumage = = =
The plumage of the house sparrow is mostly different shades of grey and brown . The sexes exhibit strong dimorphism : the female is mostly buffish above and below , while the male has boldly coloured head markings , a reddish back , and grey underparts . The male has a dark grey crown from the top of its bill to its back , and chestnut brown flanking its crown on the sides of its head . It has black around its bill , on its throat , and on the spaces between its bill and eyes ( lores ) . It has a small white stripe between the lores and crown and small white spots immediately behind the eyes ( postoculars ) , with black patches below and above them . The underparts are pale grey or white , as are the cheeks , ear coverts , and stripes at the base of the head . The upper back and mantle are a warm brown , with broad black streaks , while the lower back , rump and uppertail coverts are greyish @-@ brown .
The male is duller in fresh non @-@ breeding plumage , with whitish tips on many feathers . Wear and preening expose many of the bright brown and black markings , including most of the black throat and chest patch , called the " bib " or " badge " . The badge is variable in width and general size , and some scientists have suggested that patches signal social status or fitness . This hypothesis has led to a " veritable ' cottage industry ' " of studies , which have only conclusively shown that patches increase in size with age . The male 's bill is black in the breeding season and horn ( dark grey ) during the rest of the year .
The female has no black markings or grey crown . Its upperparts and head are brown with darker streaks around the mantle and a distinct pale supercilium . Its underparts are pale grey @-@ brown . The female 's bill is brownish @-@ grey and becomes darker in breeding plumage approaching the black of the male 's bill .
Juveniles are similar to the adult female but deeper brown below and paler above , with paler and less defined supercilia . Juveniles have broader buff feather edges , and tend to have looser , scruffier plumage , like moulting adults . Juvenile males tend to have darker throats and white postoculars like adult males , while juvenile female tend to have white throats . However , juveniles cannot be reliably sexed by plumage : some juvenile males lack any markings of the adult male , and some juvenile females have male features . The bills of young birds are light yellow to straw , paler than the female 's bill . Immature males have paler versions of the adult male 's markings , which can be very indistinct in fresh plumage . By their first breeding season , young birds generally are indistinguishable from other adults , though they may still be paler during their first year .
= = = Voice = = =
Most house sparrow vocalisations are variations on its short and incessant chirping call . Transcribed as chirrup , tschilp , or philip , this note is made as a contact call by flocking or resting birds , or by males to proclaim nest ownership and invite pairing . In the breeding season the male gives this call repetitively , with emphasis and speed but not much rhythm , forming what is described either as a song or an " ecstatic call " similar to a song . Young birds also give a true song , especially in captivity , a warbling similar to that of the European greenfinch .
Aggressive males give a trilled version of their call , transcribed as " chur @-@ chur @-@ r @-@ r @-@ it @-@ it @-@ it @-@ it " . This call is also used by females in the breeding season , to establish dominance over males while displacing them to feed young or incubate eggs . House sparrows give a nasal alarm call , the basic sound of which is transcribed as quer , and a shrill chree call in great distress . Another vocalisation is the " appeasement call " , a soft quee given to inhibit aggression , usually given between birds of a mated pair . These vocalisations are not unique to the house sparrow , but are shared , with small variations , by all sparrows .
= = = Variation = = =
There is some variation in the twelve subspecies of house sparrow , which are divided into two groups , the Oriental indicus group , and the Palaearctic domesticus group . Birds of the domesticus group have grey cheeks , while indicus group birds have white cheeks as well as bright colouration on the crown , a smaller bill , and a longer black bib . The subspecies Passer domesticus tingitanus differs little from the nominate subspecies , except in the worn breeding plumage of the male , in which the head is speckled with black and underparts are paler . P. d. balearoibericus is slightly paler than the nominate but darker than P. d. bibilicus . P. d. bibilicus is paler than most subspecies , but has the grey cheeks of domesticus group birds . The similar P. d. persicus is paler and smaller , and P. d. niloticus is nearly identical but smaller . Of the less widespread indicus group subspecies , P. d. hyrcanus is larger than P. d. indicus , P. d. hufufae is paler , P. d. bactrianus is larger and paler , and P. d. parkini is larger and darker with more black on the breast than any other subspecies .
= = = Identification = = =
The house sparrow can be confused with a number of other seed @-@ eating birds , especially its relatives in the genus Passer . Many of these relatives are smaller , with an appearance that is neater or " cuter " , as with the Dead Sea sparrow . The dull @-@ coloured female can often not be distinguished from other females , and is nearly identical to the those of the Spanish and Italian sparrows . The Eurasian tree sparrow is smaller and more slender with a chestnut crown and a black patch on each cheek . The male Spanish sparrow and Italian sparrow are distinguished by their chestnut crowns . The Sind sparrow is very similar but smaller , with less black on the male 's throat and a distinct pale supercilium on the female .
= = Taxonomy and systematics = =
= = = Names = = =
The house sparrow was among the first animals to be given a scientific name in the modern system of biological classification , since it was described by Carl Linnaeus , in the 1758 10th edition of Systema Naturae . It was described from a type specimen collected in Sweden , with the name Fringilla domestica . Later the genus name Fringilla came to be used only for the common chaffinch and its relatives , and the house sparrow has usually been placed in the genus Passer created by French zoologist Mathurin Jacques Brisson in 1760 .
The bird 's scientific name and its usual English name have the same meaning . The Latin word passer , like the English word " sparrow " , is a term for small active birds , coming from a root word referring to speed . The Latin word domesticus means " belonging to the house " , like the common name a reference to its association with humans . The house sparrow is also called by a number of alternative English names , including English sparrow , chiefly in North America ; and Indian sparrow or Indian house sparrow , for the birds of the Indian subcontinent and Central Asia . Dialectal names include sparr , sparrer , spadger , spadgick , and philip , mainly in southern England ; spug and spuggy , mainly in northern England ; spur and sprig , mainly in Scotland ; and spatzie or spotsie , from the German Spatz , in North America .
= = = Taxonomy = = =
The genus Passer contains about 25 species , depending on the authority , 26 according to the Handbook of the Birds of the World . Most Passer species are dull @-@ coloured birds with short square tails and stubby conical beaks , between 11 and 18 cm ( 4 @.@ 3 and 7 @.@ 1 in ) long . Mitochondrial DNA studies suggest that speciation in the genus occurred during the Pleistocene and earlier , while other evidence suggests speciation occurred 25 @,@ 000 to 15 @,@ 000 years ago . Within Passer , the house sparrow is part of the " Palaearctic black @-@ bibbed sparrows " group and a close relative of the Mediterranean " willow sparrows " .
The taxonomy of the house sparrow and its Mediterranean relatives is highly complicated . The common type of " willow sparrow " is the Spanish sparrow , which resembles the house sparrow in many respects . It frequently prefers wetter habitats than the house sparrow , and it is often colonial and nomadic . In most of the Mediterranean , one or both species occur , with some degree of hybridisation . In North Africa , the two species hybridise extensively , forming highly variable mixed populations with a full range of characters from pure house sparrows to pure Spanish sparrows .
In much of Italy there is a form apparently intermediate between the house and Spanish sparrows , known as the Italian sparrow . It resembles a hybrid between the two species , and is in other respects intermediate . Its specific status and origin are the subject of much debate . In the Alps , the Italian sparrow intergrades over a roughly 20 km ( 12 mi ) strip with the house sparrow , but to the south it intergrades over the southern half of Italy and some Mediterranean islands with the Spanish sparrow . On the Mediterranean islands of Malta , Gozo , Crete , Rhodes , and Karpathos , there are other apparently intermediate birds of unknown status .
= = = Subspecies = = =
A large number of subspecies have been named , of which twelve were recognised in the Handbook of the Birds of the World . These subspecies are divided into two groups , the Palaearctic domesticus group , and the Oriental indicus group . Several Middle Eastern subspecies , including Passer domesticus biblicus , are sometimes considered a third , intermediate group . The subspecies P. d. indicus was described as a species , and was considered to be distinct by many ornithologists during the nineteenth century .
Migratory birds of the subspecies P. d. bactrianus in the indicus group were recorded overlapping with P. d. domesticus birds without hybridising in the 1970s , so the Soviet scientists Edward I. Gavrilov and M. N. Korelov proposed the separation of the indicus group as a separate species . However , indicus @-@ group and domesticus @-@ group birds intergrade in a large part of Iran , so this split is rarely recognised .
In North America , house sparrow populations are more differentiated than those in Europe . This variation follows predictable patterns , with birds at higher latitudes being larger and those in arid areas being paler . However , it is not clear how much this is caused by evolution or by environment . Similar observations have been made in New Zealand , and in South Africa . The introduced house sparrow populations may be distinct enough to merit subspecies status , especially in North America and southern Africa , and American ornithologist Harry Church Oberholser even gave the subspecies name plecticus to the paler birds of western North America .
domesticus group
P. d. domesticus , the nominate subspecies , is found in most of Europe , across northern Asia to Sakhalin and Kamchatka . It is the most widely introduced subspecies .
P. d. balearoibericus von Jordans , 1923 , described from Majorca , is found in the Balearic Islands , southern France , the Balkans , and Anatolia .
P. d. tingitanus ( Loche , 1867 ) , described from Algeria , is found in the Maghreb from Ajdabiya in Libya to Béni Abbès in Algeria , and to Morocco 's Atlantic coast . It hybridises extensively with the Spanish sparrow , especially in the eastern part of its range .
P. d. niloticus Nicoll and Bonhote , 1909 , described from Faiyum , Egypt , is found along the Nile north of Wadi Halfa , Sudan . It intergrades with bibilicus in the Sinai , and with rufidorsalis in a narrow zone around Wadi Halfa . It has been recorded in Somaliland .
P. d. persicus Zarudny and Kudashev , 1916 , described from the Karun River in Khuzestan , Iran , is found in the western and central Iran south of the Alborz mountains , intergrading with indicus in eastern Iran , and Afghanistan .
P. d. biblicus Hartert , 1910 , described from Palestine , is found in the Middle East from Cyprus and south @-@ eastern Turkey to the Sinai in the west and from Azerbaijan to Kuwait in the east .
indicus group
P. d. hyrcanus Zarudny and Kudashev , 1916 , described from Gorgan , Iran , is found along the southern coast of the Caspian Sea from Gorgan to south @-@ eastern Azerbaijan . It intergrades with persicus in the Alborz mountains , and with bibilicus to the west . It is the subspecies with the smallest range .
P. d. bactrianus Zarudny and Kudashev , 1916 , described from Tashkent , is found in southern Kazakhstan to the Tian Shan and northern Iran and Afghanistan . It intergrades with persicus in Baluchistan and with indicus across central Afghanistan . Unlike most other house sparrow subspecies , it is almost entirely migratory , wintering in the plains of the northern Indian subcontinent . It is found in open country rather than in settlements , which are occupied by the Eurasian tree sparrow in its range . There is an exceptional record from Sudan .
P. d. parkini Whistler , 1920 , described from Srinagar , Kashmir , is found in the western Himalayas from the Pamir Mountains to south @-@ eastern Nepal . It is migratory , like bactrianus .
P. d. indicus Jardine and Selby , 1831 , described from Bangalore , is found in the Indian subcontinent south of the Himalayas , in Sri Lanka , western Southeast Asia , eastern Iran , south @-@ western Arabia and southern Israel .
P. d. hufufae Ticehurst and Cheeseman , 1924 , described from Hofuf in Saudi Arabia , is found in north @-@ eastern Arabia .
P. d. rufidorsalis C. L. Brehm , 1855 , described from Khartoum , Sudan , is found in the Nile valley from Wadi Halfa south to Renk in northern South Sudan , and in eastern Sudan , northern Ethiopia to the Red Sea coast in Eritrea . It has also been introduced to Mohéli in the Comoros .
= = Distribution and habitat = =
The house sparrow originated in the Middle East and spread , along with agriculture , to most of Eurasia and parts of North Africa . Since the mid @-@ nineteenth century , it has reached most of the world , chiefly due to deliberate introductions , but also through natural and shipborne dispersal . Its introduced range encompasses most of North America , Central America , southern South America , southern Africa , part of West Africa , Australia , New Zealand , and islands throughout the world . It has greatly extended its range in northern Eurasia since the 1850s , and continues to do so , as was shown by the colonisations around 1990 of Iceland and Rishiri Island , Japan . The extent of its range makes it the most widely distributed wild bird on the planet .
= = = Introductions = = =
The house sparrow has become highly successful in most parts of the world where it has been introduced . This is mostly due to its early adaptation to living with humans , and its adaptability to a wide range of conditions . Other factors may include its robust immune response , compared to the Eurasian tree sparrow . Where introduced , it can extend its range quickly , sometimes at a rate of over 230 km ( 140 mi ) per year . In many parts of the world it has been characterised as a pest , and poses a threat to native birds . A few introductions have died out or been of limited success , such as those to Greenland and Cape Verde .
The first of many successful introductions to North America occurred when birds from England were released in New York City , in 1852 in order to control the ravages of the linden moth . The house sparrow now occurs from the Northwest Territories to southern Panama , and it is one of the most abundant birds in North America . The house sparrow was first introduced to Australia in 1863 at Melbourne and is common throughout the eastern part of the continent , but has been prevented from establishing itself in Western Australia , where every house sparrow found in the state is killed . House sparrows were introduced in New Zealand in 1859 , and from there reached many of the Pacific islands , including Hawaii .
In southern Africa birds of both the European subspecies domesticus and the Indian subspecies indicus were introduced around 1900 . Birds of domesticus ancestry are confined to a few towns , while indicus birds have spread rapidly , reaching Tanzania in the 1980s . Despite this success , native relatives such as the Cape sparrow also occur in towns , competing successfully with it . In South America , it was first introduced near Buenos Aires around 1870 , and quickly became common in most of the southern part of the continent . It now occurs almost continuously from Tierra del Fuego to the fringes of Amazonia , with isolated populations as far north as coastal Venezuela .
= = = Habitat = = =
The house sparrow is closely associated with human habitation and cultivation . It is not an obligate commensal of humans as some have suggested : Central Asian house sparrows usually breed away from humans in open country , and birds elsewhere are occasionally found away from humans . The only terrestrial habitats that the house sparrow does not inhabit are dense forest and tundra . Well adapted to living around humans , it frequently lives and even breeds indoors , especially in factories , warehouses and zoos . It has been recorded breeding in an English coal mine 640 m ( 2 @,@ 100 ft ) below ground , and feeding on the Empire State Building 's observation deck at night . It reaches its greatest densities in urban centres , but its reproductive success is greater in suburbs , where insects are more abundant . On a larger scale , it is most abundant in wheat @-@ growing areas such as the Midwestern United States .
It tolerates a variety of climates , but prefers drier conditions , especially in moist tropical climates . It has several adaptations to dry areas , including a high salt tolerance and an ability to survive without water by ingesting berries . In most of eastern Asia the house sparrow is entirely absent , replaced by the Eurasian tree sparrow . Where these two species overlap , the house sparrow is usually more common than the Eurasian tree sparrow , but one species may replace the other in a manner that ornithologist Maud Doria Haviland described as " random , or even capricious " . In most of its range the house sparrow is extremely common , despite some declines , but in marginal habitats such as rainforest or mountain ranges , its distribution can be spotty .
= = Behaviour = =
= = = Social behaviour = = =
The house sparrow is a very social bird . It is gregarious at all seasons when feeding , often forming flocks with other types of bird . It roosts communally , its nests are usually grouped together in clumps , and it engages in social activities such as dust or water bathing and " social singing " , in which birds call together in bushes . The house sparrow feeds mostly on the ground , but it flocks in trees and bushes . At feeding stations and nests , female house sparrows are dominant despite their smaller size , and in the reproductive period ( usually spring or summer ) , being dominant , they can fight for males .
= = = Sleep and roosting = = =
House sparrows sleep with the bill tucked underneath the scapular feathers . Outside of the reproductive season , they often roost communally in trees or shrubs . There is much communal chirping before and after the birds settle in the roost in the evening , as well as before the birds leave the roost in the morning . Some congregating sites separate from the roost may be visited by the birds prior to settling in for the night .
= = = Body maintenance = = =
Dust or water bathing is common and often occurs in groups . Anting is rare . Head scratching is done with the leg over the drooped wing .
= = = Feeding = = =
As an adult , the house sparrow mostly feeds on the seeds of grains and weeds , but it is opportunistic and adaptable , and eats whatever foods are available . In towns and cities it often scavenges for food in garbage containers and congregates in the outdoors of restaurants and other eating establishments to feed on leftover food and crumbs . It can perform complex tasks to obtain food , such as opening automatic doors to enter supermarkets , clinging to hotel walls to watch vacationers on their balconies , and nectar robbing kowhai flowers . In common with many other birds , the house sparrow requires grit to digest the harder items in its diet . Grit can be either stone , often grains of masonry , or the shells of eggs or snails ; oblong and rough grains are preferred .
Several studies of the house sparrow in temperate agricultural areas have found the proportion of seeds in its diet to be about 90 % . It will eat almost any seeds , but where it has a choice , it prefers oats and wheat . In urban areas , the house sparrow feeds largely on food provided directly or indirectly by humans , such as bread , though it prefers raw seeds . The house sparrow also eats some plant matter besides seeds , including buds , berries , and fruits such as grapes and cherries . In temperate areas , the house sparrow has an unusual habit of tearing flowers , especially yellow ones , in the spring .
Animals form another important part of the house sparrow 's diet , chiefly insects , of which beetles , caterpillars , dipteran flies , and aphids are especially important . Various non @-@ insect arthropods are eaten , as are molluscs and crustaceans where available , earthworms , and even vertebrates such as lizards and frogs . Young house sparrows are fed mostly on insects until about fifteen days after hatching . They are also given small quantities of seeds , spiders , and grit . In most places , grasshoppers and crickets are the most abundant foods of nestlings . True bugs , ants , sawflies , and beetles are also important , but house sparrows will take advantage of whatever foods are abundant to feed their young . House sparrows have been observed stealing prey from other birds , including American robins .
= = = Locomotion = = =
The house sparrow 's flight is direct ( not undulating ) and flapping , averaging 45 @.@ 5 kilometres per hour ( 28 @.@ 3 miles per hour ) and about 15 wingbeats per second . On the ground , the house sparrow typically hops rather than walks . It can swim when pressed to do so , by pursuit from predators . Captive birds have been recorded diving and swimming short distances underwater .
= = = Dispersal and migration = = =
Most house sparrows do not move more than a few kilometres during their lifetime . However , there is limited migration in all regions . Some young birds disperse long distances , especially on coasts , and mountain birds move to lower elevations in winter . Two subspecies , bactrianus and parkini , are predominantly migratory . Unlike the birds in sedentary populations that migrate , birds of migratory subspecies prepare for migration by putting on weight .
= = = Breeding = = =
House sparrows can breed in the breeding season immediately following their hatching , and sometimes attempt to do so . Some birds breeding for the first time in tropical areas are only a few months old and still have juvenile plumage . Birds breeding for the first time are rarely successful in raising young , and reproductive success increases with age , as older birds breed earlier in the breeding season , and fledge more young . As the breeding season approaches , hormone releases trigger enormous increases in the size of the sexual organs and changes in day length lead males to start calling by nesting sites . The timing of mating and egg @-@ laying varies geographically , and between specific locations and years . This is because a sufficient supply of insects is needed for egg formation and feeding nestlings .
Males take up nesting sites before the breeding season , by frequently calling beside them . Unmated males start nest construction and call particularly frequently to attract females . When a female approaches a male during this period , the male displays by moving up and down while drooping and shivering his wings , pushing up his head , raising and spreading his tail , and showing his bib . Males may try to mate with females while calling or displaying . In response , a female will adopt a threatening posture and attack a male before flying away , pursued by the male . The male displays in front of her , attracting other males , who also pursue and display to the female . This group display usually does not immediately result in copulations . Other males usually do not copulate with the female . Copulation is typically initiated by the female giving a soft dee @-@ dee @-@ dee call to the male . Birds of a pair copulate frequently until the female is laying eggs , and the male mounts the female repeatedly each time a pair mates .
The house sparrow is monogamous , and typically mates for life . Birds from pairs often engage in extra @-@ pair copulations , so about 15 % of house sparrow fledglings are unrelated to their mother 's mate . Male house sparrows guard their mates carefully to avoid being cuckolded , and most extra @-@ pair copulation occurs away from nest sites . Males may sometimes have multiple mates , and bigamy is mostly limited by aggression between females . Many birds do not find a nest and a mate , and instead may serve as helpers around the nest for mated pairs , a role which increases the chances of being chosen to replace a lost mate . Lost mates of both sexes can be replaced quickly during the breeding season . The formation of a pair and the bond between the two birds is tied to the holding of a nest site , though paired house sparrows can recognise each other away from the nest .
= = = = Nesting = = = =
Nest sites are varied , though cavities are preferred . Nests are most frequently built in the eaves and other crevices of houses . Holes in cliffs and banks , or tree hollows , are also used . A sparrow sometimes excavates its own nests in sandy banks or rotten branches , but more frequently uses the nests of other birds such as those of swallows in banks and cliffs , and old tree cavity nests . It usually uses deserted nests , though sometimes it usurps active ones . Tree hollows are more commonly used in North America than in Europe , putting the sparrows in competition with bluebirds and other North American cavity nesters , and thereby contributing to their population declines .
Especially in warmer areas , the house sparrow may build its nests in the open , on the branches of trees , especially evergreens and hawthorns , or in the nests of large birds such as storks or magpies . In open nesting sites , breeding success tends to be lower , since breeding begins late and the nest can easily be destroyed or damaged by storms . Less common nesting sites include street lights and neon signs , favoured for their warmth ; and the old open @-@ topped nests of other songbirds , which are then domed over .
The nest is usually domed , though it may lack a roof in enclosed sites . It has an outer layer of stems and roots , a middle layer of dead grass and leaves , and a lining of feathers , as well as of paper and other soft materials . Nests typically have external dimensions of 20 × 30 cm ( 8 × 12 in ) , but their size varies greatly . The building of the nest is initiated by the unmated male while displaying to females . The female assists in building , but is less active than the male . Some nest building occurs throughout the year , especially after moult in autumn . In colder areas house sparrows build specially created roost nests , or roost in street lights , to avoid losing heat during the winter . House sparrows do not hold territories , but they defend their nests aggressively against intruders of the same sex .
House sparrows ' nests support a wide range of scavenging insects , including nest flies such as Neottiophilum praestum , Protocalliphora blowflies , and over 1 @,@ 400 species of beetle .
= = = = Eggs and young = = = =
Clutches usually comprise four or five eggs , though numbers from one to ten have been recorded . At least two clutches are usually laid , and up to seven a year may be laid in the tropics or four a year in temperate latitudes . When fewer clutches are laid in a year , especially at higher latitudes , the number of eggs per clutch is greater . Central Asian house sparrows , which migrate and have only one clutch a year , average 6 @.@ 5 eggs in a clutch . Clutch size is also affected by environmental and seasonal conditions , female age , and breeding density .
Some intraspecific brood parasitism occurs , and instances of unusually large numbers of eggs in a nest may be the result of females laying eggs in the nests of their neighbours . Such foreign eggs are sometimes recognised and ejected by females . The house sparrow is a victim of interspecific brood parasites , but only rarely , since it usually uses nests in holes too small for parasites to enter , and it feeds its young foods unsuitable for young parasites . In turn , the house sparrow has once been recorded as a brood parasite of the American cliff swallow .
The eggs are white , bluish @-@ white , or greenish @-@ white , spotted with brown or grey . Subelliptical in shape , they range from 20 to 22 mm ( 0 @.@ 79 to 0 @.@ 87 in ) in length and 14 to 16 mm ( 0 @.@ 55 to 0 @.@ 63 in ) in width , have an average mass of 2 @.@ 9 g ( 0 @.@ 10 oz ) , and an average surface area of 9 @.@ 18 cm2 ( 1 @.@ 423 in2 ) . Eggs from the tropical subspecies are distinctly smaller . Eggs begin to develop with the deposition of yolk in the ovary a few days before ovulation . In the day between ovulation and laying , egg white forms , followed by eggshell . Eggs laid later in a clutch are larger , as are those laid by larger females , and egg size is hereditary . Eggs decrease slightly in size from laying to hatching . The yolk comprises 25 % of the egg , the egg white 68 % , and the shell 7 % . Eggs are watery , being 79 % liquid , and otherwise mostly protein .
The female develops a brood patch of bare skin and plays the main part in incubating the eggs . The male helps , but can only cover the eggs rather than truly incubate them . The female spends the night incubating during this period , while the male roosts near the nest . Eggs hatch at the same time , after a short incubation period lasting 11 – 14 days , and exceptionally for as many as 17 or as few as 9 . The length of the incubation period decreases as ambient temperature increases later in the breeding season .
Young house sparrows remain in the nest for 11 to 23 days , normally 14 to 16 days . During this time , they are fed by both parents . As newly hatched house sparrows do not have sufficient insulation they are brooded for a few days , or longer in cold conditions . The parents swallow the droppings produced by the hatchlings during the first few days ; later , the droppings are moved up to 20 m ( 66 ft ) away from the nest .
The chicks ' eyes open after about four days and , at an age of about eight days , the young birds get their first down . If both parents perish , the ensuing intensive begging sounds of the young will often attract replacement parents who feed them until they can sustain themselves . All the young in the nest leave it during the same period of a few hours . At this stage they are normally able to fly . They start feeding themselves partly after one or two days , and sustain themselves completely after 7 to 10 days , 14 at the latest .
= = Survival = =
In adult house sparrows , annual survival is 45 – 65 % . After fledging and leaving the care of their parents , young sparrows have a high mortality rate , which lessens as they grow older and more experienced . Only about 20 – 25 % of birds hatched survive to their first breeding season . The oldest known wild house sparrow lived for nearly two decades ; it was found dead 19 years and 9 months after it was ringed in Denmark . The oldest recorded captive house sparrow lived for 23 years . The typical ratio of males to females in a population is uncertain due to problems in collecting data , but a very slight preponderance of males at all ages is usual .
= = = Predation = = =
The house sparrow 's main predators are cats and birds of prey , but many other animals prey on them , including corvids , squirrels , and even humans — the house sparrow has been consumed in the past by people in many parts of the world , and it still is in parts of the Mediterranean . Most species of bird of prey have been recorded preying on the house sparrow in places where there are extensive records . Accipiters and the merlin in particular are major predators , though cats are likely to have a greater impact on house sparrow populations . The house sparrow is also a common victim of roadkill ; on European roads , it is the bird most frequently found dead .
= = = Parasites and disease = = =
The house sparrow is host to a huge number of parasites and diseases , and the effect of most is unknown . Ornithologist Ted R. Anderson listed thousands , noting that his list was incomplete . The commonly recorded bacterial pathogens of the house sparrow are often those common in humans , and include Salmonella and Escherichia coli . Salmonella is common in the house sparrow , and a comprehensive study of house sparrow disease found it in 13 % of sparrows tested . Salmonella epidemics in the spring and winter can kill large numbers of sparrows . The house sparrow hosts avian pox and avian malaria , which it has spread to the native forest birds of Hawaii . Many of the diseases hosted by the house sparrow are also present in humans and domestic animals , for which the house sparrow acts as a reservoir host . Arboviruses such as the West Nile virus , which most commonly infect insects and mammals , survive winters in temperate areas by going dormant in birds such as the house sparrow . There are a few records of disease extirpating house sparrow populations , especially from Scottish islands , but this seems to be rare .
The house sparrow is infested by a number of external parasites , which usually cause little harm to adult sparrows . In Europe , the most common mite found on sparrows is Proctophyllodes , the most common ticks are Argas reflexus and Ixodes arboricola , and the most common flea on the house sparrow is Ceratophyllus gallinae . A number of chewing lice occupy different niches on the house sparrow 's body . Menacanthus lice occur across the house sparrow 's body , where they feed on blood and feathers , while Brueelia lice feed on feathers and Philopterus fringillae occurs on the head .
= = Physiology = =
House sparrows express strong circadian rhythms of activity in the laboratory . They were among the first bird species to be seriously studied in terms of their circadian activity and photoperiodism , in part because of their availability and adaptability in captivity , but also because they can " find their way " and remain rhythmic in constant darkness . Such studies have found that the pineal gland is a central part of the house sparrow 's circadian system : removal of the pineal eliminates the circadian rhythm of activity , and transplant of the pineal into another individual confers to this individual the rhythm phase of the donor bird . The suprachiasmatic nuclei of the hypothalamus have also been shown to be an important component of the circadian system of house sparrows . The photoreceptors involved in the synchronisation of the circadian clock to the external light @-@ dark cycle are located in the brain and can be stimulated by light reaching them directly though the skull , as revealed by experiments in which blind sparrows , which normally can still synchronise to the light @-@ dark cycle , failed to do so once India ink was injected as a screen under the skin on top of their skull .
Similarly , even when blind , house sparrows continue to be photoperiodic , i.e. show reproductive development when the days are long but not when the days are short . This response is stronger when the feathers on top of the head are plucked , and is eliminated when India ink is injected under the skin at the top of the head , showing that the photoreceptors involved in the photoperiodic response to daylength are located inside the brain .
House sparrows have also been used in studies of nonphotic entrainment ( i.e. synchronisation to an external cycle other than light and dark ) : for example , in constant darkness , a situation in which the birds would normally reveal their endogenous , non @-@ 24 @-@ hour , " free @-@ running " rhythms of activity , they instead show 24 @-@ hour periodicity if they are exposed to two hours of chirp playbacks every 24 hours , matching their daily activity onsets with the daily playback onsets . House sparrows in constant dim light can also be entrained to a daily cycle based on the presence of food . Finally , house sparrows in constant darkness can be entrained to a cycle of high and low temperature , but only if the difference between the two temperatures is large ( 38 versus 6 degrees Celsius ) ; some of the tested sparrows matched their activity to the warm phase , and others to the cold phase .
= = Relationships with humans = =
The house sparrow is closely associated with humans . They are believed to have become associated with humans around 10 @,@ 000 years ago . Subspecies bactrianus is least associated with humans and considered to be evolutionarily closer to the ancestral non @-@ commensal populations . Usually , it is regarded as a pest , since it consumes agricultural products and spreads disease to humans and their domestic animals . Even birdwatchers often hold it in little regard because of its molestation of other birds . In most of the world the house sparrow is not protected by law . Attempts to control house sparrows include the trapping , poisoning , or shooting of adults ; the destruction of their nests and eggs ; or less directly , blocking nest holes and scaring off sparrows with noise , glue , or porcupine wire . However , the house sparrow can be beneficial to humans as well , especially by eating insect pests , and attempts at the large @-@ scale control of the house sparrow have failed .
The house sparrow has long been used as a food item . From around 1560 to at least the nineteenth century in northern Europe , earthenware " sparrow pots " were hung from eaves to attract nesting birds so that the young could be readily harvested . Wild birds were trapped in nets in large numbers , and sparrow pie was a traditional dish , thought , because of the association of sparrows with lechery , to have aphrodisiac properties . Sparrows were also trapped as food for falconers ' birds and zoo animals . In the early part of the twentieth century , sparrow clubs culled many millions of birds and eggs in an attempt to control numbers of this perceived pest , but with only a localised impact on numbers . House sparrows have been kept as pets at many times in history , though they have no bright plumage or attractive songs , and raising them is difficult .
= = = Status = = =
The house sparrow has an extremely large range and population , and is not seriously threatened by human activities , so it is assessed as least concern for conservation on the IUCN Red List . However , populations have been declining in many parts of the world . These declines were first noticed in North America , where they were initially attributed to the spread of the house finch , but have been most severe in Western Europe . Declines have not been universal , as no serious declines have been reported from Eastern Europe , but have even occurred in Australia , where the house sparrow was introduced recently .
In Great Britain , populations peaked in the early 1970s , but have since declined by 68 % overall , and about 90 % in some regions . In London , the house sparrow almost disappeared from the central city . The numbers of house sparrows in the Netherlands have dropped in half since the 1980s , so the house sparrow is even considered an endangered species . This status came to widespread attention after a female house sparrow , referred to as the " Dominomus " , was killed after knocking down dominoes arranged as part of an attempt to set a world record . These declines are not unprecedented , as similar reductions in population occurred when the internal combustion engine replaced horses in the 1920s and a major source of food in the form of grain spillage was lost .
Various causes for the dramatic decreases in population have been proposed , including predation , in particular by Eurasian sparrowhawks ; electromagnetic radiation from mobile phones ; and diseases . A shortage of nesting sites caused by changes in urban building design is probably a factor , and conservation organisations have encouraged the use of special nest boxes for sparrows . A primary cause of the decline seems to be an insufficient supply of insect food for nestling sparrows . Declines in insect populations result from an increase of monoculture crops , the heavy use of pesticides , the replacement of native plants in cities with introduced plants and parking areas , and possibly the introduction of unleaded petrol , which produces toxic compounds such as methyl nitrite .
Protecting insect habitats on farms , and planting native plants in cities benefit the house sparrow , as does establishing urban green spaces . To raise awareness of threats to the house sparrow , World Sparrow Day has been celebrated on 20 March across the world since 2010 . Over the recent years , the house sparrow population has been on the decline in many Asian countries and this decline is quite evident in India.To promote the conservation of these birds , in 2012 , the then Chief Minister of Delhi , Ms. Sheila Dikshit , declared the house sparrow as the state bird of Delhi .
= = = Cultural associations = = =
To many people across the world , the house sparrow is the most familiar wild animal and , because of its association with humans and familiarity , it is frequently used to represent the common and vulgar , or the lewd . One of the reasons for the introduction of house sparrows throughout the world was their association with the European homeland of many immigrants . Birds usually described later as sparrows are referred to in many works of ancient literature and religious texts in Europe and western Asia . These references may not always refer specifically to the house sparrow , or even to small , seed @-@ eating birds , but later writers who were inspired by these texts often had the house sparrow in mind . In particular , sparrows were associated by the ancient Greeks with Aphrodite , the goddess of love , due to their perceived lustfulness , an association echoed by later writers such as Chaucer and Shakespeare . Jesus 's use of " sparrows " as an example of divine providence in the Gospel of Matthew also inspired later references , such as that in Shakespeare 's Hamlet and the Gospel hymn His Eye Is on the Sparrow .
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= Señorita ( Justin Timberlake song ) =
" Señorita " is a song recorded by American singer @-@ songwriter Justin Timberlake for his debut studio album , Justified ( 2002 ) . It was released on July 8 , 2003 by Jive Records as the fourth single from the album . The song was co @-@ written by Timberlake , and The Neptunes ' Pharrell Williams and Chad Hugo . It was also produced by the Neptunes .
According to Timberlake , the song was influenced by Stevie Wonder . Musically " Señorita " is an R & B , Pop , Jazz up @-@ tempo ballad , featuring an electric piano strut , cowbell in beat of the song , and a rhythm section . The song has been described as a Spanish " number " with a " Latin flavored " cut beat . In the track , Timberlake sings about a woman , whose attention he is trying to capture . " Señorita " received positive reviews from music critics , who commented on the track 's general sound and lyrics .
The song peaked at number five on Billboard 's Top 40 Mainstream chart . It also appeared on the Billboard Hot 100 at number twenty @-@ seven . Internationally , the single charted in Canada , New Zealand , Australia , and European countries including Belgium , the Netherlands , France , Austria , Switzerland , the United Kingdom and Ireland . The music video was nominated for an MTV Video Music Award in the category for Best Male Video in 2004 .
= = Background and recording = =
" Señorita " was co @-@ written by Justin Timberlake , and The Neptunes ' Pharrell Williams and Chad Hugo . Before the release of Timberlake 's solo album , Justified , Timberlake and the album 's producers , Williams and Hugo , gave MTV News a preview of the record in August 2002 . While in discussion of " Señorita " , Hugo said that he expected the song to make the track listing of Justified . In another interview , Timberlake revealed that the song was influenced by singer @-@ songwriter Stevie Wonder . Timberlake said that the song had " that groove that really fits into the summer " . While in development , Timberlake said he was " beatboxing the notes " . He wrote the song imagining a " dark @-@ skinned , voluptuous lady whose attention he is trying to capture . "
= = Composition = =
" Señorita " is a " Spanish number " infused with an R & B , up @-@ tempo ballad . The song has been described as a fast " hot mid @-@ tempo " and dance song . The song is composed in the key of Eb minor and is set in time signature of common time with a tempo of 96 beats per minute . The music begins with an electric piano strut , that provides the main chordal accompaniment . A cowbell chimes , in beat of the song , in the background . Timberlake sings in a " reasonable falsetto vamping " . The song 's musicscape also features hand claps , a rhythm section , and " cruises on an unconventional reedy rhythm and crackling beat " , according to Chuck Cavalaris of The Knoxville News @-@ Sentinel . The track is also considered a " blues inflected track " , and a dance jam . Kevin O 'Hare of the Sunday Republican said the song is " a Latin @-@ flavored cut with a pronounced beat " . Lisa Rose of The Star @-@ Ledger commented that the song has a " jazz @-@ funk ... embellished with a ground @-@ rumbling beat and horn section solos . " Fort Worth Star @-@ Telegram said that the song has a " minimalist funk strut " , while a contributor of the New Straits Times said that the single is " a funk song with an organic feel – and quite close to Stevie Wonder 's soulful style . "
According to Teresa Gubbins of The Dallas Morning News , she described the theme of the song as Timberlake singing about a girl with brown eyes . O 'Hare noted that there are " some very amusing " improvisations as Timberlake guides the " guys and the ladies though their background vocal segment . " Stephen Thomas Erlewine of Allmusic also reported that Timberlake exhorts " the fellas and ladies " in " Señorita " to sing separately " in a cringe @-@ worthy affectation " . He directs the men to sing , " It feels like something 's heatin ' up . Can I leave with you ? " and the women to sing , " I don 't know what I 'm thinking bout / really leavin wit you . "
= = Critical reception = =
Music critic David Browne of Entertainment Weekly , in review of the album , wrote : " In the latter category , he 's more engaging — the stud on the loose , making promises of romance and more in slurpy cuts like ' Senorita ' and ' Rock Your Body ' . " Denise Boyd of the BBC wrote : " The introduction [ of ] ' Senorita ' immediately grabs your attention . " Tyler Martin of Stylus said that the song 's rhythm section was " brilliant , a simple , yet distinctive beat that could only come from the Neptunes . The song allows for much amusement in the last minute and a half with a sing @-@ along that is more wonderful and surprising than most artists have offered us this year . " Jonathan Takiff of the Philadelphia Daily News wrote that the track and " Nothing Else " , another song from the album , reshape " Stevie Wonder @-@ style Latin pop " . Katie McDonald of Boston College wrote : " The album opens with the Latin and hip @-@ hop influenced ' Senorita ' . Although this reviewer was a little amused by Timberlake 's use of the word ' Momma ' in reference to a girl , this track is nothing to mock . Timberlake 's voice complements the dynamic beat ; and although the lyrics are in no way profound , at least he wrote them himself . " Lisa Verrico of The Times wrote that the song could be ' NSYNC " with a salsa flavour " . Christian Dahlager of Iowa State Daily noted that Timberlake " cops classic Michael Jackson " throughout the album , and on the tracks " Señorita " and " Rock Your Body " . Howard Cohen of Knight Ridder said that in the album Timberlake " appropriates Jackson 's trademark ' Thriller ' -era falsetto squeals and staccato vocal style on the tuneless first single ' Like I Love You ' , ' Senorita ' and a couple other cuts . "
The song received criticism as well . Jane Stevenson of Jam ! wrote : " In the minus category is silly lead @-@ off track ' Senorita ' , which suffers from being too cute and has an awful call @-@ and @-@ answer ending featuring ' the guys and the ladies . ' " A music contributor from the Daily Free Press reported that The Neptunes appeared to have " recycled beats from their N.E.R.D. project " for Justified and that " Señorita " sounded like N.E.R.D. ' s song , " Run to the Sun " .
= = Chart performance = =
In North America , the single was officially solicited to radio in September 2003 . " Señorita " appeared on the Billboard Hot 100 and debuted at number 27 . It reached number 5 on the Mainstream Top 40 , number 10 on the Top 40 Tracks and number 29 on the Rhythmic .
The single performed averagely when it was released internationally . It debuted at number 13 in the United Kingdom for the week ending September 27 , 2003 . The song failed to achieve any higher position , and it fell for eight consecutive weeks until it left the charts completely . When it entered the Irish Singles Chart , it did so at number 15 . It spent seven weeks on the chart , and failed to earn a higher position . In New Zealand , it charted at number 9 on September 14 , 2003 . During the following four weeks , it peaked at number 4 and remained there for two weeks . The song spent 15 weeks on the chart . In Australia , it peaked at number 6 and retired after spending eleven weeks on the chart . The track charted in the Canadian Singles Chart , where it reached a peak position of 19 . The single charted in European countries , it peaked in the Top 10s and Top 20s .
= = Music video = =
The music video for " Señorita " was directed by Paul Hunter . The video was filmed in July 2003 and shot in a club in Los Angeles . The video also features cameo appearances by both Pharrell Wiliams and Chad Hugo . In mid @-@ 2003 , Timberlake was asked about the concept of the video , but said that the video was still in development . He was asked whether he would be aiming his affection at a " lovely lady " , to which Timberlake responded , " No . Why would you limit yourself to just one ? " In the " Señorita " video , Timberlake performed with his live band .
The video begins , with the song playing , at an outside scenery of a bar . Inside , Timberlake is seen and goes directly to the bar . He looks at the stage area and immediately goes there . He takes the microphone and begins singing the song . Pharrell is shown playing the drums while Chad is at the keyboards throughout the video . Timberlake continues singing , but grabs the attention of a woman in a red dress . Elsewhere , Timberlake , not on stage , is shown dancing with a woman wearing a white blouse , while he sings the song . In another part of the video , Timberlake dances with a different woman . In the bridge , he sings to the two women and dances with them , in separate shots . Following the bridge he is then seen performing on stage . In part of the song , Timberlake directs the crowd of men and women , telling the men to sing , " It feels like something 's heatin ' up . Can I leave with you ? " and the women to sing , " I don 't know what I 'm thinking bout / really leavin wit you . " Timberlake ends the song with " Gentlemen , good night / Ladies good morning " .
Actor Owen Wilson and his then @-@ girlfriend , Carolina Cerisola , appear in the video . Lanford Beard of Middlebury College Student Weekly , in review of the video , wrote that Timberlake 's " Mexicali saloon setting " for the video " embraced a certain macho , trashy playa aesthetic " for him " so we 'll take it on the chin that this is the image he 's building for himself and – love it or hate it – we might as well get used to it . " In 2004 , the video was nominated for an MTV Video Music Award in the category of Best Male Video .
= = Live performances = =
Timberlake performed the song live on the sketch comedy show Saturday Night Live in October 2003 , where he served as host and musical guest . At the 46th Grammy Awards in 2004 , he also performed the song live and was accompanied by Latin jazz trumpeter Arturo Sandoval . On August 25 , 2013 , he performed " Señorita " in a medley with other of his songs at the 2013 MTV Video Music Awards .
" Señorita " was featured on Justin Timberlake : Live from London ( 2002 ) , Justified and Stripped Tour ( 2003 ) , FutureSex / LoveShow ( 2007 ) , Legends of the Summer ( 2013 ) and The 20 / 20 Experience World Tour ( 2013 / 14 ) .
= = Track listing = =
European CD Single
" Señorita " ( Album version ) – 4 : 54
" Señorita " ( Instrumental ) – 4 : 54
" Señorita " ( Eddie 's Extended Club Mix ) – 6 : 27
" Rock Your Body " ( Vasquez Club Anthem ) – 9 : 15
" Señorita " ( Video ) – 4 : 33
UK CD Single
" Señorita " ( Radio Edit Short Intro ) – 4 : 16
" Señorita " ( Eddie 's Crossover Rhythm Mix ) – 4 : 18
" Señorita " ( Eddie 's Extended Dance Mix ) – 6 : 27
" Señorita " ( Dr. Octavo 2 @-@ Step Mix ) – 3 : 50
= = Charts = =
= = Certifications = =
= = Release history = =
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= Kaleidoscope Dream =
Kaleidoscope Dream is the second studio album by American R & B recording artist Miguel , released on September 25 , 2012 , by RCA Records . After attaining commercial standing with his 2010 debut album All I Want Is You , Miguel wanted to play a larger creative role in his music and principally produced and wrote Kaleidoscope Dream . He recorded most of the album at Platinum Sound Recording Studios in New York City and MJP Studios in Los Angeles , and worked with producers Warren " Oak " Felder , Jerry " Wonda " Duplessis and Salaam Remi , among others .
The music on Kaleidoscope Dream draws on R & B , pop , funk , rock and soul styles , as well as elements from electronic and psychedelic music . The album 's producers incorporated dense bass lines , buzzing synthesizers , and hazy , reverbed sounds in the songs , which deal mostly with sex , romance , and existential ideas . Miguel titled Kaleidoscope Dream as a metaphor for life and wanted the songs to reflect his lifestyle and personality .
Before Kaleidoscope Dream was released , Miguel previewed its songs virally through a series of free EPs . It was also promoted with three singles , including his biggest hit to date " Adorn " , and his touring in North America and Europe during 2012 to 2013 . The album debuted at number three on the Billboard 200 with first @-@ week sales of 71 @,@ 000 copies , and by June 2015 , it had sold 535 @,@ 000 copies . Kaleidoscope Dream received rave reviews from critics , who praised its eccentric style and Miguel 's singing and songwriting .
= = Background = =
After it was shelved by Jive Records for two years , Miguel released his debut album All I Want Is You in November 2010 . It sold poorly at first and was underpromoted by Jive , amid the label 's dissolution . However , as its singles attained radio airplay and Miguel toured in its promotion , the album became a sleeper hit and helped him garner an audience and commercial standing . He also garnered a following with his fervent concert performances . After Jive was shut down and absorbed by RCA Records , Miguel acquired a new marketing team to develop himself as more than a typical urban artist , having felt pigeonholed into being marketed as one by Jive . He said that the experience of balancing creativity and business sense on his first album made him more confident in his approach on Kaleidoscope Dream .
Miguel sought to reintroduce himself artistically with the album . Inspired by his more alternative musical influences , he wanted to change the sound and expectations of R & B songs on urban radio . He explained the album 's title as " a metaphor for our life ; everyone has their own Kaleidoscope Dream , it is the life that they project and it is the life that they are solidifying with their conscious decision and their subconscious feelings . " Miguel also said that the album represents the fantasies that are conveyed through dreams , which he felt embody " the purest form of fantasy we unleash through our subconscious ... the truest freedom we can experience . Totally unrepressed and totally creative . "
= = Writing and recording = =
Miguel worked on the album for approximately three months . He sought to play a larger creative role than he had on All I Want Is You , and produced most of Kaleidoscope Dream and either wrote or co @-@ wrote every song on the album . He recorded most of the album at Platinum Sound Recording Studios in New York City and MJP Studios in Los Angeles ; the songs " Arch & Point " and " Gravity " were recorded at Gustavo 's Golden Gloves Gymnasium in Los Angeles . He spent almost two years in New York City , which he felt let him explore " the edgy side " of his life and consequently made his sonical approach grittier , saying in an interview for The Village Voice , " I 'm not the ' go to the club and pop bottles ' kind of guy . That 's not my lifestyle . I really like to party , but it 's ... just darker . I 'm looking for the speakeasy on the Lower East Side that has a secret door and a password . " Miguel recorded " Adorn " in 2011 in the bedroom of his Los Angeles apartment , which he used as a makeshift studio at the time . Parts of the album were edited by Miguel and his engineers using Pro Tools .
Miguel wanted the album to be " a pure and honest projection of my lifestyle and my kaleidoscope dream " , and used the music 's pace and sound to represent his lifestyle and the lyrics to represent his personality . To sustain his creative approach , Miguel avoided media outlets that he usually visited for music , including radio and Internet blogs . He drew on musical influences from early in his life , including classic rock , country rock and funk , to incorporate rock flourishes on the album . He also incorporated the Roland TR @-@ 808 to give the music a distinct percussive feel . He enlisted an orchestra and incorporated string arrangements , along with a drum loop , to the album 's title track , which he felt aurally defined the moods of his personality . Miguel also worked with previous collaborators Salaam Remi and Nathan " Happy " Perez , among other producers . Recording artist Alicia Keys sang background vocals on the song " Where 's the Fun in Forever " , Elle Varner co @-@ wrote " Use Me " and Brook D 'Leau of J * Davey played keyboards on " Candles in the Sun " .
Apart from sexual themes , Miguel wrote about conversational and existential topics . When writing " Pussy Is Mine " , he drew on his sexual behavior as a single man and " moments of power and vulnerability " with a sexually promiscuous woman . Miguel originally wrote " Where 's the Fun in Forever " with Alicia Keys for her 2012 album Girl on Fire at a recording studio in Jamaica . He conceived the song while spending time with Keys on the roof of the studio , which he recounted in an interview for MTV News : " [ A ] ll I had was this amazing blanket of stars in the sky and the sound of waves in the distance , great vibe ... So here I am trying to be creative for Alicia and it just dawned on me : Well , what if we did live forever ? Could we have accomplished all of these amazing things ? Would we have come so far ? ... Would we have come up with all these theories or built all of these amazing , amazing architectural beautiful things ... or would we have been lazy ? " The album 's title track was written by Miguel while he was working on All I Want Is You . In reaction to Jive 's request for more conventional R & B songs , he composed the song with unusual lyrics and without a hook , chorus , or form .
= = Music and lyrics = =
According to The Independent 's Holly Rubenstein , Kaleidoscope Dream is " widely considered a leading example " of alternative R & B ; Miguel himself described it as " avant soul " . In the opinion of NPR 's Frannie Kelley , the record combined R & B , pop , funk , rock and soul genres . Its music features sparse production , eccentric details , thick bass lines , buzzing synthesizers , and hazy , reverbed sounds . Allmusic 's Andy Kellman found the album " funkier and weirder " than All I Want Is You and observed an " illusory atmosphere ... intensified by some unexpected touches " . Maura Johnston said much of it " sounds , as the title might suggest , fractal . " As an R & B album , The A.V. Club 's Evan Rytlewski said , Kaleidoscope Dream deviated from genre conventions by minimizing the influence of hip hop ; Jim DeRogatis believed it drew heavily on psychedelic rock and psychedelic pop . Music writers compared the album 's style to Prince , Alex Macpherson of The Guardian perceives a " headier aesthetic " than on All I Want Is You , with " faded psychedelia " and " intimate experiments in Purple Rain @-@ esque rock " . Writing about the record for WNYC , Gretta Cohn claimed Miguel was " redefining what contemporary R & B can be " . Miguel said he " definitely think it 's an R & B record , though other people may not ... [ Listeners ] are so conditioned to expect certain things out of current R & B , and it 's about following a formula . But R & B was once live music , it was psychedelic , it was rock , it was funk , and all these genres stem from soul music ... There would be no hip @-@ hop or rock without R & B. It was important for me to be true to what R & B is , and that is soulful . "
The album 's lyrics generally deal with themes of adult love , meaningful sex , and romance . Andrew Ryce from Pitchfork Media interprets its " overarching theme " to be " the highly sexualized seen through the lens of the eager and innocent . " Miguel 's lyrics express modesty , yearning , vulnerability , and cheeky humor . Kelley likens his songwriting to Tony ! Toni ! Toné ! and observes " Little Richard @-@ level insinuations " and " absurd provocations in the style of Akinyele " . Music journalist Jim DeRogatis views that Miguel eschews braggadocio and is " man enough to admit his own insecurities and question whether he 's worthy of love — or lustful indulgence . " Kaleidoscope Dream also explores the anxiety and momentary nature of sex and clubbing . Consequence of Sound 's Jeremy D. Larson views that Miguel employs a " fangs @-@ out approach to R & B " similar to Frank Ocean and The Weeknd , writing that " nothing shrouds Miguel and his directives , and worries , and prayers , and cat calls – it 's all there , full of light and love , refracting through a kaleidoscope of rocks glasses , rainy windshields , and blood @-@ shot eyes . "
" Adorn " has both digital and analog sensibilities , with lyrics featuring brazen declarations of affection , and promises of adoration to a female subject . " Don 't Look Back " features amplified bass , bombastic drums , and metallic synths . Rob Markman of MTV News writes that the song " represents the morning after when the reality of the previous night 's efforts creep in . " Its closing interlude has Miguel crooning lyrics from The Zombies ' 1969 song " Time of the Season " over sentimental synths and musky , psychedelic music . " Use Me " features hollow , electronic sounds , heavily multitracked vocals , metronomic rhythms , and an industrialized mix of guitar and percussion . Its lyrics blur expressions of sexual nerves with gentle dominance , as the narrator instructs his lover how she can toy with him , An atmospheric pop rock song , " Do You ... " portrays a narcotic tryst and mixes ambiable come @-@ ons with drug imagery . The psychedelic title track incorporates synthesizer arpeggios , minor chords , oscillating blips , fuzzy guitar , and a bassline interpolation of Labi Siffre 's 1975 " I Got The " . The sample 's groove is played at a different tempo than other instruments on the song . The song 's lyrics feature synesthetic imagery ( " I taste you , infinite colors " ) , and a boast by the narrator about kissing his subject 's third eye .
" The Thrill " has a sparse bass groove , layered keyboards , and existential lyrics with YOLO imagery . " How Many Drinks ? " has sardonic , swaggering lyrics and a rap verse by Miguel , who veers between seducer and user . " Where 's the Fun in Forever " features atmospheric drums and bass , an a cappella bridge , and rolling dynamics with measures that advance an argument . The song celebrates youthful bliss and preachs a carpe diem philosophy . It transitions into the rock song " Arch & Point " , which has sexually charged ballet metaphors and bare power pop elements . " Pussy Is Mine " features a high vocal range by Miguel , a rudimentary chord progression played on electric guitar , and a stripped , demo quality . The song is about sexual jealousy and an ignoble man 's plea for exclusivity in a casual relationship . Its sexually explicit , bawdy lyrics eschew masculine hip hop tropes for feelings of insecurity . The song is bookended by background studio chatter . " Candles in the Sun " is a slow burning , political soul song . It touches on senseless killings , drug @-@ infested communities , and questions the existence of God and the motives of governments . Chris Kelly of Fact writes that , along with " Adorn " , " Candles in the Sun " " bookend [ s ] the album with another tribute to Marvin Gaye , a la ' What 's Going On ? ' "
= = Promotion = =
After pitching the strategy to RCA , Miguel first marketed Kaleidoscope Dream virally with a three @-@ volume series of EPs entitled Art Dealer Chic , which were released as free downloads during February to April 2012 and previewed songs from the album . He released two more EPs — Kaleidoscope Dream : Water Preview on July 31 and Air Preview on September 11 — to digital retailers . In an interview for The Village Voice , Miguel said that the strategy allowed listeners to absorb the songs at his desired pace and called it " a great way for me to reconnect with my peers ... the people that I hang out with — that go to the same shows , listen to the same music , read the same blogs , same magazines . "
" Adorn " was released as Kaleidoscope Dream 's lead single on August 7 , becoming a sleeper hit on urban radio . It was Miguel 's second number @-@ one single on the Hot R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Songs , and his highest charting single on the Billboard Hot 100 at number 17 . By September , the single had sold 190 @,@ 000 copies . According to NPR 's Audie Cornish , Miguel " broke through to a national audience in 2012 " with both " Adorn " and Kaleidoscope Dream . The second single " Do You ... " was released on September 18 , and reached number 32 on the Hot R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Songs . The album 's third and final single , " How Many Drinks ? " , was released on March 3 , 2013 .
In support of Kaleidoscope Dream , Miguel embarked on a short promotional tour in the United States on September 26 , 2012 . He also promoted the record with television performances on 106 & Park , The Wendy Williams Show , Late Show with David Letterman , and Jimmy Kimmel Live ! . He subsequently toured in support of the album for six months throughout North America and Europe , including concert dates as a supporting act on Trey Songz ' Chapter V World Tour during November 2012 to February 2013 , and a headlining tour in the UK and Ireland during January 2013 . Miguel opened for Alicia Keys on her Set The World On Fire Tour during March and April . Although he did not choreograph his shows , he routinely rehearsed in a dance studio and practiced singing in front of a mirror . In concert , he performed dramatic leaps , staggers , and other moves fashioned after Little Richard and James Brown . He started ripping his shirt off during performances after being inspired by Songz ' concerts .
= = Release and reception = =
Kaleidoscope Dream was first released in vinyl LP format on September 25 , in an effort by RCA to make the deadline for the Grammy Awards ' eligibility period without charting prematurely on lower sales . The following week , it debuted at number three on the Billboard 200 , selling 71 @,@ 000 copies in the US . It was Miguel 's first album to be released in the United Kingdom , where it spent 15 weeks on the country 's R & B chart , peaking at number 13 . By February 20 , 2013 , the record had charted for 20 weeks on the Billboard 200 and sold 321 @,@ 400 copies , according to Nielsen SoundScan . The album was certified gold by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) in June 2015 , with 535 @,@ 000 copies sold in the US at that point .
Kaleidoscope Dream received widespread acclaim from critics . At Metacritic , which assigns a normalized rating out of 100 to reviews from mainstream publications , the album received an average score of 86 , based on 20 reviews . AllMusic 's Andy Kellman hailed it as " 2012 's most pleasurable pop @-@ R & B album " . Greg Kot said Miguel " creates a fluid , dreamscape environment that floats across eras with a connoisseur 's discerning feel for the telling detail . " Macpherson wrote in The Guardian of Miguel 's occasional " appeal to indie tropes " balanced by " genuinely thoughtful songwriting " , while admiring his use of a commercial breakthrough " as a springboard to radically change course " . Sean McCarthy from PopMatters wrote that , along with Frank Ocean 's Channel Orange , it showed R & B as the innovative genre in mainstream music during 2012 , while Los Angeles Times critic Randall Roberts said it " offers further evidence of a genre being reborn in 2012 . " Pitchfork Media 's Andrew Ryce hailed Miguel as " the rare vocalist who makes you feel what he 's singing about , even when his lyrics can be transparent . " Alfred Soto of The Quietus was appreciated Miguel 's ability to " articulate how a love man can be louche without being a douche . " Ken Capobianco from The Boston Globe was more critical , finding some of the songs overworked and Miguel " too remote for a true soul singer " . New York Times critic Jon Caramanica said Kaleidoscope Dream sounds inconsistent and " a little washed @-@ out , a blend of Prince @-@ isms and slurry grooves " , while Kellman complained of the lyrics occasionally veering " too close to ' artsy ' teenage erotic poetry " .
At the end of 2012 , Kaleidoscope Dream appeared on several critics ' lists of the year 's best records . Ann Powers named it the best album of 2012 . It was also ranked number 26 by Robert Christgau , number eleven by The Guardian , number 10 by the Chicago Tribune , number eight by Slate , number six by the Los Angeles Times , number five by AllMusic , Okayplayer , and Spin , number four by Entertainment Weekly , number three by Billboard , New York , and Now , and number one by Idolator . Metacritic named it the 12th best @-@ reviewed album of 2012 . The album was voted the fifth best album of 2012 in the Pazz & Jop , an annual poll of American critics nationwide , published by The Village Voice . Kaleidoscope Dream was nominated for the 2013 Grammy Award for Best Urban Contemporary Album , while " Adorn " was nominated for Best R & B Performance and Song of the Year , winning in the Best R & B Song category .
= = Track listing = =
Notes
" Don 't Look Back " contains a portion of " Time of the Season " written by Rod Argent .
" Kaleidoscope Dream " contains a sample from " I Got The " written and performed by Labi Siffre .
" How Many Drinks ? " contains a sample from " We 've Only Just Begun " written by Roger Nichols and Paul Williams , as performed by O 'Donel Levy .
= = Personnel = =
Credits were adapted from the album 's liner notes .
= = Charts = =
= = = Weekly charts = = =
= = = Year @-@ end charts = = =
= = Certifications = =
= = Release history = =
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= Episode 1 ( Twin Peaks ) =
" Episode 1 " , also known as " Traces to Nowhere " , is the second episode of the first season of the American mystery television series Twin Peaks . The episode was written by series creators David Lynch and Mark Frost , and directed by Duwayne Dunham . " Episode 1 " features series regulars Kyle MacLachlan , Michael Ontkean , and Richard Beymer .
Dunham was offered the role of directing the episode by Lynch , who wanted Dunham to edit his next film project , 1990 's Wild at Heart . Dunham continued to use several stylistic elements in his direction that he had observed in Lynch 's work on " Pilot " , including largely static camera work and the use of reddish color tints . The episode also marks the first appearance of Killer Bob , who was played by set decorator Frank Silva after Silva had been accidentally caught on camera .
" Episode 1 " continued the investigation of the series ' main plotline , the murder of schoolgirl Laura Palmer ( Sheryl Lee ) , with Federal Bureau of Investigation agent Dale Cooper ( MacLachlan ) interviewing several suspects connected to the victim . The episode was viewed by approximately 14 @.@ 9 million households upon its initial airing , which represented over a quarter of the available audience . Since its broadcast , the episode has earned positive reviews from critics .
= = Plot = =
= = = Background = = =
The small town of Twin Peaks , Washington , has been shocked by the murder of schoolgirl Laura Palmer ( Sheryl Lee ) and the attempted murder of her classmate Ronette Pulaski ( Phoebe Augustine ) . Federal Bureau of Investigation special agent Dale Cooper ( Kyle MacLachlan ) has come to the town to investigate , and initial suspicion has fallen upon Palmer 's boyfriend Bobby Briggs ( Dana Ashbrook ) and the man with whom she was cheating on Briggs , James Hurley ( James Marshall ) .
= = = Events = = =
Cooper takes breakfast at the Great Northern Hotel , enjoying a " damn fine cup of coffee " as Audrey Horne ( Sherilyn Fenn ) introduces herself and begins flirting with him . He makes his way to the sheriff 's department , where he and Sheriff Truman ( Michael Ontkean ) discuss the day 's plans . They interview Dr Hayward ( Warren Frost ) who has had an autopsy conducted on Palmer 's body . They learn that Laura had had sex with at least three men the night she died .
Waitress Shelley Johnson ( Mädchen Amick ) is about to leave for work when her abusive husband Leo ( Eric Da Re ) demands she do more laundry . She finds a bloodstained shirt among Leo 's clothes and hides it before he notices . However , he later realizes that it has gone missing . When she returns home that night , he questions her about its whereabouts , and savagely beats her with a bar of soap in a sock .
Cooper interviews Hurley about a video of Laura and Donna Hayward ( Lara Flynn Boyle ) ; Hayward had denied him being present the day it was taken but Cooper notices a reflection of his motorcycle in the video . Cooper confronts Hurley about the affair he was having with Palmer , and about her cocaine habit . Hurley admits seeing Palmer the night she died but denies killing her . James ' uncle Ed Hurley ( Everett McGill ) comes to the sheriff 's department to pick his nephew up . Ed tells Truman that he was drugged the previous night at The Roadhouse , the town 's bar ; he suspects bartender Jacques Renault ( Walter Olkewicz ) was responsible . Cooper takes a telephone call from his colleague Albert Rosenfield , who is on his way to aid the investigation . Meanwhile , Briggs and his friend Mike Nelson ( Gary Hershberger ) are in a jail cell , discussing money they owe to Leo . The $ 10 @,@ 000 they were meant to pay him is in a safe deposit box owned by Palmer , which they can now no longer access . They are later released by Cooper , who warns them not to approach James Hurley .
Josie Packard ( Joan Chen ) and Pete Martell ( Jack Nance ) discuss Packard 's trouble with her sister @-@ in @-@ law Catherine Martell ( Piper Laurie ) . Truman and Cooper arrive to speak with Packard , who had employed Palmer as an English tutor . Packard admits to sensing that Palmer was troubled but cannot help further ; Cooper picks up on the fact that Truman has been having a relationship with Packard . Catherine calls Packard to tell her that the latter 's sawmill lost $ 87 @,@ 000 the day before ; Catherine is having an affair with Benjamin Horne ( Richard Beymer ) , with whom she is conspiring a hostile takeover of the mill . That same day , Hayward visits Palmer 's mother Sarah ( Grace Zabriskie ) , attempting to console her . However , Sarah has a vision of a sinister man ( Frank Silva ) crouching in the corner of the room , and panics . Meanwhile , Laurence Jacoby ( Russ Tamblyn ) , Laura 's psychiatrist , listens to an audio tape she had made for him , and sobs as he toys with half of a golden heart necklace , the other half of which was found at the scene of the crime .
= = Production = =
" Episode 1 " was written by the series creators David Lynch and Mark Frost . The pair had co @-@ written " Pilot " , and would also write " Episode 2 " together . Frost would pen a further eight scripts for the series after that , while Lynch would write just one episode — the second season opening installment , " Episode 8 " . The episode was the first in the series to be directed by Duwayne Dunham , who would return to helm two further installments in the series ' second season . The episode features the first appearance of Frank Silva as Killer Bob , though the character is not yet identified at this point . Silva was the art director for the series , and had accidentally been caught on camera during a shot . Lynch was pleased with the result and decided to include Silva in the cast from then on .
Dunham had first met Lynch when he worked as the film editor for Lynch 's 1986 film Blue Velvet . Dunham then edited " Pilot " , and was about to look for another editing job elsewhere when he asked Lynch if the director had another film planned ; a week later Lynch decided to film Wild at Heart and asked Dunham to edit that as well . However , Dunham had committed to another project and felt uncomfortable leaving one editing job for another ; Lynch then offered him a directing position on Twin Peaks in the interim to justify cancelling his other project . Dunham finished principal photography on " Episode 1 " the same day that Lynch finished filming " Wild at Heart " .
The introduction of a sexual rapport between the characters of Audrey Horne and Dale Cooper was a suggestion of Dunham 's , who felt it would benefit both characters . Dunham felt that the central mystery in the series — the murder of schoolgirl Laura Palmer — was simply a " MacGuffin " to compel what he saw as the real focus , the interaction of the large ensemble cast . As such , he took care to introduce meaningful interactions between characters wherever possible . Dunham also spent time with each of the cast to help them develop their characters , having studied the scripts involved and basing his take on the characters on his experience with " Pilot " .
Dunham retained the frequent use of static cameras seen in " Pilot " , something he saw as a hallmark of Lynch 's directing style ; describing the result as " like framed pictures " . He also continued the use of a " warm " reddish tint to the footage , using soft coral filters and carefully selected props and costumes to obtain this coloring . This tint was considered important enough that Lynch sent a representative to the network to ensure they understood it was deliberate and not a mistake , for fear that they might correct the saturation to be more " realistic " before broadcasting it .
= = Broadcast and reception = =
" Episode 1 " was first broadcast on American Broadcasting Company ( ABC ) on April 12 , 1990 . Upon its initial airing , it was seen by 14 @.@ 9 million households , or 27 percent of the available audience . It placed second in its timeslot after Cheers . This marked a decline from " Pilot " , which attracted 33 percent of the available audience . The following episode would be viewed by 21 percent of the available audience , representing a further drop in numbers .
Writing for The A.V. Club , Keith Phipps awarded the episode an " A − " rating . He felt that the scene showing Leo Johnson domestically abusing his wife was " among the show 's most disturbing moments " , comparing it to a scene from the 1990 film The Grifters . Phipps also felt the sound design in the episode was impressive , commenting positively on the blurred distinction between diegetic and non @-@ diegetic music . Writing for Allrovi , Andrea LeVasseur rated the episode four stars out of five . Television Without Pity 's Daniel J. Blau felt that the episode showed series composer Angelo Badalamenti to have limited range , repeating several similar musical cues throughout . He also considered Eric Da Re 's performance as Leo Johnson to be unconvincing , finding it difficult to believe that the character was as feared and menacing as was implied . However , Blau described the introduction of Killer Bob as still seeming powerful and frightening even several years after first being seen , considering it a potent and disturbing scene .
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= The Legend of Zelda ( video game ) =
The Legend of Zelda ( Japanese : ゼルダの伝説 , Hepburn : Zeruda no Densetsu ) , subtitled The Hyrule Fantasy in its original Japanese release , is an action @-@ adventure video game developed and published by Nintendo and designed by Shigeru Miyamoto and Takashi Tezuka . Set in the fantasy land of Hyrule , the plot centers on a boy named Link , the playable protagonist , who aims to collect the eight fragments of the Triforce of Wisdom in order to rescue Princess Zelda from the antagonist , Ganon . During the course of the game , the player sees Link from a top @-@ down perspective and must navigate him through the overworld and several dungeons , defeating enemies and finding secrets along the way .
The inaugural game of the The Legend of Zelda series , it was originally released in Japan as a launch title for the Family Computer Disk System peripheral in 1986 . More than a year later , North America and Europe received releases on the Nintendo Entertainment System in cartridge format , making the game the first home console title to include an internal battery for saving data . This version was released in Japan in 1994 under the title The Legend of Zelda 1 ( ゼルダの伝説１ , Zeruda no Densetsu Wan ) . The game was ported to the GameCube and Game Boy Advance , and is available in emulated form via the Virtual Console on the Wii , Nintendo 3DS and Wii U.
The Legend of Zelda was a bestseller for Nintendo , selling over 6 @.@ 5 million copies . It is often featured in lists of games considered the greatest or most influential and is regarded as a spiritual forerunner of the role @-@ playing video game genre . A solitary sequel , Zelda II : The Adventure of Link , was first released in Japan less than a year after its predecessor 's debut . The game spawned several prequels and a number of spin @-@ offs , establishing a series that has become one of Nintendo 's most popular .
= = Gameplay = =
The Legend of Zelda incorporates elements of action , adventure , and role @-@ playing games . The player controls Link from a flip @-@ screen overhead perspective as he travels in the overworld , a large outdoor map with varied environments . Link begins the game armed only with a small shield , but a sword becomes available to Link after he ventures into a cave that is accessible from the game 's first map screen . Throughout the game , various characters aid Link by giving or selling equipment and clues . These people can be found in caves scattered throughout the overworld ; some are readily accessible , while others are hidden behind obstacles such as rocks , trees , and waterfalls .
Barring Link 's progress are creatures he must battle to locate the entrances to nine underground dungeons . Each dungeon is a unique , maze @-@ like collection of rooms connected by doors and secret passages , and guarded by monsters different from those found on the surface . Dungeons also contain useful items which Link can add to his arsenal , such as a boomerang for retrieving distant items and stunning enemies , and a recorder with magical properties . Link must successfully navigate through each of the first eight dungeons to obtain all eight pieces of the Triforce of Wisdom . Once he has completed the artifact , he can enter the ninth dungeon to rescue Zelda . Apart from this exception , the order of completing dungeons is somewhat left to the player , although they steadily increase in difficulty and some of them can only be reached or completed using items gained in a previous one . In addition , the entrances of the three highest @-@ level dungeons are hidden . Link can freely wander the overworld , finding and buying items at any point . This flexibility enables unusual ways of playing the game . For example , it is possible to reach the final boss of the game without ever receiving the sword .
After completing the game , the player has access to a more difficult quest , officially referred to as the " Second Quest " ( 裏ゼルダ , Ura Zeruda , lit . " other Zelda " ) , with new dungeon locations / layouts , different item placements , and stronger enemies . Although this more difficult " replay " was not unique to Zelda , few games offered entirely different levels to complete on the second playthrough . The Second Quest can be replayed each time the game is completed and can also be accessed at any time by starting a new file with the name " ZELDA " .
= = Plot and characters = =
The plot of The Legend of Zelda is described in the instruction booklet and in the short prologue after the title screen . A small kingdom in the land of Hyrule , the setting of the game , is engulfed in chaos after an army led by Ganon , the Prince of Darkness , invaded it and stole the Triforce of Power , a part of a magical artifact bestowing great strength . In an attempt to prevent Ganon from acquiring the Triforce of Wisdom , another of the pieces , Princess Zelda splits it and hides the eight fragments in secret dungeons throughout the land . Before the princess is eventually kidnapped by Ganon , she commands her nursemaid Impa to find someone courageous enough to save the kingdom . While wandering the land , the old woman is surrounded by Ganon 's henchmen , though a young boy named Link appears and rescues her . After hearing Impa 's plea , he resolves to save Zelda and sets out to reassemble the scattered fragments of the Triforce of Wisdom , to become powerful enough to defeat Ganon .
During the course of the game , Link locates the eight underground labyrinths , defeats several guardian monsters , and retrieves the fragments . With the completed Triforce of Wisdom , Link is able to infiltrate Ganon 's hideout , Death Mountain , eventually confronting the pig @-@ like enemy and destroying him with a Silver Arrow . Link picks up the Triforce of Power from Ganon 's ashes and returns both pieces of the Triforce to the rescued Princess Zelda , restoring peace to Hyrule .
= = History = =
= = = Development = = =
Development for this game was directed and designed by Shigeru Miyamoto ( credited as S. Miyahon ) and Takashi Tezuka ( credited as Ten Ten ) . Miyamoto produced the game , and Tezuka wrote the story and script . The development team worked on The Legend of Zelda and Super Mario Bros. concurrently , and tried to separate their ideas : Super Mario Bros. was to be linear , where the action occurred in a strict sequence , whereas The Legend of Zelda would be the opposite . In Mario , Miyamoto downplayed the importance of the high score in favor of simply completing the game . This concept was carried over to The Legend of Zelda . Miyamoto was also in charge of deciding which concepts were " Zelda ideas " or " Mario ideas . " Contrasting with Mario , Zelda was made non @-@ linear and forced the players to think about what they should do next . In the initial game designs , the player would start the game with the sword already in their inventory . According to Miyamoto , those in Japan were confused and had trouble finding their way through the multiple path dungeons . Rather than listening to the complaints , Miyamoto took away the sword , forcing players to communicate with each other and share their ideas to find the various secrets hidden in the game . This was a new form of game communication , and in this way , " Zelda became the inspiration for something very different : Animal Crossing . This was a game based solely on communication . "
With The Legend of Zelda , Miyamoto wanted to take the idea of a game " world " even further , giving players a " miniature garden that they can put inside their drawer . " He drew his inspiration from his experiences as a boy around Kyoto , where he explored nearby fields , woods , and caves , and through the Zelda titles he always tries to impart to players some of the sense of exploration and limitless wonder he felt . " When I was a child , " he said , " I went hiking and found a lake . It was quite a surprise for me to stumble upon it . When I traveled around the country without a map , trying to find my way , stumbling on amazing things as I went , I realized how it felt to go on an adventure like this . " The memory of being lost amid the maze of sliding doors in his family 's home in Sonobe was recreated in Zelda 's labyrinth dungeons .
A " symbol of courage , strength , and wisdom " , Link was designed by Miyamoto as a coming of age motif for players to identify with : he begins the game an ordinary boy but strengthens to triumph over the ultimate evil . The name of the princess was inspired by Zelda Fitzgerald : " Zelda was the name of the wife of the famous novelist F. Scott Fitzgerald . She was a famous and beautiful woman from all accounts , and I liked the sound of her name . So I took the liberty of using her name for the very first Zelda title , " Miyamoto explained .
The Zelda story setting was initially supposed to include technological elements , such as a time @-@ travelling main character and a Triforce made of electronic circuits . While the final game follows a more traditional heroic fantasy setting , subsequent games in the series have used more technology @-@ based concepts .
Koji Kondo ( credited as Konchan ) composed the game 's music . He initially planned to use Maurice Ravel 's Boléro as the game 's title theme , but was forced to change it when he learned , late in the game 's development cycle , that the copyright for the orchestral piece had not yet expired . As a result , Kondo wrote a new arrangement of the overworld theme within one day .
= = = Japanese release = = =
In February 1986 , Nintendo released the game as the launch title for the Family Computer 's new Disk System peripheral . The Legend of Zelda was joined by a re @-@ release of Super Mario Bros. , Tennis , Baseball , Golf , Soccer , and Mahjong in its introduction of the Disk System . It made full use of the Disk Card media 's advantages over traditional ROM cartridges with a disk size of 128 kilobytes , which was expensive to produce on cartridge format . Due to the still @-@ limited amount of space on the disk , however , it was only in katakana . Rather than passwords , it used rewritable disks to save the game . It used the extra sound channel provided by the Disk System for certain sound effects ; most notable are the sounds of Link 's sword when his health is full , the roars and growls of dungeon bosses , and enemy death sounds . The sound effects used the Famicom 's PCM channel in the cartridge version . It also used the microphone built into the Famicom 's controller that was not included in the NES . This led to confusion in the U.S. as the instruction manual reads that Pols Voice , a rabbit @-@ like enemy in the game , " hates loud noise " . Blowing or shouting into the Famicom 's microphone kills these creatures . However , they cannot be killed through use of the recorder , and on the NES must be killed with weapons . The cartridge version made use of the Memory Management Controller chip , specifically the MMC1 model . The MMC could use bank @-@ switching , allowing larger games than had been previously possible . They also allowed for battery @-@ powered RAM , which let players save progress for the first time on any cartridge @-@ based system or game .
= = = American release = = =
Contrary to the fears of Nintendo 's management , the game was popular and well received . Zelda had been available for a year and a half in Japan , and its sequel , Zelda II : The Adventure of Link had been released for six months before Nintendo brought this game to North America .
When Nintendo published the game in North America , the packaging design featured a small portion of the box cut away to reveal the unique gold @-@ colored cartridge . In 1988 , The Legend of Zelda sold two million copies . Nintendo of America sought to keep its strong base of fans ; anyone who purchased a game and sent in a warranty card became a member of the Fun Club , whose members got a four- , eight- and eventually 32 @-@ page newsletter . Seven hundred copies of the first issue were sent out free of charge , but the number grew as the data bank of names got larger .
From the success of magazines in Japan , Nintendo knew that game tips were a valued asset . Players enjoyed the bimonthly newsletter 's crossword puzzles and jokes , but game secrets were most valued . The Fun Club drew kids in by offering tips for the more complicated games , especially Zelda , with its hidden rooms , secret keys and passageways . The mailing list grew . By early 1988 , there were over 1 million Fun Club members , which led then @-@ Nintendo of America president Minoru Arakawa to start the Nintendo Power magazine .
Since Nintendo did not have many products , it made only a few commercials a year , meaning the quality had to be phenomenal . The budget for a single commercial could reach US $ 5 million , easily four or five times more than most companies spent . One of the first commercials made under Bill White , director of advertising and public relations , was the market introduction for The Legend of Zelda , which received a great deal of attention in the ad industry . In it , a wiry @-@ haired , nerdy guy ( John Kassir ) walks through the dark making goofy noises , yelling out the names of some enemies from the game , and screaming for Zelda .
Nintendo released a great deal of merchandise related to The Legend of Zelda , including toys , guidebooks , watches , apparel , trash cans and a breakfast cereal called Nintendo Cereal System . The game and its sequel , The Adventure of Link were adapted into an animated series , episodes of which were shown on television each Friday on The Super Mario Bros. Super Show ! . Link and Zelda appeared in several episodes of Captain N : The Game Master that revolved around themes from The Adventure of Link .
= = Reception = =
The Legend of Zelda was a bestseller for Nintendo , selling over 6 @.@ 5 million copies ; it was the first NES title to sell over 1 million . It was reissued in 1992 as part of Nintendo 's " Classic Series " and featured a grey cartridge . The game placed first in the player 's poll " Top 30 " in Nintendo Power 's first issue and continued to dominate the list into the early 1990s . The Legend of Zelda was also voted by Nintendo Power readers as the " Best Challenge " in the Nintendo Power Awards ' 88 . The magazine also listed it as the best Nintendo Entertainment System video game ever created , stating that it was fun despite its age and it showed them new ways to do things in the genre such as hidden dungeons and its various weapons . GamesRadar ranked it the third best NES game ever made . The staff praised its " mix of complexity , open world design , and timeless graphics " .
Computer Gaming World in 1988 named the game as the best adventure of the year for Nintendo , stating that Zelda had been a " sensational success " in translating a computer RPG to consoles . In 1990 the magazine stated that the game was a killer app , causing computer CRPG players who had dismissed consoles as " mere arcade toys " to buy the NES . Zelda was reviewed in 1992 by Total ! # 2 where it received a 78 % rating due in great part to mediocre subscores for music and graphics . A 1993 review of the game was printed in Dragon # 198 by Sandy Petersen in the " Eye of the Monitor " column . Petersen gave the game 4 out of 5 stars .
The Legend of Zelda is often featured in lists of games considered the greatest or most influential . It placed first in Game Informer 's list of the " Top 100 Games of All Time " and " The Top 200 Games of All Time " ( in 2001 and 2009 respectively ) , fifth in Electronic Gaming Monthly 's 200th issue listing " The Greatest 200 Videogames of Their Time " , seventh in Nintendo Power 's list of the 200 Best Nintendo Games Ever , 77th in Official Nintendo Magazine 's 100 greatest Nintendo games of all time and 80th among IGN readers ' " Top 99 Games " . Zelda was inducted into GameSpy 's Hall of Fame in August 2000 and voted by GameSpy 's editors as the tenth best game of all time . Editors of the popular Japanese magazine Weekly Famitsu voted the game among the best on the Famicom .
The Game Boy Advance port of The Legend of Zelda is rated 79 % and 87 % respectively on GameRankings ' and Game Ratio 's rankings compilations . In individual ratings , IGN scored The Legend of Zelda with an 8 out of 10 , GamePro a 4 @.@ 5 out of 5 , Nintendo Power a 4 @.@ 5 out of 5 , and 1UP.com an A.
Guinness World Records has awarded The Legend of Zelda series five world records in Guinness World Records Gamer 's Edition , including " Highest @-@ Rated Game of All Time " and " First Game with a Battery Powered Save Feature " .
= = Impact and legacy = =
The Legend of Zelda is considered a spiritual forerunner of the role @-@ playing video game ( RPG ) genre . Though it is often not considered part of the genre since it lacked key RPG mechanics such as experience points , it had many features in common with RPGs and served as the template for the action role @-@ playing game genre . The game 's fantasy setting , musical style and action @-@ adventure gameplay were adopted by many RPGs . Its commercial success helped lay the groundwork for involved , non @-@ linear games in fantasy settings , such as those found in successful RPGs , including Crystalis , Soul Blazer , Square 's Seiken Densetsu series , Alundra , and Brave Fencer Musashi . The popularity of the game also spawned several clones trying to emulate the game .
Zelda was largely responsible for the surge of action @-@ oriented computer RPGs released since the late 1980s , such as the Origin Systems game Times of Lore . The Legend of Zelda series would continue to exert an influence on the transition of both console and computer RPGs from stat @-@ heavy turn @-@ based combat towards real @-@ time action combat in the following decades . When it was released in North America , Zelda was seen as a new kind of RPG with action @-@ adventure elements , with Roe R. Adams ( who worked on the Wizardry series ) stating in 1990 that , although " it still had many action @-@ adventure features , it was definitely a CRPG . " In more recent years , however , there has been much debate regarding whether or not The Legend of Zelda qualifies as an action RPG .
The Legend of Zelda spawned a solitary sequel , many prequels and spin @-@ offs and is one of Nintendo 's most popular series . It established important characters and environments of the Zelda universe , including Link , Princess Zelda , Ganon , Impa , and the Triforce as the power that binds Hyrule together . The overworld theme and distinctive " secret found " jingle have appeared in nearly every subsequent Zelda game . The theme has also appeared in various other games featuring references to the Zelda series .
An arcade system board , called the Triforce , was developed jointly by Namco , Sega , and Nintendo , with the first games appearing in 2002 . The name " Triforce " is a reference to Nintendo 's The Legend of Zelda series of games , and symbolized the three companies ' involvement in the project .
GameSpot featured The Legend of Zelda as one of the 15 most influential games of all time , for being an early example of open world , nonlinear gameplay , and for its introduction of battery backup saving , laying the foundations for later action @-@ adventure games like Metroid and role @-@ playing video games like Final Fantasy , while influencing most modern games in general . In 2009 , Game Informer called The Legend of Zelda " no less than the greatest game of all time " on their list of " The Top 200 Games of All Time " , saying that it was " ahead of its time by years if not decades " .
In 2011 , Nintendo celebrated the game 's 25th anniversary in a similar vein to the Super Mario Bros. 25th anniversary celebration the previous year . This celebration included a free mailout Club Nintendo offer of the Ocarina of Time soundtrack to owners of the 3DS version of that particular game , the first digital for Nintendo eShop release of Link 's Awakening DX , special posters that are mailed out as rewards through Club Nintendo , and a special stage inspired by the original Legend of Zelda in the video game Super Mario 3D Land for the Nintendo 3DS .
= = = Re @-@ releases = = =
The Legend of Zelda has been re @-@ released on multiple platforms since its original domestic and international releases . The game was first re @-@ released in cartridge format for the Famicom in 1994 . The cartridge version slightly modified the title screen of the Disk Card version of the game , such that it displayed the number 1 at the end of the title . In 2001 , the original game was re @-@ released in the GameCube game Animal Crossing . The only way to unlock the game is an Action Replay . An official re @-@ release was included in 2003 's The Legend of Zelda : Collector 's Edition for the GameCube , and the game was again re @-@ released on the Game Boy Advance in 2004 along with its sequel , The Adventure of Link , as part of the Famicom Mini / Classic NES Series . In 2006 , another rerelease was made available to players on the Wii 's Virtual Console , and most recently a timed demo of the game was released for the 2008 Wii game Super Smash Bros. Brawl , available in the Vault section . All re @-@ releases of the game are virtually identical to the original , though the GameCube , Game Boy Advance , and Virtual Console versions have been altered slightly to correct several instances of incorrect spelling from the original , most notably in the intro story . A tech demo called Classic Games was shown for the Nintendo 3DS at E3 2010 , showcasing more than a dozen classic games utilizing 3D effects , including The Legend of Zelda . It was announced by Reggie Fils @-@ Aimé , president of Nintendo of America , that the titles were slated for release on the 3DS , including The Legend of Zelda , Mega Man 2 , and Super Mario World 2 : Yoshi 's Island and would possibly make use of some of the 3DS 's features , such as 3D effects , analog control , or camera support . The Legend of Zelda standalone was released for 3DS Virtual Console on September 1 , 2011 for the Ambassador users while the full version was released on December 22 , 2011 in Japan , April 12 , 2012 in Europe and July 5 , 2012 in North America on the Nintendo eShop .
= = = Sequels = = =
There have also been a few substantially altered versions of the game that have been released as pseudo @-@ sequels , and ura- or gaiden @-@ versions . As part of a promotional advertisement campaign for their charumera ( チャルメラ ) noodles , Myojo Foods Co . , Ltd . ( 明星食品 , Myoujou Shokuhin ) released a version of the original The Legend of Zelda in 1986 entitled Zelda no Densetsu : Teikyō Charumera ( ゼルダの伝説 提供 チャルメラ ) . This game is one of the rarest video games available on the second @-@ hand collector 's market , and copies have sold for over US $ 1 @,@ 000 .
From August 6 , 1995 , to September 2 , 1995 , Nintendo , in collaboration with the St.GIGA satellite radio network , began broadcasts of a substantially different version of the original The Hyrule Fantasy : Legend of Zelda for a Super Famicom peripheral , the Satellaview — a satellite modem add @-@ on . The game , titled BS Zelda no Densetsu ( BS ゼルダの伝説 ) , was released for download in four episodic , weekly installments which were rebroadcast at least four times between the game 's 1995 premier and January 1997 . BS Zelda was the first Satellaview game to feature a " SoundLink " soundtrack — a streaming audio track through which , every few minutes , players were cautioned to listen carefully as a voice actor narrator , broadcasting live from the St.GIGA studio , would give them plot and gameplay clues . In addition to the SoundLink elements , BS Zelda also featured updated 16 @-@ bit graphics , a smaller overworld , and different dungeons . Link was replaced by one of the two Satellaview avatars : a boy wearing a backward baseball cap or a girl with red hair .
Between December 30 , 1995 , and January 6 , 1996 , a second version of the game , BS Zelda no Densetsu MAP 2 ( BS ゼルダの伝説ＭＡＰ２ ) , was broadcast to the Satellaview as the functional equivalent of the original The Legend of Zelda 's Second Quest . MAP 2 was rebroadcast only once , in March 1996 .
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= Shandi Finnessey =
Shandi Ren Finnessey ( born June 9 , 1978 in Florissant , Missouri ) is an American actress , model , TV host and beauty queen . She is best known for winning the Miss USA title , as Miss Missouri USA . She previously held the title of Miss Missouri 2002 and competed in Miss America , where she won a preliminary award . She placed as first runner @-@ up at the Miss Universe 2004 competition . She is one of three women to have been both Miss Missouri USA and Miss Missouri and the only Missourian to have been Miss USA . Her first runner @-@ up finish at Miss Universe was the best placement in the 2000s and was the best United States placement between Brook Mahealani Lee 's Miss Universe 1997 competition victory and Olivia Culpo 's Miss Universe 2012 pageant win .
In 2002 , Finnessey authored an award @-@ winning children ’ s book , The Furrtails , on individuality and disabilities . In the mid @-@ 2000s , she was Chuck Woolery 's co @-@ host for the game show Lingo on the Game Show Network . Finessey has also hosted PlayMania as well as quiznation and has served as a sideline reporter for the CBS tournament blackjack series Ultimate Blackjack Tour .
= = Early life and education = =
Finnessey was born to Patrick and Linda Finnessey , and she grew up in Florissant , Missouri . She attended McCluer North High School public high school for two years where , according to an interview with ABILITY Magazine , she was teased a lot for her appearance . Finnessey recounted that she " had a mullet , tinted glasses , acne and braces . " The teasing made it difficult for her to focus on her studies , so for her junior year she transferred to the private all @-@ girls Incarnate Word Academy , where she graduated in 1996 . She completed a Bachelor of Science degree in psychology from Lindenwood University in December 1999 . Following graduation , she worked briefly as a full @-@ time substitute teacher in Jackson , Missouri before starting graduate school . She began working on her Masters in Counseling , also at Lindenwood , but postponed her studies after being crowned Miss USA in 2004 .
= = Pageants = =
= = = Participation = = =
Finnessey first competed in the Miss Missouri USA 2000 pageant in 1999 where , as Miss Saint Louis County in her senior year of college , she finished first runner @-@ up to Denette Roderick . She competed the following year ( 2000 ) and placed second runner @-@ up behind first runner @-@ up Melana Scantlin and winner Larissa Meek in the Miss Missouri USA 2001 event .
In 2000 , Finnessey competed in the Miss Oktoberfest pageant and was 3rd runner @-@ up . The pageant was won by Jenna Edwards , who had previously been 1999 Miss Teen All @-@ American and would later hold the Miss Florida 2004 and Miss Florida USA 2007 titles . First runner @-@ up was Jennifer Glover , the previous Miss United States International 1999 and the future Miss California 2002 and Miss California USA 2001 .
On November 18 , 2000 , Finnessey won the Miss Jackson title in the Miss Missouri system and finished 2nd runner @-@ up to Jennifer Hover in the June 3 – 9 , 2001 Miss Missouri pageant held in Mexico , MO . Finnessey won the Miss St. Louis Metro local title in the Miss Missouri system and went on to win the 2002 Miss Missouri title , succeeding Hover . She won the contest despite having slammed her hand in a car door that weekend . During the contest , she performed an arrangement of " Flight of the Bumblebee " on the piano for her talent . During her on @-@ stage interview as one of the five finalists , she was asked what she learned having three brothers and she answered to be quick in the bathroom .
She represented Missouri in the Miss America 2003 pageant , where she won an evening gown preliminary award but did not place . For the talent portion of the competition in the Miss America system events ( which the Miss USA system does not use ) at times she played the violin and at other times the piano . In the competition to be Miss America , she played the piano .
Less than a year after giving up her Miss Missouri title , as Miss Metro St. Louis ( USA ) , Finnessey won the Miss Missouri USA pageant on her third attempt at Black River Coliseum in Poplar Bluff , Missouri . During her six @-@ month reign as Miss Missouri USA , Finnessey was involved in such charities as the Variety Club Telethon , St. Louis Cardinals Winter Warm Up for local charities , AIDS Foundation , Special Olympics in St. Louis , Missouri and Gilda 's Club . She joined Barbara Webster ( Miss Missouri 1983 and Miss Missouri USA 1986 ) and Robin Elizabeth Riley ( Miss Missouri 1987 and Miss Missouri USA 1983 ) as qualifiers to both of the nationally televised beauty pageants .
She represented Missouri in the April 12 , 2004 nationally televised Miss USA 2004 pageant at the Kodak Theater in Los Angeles in front of hosts Nancy O 'Dell and Billy Bush and judges Jeff Gordon , Jerry Buss , John Salley , Mekhi Phifer , Rocco DiSpirito and Jill Stuart . Her final question was whether experience or education serves a person better in life to which she answered " Definitely experience because you get your knowledge through experience . " She competed on the platform of integrating people with mental challenges into society . In the nationally televised pageant , she became the first woman from Missouri to win the Miss USA title . During her reign as Miss USA , Finnessey became an advocate for breast cancer and ovarian cancer awareness and research . She has also worked with Special Olympics , the National Down Syndrome Convention , American Cancer Society and Derek Jeter 's Turn 2 Foundation ( which helps at @-@ risk kids choose healthier lifestyles ) . Finnessey resided in a luxury Riverside Drive apartment in New York City provided by the Miss Universe Organization and pageant co @-@ owner Donald Trump .
As Miss USA Finnessey went on to represent the United States at the international Miss Universe competition held in Quito , Ecuador in May 2004 , culminating on June 1 , 2004 . She placed first runner @-@ up in the internationally broadcast competition , behind winner Jennifer Hawkins of Australia . The event was hosted by Bush and Daisy Fuentes and the judges included Petra Nemcova , Emilio Estefan and Bo Derek .
As Miss USA , Finnessey represented the Miss Universe Organization . Her Miss Universe Organization " sister " 2004 titleholders were Jennifer Hawkins ( Miss Universe , of Australia ) and Shelley Hennig ( Miss Teen USA , of Louisiana ) . Her contemporary Miss America titleholder was Ericka Dunlap ( Florida ) .
= = = Ceremonial duties = = =
Finnessey provided color commentary at the Miss USA 2005 pageant live from Baltimore , Maryland on April 11 , where she was the outgoing titleholder . On July 23 , 2006 , she also co @-@ hosted the Miss Universe 2006 pageant live from Los Angeles , California as a commentator with Carson Kressley . The show 's main hosts were Carlos Ponce and Nancy O 'Dell . Finnessey has also co @-@ hosted subsequent Miss Missouri USA pageants . She again served as a commentator for the Miss Universe 2011 pageant in São Paulo , Brazil along with Jeannie Mai on September 12 , 2011 .
She joined a panel of celebrity judges to judged Miss USA 2009 pageant held at the Planet Hollywood Resort & Casino , Las Vegas , Nevada on April 19 , 2009 . That year when Miss California USA 2009 Carrie Prejean caused a notable controversy during her on @-@ stage finalist interview with a response that she was opposed to same @-@ sex marriage , Finnessey participated in a Miss California USA organization public service announcement promoting diversity along with several other Miss Universe Organization beauty pageant titlists .
= = Post @-@ pageants = =
After completing her reign as Miss USA , Finnessey became a co @-@ host of Lingo and PlayMania on GSN . She hosted Lingo from August 2005 at the start of the show 's fourth season until the show went on hiatus in 2008 . In April 2006 , she began her turn with the interactive series PlayMania , which broke into two shows on February 23 , 2007 . Finnessey became the co @-@ host of the quiznation spinoff , a revised but similar version of the original PlayMania . She remained a co @-@ host until October 21 , 2007 , several days before the show 's finale . She also was a sideline reporter for the CBS tournament blackjack series Ultimate Blackjack Tour .
She also has appeared in several documentaries produced by GSN . She has also appeared on the NBC reality show The Apprentice ( February 15 , 2005 , episode 3 @.@ 5 ) , in the November 13 , 2004 , 20 Sexiest Men and 20 Sexiest Women specials on CMT , and as Grand Marshal in the November 25 , 2004 Macy 's Thanksgiving Day Parade . She was named one of the Ten Outstanding Young Americans of 2006 by the Jaycees . She also appeared alongside Chris Myers as part of the coverage of the New Year 's Eve 2007 Festivities for Fox . On March 19 , 2007 , Finnessey debuted on the fourth season of Dancing with the Stars . Her professional dance partner was Brian Fortuna , and she was the second celebrity voted off the show . On October 31 and November 21 , 2007 , she appeared as a guest celebrity on NBC 's Phenomenon . She also hosted Hollywood Fast Track , a web based show about movies , music , and trends in Hollywood . She is also the host / co @-@ host of several TV Guide Network specials . On September 2 , 2008 , Shandi was on the season finale of Wanna Bet ? on ABC , where she made a record for the biggest successful bet on the show betting $ 20 @,@ 000 in the 1st best . Shandi lost in the end betting $ 40 @,@ 000 and guessing incorrectly . In August , 2010 , she appeared on a special " Girls of Summer " week airing of NBC 's Minute to Win It on an episode called " Last Beauty Standing . " The episode featured 10 beauty pageant winners competing for $ 100 @,@ 000 towards their chosen charities along with a chance to win a $ 1 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 challenge . At the Miss USA 2011 competition she was among the 31 former winners who were part of a photoshoot layout for Time Magazine . She played the role of Stephie in the Roger Corman @-@ produced Sharktopus ( 2010 ) which aired on the Syfy Channel three years before the same network made waves with its Sharknado movie franchise .
In January 2012 , she became one of the original reporters for ENTV News ( a branch of TVLine ) on a premium YouTube Channel . In March 2013 , she was selected as one of 36 bachelorettes to compete on the reality television show Ready For Love . Finnessey was the winner for bachelor Ernesto Arguello , but the relationship ended briefly after the show .
On August 8 , 2013 , she was named as one of five correspondents for the entertainment magazine , OK ! TV , that was scheduled to debut on September 9 .
= = Personal life = =
Her parents are Patrick and Linda Finnessey . She has three brothers ( Shane , Damion , and Paul ) , and her grandmothers ' names are Mildred Finnessey and Fern Miller .
According to the press release issued at the time of her first public appearance as Miss USA on April 17 , 2004 in New York City , she plays both the violin and piano . She also practices yoga , meditation and performs knitting and abstract painting . In 2003 , she dated August Busch IV and has also dated Italo Zanzi . She is a Republican , and during her Miss USA reign , she attended the The Commander @-@ in @-@ Chief 's Ball at the Second inauguration of George W. Bush .
Her Miss USA press release also notes that she began her professional modelling career at the age of 6 . She modeled with Ford Models in Chicago and Talent Plus in St. Louis . According to the Miss USA website at the time of her reign , her modelling experience included television commercials , runway modelling , newspaper and magazine ads as well as upscale fashion store experience . She claims to have once wrestled a greased pig . As of 2011 , her parents still lived in the house that she grew up in Florissant .
In 2013 , Finnessey became a contestant on Ready for Love where she competed for the attention of Ernesto Arguello . She won Arguello 's heart on the show , but the relationship was short @-@ lived in real life . Later that year , she posed nude for a PETA anti @-@ fur campaign opposing the distribution of fur coats as prizes during beauty pageants . On September 24 , 2014 , Finnessey announced on Twitter that she is engaged to be married to Ben Higgins . They were married on July 11th , 2015 , according to another autobiographical tweet . Finnessey announced the June 10 , 2016 , home birth of her son Finn Arthur Higgins via Instagram .
= = = Scholarly work = = =
Finnessey authored an award @-@ winning children 's book . Her book , which was published on August 1 , 2002 , was entitled Furrtails and helps the effort to integrate intellectually disabled children into regular classrooms and helps children appreciate individuality and understand their peers who have disabilities . She was recognized with an Authors Who Make a Difference award , known as AWMAD , ( from Infinity Publishing ) and a Ryan Brems Award for this work . She authored a second book entitled Suzanna the Banana .
= = Filmography = =
= = Pageantography = =
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= Jesus nahm zu sich die Zwölfe , BWV 22 =
Jesus nahm zu sich die Zwölfe ( Jesus gathered the twelve to Himself ) , BWV 22 , is a church cantata by Johann Sebastian Bach composed for Quinquagesima , the last Sunday before Lent . Bach composed it as an audition piece for the position of Thomaskantor in Leipzig and first performed it there on 7 February 1723 .
The work , which is in five movements , begins with a scene from the Gospel reading in which Jesus predicts his suffering in Jerusalem . The unknown poet of the cantata text took the scene as a starting point for a sequence of aria , recitative , and aria , in which the contemporary Christian takes the place of the disciples , who do not understand what Jesus is telling them about the events soon to unfold , but follow him nevertheless . The closing chorale is a stanza from Elisabeth Cruciger 's hymn " Herr Christ , der einig Gotts Sohn " . The music is scored for three vocal soloists , a four @-@ part choir , oboe , strings and continuo . The work shows that Bach had mastered the composition of a dramatic scene , an expressive aria with obbligato oboe , a recitative with strings , an exuberant dance , and a chorale in the style of his predecessor in the position as Thomaskantor , Johann Kuhnau . Bach directed the first performance of the cantata during a church service , together with another audition piece , Du wahrer Gott und Davids Sohn , BWV 23 . He performed the cantata again on the last Sunday before Lent a year later , after he had taken up office .
The cantata shows elements which became standards for Bach 's Leipzig cantatas and even the Passions , including a " frame of biblical text and chorale around the operatic forms of aria and recitative " , " the fugal setting of biblical words " and " the biblical narrative ... as a dramatic scena " .
= = History = =
= = = Background , Mühlhausen , Weimar and Köthen = = =
As far as we know , the earliest cantatas of Johann Sebastian Bach were performed in Mühlhausen from 1706 to 1708 . He was employed as an organist there , but he occasionally composed cantatas , mostly for special occasions . The cantatas were based mainly on biblical texts and hymns , such as Aus der Tiefen rufe ich , Herr , zu dir , BWV 131 ( a psalm setting ) , and the Easter chorale cantata Christ lag in Todes Banden , BWV 4 .
Bach was next appointed organist and chamber musician in Weimar on 25 June 1708 at the court of the co @-@ reigning dukes in Saxe @-@ Weimar , Wilhelm Ernst and his nephew Ernst August . He initially concentrated on the organ , composing major works for the instrument , including the Orgelbüchlein , the Toccata and Fugue in D minor , BWV 565 , and the Prelude and Fugue in E major , BWV 566 . He was promoted to Konzertmeister on 2 March 1714 , an honour that entailed performing a church cantata monthly in the Schlosskirche . The first cantatas he composed in the new position were Himmelskönig , sei willkommen , BWV 182 , for Palm Sunday , Weinen , Klagen , Sorgen , Zagen , BWV 12 for Jubilate Sunday , and Erschallet , ihr Lieder , BWV 172 , for Pentecost . Mostly inspired by texts by the court poet , Salomo Franck , they contain recitatives and arias . When Johann Samuel Drese , the Kapellmeister ( director of music ) , died in 1716 , Bach hoped in vain to become his successor . Bach looked for a better position and found it as Kapellmeister at the court of Leopold , Prince of Anhalt @-@ Köthen . However , the duke in Weimar did not dismiss him and arrested him for disobedience . He was released on 2 December 1717 .
In Köthen , Bach found an employer who was an enthusiastic musician himself . The court was Calvinist , therefore Bach 's work from this period was mostly secular , including the orchestral suites , the cello suites , the sonatas and partitas for solo violin , and the Brandenburg Concertos . He composed secular cantatas for the court for occasions such as New Year 's Day and the prince 's birthday , including Die Zeit , die Tag und Jahre macht , BWV 134a . He later parodied some of them as church cantatas without major changes , for example Ein Herz , das seinen Jesum lebend weiß , BWV 134 .
= = = Audition in Leipzig = = =
Bach composed his cantata as part of his application for the position of Thomaskantor in Leipzig , the official title being Cantor et Director Musices ( Cantor and Director of Music ) . As cantor , he was responsible for the music at four Lutheran churches , the main churches Thomaskirche ( St. Thomas ) and the Nikolaikirche ( St. Nicholas ) , but also the Neue Kirche ( New Church ) and the Peterskirche ( St. Peter ) . As director of music , the Thomaskantor was Leipzig 's " senior musician " , responsible for the music on official occasions such as town council elections and homages . Functions related to the university took place at the Paulinerkirche . The position became vacant when Johann Kuhnau died on 5 June 1722 . Bach was interested , mentioning as one reason that he saw more possibilities for future academic studies of his sons in Leipzig : " ... but this post was described to me in such favorable terms that finally ( particularly since my sons seemed inclined to [ university ] studies ) I cast my lot , in the name of the Lord , and made my journey to Leipzig , took my examination , and then made the change of position . "
= = = Audition in Leipzig = = =
By August 1722 , the town council had already chosen Georg Philipp Telemann as Kuhnau 's successor , but he declined in November . In a council meeting on 23 November , seven candidates were evaluated , but no agreement was reached on whether to prefer a candidate for academic teaching abilities or musical performance . The first council document with Bach named as a candidate dates from 21 December , together with Christoph Graupner . Of all candidates , Bach was the only one without a university education .
The decision to invite Bach was made by the council on 15 January 1723 . The council seemed to have preferred Bach and Graupner because they were invited to show two cantatas each , while other candidates were requested to show only one . Two candidates even had to present their work in the same service . Graupner 's performance took place on the last Sunday after Epiphany , 17 January 1723 . Two days before the event , the town council already agreed to offer him the position .
Christoph Wolff assumes that Bach received an invitation for the audition together with the texts , probably prescribed to the candidates and drawn from a printed collection , only weeks before the date . In Köthen Bach composed two cantatas on two different themes from the prescribed Gospel for the Sunday , Du wahrer Gott und Davids Sohn , BWV 23 , on the topic of healing the blind near Jericho and Jesus nahm zu sich die Zwölfe about Jesus announcing his suffering , which the disciples do not understand .
Bach had to travel to Leipzig early because he was not familiar with the location and the performers . Wolff assumes that Bach was in Leipzig already on 2 February for the Marian feast of Purification when candidate Georg Balthasar Schott presented his audition piece at the Nikolaikirche . Bach brought the scores and some parts , but additional parts had to be copied in Leipzig by students of the Thomasschule . Bach led the first performance of the two audition cantatas on 7 February 1723 as part of a church service at the Thomaskirche , this cantata before the sermon , and Du wahrer Gott und Davids Sohn after the sermon . The score of BWV 22 bears the note " This is the Leipzig audition piece " ( Das ist das Probe @-@ Stück für Leipzig ) .
Wolff notes that Bach employed the three lower voices in BWV 22 and the upper three voices in BWV 23 , and presents a list of the different composition techniques Bach employed in the two audition cantatas ; they displayed " a broad and highly integrated spectrum of ... vocal art " .
A press review reads : " On Sunday last in the morning the Hon. Capellmeister of Cöthen , Mr. Bach , gave here his test at the church of St. Thomas 's for the hitherto vacant cantorate , the music of the same having been amply praised on that occasion by all knowledgeable persons ... " .
Bach left Leipzig without hope for the position because it had been offered to Graupner , but he was not dismissed by his employer , Ernst @-@ Ludwig of Hesse @-@ Darmstadt . After a meeting on 9 April 1723 , with incomplete documentation containing " ... since the best could not be obtained , a mediocre one would have to be accepted ... " , Bach received an offer to sign a preliminary contract .
= = = Assuming the position = = =
Bach assumed the position of Thomaskantor on 30 May 1723 , the first Sunday after Trinity , performing two ambitious cantatas in 14 movements each : Die Elenden sollen essen , BWV 75 , followed by Die Himmel erzählen die Ehre Gottes , BWV 76 . They form the beginning of his attempt to create several annual cycles of cantatas for the occasions of the liturgical year .
He performed Jesus nahm zu sich die Zwölfe again on 20 February 1724 , as a printed libretto shows , and probably did so again in later years .
= = Composition = =
= = = Occasion and words = = =
Bach composed his cantata in 1723 for the Sunday Quinquagesima which Bach knew as Estomihi , the last Sunday before Lent . In the city of Leipzig , tempus clausum was observed during Lent , therefore it was the last Sunday with a cantata performance before a celebration of the Annunciation , Palm Sunday and the vespers service on Good Friday and Easter . The prescribed readings for the Sunday were taken from the First Epistle to the Corinthians , " praise of love " ( 1 Corinthians 13 : 1 – 13 ) , and from the Gospel of Luke , healing the blind near Jericho ( Luke 18 : 31 – 43 ) . The Gospel also contains the announcement by Jesus of his future suffering in Jerusalem , and that the disciples do not understand what he is saying .
The cantata text is the usual combination of Bible quotation , free contemporary poetry and as closing chorale a stanza from a hymn as an affirmation . An unknown poet chose from the Gospel verses 31 and 34 as the text for movement 1 , and wrote a sequence of aria , recitative and aria for the following movements . His poetic text places the Christian in general , including the listener at Bach 's time or any time , in the situation of the disciples : he is pictured as wanting to follow Jesus even in suffering , although he does not comprehend . The poetry ends on a prayer for " denial of the flesh " . The closing chorale is stanza 5 of Elisabeth Cruciger 's " Herr Christ , der einig Gotts Sohn " , intensifying the prayer , on a melody from the Lochamer @-@ Liederbuch .
Stylistic comparisons with other works by Bach suggest that the same poet wrote the texts for both audition cantatas and also for the two first cantatas which Bach performed when taking up his office . The poetry for the second aria has an unusually long first section , which Bach handled elegantly by repeating only part of it in the da capo .
= = = Scoring and structure = = =
The cantata has five movements and is scored for three vocal soloists ( an alto ( A ) , tenor ( T ) and bass ( B ) ) , a four @-@ part choir ( SATB ) , and for a Baroque orchestra of an oboe ( Ob ) , two violins ( Vl ) , viola ( Va ) and basso continuo . The duration is given as c . 20 minutes .
In the following table of movements , the scoring , divided in voices , winds and strings , follows the Neue Bach @-@ Ausgabe . The continuo group is not listed , because it plays throughout . The keys and time signatures are taken from Alfred Dürr . The symbol is used to denote common time ( 4 / 4 ) .
= = = Music = = =
= = = = 1 = = = =
The text of the first movement , " Jesus nahm zu sich die Zwölfe " ( Jesus gathered the Twelve to Himself ) is a quotation of two verses from the prescribed Gospel for the Sunday ( Luke 18 : 31 – 43 ) . The movement is a scene with different actors , narrated by the Evangelist ( tenor ) , in which Jesus ( bass , as the vox Christi or voice of Christ ) and his disciples ( the chorus ) interact . An " ever @-@ ascending " instrumental ritornello " evokes the image of the road of suffering embodied by going up to Jerusalem " . The Evangelist begins the narration ( Luke 18 : 31 ) . Jesus announces his future suffering in Jerusalem , Sehet , wir gehn hinauf gen Jerusalem ( " Behold , we go up to Jerusalem " ) . He sings , while the ritornello is played several times . After another repeat of the ritornello as an interlude , a choral fugue illustrates the reaction of the disciples , following verse 34 from the Gospel ( Luke 18 : 34 ) : Sie aber vernahmen der keines ( " However they understood nothing " ) . The voices are first accompanied only by the continuo , then doubled by the other instruments . Bach marks the voices in the autograph score as " concertists " for the first section and " ripienists " when the instruments come in .
The movement is concluded by an instrumental postlude . The musicologist Julian Mincham notes that the fugue deviates from the " traditional alternating of tonic and dominant entries ... as a rather abstruse indication of the lack of clarity and expectation amongst the disciples , Bach is hinting at this in musical terms by having each voice enter on a different note , B @-@ flat , F , C and G and briefly touching upon various related keys . The music is , as always , lucid and focussed but the departure from traditional fugal procedure sends a fleeting message to those who appreciate the subtleties of the musical processes " .
The musicologist Richard D. P. Jones points out that " the biblical narrative is set as a dramatic scena worthy of the Bach Passions " and that the " vivid drama of that movement has no real counterpart in Bach 's Cycle I cantatas . "
= = = = 2 = = = =
In the first aria , " Mein Jesu , ziehe mich nach dir " ( " My Jesus , draw me after You " ) , the alto voice is accompanied by an obbligato oboe , which expressively intensifies the text .
An aria is , according to Johann Mattheson in Der vollkommene Capellmeister ( Part II , chapter 13 , paragraph 10 ) , " correctly described as a well @-@ composed song , which has its own particular key and meter , is usually divided into two parts , and concisely expresses a great affection . Occasionally it closes with a repetition of the first part , occasionally without it . "
In this aria , an individual believer requests Jesus to make him follow , even without comprehending where and why . Mincham observes a mood or affekt of " deep involvement and pensive commitment " , with the oboe creating " an aura of suffering and a sense of struggling and reaching upwards in search of something indefinable in a way that only music can suggest . "
= = = = 3 = = = =
The recitative " Mein Jesu , ziehe mich , so werd ich laufen " ( " My Jesus , draw me , then I will run " ) is not a simple secco recitative , but is accompanied by the strings and leans towards an arioso , especially near the end . It is the first movement in a major mode , and illustrates in rapid runs the motion and the running mentioned .
= = = = 4 = = = =
The second aria , " Mein alles in allem , mein ewiges Gut " ( " My all in all , my eternal good " ) , again with strings , is a dance @-@ like movement in free da capo form , A B A ' . The unusually long text , of four lines for the A section and two for the B section , results in Bach 's solution to repeat the end of the first line ( my eternal good ) after all text of A , and then after the middle section B repeat only the first line as A ' , thus ending A and A ' the same way . In this modified repeat , the voice holds a long note on the word Friede ( " peace " ) , after which the same theme appears in the orchestra and again in the continuo . The musicologist Tadashi Isoyama notes the passepied character of the music , reminiscent of secular Köthen cantatas . Mincham describes : " Bach 's expression of the joy of union with Christ can often seem quite worldly and uninhibited " , and summarises : " The 3 / 8 time signature , symmetrical phrasing and rapid string skirls combine to create a sense of a dance of abandonment . "
= = = = 5 = = = =
The closing chorale is " Ertöt uns durch dein Güte " ( " Kill us through your goodness " or " Us mortify through kindness " ) , the fifth stanza of Elisabeth Cruciger 's " Herr Christ , der einig Gotts Sohn " . Its melody is based on one from Wolflein Lochamer 's Lochamer @-@ Liederbuch , printed in Nürnberg around 1455 . It first appears as a sacred tune in Johann Walter 's Wittenberg hymnal Eyn geystlich Gesangk Buchleyn ( 1524 ) .
The usual four @-@ part setting of the voices is brightened by continuous runs of the oboe and violin I. Isoyama thinks that Bach may have intentionally imitated the style of his predecessor Johann Kuhnau in the " elegantly flowing obbligato for oboe and first violin " . John Eliot Gardiner describes the movement 's bass line as a " walking bass as a symbol of the disciples ' journey to fulfilment . Mincham comments that Bach " chose to maintain the established mood of buoyancy and optimism with a chorale arrangement of almost unparalleled energy and gaiety " and concludes :
It would seem that Bach had not yet reached a conclusion , if indeed he ever did , as to the most appropriate way of utilising the chorales in his cantatas . Certainly the quiet , closing moments of reflection and introspection became the norm , particularly in the second cycle . But the chorale could , as here , act as a focus of bounding energy and positivity .
= = = Reception = = =
Jones summarises : " The audition cantatas ... show Bach feeling his way towards a compromise between the progressive , opera @-@ influenced and the conservative , ecclesiastical styles . " He acknowledges the standard BWV 22 sets for later church cantatas :
" places an ecclesiastical frame of biblical text and chorale around the operatic forms of aria and recitative , a frame that would become a standard in the cantatas of cycle I. Moreover , the impressive opening movement incorporates two modes of treatment that would recur regularly during Cycle I and beyond : the fugal setting of biblical words and the use as the bass voice as vox Christi , as in traditional Passion settings . "
Isoyama points out : " BWV 22 incorporates dance rhythms , and is written with a modern elegance . " Mincham interprets Bach 's approach in both audition works as " a fair example of the range of music which is suitable for worship and from which others might learn " , explaining the " sheer range of forms and musical expression in these two cantatas " . Gardiner , who conducted the Bach Cantata Pilgrimage with the Monteverdi Choir and wrote a diary on the project , comments on the disciples ' reaction ( " and they understood none of these things , neither knew they the things which were spoken " ) :
" One could read into this an ironic prophecy of the way Bach 's new Leipzig audience would react to his creative outpourings over the next twenty @-@ six years – in the absence , that is , of any tangible or proven signs of appreciation : neither wild enthusiasm , deep understanding nor overt dissatisfaction " .
= = = Recordings = = =
The sortable table follows the selection on the Bach @-@ Cantatas website . Choirs and orchestras are roughly grouped :
Large choirs ( red background ) : Boys ( choir of all male voices )
Medium @-@ size choirs , such as Chamber
Large orchestras ( red background ) : Symphony
Chamber orchestra
Orchestra on period instruments ( green background )
= = Arrangement = =
In the 1930s Harriet Cohen 's piano arrangement of the cantata 's closing chorale was published by Oxford University Press under the title " Sanctify us by the goodness " . It was in the repertoire of , for example , Alicia de Larrocha .
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= Scar ( The Lion King ) =
Scar is a fictional character who appears in Walt Disney Pictures ' 32nd animated feature film , The Lion King ( 1994 ) . The character is voiced by English actor Jeremy Irons , while his singing voice is provided by both Irons and American actor Jim Cummings , the latter of whom was hired to replace Irons when the former damaged his singing voice . Subsequently , Scar makes minor appearances in the film 's sequel The Lion King II : Simba 's Pride ( 1998 ) and The Lion King 1 ½ ( 2004 ) , in both of which he is voiced entirely by Cummings , as well as appearing in the Broadway musical adaptation of the film , in which the role of Scar was originated by American actor John Vickery .
Scar was created by screenwriters Irene Mecchi , Jonathan Roberts and Linda Woolverton , and animated by Andreas Deja . The Pride Lands ' reclusive heir presumptive , Scar is introduced in the first film as the conniving uncle of Simba and jealous younger brother of Mufasa . Originally first @-@ in @-@ line to Mufasa 's throne until he is suddenly replaced by nephew Simba , Scar decides to lead an army of hyenas in his plot to usurp the throne by murdering Mufasa and exiling Simba , ultimately blaming his brother 's death on his innocent nephew . Loosely based on King Claudius , the antagonist of William Shakespeare 's play Hamlet , Scar 's villainy was additionally inspired by German politician Adolf Hitler . As the character 's supervising animator , Deja based Scar 's appearance on that of Irons himself , as well as the actor 's Academy Award @-@ winning performance as Claus von Bülow in the film Reversal of Fortune ( 1990 ) . Before Irons was cast , the directors had considered offering the role to actors Tim Curry and Malcolm McDowell .
As a character , Scar has garnered widespread acclaim from film critics , who greeted Irons ' performance with equal enthusiasm . However , Scar 's violence , dark color palette and allegedly effeminate mannerisms were initially met with mild controversy , perceived by some as racist and homophobic . Nevertheless , Scar continues to be revered as one of Disney 's greatest villains by various media publications , topping The Huffington Post 's list and ranking within the top ten of similar lists published by Yahoo ! Movies , the Orlando Sentinel , E ! and CNN . Scar has also been ranked among the greatest villains in film history by Digital Spy and Entertainment Weekly .
= = Development = =
= = = Conception and influences = = =
The Lion King was first conceived in 1988 . The film was eventually pitched to Disney executives , one of whom was among the first to observe similarities between author Thomas M. Disch 's treatment and William Shakespeare 's play Hamlet . Although first citing these similarities as initially unintentional , director Rob Minkoff always felt that it was essential " to anchor [ the film ] with something familiar " . As directors , Minkoff and Roger Allers aspired to create " an animal picture based in a more natural setting , " describing the film as " More true @-@ life adventure than mythical epic . " Although not the first Disney film to have been inspired by Shakespeare 's work , The Lion King remains the studio 's most prominent example due to close parallels between its characters and Hamlet , while both stories revolve around main characters who struggle to come to terms with the reality that they must confront their treacherous uncles and avenge their fathers ' deaths . Scar is based on King Claudius , the antagonist of Hamlet . According to Slate , while Claudius is mostly " a second @-@ rate schemer ... consumed by anxiety and guilt , " Scar very much " delight [ s ] in his monstrosity ; " both characters are motivated by jealousy . Meanwhile , The Week observed that although both characters ultimately die , Claudius is killed by protagonist Hamlet while Scar dies " at the hand of his former hyena minions , and not Simba himself . " Additionally , the character shares similarities with Iago from Shakespeare 's play Othello ; both antagonists are skilled in exploiting their victims ' fears .
The original plot of The Lion King revolved around an ongoing rivalry between lions and baboons ; Scar , a baboon himself , was their leader . When this plot was abandoned , Scar was re @-@ written into a rogue lion , thus lacking any blood relation to Mufasa and Simba . Eventually , the writers felt that making Scar and Mufasa brothers would ultimately enhance the story by making it more interesting . An abandoned character , at one point Scar owned a pet python as a sidekick . Because the film was originally intended to be much more adult @-@ oriented , Scar was to have become infatuated with Simba 's childhood friend and eventual love interest Nala , wanting the young lioness to rule alongside him as his queen and consequentially banishing the character when she refuses . This concept was to have been further explored during a reprise of Scar 's song " Be Prepared " , but both the idea and the song were ultimately completely removed from the film because they were deemed too " creepy " . To further emphasize the character 's villainy and tyranny , the writers loosely based Scar on German politician Adolf Hitler . According to The Jerusalem Post , Scar 's song " Be Prepared " " features goose @-@ stepping hyenas in a formation reminiscent of a Nuremberg rally . " This idea was first suggested by story artist Jorgen Klubien .
According to the directors , " [ a ] patronizing quality " was vital to Scar 's role in the film . Minkoff told the Los Angeles Times , " When Scar puts the guilt trip on Simba , that 's an intense idea ... probably something that is not typical of the other Disney pictures , in terms of what the villain does . " Additionally , Scar serves as a departure from previous Disney villains because they " came off at least as buffoonish as they were sinister " . Because Scar is the film 's main antagonist , supervising animator Andreas Deja believed that " villains work really well when they 're subtle " , explaining , " to see them think and scheme and plot is much more interesting than showing them beating somebody up . " By blaming Mufasa 's death on an innocent Simba , Scar ultimately triggers " a cycle of guilt , flight , denial and redemption , as the hero goes into self @-@ imposed exile before finally reconciling with his father 's memory , returning to face his wicked uncle and generally coming of age . " The character 's first line in The Lion King essentially summarizes the entire film , providing foreshadowing . It reads , " Life 's not fair is it ? You see I @-@ well , I ... shall never be King . And you ... shall never see light of another day , " subtly revealing the plot as well as " the reason why [ Scar ] decides to murder his own brother . "
= = = Voice = = =
English actors Tim Curry and Malcolm McDowell were originally considered for the role of Scar . However , the role was ultimately won by English actor Jeremy Irons because of his classical theatre training ; the directors had deliberately wanted Scar " to come across as a Shakespearean character . " Successfully recruiting Irons for the film was considered an unprecedented achievement for the studio because , at the time , it was rare for a dramatic actor of Irons ' caliber to agree to voice an animated character , especially immediately after winning an Academy Award . In fact , the Oscar @-@ winning actor nearly declined because , in fear of jeopardizing his successful career , he was " [ h ] esitant to jump from a dramatic role to an animated feature . " Prior to The Lion King , Irons was famous for starring as several villains and antagonists in live @-@ action films " geared towards adults . " Although he had starred in a children 's film before , the actor admitted that it did not mirror the success of The Lion King , a film that has since gained notoriety for its cast of well known , award @-@ winning Hollywood actors , which animation historian Jerry Beck referred to in his book The Animated Movie Guide as " the most impressive list of actors ever to grace an animated film . "
As directors , Minkoff and Allers " work [ ed ] very closely with the actors to create their performance . " Describing Irons as " a gentleman and a brilliant actor , " Allers revealed that the actor was constantly offering " extra interpretations of lines which were fantastic . " Producer Don Hahn recalled that Irons " really wanted to play with the words and the pacing , " specifically referring to a scene in which Scar , voiced by Irons , coaxes Simba onto a rock and tricks the young cub to stay there and await his father 's arrival alone , dubbing it " a father and son ... thing . " According to Hahn , " The comedy in [ Irons ' ] inflection comes from Scar sounding so disdainful he can barely summon the will to finish the sentence . " Irons ' physical appearance and mannerisms served as inspiration for Scar 's supervising animator Andreas Deja , namely his flicking his paw in disgust . Critics have cited physical similarities between Irons and Scar .
In a reference to the role that earned Irons an Academy Award , Claus von Bülow in the film Reversal of Fortune ( 1990 ) , the writers gave Scar one of von Bülow 's lines , " You have no idea " , which is uttered by Irons in a similar tone . According to author Rachel Stein of New Perspectives on Environmental Justice : Gender , Sexuality , and Activism , Irons relies " on his history of playing sexually perverse , socially dangerous male characters to animate his depiction of Scar . " On the contrary , Irons revealed to Connect Savannah that the similarities between the voices of Scar and von Bülow were largely unintentional , explaining , " Whatever voice came was arrived at by looking at the initial sketches , and from the freedom the directors gave me to try anything . " Irons concluded , " The fact that he may occasionally remind you of Claus , comes from the fact that they both share the same voice box . "
While recording Scar 's song " Be Prepared , " Irons encountered challenges with his voice . The actor reportedly " blew out his voice " upon belting the line " you won 't get a sniff without me , " rendering him incapable of completing the musical number . Consequently , Disney was forced to recruit American voice actor Jim Cummings , who had also been providing the voice of The Lion King 's laughing hyena Ed at the time , to impersonate Irons and record the remainder of the song . Cummings told The Huffington Post that " [ s ] tunt singing " is actually something the actor continues to do regularly , having done the same for American actor Russel Means , voice of Chief Powhatan in Disney 's Pocahontas ( 1995 ) . Critics observed that Irons " fakes his way ... through ' Be Prepared ' in the grand tradition of talk @-@ singing , " drawing similarities between him and American actor James Cagney and English actor Rex Harrison . Deja revealed that , during a recording session , Irons ' stomach was grumbling . Deja joked , " The growling sound could be heard in his recording , so we had to record that part of his dialog all over again . " As a result of Irons ' prominent British accent , critics have compared both the actor and Scar to Shere Khan , the villain of Disney 's The Jungle Book ( 1967 ) , voiced by English actor George Sanders .
= = = Design and characterization = = =
The studio originally dismissed The Lion King as a risk because , at the time , it was believed that the greatest films starred people . Concerned about the novelty of the film , Disney CEO Jeffrey Katzenberg decided to divide the studio into two separate animated films , The Lion King and Pocahontas , the latter of which was dubbed " the home run " because it was expected to be the more successful of the two projects . Naturally , Disney 's more seasoned and experienced animators gravitated towards Pocahontas , while the studio 's newer animators were relegated to working on The Lion King , dubbing themselves the " B @-@ team " . However , Allers received Katzenberg 's decision positively as an opportunity for " newer animators ... to step up to leadership roles " , among them Andreas Deja , who became Scar 's supervising animator . Well known for animating several Disney villains , Deja summarized the experience as " more fun than drawing heroes " because " You have so much more to work with in terms of expressions and acting and drawing @-@ wise than you would have with a nice princess or a prince ... where you have to be ever so careful with the draftsmanship " .
Before becoming involved with The Lion King , Deja had already developed a reputation for animating Disney villains . Prior to animating Scar , Deja had just recently served as the supervising animator of Gaston and Jafar , the villains in Disney 's Beauty and the Beast ( 1991 ) and Aladdin ( 1992 ) , respectively . Initially , Deja had been considering the idea of animating a hero as opposed to a villain for a change , contemplating taking on the task of animating Simba instead . However , Deja soon relented upon learning that Scar would be voiced by Irons , feeling that it would be " fun " to animate a character voiced by such a prestigious actor . Meanwhile , Minkoff and Allers had already had Deja in mind for animating Scar long before the animator approached the directors about the position . The level anthropomorphism used in The Lion King exceeded that of any Disney animated film by which it was preceded . Because Scar is an animal as opposed to a human , Deja and the animators experienced certain challenges and limitations when it came to instilling movement in the character , and thus experimented with manipulating Scar 's facial expressions , specifically the way in which he tilts his head condescendingly , raises his eyebrows and lifts his chin . The animals were each drawn with certain human @-@ like attributes and characteristics in order to help convey emotions and tell the story . Meanwhile , the studio recruited live lions for the animators to study while drawing . As the film 's villain , Scar is the only lion drawn with claws .
Owen Gleiberman of Entertainment Weekly described Scar as " a figure of both pity and evil , and of treacherous comedy " with " Irons ... filling this devious coward with elegantly witty self @-@ loathing . " As an animator , Deja believes that " If you have a great voice to work with , your work is half done . " Enjoying the way in which Irons " has a way with words and phrasing , " Deja deliberately based much of Scar 's appearance on the actor himself , specifically the shape of his mouth and facial expressions . Several of the actor 's physical attributes were incorporated into Scar 's design , with Irons admitting to recognizing his own baggy eyes in his character . Additionally , Deja studied Irons ' performances in the films Reversal of Fortune ( 1990 ) and Damage ( 1992 ) for inspiration , while refusing to watch Disney 's The Jungle Book while working on The Lion King in order to avoid being influenced by the film 's villain Shere Khan , a tiger .
= = = Music = = =
Scar sings the musical number " Be Prepared , " written by songwriters Elton John and Tim Rice , while contemplating Mufasa 's death plot and bringing the hyenas along . Described as the film 's " darkest " song , a " pompous , " " fascistic paean to usurpers , " the musical sequence depicts the lion " as a big @-@ cat fascist . " According to Business Insider , in addition to loosely basing the character on Adolf Hitler to further emphasize Scar 's tyranny , the filmmakers very much directly based his song " Be Prepared , " which references Nazism by having Scar 's army of hyenas goosestep while addressing them from a high ledge – similar to the way in which Hitler would have from a balcony – on the Nazi propaganda film Triumph of the Will ( 1935 ) , a film that documents Nazi Germany during 1934 .
According to Entertainment Weekly , the concept originated from a sketch by story artist Jorgen Klubien , in which Scar was depicted as Hitler . Although hesitant that Disney CEO Jeffrey Katzenberg would approve , the filmmakers ultimately decided to pursue it , describing the sequence as a " Triumph of the Will @-@ style mock @-@ Nuremberg rally . " The St. Louis Post @-@ Dispatch reviewed , " those goose @-@ stepping hyenas seem a little much in hindsight , " while Film School Rejects coined it a " hellish gathering . "
= = Appearances = =
= = = Film = = =
Scar debuted in The Lion King ( 1994 ) . The jealous younger brother of Mufasa , Scar was next @-@ in @-@ line to inherit the throne until his nephew Simba , Mufasa 's son , was born , replacing him . Determined to usurp the throne and become king himself , Scar devises a plan to eliminate both Simba and Mufasa . Cleverly trapping an unsuspecting Simba in a vast gorge , Scar signals his hyena minions Shenzi , Banzai and Ed to trigger a wildebeest stampede . Although Mufasa saves Simba , the king is greatly weakened , and thus unable to climb out of the gorge to safety . When a desperate Mufasa begs Scar for help , Scar instead throws his brother to his death below . Convincing Simba that he is to blame for Mufasa 's death , Scar advises the prince to run away and never return , then orders the hyenas to pursue and kill him . With his brother murdered and his nephew presumed dead , Scar returns to Pride Rock and tells the pride that both father and son are dead before becoming king .
Years go by as Scar squanders the kingdom 's resources and allows his army of hyenas to wreak havoc upon the Pride Lands , which turn barren . Meanwhile , an alive and young adult Simba is visited by Mufasa 's ghost , who encourages him to return to the Pride Lands and take his rightful place as king . Aided by his friends Nala , Timon and Pumbaa , Simba arrives at Pride Rock and witnesses Scar striking his mother Sarabi and confronts Scar , who demands that Simba admit to the pride that he killed Mufasa . As he prepares to throw Simba off Pride Rock and have him meet a similar fate to that of his father , Scar , having grown over @-@ confident , whispers that he was the one who killed Mufasa . Enraged , Simba tackles Scar and forces his uncle to admit the truth to the pride , initiating a ferocious battle between the pride , Timon , Pumbaa and Scar 's hyenas . Scar tries to escape , but is cornered by Simba on the top of Pride Rock ; Scar begs for mercy and even attempts to blame his crimes on the hyenas , unaware that they are listening nearby . Simba ignores Scar and gives him one last chance to run away and never return . When Simba 's back is turned , Scar attacks him and they fight . Simba bests Scar in combat and throws him over the cliff edge and into a pit . Scar survives the fall , but is attacked and killed by the vengeful hyenas .
= = = Broadway musical = = =
The success of The Lion King spawned a Broadway musical based on the film , directed by Julie Taylor with a book written by The Lion King co @-@ director Roger Allers and screenwriter Irene Mecchi . American actor John Vickery originated the role of Scar . In one scene in the musical , Scar , during the song " The Madness of King Scar " , tries to seduce a young adult Nala and make her his queen . Nala however , rejects Scar 's advances and leaves Pride Rock .
= = = The Lion King II : Simba 's Pride = = =
Having perished during The Lion King , Scar 's appearance and presence in its sequel The Lion King II : Simba 's Pride ( 1998 ) is , naturally , quite limited in comparison . Story @-@ wise , however , his role remains vital . Upon Scar 's demise , a rivaling pride of lions known as the Outsiders decide to remain loyal to him . The pride is led by Scar 's most faithful follower , Zira . Since Scar had no children of his own , Zira 's son Kovu is chosen to serve as Scar 's heir . Simba banishes the Outsiders to the Outlands , and forbids his daughter Kiara from going there . She goes there anyway , however , and meets and befriends Kovu . Meanwhile , Zira trains Kovu to murder Simba , but when he becomes a young adult , he has a change of heart as he begins to develop feelings for Kiara .
Scar makes a brief cameo appearance in the film in one of Simba 's nightmares . In the nightmare , an adult Simba runs down the cliffside where his father died , attempting to rescue him . Scar intervenes , however , and then turns into Kovu and throws Simba off the cliff . Scar makes another cameo appearance in a pool of water , as a reflection , after Kovu is exiled from Pride Rock .
= = = Miscellaneous = = =
Scar makes a brief cameo in Disney 's animated feature film Hercules ( 1997 ) in the form of a limp lion skin coat worn by Hercules , parodying the Nemean lion . Scar 's supervising animator Andreas Deja also served as the supervising animator of Hercules . The character appears in the 1994 video game The Lion King . According to AllGame , Scar appears towards the end of video game as Simba finally " must defeat his Uncle Scar " and " stop Scar and reclaim what is rightfully his . " Scar plays a similar role in the video game The Lion King : Simba 's Mighty Adventure ( 2000 ) ; Simba 's climactic " battle with Scar concludes the first six levels of the game . " According to IGN , the video game features the voices of the film 's cast , including Jeremy Irons as Scar . Voiced by James Horan , Scar appears as a non @-@ player character in Disney 's Extreme Skate Adventure ( 2003 ) and Kingdom Hearts II as a villain who ultimately transforms into a Heartless as a result of the character 's own " hatred and jealousy . "
Scar also makes a brief non @-@ speaking cameo appearance in an episode of Timon and Pumbaa .
= = = The Lion Guard = = =
Scar is briefly portrayed in The Lion Guard film and series , which explains some of his backstory . When Scar was younger — as per tradition to all second born children of the current reigning " Lion King " — he led The Lion Guard who protected " The Circle of Life " and was given a power called " The Roar of the Elders " which when used , causes the lions of Pride Lands past to roar with him . However , Scar vainly believed that with this power , he should be king instead of Mufasa and plotted to overthrow his elder brother . But when the previous members of The Lion Guard refused to help him do so , Scar used The Roar of the Elders to destroy them . Due to using The Roar of the Elders for evil , Scar lost his power completely and descended into madness and depression , becoming shriveled and horrible .
= = Reception = =
= = = Critical response = = =
Scar has garnered widespread acclaim from film critics , some of whom praised him as a better character than Simba . Author Peter M. Nichols wrote in his book New York Times Essential Library : Children 's Movies : A Critic 's Guide to the Best Films Available on Video and DVD that Scar " is the most interesting character in the film , " describing Simba and Mufasa " bores in comparison . " Janet Maslin of The New York Times called Scar a " delectably wicked " villain . Maslin went on to praise Irons ' voice acting , writing that the actor " slithers through the story in grandiose high style , with a green @-@ eyed malevolence that is one of film 's chief delights . " Leah Rozen of People described Scar as " a flawless realization of Irons ' special talent . " Gene Siskel of the Chicago Tribune lauded Scar as the film 's " best character , " jokingly describing him as " Irons ' Claus von Bulow with fur . " Similarly , ComingSoon.net 's Joshua Starnes hailed Scar as " the best part of the film . " Praising both Scar and Irons ' acting , Starnes continued , " He switches so quickly and easily from campy to deadly its like a showcase for how to do an over @-@ the @-@ top villain right . " Concluding that " Villains are often the most memorable characters in a Disney animated film , " Roger Ebert described Scar " one of the great ones . " James Berardinelli of ReelViews reviewed , " Gone is the buffoonery that has marked the recent trio of Ursula , Gaston , and Jafar , " writing , " Scar is a sinister figure , given to acid remarks and cunning villainy . " Berardinelli concluded , " The cold @-@ hearted manner in which he causes Mufasa 's death lets us know that this is not a lion to be trifled with . "
" Simba is also influenced by his delectably wicked uncle , Scar ( Jeremy Irons ) . Scar arranges Mufasa 's disturbing on @-@ screen death in a manner that both banishes Simba to the wilderness and raises questions about whether this film really warranted a G rating ... For the grown @-@ ups , there is Mr. Irons , who has been as devilishly well @-@ captured by Disney 's graphic artists ( Scar 's supervising animator : Andreas Deja ) as Robin Williams was in Aladdin . Bored , wicked and royally sarcastic , Mr. Irons 's Scar slithers through the story in grandiose high style , with a green @-@ eyed malevolence that is one of film 's chief delights . ' Oh , and just between us , you might want to work on that little roar of yours , hmm ? ' he purrs to Simba , while purporting to be a mentor to his young nephew . Scar , who also gives a reprise of Mr. Irons 's best @-@ known line from Reversal of Fortune , may not be much of a father figure , but he 's certainly great fun . "
A film that features the voices of several well @-@ known A @-@ list actors , namely Irons as Scar , Matthew Broderick as Simba , James Earl Jones as Mufasa and Whoopi Goldberg as Shenzi , The Lion King has since gone on to be acclaimed as " one of the most impressive arrays of voice talents ever utilized in an animated film . " Critics have repeatedly singled out Irons ' performance , praising it extensively : Cindy White of IGN called Irons ' performance " deliciously smarmy , " while Andy Patrizio of IGN wrote that Irons voices Scar " in perfect Shakespearean villain mode . " Rolling Stone 's Peter Travers hailed Irons for " deliver [ ing ] a triumphantly witty vocal performance that ranks with Robin Williams ' in Aladdin . " Peter Stack of the San Francisco Chronicle commended Disney for " nail [ ing ] the voice talents , " specifically Irons . The Philadelphia Daily News ' Bill Wedo described Irons ' voice as " silken , " while Graham Young of the Birmingham Mail hailed the actor 's performance as " magnificent . " Radio Times ' Tom Hutchinson wrote , " Jeremy Irons [ is ] a vocal standout as the evil uncle Scar . " Annette Basile of Filmink echoed Hutchinson 's statement , writing that Scar is " voiced with relish by stand @-@ out Jeremy Irons . " The Guardian 's Philip French opined , " Jeremy Irons is excellent as the suavely villainous lion Scar . " David Sterritt of The Christian Science Monitor exalted Irons ' acting , describing him as " positively brilliant . " Also hailing the film 's cast as " incredible , " Desson Howe of The Washington Post highlighted Irons as a " standout . " Praising the film for successfully combining " grand @-@ opera melodrama and low @-@ comedy hi @-@ jinks , " the Orlando Sentinel 's Jay Boyar concluded that " One reason they work so well together is that even most of the serious sections contain an undercurrent of humor , provided ... by the deliciously droll voice @-@ performance of Jeremy Irons as Scar . " Mathew DeKinder of the St. Louis Post @-@ Dispatch felt that Irons successfully " handle [ s ] all of the dramatic heavy lifting . "
Even film critics who generally disliked the film tended to enjoy Scar 's characterization and Irons ' performance . Terrence Rafferty of The New Yorker wrote , " Among the celebrity voices on the soundtrack , two performances stand out , " namely , " Jeremy Irons , as the villainous lion Scar " who " does an elegant , funny George Sanders impersonation . " ( Sanders himself had voiced Shere Khan for Disney in their 1967 version of The Jungle Book ) . Stephen Hunter of The Baltimore Sun described Irons ' voice as " plummy @-@ rich with rancid irony . " Television Without Pity 's Ethan Alter admitted to enjoying Scar , praising the character as " a fantastic villain and easily the most fully realized of the film 's characters , thanks both to Jeremy Irons ' marvelously wicked vocal performance and some clever character flourishes on behalf of the animators . " David Denby of New York , who otherwise criticized the film , felt that " Irons ... sounds like he 's having a better time than he 's ever had in movies before . " In a rare lukewarm review , Anthony Quinn of The Independent felt that Irons ' performance was too campy : " more Liberace than George Sanders . "
= = = Accolades and legacy = = =
According to IGN , Scar , Simba and Mufasa have since become " household names thanks to the [ film 's ] enormous popularity ... but back in 1994 who could have predicted that these characters would enter the lexicon of Disney 's most popular creations ? " Scar is considered to be among Disney 's greatest villains . Desmond Ryan of The Philadelphia Inquirer reviewed Scar as " the most vivid villain in Disney features in generations . " On a broader scale , Scar is often revered as one of the greatest animated villains of all @-@ time . Entertainment Weekly included the character in the article " 10 Over @-@ the @-@ top Animated Movie Villains " , explaining , " you could only expect over @-@ the @-@ top when you pair such a grasping , conniving character with Jeremy Irons ' seductive voice . " Likewise , Digital Spy 's Alex Fletcher wrote of Scar in his article " Who is Disney 's greatest ever villain ? " that " The scene in which he lets Mufasa ... fall into a stampede of wildebeests left lasting emotional trauma on an entire generation . "
The Huffington Post ranked Scar first in its " Definitive Ranking Of 25 Classic Disney Villains " countdown . Similarly , BuzzFeed also ranked Scar first in the website 's " Definitive Ranking Of The Top 20 Disney Villains " list , with author Javi Moreno accusing the character of removing " the innocence of an entire generation . " Scar also topped About.com 's " Top 10 Disney Villains " countdown ; author David Nusair concluded , " There are few figures within Disney 's body of work that are as deliciously reprehensible and vile as Scar ... heightened by Jeremy Irons ' gloriously smug voice work . " Nusair also included Irons among the " Top 5 Celebrity Voice Performances in Animated Films " , acknowledging the fact that although the actor " has played a lot of villains over the course of his career ... none have had the lasting impact as Scar from The Lion King . " The Orlando Sentinel ranked Scar the sixth " greatest Disney villain of all time " . Similarly , Babble.com also placed the character at number six . Included in the website 's " 12 most famous Disney villains from worst to best " countdown , Yahoo ! Movies ranked Scar second best , while Moviefone ranked the character sixth . E ! ranked Scar fifth , with author John Boone writing that the character " plotted one of the most painful deaths in Disney history , so you know he 'll never be forgotten . " Animation World Network ranked Scar the sixth best animated villain .
CNN considers Scar one of " Disney 's scariest characters . " While ranking the character fifth , The Stanford Daily wrote , " From his habit of sadistically toying with his prey to his dumb hyena coven to the way he leads the kingdom of Pride Rock into a period of starvation and sorrow , he 's a backstabbing dictator of an uncle . " Richard Crouse of Metro cited Scar 's " Long live the King " as the character 's " Most evil line . " Additionally , " Be Prepared " is often revered as one of the greatest Disney villain songs . Official Disney Blogs wrote that the song , with its " hyena backup singers , and the best bone @-@ rattling percussion of all the villains ' songs , " Scar proves himself " an expert crooner of villainous plots . " Aside from Disney and animation , Scar is often revered as one of the greatest movie villains of all @-@ time . Digital Spy featured the character who , according to author Simon Reynolds , " underlined the sheer blackness of his heart by ruthlessly killing Simba 's father , " among the " 25 greatest movie villains " . Similarly , in 2012 , Entertainment Weekly ranked the character the twenty @-@ fifth " Most Vile Movie Villain " ever , while Total Film ranked Scar sixty @-@ seventh in 2014 .
To @-@ date , Deja remains best known for animating several of Disney 's most famous villains , admitting to preferring animating villains over heroes . However , after The Lion King , Deja finally decided to take a break from animating villains in order to avoid repeating himself , subsequently refusing to animate villain Judge Claude Frollo in The Hunchback of Notre Dame ( 1996 ) in favor of working on Hercules from Hercules ( 1997 ) , along with Mickey Mouse in the animated short Runaway Brain ( 1995 ) . Comparing Scar to other villains that he has played , Irons said that he " measures very highly , " having " charm , " " Machiavellian qualities " and being " iconic in some of the things he says . "
= = Criticism and controversy = =
Scar became the first Disney villain to successfully explicitly kill someone . Like Disney 's Bambi before it , The Lion King – dubbed the studio 's " darkest " film at the time of its release – was unprecedented in terms of its serious themes , namely guilt , murder , treachery , revenge and death , specifically the on @-@ screen assassination of one of the film 's heroes . According to IGN , " The film 's story concepts of morality and mortality ... was new for Disney , " with The Washington Post predicting that " the death of the heroic Mufasa will be the most widely debated aspect of The Lion King , with people taking sides as to whether such things are good or bad for kids just as they did over the killing of Bambi 's mother . " Similarly , Variety opined , " a generation that remembers the death of Bambi 's mother as traumatizing should bear that experience in mind when deciding who goes to The Lion King . " Film critics and parents alike expressed concern that Scar 's violent ways would frighten and disturb younger viewers . Referring to Scar 's murdering of Mufasa , The New York Times questioned " whether this film really warranted a G rating . " Critics also cautioned Scar 's death ; Movieline warned audiences that the film " shows a fairy tale 's dark sense of justice , " for example when " Scar was eaten by his hyena allies after betraying them . " ReelViews ' James Berardinelli commented :
" Death , something not really touched on in the last three animated Disney tales , is very much at the forefront of The Lion King . In a scene that could disturb younger viewers , Mufasa 's demise is shown . It is a chilling moment that is reminiscent of a certain incident in Bambi . The film also contains a fair share of violence , including a rather graphic battle between two lions . Parents should carefully consider before automatically taking a child of , say , under seven years of age , to this movie . "
The Los Angeles Times warned that " The on @-@ screen death of Mufasa and a violent battle at the finale may disturb small children , " echoed by The Philadelphia Inquirer . However , film critics also felt that Disney 's treatment of Scar was at times too light @-@ hearted and comedic , with the Deseret News complaining , " a climactic battle between Simba and his evil Uncle Scar ... is [ a ] very bad choice near the end , as Simba and Scar battle in slow @-@ motion , a serious moment that seems unintentionally comic . " According to The Seattle Times , " Some critics have complained that the movie is too funny and good @-@ natured to accommodate the rather grim story it 's telling . " Considered " an odd mix of deadly seriousness and slapstick humor ... Simba fights Scar to the death " while " intercut with ... Poomba [ sic ] ... doing a parody of Travis Bickel . "
Although universally acclaimed , Scar has sparked considerable controversy regarding the character 's appearance and personality , specifically his darker @-@ colored fur and alleged sexuality . The general public , however , appears to have remained largely oblivious to such concerns according to David Parkinson , author of The Rough Guide to Film Musicals . The Washington Post felt that " Scar clearly is meant to represent an evil African American because ' while Simba 's mane is gloriously red , Scar 's is , of course , black . " Meanwhile , Scar 's mannerisms and voice which , according to Nightmare on Main Street : Angels , Sadomasochism , and the Culture of Gothic 's author Mark Edmundson , resemble " a cultivated , word @-@ weary , gay man , " has been deemed homophobic by some commentators because , according to The Independent , " the arch @-@ villain 's gestures are effeminate " while , in addition to the film being " full of stereotypes , " the character " speaks in supposed gay cliches . " Susan Mackey @-@ Kallis , author of The Hero and the Perennial Journey Home in American Film , observed that Scar is " more effeminate [ and ] less brawny ... than " both Mufasa and Simba . Additionally , " Even though [ Scar ] would be expected to mate with one of the lioness , he is never seen intimated by any . " While Disney executives ignored these accusations , Slant Magazine defended the studio , explaining that Scar 's black mane is simply an example of " the animators ' elementary attempts to color @-@ code evil for the film 's target audience . " Similarly , author Edward Schiappa wrote in his book Beyond Representational Correctness : Rethinking Criticism of Popular Media that Scar 's voice was simply meant " to convey the sort of upper @-@ class snobbishness evinced by George Sanders 's performance as Shere Khan in The Jungle Book . " More recently , the possibility of an incestuous relationship involving Simba , his mate Nala , Scar and Mufasa has surfaced . According to Johnson Cheu , author of Diversity in Disney Films : Critical Essays on Race , Ethnicity , Gender , Sexuality and Disability , the fact that Scar , Mufasa and Simba appear to be the only male lions present in The Lion King suggests the possibility that either Scar or Mufasa is Nala 's father , which would in turn make Nala either Simba 's half @-@ sister or cousin .
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= California State Route 75 =
State Route 75 ( SR 75 ) is a short , 13 @-@ mile ( 21 km ) expressway in San Diego County , California . It is a loop route of Interstate 5 ( I @-@ 5 ) that begins near Imperial Beach , heading west on Palm Avenue . The route continues north along the Silver Strand , a thin strip of land , through Silver Strand State Beach . SR 75 passes through the city of Coronado as Orange Avenue and continues onto the San Diego – Coronado Bay Bridge , which traverses the San Diego Bay , before joining back with I @-@ 5 near downtown San Diego at a freeway interchange .
The Silver Strand Highway was constructed and open to the public by 1924 . What would become SR 75 was added to the state highway system in 1933 , and designated Legislative Route 199 in 1935 . SR 75 was not officially designated until the 1964 state highway renumbering . The Coronado Bay Bridge opened in 1969 , and provided a direct connection between San Diego and Coronado . Since then , various proposals have taken place to relieve commuter traffic between San Diego and Naval Air Station North Island that traverses the city of Coronado . However , none of these proposals have gained support , including an attempt in 2010 .
= = Route description = =
SR 75 begins as Palm Avenue at I @-@ 5 in the San Ysidro neighborhood of San Diego , heading westbound from the Southland Plaza mall . The route travels between the communities of Palm City and Nestor before entering the city limits of Imperial Beach . There , SR 75 curves to the north , becoming Silver Strand Boulevard and crossing into Coronado . SR 75 continues onto the peninsula containing Coronado Island , separated from the mainland by San Diego Bay . The highway passes through the Silver Strand Training Complex and the South Bay Study Area before entering the Coronado Cays subdivision and paralleling Silver Strand State Beach .
After this , SR 75 passes through the United States Naval Amphibious Base for a few miles before entering downtown Coronado . The highway becomes Orange Avenue and turns north @-@ northeast as the main street through Coronado . SR 75 intersects SR 282 at the one @-@ way couplet of Third and Fourth Streets ; SR 282 continues west on Third Street and returns to SR 75 on Fourth Street , while SR 75 continues east on Fourth Street and heads west towards Orange Avenue on Third Street . The one @-@ way couplet is brief , and SR 75 becomes a divided highway before crossing the Coronado Bridge . While on the bridge , SR 75 crosses into the city of San Diego again .
Once on the mainland , SR 75 has a northbound exit to National Avenue and a southbound entrance from Cesar E. Chavez Parkway . Through traffic is directed onto I @-@ 5 south or north in Logan Heights , where SR 75 ends .
SR 75 is eligible for the State Scenic Highway System . It is signed as a scenic route for nearly its entire length , from the Imperial Beach city limit to Avenida del Sol in Coronado , meaning that it is a substantial section of highway passing through a " memorable landscape " with no " visual intrusions " , where the potential designation has gained popular favor with the community . SR 75 is also part of the National Highway System , a network of highways that are essential to the country 's economy , defense , and mobility . In 2013 , SR 75 had an annual average daily traffic ( AADT ) of 66 @,@ 000 on the Coronado Bay Bridge ( the highest AADT for the highway ) , and 16 @,@ 000 between Rainbow Drive and 7th Street in Imperial Beach ( the lowest AADT for the highway ) .
= = History = =
= = = Construction = = =
The intersection of Third Street and Orange Avenue dates back to at least 1890 . The process of paving portions of Orange Avenue began in 1893 , with an estimated cost of $ 50 @,@ 000 ( about $ 12 million in 2015 dollars ) ; three miles ( 4 @.@ 8 km ) of sidewalks were also included . The plan was to make the avenue " one of the most beautiful in Southern California . " From Palm City to Imperial Beach , the road was paved by 1920 . The Silver Strand Highway opened in 1924 during a festival at the Tent City summer resort in Coronado , and went from Coronado to Palm City . By 1928 , all streets in the city of Coronado had been paved , which was expected to encourage people to visit Tent City .
Plans to transfer the Silver Strand Highway to state maintenance were in place as early as November 1931 , and were to take effect once Silver Strand State Park was completed and open . In 1933 , the highway from the San Diego – Coronado Ferry to Route 2 ( now I @-@ 5 ) was added to the state highway system , and was designated as Legislative Route 199 two years later . By that same year , Sign Route 75 was posted from U.S. Route 101 ( US 101 ) in Palm City to the ferry landing . After a subsequent highway project around 1939 , SR 75 passed through Tent City and , according to William Cecil , the city 's public works director in 1998 , " contributed to its demise . "
The first contract for widening the highway between Coronado and Coronado Heights was awarded in 1944 , as this part of the road was " now too narrow and dilapidated to meet traffic requirements . " The State Highway Commission allocated $ 25 @,@ 000 ( about $ 619 @,@ 000 in 2015 dollars ) to install traffic signals at the intersection of SR 75 and US 101 in March 1951 . Plans to widen the road to four lanes were put on hold in July .
By July 1952 , it had been disclosed that some local businesses near Palm City had lodged opposition to the widening of the highway after $ 500 @,@ 000 ( about $ 11 @.@ 9 million in 2015 dollars ) had been allocated to the project . Following protests from local businessmen regarding the design of the median , the planned removal of access to intersecting streets , and the planned changes to street parking , Governor Earl Warren wrote to the San Diego Public Safety Committee , hoping to have the dispute resolved . In November , funds were allocated to acquire land for the construction in the 1953 – 1954 state budget . A year later , $ 430 @,@ 000 ( about $ 9 @.@ 82 million in 2015 dollars ) had been allocated to the widening project . A contract was given to the Daley Corporation to carry out the construction in 1955 . The highway was to be widened to four lanes , and would add three pedestrian crossings . The completion of the widening project was announced on August 10 , 1956 . The final cost of the project was $ 850 @,@ 000 ( about $ 17 @.@ 7 million in 2015 dollars ) , with money from the City of Coronado and the state .
= = = Designation and bridge construction = = =
Discussion regarding a bridge dates back to 1926 ; however , the Navy opposed the plan over concerns that an enemy could destroy the bridge and trap ships in the harbor . In 1955 , the California Senate approved $ 200 @,@ 000 ( about $ 4 @.@ 33 million in 2015 dollars ) to conduct a study regarding a possible vehicular tunnel from San Diego to Coronado . Later , in June 1961 , a proposal for an underwater tube along SR 75 was formally proposed , and would not have needed the approval of the residents of Coronado . Interviews of commuters were planned in August , to determine the traffic patterns along SR 75 . The survey took place on October 2 along Silver Strand Boulevard .
The SR 75 designation was originally established in 1963 with two segments : from I @-@ 5 to the ferry across San Diego Bay from Coronado to downtown , and from SR 125 to I @-@ 5 . In 1967 , the Coronado Bridge was scheduled to be added to the route once it was completed , and the portion from Fourth Street to the ferry was deemed as temporary until the bridge opened . Construction began in February . Coronado residents largely opposed the bridge , but Governor Pat Brown " overrode their wishes " according to former city councilman Bob Odiorne , who also claimed that the opposition caused the city to lose opportunities to move the approaches to the bridge away from residential areas . Following attempts from Barbara Hutchinson , the vice president of the Kearny Mesa Town Council , to ask the Coronado and San Diego city councils to intervene in the construction , San Diego city attorney Edward Butler stated that the state had the ultimate authority to decide whether or not to build the bridge , and that the City of San Diego could not interfere . Before the bridge opened , in 1968 , the changes originally proposed by the Legislature in 1967 were made to the law ; the designation came into effect on February 21 , 1969 . The bridge eventually opened on August 3 , 1969 .
By 1969 , Palm Avenue was the primary commercial street in Imperial Beach , and was described by the San Diego Union as " a strip of large signs and businesses . It is not a ' downtown . ' " Plans were under way to add an interchange at Silver Strand State Beach for the Coronado Cays development . In September , the City of Coronado added Orange Avenue south of Third Street as a truck route leading to the base . By May 1970 , the part of SR 75 on the Coronado Bridge had been declared a scenic highway . President Richard Nixon and Mexican president Díaz Ordaz used Orange Avenue as a motorcade route on September 3 , 1970 , en route to the Hotel del Coronado .
= = = Proposals and renumbering = = =
Proposition N was proposed in 1974 to attempt to resolve concerns regarding traffic in Coronado . The plan was to build another highway along the northern and eastern shore of Coronado Island , to bypass the busy residential and commercial districts and provide easy access to the Silver Strand from the western end of the bridge . The proposition asked voters whether the City Council should " actively pursue " the matter . Critics contended that the highway would block the view of the San Diego Bay , and that the city would be unable to alter traffic patterns in the meantime . Coronado mayor Rolland McNeely opposed the proposal in early November 1974 as it would require approval from over thirty government agencies and would force the city to continue with building this road , although some declared it " impossible to build . " The voters rejected this plan .
The portion of SR 75 from Pomona Avenue in Coronado to Imperial Beach was also recommended to become a scenic highway in February 1974 . Future improvements to the Imperial Beach – Coronado portion were cancelled in April . In 1976 , the California State Legislature renumbered the portion from I @-@ 5 to SR 125 as SR 117 , which later became SR 905 . The change took effect at the beginning of 1977 . The renumbering was to reduce confusion with the Coronado portion , according to Caltrans regional director Jacob Dekema ; new signs were to be put into place shortly thereafter . The bridge and the resulting traffic continued to be a hotly debated issue in the early 1980s . A plan in 1981 to convert Fourth Street into an expressway leading to the naval station was strongly opposed by the public due to the required demolition of structures and a lack of evidence that the plan would succeed in reducing traffic ; by this time , Third and Fourth streets had been converted into one @-@ way streets between the bridge and the naval station . A major renovation of the bridge was scheduled for late 1992 , which would include a movable barrier to prevent head @-@ on collisions and necessary resurfacing of the roadway . Work was underway in January 1993 on the $ 4 million project ( about $ 8 million in 2015 dollars ) , but it was behind the three @-@ month schedule by 11 days due to rainfall and was expected to be completed by March .
When the Coronado Bridge opened , a toll of 60 cents was charged to use the bridge . In 1980 , the toll became $ 1 @.@ 20 , charged only in the westbound direction towards Coronado . A seventh toll booth was to be constructed in September 1987 . The toll dropped to $ 1 in 1988 . The bridge tolls ended at 10 p.m. on June 27 , 2002 , after the San Diego Association of Governments decided to stop collecting tolls ; drivers paid a total of $ 197 million throughout the years . The speed limit was decreased to 25 miles per hour ( 40 km / h ) in October 2005 along Third and Fourth streets , after traffic increased by 20 percent following the removal of the toll . Traffic barriers along Third Street to block traffic from turning onto intersecting streets were removed in November 2004 , following voter approval .
The City of Coronado has attempted to have a tunnel built from the Coronado bridge to the San Diego Naval Base numerous times , and hired Ledford Enterprises to help with the lobbying process in 2002 and 2006 . The city endorsed a proposed study in 2004 to determine possible alternatives to resolve the traffic issues , which included keeping the status quo . On June 8 , 2010 , Coronado voters decided against Proposition H , which would have advised the city to undergo further investigation into building the tunnel . This concluded ten years of studies and proposals by the city of Coronado to find a way to reduce traffic to the naval station during rush hour . Critics of the proposal did not believe that the tunnel would resolve the traffic issues on the northern part of SR 75 or on SR 282 . Following this , the Coronado City Council voted to abolish the Tunnel Commission that had been formed to study the issue .
Efforts were underway by Imperial Beach city officials to improve the reputation and economic standing of the Palm Avenue area in the first decade of the 21st century . The area was described by the San Diego Union @-@ Tribune as a " hodgepodge of vacant land and aging apartment buildings and businesses , many in need of a coat of paint " in 2003 . Residents hoped to revitalize the area , providing commerce right next to an entrance to the beach . City officials offered local business owners loans for necessary construction or rehabilitation in 2005 . The Imperial Beach city council approved the redevelopment of the Palm Avenue corridor in 2008 , following a study in 2003 . A Palm Avenue Commercial Corridor Master Plan was endorsed in February 2009 , in efforts to improve the commercial area . In September 2012 , the Imperial Beach city council raised objections over the Caltrans decision to increase the speed limit on SR 75 to 45 miles per hour ( 72 km / h ) from 40 miles per hour ( 64 km / h ) on the portion of the highway from Delaware Street to the western Imperial Beach city limit due to concerns about safety . The rest of the highway was to retain the 40 miles per hour ( 64 km / h ) speed limit .
= = Major intersections = =
Except where prefixed with a letter , postmiles were measured on the road as it was in 1964 , based on the alignment that existed at the time , and do not necessarily reflect current mileage . R reflects a realignment in the route since then , M indicates a second realignment , L refers an overlap due to a correction or change , and T indicates postmiles classified as temporary ( for a full list of prefixes , see the list of postmile definitions ) . Segments that remain unconstructed or have been relinquished to local control may be omitted . The entire route is in San Diego County .
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= 2009 North Korean nuclear test =
The 2009 North Korean nuclear test was the underground detonation of a nuclear device conducted on Monday , May 25 , 2009 by the Democratic People 's Republic of Korea . This was its second nuclear test , the first test , a fizzle , having taken place in October 2006 . Following the nuclear test , Pyongyang also conducted several missile tests . A scientific paper later estimated the yield as 2 @.@ 35 kilotons .
The test was nearly universally condemned by the international community . Following the test , the United Nations Security Council passed Resolution 1874 condemning the test and tightening sanctions on the country .
It was widely believed that the test was conducted as a result of a succession crisis in the country . After Kim Jong @-@ Il suffered a stroke in the summer of 2008 , arrangements were made for his third son , Kim Jong @-@ un , to take power upon his death . It is believed the North Koreans conducted the nuclear test to show that , even in a time of possible weakness , it did not intend to give up its nuclear weapons program .
= = Background = =
North Korea ( officially the Democratic People 's Republic of Korea , or DPRK ) had threatened to conduct a second nuclear test in protest after the United Nations Security Council adopted a presidential statement condemning the country after it launched a rocket , which it claimed was carrying the Kwangmyŏngsŏng @-@ 2 satellite , on 5 April 2009 . The launch was condemned by several nations , describing it as an intercontinental ballistic missile test .
The test also came after recent messages stating that North Korea had miniaturized nuclear warheads for medium @-@ range missiles and that the country had been recognized by analysts as a fully fledged nuclear power .
In June 2009 , after it was announced that Kim Jong @-@ un was to be the intended successor of North Korean leader Kim Jong @-@ il , U.S. government analysts speculated that the purpose of the nuclear test was to establish North Korea as a nuclear power within Kim Jong @-@ il 's lifetime .
= = North Korean statements = =
Without citing a specific time , Pyongyang notified both Washington , D.C. and Beijing of the test about an hour before the actual detonation , which occurred around 10 : 00 Korea Standard Time ( KST ) Monday ; the U.S. State Department promptly contacted the four other six @-@ party talks members .
The state @-@ run Korean Central News Agency ( KCNA ) released an announcement claiming , in part , that :
The Democratic People 's Republic of Korea successfully conducted one more underground nuclear test on May 25 as part of the measures to bolster up its nuclear deterrent for self @-@ defence in every way as requested by its scientists and technicians . The current nuclear test was safely conducted on a new higher level in terms of its explosive power and technology of its control and the results of the test helped satisfactorily settle the scientific and technological problems arising in further increasing the power of nuclear weapons and steadily developing nuclear technology .
This was interpreted as referring to the disputes over the low yield of the 2006 test .
= = Seismic activity = =
South Korea and Japan reported seismic activity at 09 : 50 KST ( 00 : 50 UTC ) . The United States Geological Survey reported a magnitude 4 @.@ 7 earthquake at a depth of zero and put the center of the tremor about 70 kilometres ( 43 mi ) northwest of Kimchaek and 375 kilometres ( 233 mi ) northeast of Pyongyang , within a few kilometres of the country 's 2006 nuclear test site . The Japan Meteorological Agency measured the seismic activity at magnitude 5 @.@ 3 . The Korea Institute of Geoscience & Mineral Resources reported seismic activity in the same area but far stronger than in 2006 .
The Russian Defence Ministry confirmed it had detected a nuclear detonation in North Korea and was analysing the data to determine the yield . Geophysical Service of the Russian Academy of Sciences has registered underground nuclear explosion conducted in North Korea on May 25 , 2009 . Registration time of this explosion was 0 : 54 a.m. GMT ( 4 : 54 a.m. Moscow time ) with magnitude 5 @.@ 0 .
In China , tremors were felt in the prefecture of Yanbian , which borders North Korea , and forced students in some local schools to be evacuated . The test is believed to have taken place at Mantapsan in the vicinity of P ’ unggyeri ( Korean : 풍계리 ) , which was the site of the nuclear test held in 2006 .
= = Analysis of test = =
= = = Yield = = =
Analysts have generally agreed that the nuclear test was successful , despite uncertainty of the exact yield .
The U.S. intelligence community assessed that North Korea " probably " had conducted a nuclear test with a yield of " a few kilotons " . The Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty Organization Preparatory Commission assessed the yield at only slightly larger than the 2006 test , which was one kiloton . Based on readings from 23 seismic stations , the Preparatory Commission estimated the blast to have a seismic magnitude of 4 @.@ 52 , corresponding to an explosive yield of 2 @.@ 4 kilotons , compared to a seismic magnitude of 4 @.@ 1 , corresponding to a yield of 0 @.@ 8 kilotons , for the 2006 blast .
Russia placed the yield of the test significantly higher at 10 to 20 kilotons . This was approximately the yield of the Fat Man and Trinity bombs developed by the United States during World War II . After the 2006 test the Russians estimated a far higher yield of 5 to 10 kilotons when other sources estimated a yield of 0 @.@ 5 to 0 @.@ 9 kilotons . Defense Minister Lee Sang @-@ Hee of South Korea said that more data were needed but that the yield might be between 1 and 20 kilotons .
Analyst Martin Kalinowski at the University of Hamburg estimated the yield at being from 3 to 8 kilotons , still a very successful test when compared with the 2006 test . Hans M. Kristensen of the Federation of American Scientists cautioned that " early news media reports about a ' Hiroshima @-@ size ' nuclear explosion seem to be overblown " . The Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists asserted that the blast was more powerful than the 2006 test , though put the yield between 2 and 6 kilotons , but likely less than 4 kilotons and far short of a Hiroshima @-@ type device . The group concluded that the bomb failed to detonate correctly , but that still in that case the potential of this weapon should not be dismissed .
However , after the subsequent nuclear test in 2013 , the Federal Institute for Geosciences and Natural Resources , a state @-@ run geology research institute in Germany , estimated the yield ranging from a minimum of 5 kilotons to the maximum of 12 kilotons and the 2006 test ranging from minimum of 700 tons to the maximum of 2 kilotons instead with relevant statistics .
= = = Lack of radionuclide confirmation = = =
In June 2009 , the Preparatory Commission for the Comprehensive Nuclear @-@ Test @-@ Ban Treaty Organization ( CTBTO ) announced that no radionuclides had been detected that could be associated with the 25 May event . At the time of the test , the CTBTO global network included 40 radionuclide sampling stations . In addition , the United States reported that no radionuclides were detected by aircraft over the Sea of Japan ( East Sea of Korea ) , and South Korea also reported that no radionuclides were detected . By contrast , radionuclides were detected in at least two locations after the 2006 event . Lack of detection does not mean that the event was non @-@ nuclear : it is reasonable for a nuclear test with this yield , buried deep enough in the appropriate rock , to not yield remotely detectable radionuclides , but it makes it more difficult to prove whether the test was nuclear .
= = Missile tests = =
On the same day , North Korea also conducted short @-@ range surface @-@ to @-@ air missile tests . The number of fired missiles was first reported as three , but corrected to two by the South Korean defense ministry on 27 May 2009 . The first missile had a range of 130 km ( 81 mi ) . The South Korean news agency Yonhap cited military officials as saying that the launches seemed to be aimed at keeping U.S. and Japanese surveillance planes away from the site .
On 26 May 2009 , South Korea 's Yonhap news agency reported , citing officials , that North Korea fired three more short @-@ range missiles off an east @-@ coast base , one ground @-@ to @-@ ship missile and one surface @-@ to @-@ air missile . The move came as UN diplomats began work on a resolution to punish North Korea for its underground nuclear test .
By 27 May 2009 , at least five short range missiles were launched by North Korea . A military spokesman quoted by official media said that North Korea could no longer guarantee the safety of shipping off its west coast , suggesting a missile could also be fired in that direction .
Another short @-@ range missile was fired off North Korea 's east coast on 28 May 2009 .
On 29 May 2009 , U.S. officials said that satellite photos revealed vehicle activity at two sites in North Korea suggesting that North Korean military might be preparing to launch a long @-@ range ballistic missile . This was reaffirmed on 1 June 2009 by Defense Secretary Robert M. Gates who said at a news conference with his Philippine counterpart during a brief visit to Manila " We have seen some signs that they may be doing something with another Taepodong @-@ 2 missile , but at this point it 's not clear what they 're doing " .
Yonhap news agency reported on 2 June 2009 that North Korea was readying as many as three medium @-@ range missiles ( according to some analysts , Rodong missiles ) at a missile base in Anbyon region , Gangwon Province , northeast of the capital of Pyongyang . In addition , a South Korean defence ministry spokesman said that signs that North Korea was preparing to fire an intercontinental ballistic missile ( ICBM ) had been detected. verifying US defense officials ' reports and Defense Secretary Robert M. Gates 's statement made on 1 June . North Korea apparently has moved the ICBM to a new base in Dongchang @-@ ri along its west coast and a launch could take place in one or two weeks , according to Yonhap .
= = International reaction = =
The North Korean news agency KCNA confirmed the test as " successful " . The agency also said the test was " aimed at strengthening its self @-@ defense nuclear deterrent in every way " . South Korea 's Yonhap news agency reported citing KCNA that citizens of Pyongyang held a rally to celebrate the country 's second successful nuclear test on 26 May .
In general the International reactions to the 2009 North Korean nuclear test have been almost uniformly negative .
= = = Members of the six @-@ party talks = = =
South Korea : President Lee Myung @-@ bak called an emergency cabinet meeting . The decision was made to join the Proliferation Security Initiative , a move which the North has repeatedly warned would be construed as a declaration of war . The ROK @-@ US Combined Forces Command raised its surveillance condition from WATCHCON3 ( important indications of threat ) to WATCHCON2 ( vital indications of threat ) . President Lee Myung @-@ bak made another statement at the beginning of the ASEAN @-@ Republic of Korea Commemorative Summit saying " We will continue to work to have North Korea observe UN Security Council resolutions " . On 27 May , North Korea 's permanent military mission to the North @-@ South joint security area reacted to S. Korea 's decision to join the Proliferation Security Initiative saying it no longer is bound to the Korean War armistice and will militarily respond to any foreign attempt to inspect its ships .
People 's Republic of China : The Foreign Ministry released a statement : " The DPRK ignored universal opposition of the international community and once more conducted the nuclear test . The Chinese government is resolutely opposed to it " . The statement also strongly demanded that North Korea " return to the tracks of the six @-@ party talks " .
Japan : Japan said the test was " unacceptable " and a violation of UN Security Council resolutions . It was also considering tightening sanctions in response .
Russia : The Russian Ministry of Foreign Affairs stated that " The latest steps of the DPRK escalate tensions in Northeast Asia and endanger regional security and stability " and violated UN Security Council Resolution 1718 , but added that " We still think that the nuclear problem of the Korean Peninsula may be resolved only at the six @-@ nation negotiations " . Natalya Timakova , the Press Attaché to the Russian President said Russia “ is seriously concerned ” about North Korea ’ s nuclear test and that “ Russian competent services express regret and voice serious concern about North Korea ’ s nuclear test in the area adjacent to the Russian Federation ” .
United States : The White House condemned the test , saying " North Korea is directly and recklessly challenging the international community . The danger posed by North Korea 's threatening activities warrants action by the international community . " President Barack Obama 's official statement promised that North Korea would not find " international acceptance " unless it complied . He also said that the country 's actions " pose a grave threat to the peace and stability of the world " . Susan Rice , US ambassador to the UN , added that , " North Korea needs to understand that its actions have consequences " and that they would " pay a price for their action , " in the form of further sanctions . Robert Gates , the US Defense Secretary , delivered a stark warning to North Korea , on 30 May 2009 " The policy of the United States has not changed , " he said . " Our goal is complete and verifiable denuclearisation of the Korean peninsula , and we will not accept North Korea as a nuclear weapons state . "
= = Aftermath = =
News of the tests immediately affected South Korean markets , sending the main KOSPI share index down 4 % , while the South Korean won dropped by 1 % against the US $ on the day of the nuclear test , 25 May . The yen fell to 95 @.@ 10 per dollar from its level of 94 @.@ 78 on 22 May .
On 28 May , North Korea threatened to end the Korean War armistice , stating that " the Korean peninsula will go back to a state of war " , whereupon the joint military command of South Korea and the United States increased its surveillance alert level from WATCHCON 3 to WATCHCON 2 , the second @-@ highest level of surveillance alert . However , the five @-@ stage combat alert level remained at DEFCON 4 , the second @-@ lowest level . Russia undertook security measures in case the war of nerves on the Korean peninsula erupted into a nuclear war .
North Korea also threatened on 29 May to attack South Korean and US warships near its coast if its sovereignty were infringed . In Japan a policy debate ensued regarding strengthening its military up to and including the possibility of an independent pre @-@ emptive strike capability and even nuclear armaments , subjects hitherto taboo .
On 30 May , the United Kingdom 's Ministry of Defence confirmed that a VC10 tanker plane , which is used for air @-@ to @-@ air refueling , had been sent to Kadena Air Base in Okinawa , Japan to help support the investigations , led by the U.S. military , to determine the power of the nuclear explosion and the type of material that was used . A Ministry spokesman said : “ Following the recent events in North Korea and to support the international community ’ s efforts during this time of increased political tension , we can confirm that the UK is supporting in the associated verification efforts . ” On the same day , a U.S. F @-@ 22 fighter jet arrived on Kadena Air Base , the first of twelve F @-@ 22 's and approximately 280 Langley Air Force Base Airmen from the 94th Fighter Squadron , along with members of the Virginia Air National Guard 's 192nd Fighter Wing , that are being deployed to Kadena Air Base as part of a theatre security package .
U.S. Deputy Secretary of State Jim Steinberg accompanied by Stephen Bosworth , the U.S. special envoy on North Korea , led a U.S. delegation to Asia on 1 June 2009 to consult regional forces on how to respond to North Korea 's latest nuclear test . The delegation also includes Stuart Levy , the Treasury under @-@ secretary for terrorism and financial intelligence , and Admiral James Winnefeld of the Joint Chiefs of Staff .
Japan approved on 2 June 2009 plans for a satellite missile early warning system as part of a new space policy document , a year after Japan dropped a decades @-@ old ban on military use of space with some ruling party lawmakers suggesting Japan should inspect North Korean ships , in the wake of reports that N. Korea was preparing to fire more mid @-@ range missiles . On the same day , as a response to the increased activity of the N. Korean military and after reports that North Koreans have stepped up naval drills near the western sea border , the site of deadly skirmishes between the two Koreas in 1999 and 2002 , South Korea deployed a high @-@ speed naval vessel , the Yoon Youngha guided missile patrol boat , to the area and vowed to " punish " any attacking forces .
After the North Korean nuclear test the U.S. has approved the sale of a number of weapon systems to South Korea , including GBU @-@ 28 " bunker buster " bombs , SM @-@ 2 Standard surface @-@ to @-@ air Missiles and F @-@ 16 Block 32 Aircraft Upgrades improving the aircraft and increasing the South Korean military 's operational abilities . The South Korean military has prepared plans for a counter @-@ attack in the event of a first strike by North Korea .
= = = UNSC Resolution 1874 = = =
The United Nations Security Council unanimously adopted resolution 1874 in response to the test , imposing further economic sanctions on the country and authorising UN member states to inspect North Korean cargo and destroy any that may be involved in the nuclear weapons program . In response to the sanctions , an unidentified spokesman for the North Korean Foreign Ministry released a statement through the official Korean Central News Agency saying that the country would begin to " weaponize " its plutonium stockpiles . The spokesman also said the country " will start uranium enrichment " and would view any US @-@ led attempts to " blockade " it as an " act of war " . The statement was said to have lacked the usual bitterness of most North Korean statements .
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= Sheila Varian =
Sheila Varian ( August 8 , 1937 – March 6 , 2016 ) was a breeder of Arabian horses who lived and worked at the Varian Arabians Ranch near Arroyo Grande , California . She grew up with a strong interest in horses , and was mentored in horsemanship by Mary " Sid " Spencer , a local rancher and Morgan horse breeder who also introduced Varian to the vaquero or " Californio " tradition of western riding . She started her horse ranch , Varian Arabians , in 1954 with the assistance of her parents . Raising and training horses was her full @-@ time occupation beginning in 1963 . She used vaquero @-@ influenced methods of training horses , although she adapted her technique over the years to fit the character of the Arabian horse , which she viewed as a horse breed requiring a smart yet gentle approach .
Varian produced a number of influential Arabian horses whose bloodlines are found in a significant number of winning Arabian show horses in the United States . She began her breeding program with a small number of mares whom she bred to her national champion stallion , Bay Abi . She then acquired three mares from Arabian farms in Poland at a time when that nation was still behind the Iron Curtain and importation of horses to the United States was very difficult . These mares and Bay Abi formed her foundation bloodstock . As of 2016 , the Varian horses at stud represent the sixth generation of her stallion breeding line , and her foundation mare lines have produced nine generations of offspring . For her accomplishments , Varian received recognition from the United States Equestrian Federation , as well as several awards from various organizations within the Arabian horse industry . For her contributions as breeder and as a horse trainer in the vaquero tradition , she was inducted into the National Cowgirl Museum and Hall of Fame in 2003 .
After she was diagnosed with ovarian cancer in 2013 , she sought to place the 230 @-@ acre Varian Ranch into a conservation easement to protect the land from development , and in 2015 announced that the California Rangeland Trust would partner with her to purchase the development rights and to allow her long @-@ time ranch manager , Angela Alverez , to operate the horse breeding program after Varian . After Alvarez , the property would be gifted to the Trust to be sold , the conservation easement running with the land , and the Trust would try to find a buyer that would maintain the Arabian horse breeding program as well . Varian died on March 6 , 2016 at age 78 .
= = Early years = =
Varian grew up in Halcyon , California with a strong interest in horses , combined with a fondness for horse books such as the works of Marguerite Henry and The Black Stallion series written by Walter Farley . She credited Farley 's books as the origin of her interest in Arabian horses . She was given her first horse , a Morgan @-@ Percheron crossbred , at the age of eight , and rode bareback until she obtained her first saddle at age 12 . Although her parents , Eric and Wenonah Varian , did not have an equestrian background , they always supported her interest in horses , allowing both her and her older sister the freedom to ride horses as much as they wanted . Varian matured to be 6 feet ( 1 @.@ 8 m ) tall , and has stated that while she " struggled " with her height as a young person , she found comfort in riding horses : " all my troubles went away . "
Varian and her parents began using the farm name " Varian Arabians " in 1954 . She credited her parents for helping her believe that she could do whatever she wanted to do and for trusting her own judgement , which gave her confidence in her own ability to work with horses . They worked as a team to build a horse business ; Eric , an electrical contractor , built fences and managed the land , Wenonah studied pedigrees , and Sheila handled the horses . In time , their ranch expanded from 21 to 150 acres . As a young adult , Varian completed college at Cal Poly San Luis Obispo and taught high school physical education for three years , until 1963 , when running the Varian Arabian ranch became her full @-@ time job . The ranch was self @-@ supporting from 1963 on , with the short @-@ term assistance of loans from Sheila 's aunt , Dorothy Varian , which were promptly repaid . Ultimately , the ranch grew to 230 acres .
= = The Varian horses = =
Varian preferred the Arabian breed because " their instinctual interest in and appreciation for people runs deep in their genes . The Arabian 's lightness and responsiveness are wonderful , as is their willingness to be your partner . And ... they are beautiful . Arabian horses have never let me down . " She valued horses with good dispositions and athletic ability as well as attractive appearance . She does not breed Arabians for a specific discipline , instead describes her breeding philosophy as “ consistently continuing to breed for more quality and never losing disposition or athletic ability . ” Following these principles , Varian has produced some of the most influential Arabian stallions in the breed .
When she was young , Varian developed an interest in finding the " perfect " horse . She soon realized that the way to achieve her goal was to begin breeding horses . Her first Arabian was the mare Farlotta ( Lotnik × Farza ) , obtained in 1952 . Farlotta became a finished spade bit horse who won both stock horse ( reining ) and western pleasure championships . Although loved and cared for by Varian , the mare had been neglected in her first two years prior to being purchased by Varian , and as a result of underlying health damage died at the age of seven .
In 1959 , Varian and her mother Wenonah purchased a two @-@ year @-@ old bay stallion named Bay @-@ Abi ( Errabi × Angyl ) . Trained and shown by Varian , he was the judges ' unanimous choice for U.S. National Champion Arabian Stallion in 1962 , later won U.S. National Top Ten awards in both Arabian English pleasure and Western pleasure , and thereafter was awarded the Legion of Merit . Even though he was not bred to any mares until after he was fully trained , and thus his first foals did not appear in the show ring until he was 7 , he sired 275 registered Arabians , including 65 champions and 24 national winners .
By 1961 , Varian Arabians had a small number of mares . The most notable of her early champions was Ronteza , a daughter of the stallion Witez II out of the mare Ronna . Ronteza was the second Arabian Varian purchased , and she trained the mare herself . The pair , undefeated in competition against other Arabian horses , went on to beat 50 horses of all breeds to win the 1961 Reined Cow Horse championship at the Cow Palace in San Francisco , California . Varian was aware that both Farlotta and Ronteza were sired by stallions imported from Poland , out of American @-@ bred mares , and believed this bloodline cross was a major source for the good qualities of these mares . Thus , Varian looked for Polish @-@ bred Arabian mares to breed to her American @-@ bred Bay @-@ Abi . However , Poland was at that time an Iron Curtain nation , and importing horses from there directly to America was quite complicated .
To accomplish her goal , Varian sought the assistance of British horse breeder Patricia Lindsay , who traveled to Poland and purchased three mares on Varian 's behalf . The mares arrived in California in December 1961 . They were Bachantka ( sired by Wielki Szlem out of Balalajka , who was by Amurath Sahib ) , purchased from the Albigowa stud ; Ostroga ( Duch × Orda by Omar 11 ) , from the Nowy Dwór stud ; and Naganka ( Bad Afas × Najada by Fetysz ) , from the Michalow stud . Bachantka and Naganka had been trained and raced in Poland . Bachantka had a record of 2 / 15 ( 0 @-@ 1 @-@ 3 ) , and Naganka a record of 2 / 12 ( 3 @-@ 4 @-@ 1 ) . After her arrival in the USA , Bachantka also had a brief but successful horse show career .
Crossing Bay @-@ Abi on these imported Polish mares proved particularly successful for Varian . As of 2016 , the Varian ranch bred nine generations of horses descended from these foundation mares , and stood six successive generations of stallions descended from Bay Abi . The cross produced , among other champions , Varian 's successor to Bay @-@ Abi , the 1969 colt Bay el Bey ( Bay Abi × Naganka ) , who was U.S. Reserve National Champion stallion twice , 1977 Canadian National Champion stallion , and a regional champion in English pleasure . At the time , the Arabian industry had little interest in western disciplines , so Varian competed with her horses in English riding classes . Of Bay el Bey , she commented , " He could easily have been an open reining horse , but I made him into an English pleasure horse because he could do it , he was so athletic . " Her English champions also included Bay el Bey 's full brother , Mikado , a gray stallion who was a champion park horse .
Bay el Bey was best known for his offspring , who collectively earned him the nickname , " The Kingmaker . " He sired 441 foals including three sons considered his finest : his own successor at Varian Arabians , Huckleberry Bey ( whose dam was Taffona , a daughter of Raffon ) ; U.S. Reserve National Champion Bey Shah ( out of Star of Ofir , who was by Bask ) ; and Barbary ( out of Balalinka ( Bask x Bachantka ) ) , who won a total of seven national titles in halter and park horse competition . Barbary was purchased from Varian as a yearling by film producer and Arabian owner Mike Nichols . These three sons of Bay el Bey alone sired a combined total of 650 champions .
Subsequent generations of Varian stallions continued the pattern of winning in the show ring and then producing champion show horses across multiple disciplines . Huckleberry Bey was 1979 U.S. National Reserve Champion Futurity Stallion , 1981 U.S. National Top Ten Stallion , and 1984 U.S. National Reserve Champion English Pleasure . He then became the leading sire of US National Champions for five years , and in 1999 his likeness was reproduced as a Breyer horse model . In turn , his son , Desperado V ( × Daraska by Dar ) became a leading sire of champions . In 2004 and 2005 , Desperado V was ranked the leading Arabian sire by the United States Equestrian Federation ( USEF ) , and was second in 2008 and 2009 . By 2009 , Desperado V had sired 75 national winners . In addition , another Huckleberry Bey son , Bravado Bey V ( × Bachista V ) was USEF 's 10th @-@ ranked leading Arabian sire in 2008 .
In 2010 , of the top 25 leading sires of winning Arabian dressage horses since 1960 , Desperado V was ranked number 2 ( following Khemosabi ) , Bey Shah was number 4 , Huckleberry Bey was tied for fifth , and Barbary was also on the list , in addition to five other grandsons of Bay El Bey .
Over the years , she made use of outside bloodlines . She leased the young , then unproven stallion Khemosabi for his first breeding season in 1969 . She also made use of horses owned by other ranches , such as the Polish import Bask , whom she linebred to his 3 / 4 sister , Varian 's Polish import Bachantka , producing another significant foundation mare , Balalinka , dam of Barbary . In 2002 , requiring an outcross stallion not closely related to her own horses , she purchased the Brazilian @-@ foaled Jullyen El Jamaal , who has bloodlines not previously incorporated into the Varian program , as well as a line tracing back to Bay el Bey via Bey Shah . Varian continued to seek performance ability in her mares ; in the Varian program , every mare is trained under saddle and must prove suitable as a riding animal .
Varian did not originally work her ranch name into the names of her horses , but today all Varian @-@ bred horses have a registered name suffixed with the capital letter " V " . The Varian ranch also acknowledges the importance of the mares by using the first letter of each mare ’ s name to start the name of their foals . Varian @-@ bred horses are freeze branded with the Varian " V " logo .
= = Training philosophy and vaquero tradition = =
Vaqueros were the horsemen and cattle herders of Spanish Mexico , who first came to California with the Jesuit priest Eusebio Kino in 1687 , with two expeditions in 1769 , and the Juan de Anza expedition in 1774 . They were the first cowboys in the region . She learned horse training methods that derived from this tradition . In her teens , she was mentored in horsemanship by Morgan horse breeder and cattle rancher Mary " Sid " Spencer . The Spencer property , called Forsyth Ranch , was near Arroyo Grande on land that is now under Lopez Lake . Spencer helped Varian learn the underlying principles of training and riding horses , how to work cattle in the mountains , and introduced her to vaquero training methods . Spencer also did all of her own ranch work including shoeing , gelding , horse training , baling hay , and truck repairs . She learned how to handle well @-@ trained horses by riding one of the Spencer family 's finished Morgans , a gelding named Little Horse . With Spencer 's help , she also learned to recognize correct conformation and balance in horses .
After learning traditional vaquero methods of training from Spencer and others , Varian modified her training methods in her twenties , after meeting Tom Dorrance . He introduced her to his “ soft approach ” of working with horses , and his methods were an additional influence on Varian 's training philosophy . Varian utilized vaquero @-@ influenced methods in training her horses , but believed that modern well @-@ bred horses need a gentler approach , stating , “ All good horses , like smart children , need good instruction , but they don ’ t need harsh instruction . "
Varian was one of a very few experts in the 21st century who was still teaching about vaquero equipment , methods , and history . She had a strong interest in the history of the spade bit horse in California . The spade is an elaborate , complex bit that can only be properly used on a highly trained horse handled by a skilled rider . In the vaquero tradition , its use represents the highest level of trust and communication between horse and rider . The process of training the spade bit horse takes five to seven years to complete . Its emphasis has always been on producing a finely tuned working horse and partner , emphasizing quality rather than on how quickly the goal is reached . The conformation of the horse is also a factor ; to become a spade bit horse , the animal must be bred to have a higher neck set and well @-@ carried head . Varian compared the ride and handling of a horse trained in this manner to that of a Jaguar automobile .
Traditionally , the vaquero method starts a young horse using a hackamore , which is headgear that uses a heavy rawhide noseband , called a bosal instead of a bit to control the horse . As the horse gains skill with a rider , it moves to lighter bosals , and next into a transitional period in its training ; carrying a bridle with a type of curb bit called a " half breed " which is a modified spade bit worn in conjunction with a light bosal . The rider carries two sets of reins , one set on the bosal and one on the curb , giving this gear its name , the " two @-@ rein . " After several years in a two @-@ rein , the horse graduates into the spade bit .
Varian departed slightly from tradition . She started young horses under saddle at the age of three , beginning with a bridle and a snaffle bit because it sends clearer signals to a young horse , particularly one of sensitive disposition . She then introduced the traditional hackamore , and , after a couple of months to transition between the hackamore and the snaffle , began teaching neck reining , which allows a horse to be ridden one @-@ handed . After a year or two , when the horse became light in the hackamore , she introduced the young horse to the two @-@ rein , using a light bosal with either a " half @-@ breed " or a low @-@ port curb bit . Once the horse understood the bit , the bosal was removed and the horse was ridden in just the curb bit for a while until ready to go into the full spade bit , at which point the horse went back into the two @-@ rein when the spade is first introduced . She introduced horses to the spade bit at the age of seven or eight , if they had suitable conformation and temperament to carry it . When she selected and fully trained a spade bit horse for her own personal use , that particular horse stayed with her for life and was never sold .
Varian considered Arabians the most " people @-@ oriented " of any horse breed . " No other horse will leave his food to come and see you . " Noting that they are a " hot @-@ blooded " breed , she viewed them as sensitive horses that will not tolerate harsh handling , but strongly disagreed with those who considered Arabians to be too high @-@ spirited to be good trail horses . She emphasized teaching horses to have good manners . She roped off of her horses and took them into the mountains .
She viewed Arabians as requiring a smart and gentle approach . She advocated for trainers who used the methods of master horsemen such as Ray Hunt and Tom Dorrance , with Dorrance 's philosophy being especially suitable for Arabians . She considered the breed to be inherently gentle , and pointed out that any horse can become " hot " if they are kept in a stall 24 hours a day , fed a lot of grain , and never ridden . Varian explained the nature of Arabian horses by analogy , comparing them to precocious children who show their ability with delight , but cannot be bullied or pushed around .
= = Legacy and awards = =
The Varian Arabian Ranch has been ranked multiple times as one of the leading Arabian breeders of winning horses by the United States Equestrian Federation ( USEF ) , which since 2004 has ranked breeders based on points earned by horses shown in sanctoned USEF competitions . The ranch was first in calendar year 2008 , and in the top ten from 2006 through 2010 . In 2013 , the Varian breeding program was ranked by Arabian Horse World magazine as the all time number one breeder of both English @-@ type and Western @-@ type Arabian horses . Sheila Varian as an individual was honored by the USEF with the 2001 Ellen Scripps Davis Memorial Breeders ’ Cup , awarded to an individual who consistently breeds outstanding show horses . Within the Arabian industry itself , Varian was honored in 2005 with the Arabian Breeders Association 's lifetime achievement award , and was the Arabian Professional & Amateur Horseman 's Association 2009 Breeder of the Year .
Varian was inducted into the Cowgirl Hall of Fame in 2003 . She was honored for both her contributions as a horse breeder and as a trainer , but the honor represented , in many ways , her roots in the vaquero tradition . Other inductees that year included western artist Glenna Goodacre ; musician , artist , cowboy poet and pickup rider Ann Secrest Hanson ; and classic cowgirl trick rider and barrel racer Velda Tindall Smith ( 1908 – 1990 ) .
In November 2015 , Varian announced that she would be working with the California Rangeland Trust to place her ranch into a conservation easement to protect it from development . She had begun the project with the intent that her longtime ranch manager , Angela Alvarez , would operate the horse breeding program after Varian was no longer able to do so , and then once Alvarez was no longer able to run the ranch , the property would be gifted to the Trust to be sold , the conservation easement running with the land , and attempts made to find a buyer that would also be interested in maintaining the Arabian horse breeding program .
Varian was diagnosed with ovarian cancer in 2013 and died on March 6 , 2016 , at the age of 78 . At news of her death , the web site for the California Rangeland Trust crashed due to the high amount of web traffic , necessitating supporters of the trust to set up a backup crowdfunding site for donations to the conservation effort .
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= Tropical Storm Flossie ( 2013 ) =
Tropical Storm Flossie yielded stormy weather to Hawaii in late July 2013 . The sixth tropical cyclone and named storm of the annual hurricane season , Flossie originated from a tropical wave that emerged off the western coast of Africa on July 9 . Tracking westward across the Atlantic with little development , it passed over Central America and into the eastern Pacific Ocean on July 18 , where favorable environmental conditions promoted steady organization . By 0600 UTC on July 25 , the wave acquired enough organization to be deemed a tropical depression ; it intensified into a tropical storm six hours later . Continuing westward , Flossie attained peak winds of 70 mph ( 110 km / h ) on July 27 before entering the central Pacific Ocean . There , unfavorable upper @-@ level winds established a weakening trend ; on July 30 , Flossie weakened to a tropical depression , and by 1200 UTC that same day , the storm degenerated into a remnant low , northeast of Kauai .
In advance of Flossie , tropical cyclone warnings and watches were placed into effect for various Hawaiian Islands . In addition , numerous flash flood watches were issued in fear of over a foot of precipitation . Ports and numerous facilities were closed to the public , and authorities opened shelters for refuge . Upon approach , Flossie threatened to become the first tropical storm to make a direct hit on Hawaii in two decades ; however , the system weakened prior to doing so . Flossie brought high surf to the state , leading to minor beach erosion . Gusty winds exceeded tropical storm threshold , downing numerous power poles and trees ; as a result , several thousand locals were without power for a few days . The storm produced several inches of rainfall across the island , with a peak of 9 @.@ 27 inches ( 235 mm ) on Mount Waialeale . Though one man was injured due to lightnings , no fatalities were reported in association with Flossie . Damage totaled to $ 24 @,@ 000 ( 2013 USD ) as a consequence of lightning .
= = Meteorological history = =
On July 9 , 2013 , a tropical wave emerged off the western coast of Africa . Tracking swiftly westward across the Atlantic , it passed across Central America on July 18 and emerged into the eastern Pacific Ocean shortly thereafter . Early on July 21 , a broad low @-@ pressure area formed in association with the wave , and the National Hurricane Center ( NHC ) began monitoring the disturbance for slow development into a tropical cyclone accordingly . Shower and thunderstorm activity coalesced over the subsequent days , prompting the NHC to increase its chances for development to the high category ; despite this , satellite data from early on July 24 did not reveal a well @-@ defined circulation necessary for classification . By that evening , a combination of visible and microwave satellite imagery depicted an improvement of the vortex , and the system was upgraded to a tropical depression at 0000 UTC on July 25 , while situated 980 miles ( 1 @,@ 575 km ) west @-@ southwest of the southern tip of the Baja California peninsula .
The depression tracked west to west @-@ northwest upon classification , steered by a mid @-@ level ridge centered over the southwestern United States . Deep convection increased in coverage and intensity over the following hours , leading to an increase in satellite intensity estimates ; at 0600 UTC , the depression was upgraded to Tropical Storm Flossie . Within an environment of low wind shear and warm sea surface temperatures , Flossie gradually intensified over the next two days ; a mid @-@ level eye became observable in microwave imagery and intermittently on visible satellite imagery by early on July 27 . At 1200 UTC , the system attained its peak intensity with maximum sustained winds of 70 mph ( 110 km / h ) and a minimum barometric pressure of 994 mb ( hPa ; 29 @.@ 35 inHg ) . Thereafter , Flossie crossed the 140th meridian west into the central Pacific Ocean , where the Central Pacific Hurricane Center ( CPHC ) assumed responsibility of the system . Unfavorable upper @-@ level winds in association with an upper @-@ level trough began to impede the system 's organization around this time , and it began a slow weakening trend .
In conjunction with high wind shear , marginal ocean temperatures caused deep convection in association with Flossie to weaken and become ragged ; as a result , the forecast called for continued weakening . Instead , a brief reprieve in upper @-@ level winds allowed the system to intensify to a secondary peak of 65 mph ( 100 km / h ) by 1200 UTC on July 28 . An anticyclone northwest of the system increased shear atop the system once again by the following day , and dry air began to become ingested into the circulation . The low @-@ level vortex became exposed to view and progressively ill @-@ defined as outflow boundaries in association with a previous convective burst impeded on the low . At 0000 UTC on July 30 , Flossie was downgraded to a tropical depression ; after the circulation became indistinguishable on satellite imagery twelve hours later , the system was declared a remnant area of low pressure . At this time , the vortex was centered near the northern coast of Kauai .
= = Preparations and impact = =
Upon entering the central Pacific Ocean , Flossie prompted the issuance of a tropical storm watch for Hawaii and Maui counties on July 27 . This was upgraded to a tropical storm warning hours later , while Oahu was placed under a tropical storm watch . Due to the threat of heavy rain , forecast to reach 15 inches ( 380 mm ) in localized areas , a flash flood watch was issued for all of Hawaii , valid between July 29 and 30 . All Maui County parks were closed due to the storm as county authorities activated emergency operations . Along the Big Island , all courts and colleges were closed . Hawaii Governor Neil Abercrombie signed an emergency proclamation . Three ports were closed , including two on the Big Island and one on Maui . Under the anticipation that Flossie would become the first tropical storm to make landfall in the state since 1992 , authorities opened 11 shelters across the state , including four on Maui and seven on Oahu . In total , 177 persons used these shelters . A scheduled water outage in Hanalei and Waipa was postponed due to the storm .
While still offshore , Flossie brought high surf to much of the state . Upon passing narrowly by the island , gusty winds downed trees and power lines : Kahului reported a peak wind gust of 47 mph ( 76 km / h ) during Flossie . More than 10 @,@ 000 residences were without electricity across the state , with most outages concentrated in Maui and Big Island . Heavy rains impacted several islands ; rainfall rates of 3 to 4 inches ( 76 to 102 mm ) an hour were recorded in Haleakalā . Along the eastern side of Maui , a total of 5 @.@ 3 inches ( 130 mm ) was reported in the Kaupo Gap , while a storm @-@ total peak of 9 @.@ 27 inches ( 235 mm ) was observed on Mount Waialeale . One man was injured in Maui due to lightning . Damage from lightning across the state amounted to $ 24 @,@ 000 . Six vehicle accidents were reported and several roads required closure , but overall , damage from Flossie was relatively minor .
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= Beonna of East Anglia =
Beonna ( also known as Beorna ) was King of East Anglia from 749 . He is notable for being the first East Anglian king whose coinage included both the ruler 's name and his title . The end @-@ date of Beonna 's reign is not known , but may have been around 760 . It is thought that he shared the kingdom with another ruler called Alberht and possibly with a third man , named Hun . Not all experts agree with these regnal dates , or the nature of his kingship : it has been suggested that he may have ruled alone ( and free of Mercian domination ) from around 758 .
Little is known of Beonna 's life or his reign , as nothing in written form has survived from this period of East Anglian history . The very few primary sources for Beonna consist of bare references to his accession or rule written by late chroniclers , that until quite recently were impossible to verify . Since 1980 , a sufficient number of coins have been found to show that he was indeed a historical figure . They have allowed scholars to make deductions about economic and linguistic links that existed between East Anglia and other parts of both England and northern Europe during his reign , as well as aspects of his own identity and rule .
= = Background = =
In contrast to the kingdoms of Northumbria , Mercia and Wessex , little reliable evidence about the kingdom of the East Angles has survived . The historian Barbara Yorke has maintained that this is due to the destruction of the kingdom 's monasteries and the disappearance of both of the East Anglian sees , which were caused by Viking raids and later settlement .
Ælfwald of East Anglia died in 749 after ruling for thirty @-@ six years . During Ælfwald 's rule , his kingdom enjoyed sustained growth and stability , albeit under the senior authority of the Mercian king Æthelbald , who ruled his kingdom from 716 until he was murdered by his own men in 757 . Ælfwald was the last of the Wuffingas dynasty , who had ruled East Anglia since the 6th century . A pedigree in the Anglian collection that lists Ælfwald and his descendants , includes many earlier Wuffingas kings .
= = Identity and joint rule = =
The identification of Beonna as a king of the East Angles is based upon a few written sources . One source is a statement in the twelfth century Historia Regum , that after Ælfwald 's death , " regnum ... ... hunbeanna et alberht sibi diviserunt " ( ' Hunbeanna and Alberht divided the kingdom of the East Angles between themselves ' ) . The Historia Regum is believed to have been compiled by Symeon of Durham , but it is now generally accepted that much of it was written by Byrhtferth of Ramsey around the end of the 10th century . Another source is a passage in the 12th century Chronicon ex chronicis , once thought to have been written by Florence of Worcester , which stated that " Beornus " was king of the East Angles . A third source is a regnal list in the Chronicon ex chronicis which states that " Regnante autem Merciorum rege Offa , Beonna regnavit in East @-@ Anglia , et post illum Æthelredus " ( ' During the reign of Offa , king of the Mercians , Beonna reigned in East @-@ Anglia , and after him Æthelred ... ' ) .
The annal for 749 in The Flowers of History , written by the chronicler Matthew Paris in the 13th @-@ century , also relates that " Ethelwold , king of the East Angles , died , and Beonna and Ethelbert divided his dominions between them " . The historians H. M. Chadwick and Dorothy Whitelock both suggested that the name Hunbeanna should be divided into two names , Hun and Beanna , and that a tripartite division of the kingdom might have existed . According to Steven Plunkett , the name Hunbanna may have been created by means of a scribal error .
The kingdom might never have been ruled jointly by Alberht and Beonna . It is generally accepted that Alberht and the later Æthelberht II , who ruled East Anglia until his death in 794 , are different kings , but the historian D. P. Kirby has identified them as being one person . According to Kirby , Beonna might have ascended the throne in around 758 and the issuing of his coins could indicate that East Anglia broke free of Mercian domination for a time , so linking Beonna 's reign with the eventual disintegration of Mercian hegemony that occurred after Æthelbald 's death .
= = = The diathematic element ' Hun ' = = =
The recognition of Beonna as a historical figure leaves the ' Hun ' element in the word Hunbeanna detached . Beanna is itself a hypocoristic form of a two @-@ part name , and the ' nn ' in the name has been interpreted as representing a geminate constanant .
Hun is familiar in 8th and 9th century England , for instance as part of a name with two elements . During the 9th century there were East Anglian bishops of Helmham named Ælfhun , Hunferthus and Hunbeorht and a bishop of Worcester called Æthelhun . Hun also occurred as part of a moneyer 's name . There are several placenames in England that contain the term as a personal name element , such as Hunsdon , Hertfordshire and Hunston , West Sussex ( but not Hunston , Suffolk ) . It is possible that Hun was a historical figure , whose name was run together with Beonna 's by a scribe .
An alternative theory is that the Latin annal that mentioned Hunbeanna was derived from an Old English source and that the translator scribe misread the opening word here for part of the name of Beonna . " Her " - ' in this year ' - is the usual opening for an Old English annal and the typical form of the letter ' r ' might easily be misread for an ' n ' .
= = = Beornred of Mercia = = =
Charles Oman proposed that Boernred , who in 757 emerged for a short time as ruler of Mercia before being driven out by Offa , could be the same person as Beonna . An alternative theory suggests that Beonna and Beornred may perhaps have been kinsmen from the same dynasty with ambitions to rule in both Mercia and East Anglia . No known member of the Wuffingas dynasty had a name commencing with B , but several Mercian rulers , including Beornred , used the letter .
In 1996 , Marion Archibald and Valerie Fenwick proposed an alternative hypothesis , based on the evidence of East Anglian coins and post @-@ Conquest documents . Acknowledging that Beonna and Beornred were the same person , they suggested that after Ælfwald 's death in 749 , Æthelwald of Mercia installed Beornred / Beonna to rule northern East Anglia and Alberht ( who probably belonged to the Wuffingas dynasty ) to rule in the south . According to Archibald and Fenwick , after Æthelbald was murdered in 757 , Beornred / Beonna became king of Mercia , during which his coinage was increased in East Anglia , perhaps to meet “ military requirements ” . Then , after a reign of only a few months , he was deposed by Offa and forced to flee from him back into East Anglia . Alberht , who had attempted to re @-@ establish East Anglia as an independent kingdom and rule alone , and had succeeded for a short time , was deposed by Beornred / Beonna when he arrived as an exile in about 760 . Soon afterwards , Offa asserted his authority over the East Angles in around 760 @-@ 5 and removed Beonna .
= = Coinage = =
Anglo @-@ Saxons kings produced coins from the 620s onwards , initially in gold , but then in electrum ( an alloy of gold and silver ) and eventually pure silver . Little is known of the organisation of coinage during the reign of Beonna , but it can be presumed that the moneyers who struck coins during this period acted under the auspices of the king , who would to some extent have supervised the design of his coins . A growing shortage of available bullion in north @-@ western Europe during the first half of the 8th century was probably the main cause for a deterioration in the proportion of precious metal found in locally produced sceattas . In around 740 , Eadberht of Northumbria became the first king to respond to this crisis by issuing a remodelled coinage , of a consistent weight and a high proportion of silver , which eventually replaced the debased currency . Other kings followed his example , including Beonna and the Frankish king Pepin the Short , who appears to have been strongly influenced by the newly introduced coins of both Beonna and Eadberht .
Examples of Beonna 's coins are known from two separate hoards , as well as from a number of individual finds . Until 1968 , only five of his coins were known . Several more coins came to light over the next decade , before a hoard of sceattas and other coins were discovered in 1980 at Middle Harling , north @-@ east of Thetford and close to the border between the counties of Norfolk and Suffolk . In all , fifty @-@ eight coins have been excavated from Middle Harling , fourteen were found at Burrow Hill ( Suffolk ) and thirty @-@ five from other places in East Anglia and elsewhere . Over a hundred ' Beonnas ' are now known : most of them have been acquired by the British Museum .
Beonna was the first of the East Anglian kings whose coinage named both the ruler and his title . His coins are larger than the earlier sceattas , but are small when compared with the pennies produced in Anglo @-@ Saxon England several decades later . As a whole , they provide an important dateable runic corpus and may reflect a distinctive East Anglian preference for runic lettering . Beonna had three moneyers whose names are known : Werferth , Efe and Wilred . The coins struck by Werferth are considered to be the earliest . His coins and those struck under the authority of Eadberht of Northumbria both contained 70 % silver and were similar in type and detail , which suggests the possibility of producing a chronology for Beonna 's coins , using the established sequence for the Northumbrian coins of Eadberht . However , as Eadberht 's reign began in 738 , several years before Beonna became king in East Anglia , the coins cannot be related to each other closely enough to construct a reliable chronology .
Produced later than Werferth 's coins are those by Efe : these , by far the most numerous , have dies which change in time . Distribution analysis suggests that Efe 's mint was possibly located in northern Suffolk or southern Norfolk . It is possible that the name of the village of Euston , Suffolk , a little southeast of Thetford , is derived from Efe .
Efe 's obverse dies show the king 's name and title , usually spelt with a mixture of runes and Latin script , with some aspects of the coins occasionally ill @-@ drawn or omitted altogether . The king 's name is generally arranged around the central motif of a pellet ( or a cross ) within a circle of pellets : this layout probably derived from Northumbrian coins . The reverse dies consisted of a cross and the letters E F E , placed in four sectors that were divided off by lines . It can be shown that Efe did not use his dies in any particular or consistent order . Calculations have been made that suggest that few of his dies remain undiscovered .
The coins struck by Beonna 's last known moneyer , Wilred , are so different from Efe 's that it is highly unlikely that they were produced at the same mint or at the same time . It can also be assumed that Wilred is the same moneyer who struck coins for Offa of Mercia , possibly at Ipswich . Wilred 's coins can be used to demonstrate that Offa 's influence over the East Angles occurred at an earlier date than has previously been supposed , but are of little use in determining a secure chronology for Beonna 's reign . Wilred 's name is always depicted in runes . Nearly all his reverse dies have two crosses placed between the elements of his name ( + wil + red ) : most of the obverse dies show crosses and the king 's name in a similar design , but also include an extra rune . This unique rune , similar to ᚹ , possibly meant walda ( ' ruler ' ) .
One type of coin for Beonna has no named moneyer and depicts an interlace motif on its reverse . A specimen of this type ( now lost ) was found at Dorestad , which was during Beonna 's time an important trading centre : these coins resemble Frankish or Frisian deniers that were issued from the Maastricht area during this period .
Beonna 's rule coincided with the anointing of Pippin III as king of the Franks after 742 and the subsequent disempowerment of the Merovingian dynasty , and also with the martyrdom of Saint Boniface and his followers in Frisia in 754 . A runic ' a ' in the name Beonna on two coins , which has only been found elsewhere in Fresia , implies that there were both trading and language links between the two regions during the 8th century .
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= When Christmas Comes =
" When Christmas Comes " is a song by American singer and songwriter Mariah Carey from her second Christmas album / thirteenth studio album , Merry Christmas II You ( 2010 ) . Carey wrote and produced the song in collaboration with James Poyser . A soul song with an influence of R & B , the lyrics are about giving the gift of love . In November 2011 , Carey re @-@ recorded the song as duet with John Legend , which was later released as a single . Both versions of the track were a hit in South Korea , with the duet debuting at number one with sales in excess of 80 @,@ 000 copies . The song 's accompanying music video features Carey and Legend at a hosting a Christmas house party . It has been performed by Carey at her ABC 2010 Christmas special and during her 2014 Beacon Theatre residency All I Want For Christmas Is You , A Night of Joy & Festivity in December 2014 .
= = Background and composition = =
" When Christmas Comes " was written and produced by Mariah Carey and James Poyser for the former 's second Christmas album / thirteenth studio album , Merry Christmas II You ( 2010 ) . Her vocals were recorded by Brian Garten at Guardian Angel Studios in Bel Air , Westlake Recording Studios and Hensons Studios , both located in Los Angeles , and Germano Studios in New York City . Carey performed her own background vocals along with Melonie Daniels , Sharlotte Gibson and Nicki Richards . The music for the song was recorded by Garten and Kevin Guarnieri ; Alex Evans played the drums , while John " Jubu " Smith played the guitar . On November 7 , 2011 , Carey revealed that she would be releasing " When Christmas Comes " as a duet with John Legend . The duet was released in the United States on November 21 and the United Kingdom on November 28 .
It as an R & B @-@ influenced soul song with a " simple groove " that lasts for a duration of four minutes and forty @-@ six seconds . The single release version with Legend lasts for additional second . The instrumental consists of horns , including the trumpet performed by Rick Baptist and Greg Adams , and the trombone by Nick Lane . Other brass instruments include Dan Higgins on the sax and flute . In addition to being a producer , Poyser performs the keyboard . Lyrically , the song is about " giving the gift of love " , as Carey and Legend harmonize the lyrics " And me and you gon ' have ourselves a holiday / And we don 't need nobody else to celebrate / And we 're gon ' kiss our worries and our cares away / I can 't wait / Because this Christmas time , get together / It 's gonna be so nice , better than ever / And baby you ’ re the one , special treasure . " Prior to the final chorus , the pair freelance the a portion of the lyrics from " Jingle Bells " . As noted by Scott Shelter of PopCrush , " listeners are treated to notes from the upper reaches of Mariah ’ s five @-@ octave range , which she rarely shows off anymore . " In an interview for Vevo , Carey stated that she felt that Legend was the " perfect choice " to re @-@ create the song as a duet with , and that his " soulful " creative decisions " took it up several notches " .
= = Critical reception = =
Mike Diver for BBC was complimentary of " When Christmas Comes " , writing although the effect is " less instant " compared to the first single , " Oh Santa ! " , it fits in well with the rest of the album and is " perfectly formed " . The Village Voice writer Rich Juzwiak thought that the use of a full band was a " retread " of the songs Carey recorded for her tenth studio album , The Emancipation of Mimi ( 2005 ) . Of the duet , Shelter described it as " sultry " , awarded it four stars out of a possible five , and labelled it as being superior to the original version with vocals solely by Carey included on the album .
= = Commercial performance = =
The original version of " When Christmas Comes " peaked at number seven on both the South Korea International Digital Singles chart and Download Singles chart , respectively , on November 20 , 2010 . The single version with Legend debuted at number one on South Korean Download chart on November 27 , 2011 , with sales of 81 @,@ 624 . The following week , it fell to number eight with 32 @,@ 952 copes sold . It sold a further 18 @,@ 947 and 13 @,@ 339 copies in its third and fourth weeks , respectively . Despite debuting atop Download chart with 81 @,@ 624 copies sold , it peaked at number two on the Digital chart . In the United States , the duet debuted at number twenty @-@ five on the Adult R & B Songs chart , and climbed to number seventeen the following week . It dropped one position to number eighteen in its third week , but resurged to a peak of number fifteen the week after on January 7 , 2012 . " When Christmas Comes " debuted at number seventy on the Hot R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Songs chart , becoming the " Hot Shot Debut " for the week dated December 17 , 2011 , and the first song from Merry Christmas II You to enter the chart . It is Carey 's fifty @-@ third entry overall . The track peaked at number fifty @-@ seven on the Japan Hot 100 in 2012 .
= = Promotion = =
An accompanying music video directed by Sanaa Hamri for " When Christmas Comes " was filmed at Carey 's Los Angeles home and features Carey and Legend throwing a celebratory Christmas house party , which includes a cameo by Nick Cannon . It features footage from the film A Charlie Brown Christmas . On November 15 , Carey posted images of the video shoot on her website , one of which shows the two singers sitting at piano . It premiered on December 13 , 2011 . Carey has performed the track live on her ABC Christmas Special in December 2010 , and at her Beacon Theatre residency called All I Want For Christmas Is You , A Night of Joy & Festivity in December 2014 .
= = Track listings = =
; Digital download ( 2010 album version )
" When Christmas Comes " – 4 : 46
; Digital download ( 2011 single release )
" When Christmas Comes " with John Legend – 4 : 45
= = Charts = =
= = Release history = =
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= Lose My Breath =
" Lose My Breath " is a song by American group Destiny 's Child . It was written by Beyoncé , Kelly Rowland , Michelle Williams , Rodney " Darkchild " Jerkins , LaShawn Daniels , Fred Jerkins III , Sean Garrett , and Shawn Corey " Jay @-@ Z " Carter for the group 's fourth studio album , Destiny Fulfilled ( 2004 ) . Columbia Records released " Lose My Breath " as the first single from the album in late 2004 . The song was partially developed by Jerkins before being presented to Destiny 's Child and its chorus was afterwards written by Jay @-@ Z.
An uptempo R & B and dance song , " Lose My Breath " has a marching , military percussion @-@ led instrumentation with different sound effects in its backing track . It received positive reviews from music critics who generally praised its melody and instrumentation . The track further received a Grammy Award nomination in the category for Best R & B Vocal Performance by a Duo or Group . " Lose My Breath " was commercially successful peaking at number three on the US Billboard Hot 100 and reaching the top spot on many charts in Europe as well as appearing in the top ten in almost every chart .
The single 's music video directed by Marc Klasfeld and filmed in Los Angeles , California , featured Destiny 's Child performing dance choreographies portraying three different characters . The song was performed during the group 's tour Destiny Fulfilled ... and Lovin ' It ( 2005 ) and on numerous televised appearances and awards ceremonies in 2004 and 2005 . The American Broadcasting Company used " Lose My Breath " as the official song for the NBA playoffs in 2004 and 2005 .
= = Background and release = =
" Lose My Breath " was written by Beyoncé , Kelly Rowland , Michelle Williams , Rodney " Darkchild " Jerkins , Fred Jerkins , Sean Garrett , LaShawn Daniels and Jay @-@ Z. The production of the song was handled by Jerkins , Beyoncé , Rowland and Garrett . Record producer Jerkins , who had previously collaborated with the group for " Say My Name " ( 2000 ) , had worked on " Lose My Breath " without informing Destiny 's Child . Beyoncé and Williams heard the drum instrumentation of the track and they enjoyed it with the latter feeling that the song was nothing like the mainstream radio sound . They went to their band mate Kelly Rowland presenting the song . Alongside Jerkins , the group asked for help from American rapper Jay @-@ Z who immediately created a chorus including the lines " Can you keep up " without hearing the track . The group took his chorus and wrote the verses and bridge around it . During an interview with Complex , Garrett recalled the time he worked with Williams on the song , saying , " There was so much magic going on in the studio . We probably recorded all the songs in about a month and every day it was a new song coming out . ' Lose My Breath ' was towards the latter part of the album and that was an amazing song that we felt could not only be big on the radio but big with bands and marching bands . I was on a natural high after that . "
Following the three @-@ year hiatus of the group , " Lose My Breath " was considered as their comeback release . It premiered on September 9 , 2004 on AOL Music . In the US , the single was released in different versions ; " Lose My Breath " itself was available for digital purchase on October 5 , 2004 . On November 2 , it was released along with " Soldier " and " Game Over " separately , the former being an EP with several remixes of " Lose My Breath " being also available . A 12 @-@ inch vinyl single of the song was released on the same date . A dance mixes EP was released on December 7 , while a Remix 2 Pak containing two remixes by Peter Rauhofer was released on August 16 , 2005 . The single was released to markets in different dates . On October 29 , 2004 , a maxi single was released in Australia , featuring the album version of the track , two remixes and a new song " Why You Actin ' " . The song was included on the group 's compilation albums # 1 's ( 2005 ) and Playlist : The Very Best of Destiny 's Child ( 2012 ) .
= = Composition = =
" Lose My Breath " is an uptempo R & B and dance song with elements of dancehall music . It is performed with a brightdance beat and a tempo of 120 beats per minute . The song is set in common time , composed in the key of E ♭ major with the vocal elements spanning from the low note of C4 to the high note of D5 . The band members ' vocals in " Lose My Breath " were described as " breathy " . The song features fast snare drum sequences , choppy beats with hand @-@ clappy percussion , cymbal crashes , and itchy hi @-@ hats , creating a military sound reminiscent to a drumline of a marching band . The opening drum sequence is sampled from the drumline of " Taps " performed by the University of Michigan Marching Band . Synthesizer blips are also utilized in the song 's melody . Along with those instruments , the complex backing track of the song uses various sound effects such as ripple of claps , stomps , thumps , snare rolls , and gasps .
Lyrically , the female protagonists challenge their male " suitors " to keep up instead of being full of empty promises ; the women further feel that " He 's not fulfilling you like he says " . Williams further explained the meaning of the song during an interview with MTV News , " We 've had experiences with men doing a lot of talking but they can ’ t back it up . You said you could do this , but you can 't , whether that 's on the dance floor or wherever else . He said what he could do for you , but ... " The lyrics are constructed in the chorus @-@ verse pattern . The song opens with the lines " Hit me " and the first verses sang by Beyoncé follow : " I put it right there made it easy for you to get to / Now you want to act like you don 't know what to do " . The chorus follows during which the group repeatedly sings the lines " Can you keep up ? " . Rowland 's second verses follow where she sings the lines " Put it on me deep in the right direction " . The chorus is repeated twice before the bridge by Williams . After the bridge , the group sings the lines " Here 's your papers , baby you are dismissed " letting their man know that he is not good enough for them . Rowland sings a short ad lib , and then the trio ends with a repeated chorus . Nick Reynolds from BBC compared the song Missy Elliott 's " Pass That Dutch " and to songs by The Supremes . He further found a name check of Public Enemy 's " Bring the Noise " . Eric Henderson of Slant Magazine also compared " Lose My Breath with " Pass That Dutch " .
= = Critical reception = =
Jenny Eliscu of Rolling Stone referred to " Lose My Breath " a " sweat @-@ soaked " track and a " percussive sex romp " where Destiny 's Child " pant in time to a marching @-@ band beat . " Nick Reynolds of the BBC called the military drumming of the " fantastic " track " exciting " and its keyboard stabs " nasty " . A writer for Vibe hailed it as a " pounding , animalistic piece of music - as urgent as a war cry " with a " thunderous tribal beat " . In an album review of Destiny Fulfilled , Tom Sinclair of Entertainment Weekly felt that " Lose My Breath " opened the record with " a brisk enough start " and concluded , " While it 's no ' Bootylicious , ' it 's got more nervous energy and verve than almost anything else here . " . A writer of Billboard magazine felt that the song was " love 's exhilarating start " . Kelefa Sanneh of The New York Times described it as " suitably calisthenic " . AllMusic 's Stephen Thomas Erlewine considered the song to be an album highlight . Eric Henderson of Slant Magazine called the song a " thigh @-@ snapper " and said it responsible for the " increased use of paradiddling drumsticks as sex toys " . Barbara Ellen of The Observer felt that " Lose My Breath " was " of the exemplary standard " of the band 's previous albums , Survivor and The Writing 's on the Wall . In his review , Alex MacPherson of Stylus Magazine chose the song as one of the album 's best and wrote ,
It [ Destiny Fulfilled ] shoots its load quickly , although just as effectively : " Lose My Breath " and " Soldier " are stunning , both displaying the Beyoncé trademark of creepily submissive lyrics matched with dominatrix vocals and arrangements to superb effect . The former kicks off with a martial beat and a call of " hit me ! " which sounds like a military command , and proceeds to put you through a series of moves without pause for breath , Beyoncé and her minions cracking the whip every time you even think of flagging .
The A.V. Club 's Andy Battaglia felt that " Lose My Breath " gave the album an " opening charge by way of a raucous marching @-@ band beat and panting attempts to squeeze a lot of words into closing musical corners " . Caroline Sullivan of The Guardian described the song as " fantastic , legs @-@ in @-@ the @-@ air " . Paul Flynn of the same publication wrote that it " further relegated the other members of Destiny 's Child to the position of Beyoncé 's backing singers " . Tom Breihan of Pitchfork Media who complimented Jerkin 's " incredible " drum programming and the " mind @-@ boggling " backing track felt that it lacked a tune : " The vocals are too breathy , too whiny , and too processed , and the song 's one thrilling moment-- near the end , where the harmonies get a bit of room to play off each other with Abba @-@ esque rococo aplomb-- lasts only for a second . " Los Angeles Times writer Natalie Nichols deemed its production " nifty " with a " rat @-@ a @-@ tat drum line percussion propelling " but felt that it contained a single hook expanded into an entire song . Lindsey Weber from Vulture criticized Williams ' contribution to the bridge , describing it as " weak " .
= = = Recognition and accolades = = =
In 2005 , " Lose My Breath " was nominated in the category for Best R & B Vocal Performance by a Duo Or Group at the 47th Annual Grammy Awards . At the 23rd Annual ASCAP Pop Music Awards , " Lose My Breath " was recognized as one of the Most Performed Songs in 2005 along with the group 's other song " Soldier " . Sean Garrett won a BMI Urban Award at the 2006 BMI Awards for the song .
Clem Bastow from Stylus Magazine put " Lose My Breath " at number ten on his list Top Ten Drum Beats You Are Powerless To Resist . He wrote , " Rodney Jerkins ' masterstroke of a production technique ... propels this ... penultimate ... Destiny 's Child gem into the stratosphere " . The song was ranked at number 39 in the annual Pazz & Jop mass critics poll of the year 's best in music in 2004 . In 2013 , Weber from Vulture included " Lose My Breath " at number 19 on her list of the 25 best songs by the group . Houston Chronicle 's Joey Guerra also included the song in hist list of the band 's best songs writing that it gave a chance to Rowland and Williams to " shine vocally " . The same year , Erika Ramirez and Jason Lipshutz of Billboard magazine put it at number nine on their list of " Beyonce 's 30 Biggest Billboard Hits " . In 2014 , Official Charts Company writer Justin Myers listed the song as one of the essential " pop gems " in the UK , praising the group for coming back in 2004 with " classic DC [ elements ] : super @-@ speedy singing , a frantic beat and dramatic melody " .
= = Chart performance = =
" Lose My Breath " entered the top ten of the Billboard Hot 100 prior to its physical release debuting at number 30 for the week ending October 2 , 2004 . The next week it moved to number 12 due to being the fastest @-@ growing song on the radio . After its release as a single , " Lose My Breath " moved from number four to number three on November 6 which also became its peak position making it Destiny 's Child 's ninth top ten single . Staying at the third spot for four weeks , the single enjoyed a total of 23 weeks charting . Similarly , " Lose My Breath " performed well on other Billboard charts in the US ; it peaked at number one on the Hot Dance Club Songs chart for the week ending January 8 , 2005 and numbers three and ten on the Mainstream Top 40 and Hot R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Songs respectively . On the latter chart , it became the band 's ninth top ten entry in their career by then . It was certified gold by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) on April 28 , 2005 for shipment of 500 @,@ 000 copies in the US .
" Lose My Breath " was also successful in different European charts . On the UK Singles Chart , the song debuted at number two on November 13 , 2004 , a spot which also became its peak position in that country . The single was held from the top by Eminem 's " Just Lose It " which sold 2 @,@ 000 more than " Lose My Breath " It remained at the second place for three consecutive weeks , within the top ten for seven consecutive weeks and spent a total of eleven weeks on the chart . As of September 2014 , " Lose My Breath " is the group 's third best @-@ selling single in that country with 340 @,@ 000 copies sold . The single topped the Ultratop chart in the Flanders region of Belgium and the singles charts in Ireland , Italy and Switzerland . It was certified Gold by the Belgian Entertainment Association ( BEA ) and the International Federation of the Phonographic Industry ( IFPI ) in Switzerland for sales of 25 @,@ 000 and 20 @,@ 000 copies in the countries respectively . " Lose My Breath " also entered the top ten in ten other countries across Europe . In Germany , it became the band 's best @-@ charting single , reaching number three on the singles chart . " Lose My Breath " further peaked at number one on the European Hot 100 Singles chart for the week ending December 4 , 2004 spending four consecutive weeks on top until the end of 2004 .
Across Oceania , the single had similar reception debuting at number five on the ARIA Charts in Australia on November 15 , 2004 . It peaked at number three , three weeks after its debut and stayed at that position for another week . " Lose My Breath " remained on the chart for a total of 17 weeks being seen for the last time at number 43 on March 6 , 2005 . The Australian Recording Industry Association ( ARIA ) awarded the single with a Platinum certification for shipment of 70 @,@ 000 copies in that region . On the New Zealand Singles Chart , the single debuted at number 16 on November 15 , 2004 . It spent seven weeks there peaking at number four in its fourth week of charting , on November 29 .
= = Music video = =
= = = Background and synopsis = = =
The music video for " Lose My Breath " was directed by Marc Klasfeld and was shot in Los Angeles , California on October 8 , 2004 . Destiny 's Child had dance rehearsals for the video in late September and continued the following month . During the rehearsals , Beyoncé tore her right hamstring , while overdoing the choreography . Following the injury , she was advised by a specialist to avoid dancing and other physical activities for a week ; MTV News further reported that the injury could further postpone the filming of the video . However , the next week , the group revealed in an interview with the publication that the video would be filmed as originally planned as Beyoncé 's leg healed fast . She said , " My leg was actually a blessing in disguise because it gave us more time to prepare for the video " . Speaking about the concept of the video , Beyoncé revealed
It 's really a dance @-@ off between a more sophisticated ' in @-@ fashion ' Destiny 's Child versus a more ' street ' Destiny 's Child . And in the end a third Destiny 's Child even more fierce takes over . It 's a lot of hard work for us because we have to learn three routines for the same song . People will be shocked because it 's different for us . They 've never seen us really dance .
The video mainly takes place in an alleyway , where the members of Destiny 's Child are having a dance @-@ off . As the song opens , it begins with Beyoncé , Williams and Rowland walking , representing the " fierce Destiny 's Child " dressed in stilettos and fur . It transitions to the group being dressed in @-@ fashion with red burgundy suits as they meet their identical street @-@ styled , hip hop copies with hoodies and Timberland boots , starting to perform a dance @-@ off ; the camera focuses on each member of the group performing a separate choreography with their rival in front of them during their solo lines . As the song progresses , Beyoncé , Williams and Rowland are joined by other male and female dancers at the start of the song 's chorus . During her lines , Rowland performs a dance sequence with two male dancers . Following the song 's bridge , the two different groups head towards another place where they are welcomed by more dancers and their third " fierce " rivals appear for the final chorus . The video ends in the same way it opened , with the " fierce " group members walking .
= = = Release and reception = = =
The music video of " Lose My Breath " premiered on MTV 's Total Request Live ( TRL ) . It debuted on the video program on October 26 , 2004 at number eight remaining for 36 days . On Muchmusic 's Top 30 countdown , the video debuted on November 6 , 2004 at number 26 . It peaked at number seven on January 15 , 2005 , stayed there for another week , and charted for a total of twelve weeks . The music video was featured on the DualDisc editions of the albums # 1 's and Destiny Fulfilled as well as on the bonus DVD of the Destiny Fulfilled Tour edition . It was also included on the Destiny 's Child Video Anthology , a video anthology album released in 2013 .
Erika Ramirez and Jason Lipshutz writing on behalf of Billboard magazine felt that Destiny 's Child " came back strong after a three @-@ year hiatus , showing off their dance skills in the video " for " Lose My Breath " . Jess Harvell of the website Pitchfork Media criticized the " weird mink stole " Beyoncé wore in the clip . A writer of People felt that the group borrowed from their old looks for their outfits in the video " glammed up in stilettos and fur " . Justin Myers from the Official Charts Company considered it to be a proof that the group was back in 2004 , and showed them being " totally kick @-@ ass – so pretty autobiographical " . The music video was nominated for the Best Dance Video category at the 2005 MTV Video Music Awards , but lost to Missy Elliott 's " Lose Control " ( 2005 ) . In 2014 , The Guardian editor Michael Cragg ranked the video for " Lose My Breath " in his list of the ten best videos by Beyoncé . He remarked that the clip featured bigger budget than the group 's previous visual efforts and praised the concept , saying , " It 's a simple idea executed perfectly , especially when Beyoncé gives herself side @-@ eye , flicks her hair and then watches while one of the other Beyoncé 's dances like a creature possessed . "
= = Live performances = =
The first live performance of " Lose My Breath " was during the opening of the 2004 NFL season on September 9 for which Destiny 's Child was surrounded by smoke from fog machines . Chicago Tribune writer Chris Malcolm reported , " I think what I love most is the blank look on some of the hard @-@ core Boston football fans who showed up early to watch kickers practice and instead got a live version of ' Lose My Breath . ' " On October 25 , 2004 , the group performed " Lose My Breath " during the Radio Music Awards in Las Vegas , Nevada starting with an a cappella jazz harmony . Destiny 's Child appeared on The Oprah Winfrey Show in November 2004 where they closed their performance with a rendition of the song . On November 8 , 2004 , the trio appeared on Total Request Live ( TRL ) and performed the song along with " Say My Name " . They went to the German entertainment TV show Wetten , dass .. ? on November 13 , 2004 performing " Lose My Breath " . The group " Soldier " and " Lose My Breath " at the 2005 NBA All @-@ Star Game on February 20 , 2005 . They performed the song again at the 2005 ESPY Awards on July 13 with the ceremony being aired on ESPN four days later . Destiny 's Child performed " Lose My Breath " at the Fashion Rocks benefit concert at New York 's Radio City Music Hall in February 2006 which marked their last televised appearance as a group .
In 2005 , the song was part of the set list of the group 's tour Destiny Fulfilled ... and Lovin ' It where it was performed during the concert 's encore . The singers wore white T @-@ shirts and jeans and during the end of the performance went under cascading water on stage . While reviewing a show by the group in the UK , Adenike Adenitire writing for MTV News found the performance to be somehow casual : " It was like watching three young girls and their friends practicing their moves at a slumber party . It was a perfect note of DC harmony to end a night that celebrated both the group and the individuals within it . " Barbara Ellen from The Observer felt that the song worked as a " stupendous encore " . The song was included on the track listing of the group 's live album Destiny 's Child : Live in Atlanta ( 2006 ) chronicling a concert from the tour . Beyoncé performed " Lose My Breath " at the 2007 Houston Livestock Show and Rodeo on March 15 as part of a Destiny 's Child medley during the concert .
= = Cover versions and usage in media = =
Rihanna , Teairra Marí and Amerie performed " Lose My Breath " at the 2005 World Music Awards on August 31 as a tribute to Destiny 's Child . Starting with the Christmas Day 2004 Miami Heat @-@ Los Angeles Lakers telecast , the American Broadcasting Company ( ABC ) used the song as the music for their introductory montage for the 2004 NBA Playoffs . The song was used through the rest of the regular season , and through the first few weeks of the 2005 NBA Playoffs . During that time , it also served as part of many commercials until the playoffs . In February 2015 the song was performed by one of the Glee characters .
= = Formats and track listings = =
= = Credits and personnel = =
Credits are adapted from the liner notes of Destiny Fulfilled .
Lead vocals : Beyoncé Knowles , Kelly Rowland , Michelle Williams
Vocal production : Beyoncé Knowles , Kelly Rowland , Sean Garrett
Recorded by : Jeff Villanueva , Jim Caruna at Sony Music Studios , New York City
Audio mixing by : Tony Maserati
Master recording by : Tom Coyne
Introduction by : Michigan Marching Band Drumline
= = Charts = =
= = Certifications = =
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= Craigmillar Castle =
Craigmillar Castle is a ruined medieval castle in Edinburgh , Scotland . It is situated 3 miles ( 4 @.@ 8 km ) south @-@ east of the city centre , on a low hill to the south of the modern suburb of Craigmillar . The Preston family of Craigmillar , the local feudal barons , began building the castle in the late 14th century and building works continued through the 15th and 16th centuries . In 1660 the castle was sold to Sir John Gilmour , Lord President of the Court of Session , who made further alterations . The Gilmours left Craigmillar in the 18th century , and the castle fell into ruin . It is now in the care of Historic Environment Scotland .
Craigmillar Castle is best known for its association with Mary , Queen of Scots . Following an illness after the birth of her son , the future James VI , Mary arrived at Craigmillar on 20 November 1566 to convalesce . Before she left on 7 December 1566 , a pact known as the " Craigmillar Bond " was made , with or without her knowledge , to dispose of her husband Henry Stuart , Lord Darnley .
Craigmillar is one of the best @-@ preserved medieval castles in Scotland . The central tower house , or keep , is surrounded by a 15th @-@ century courtyard wall with " particularly fine " defensive features . Within this are additional ranges , and the whole is enclosed by an outer courtyard wall containing a chapel and a doocot .
= = History = =
= = = Origins = = =
The lands of Craigmillar were granted to the monks of Dunfermline Abbey by King David I in the 12th century . The Preston family were first granted land in the area by King David II in 1342 and held 2 / 3 of the estate . In a further grant of 1374 , King Robert II gave the remaining lands of Craigmillar to Sir Simon de Preston , Sheriff of Midlothian . It was Simon 's son , Simon Preston , or his grandson , Sir George Preston , who began work on the tower house which now forms the core of the castle . This was in place by 1425 , when a charter was sealed at Craigmillar by Sir John Preston . The courtyard wall was probably added by Sir William Preston ( d . 1453 ) , who had travelled in France , and drew on continental inspiration for his new work . He also brought back the arm of Saint Giles , which he presented to the High Kirk of Edinburgh , where the Preston Aisle is named for him . In the late 1470s , John Stewart , Earl of Mar , brother of King James III was held prisoner at Craigmillar , accused of practising witchcraft against the King . He later died in suspicious circumstances .
= = = 16th century = = =
In 1511 Craigmillar was erected into a barony , and the outer courtyard was built around this time , possibly by another Simon Preston ( d.1520 ) , Member of Parliament for Edinburgh in 1487 , who had succeeded in 1478 . In September 1517 , during an outbreak of plague in Edinburgh , the infant James V of Scotland moved to safety at Craigmillar . His French guardian De la Bastie had new locks made for his chamber and the two iron gates , and a stable was built for the king 's mule . The family chapel within the outer court was first recorded in 1523 . In 1544 , during the so @-@ called Rough Wooing of Henry VIII of England , the English attempted to impose , by military force , a marriage alliance between Edward , Prince of Wales , and the young Mary , Queen of Scots . Craigmillar Castle was burned by English troops under the Earl of Hertford . The baron , Sir Simon Preston ( d.1569 ) had the castle repaired , with domestic ranges in the courtyard being remodelled . Sir Simon served as Lord Provost of Edinburgh for several years , and was a loyal supporter of Queen Mary , who appointed him to her Privy Council .
Queen Mary stayed at Craigmillar twice , in September 1563 and from 20 November to 7 December 1566 . She is traditionally said to have slept in the small former kitchen within the tower house , although it is more likely that she occupied larger accommodation in the relatively new east range . On her second stay , Mary was still in poor health following a serious illness in October . Several of her noblemen were with her , and suggested to her that her unpopular husband , Henry Stuart , Lord Darnley , could be removed , either by divorce or by other means . An agreement , the " Craigmillar Bond " , was signed by Mary 's Secretary of State William Maitland of Lethington , and several nobles including the earls of Bothwell , Argyll and Huntly . The bond does not survive , but set out the conspirator 's intent to remove Darnley . Although Mary made it clear that she was unhappy with Darnley , she was not part of the conspiracy , and was probably unaware of the plot to kill her husband . It was initially intended that Darnley would lodge at Craigmillar when he returned to Edinburgh , although he opted to stay at Kirk o ' Field in the town , where he was murdered on 10 February 1567 . In 1572 , after Queen Mary 's flight into England , the Regent Mar used Craigmillar as a base during his siege of Edinburgh Castle , which was being held by supporters of the exiled Queen . King James VI later visited Craigmillar himself , in 1589 , when he was the guest of Sir David Preston .
= = = The Gilmours = = =
On the death of Sir Robert Preston in 1639 , Craigmillar passed to a distant cousin , David Preston of Whitehill . His son sold the castle out of the family , and it was bought by Sir John Gilmour ( d.1671 ) in 1660 , who purchased the neighbouring estate of The Inch at the same time . A Royalist , Gilmour was rewarded following the Restoration of King Charles II , becoming Lord President of the Court of Session in 1661 . He remodelled the west range to provide more modern accommodation in the 1660s , but in the early 18th century , the Gilmours left the castle for Inch House , just west of Craigmillar . It was claimed that two of the laird 's daughters continued to live in Craigmillar Castle after the rest of the family had left . Afterwards , Craigmillar Castle formed a romantic feature in the park of the Inch estate . It was ruined by 1775 , when the antiquarian and poet John Pinkerton wrote Craigmillar Castle : an Elegy . The castle became a popular tourist attraction from the late 18th century , and was drawn by numerous artists . A proposal to renovate the building for the use of Queen Victoria was put forward in 1842 , but came to nothing . Victoria herself visited the castle in 1886 , and much restoration work was undertaken by its then owner , Walter James Little Gilmour ( d.1887 ) .
Craigmillar Castle has been in state care since 1946 , and is now maintained by Historic Environment Scotland . The castle is a category A listed building , the highest level of protection for a historic building in Scotland , and is also a Scheduled Ancient Monument . The grounds of the castle are included on the Inventory of Gardens and Designed Landscapes , the national register of historic gardens .
= = Description = =
At the core of Craigmillar Castle is the 14th @-@ century L @-@ plan tower house , built on a rocky outcrop . Wrapped around this is the 15th @-@ century courtyard wall , with ranges of buildings at the south @-@ east , east , and west . Beyond the wall is a lower outer wall , enclosing a broad outer courtyard . This contained gardens and a chapel . Further gardens lay to the south , where the outline of a fish pond can be seen .
= = = The tower house = = =
The four @-@ storey tower forms the keep of the castle , although it originally stood alone . It measures 15 @.@ 8 metres ( 52 ft ) by 11 @.@ 6 metres ( 38 ft ) , with a projecting wing , or jamb , of 8 @.@ 5 metres ( 28 ft ) by 3 @.@ 5 metres ( 11 ft ) , to the south . The walls are up to 3 @.@ 3 metres ( 11 ft ) thick , and the second and fourth storeys have vaulted ceilings . The tower is built on the edge of a rock outcrop , with the original entrance door protected by a natural cleft in the rock . This would have been spanned by a wooden bridge , until it was filled in when the curtain wall was built . Above the door are the arms of the Preston family . A stair leads up from the entrance to a guard room in the jamb , which would probably have had " murder holes " through which missiles could be dropped on any attackers who gained entry . At ground floor level are cellars , which formerly had a timber loft above . The dividing wall and doors at either end are later additions .
On the second floor is the hall , with a kitchen occupying the jamb , and later passages connecting to the east and west ranges . The hall has a large carved stone fireplace of around 1500 , and once had a timber ceiling , probably painted . The kitchen was replaced by a larger one in the 16th @-@ century east range , and converted into a bedroom . A smaller fireplace was inserted into the large kitchen hearth , and larger windows added . The next storey , accessed via a spiral stair , contained a windowless room in the vault above the hall ceiling . Above the kitchen is the lord 's bedroom , the only original private chamber in the building . The stairs continue to give access to parapet walks around the stone @-@ flagged roof . A further storey was added to the jamb in the sixteenth century , containing a single chamber . The exterior of the castle formerly had two timber balconies , or viewing platforms , one overlooking the gardens to the south , and one looking east across the Lothian countryside .
= = = The inner courtyard = = =
The mid @-@ 15th @-@ century curtain wall encloses a courtyard around 10 metres ( 33 ft ) across , and is up to 1 @.@ 8 metres ( 5 @.@ 9 ft ) thick . Externally , the curtain wall measures 40 metres ( 130 ft ) by 27 metres ( 89 ft ) . Round towers are located at each corner , with a postern , or side gate , located in the base of the south @-@ east tower . The towers have keyhole @-@ shaped gun holes , intended for decoration as well as defence . The round @-@ arched gate is in the north wall . Over it are the arms of the Preston family , with the royal arms of Scotland above . The walls are defended by machicolations , spaces through which missiles could be dropped on attackers , and battlement walks give access to the entire length of the wall . On the inside of the wall , traces of windows suggest that there was once a south range of buildings in the courtyard . There is no well in the courtyard , but a stone trough runs through the curtain wall , allowing water to be brought into the castle .
= = = = The east range = = = =
The east range occupies the south @-@ east and east sides of the inner courtyard . The original east range , contemporary with the courtyard wall , was rebuilt in the 16th century and linked to the tower house by a new , broad spiral stair . The building at the south @-@ east adjoins the tower house , and comprises two chambers on the first floor . Cellars below were occupied by a bakehouse and a possible prison . A corridor connects the tower to large , vaulted kitchens in the east range , also accessible via a straight stair from the courtyard . Another depiction of the Preston family arms , supported by monkeys , appears above the door to the east range . Below the kitchens are vaulted cellars , containing a blocked @-@ up postern gate through the courtyard wall . Above , a long gallery occupied the second floor , although only the lower walls of the gallery survive .
= = = = The west range = = = =
The west range was entirely rebuilt by the Gilmours , in the 1660s , to provide a spacious suite of modern accommodation , to suit Sir John 's position as a senior judge . The ground floor contained a large central drawing room dining room , with large windows , and a carved stone fireplace . This room would also have had plaster ceilings and other decorative features . To the north was a kitchen , and to the south a chamber , with a wine cellar below . The first floor had four bedrooms . Another new stair was built , connecting the west range with the tower house . The door to this tower has a classical pediment , above which is a 20th @-@ century plaque , erected by a descendant of the Gilmours , and bearing the arms of Sir John Gilmour and his wife . The west range is now roofless , the internal floor is also gone , and the large windows have been blocked up .
= = = The outer court and gardens = = =
The outer walls , dating from the early @-@ mid 16th century , are smaller and less formidable than the inner walls , but they enclose a much larger area . A round tower at the north @-@ east corner has gun holes and a doocot , or pigeon house , upstairs . The family chapel was built around 1520 , and dedicated to St Thomas Becket . It is now a roofless burial aisle , still used by the Gilmour family . Gardens occupied the east and west parts of the courtyard , with the western terrace overlooked by the large windows of the west range . The barn at the north @-@ west of the courtyard was converted into a Presbyterian church , for the village of Liberton , in 1687 . South of the castle were informal gardens and orchards , with the bases of 16th @-@ century viewing towers remaining at the corners of this drystone @-@ walled enclosure . The former fish pond , shaped like a letter P for Preston , is a nationally @-@ significant archaeological garden feature , due to its rarity . In the 1820s , a plan was drawn up to lay out picturesque landscape gardens between Inch House and the castle , which would have incorporated " Queen Mary 's Tree " , a Sycamore supposedly planted by Mary , Queen of Scots . Much of the woodland within the castle estate dates from the early to mid 19th century .
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= Madonna Live : The Virgin Tour =
Madonna Live : The Virgin Tour is the second video album and the first live release by American singer @-@ songwriter Madonna . It was released by Warner Music Video and Sire Records on November 13 , 1985 and contains the concert footage from The Virgin Tour , filmed at Cobo Arena in Detroit , Michigan on May 25 , 1985 . Director Daniel Kleinman , who presided over the shooting of the tour on video , submitted the footage to Warner Bros. Records , who decided to release it as a video album . Madonna wanted to have a proper introduction added before the concert footage and asked director James Foley to shoot one , which portrayed her with her first image makeover , reciting lines related to how she became famous .
After its release , Madonna Live : The Virgin Tour received mixed reviews from critics , but went on to become a commercial success , topping the Music Video Sales chart of Billboard and becoming the top selling music video cassette of 1986 . The video was certified two @-@ times platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) for shipment of 100 @,@ 000 copies and in September 1986 , it received a " Video Software Dealers Award " for the Most Popular Music Video . The live performances of " Like a Virgin " and " Dress You Up " were released as music videos on MTV to promote the video album . Both videos were nominated for " Best Choreography " at the 1986 MTV Video Music Awards .
= = Background = =
Madonna 's first concert tour , The Virgin Tour , promoted her first two studio albums , Madonna and Like a Virgin . The tour was a commercial success , with Billboard Boxscore reporting a gross of US $ 3 @.@ 3 million . After the tour was over , Madonna started recording her third studio album , True Blue . Film director Daniel Kleinman , who presided over the shooting of the tour on video , submitted the footage to Warner Bros. Records , who decided to release it as a video album . Madonna Live : The Virgin Tour chronicled The Virgin Tour as shot at Cobo Arena in Detroit , Michigan on May 25 , 1985 .
Madonna , who was busy with True Blue and shooting for the comedy film Shanghai Surprise , was contacted by Kleinman to ask about her approval of the shot footage . She felt that the video " needed a proper introduction . I asked [ James ] Foley darling to shoot me saying something for adding it before the concert starts . " Foley , who directed the music video of her song " Live to Tell " , shot an introduction which was added at the beginning of the video . It portrayed Madonna in her first image makeover , with platinum blond curls , and conservative wardrobe . Madonna wanted to include a summation of her biography — which was used at the beginning of The Virgin Tour — to be added with the footage . Hence , with the footage , Madonna 's voice was heard , declaring ,
" I went to New York . I had a dream . I wanted to be a big star , I didn 't know anybody , I wanted to dance , I wanted to sing , I wanted to do all those things , I wanted to make people happy , I wanted to be famous , I wanted everybody to love me . I wanted to be a star . I worked really hard , and my dream came true . "
This was followed by the concert , beginning with " Dress You Up " . The performances of " Angel " , " Borderline " and " Burning Up " were removed from the track list of the video , as Kleinman believed that Madonna 's performance was not her best in them . While shooting the tour on May 25 , during the performance of " Like a Virgin " , a fan suddenly came up on the stage and tried to get hold of Madonna , but was swiftly whisked away by security . Kleinman decided to keep the shot , as he felt that it illustrated the fanaticism which had grown around Madonna , and her popularity . The live performances of " Like a Virgin " and " Dress You Up " were released as music video on MTV to promote the video album . Both videos were nominated for " Best Choreography " at the 1986 MTV Video Music Awards . However , Madonna lost the award to Prince and The Revolution with their video " Raspberry Beret . "
= = Reception = =
= = = Critical response = = =
The video received mixed reviews from critics . Annie Temple from Philadelphia Daily News said that the release was " not so flattering " and " was a sloppy job " . Dennis Hunt from Los Angeles Times said that " the video is sometimes distracting and blurry , wonder what went wrong during recording . The angles are awkward , especially when the audience members are shown touching Madonna 's hand . Was it really necessary to show a fan coming unannounced on the stage ? " Terry Atkinson from the same paper said , " This follows the typical concert video format of putting you in the best seat in the hall and letting the aura of a superior performer encaptivate your senses . " Sylvia Chase from The Wichita Eagle said that " seeing Madonna live in an arena and seeing her up , close and personal in the tour cassette is totally different . The energy , the movements , the provocation — all captures you more . " Stephen Holden from The New York Times gave it a positive review , stating " filmed with abrupt , swooping camera movements that accentuate the singer 's flouncing , slightly ungainly style of dancing , Madonna Live vividly captures the contradictory elements that have made the performer into a cultural icon in spite of a shrill , limited singing voice . In close @-@ up , Madonna 's provocative pouts , wiggles and come @-@ hither glances become a more than half @-@ deliberate burlesque of erotic centerfold photography . Both her post @-@ disco music and defiant strut suggest a child 's parody of grown @-@ up posturing . "
= = = Commercial performance = = =
The release debuted at 14 on Billboard 's Top Music Videocassettes chart , on December 7 , 1985 and reached a peak of 11 , the next week . The video started a slow climb on the chart , and on the issue dated January 18 , 1986 , it reached the top of the chart , replacing Prince & The Revolution : Live by The Revolution . On May 24 , 1986 , the video again climbed back in the top ten of the chart , at position two . It was present on the chart for a total of 65 weeks . Madonna Live : The Virgin Tour was the top selling music videocassette for 1986 . The video was certified two times platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) for shipment of 200 @,@ 000 copies and received a " Video Software Dealers Award " for the Most Popular Music Video , in September 1986 .
= = Track listing = =
= = = Formats = = =
It was released on VHS and later on Laserdisc , to this date no DVD release has been announced . It was also released as part of a three VHS box set The Madonna Collection in 2000 .
= = Credits and personnel = =
Daniel Kleinman – director
James Foley – director ( opening sequence )
Simon Fields – producer
Jerry Watson – cinematography
Jan de Bont – cinematography ( opening sequence )
Mitchell Sinoway – editor
Kenneth C. Barrows – camera operator
Brad Jeffries – choreographer
Rick Uber – online editor
Limelight Productions – production company
Credits adapted from the video 's liner notes .
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= New York State Route 317 =
New York State Route 317 ( NY 317 ) is a 3 @.@ 12 @-@ mile ( 5 @.@ 02 km ) long state highway within the town of Elbridge in Onondaga County , New York , in the United States . It begins at an intersection with NY 5 in the village of Elbridge and ends at a junction with NY 31 in the village of Jordan . The highway is known locally as Jordan Road and Main Street .
The route was once part of the Jordan and Skaneateles Plank Road , a plank road established by a New York State Legislature charter in the 1850s . It spanned a short distance from Jordan to the village of Skaneateles and was a successor to the Auburn and Syracuse Railroad , which ceased operations in 1834 . However , the plank road lasted less than two decades . In 1866 , the Legislature granted another charter , this time creating the Skaneateles Railroad and its corporation , which bought out most of the plank road company .
The alignment of Route 317 south of Jordan was originally County Route 105 ( CR 105 ) , a highway maintained by Onondaga County . The highway paralleled Valley Drive , which was designated as New York State Route 31C in the 1930s and located on the opposite ( western ) side of Skaneateles Creek . In 2002 , heavy flooding of the creek washed out a portion of Valley Drive . A bill to transfer maintenance of most of Valley Drive from the state of New York to local governments in exchange for maintenance of CR 105 was subsequently passed by the New York State Legislature and took effect April 1 , 2003 , at which time the NY 31C designation was removed . The former CR 105 and the portion of former NY 31C in Jordan were designated as NY 317 at the same time .
= = Route description = =
NY 317 begins at an intersection with NY 5 ( Main Street ) and South Street ( CR 122 ) in the Onondaga County village of Elbridge . The route heads northward from the central intersection , passing a small commercial lot to the west and several residential homes to the north and west . Just to the west of the highway is Valley Drive , formerly NY 31C , which parallels NY 317 for its entire length . Separating NY 317 and Valley Drive is Skaneateles Creek , which runs between the two highways .
After a short distance in the village , NY 317 , known as Jordan Road , continues northwest into the surrounding town of Elbridge , where roadside development ends and the highway passes through predominantly open fields . It loosely parallels Skaneateles Creek , turning slightly northward and northwestward to match curves in the waterway . It is during the latter northwest – southeast stretch that Valley Drive ends at a cul @-@ de @-@ sac amongst the woods that line the creek .
A short distance to the northwest , Valley Drive resumes near Crego Road . On NY 317 , the highway passes Maple Grove Cemetery , a small graveyard located in Elbridge . After this comes the intersection with Crego Road , one of two connectors between Valley Road and NY 317 . NY 317 then intersects with Whiting Road ( CR 183 ) , which heads to the east , before entering the village of Jordan .
In Jordan , NY 317 becomes Elbridge Street and turns west to intersect the northern terminus of Valley Drive . The highway proceeds through the southern portion of the village and crosses Skaneateles Creek to reach a junction with South Main Street . NY 317 turns north onto Main Street and has intersections with Mechanic Street ( CR 60 ) and North Hamilton Street ( designated as CR 271 south of Jordan ) before it terminates at a junction with NY 31 north of the village center but within the village limits .
= = History = =
= = = Jordan and Skaneateles Plank Road = = =
The modern routing of NY 317 was originally the northern part of the Jordan and Skaneateles Plank Road . Chartered in 1855 , the Jordan and Skaneateles Plank Road Company was set to provide a plank road from Jordan southward to Skaneateles . This plank road was constructed in the 1850s in place of the Syracuse and Auburn Railroad and a small railroad from Skaneateles to Skaneateles Junction , two crude railroads that were in the area which had ended service in 1836 and 1850 respectively . On March 25 , 1853 , the New York State Assembly proposed an additional toll gate to be constructed in Elbridge along the plank road . On June 15 , 1853 , the bill was passed by the Legislature and went into effect .
Although the plank road company lasted less than two decades , it had its share of controversy . In the January 1853 case of Wilson v. Rochester and Syracuse Railroad Company , Wilson , the plaintiff , was traveling southbound along the plank road through Elbridge . At a grade crossing with railroad tracks , Wilson fell off his horses and wagon upon hitting the tracks . He then fell onto the tracks below and was permanently injured as a result . In 1861 , during Jordan & Skaneateles Plank Road Company vs. Morley , the company sued Morley for evading the toll in Elbridge . Morley countered that the road was in disrepair . However , on the plaintiff 's side , the toll collector was aware that Morley had passed through the toll gate but took no action to enforce the toll . If Morley had paid , he would have been liable for $ 62 @.@ 50 ( equivalent to $ 1646 in 2016 ) .
On April 17 , 1866 , the plank road company was bought out by the Skaneateles Railroad Company . The state chartered the bill , the railroad was constructed and tolls were to be collected by the railroad company rather than the plank road company .
= = = Designation = = =
In 1908 , Valley Drive , a narrow , winding road along the western bank of Skaneateles Creek in the town of Elbridge , was included in Route 20 , an unsigned legislative route extending from Rochester in the west to Elbridge in the east . The highway was gradually taken over by the state of New York , beginning with the segment between the Elbridge and Jordan village lines . This section of Valley Drive was legislatively designated as part of State Highway 487 ( SH 487 ) and added to the state highway system on November 2 , 1908 . The portion within Elbridge was included in the state highway system on December 7 , 1911 , as part of SH 5080 . The Jordan segment was added to the state highway system as part of SH 5630 sometime after 1920 .
Valley Drive received its first posted designation in the mid @-@ 1920s when it was designated as NY 31A , a spur route of NY 31 that linked NY 31 in Jordan to NY 5 in Elbridge . The designation was short @-@ lived , however , as the route became the northernmost portion of NY 41 in the 1930 renumbering of state highways in New York . NY 41 was truncated to its present northern terminus in Skaneateles c . 1933 . Its former routing between Elbridge and Jordan was redesignated as NY 31C .
NY 31C remained unchanged until 2002 when part of Valley Drive was washed out by flooding from the nearby creek . A bill ( S6534 , 2002 ) was introduced in the New York State Senate on March 18 , 2002 , that would transfer ownership and maintenance of CR 105 , an alternate route between Jordan and Elbridge on the eastern bank of Skaneateles Creek , from Onondaga County to the New York State Department of Transportation and give Valley Drive to the town of Elbridge and the villages of Jordan and Elbridge . S6534 was passed by the State Senate on April 29 and by the Assembly on June 20 . It was signed into law by Governor George Pataki on August 6 , 2002 , and took effect April 1 , 2003 .
On April 1 , 2003 , NY 31C was effectively renumbered to NY 317 and rerouted south of the intersection of Valley Drive and Elbridge Street in Jordan to follow the former CR 105 to Elbridge . The washed @-@ out section of Valley Drive was never repaired , leaving Valley Drive as two separate dead end streets . The New York State Department of Transportation has made plans to remove the bridge carrying Valley Drive ( former NY 31C ) over Skaneateles Creek in the town of Elbridge . Demolition of the structure is scheduled to begin in mid @-@ 2014 and cost $ 300 @,@ 000 . Once removed , the bridge , built in 1921 , will not be replaced .
= = Major intersections = =
The entire route is in Onondaga County .
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= Lysergic Acid Diethylamide ( Fringe ) =
" Lysergic Acid Diethylamide " is the 19th episode of the third season of the American science fiction drama television series Fringe , and the 62nd episode overall . The narrative followed the Fringe team 's attempts to extract William Bell from Olivia 's brain by entering her mind with the help of LSD .
The episode 's teleplay was co @-@ written by J.H. Wyman and Jeff Pinkner , while Wyman and Pinkner co @-@ wrote the story with Akiva Goldsman . Joe Chappelle served as director . It marked the return of previous guest actor Leonard Nimoy , who had announced his retirement the previous year . Production of the animated portions was completed by Zoic Studios in an eight @-@ week effort , the longest amount of man hours placed into a Fringe episode .
The episode first aired on April 15 , 2011 in the United States on the Fox network . An estimated 3 @.@ 6 million viewers tuned in , helping the episode earn a 1 @.@ 4 ratings share for those 18 – 49 , tying a series low . Critical reception was generally positive , as multiple reviewers praised the creativity of the writers .
= = Plot = =
The mind of William Bell ( Leonard Nimoy ) still possesses Olivia 's ( Anna Torv ) body after several failed attempts to extract it to recently deceased corpses . Walter ( John Noble ) and William believe that they have less than a day before Olivia 's mind will be lost . They realize that Olivia is unaware that she has been possessed by William 's mind , and instead has likely locked her ego away , making it difficult to contact her by normal means . Walter comes up with a plan : he and Peter ( Joshua Jackson ) will enter Olivia 's mind with the aid of LSD to locate her ego and help it to regain dominance in her mind , while Walter hopes to download William 's mind into a computer .
Inside Olivia 's mind , Walter and Peter find they stand out as invaders , and the people that populate her mind , including a vision of her step @-@ father ( Chris Bradford ) , seek to stop them . Walter sees someone sending a Morse code signal from William Bell 's office in one of the World Trade Center buildings . After evading a crowd and a trap set by a false vision of Nina Sharp ( Blair Brown ) , they arrive at Bell 's office , where they find William waiting for them as an animated cartoon .
The three are unable to find clues to Olivia 's ego , something that William thought would be present if Olivia was looking to be found . Peter realizes that when Olivia is scared , she retreats to somewhere safe , and suggests they search her mind 's version of Jacksonville , her childhood home . As they travel by zeppelin , William tries to encourage Walter that he no longer needs Bell 's guidance . They are soon attacked by a man ( Ulrich Thomsen ) wearing an X @-@ marked t @-@ shirt , who tears open the side of the zeppelin ; Walter is pulled out by the rush of air and falls to his death — waking him back in the real world .
William and Peter safely land in Jacksonville , and Peter directs them to find the home among the military housing where Olivia stayed at as a child , marked by a red @-@ painted door by her birth @-@ father . Once there , Peter finds the adult Olivia waiting for him , but realizes by her eyes that this is not her . A younger Olivia reveals herself as Olivia 's true ego ; assured of Peter 's identity , she willingly goes with him and Bell . However , they are attacked by the image of her step @-@ father and several military personnel . Peter sacrifices himself to protect her , waking back up in the real world . Olivia is able to stand up against her past fears and stops their advance . William explains that she will be able to return to possession of her body as Walter , in the real world , attempts to extract William 's mind .
Olivia wakes back up to the real world , free of William 's mind . Walter find that his effort to store William 's mind has failed , and takes time to consider William 's last message he gave to Olivia : " I knew the dog wouldn 't hunt " . Later , Peter visits Olivia to rekindle their relationship when he notices a drawing of the same man in the X t @-@ shirt he saw in her mind . Olivia cannot name the man , but nonchalantly refers to him as the person who is going to kill her .
= = Production = =
The episode 's teleplay was co @-@ written by co @-@ showrunners Jeff Pinkner and J.H. Wyman , while Pinkner , Wyman , and consulting producer Akiva Goldsman co @-@ wrote the story . Executive producer Joe Chappelle served as director .
" Lysergic Acid Diethylamide " features the return of guest actor Leonard Nimoy to television , as he had previously announced his intention to retire from acting . Nimoy stated that when the writers approached him about the role , he jokingly commented on having experience playing characters returning from the dead — referring to the death of Spock in the Star Trek movies — but expressed interest because of his appreciation of the show and its writing in general . Nimoy has stated that if the writers wanted to use him in future episodes , he would be happy to continue to help .
= = = Filming = = =
The cast found out a couple of weeks before filming the episode that parts would be in animation . The animated portions were produced with Zoic Studios . Over an eight @-@ week period , the studio defined the primary Fringe characters into their animated counterparts , and used footage of the actors and fight scene choreography to provide motion for the characters . The animators used a stand @-@ in for Nimoy so that he did not have to fly to Vancouver from Los Angeles . The studio aimed to achieve a mixed look between stylized and authenticity to allow them to focus on animating the characters ' emotions . The work also include recreating some of the settings already established from Fringe , such as Bell 's office . Other parts of Olivia 's dreamscape were handpainted scenes , projected onto 3D plates and used within the animation software . Andrew Orloff , Zoic 's creative director commented , " This project was one of the most intensive and rewarding we have worked on in Zoic ’ s history . It was an incredible undertaking , from the amazing writers at Fringe to the animation production that is both steeped in tradition and groundbreaking . " The episode ultimately contained sixteen minutes of animation ; executive producer Jeff Pinkner noted that the amount of man hours placed into the episode was " by far " the longest the series has had to date . The writers have cited Sgt. Pepper 's Lonely Hearts Club Band and Waltz with Bashir as influences for the episode .
John Noble talked about the episode in an interview with A.V. Club , " This is part of the risk @-@ taking that our creators will go for . It hadn ’ t been done before . We wanted to find a solution to a plot problem . And we still had Leonard Nimoy ’ s presence there , even though he [ William Bell ] was dead . So they came up with the bizarre idea of putting his presence into Anna Torv , which is outrageous . Outrageous , and yet we did it , and had a lot of fun doing it . Then we had to get him out of it . Because Leonard ’ s officially retired , so we did the animation to use his voice . "
" Lysergic Acid Diethylamide " concluded Anna Torv 's " Bellivia " arc . Pinkner defended the storyline against some critical fans , " We understand that some people were frustrated , just like some people were frustrated with the idea of Bolivia having a baby . But there are things that we feel are entertaining to us , and that allow us to explore themes that ... we can ’ t otherwise access . And we think that if it ’ s entertaining , and it allows Anna a chance to stretch , and it gives Walter Bishop his old partner back for an episode so we can see what they were like together ... those are also perfectly valid reasons for doing those episodes . " Wyman added , " Yeah , it was important . I mean , you know , for people that say it was just a diversion , well , there was something really important involved in that Walter / William relationship . That was part of Walter ’ s self @-@ actualization , that moment when William Bell says , ' Look , you have to be on your own . You have to walk the path that you believe in . You gain some humility where there once was hubris , and it ’ s really important that you depend on yourself . ' Part of our plan has always been to get Walter to embrace his flaws and uniqueness as strengths , rather than thinking of them inhibiting his performance as a scientist and as a character . We were really anxious to get that across , and the best person to do that for us was William Bell , because Walter depended so much on William in so many different ways . So that story came around at a time where we really needed to have it . " Because the season finale did not resolve the plotline of Olivia and the man from the blimp , Pinkner commented in a post @-@ finale interview that " It ’ s definitely still in play . Without being too spoilery , there are things you think you have time to explore in any given season , but don ’ t . But yes , we are very interested in that moment and the implications of that . "
The live action parts of " Lysergic Acid Diethylamide " were shot along west Hastings Street in Vancouver during the latter part of February 2011 .
= = = Marketing = = =
A fourth season of Fringe was announced on March 25 , 2011 . To celebrate this , Fox began a promotion the day " Lysergic Acid Diethylamide " aired , lasting four weeks until the season finale . Fans of the series were given the opportunity to win unique replicas of certain Fringe props at Fox 's website or at the Facebook account for Fringe .
As with other Fringe episodes , Fox released a science lesson plan in collaboration with Science Olympiad for grade school children , focusing on the science seen in " Lysergic Acid Diethylamide " , with the intention of having " students learn about wind power and turbine design . "
= = Cultural references = =
Astrid downloads the 1972 version of the PBS children 's show ZOOM for Walter on his tablet .
= = Reception = =
= = = Ratings = = =
" Lysergic Acid Diethylamide " was watched by 3 @.@ 6 million viewers on initial broadcast , with a 1 @.@ 4 rating in the target 18 – 49 age demographic , tying its previous season low . The episode lost 100 @,@ 000 viewers between the first half and the second . SFScope Fringe reviewer Sarah Stegall noted that the episode 's ratings were not surprising , considering the series had just returned from a three @-@ week break . Time shifted viewing led to an increase of 69 percent in the all @-@ important 18 @-@ 49 demographic , a 2 @.@ 2 rating share . This was the largest percent increase of the week .
= = = Reviews = = =
Writing for the Los Angeles Times , Andrew Hanson questioned whether the writers had been using drugs lately because of the surge of drug @-@ related episodes ; though he loved it , he acknowledged that the episode was one " you are either going to love or hate " , explaining that it " got a little crazy using Olivia ’ s mind as a setting , [ but ] it stays grounded through the emotional current running underneath ... you have to give Fringe credit for taking a risky , bold move . " SFScope writer Sarah Stegall called the episode " brilliant , risky , fascinating , and dangerous . It 's not a tack this show can afford to take very often , but I like it when it does . "
A.V. Club 's Noel Murray graded the episode with an A- , admitting that despite its faults , he " enjoyed the hell out of " it . He loved it for several reasons : he is a big fan of Anna Torv 's Bellivia performance and its plotline , the drugs incorporated into the plot , its Inception @-@ like qualities , the animation , and Bell 's final goodbye . IGN Fringe reviewer Ramsey Isler rated the episode 8 @.@ 0 / 10 , calling it " one of the most memorable Fringe episodes to date . " Like Murray , Isler also noted the similarities to Inception as well as to the 1968 film Yellow Submarine and the 1977 science fiction novel A Scanner Darkly . Isler did however remark that " Lysergic Acid Diethylamide " " end [ ed ] a string of episodes that didn 't really have much point " , though it was a " beautiful episode that doesn 't really do much for the mythology of the series ... it sure was a blast to watch . "
TV Guide ranked " Lysergic Acid Diethylamide " the 24th best television episode of the year , while The A.V. Club staff highlighted the episode in their review of the best television shows of 2011 . Jeff Jensen of Entertainment Weekly named " Lysergic Acid Diethylamide " the fourteenth best episode of the series , explaining " Another nutty number 19 , another loony LSD trip , another chance for Fringe to get innovative : With William Bell occupying Olivia 's body and Olivia 's mind hidden away within her dense and tumultuous subconscious , Walter and Peter dropped acid and download into Olivia 's brain to rescue her . Among many memorable bits : The lengthy animated sequence ( Belly , why are you a cartoon ? ) , buttoned @-@ up Broyles loopy reaction to LSD exposure , and the mysterious Max X ( now believed to be a riff on Bell ) , the Zeppelin saboteur whom Olivia predicted would one day kill her . "
= = = Awards and nominations = = =
" Lysergic Acid Diethylamide " was nominated for Best Episode at the 2011 Portal Awards , given annually by Airlock Alpha . It lost to the Game of Thrones episode " Winter Is Coming " .
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= Baron Munchausen =
Baron Munchausen / ˈmʌn.tʃaʊ.zən / is a fictional German nobleman created by the German writer Rudolf Erich Raspe in his 1785 book Baron Munchausen 's Narrative of his Marvellous Travels and Campaigns in Russia . The character is loosely based on a real baron , Hieronymus Karl Friedrich , Freiherr von Münchhausen ( 1720 – 1797 , German pronunciation : [ ˈmʏnç ( h ) aʊzən ] ) .
Born in Bodenwerder , Electorate of Brunswick @-@ Luneburg , the real @-@ life Münchhausen fought for the Russian Empire in the Russo @-@ Turkish War . On retiring in 1760 , he became a minor celebrity within German aristocratic circles for telling outrageous tall tales based on his military career . After hearing some of Münchhausen 's stories , Raspe adapted them anonymously into literary form , first in German as ephemeral magazine pieces and then in English as the 1785 book , which was first published in Oxford by a bookseller named Smith . The book was soon translated into other European languages , including a German version expanded by the poet Gottfried August Bürger . The real @-@ life Münchhausen was deeply upset at the development of a fictional character bearing his name , and threatened legal proceedings against the book 's publisher . Perhaps fearing a libel suit , Raspe never acknowledged his authorship of the work , which was only established posthumously .
The fictional Baron 's exploits , narrated in the first @-@ person , focus on his impossible achievements as a sportsman , soldier , and traveller , for instance riding on a cannonball , fighting a forty @-@ foot crocodile , and travelling to the Moon . Intentionally comedic , the stories play on the absurdity and inconsistency of Munchausen 's claims , containing an undercurrent of social satire . The earliest illustrations of the character , perhaps created by Raspe himself , depict Munchausen as slim and youthful , although later illustrators have depicted him as an older man , and have added the sharply beaked nose and twirled moustache that have become part of the character 's definitive visual representation . Raspe 's book was a major international success , becoming the core text for numerous English , continental European , and American editions that were expanded and rewritten by other writers . The book in its various revised forms remained widely read throughout the nineteenth century , especially in editions for young readers .
Versions of the fictional Baron have appeared on stage , screen , radio , and television , as well as in other literary works . Though the Baron Munchausen stories are no longer well @-@ known in English @-@ speaking countries , they are still popular in continental Europe . The character has inspired numerous memorials and museums , and several medical conditions and other concepts are named after him , including Munchausen syndrome , the Münchhausen trilemma , and Munchausen numbers .
= = Historical figure = =
Hieronymus Karl Friedrich von Münchhausen was born on 11 May 1720 in Bodenwerder , Electorate of Brunswick @-@ Lüneburg . He was a younger son of the " Black Line " of Rinteln @-@ Bodenwerder , an aristocratic family in the Duchy of Brunswick @-@ Lüneburg . His cousin , Gerlach Adolph von Münchhausen , was the founder of the University of Göttingen and later the Prime Minister of the Electorate of Hanover . Münchhausen started as a page to Anthony Ulrich II of Brunswick @-@ Wolfenbüttel , and followed his employer to the Russian Empire during the Austro @-@ Russian – Turkish War ( 1735 – 39 ) . In 1739 , he was appointed a cornet in the Russian cavalry regiment , the Brunswick @-@ Cuirassiers . On 27 November 1740 , he was promoted to lieutenant . He was stationed in Riga , but participated in two campaigns against the Turks in 1740 and 1741 . In 1744 he married Jacobine von Dunten , and in 1750 he was promoted to Rittmeister ( cavalry captain ) .
In 1760 Münchhausen retired to live as a Freiherr at his estates in Bodenwerder , where he remained until his death in 1797 . It was there , especially at parties given for the area 's aristocrats , that he developed a reputation as an imaginative after @-@ dinner storyteller , creating witty and highly exaggerated accounts of his adventures in Russia . Over the ensuing thirty years , his storytelling abilities gained such renown that he frequently received visits from travelling nobles wanting to hear his stories . One guest described Münchhausen as telling his stories " cavalierly , indeed with military emphasis , yet without any concession to the whimsicality of the man of the world ; describing his adventures as one would incidents which were in the natural course of events " . Rather than being considered a liar , Münchhausen was seen as an honest man . As another contemporary put it , Münchhausen 's unbelievable narratives were designed not to deceive , but " to ridicule the disposition for the marvellous which he observed in some of his acquaintances " .
Münchhausen 's wife Jacobine von Dunten died in 1790 . In January 1794 , Münchhausen married Bernardine von Brunn , fifty @-@ seven years his junior . Von Brunn reportedly took ill soon after the marriage and spent the summer of 1794 in the spa town of Bad Pyrmont , although contemporary gossip claimed that she spent her time dancing and flirting . Von Brunn gave birth to a daughter , Maria Wilhemina , on 16 February 1795 , nine months after her summer trip . Münchhausen filed an official complaint that the child was not his , and spent the last years of his life in divorce proceedings and alimony litigation . Münchhausen died childless on 22 February 1797 .
= = Fictionalization = =
The fictionalized character was created by a German writer , scientist , and con artist , Rudolf Erich Raspe . Raspe probably met Hieronymus von Münchhausen while studying at the University of Göttingen , and may even have been invited to dine with him at the mansion at Bodenwerder . Raspe 's later career mixed writing and scientific scholarship with theft and swindling ; when the German police issued advertisements for his arrest in 1775 , he fled continental Europe and settled in England .
In his native German language , Raspe wrote a collection of anecdotes inspired by Münchhausen 's tales , calling the collection " M @-@ h @-@ s @-@ nsche Geschichten " ( " M @-@ h @-@ s @-@ n Stories " ) . It remains unclear how much of Raspe 's material comes directly from the Baron , but the majority of the stories are derived from older sources , including Heinrich Bebel 's Facetiæ ( 1508 ) and Samuel Gotthold Lange 's Deliciæ Academicæ ( 1765 ) . " M @-@ h @-@ s @-@ nsche Geschichten " appeared as a feature in the eighth issue of the Vade mecum für lustige Leute ( Handbook for Fun @-@ loving People ) , a Berlin humor magazine , in 1781 . Raspe published a sequel , " Noch zwei M @-@ Lügen " ( " Two more M @-@ Fibs " ) , in the tenth issue of the same magazine in 1783 . The hero and narrator of these stories was identified only as " M @-@ h @-@ s @-@ n " , keeping Raspe 's inspiration partly obscured while still allowing knowledgeable German readers to make the connection to Münchhausen . Raspe 's name did not appear at all .
In 1785 , while supervising mines at Dolcoath in Cornwall , Raspe adapted the Vade mecum anecdotes into a short English @-@ language book , this time identifying the narrator of the book as " Baron Munchausen " . Other than the anglicization of Münchhausen to " Munchausen " , Raspe this time made no attempt to hide the identity of the man who had inspired him , though he still withheld his own name .
This English edition , the first version of the text in which Munchausen appeared as a fully developed literary character , had a circuitous publication history . It first appeared anonymously as Baron Munchausen 's Narrative of his Marvellous Travels and Campaigns in Russia , a 49 @-@ page book in 12mo size , published in Oxford by the bookseller Smith in late 1785 and sold for a shilling . A second edition released early the following year , retitled Singular Travels , Campaigns , Voyages , and Sporting Adventures of Baron Munnikhouson , commonly pronounced Munchausen , added five more stories and four illustrations ; though the book was still anonymous , the new text was probably by Raspe , and the illustrations may have been his work as well .
By May 1786 , Raspe no longer had control over the book , which was taken over by a different publisher , G. Kearsley . Kearsley , intending the book for a higher @-@ class audience than the original editions had been , commissioned extensive additions and revisions from other hands , including new stories , twelve new engravings , and much rewriting of Raspe 's prose . This third edition was sold at two shillings , twice the price of the original , as Gulliver Revived , or the Singular Travels , Campaigns , Voyages , and Adventures of Baron Munikhouson , commonly pronounced Munchausen .
Kearsley 's version was a marked popular success . Over the next few years , the publishing house issued further editions in quick succession , adding still more non @-@ Raspe material along the way ; even the full @-@ length Sequel to the Adventures of Baron Munchausen , again not by Raspe and originally published in 1792 by a rival printer , was quickly subsumed into the body of stories . In the process of revision , Raspe 's prose style was heavily modified ; instead of his conversational language and sportsmanlike turns of phrase , Kearsley 's writers opted for a blander and more formal tone imitating Augustan prose . Most ensuing English @-@ language editions , including even the major editions produced by Thomas Seccombe in 1895 and F. J. Harvey Darton in 1930 , reproduce one of the rewritten Kearsley versions rather than Raspe 's original text .
At least ten editions or translations of the book appeared before Raspe 's death in 1794 . Translations of the book into French , Spanish , and German were published in 1786 . The text reached the United States in 1805 , expanded to include American topical satire by an anonymous Federalist writer , probably Thomas Green Fessenden .
The first German translation , Wunderbare Reisen zu Wasser und Lande , was made by the German Romantic poet Gottfried August Bürger . Bürger 's text is a close translation of Smith 's second edition , but also includes an interpolated story , based on a German legend called " The Six Wonderful Servants " . Two new engravings were added to illustrate the interpolated material . The German version of the stories proved to be even more popular than the English one . A second German edition in 1788 included heavily altered material from an expanded Kearsley edition , and an original German sequel , Nachtrag zu den wunderbaren Reisen zu Wasser und Lande , was published in 1789 . After these publications , the English and Continental versions of the Raspe text continued to diverge , following increasingly different traditions of included material .
Raspe , probably for fear of a libel suit from the real @-@ life Baron von Münchhausen , never admitted his authorship of the book . It was often credited to Bürger , sometimes with an accompanying rumor that the real @-@ life Baron von Münchhausen had met Bürger in Pyrmont and dictated the entire work to him . Another rumor , which circulated widely soon after the German translation was published , claimed that it was a competitive collaboration by three University of Göttingen scholars — Bürger , Abraham Gotthelf Kästner , and Georg Christoph Lichtenberg — with each of the three trying to outdo one another by writing the most unbelievable tale . The scholar Johann Georg Meusel correctly credited Raspe for the core text , but mistakenly asserted that Raspe had written it in German and that an anonymous translator was responsible for the English version . Raspe 's authorship was finally proven in 1824 by Bürger 's biographer , Karl Reinhard .
In the first few years after publication , German readers widely assumed that the real @-@ life Baron von Münchhausen was responsible for the stories . According to witnesses , Münchhausen was deeply angry that the book had dragged his name into public consciousness and insulted his honor as a nobleman . Münchhausen became a recluse , refusing to host parties or tell any more stories , and he attempted without success to bring legal proceedings against Bürger and the publisher of the translation .
= = = Publication history = = =
The following tables summarize the early publication history of Raspe 's text , from 1785 to 1800 . Unless otherwise referenced , information in the tables comes from the Munchausen bibliography established by John Carswell .
= = Fictional character = =
The fictional Baron Munchausen is a braggart soldier , most strongly defined by his comically overexaggerated boasts about his own adventures ; all of the stories in Raspe 's book are told in first @-@ person narrative , with a prefatory note explaining that " the Baron is supposed to relate these extraordinary Adventures over his Bottle , when surrounded by his Friends " . The Baron 's stories imply him to be a superhuman figure who spends most of his time either getting out of absurd predicaments or indulging in equally absurd moments of gentle mischief . In some of his best @-@ known stories , the Baron rides a cannonball , travels to the Moon , is swallowed by a giant fish in the Mediterranean Sea , saves himself from drowning by pulling on his own hair , fights a forty @-@ foot crocodile , enlists a wolf to pull his sleigh , and uses laurel tree branches to fix his horse when the animal is accidentally cut in two .
In the stories he narrates , the Baron is shown as a calm , rational man , describing what he experiences with simple objectivity ; absurd happenings elicit , at most , mild surprise from him , and he shows serious doubt about any unlikely events he has not witnessed himself . The resulting narrative effect is an ironic tone , encouraging skepticism in the reader and marked by a running undercurrent of subtle social satire . In addition to his fearlessness when hunting and fighting , he is suggested to be a debonair , polite gentleman given to moments of gallantry , with a scholarly penchant for knowledge , a tendency to be pedantically accurate about details in his stories , and a deep appreciation for food and drink of all kinds . The Baron also provides a solid geographical and social context for his narratives , peppering them with topical allusions and satire about recent events ; indeed , many of the references in Raspe 's original text are to historical incidents in the real @-@ life Münchhausen 's military career .
Because the feats the Baron describes are overtly implausible , they are easily recognizable as fiction , with a strong implication that the Baron is a liar . Whether he expects his audience to believe him varies from version to version ; in Raspe 's original 1785 text , he simply narrates his stories without further comment , but in the later extended versions he is insistent that he is telling the truth . In any case , the Baron appears to believe every word of his own stories , no matter how internally inconsistent they become , and he usually appears tolerantly indifferent to any disbelief he encounters in others .
Illustrators of the Baron stories have included Thomas Rowlandson , Alfred Crowquill , George Cruikshank , Ernst Ludwig Riepenhausen , Theodor Hosemann , Adolf Schrödter , Gustave Doré , William Strang , W. Heath Robinson , and Ronald Searle . The Finnish @-@ American cartoonist Klaus Nordling featured the Baron in a weekly Baron Munchausen comic strip from 1935 to 1937 , and in 1962 , Raspe 's text was adapted for Classics Illustrated # 146 ( British series ) , with both interior and cover art by the British cartoonist Denis Gifford .
In the first published illustrations , which may have been drawn by Raspe himself , the Baron appears slim and youthful . For the 1792 Sequel to the Adventures of Baron Munchausen , an anonymous artist drew the Baron as a dignified but tired old soldier whose face is marred by injuries from his adventures ; this illustration remained the standard portrait of the Baron for about seventy years , and its imagery was echoed in Cruikshank 's depictions of the character . Doré , illustrating a Théophile Gautier fils translation in 1862 , retained the sharply beaked nose and twirled moustache from the 1792 portrait , but gave the Baron a healthier and more affable appearance ; the Doré Baron became the definitive visual representation for the character .
The relationship between the real and fictional Barons is complex . On the one hand , the fictional Baron Munchausen can be easily distinguished from the historical figure Hieronymus von Münchhausen ; the character is so separate from his namesake that at least one critic , the writer W. L. George , concluded that the namesake 's identity was irrelevant to the general reader , and Richard Asher named Munchausen syndrome using the anglicized spelling so that the disorder would reference the character rather than the real person . On the other hand , Münchhausen remains strongly connected to the character he inspired , and is still nicknamed the Lügenbaron ( " Baron of Lies " ) in German . As the Munchausen researcher Bernhard Wiebel has said , " These two barons are the same and they are not the same . "
= = Critical and popular reception = =
Reviewing the first edition of Raspe 's book in December 1785 , a writer in The Critical Review commented appreciatively :
This is a satirical production calculated to throw ridicule on the bold assertions of some parliamentary declaimers . If rant may be best foiled at its own weapons , the author 's design is not ill @-@ founded ; for the marvellous has never been carried to a more whimsical and ludicrous extent .
A writer for The English Review around the same time was less approving : " We do not understand how a collection of lies can be called a satire on lying , any more than the adventures of a woman of pleasure can be called a satire on fornication . "
W. L. George described the fictional Baron as a " comic giant " of literature , describing his boasts as " splendid , purposeless lie [ s ] born of the joy of life " . Théophile Gautier fils highlighted that the Baron 's adventures are endowed with an " absurd logic pushed to the extreme and which backs away from nothing " . According to an interview , Jules Verne relished reading the Baron stories as a child , and used them as inspiration for his own adventure novels . Thomas Seccombe commented that " Munchausen has undoubtedly achieved [ a permanent place in literature ] ... The Baron 's notoriety is universal , his character proverbial , and his name as familiar as that of Mr. Lemuel Gulliver , or Robinson Crusoe . "
Steven T. Byington wrote that " Munchausen 's modest seat in the Valhalla of classic literature is undisputed " , comparing the stories to American tall tales and concluding that the Baron is " the patriarch , the perfect model , the fadeless fragrant flower , of liberty from accuracy " . The folklore writer Alvin Schwartz cited the Baron stories as one of the most important influences on the American tall tale tradition . In a 2012 study of the Baron , the literary scholar Sarah Tindal Kareem noted that " Munchausen embodies , in his deadpan presentation of absurdities , the novelty of fictionality [ and ] the sophistication of aesthetic illusion " , adding that the additions to Raspe 's text made by Kearsley and others tend to mask these ironic literary qualities by emphasizing that the Baron is lying .
By the beginning of the nineteenth century , Kearsley 's phenomenally popular version of Raspe 's book had spread to abridged chapbook editions for young readers , who soon became the main audience for the stories . The book , especially in its adaptations for children , remained widely popular throughout the century . It was translated into nearly all languages spoken in Europe ; Robert Southey referred to it as " a book which everybody knows , because all boys read it " . Notable later translations include Gautier 's French rendering and Korney Chukovsky 's popular Russian adaptation . By the 1850s , Munchausen had come into slang use as a verb meaning " to tell extravagantly untruthful pseudo @-@ autobiographical stories " . Robert Chambers , in an 1863 almanac , cited the iconic 1792 illustration of the Baron by asking rhetorically :
Who is there that has not , in his youth , enjoyed The Surprising Travels and Adventures of Baron Munchausen in Russia , the Caspian Sea , Iceland , Turkey , & c. a slim volume — all too short , indeed — illustrated by a formidable portrait of the baron in front , with his broad @-@ sword laid over his shoulder , and several deep gashes on his manly countenance ? I presume they must be few .
Though Raspe 's book is no longer widely read by English speakers , the Munchausen stories remain popular in Europe , especially in Germany and in Russia .
= = In culture = =
= = = Literature = = =
As well as the many augmented and adapted editions of Raspe 's text , the fictional Baron has occasionally appeared in other standalone works . In 1838 – 39 , Karl Leberecht Immermann published the long novel Münchhausen : Eine Geschichte in Arabesken ( Münchhausen : A History of Arabesques ) as an homage to the character , and Adolf Ellissen 's Munchausens Lügenabenteur , an elaborate expansion of the stories , appeared in 1846 . In his 1886 philosophical treatise Beyond Good and Evil , Friedrich Nietzsche uses one of the Baron 's adventures , the one in which he rescues himself from a swamp , as a metaphor for belief in complete metaphysical free will ; Nietzsche calls this belief an attempt " to pull oneself up into existence by the hair , out of the swamps of nothingness " .
In the late nineteenth century , the Baron appeared as a character in John Kendrick Bangs 's comic novels A House @-@ Boat on the Styx , Pursuit of the House @-@ Boat , and The Enchanted Type @-@ Writer . Shortly after , in 1901 , Bangs published Mr. Munchausen , a collection of new Munchausen stories , closely following the style and humor of the original tales . Hugo Gernsback 's second novel , Baron Münchhausen 's New Scientific Adventures , put the Baron character in a science fiction setting ; the novel was serialized in The Electrical Experimenter from May 1915 to February 1917 .
Pierre Henri Cami 's character Baron de Crac , a French soldier and courtier under Louis XV , is an imitation of the Baron Munchausen stories . In 1998 , the British game designer James Wallis used the Baron character to create a multi @-@ player storytelling game , The Extraordinary Adventures of Baron Munchausen , in which players improvise Munchausen @-@ like first @-@ person stories while overcoming objections and other interruptions from opponents .
= = = Stage and audio = = =
On stage , Harlequin Munchausen , or the Fountain of Love , a pantomime based on the Raspe text , was produced in London in 1818 , and Herbert Eulenberg made the Baron the main character of a 1900 play , Münchhausen . The Expressionist writer Walter Hasenclever turned the stories into a comedy , Münchhausen , in 1934 . Grigori Gorin used the Baron as the hero of his 1976 play That Very Munchausen ; a film version was made in 1980 . Baron Prášil , a Czech musical about the Baron , opened in 2010 in Prague . The following year , the National Black Light Theatre of Prague toured the United Kingdom with a nonmusical production of The Adventures of Baron Munchausen .
In 1932 , the comedy writer Billy Wells adapted Baron Munchausen for a radio comedy routine starring the comedians Jack Pearl and Cliff Hall . In the routine , Pearl 's Baron would relate his unbelievable experiences in a thick German accent to Hall 's " straight man " character , Charlie . When Charlie had had enough and expressed disbelief , the Baron would invariably retort : " Vass you dere , Sharlie ? " The line became a popular and much @-@ quoted catchphrase , and by early 1933 The Jack Pearl Show was the second most popular series on American radio ( after Eddie Cantor 's program ) . Pearl attempted to adapt his portrayal to film in Meet the Baron in 1933 , playing a modern character mistaken for the Baron , but the film was not a success . Pearl 's popularity gradually declined between 1933 and 1937 , though he attempted to revive the Baron character several times before ending his last radio series in 1951 .
For a 1972 Caedmon Records recording of some of the stories , Peter Ustinov voiced the Baron . A review in The Reading Teacher noted that Ustinov 's portrayal highlighted " the braggadocio personality of the Baron " , with " self @-@ adulation ... plainly discernible in the intonational innuendo " .
= = = Film = = =
The early French filmmaker Georges Méliès , who greatly admired the Baron Munchausen stories , filmed Baron Munchausen 's Dream in 1911 . Méliès 's short silent film , which has little in common with the Raspe text , follows a sleeping Baron through a surrealistic succession of intoxication @-@ induced dreams . Méliès may also have used the Baron 's journey to the moon as an inspiration for his well @-@ known 1902 film A Trip to the Moon . In the late 1930s , he planned to collaborate with the Dada artist Hans Richter on a new film version of the Baron stories , but the project was left unfinished at his death in 1938 . Richter attempted to complete it the following year , taking on Jacques Prévert , Jacques Brunius , and Maurice Henry as screenwriters , but the beginning of the Second World War put a permanent halt to the production .
The French animator Emile Cohl produced a version of the stories using silhouette cutout animation in 1913 ; other animated versions were produced by Richard Felgenauer in Germany in 1920 , and by Paul Peroff in the United States in 1929 . Colonel Heeza Liar , the protagonist of the first animated cartoon series in cinema history , was created by John Randolph Bray in 1913 as an amalgamation of the Baron and Teddy Roosevelt . The Italian director Paolo Azzurri filmed The Adventures of Baron Munchausen in 1914 , and the British director F. Martin Thornton made a short silent film featuring the Baron , The New Adventures of Baron Munchausen , the following year . In 1940 , the Czech director Martin Frič filmed Baron Prášil , starring the comic actor Vlasta Burian as a twentieth @-@ century descendant of the Baron .
For the German film studio Ufa 's twenty @-@ fifth anniversary in 1943 , Joseph Goebbels hired the filmmaker Josef von Báky to direct Münchhausen , a big @-@ budget color film about the Baron . David Stewart Hull describes Hans Albers 's Baron as " jovial but somewhat sinister " , while Tobias Nagle writes that Albers imparts " a male and muscular zest for action and testosterone @-@ driven adventure " . A German musical comedy , Münchhausen in Afrika , made as a vehicle for the Austrian singing star Peter Alexander , appeared in 1957 . Karel Zeman 's 1961 Czech film The Fabulous Baron Munchausen commented on the Baron 's adventures from a contemporary perspective , highlighting the importance of the poetic imagination to scientific achievement ; Zeman 's stylized mise @-@ en @-@ scène , based on Doré 's illustrations for the book , combined animation with live @-@ action actors , including Miloš Kopecký as the Baron .
In the Soviet Union , Soyuzmultfilm released a 16 @-@ minute stop @-@ motion animation Adventures of Baron Munchausen in 1967 , directed by Anatoly Karanovich . Another Soviet animated version was produced as a series of short films , Munchausen 's Adventures , in 1973 and 1974 . The French animator Jean Image filmed The Fabulous Adventures of the Legendary Baron Munchausen in 1979 , and followed it with a 1984 sequel , Moon Madness . Oleg Yankovsky appeared as the Baron in the 1980 Russian television film That Same Munchausen , directed by Mark Zakharov from Grigori Gorin 's play . The film , a commentary on Soviet censorship and social mores , imagines an ostracized Baron attempting to prove the truth of his adventures in a disbelieving and conformity @-@ driven world .
In 1988 , Terry Gilliam adapted the Raspe stories into a lavish Hollywood film , The Adventures of Baron Munchausen , with the Canadian stage actor John Neville in the lead . Roger Ebert , in his review of the film , described Neville 's Baron as a man who " seems sensible and matter @-@ of @-@ fact , as anyone would if they had spent a lifetime growing accustomed to the incredible " . The German actor Jan Josef Liefers starred in a 2012 two @-@ part television film titled Baron Münchhausen ; according to a Spiegel Online review , his characterization of the Baron strongly resembled Johnny Depp 's performance as Jack Sparrow in the Pirates of the Caribbean film series .
= = Legacy = =
= = = Memorials = = =
In 2004 , a fan club calling itself Munchausen 's Grandchildren ( Внучата Мюнхаузена ) was founded in the Russian city of Kaliningrad ( formerly Königsberg ) . The club 's early activities included identifying " historical proofs " of the fictional Baron 's travels through Königsberg , such as a jackboot supposedly belonging to the Baron and a sperm whale skeleton said to be that of the whale in whose belly the Baron was trapped .
On 18 June 2005 , to celebrate the 750th anniversary of Kaliningrad , a monument to the Baron was unveiled as a gift from Bodenwerder , portraying the Baron 's cannonball ride . Bodenwerder sports a Munchausen monument in front of its Town Hall , as well a Munchausen museum including a large collection of illustrated editions of the stories . Another Munchausen Museum ( Minhauzena Muzejs ) exists in Duntes Muiža , Latvia , home of the real Baron 's first wife ; the couple had lived in the town for six years , before moving back to the baronial estate in Hanover . In 2005 , to mark the real @-@ life Baron 's 285th birthday , the National Bank of Latvia issued a commemorative silver coin .
= = = Nomenclature = = =
In 1951 , the British physician Richard Asher published an article in The Lancet describing patients whose factitious disorders led them to lie about their own states of health . Asher proposed to call the disorder " Munchausen 's syndrome " , commenting : " Like the famous Baron von Munchausen , the persons affected have always travelled widely ; and their stories , like those attributed to him , are both dramatic and untruthful . Accordingly , the syndrome is respectfully dedicated to the baron , and named after him " . The disease is now usually referred to as Munchausen syndrome . The name has spawned two other coinages : Munchausen syndrome by proxy , in which illness is feigned by caretakers rather than patients , and Munchausen by internet , in which illness is feigned online .
In 1968 , Hans Albert coined the term " Münchhausen Trilemma " to describe the philosophical problem inherent in having to derive conclusions from premises ; those premises have to be derived from still other premises , and so on forever , leading to an infinite regress interruptible only by circular logic or dogmatism . The problem is named after the similarly paradoxical story in which the Baron saves himself from being drowned in a swamp by pulling on his own hair . The same story also inspired the mathematical term " Munchausen number " , coined by Daan van Berkel in 2009 to describe numbers whose digits , when raised to their own powers , can be added together to form the number itself ( for example , 3435 = 33 + 44 + 33 + 55 ) .
Subclass ATU1889 of the Aarne – Thompson – Uther classification system , a standard index of folklore , was named " Münchhausen Tales " in tribute to the stories . In 1994 , a main belt asteroid was named 14014 Münchhausen in honor of both the real and the fictional Baron .
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= 24th Infantry Division ( United States ) =
The 24th Infantry Division was an infantry division of the United States Army . It was inactivated in October 1996 , it was based at Fort Stewart , Georgia and later reactivated at Fort Riley , Kansas . Formed during World War II from the disbanding Hawaiian Division , the division saw action throughout the Pacific theater , first fighting in New Guinea before landing on the Philippine islands of Leyte and Luzon , driving Japanese forces from them . Following the end of the war , the division participated in occupation duties in Japan , and was the first division to respond at the outbreak of the Korean War . For the first 18 months of the war , the division was heavily engaged on the front lines with North Korean and Chinese forces , suffering over 10 @,@ 000 casualties . It was withdrawn from the front lines to the reserve force for the remainder of the war , but returned to Korea for patrol duty at the end of major combat operations .
After its deployment in the Korean War , the division was active in Europe and the United States during the Cold War , but saw relatively little combat until the Persian Gulf War , when it faced the Iraqi military . A few years after that conflict , it was inactivated as part of the post @-@ Cold War U.S. military drawdown of the 1990s . The division was reactivated in October 1999 as a formation for training and deploying U.S. Army National Guard units before its deactivation in October 2006 .
= = History = =
= = = Hawaiian Division = = =
The 24th Infantry Division traces its lineage to Army units activated in Hawaii . It was activated under the Square Division Table of Organization and Equipment ( TO & E ) on 1 March 1921 as the Hawaiian Division at Schofield Barracks , Oahu . The division insignia is based on the taro leaf , emblematic of Hawaii . The division was assigned the 21st Infantry Regiment and the 22nd Infantry Regiment , both of which had been assigned to the US 11th Infantry Division prior to 1921 .
The entire Hawaiian Division was concentrated at a single location during the next few years , allowing it to conduct more effective combined arms training . It was also manned at higher personnel levels than other divisions , and its field artillery was the first to be motorized .
Between August and September 1941 , the Hawaiian Division 's assets were reorganized to form two divisions under the new Triangular Division TO & E. Its brigade headquarters were disbanded and the 27th and 35th Infantry regiments were assigned to the new 25th Infantry Division . Hawaiian Division headquarters was redesignated as Headquarters , 24th Infantry Division on 1 October 1941 . The 24th Infantry Division also received the Hawaiian Division 's Shoulder Sleeve Insignia , which was approved in 1921 .
The division was centered around three infantry regiments : the 19th Infantry Regiment and the 21st Infantry Regiment from the Active duty force , and the 299th Infantry Regiment from the Hawaii National Guard . Also attached to the division were the 13th Field Artillery Battalion , the 52nd Field Artillery Battalion , the 63rd Field Artillery Battalion , the 11th Field Artillery Battalion , the 24th Signal Company , the 724th Ordnance Company , the 24th Quartermaster Company , the 24th Reconnaissance Troop , the 3rd Engineer Battalion , the 24th Medical Battalion , and the 24th Counter Intelligence Detachment .
= = = World War II = = =
The 24th Infantry Division was among the first US Army divisions to see combat in World War II and among the last to stop fighting . The division was on Oahu , with its headquarters at Schofield Barracks , when the Japanese launched their Attack on Pearl Harbor on 7 December 1941 and the unit suffered some casualties during the attack . Among these casualties were Sgt. Paul J. Fadon ( killed in a truck 10 miles north of Schofield Barracks ) , Pvt. Walter R. French , Pfc. Conrad Kujawa , Pvt. Torao Migita ( killed by friendly fire in downtown Honolulu ) , and Cpt . Theodore J. Lewis ( who became the 24th Infantry Division 's first soldier killed during WWII ) . The division was then charged with the defense of northern Oahu , where it built an elaborate system of coastal defenses throughout 1942 . In July 1942 , the 299th Infantry Regiment was replaced by the 298th Infantry Regiment . One year later , this regiment was replaced by the 34th Infantry Regiment from the Hawaiian Department Reserve . The 34th Infantry remained with the 24th Infantry Division until the end of the war . As an active component unit , the 34th was easier to deploy than the reserve component units , which were less trained .
= = = = Hollandia = = = =
In May 1943 , the 24th Infantry Division was alerted for movement to Australia , and it completed the move to Camp Caves , near Rockhampton , on the eastern coast of Australia by 19 September 1943 . Once deployed , it began intensive combat training . After training , the division moved to Goodenough Island on 31 January 1944 , to prepare for Operation Reckless , the amphibious capture of Hollandia , Netherlands New Guinea ( now Jayapura , Papua province , Indonesia ) .
The 24th landed at Tanahmerah Bay on 22 April 1944 and seized the important Hollandia Airdrome despite torrential rain and marshy terrain . Shortly after the Hollandia landing , the division 's 34th Infantry Regiment moved to Biak to reinforce the 41st Infantry Division . The regiment captured Sorido and Borokoe airdromes before returning to the division on Hollandia in July . The 41st and 24th divisions isolated 40 @,@ 000 Japanese forces south of the landings . Despite resistance from the isolated Japanese forces in the area , the 24th Infantry Division advanced rapidly through the region . In two months , the 24th Division crossed the entirety of New Guinea .
= = = = Leyte = = = =
After occupation duty in the Hollandia area , the 24th Division was assigned to X Corps of the Sixth United States Army in preparation for the invasion of the Philippines . On 20 October 1944 , the division was paired with the 1st Cavalry Division within X Corps , and the two divisions made an assault landing at Leyte , initially encountering only light resistance . Following a defeat at sea on 26 October , the Japanese launched a large , uncoordinated counteroffensive against the Sixth Army . The 24th Division drove up the Leyte Valley , advanced to Jaro and captured Breakneck Ridge on 12 November 1944 , in heavy fighting .
While final clearing operations continued on Leyte , the 24th Division 's 19th Infantry Regiment moved to Mindoro Island as part of the Western Visayan Task Force and landed in the San Jose area on 15 December 1944 . There , it secured airfields and a patrol base for operations on Luzon . Elements of the 24th Infantry Division effected a landing on Marinduque Island . Other elements supported the 11th Airborne Division drive from Nasugbu to Manila .
= = = = Luzon = = = =
The 24th Division was among the 200 @,@ 000 men of the Sixth Army moved to recapture Luzon to helped the regular and constable troops of the Philippine Commonwealth Army and Philippine Constabulary from the Japanese 14th Area Army , which fought delaying actions on the island . The division 's 34th Infantry Regiment landed at San Antonio , Zambales on 29 January 1945 and ran into a furious battle on Zig Zag Pass , where it suffered heavy casualties . On 16 February 1945 the 3rd Battalion , 34th Infantry took part in the amphibious landing on Corregidor and fought the Japanese on the well @-@ defended island . The rest of the division landed at Sablayan , Mindoro on 19 February , cleared the remainder of the island and engaged in numerous mopping up actions during the following month . These operations were complete by 18 March , and the division moved south to attack through Basilan. the division landed at Mindanao on 17 April 1945 and cut across the island to Digos until 27 April , stormed into Davao on 3 May , and cleared Libby airdrome on 13 May . Although the campaign officially closed on 30 June , the division continued to clear up Japanese resistance during July and August 1945 . The 24th Infantry Division and the Philippine Commonwealth military patrolled the region until the official surrender of Japan ended the war . On 15 October 1945 the division left Mindanao for occupation duty on mainland Japan .
Four soldiers were awarded the Medal of Honor during their service with the 24th Infantry Division during World War II . They were James H. Diamond , Charles E. Mower , Harold H. Moon , Jr . , and Francis B. Wai . Members of the 24th Infantry Division also won 15 Distinguished Service Crosses , two Distinguished Service Medals , 625 Silver Star Medals , 38 Soldier 's Medals , 2 @,@ 197 Bronze Star Medals , and 50 Air Medals . The division itself was awarded eight Distinguished Unit Citations for participation in the campaign .
= = = = Occupation of Japan = = = =
After the end of the war , the division remained on mainland Japan . It occupied Kyūshū from 1945 until 1950 . During this time , the US Army shrank . At the end of World War II it contained 89 divisions , but by 1950 , the 24th Infantry Division was one of only 10 active divisions in the force . It was one of four understrength divisions on occupation duty in Japan . The others were the 1st Cavalry Division , 7th Infantry Division , and 25th Infantry Division , all under control of the Eighth United States Army . The 24th Division retained the 19th , 21st , and 34th regiments , but the formations were undermanned and ill @-@ equipped due to the post @-@ war drawdown and reduction in military spending .
= = = Korean War = = =
On 25 June 1950 , 10 divisions of the North Korean People 's Army launched an attack into the Republic of Korea in the south . The North Koreans overwhelmed the South Korean Army and advanced south , preparing to conquer the entire nation . The UN ordered an intervention to prevent the conquest of South Korea . U.S. President Harry S. Truman ordered ground forces into South Korea . The 24th Infantry Division was closest to Korea , and it was the first US division to respond . The 24th Division 's first mission was to " take the initial shock " of the North Korean assault , then try to slow its advance until more US divisions could arrive .
= = = = Task Force Smith = = = =
Five days later , on 30 June , a 406 @-@ man infantry force from 1st Battalion , 21st Infantry Regiment , supported by a 134 @-@ man artillery battery ( also from the 24th Infantry Division ) was sent into South Korea . The force , nicknamed Task Force Smith for its commander , Lieutenant Colonel Charles Smith , was lightly armed and ordered to delay the advance of North Korean forces while the rest of the 24th Infantry Division moved into South Korea . On 4 July , the task force set up in the hills north of Osan and prepared to block advancing North Korean forces . The next day , they spotted an incoming column of troops from the North Korean 105th Armored Division . The ensuing battle was a rout , as the Task Force 's obsolescent anti @-@ tank weapons and understrength units were no match for the North Koreans ' T @-@ 34 Tanks and full @-@ strength formations . Within a few hours , the first battle between American and North Korean forces was lost . Task Force Smith suffered 20 killed and 130 wounded in action . Dozens of US soldiers were captured , and when US forces retook the area , some of the prisoners were discovered to have been executed . According to recently declassified documents the troops were captured and taken to Pyongyang where they are thought to have been murdered about three months later .
Approximately 30 percent of task Force Smith became casualties in the Battle of Osan . The task force delayed the North Korean forces ' advance for only seven hours .
= = = = Pusan Perimeter = = = =
The rest of the 24th Infantry Division arrived in South Korea , through the port of Pusan , followed by elements of the 1st Cavalry Division and 25th Infantry Division from the Eighth Army . As more soldiers arrived , the 24th Infantry Division was placed under the command of I Corps , Eighth Army . For the first month after the defeat of Task Force Smith , 24th Infantry Division soldiers were repeatedly defeated and pushed south by the North Korean force 's superior numbers and equipment . 24th Infantry Division soldiers were pushed south at and around Chochiwon , Chonan , Pyongtaek , Hadong , and Yechon . The division 's 19th and 34th regiments engaged the North Korean 3rd Infantry Division and the North Korean 4th Infantry Division at the Kum River between 13 and 16 July and suffered 650 casualties of the 3 @,@ 401 men committed there . The next day , the North Korean divisions attacked the 24th Infantry Division 's headquarters in Taejon and overran it in the Battle of Taejon . In the ensuing battle , 922 men of the 24th Infantry Division were killed and 228 were wounded of 3 @,@ 933 committed there . Many soldiers were missing in action , including the division commander , Major General William F. Dean , who was captured and later won the Medal of Honor . On 1 August , the 24th Division 's 19th Infantry Regiment engaged North Korean forces and was again forced back , losing 90 killed . North Korean officers at the battle claimed that some US soldiers were " too frightened to fight . " However , the 24th Infantry Division managed to delay the advancing North Koreans for two days , long enough for significant numbers of UN forces to arrive in Pusan and begin establishing defenses further south . By the time the 24th Infantry Division retreated and reformed , the 1st Cavalry Division was in place behind it . The division suffered over 3 @,@ 600 casualties in the 17 days it fought alone against the 3rd and 4th North Korean divisions .
By 4 August , a perimeter was established around Pusan on the hills to the north of the city and the Naktong River to the west . The Eighth Army , including the 24th Infantry Division , was cornered by the surrounding North Korean army . With UN forces concentrated and North Korean supply lines stretched out , the 24th Infantry Division halted the advance of the North Koreans . The 24th Division was at Naktong , with the 25th Infantry Division to the south , and the 1st Cavalry Division and South Korean forces to the north . The 24th Division was also reinforced by the 2nd Infantry Division , newly arrived in the theater . The 24th was quickly sent to block the North Korean 6th Infantry Division , which attempted to attack the UN forces from the southwest . On 8 August , the North Korean 4th Infantry Division crossed the river and attempted to penetrate the perimeter . After 10 days of fighting , the 24th Infantry Division counterattacked and forced the North Koreans back across the river . By late August 1950 , only 184 of the 34th Regiment 's original 1 @,@ 898 men remained . The regiment was dissolved and was replaced within the 24th by the 5th Regimental Combat Team . The 34th Regiment 's survivors were added to the ranks of the 19th and 21st regiments in an effort to bring them up to strength , and the 5th Infantry remained with the 24th Division until the division withdrew from Korea . Elements of the 24th Infantry Division were moved into reserve on 23 August and replaced by the 2nd Infantry Division . A second , larger North Korean attack occurred between 31 August and 19 September , but the 2nd , 24th , and 25th infantry divisions and the 1st Cavalry Division beat the North Koreans back across the river again .
At the same time , X Corps , with the 7th Infantry Division and 1st Marine Division , attacked Incheon , striking the North Korean army from the rear . The attack routed the surprised North Koreans , and by 19 September , the Eighth Army pushed out of the Pusan Perimeter and advanced north . The 24th Infantry Division advanced to Songju , then to Seoul . The Army advanced north along the west coast of Korea through October . By mid @-@ October , the North Korean Army had been almost completely destroyed , and US President Harry S. Truman ordered General MacArthur to advance all units into North Korea as quickly as possible to end the war . The 24th Infantry Division , with the South Korean 1st Infantry Division , moved to the left flank of the advancing Eighth Army , and moved north along Korea 's west coast . The 24th Division then moved north to Chongju . On 1 November , the division 's 21st Infantry captured Chonggodo , 18 miles from the Yalu River and Korea 's border with China . Units of the Eighth Army and X Corps spread out as they attempted to reach the Yalu and complete the conquest of North Korea as quickly as possible .
= = = = Chinese intervention = = = =
On 25 November , the Chinese entered the war in defense of North Korea . The People 's Liberation Army force , which totaled 260 @,@ 000 troops , flooded into North Korea and caught the Eighth Army by surprise . Chinese forces crushed the UN and South Korean forces with overwhelming numbers , surrounding and destroying elements of the US 2nd Infantry Division , 7th Infantry Division , and South Korean forces . The 24th Infantry Division , on the west coast of the Korean peninsula , was hit by soldiers from the 50th and 66th Chinese field armies . Amid heavy casualties , the Eighth Army retreated to the Imjin River , south of the 38th parallel , having been devastated by the overwhelming Chinese force .
On 1 January 1951 , 500 @,@ 000 Chinese troops attacked the Eighth Army 's line at the Imjin River , forcing it back 50 miles and allowing the Chinese to capture Seoul . The 24th Infantry Division was then reassigned to IX Corps to replace the 2nd and 25th Infantry Divisions , which had been placed in reserve due to heavy losses . The Chinese eventually advanced too far for their supply lines to adequately support them , and their attack stalled .
= = = = Stalemate = = = =
General Matthew B. Ridgway ordered I , IX , and X Corps to conduct a general counteroffensive on the Chinese ( Operation Thunderbolt ) quickly thereafter . The 24th Division , as part of IX Corps , advanced along the center of the peninsula to take Chipyong @-@ ni . The corps ran into heavy resistance and fought for the region until February . Between February and March 1951 , the 24th Infantry Division participated in Operation Killer , pushing Chinese forces north of the Han River . This operation was followed by Operation Ripper , which recaptured Seoul in March . After this , operations Rugged and Dauntless in April saw the division advance north of the 38th parallel and reestablish itself along previously established of defense , code named Kansas and Utah , respectively .
In late April , the Chinese launched a major counterattack . Though the 24th and 25th Infantry Divisions were able to hold their ground against the Chinese 9th CPV Army Corps , the South Korean 6th Infantry Division , to the east , was destroyed by the 13th CPV Army Corps , which penetrated the line and threatened to encircle the 24th and 25th divisions . The 1st Marine Division and 27th British Commonwealth Brigade were able to drive the 13th Army Corps back while the 24th and 25th divisions withdrew on 25 April . The UN forces ' line was moved back to Seoul but managed to hold . In September , the UN forces launched another counteroffensive with the 24th Infantry Division at the center of the line , west of the Hwachon Reservoir . Flanked by the South Korean 2nd and 6th Divisions , the 24th advanced past Kumwha , engaging the 20th and 27th CPV Armies . In November , the Chinese attempted to counter this attack but were unsuccessful . It was at this point , after several successive counteroffensives that saw both sides fighting intensely over the same ground , that the two sides started serious peace negotiations .
In January 1952 , the 24th Infantry Division , which suffered over 10 @,@ 000 casualties in 18 months of fighting , was redesignated as the Far East Theater reserve and pulled out of Korea . It returned to Japan to rebuild . The 34th Infantry Regiment was reconstituted , and the division returned to full strength during the next year , having been replaced in Korea by the 40th Infantry Division of the California Army National Guard . In July 1953 , the division returned to Korea to restore order in prisoner of war camps . It arrived two weeks before the end of the war .
During the war , 10 soldiers of the division were awarded the Medal of Honor . They were William F. Dean , George D. Libby , Melvin O. Handrich , Mitchell Red Cloud , Jr . , Carl H. Dodd , Nelson V. Brittin , Ray E. Duke , Stanley T. Adams , Mack A. Jordan , and Woodrow W. Keeble . Keeble 's medal was awarded on 3 March 2008 , 26 years after his death . The 24th Infantry Division suffered 3 @,@ 735 killed and 7 @,@ 395 wounded during the Korean War . It remained on front @-@ line duty after the armistice until October 1957 , patrolling the 38th parallel in the event that combat would resume . The division then returned to Japan and remained there for a short time .
= = = Cold War = = =
On 1 July 1958 the division was relocated to Augsburg , Germany , replacing the 11th Airborne Division in a reflagging ceremony . The 24th was organized under the Pentomic Division TO & E , in which its combat forces were organized into five oversized battalions ( called " battle groups " ) with no intermediate brigade or regimental headquarters . Although considered an infantry division , the 24th included two airborne battle groups for several months . The 1st Airborne Battle Group , 503rd Infantry left the division for reassignment to the 82nd Airborne Division at Fort Bragg on 7 January 1959 and the 1st Airborne Battle Group , 187th Infantry departed on 8 February 1959 , also for the 82nd .
On 13 July , less than 2 weeks after the reorganization , King Faisal II of Iraq was assassinated in a coup orchestrated by pro @-@ Egyptian officers . The Christian president of Lebanon , pressured by Muslims to join Egypt and Syria in the Gamal Abdel Nasser @-@ led United Arab Republic , requested help from the Eisenhower administration during the 1958 Lebanon crisis .
On the night of 15 July , U.S. Marines from the Sixth Fleet landed at Beirut and secured the Beirut airport . The following day , the 24th Division 's 1st Airborne Battle Group , 187th Infantry deployed to Turkey and flew to Beirut on 19 July . They were joined by a medium tank battalion ( seemingly 3rd Battalion , 35th Armor Regiment ) and support units , which assisted the Marines in forming a security cordon around the city . The force stayed until late October , providing security , making shows of force , including parachute jumps , and training the Lebanese Army . When factions of the Lebanese government worked out a political settlement , they left . The 24th Division 's 1 / 187th lost one soldier killed by a sniper .
The 24th came into international press focus in 1961 when its commanding general , Major General Edwin Walker , was removed from command for making " derogatory remarks of a serious nature about certain prominent Americans ... which linked the persons and institutions with Communism and Communist influence " . The inquiry was sparked by Walker 's " Pro Blue " program and accusations Walker and his Information Officer , Lieutenant Colonel Archibald Roberts , distributed John Birch Society literature as troop information in the 24th .
After the construction of the Berlin Wall in August 1961 , the Seventh Army began sending infantry units from the divisions in West Germany on a rotating basis to reinforce the Berlin Brigade . The 24th Division 's units participated in this action .
In January 1963 , the 24th was reorganized as a mechanized infantry division under the Reorganization Objective Army Division ( ROAD ) TO & E , which replaced the pentomic battle groups with conventional @-@ sized battalions organized in three combined arms brigades . The 169th Infantry Brigade , previously assigned to the 85th Infantry Division was redesignated the 1st Brigade , 24th Infantry Division . The 85th Division 's 170th Infantry Brigade was redesignated the 2nd Brigade , 24th Infantry Division . The 190th Infantry Brigade , previously assigned to the 95th Infantry Division , became the 3rd Brigade , 24th Infantry Division . In 1965 , the 24th Infantry Division received its distinctive unit insignia .
The 24th remained in Germany , specifically Augsburg , Munich until September 1968 , when it redeployed its 1st and 2nd Brigades to Fort Riley , Kansas , as part of Exercise Reforger while the division 's 3rd Brigade was maintained in Germany . As the US Army withdrew from Vietnam and reduced its forces , the 24th Infantry Division and its three brigades were inactivated on 15 April 1970 at Fort Riley .
In September 1975 , the 24th Infantry Division was reactivated at Fort Stewart , Georgia , as part of the program to build a 16 @-@ division US Army force . Because the Regular Army could not field a full division at Fort Stewart , the 24th had the 48th Infantry Brigade of the Georgia Army National Guard assigned to it as a round @-@ out unit in place of its 3rd Brigade . Targeted for a North Atlantic Treaty Organization ( NATO ) role , the 24th Division was reorganized as a mechanized division in 1979 . It was one of several divisions equipped with new M1 Abrams tanks and M2 Bradley Fighting Vehicles that formed the core of the U.S. Army 's heavily armored mechanized force for the 15 years that followed .
= = = Gulf War = = =
= = = = Desert Shield = = = =
When the United Nations intervened in Kuwait in 1990 , the 24th Infantry Division , which was part of the Rapid Deployment Force , was one of the first units deployed to Southwest Asia . It arrived in 10 large cargo ships of the US Navy Sealift Command . Advance elements of the 24th Division began arriving in Saudi Arabia on 17 August . Some controversy erupted when the division 's round @-@ out unit , the 48th Infantry Brigade ( Mechanized ) , of the Georgia National Guard , was not called up for service . Army leaders decided that the use of National Guard forces was unnecessary , as they felt the active @-@ duty force had sufficient troops . The 48th Brigade was replaced once the 24th Division was in Saudi Arabia with the regular Army 's 197th Infantry Brigade ( Mechanized ) . The 24th Division was then assigned to XVIII Airborne Corps as the corps ' heavy @-@ armored division .
In the months that followed , the 24th Division played an important part of Operation Desert Shield by providing heavy firepower with its large number of armored vehicles , including 216 M1A1 Abrams tanks . Elements of the division were still arriving in September , and in the logistical chaos that followed the rapid arrival of U.S. forces in the region , the soldiers of the 24th Division were housed in warehouses , airport hangars , and on the desert sand . The 24th remained in relatively stationary positions in defense of Saudi Arabia until additional American forces arrived for Operation Desert Storm . Aviation units of the division included 2nd Squadron , 4th Cavalry , and 1st Battalion , 24th Aviation Regiment .
= = = = Desert Storm = = = =
Operation Desert Storm began with an extensive aerial bombing campaign on 17 January 1991 . When the ground attack commenced on 24 February , the 24th Infantry Division formed the east flank of the corps with the 3rd Armored Cavalry Regiment . It blocked the Euphrates River valley to cut off Iraqi forces in Kuwait and little resistance . At this time , the 24th Division 's ranks swelled to over 25 @,@ 000 troops in 34 battalions , commanding 94 helicopters , 241 M1 Abrams tanks , 221 M2 Bradley Armored fighting vehicles , and over 7 @,@ 800 other vehicles . The 24th Infantry Division performed exceptionally well in the theater ; it had been training in desert warfare for several years before the conflict . On 26 February , the 24th Division advanced through the valley and captured Iraqi airfields at Jabbah and Tallil . At the airfields , it encountered entrenched resistance from the Iraqi 37th and 49th Infantry Divisions , as well as the 6th Nebuchadnezzar Mechanized Division of the Iraqi Republican Guard . Despite some of the most fierce resistance of the war , the 24th Infantry Division destroyed the Iraqi formations and captured the two airfields the next day . The 24th then moved east with VII Corps and engaged several Iraqi Republican Guard divisions .
After the Iraqi forces were defeated , the U.N. mandated that the U.S. withdraw from Iraq , ending the Gulf War . By the end of combat operations , the 24th Infantry Division advanced 260 miles and destroyed 360 tanks and other armored personnel carriers , 300 artillery pieces , 1 @,@ 200 trucks , 25 aircraft , 19 missiles , and over 500 pieces of engineer equipment . The division took over 5 @,@ 000 Iraqi prisoners of war while suffering only eight killed , 36 wounded , and five non @-@ combat casualties .
After returning to the United States in spring 1991 , the 24th was reorganized with two brigades at Fort Stewart and the 3rd Brigade reactivated at Fort Benning , Georgia , replacing the 197th Infantry Brigade . In fall 1994 , Iraq again threatened the Kuwaiti border , and two brigades from the division returned to southwest Asia . As part of the Army 's reduction to a ten @-@ division force , the 24th Infantry Division was inactivated on 15 February 1996 and reflagged to become the 3rd Infantry Division . Its three brigades were reflagged as 3rd Infantry Division brigades .
= = = Training command = = =
In the wake of the Cold War , the US Army considered new options for the integration and organization of active duty , Army Reserve and Army National Guard units in training and deployment . Two active duty division headquarters were activated for training National Guard units ; those of the 7th Infantry Division and the 24th Infantry Division . The subordinate brigades of the divisions did not activate , so they could not be deployed as combat divisions . Instead , the headquarters units focused on full @-@ time training .
On 5 June 1999 the 24th Infantry Division was reactivated , this time at Fort Riley , Kansas . From 1999 to 2006 , the 24th Infantry Division consisted of a headquarters and three separate National Guard brigades ; the 30th Heavy Brigade Combat Team at Clinton , North Carolina , the 218th Heavy Brigade Combat Team at Columbia , South Carolina , and the 48th Infantry Brigade Combat Team in Macon , Georgia . The division headquarters was responsible for the Guard brigades should they be called to active duty in wartime . This never occurred , as each brigade deployed individually . The division 's final operations included preparing Fort Riley for the return of the 1st Infantry Division , which was stationed in Germany .
To expand upon the concept of Reserve component and National Guard components , the First Army activated Division East and Division West , two commands responsible for reserve units ' readiness and mobilization exercises . Division East activated at Fort Riley . This transformation was part of an overall restructuring of the US Army to streamline the organizations overseeing training . Division East took control of reserve units in states east of the Mississippi River , eliminating the need for the 24th Infantry Division headquarters . As such , the 24th Infantry Division was subsequently deactivated for the last time on 1 August 2006 at Fort Riley .
= = = Inactivation = = =
Though it was inactivated , the division was initially identified as the third highest priority inactive division in the United States Army Center of Military History 's lineage scheme due to its numerous accolades and long history . All of the division 's flags and heraldic items were moved to the National Infantry Museum at Fort Benning , Georgia following its inactivation . Should the U.S. Army decide to activate more divisions in the future following the activation of the 7th Infantry Division in 2012 , the center will most likely suggest the first new division be the 9th Infantry Division , the second be the 24th Infantry Division , the third be the 5th Infantry Division , and the fourth be the 2d Armored Division .
= = Honors = =
The 24th Infantry Division was awarded five campaign streamers and one unit decoration in World War II , eight campaign streamers and three unit decorations in the Korean War , two campaign streamers for the Gulf War , and one unit award in peacetime , for a total of fifteen campaign streamers and five unit decorations in its operational history .
= = = Unit decorations = = =
= = = Campaign streamers = = =
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= James Hill ( British Army officer ) =
Brigadier Stanley James Ledger Hill DSO & Two Bars , MC ( 14 March 1911 – 16 March 2006 ) was a British Army officer , who served as commander of the 3rd Parachute Brigade , part of the 6th Airborne Division , during World War II . Born in Bath , Somerset , Hill was educated at Marlborough College and the Royal Military College , Sandhurst before joining the British Army in 1931 and being commissioned into the Royal Fusiliers . He commanded a platoon for a short period , and was then attached to the command post of Field Marshal Lord Gort during the Battle of France in May 1940 , where he oversaw the evacuation of Brussels as well as the beach at De Panne during the evacuation of Dunkirk . After a brief period of time in the Irish Free State , he volunteered for parachute training and joined the 1st Parachute Battalion , and was its commanding officer when its parent formation , the 1st Parachute Brigade , was deployed to North Africa .
Hill commanded the battalion during its first airborne operation in North Africa , dropping near the towns of Souk el @-@ Arba and Béja , in Tunisia . It secured Beja and then sent out patrols to harass German troops , ambushing a convoy and inflicting numerous German casualties , and defended a bridge at Medjez el Bab , although it was eventually forced to retreat . Hill was wounded during an attack by the battalion on Gue Hill , in which he attempted to capture three Italian tanks using his revolver ; the crews of two were successfully subdued without incident , but the third opened fire and hit Hill in the chest several times . He was awarded the Distinguished Service Order ( DSO ) and Légion d 'Honneur for his service in North Africa and then evacuated back to England . There he took command of the 3rd Parachute Brigade in the newly formed 6th Airborne Division , and jumped with the brigade during Operation Tonga , the British airborne landings in Normandy on the night of 5 / 6 June 1944 . After nearly being killed on D @-@ Day , by an aircraft strafing his position , Hill commanded the brigade throughout the rest of the time it was in Normandy , once leading a counter @-@ attack during a German assault and later winning the first Bar to his DSO .
After advancing to the Seine , the 6th Airborne Division was withdrawn to England in September 1944 , but briefly served in the Ardennes in December during the Battle of the Bulge . Hill then commanded 3rd Parachute Brigade during Operation Varsity , the Allied airborne assault over the River Rhine , where he was nearly killed by a glider containing his own personal Jeep . He then commandeered a motorcycle and rode alongside the brigade as the 6th Airborne Division advanced from the Rhine to the River Elbe , at the end of which he was awarded a second Bar to his DSO as well as the American Silver Star . After the war , he was briefly military governor of Copenhagen , for which he was awarded the King Haakon VII Liberty Cross , and also raised and commanded the 4th Parachute Brigade ( Territorial Army ) . Retiring from the British Army in 1949 , he became involved in a number of charities and businesses . He died on 16 March 2006 , aged 95 .
= = Early life = =
Hill was born on 14 March 1911 , in Bath , Somerset , the son of Major General Walter Hill . He was educated at Marlborough College , where he was the head of the college 's Officer Training Corps , and then attended the Royal Military Academy Sandhurst ; there he won the Sword of Honour and became captain of athletics . He joined the British Army in 1931 , being commissioned as a 2nd lieutenant into the Royal Fusiliers ( City of London regiment ) , the regiment which his father commanded . He ran the regimental athletic and boxing associations during his service with the regiment , and in 1936 transferred to the Supplementary Reserve in order to marry his first wife , Denys Gunter @-@ Jones . For the next three years he worked as part of his family 's ferry company .
= = Second World War = =
When the Second World War began in September 1939 , Hill was recalled to his regiment and given command of the 2nd Battalion , Royal Fusiliers ' advance party when the battalion left for France during the same month . The battalion was assigned to the 12th Infantry Brigade , part of the 4th Infantry Division . He then commanded a platoon for several months , when the battalion was stationed along the Maginot Line , before being promoted to the rank of Captain in January 1940 and joining the staff at Allied Headquarters . The Battle of France began in May 1940 , by which time Hill was attached to the command post of Field Marshal Lord Gort ; during this period he was involved in planning the evacuation of the civilian population of Brussels , and also carried Gort 's dispatches to Calais ordering the withdrawal of the British Expeditionary Force ( BEF ) . At the end of the campaign , he took command of the evacuation of the beach at La Panne , and was on the last destroyer to leave Dunkirk . For these actions , he was awarded the Military Cross . On his return to Britain , he was promoted to Major and travelled to Dublin in the Irish Free State , where he planned for the evacuation of British citizens from the city should German forces land there . When this task was completed , he volunteered for the fledgling Parachute Regiment , part of the British Army 's growing airborne forces , and undertook parachute training ; when the 1st Parachute Battalion was formed on 15 August 1941 , he was appointed as its second @-@ in @-@ command .
The battalion was part of 1st Parachute Brigade , which by mid @-@ 1942 had been expanded into 1st Airborne Division under the command of Major @-@ General F.A.M. Browning . In July 1942 the 1st Parachute Battalion was selected to participate in the Dieppe Raid , and got as far as being loaded onto transport aircraft before poor weather cancelled the operation ; when the raid was planned for a second time the parachute battalion was removed because their deployment was too dependent on there being good weather on the day of the raid . In mid September , as 1st Airborne Division was coming close to reaching full strength , Browning was informed that Operation Torch , the Allied invasion of North Africa , would take place in November . After being informed that an American airborne unit , the 509th Parachute Infantry Battalion , was to be used during the invasion , Browning successfully advocated for the 1st Parachute Brigade to also be included . He argued that a larger airborne force should be utilised during the invasion , as the large distances and comparatively light opposition would provide a number of opportunities for airborne operations . The War Office and Commander in Chief , Home Forces were won over by the argument , and agreed to detach the brigade from 1st Airborne Division and place it under the command of General Dwight D. Eisenhower , who would command all Allied troops participating in the invasion . After it had been brought to full operational strength , partly by cross posting personnel from the newly formed 2nd Parachute Brigade , and had been provided with sufficient equipment and resources , the brigade departed for North Africa at the beginning of November 1942 .
= = = North Africa = = =
As an insufficient number of transport aircraft were allocated to the brigade , it was only possible to transport the 3rd Parachute Battalion by air . The rest of the brigade arrived at Algiers on 12 November , with some of its stores arriving slightly later . By the evening , reconnaissance parties had travelled to the airfield at Maison Blanche , with the remainder of the brigade following on the morning of 13 November ; it was quartered in Maison Blanche , Maison Carree and Rouiba . After several ambitious airborne operations were planned but then cancelled by British First Army , on 14 November it directed that a single parachute battalion would be dropped the next day near Souk el @-@ Arba and Béja ; the battalion was to contact French forces at Beja to ascertain whether they would remain neutral , or support the Allies ; secure and guard the cross roads and airfield at Soul el Arba ; and patrol eastwards to harass German forces . 1st Parachute Battalion was selected for the task , to which Hill objected . The battalion had been forced to unload the vessel carrying its supplies and equipment itself , and had also to arrange its own transportation to Maison Blanche as no drivers were provided at Algiers ; when it had arrived at Maison Blanche , it had been subjected to several Luftwaffe air raids that targeted the airfield . Hill argued that as a result his men were exhausted , and he did not believe all of the battalion 's equipment could be sorted out within twenty four hours ; as such he asked for the operation to be postponed for a short period , but this was denied .
Hill faced further problems as he planned for the operation . The American pilots of the Dakota transport aircraft that would transport the battalion were inexperienced and had never conducted a parachute drop before , and there was no time for any training or exercises . There were also no photos of the airfield or the surrounding areas , and only a single , small scale map available for navigation . To ensure that the aircraft found the drop zone and delivered the battalion accurately , Hill sat in the cockpit of the leading Dakota and assisted the pilot . The Dakotas were escorted by four American P @-@ 38 Lightning fighters , which engaged and drove off two roving German fighters , but as the Dakotas approached the Tunisian border they encountered thick clouds and were forced to turn back , landing at Maison Blanche at 11 : 00 . It was decided that the battalion would conduct the operation the next day , which allowed the paratroopers to rest for a night . 1st Parachute Battalion took off on the morning of 16 November , and enjoyed excellent weather that allowed the transport aircraft to drop the battalion accurately around the airfield at Souk el Arba . Most of the paratroopers landed successfully , but one man was killed when his rigging line twisted around his neck mid drop , throttling him ; one officer broke his leg on landing , and four men were wounded when a Sten gun was accidentally fired . The battalion 's second in command , Major Alastair Pearson , remained at the airfield with a small detachment that collected the airborne equipment and supervised the burial of the casualty .
Meanwhile , Hill led the rest of the battalion , approximately 525 strong , in some commandeered trucks towards the town of Béja , an important road and railway centre approximately forty miles from the airfield . The battalion arrived at approximately 18 : 00 and was welcomed by the local French garrison , 3 @,@ 000 strong , which Hill persuaded to cooperate with the paratroopers ; in order to give the garrison and any German observers the impression that he possessed a larger force than he actually did , Hill arranged for the battalion to march through the town several times , wearing different headgear and holding different equipment each time . A short time after the battalion entered Béja , German aircraft arrived and bombed the town , although they caused little damage and no casualties . The next day , ' S ' Company was sent with a detachment of engineers to the village of Sidi N 'Sir , about twenty miles away ; they were to contact the local French forces , believed to be pro British , and harass German forces . The detachment found the village and made contact with the French , who allowed them to pass through towards the town of Mateur ; by nightfall the force had not reached the town , and decided to encamp for the night . At dawn a German convoy of armoured cars passed the detachment , and it was decided to set an ambush for the convoy if it returned , with anti @-@ tank mines being laid on the road and a mortar and Bren guns being set up in concealed positions . When the convoy returned at approximately 10 : 00 the leading vehicle struck a mine and exploded , blocking the road , and the other vehicles were disabled with mortar fire , Gammon bombs and the remaining anti tank mines . A number of Germans were killed and the rest taken prisoner , with two paratroopers being slightly wounded . The detachment returned to Béja with prisoners and several slightly damaged armoured cars . After the success of the ambush , Hill sent a second patrol to harass local German forces , but it was withdrawn after it encountered a larger German force that inflicted several British casualties ; Béja was also bombed by Stuka divebombers , inflicting civilian casualties and destroying a number of houses .
On 19 November , Hill visited the commanding officer of the French forces guarding a vital bridge at Medjez el Bab , and warned him that any attempt by German forces to cross the bridge would be opposed by the battalion . Hill attached ' R ' Company to the French forces to ensure the bridge was not captured . German forces soon arrived at the bridge , and their commanding officer demanded that they be allowed to take control of the bridge and cross it to attack the British positions . The French rejected the German demands , and in conjunction with ' R ' Company repelled subsequent German attacks that lasted several hours . The battalion was reinforced by the U.S. 175th Field Artillery Battalion and elements of the Derbyshire Yeomanry , but , despite fierce resistance , the German forces proved to be too strong , and by 04 : 30 on 20 November the Allied forces had yielded the bridge and the surrounding area to the Germans . Two days later , Hill received information that a strong Italian force , which included a number of tanks , was stationed at Gue Hill . Hill decided to attack the force and attempt to disable the tanks , and the following night moved the battalion , less a small guard detachment that remained at Béja , to Sidi N 'Sir where it linked up with a force of French Senegalese infantry . Hill decided that the battalion 's section of 3 inch mortars would cover ' R ' and ' S ' Companies as they advanced up Gue Hill and attacked the Italian force , while a small force of sappers would mine the road at the rear of the hill to ensure the Italian tanks could not retreat .
The battalion arrived at the hill without incident and began to prepare for the attack ; however , just prior to the beginning of the attack there were several loud explosions from the rear of the hill . The anti tank grenades carried by the sappers had accidentally detonated , killing all but two of them . The battalion lost the element of surprise , and Hill immediately ordered the two companies to advance up the hill . The force reached the top and engaged a mixed force of German and Italian soldiers , who were assisted by three light tanks . Hill drew his revolver , and with his adjutant and a small group of paratroopers advanced on the tanks , firing shots through their observation ports in an attempt to persuade the crews to surrender . This tactic worked on two tanks , but upon reaching the third tank Hill and his men were fired upon by the tank 's crew ; Hill was shot three times in the chest and his adjutant wounded , although the tank crew were swiftly dispatched with small arms fire . Hill survived because of prompt medical treatment , and was replaced as commander of the battalion by Major Pearson , who supervised the routing of the rest of the German and Italian soldiers .
= = = Normandy = = =
After his injuries were treated , Hill was evacuated to a hospital in North Africa to recover ; although forbidden to do so , he often exercised by climbing out of the window of his hospital ward at night . For his actions in North Africa , he was awarded the Distinguished Service Order ( DSO ) , which " paid tribute to the brilliant handling of his force and his complete disregard of personal danger , " as well as the French Légion d 'honneur . By February 1943 he had recovered from his injuries , and was flown back to England where he met up with Brigadier Gerald W. Lathbury , commander of the newly raised 3rd Parachute Brigade . The War Office had authorised the raising of the brigade on 5 November 1942 , comprising the 7th , 8th and 9th Parachute Battalions , all converted infantry battalions . The 9th Parachute Battalion was in need of a commanding officer and Lathbury offered the job to Hill , who accepted . His first action was to send the entire unit on a forced march , at the end of which he announced that the battalion would " work a six and a half day week " with Sunday afternoons off , until it was well @-@ trained and fit . The 3rd Parachute Brigade was initially attached to the 1st Airborne Division , but in April 1943 Lathbury was given command of 1st Parachute Brigade , which departed with 1st Airborne Division at the end of April for the Mediterranean theatre and Operation Husky , the invasion of Sicily . The 3rd Parachute Brigade was detached from the division in March and remained in England , and on 23 April it was transferred into the newly formed 6th Airborne Division with Hill as the brigade 's new commander . On 11 August , 1st Canadian Parachute Battalion was attached to the 3rd Parachute Brigade ; although meant to be assigned to the newly formed 5th Parachute Brigade , also attached to the 6th Airborne Division , it instead replaced the 7th Parachute Battalion , which was transferred to the new parachute brigade .
The 6th Airborne Division , under the command of Major @-@ General Richard Nelson Gale , was fully mobilised by late December 1943 , with orders to prepare for airborne operations to be conducted during mid @-@ 1944 . The division 's first airborne operation would also be the first time it saw combat , conducting Operation Tonga , the British airborne landings in Normandy on the night of 5 / 6 June , D @-@ Day . It was tasked with guarding the left flank of the British amphibious landings by securing the area east of the city of Caen , capturing a number of bridges that spanned several rivers and canals , and then preventing any Axis forces from advancing on the British beaches . The 3rd Parachute Brigade was given several tasks to accomplish . The 9th Parachute Battalion , commanded by Lieutenant Colonel Terence Otway , was to assault and destroy the Merville Gun Battery , as well as capturing high ground and setting up roadblocks . The 1st Canadian Parachute Battalion was to destroy two bridges , and the 8th Parachute Battalion had the task of destroying three bridges . When the operation began , the brigade suffered from a combination of poor navigation by the pilots of their C @-@ 47 Dakota transport aircraft , heavy cloud cover and incorrectly marked drop zones , which led to all of its units being scattered over a wide area ; Hill himself was dropped with several sticks from the 1st Canadian and 9th Parachute Battalions near the River Dives . He landed in a submerged river rank approximately half a mile from Cabourg , and was forced to wade through four feet of water and a number of flooded irrigation ditches before reaching dry land ; the same flooded areas claimed the lives of a number of paratroopers from his brigade .
Collecting up a number of his men , he headed for the town of Sallenelles , where he hoped to find out how the 9th Parachute Battalion had fared assaulting the Merville Battery . En route , however , he and his party were strafed by low @-@ flying German aircraft , forcing the paratroopers to dive for cover ; when the aircraft had departed Hill stood up again , finding that he had been wounded in the buttocks and the officer next to him had been killed . Most of the other men had either been killed or wounded during the attack , leaving only himself and the commander of his headquarters defence platoon ; once first aid had been administered to the wounded , Hill continued on and finally managed reach Ranville , where the headquarters of the General Officer Commanding ( GOC ) , Major @-@ General Gale , had been set up . After being informed by Gale that his brigade had successfully completed its objectives , Hill had his wound tended to , and then travelled to his own headquarters ; there he found Lieutenant Colonel Pearson in temporary command , who informed him that many the brigade 's staff had been killed during the drop . By 00 : 00 on the night of 6 / 7 June , the entire division was fully deployed on the eastern flank of the invasion beaches . The 3rd Parachute Brigade was holding a 4 @-@ mile ( 6 @.@ 4 km ) front , with the 9th Parachute Battalion at Le Plein , 1st Canadian Parachute Battalion at Les Mesneil and the 8th Parachute Battalion in the southern part of the Bois de Bavent .
For the rest of its time in Normandy the division acted in an infantry role . From 7 June until 16 August , it first consolidated and then expanded its bridgehead . The 3rd Parachute Brigade was responsible for a section of front around the Chateau Saint Come and a nearby manor , with the latter being used as the brigade 's primary defensive position . The brigade was positioned next to the 1st Special Service Brigade , and from 7 June onwards German pressure rapidly increased against both brigade 's positions , with a number of attacks being repelled between then and 10 June . On 10 June the decision was taken to expand the bridgehead to the east of the River Orne , with the 6th Airborne Division tasked with achieving this ; however , it was deemed not to be strong enough , and the 5th Battalion , Black Watch was placed under the 3rd Parachute Brigade 's command ; the battalion launched an attack on the town of Breville on 11 June , but was met with extremely heavy resistance and was repulsed after suffering a number of casualties . The next day 3rd Parachute Brigade 's entire front was subjected to fierce artillery bombardment and assaults by German tanks and infantry , with the Germans particularly focusing on the positions held by 9th Parachute Battalion . Both the 9th Parachute Battalion and the remnants of the 5th Black Watch defended the Chateau Saint Come but were gradually forced to retreat . Lieutenant Colonel Otway informed brigade headquarters , some 400 metres ( 1 @,@ 300 ft ) away , that his battalion would be unable to hold its ground for much longer ; upon hearing this message , Brigadier Hill gathered together forty paratroopers from the 1st Canadian Parachute Battalion and led a counter @-@ attack that forced the German troops to withdraw .
German attempts to breach the 9th Parachute battalions ' positions did not end until 12 June , and Hill stated that the period 7 – 12 June were " five of the toughest days fighting I saw in five years of war . " It was during this period that Hill was awarded the first Bar to his Distinguished Service Order , after supervising an assault by 12th Parachute Battalion on the town of Breville ; the town dominated a long ridge near the Allied bridgehead , from which the German 346th Infantry Division launched repeated attacks . From then on until mid @-@ August the division remained in static positions , holding the left flank of the Allied bridgehead and conducting vigorous patrolling . Finally , on 7 August the division was ordered to prepare to move over to the offensive , and on the night of 16 / 17 August it began to advance against stiff German opposition , its ultimate objective being the mouth of the River Seine ( see 6th Airborne Division advance to the River Seine ) . Hill 's 3rd Parachute Brigade led the division 's advance , being held up until nightfall at the village of Goustranville , but then securing several bridges and allowing the 5th Parachute Brigade to pass through its positions and continue the division 's advance . The brigade remained around the Dives canal for several days , and then on 21 August it advanced towards Pont L 'Eveque , but was stalled by German infantry and armour near Annebault until 8th Parachute Battalion secured the village . Fighting continued to be fierce , but by 24 August the entire division had advanced across the River Touques . After another three days of reorganising and patrolling , the division 's time in Normandy came to an end ; in nine days it had advanced 45 miles , captured 400 square miles ( 1 @,@ 000 km2 ) of occupied territory and taken prisoner over 1 @,@ 000 German soldiers . Its casualties for the period were 4 @,@ 457 , of which 821 would be killed , 2 @,@ 709 wounded and 927 missing . It was finally withdrawn from the frontline in the last days of August , and embarked for England at the beginning of September .
= = = Ardennes = = =
On 16 December 1944 , the Germans launched a huge offensive in the Ardennes forest , with the German objective to split British and American forces apart and capture the port of Antwerp , an important logistical base for the Allies . The initial assaults were extremely successful , creating a salient some fifty miles wide and forty @-@ five miles deep , and by 23 December German units were advancing towards Dinant . American resistance was fierce , however , and blunted German advances in several areas , particularly the U.S. 101st Airborne Division around the town of Bastogne . By Christmas Day the offensive had been halted and contained , and an Allied counter @-@ offensive began . Although the majority of the troops committed belonged to the American First and Third Armies , British XXX Corps also participated , with the British 6th Airborne Division as one of its leading divisions . The division had been in England since the beginning of September , and had been due to go on Christmas leave only days before the counter @-@ offensive began ; however , it was quickly transported to the Ardennes , arriving on the night of 24 December . By 26 December the 6th Airborne Division , now commanded by Major @-@ General Eric Bols , had positioned itself between the towns of Dinant and Namur , and on 29 December it advanced against the German salient , with the 3rd Parachute Brigade , under James Hill , occupying an area around Rochefort .
When the German offensive had begun , Hill had been in hospital , undergoing reconstructive plastic surgery ; this meant that he was unable to join the 3rd Parachute Brigade for two days . When he had recovered , however , he and his batman were flown to the Ardennes and he was able to rejoin the brigade . The 5th Parachute Brigade launched several attacks against German positions in the village of Bure , which resulted in heavy British casualties , and both brigades conducted a large number of offensive patrols . The 3rd Parachute Brigade did not see any action , as those German units occupying positions opposite to it withdrew without fighting . By the end of January , however , the division was transferred back to the Netherlands and set up new positions along the Maas river , where it conducted more patrolling against elements of the German 7th Parachute Division , which held positions on the other side of the Maas . These operations came to an end in late February , when the 6th Airborne Division was withdrawn back to England to prepare for a major airborne operation in March .
= = = Rhine = = =
On 24 March 1945 Operation Varsity began , an airborne operation to aid in the establishment of a bridgehead on the east bank of the River Rhine which involved the British 6th Airborne Division and the U.S. 17th Airborne Division , under Major General William Miley . Varsity was the airborne component of Operation Plunder , in which the British Second Army , under Lieutenant @-@ General Miles C. Dempsey , and the U.S. Ninth Army , under Lieutenant General William Simpson , crossed the Rhine at Rees , Wesel , and an area south of the Lippe Canal . Both divisions would be dropped near the town of Hamminkeln , and were tasked with a number of objectives : they were to seize the Diersfordter Wald , a forest that overlooked the Rhine , including a road linking several towns together ; several bridges over a smaller waterway , the River Issel , were to be seized to facilitate the advance ; and the town of Hamminkeln was to be captured . The 6th Airborne Division was specifically tasked with securing the northern portion of the airborne bridgehead , including Hamminkeln , a section of high ground to the east of Bergen , and several bridges over the River Issel . Hill 's 3rd Parachute Brigade was to drop at the north @-@ eastern corner of the Diersfordterwald forest and clear the western portion of the forest . It would then seize a hill known as the Schneppenberg , secure a road junction near Bergen and eventually link up with the 5th Parachute Brigade .
The 3rd Parachute Brigade dropped nine minutes later than planned , but otherwise landed accurately on drop zone ' A ' . Hill landed near to the Diersfordterwald forest , which was occupied by German soldiers " who are switched @-@ on people , " killing a number of paratroopers whose parachutes became tangled up in the trees . His brigade headquarters was positioned by a copse which was supposed to have been immediately cleared , but when he arrived it was still occupied by German troops ; Hill immediately ordered a company commander of the 8th Parachute Battalion to clear the copse . The officer did so , but was killed in the process . Hill then moved his headquarters to the copse , but was then nearly killed by an approaching glider which barely managed to pull up in time , landing in the trees above him ; upon investigation , Hill discovered that it contained his batman and personal Jeep , which took some time to lower down safely . The brigade suffered a number of casualties as it engaged the German forces in the Diersfordter Wald , but by 11 : 00 hours the drop zone was all but completely clear of enemy forces and all battalions of the brigade had formed up . The key town of Schnappenberg was captured by the 9th Parachute Battalion in conjunction with the 1st Canadian Parachute Battalion , the latter unit having lost its commanding officer to German small @-@ arms fire only moments after he had landed . Despite taking casualties the brigade cleared the area of German forces , and by 13 : 45 Hill could report that the brigade had secured all of its objectives .
With Varsity a success , the 6th Airborne Division was ordered by Major General Matthew Ridgway , commander of U.S. XVIII Airborne Corps , to advance eastwards . It was supported by the 6th Guards Tank Brigade , and many of the airborne troops used unconventional transport during the advance , including captured German staff cars , prams and even horses . Hill requisitioned a motorcycle for his batman and travelled alongside the 3rd Parachute Brigade as it advanced ; at one point his batman stopped the motorcycle and relieved a captured German colonel of his binoculars before driving off again . Hill disapproved of battlefield looting and admonished his batman , although eventually relented by stating " If you can get me a pair [ as well ] , you can keep them ! " At midnight , 27 / 28 March the division came under the control of British VIII Corps , commanded by Lieutenant @-@ General Evelyn Barker , and became part of the general Allied advance through Germany towards the Baltic Sea , with the 3rd Parachute Brigade as the division 's leading unit . German resistance continued to be heavy , but the division managed to advance at a rapid pace despite this , with the brigade at one point advancing fifteen miles in twenty @-@ four hours , with eighteen of those being spent in combat . By early April the 6th Airborne reached the River Weser , with the brigade approaching it near the town of Minden , accompanied by armoured support ; as it did so , the brigade found itself moving parallel to several German tanks , with Hill sitting on the rear of one of the British tanks . Both sides opened fire , but did little damage , the two German tanks managing to outpace the brigade .
The brigade continued its fast pace of advance , with Hill continuing to ride pillion on his motorcycle , and by 23 April it had reached the River Elbe , having advanced 103 miles in fourteen days ; the division had captured more than 19 @,@ 000 prisoners during this period . After crossing the Elbe , the division once again came under the command of U.S. XVIII Airborne Corps , with General Ridgway informing Major General Bols that it was vital the division reach the port of Wismar before the approaching Russian Army did , to ensure that Denmark was not occupied by the Soviet Union . Although the 5th Parachute Brigade was ordered to lead the division 's advance , Hill was determined to reach Wismar first ; after an extremely rapid advance he succeeded , with troops from the 1st Canadian Parachute Battalion being the first to enter Wismar , beating an advancing Russian tank column by only a few miles . A few days later , on 7 May 1945 , Germany surrendered and the war in Europe came to an end . Hill was awarded a second Bar to his DSO for his command of the 3rd Parachute Brigade during its advance from the Rhine to the Elbe , as well as the American Silver Star .
= = Post @-@ war career = =
In May 1945 Hill served as military governor of Copenhagen , for which he was awarded the King Haakon VII Liberty Cross , and then assumed command of the 1st Parachute Brigade and oversaw its demobilisation . He retired from the British Army in July 1945 , although he continued to serve as an officer in the Territorial Army , raising the 4th Parachute Brigade ( Territorial Army ) in 1947 and serving as its commanding officer until 1949 . After standing down as commander of the brigade , Hill served on the board of a number of companies , including Lloyds Bank , the Associated Coal and Wharf Companies , and Powell Duffryn of Canada . Hill was an avid birdwatcher , with a particular claim to fame for being only the second person to discover a cuckoo 's egg in the nest of a whinchat . He also helped to set up the Parachute Regiment Association and the Airborne Forces Security fund , acting as a trustee of the latter organisation for thirty years and chairman for five years . Hill married for a second time , wedding Joan Patricia Haywood in 1986 . On 6 June 2004 he attended the 60th Anniversary of the Normandy landings , and a bronze statue of him was unveiled at Le Mesnil crossroads by Charles , Prince of Wales , Colonel @-@ in @-@ Chief of The Parachute Regiment . He died on 16 March 2006 , two days after his 95th birthday . He is survived by his second wife and a daughter from the first marriage , Gillian Bridget Sanda .
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= Death and state funeral of Ronald Reagan =
On June 5 , 2004 , Ronald Reagan , the 40th President of the United States , died after having suffered from Alzheimer 's disease for nearly a decade . His seven @-@ day state funeral followed . After Reagan 's death , his body was taken from his Bel Air , Los Angeles home to the Gates , Kingsley and Gates Funeral Home in Santa Monica , California to prepare the body for burial . On June 7 , Reagan 's casket was transported by hearse and displayed at the Ronald Reagan Presidential Library in Simi Valley , California , then flown to Washington , D.C. on June 9 for a service , public viewing and tributes at the U.S. Capitol .
After lying in state for thirty @-@ four hours in the Capitol rotunda , a state funeral service was conducted at the Washington National Cathedral on June 11 , the day when President George W. Bush declared a national day of mourning . Later that day , after the service , Reagan 's casket was transported back to California for interment at the Reagan Presidential Library . The state funeral was executed by the Military District of Washington ( MDW ) and was the first since that of Lyndon B. Johnson in 1973 . Richard Nixon , who presided over Johnson 's funeral , declined to have a state funeral in 1994 . Reagan was the first U.S. former president to die in the 21st century .
= = Death = =
On the morning of June 5 , 2004 , there were reports that Reagan 's health had significantly deteriorated , following nine years of Alzheimer 's disease . He died of pneumonia at his home at 13 : 09 PDT , at the age of 93 .
President George W. Bush was in Paris when Reagan died and acknowledged the death in a press conference . President Bush made the following statement on June 5 , 2004 :
American flags at the White House , across the United States , and around the world over official U.S. installations and operating locations , were ordered flown at half @-@ staff for 30 days in a presidential proclamation by President Bush . In the announcement of Reagan 's death , Bush also declared June 11 a National Day of Mourning .
Some of the early international tributes to Reagan included those of Queen Elizabeth II , former British Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher , former Soviet Union Leader Mikhail Gorbachev , British Prime Minister Tony Blair , former Canadian Prime Minister Brian Mulroney , Canadian Prime Minister Paul Martin , and French President Jacques Chirac . Martin advised Governor General Adrienne Clarkson to order all flags across Canada and at all Canadian diplomatic missions in the United States flown to half @-@ staff on the 11th as well , in sympathy with the U.S. ' s National Day of Mourning . In Germany , Chancellor Gerhard Schröder ordered flags flown at half @-@ staff above government buildings on the 11th as well .
People marked Reagan 's death by leaving tributes and condolences at U.S. embassies and consulates overseas , as well as at locales around the country significant to Reagan 's life , including his presidential library , his birthplace in Tampico , Illinois , the funeral home where his body was taken after he died , and the Tau Kappa Epsilon fraternity house in Eureka , Illinois .
After Reagan 's death , campaigning for the ongoing U.S. presidential election was considered disrespectful during a time of mourning , and was suspended . The 2004 Canadian federal election was also to be held ; Martin , Opposition Leader Stephen Harper , the Conservative leader , and NDP Leader Jack Layton suspended their campaigns , citing respect for Reagan .
= = Funeral events = =
= = = Reagan Library = = =
On June 7 , Reagan 's body was removed from the funeral home and driven in a 20 @-@ mile @-@ per @-@ hour motorcade , by hearse , to the Ronald Reagan Presidential Library in Simi Valley .
Reagan 's casket , a Marsellus Masterpiece model , was carried by a military honor guard representing all branches of the United States Armed Forces into the lobby of the library to lie in repose . There , a brief family service was conducted by the Reverend Dr. Michael H. Wenning , former pastor of Bel Air Presbyterian Church , where Reagan worshipped . When the prayer service concluded , Nancy Reagan and her family approached the casket , where Mrs. Reagan laid her head on it . After the family left , the doors of the presidential library opened , and the public began filing in at a rate of 2 @,@ 000 an hour throughout the night . In all , about 108 @,@ 000 people visited the presidential library to see the casket .
= = = Departure to Washington = = =
On June 9 , Reagan 's casket was removed from the presidential library and driven in a motorcade to NAS Point Mugu in Oxnard , California ; it was the same airfield Reagan flew into and out of during his presidency when visiting his California ranch . SAM 28000 , one of the two Boeing 747 @-@ 200s , which usually serves the president as Air Force One , arrived to transport the casket to Washington . Thousands of people gathered to witness the plane 's departure . Just before she boarded the VC @-@ 25A Presidential Aircraft , Nancy Reagan waved to the crowd with her military escort at her side . The plane lifted off at about 9 : 40 AM PST .
= = = Events in Washington = = =
In Washington , D.C. , members of Congress , and much of the public , paid tribute to Reagan immediately after his death and throughout his funeral .
= = = = Funeral procession = = = =
Events in the capital began when Reagan 's casket arrived at Andrews Air Force Base , Maryland . It was removed from the plane , driven by hearse in a procession through the Maryland and Virginia suburbs and the nation 's capital , across the Memorial Bridge , and onto Constitution Avenue .
Just before the plane arrived at Andrews , the Capitol was evacuated for a brief period , for a plane carrying Kentucky Governor Ernie Fletcher was off course and created a scare by entering restricted airspace ; the incident was attributed to radio problems on board the plane and did not affect funeral events .
Near the Ellipse , and within sight of the White House , the hearse halted and Reagan 's body was transferred to a horse @-@ drawn caisson for the procession down Constitution Avenue to Capitol Hill . Nancy Reagan stepped out of her limousine to witness the body 's transfer ; she was met with a warm greeting , including applause . The cortege began the 45 @-@ minute journey just after 6 : 00 PM EST , with the Reagan family following in limousines . Military units escorted the caisson as it made its way to the sounds of muffled drums . Behind the caisson was a riderless horse named Sergeant York , carrying Reagan 's riding boots reversed in the stirrups . The caisson paused at 4th Street and Constitution Avenue , where 21 Air Force F @-@ 15 's from Seymour Johnson Air Force Base , North Carolina , flew over in missing man formation .
= = = = Capitol Hill = = = =
The caisson stopped when it arrived at Capitol Hill ; military units removed it , and " Hail to the Chief " was played amidst a 21 @-@ gun salute . The casket was carried up the west front steps of the Capitol , mainly because Reagan was first inaugurated there and he wanted to face west , toward California . Two teams of military pallbearers carried the casket up the steps of the Capitol to " The Battle Hymn of the Republic " .
When the casket reached the top of the steps , Nancy Reagan and her military escort met it . As the casket passed them , Mrs. Reagan momentarily pulled away from her escort , reached out , and touched the casket . They followed it inside to the rotunda .
The casket was placed under the rotunda , where it lay in state on Abraham Lincoln 's catafalque . An evening memorial service then took place , with dignitaries primarily composed of Congressional members , members of the United States Supreme Court , and the diplomatic corps ; the Reverend Daniel Coughlin , Chaplain of the House of Representatives , gave the invocation . Eulogies were then delivered by Senate President pro tempore Ted Stevens , House Speaker Dennis Hastert , and Vice President Dick Cheney .
After the eulogies , the three speakers each laid a wreath at the casket , and the Senate Chaplain , the Reverend Barry Black , gave the benediction . Cheney escorted Mrs. Reagan to the casket , where she said her goodbyes . The dignitaries in the room paid their respects during the next half @-@ hour . In a rare instance , the doors of the Capitol were then opened to the public , who stood in lines stretching many blocks to view the casket .
= = = = = Public viewing = = = = =
The general public stood in long lines waiting for a turn to pay their respects to the president . People passed by the casket at a rate of about 5 @,@ 000 per hour ( 83 @.@ 3 per minute resp . 1 @.@ 4 per second ) and the wait time for some exceeded seven hours . In all , 104 @,@ 684 paid their respects when Reagan lay in state . The Washington Metro subway set a then daily record in ridership of 850 @,@ 636 as a result .
After returning to Washington following the G8 summit , President George W. Bush and First Lady Laura Bush visited the rotunda to pay their respects . Many world leaders did the same , including interim Iraqi President Ghazi al @-@ Yawer , former Polish president Lech Wałęsa , Gorbachev , and Thatcher , Reagan 's good friend and associate .
While Reagan 's casket lay in state , Nancy Reagan and her family took up temporary residence in Blair House , the official residence of guests of the President of the United States . There , she was greeted by additional dignitaries and public figures . During a visit from Thatcher , the former Prime Minister wrote in the Blair House condolence book , " To Ronnie , Well done , thou good and faithful servant . "
= = = State funeral service = = =
After thirty @-@ four hours of lying in state , the doors of the Capitol were closed to the public and Nancy Reagan was escorted in , where she had a moment alone with the casket . A military honor guard entered and carried it down the west steps of the Capitol to a 21 @-@ gun salute where Mrs. Reagan , holding her hand over her heart , met it . After it was placed in a hearse , the motorcade departed on the five mile @-@ trip to the Washington National Cathedral , where the state funeral service was to be held ; crowds lined the route of the cortege as the hearse made its way .
= = = = Dignitaries = = = =
About 4 @,@ 000 people gathered at the cathedral for the service , including President and Mrs. Bush , former presidents George H. W. and Barbara Bush , Gerald and Betty Ford , Jimmy and Rosalynn Carter , and Bill and Hillary Clinton . Members of Congress and past and present governors were also present .
Foreign dignitaries attended as well , coming from 165 nations . The dignitaries included 36 past and present heads of state and government , and UN Secretary General Kofi Annan . Leading the dignitaries were Gorbachev , Thatcher , Mulroney , and Prince Charles ( representing Queen Elizabeth II ) . Other world leaders included UK Prime Minister Tony Blair and his wife Cherie , German Chancellor Gerhard Schröder , former Japanese Prime Minister Yasuhiro Nakasone , Italian Prime Minister Silvio Berlusconi , Jordan 's King Abdullah , as well as interim presidents Hamid Karzai of Afghanistan and Ghazi al @-@ Yawer of Iraq , and Irish President Mary McAleese . Blair , Schröder , Berlusconi , Karzai , King Abdullah , and al @-@ Yawer had been at the G8 summit in Sea Island , Georgia , and later decided to extend their stay in the U.S. to attend the funeral . Schröder said about attending the funeral : " It is appropriate that the German chancellor says , ' Thank you , ' and that is what I 'm doing . ' " For Karzai , the funeral was part of his week @-@ long visit to the U.S. and it was the beginning of his visit to Washington . He scrapped a visit to the West Coast to visit the Afghan community there to attend the funeral . World leaders who attended the summit , but decided not to extend their stay in the U.S. to attend the funeral , paid tribute at the summit , including Canadian Prime Minister Paul Martin , French President Jacques Chirac , Russian President Vladimir Putin , Irish Prime Minister Bertie Ahern , also president of the European Union , and Japanese Prime Minister Junichirō Koizumi . McAleese 's presence had special significance , as she paid tribute to Reagan 's Irish roots , recalling his visit to Ireland in 1984 . In addition , Taiwan 's President of the Control Yuan Frederick Chien and Representative Chen Chien @-@ jen attended the funeral .
The funeral for Reagan was the largest in the United States since that of John F. Kennedy in 1963 . President Kennedy 's daughter , Caroline , and her husband , Edwin Schlossberg , both attended .
= = = = Cathedral events = = = =
The motorcade arrived at the Cathedral and Reagan 's casket was removed . The bearers carrying it paused on the Cathedral steps , and an opening prayer was given by Bishop John Bryson Chane , Dean of the Washington National Cathedral . The casket was then carried down the aisle ; the Reagan family followed and Mrs. Reagan was escorted to her seat by President Bush . Rabbi Harold Kushner and Supreme Court Associate Justice Sandra Day O 'Connor ( the first female Supreme Court justice , whom Reagan appointed ) , then each gave a reading , which preceded the eulogies . The choir then sang hymns — " Faire is the Heaven " ; " Bring Us , O Lord " ; " And I saw a New Heaven " — before Thatcher delivered the first eulogy . In view of her failing mental faculties following several small strokes , the message had been pre @-@ recorded several months earlier and was broadcast throughout the Cathedral on plasma television screens . During the speech , Thatcher said , " We have lost a great president , a great American and a great man , and I have lost a dear friend . "
Following Thatcher 's eulogy , Mulroney delivered his , ending with : " In the presence of his beloved and indispensable Nancy , his children , his family , his friends and all of the American people that he so deeply revered , I say au revoir today to a gifted leader and historic president and a gracious human being . "
Former President George H. W. Bush then spoke , his voice breaking at one point when describing Reagan ; Bush had been Reagan 's Vice President from 1981 to 1989 . His son , President George W. Bush , was the last to give a eulogy , saying in part , " Ronald Reagan belongs to the ages now , but we preferred it when he belonged to us ... In his last years he saw through a glass darkly . Now he sees his Savior face to face . And we look for that fine day when we will see him again , all weariness gone , clear of mind , strong and sure and smiling again , and the sorrow of this parting gone forever . "
The choir then sang " The Battle Hymn of the Republic " and Theodore Edgar McCarrick , Cardinal Archbishop of Washington , delivered a Bible reading from the Gospel of Matthew . The celebrant , former Missouri Senator the Reverend John Danforth , delivered the homily and Irish tenor Ronan Tynan sang songs such as " Ave Maria " and " Amazing Grace " at the request of Nancy Reagan . The Reverend Ted Eastman , former Bishop of Maryland , delivered the benediction , flanked by Reverend Danforth and Reverend Chane .
= = = Interment at the Reagan Library = = =
= = = = Return to California = = = =
After the service , the casket was removed from the cathedral and driven to Andrews Air Force Base for the return to California , passing crowds along its route . The family and close friends boarded the VC 25 @-@ A Presidential Aircraft , and as she had done previously , Nancy Reagan waved farewell to the crowds just before boarding the plane .
About five hours after the aircraft departed Andrews , it touched down at Naval Base Ventura County , Point Mugu , California . The public , including sailors from the USS Ronald Reagan , was there to witness the plane 's arrival . Reagan 's body was driven in a large motorcade on one final trip though the streets of southern California .
= = = = Burial service and interment = = = =
The service drew 700 invited guests , including former Reagan administration officials such as George P. Shultz , and noted dignitaries ; Margaret Thatcher , who traveled on the plane from Washington , sat next to California Governor Arnold Schwarzenegger and his wife , Maria Shriver ; former California Governor Pete Wilson was in attendance , as well as former Los Angeles Mayor Richard Riordan . Hollywood actors and other celebrities also attended , including Mr. Reagan 's first wife , actress Jane Wyman , Kirk Douglas , Charlton Heston , Mickey Rooney , Dolores Hope ( widow of Bob Hope ) , Merv Griffin , Tommy Lasorda , Wayne Gretzky , Scott Baio , Bo Derek , Tom Selleck , Pat Sajak , Wayne Newton , and the Sinatra family . The three surviving Reagan children , Michael , Patti , and Ron , gave final eulogies at the interment ceremony .
Eulogies finished , and the service over , the Air Force Band of the Golden West played four " ruffles and flourishes " , and the U.S. Army Chorus sang " The Star @-@ Spangled Banner " . Bagpiper Eric Rigler played " Amazing Grace " as the casket was moved to its grave site and placed on a plinth . There , burial rites were given , followed by a last 21 @-@ gun salute ; members of the armed services fired three volleys and a bugler played " Taps " . At that time , four Navy F / A @-@ 18 fighter jets flew over in missing man formation , and the flag that flew over the Capitol during President Reagan 's 1981 inauguration was folded by the honor guard and was presented to Nancy Reagan by Captain James Symonds , the commanding officer of the USS Ronald Reagan .
After Nancy Reagan accepted the flag , she approached the casket and spent several minutes patting and stroking it . She laid her head down on the casket , before breaking down and crying ; The Washington Post described Mrs. Reagan as having been " stoic through nearly a week of somber rituals " but she " surrendered to her grief after being handed the flag that had covered her husband 's coffin . " While she cried , she kissed the casket and said " I love you " . Her children surrounded her , and attempted to console her . Mrs. Reagan then walked away with her military escort , clutching the folded flag . The military band began to play the Victorian hymn " My Faith Looks Up to Thee " as the Reagan children said their goodbyes . Funeral attendees had an opportunity to file past the coffin .
The casket was lowered into the vault and closed approximately before 3 : 00 AM PDT the next day . The exterior of the horseshoe shaped monument is inscribed with a quote Ronald Reagan delivered in 1991 :
= = Music = =
Music played during the week @-@ long events included four ruffles and flourishes , " Hail to the Chief " , " My Country , ' Tis of Thee " , " The Battle Hymn of the Republic " , " Amazing Grace " , " Eternal Father , Strong to Save " ( also known as " The Navy Hymn " ) , " God of Our Fathers " , " Mansions of the Lord " , " God Bless America " , " America the Beautiful " , " Going Home " , and " On a Hymnsong of Philip Bliss " by David Holsinger .
= = Security measures = =
The state funeral marked the first time that Washington had hosted a major event since the September 11 attacks . As a result , the Department of Homeland Security ( DHS ) designated the state funeral a National Special Security Event ( NSSE ) . Special precautions were taken because many of the events were open to the public and there were multiple protectees . As means of assisting the motorcade , many streets were temporarily blocked off by law enforcement .
Attorney General John Ashcroft told a Senate hearing before the funeral : " It is a sad commentary when the observation of a memorial service for a former president of the United States must be labeled a National Special Security Event . Such is the fact of modern life in Washington and such is the nature of the war against al Qaeda . " MPDC Chief Charles H. Ramsey agreed saying , " In a post @-@ 9 / 11 world , we have to be very concerned ... and aware of the potential that something could happen , not that we 've received any information at all . "
However , DHS was handling another NSSE at the same time : the G @-@ 8 Summit in Sea Island , Georgia .
During the services , the news media made note that the security measures also made evident that the era of terrorism that the world was experiencing had its roots during the Reagan years . The worst act of terrorism against the United States prior to 9 / 11 , the bombing of Pan Am Flight 103 over Lockerbie , Scotland , which killed 189 Americans , happened during the Reagan years .
= = Public and media comments = =
The majority of those commemorating Reagan were supporters of his , although not all held the 40th president in high regard . In one noted example , Paul Mays , a retired engineer who never thought much of Reagan 's politics , witnessed the motorcade leave the tarmac at Andrews Air Force Base ; he commented " This is history " . Frank Dubois , an American University professor , also was there for the motorcade , though of the laudatory praise he remarked , " [ Reagan ] hurt the environment ; there was double @-@ digit inflation . I just don 't get it . "
The majority of media coverage of the event was deferential . Most major news organizations broadcast the various events live multiple times ; during the week , the cable channel C @-@ SPAN broadcast uninterrupted coverage of the funeral ceremonies . A few complained , however , that the television coverage was excessive and preempted coverage of other events . CBS News anchor Dan Rather was quoted as saying : " Even though everybody is respectful and wants to pay homage to the president , life does go on . There is other news , like the reality of Iraq . It got very short shrift this weekend . " Throughout the week , media experts reported that the national mourning , televised nearly non @-@ stop on many television networks , provided Americans welcome respite from unhappy reports that American troops were being killed in Iraq and Afghanistan , giving them a sense of good news they had been desperate for since the September 11 attacks .
Reagan 's obituaries also included a few criticisms . Richard Goldstein of The Village Voice criticized the funeral for its careful orchestration , writing , " Because the networks had so long to plan for this production ... this was the most precisely mounted news event in modern times . Each gesture was minutely choreographed , every tear strategically placed . "
Additionally , some media outlets were criticized for lionizing Reagan without paying equal attention to more controversial decisions made during his administration . Thomas Kunkel , dean of the University of Maryland , College Park 's journalism college , wrote in A magazine that the coverage " would have you believe that Reagan was a cross between Abe Lincoln and Mother Teresa , with an overlay of Mister Rogers . " Howard Kurtz , The Washington Post 's media columnist , said Reagan was " a far more controversial figure in his time than the largely gushing obits on television would suggest . " The Nation ran a series of articles about the many controversies of his presidency .
= = Gallery = =
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= Harvey Kurtzman 's Jungle Book =
Harvey Kurtzman 's Jungle Book is a 1959 graphic novel by American cartoonist Harvey Kurtzman . The satirical stories are aimed at an adult audience , in contrast to Kurtzman 's earlier work for adolescents in periodicals such as Mad . The social satire in the book 's four stories targets Peter Gunn @-@ style private @-@ detective shows , Westerns such as Gunsmoke , capitalist avarice in the publishing industry , Freudian pop psychology , and lynch @-@ hungry yokels in the South . Kurtzman 's character Goodman Beaver makes his first appearance in one of the stories .
Kurtzman created the satirical Mad in 1952 , but left its publisher EC Comics in 1956 after a dispute over financial control . After two failed attempts with similar publications , Kurtzman proposed Jungle Book as an all @-@ original cartoon book to Ballantine Books to replace its successful series of Mad collections , which had moved to another publisher . Ballantine accepted Kurtzman 's proposal , albeit with reservations about its commercial viability . It was the first mass @-@ market paperback of original comics published in the United States . Though it was not a financial success , Jungle Book attracted fans and critics for its brushwork , satirical adult @-@ oriented humor , experimental dialogue balloons , and adventurous page and panel designs .
= = Contents = =
The full title of the book is Harvey Kurtzman 's Jungle Book : Or , Up from the Apes ! ( and Right Back Down ) — In Which Are Described in Words and Pictures Businessmen , Private Eyes , Cowboys , and Other Heroes All Exhibiting the Progress of Man from the Darkness of the Cave into the Light of Civilization by Means of Television , Wide Screen Movies , the Stone Axe , and Other Useful Arts . At 140 pages , Jungle Book remains Kurtzman 's longest solo work . Freed from the length constraints of magazine pieces , Kurtzman was able to make inventive use of page and panel rhythms . According to critic and publisher Kim Thompson , his satire never had " more pitiless a bite " at any other time in his career . Kurtzman had aimed his Mad stories at an adolescent audience ; his targeting Jungle Book at an adult audience was uncommon in American comics .
Four stories make up the book :
= = = " Thelonius Violence , Like Private Eye " = = =
Thelonius Violence speaks in jazz slang while surrounded by beautiful women and jazz background music , which was a parody of the jazz @-@ choreographed fight scenes in the Peter Gunn television series . Violence 's job is to protect a young , vapid woman named Lolita Nabokov who is being blackmailed over her infidelity . Violence suffers the onslaughts of a thug who attempts to keep him away from the young woman , but in the end it is revealed that the thug and Violence are partners in her extortion .
In his parody , Kurtzman retained little from the original Peter Gunn aside from the main character . Kurtzman stated he " was trying to get ... that Henry Mancini feel to the story " . " Thelonius Violence " appears first in the book , but was one of the last stories to be completed . It remained a favorite of Kurtzman 's , as he " had control of this story . The action and line are good . It took time and practice and effort to get it , but it 's there . "
= = = " The Organization Man in the Gray Flannel Executive Suit " = = =
Goodman Beaver is an editor hired by Schlock Publications Inc . During his time there , he loses his youthful idealism and succumbs to the corruption he finds in the publishing world . Goodman finds himself sexually harassing the secretaries , just as the other cynical executives at Schlock do , and ends up stealing from the company .
Goodman Beaver was a stand @-@ in for Kurtzman himself in this semi @-@ autobiographical tale . At this point in his career , Kurtzman had had several negative experiences with publishers , and he used this story to satirize the corrupting influence of capitalism and power . Kurtzman 's memories of his time at Timely Comics were a strong influence on the Schlock Publications he portrayed ; Timely publisher Martin Goodman was Kurtzman 's model for the publisher in the story . Kurtzman also used Burt Lancaster as his model for the editor of the men 's magazine in the story , and Hugh Hefner was his model for the editor of the " girlie " magazine . As Goodman Beaver did in the story , early in his career Kurtzman worked making crossword puzzles for Goodman . The title is an amalgamation of three bestselling 1950s novels : Executive Suite ( 1952 ) by Cameron Hawley , The Man in the Gray Flannel Suit ( 1955 ) by Sloan Wilson , and The Organization Man ( 1956 ) by William H. Whyte .
= = = " Compulsion on the Range " = = =
" Compulsion on the Range " is a satire that blends Westerns and Freudian pop psychology . In the 1950s , a trend of " adult " Westerns appeared in which characters were given psychological backgrounds to explain their motivations , as in The Left Handed Gun , in which an angst @-@ ridden Billy the Kid gets his revenge after losing his father figure . In " Compulsion " , a psychologist tries to work out why Marshall Matt Dolin ( a parody of James Arness as Marshal Matt Dillon from the popular Gunsmoke TV show ) insists on trying to outshoot Johnny Ringding , chasing him across the West .
" Compulsion " was the third story in the book , but the first to be drawn , and was Kurtzman 's least favorite , as he thought he had yet to perfect the style he had developed for the book . The story recycled ideas from a Kurtzman strip called " Endings to End the Fast Draw " that TV Guide had rejected in 1958 .
= = = " Decadence Degenerated " = = =
One of Kurtzman 's favorites , " Decadence Degenerated " is set in a town in the Deep South called Rottenville , where nothing happens until local beauty Honey Lou is found murdered . A quiet bookworm named Si Mednick is lynched for the murder because , as one of the yokels declares , " You cain not truss [ sic ] a man who reads ! " The town sheriff overlooks the lynching , despite the presence of a " Northern " reporter — actually from the northern part of the state .
At the time the story appeared , Hollywood was releasing adaptations of works set in the South by writers such as Tennessee Williams and William Faulkner . However , Kurtzman said his inspiration came from his real @-@ life memories of Paris , Texas , where he was stationed during World War II . He learned the Southern drawl used in the story from what he heard at United Service Organizations ( USO ) dances . He recalled , " I just wanted a parody of that town . I worked from memory . " The scene in which the unemployed townsmen mentally undress Honey Lou affected Art Spiegelman , who saw the possibilities of the comics medium in the formalities of the scene 's portrayal of motion .
= = Style and themes = =
The black @-@ and @-@ white art is in loose , fluid , and sketchy brushwork with a gray wash . The drawings are in an exaggerated cartoon style , with rounded , fluid , elongated characters . The rendering is simple and clean , and characters often have mere circles for eyes . Most of the women lack noses except when drawn in profile . Kurtzman blends the verbal and visual aspects of the work — for example , when an enraged Goodman Beaver confronts his diminutive boss Mr. Schlock , Goodman is graphically overwhelmed by Schlock 's word balloons , which demonstrates Goodman 's helpless subservience and Schlock 's effortless psychological dominance over his employees .
Kurtzman lettered the dialogue in an expressive , handwriting @-@ like style . Unlike as in the majority of American comic books , Kurtzman did not letter using all capitals . His tall and thin dialogue balloons necessitated frequent hyphenation , which made the dialogue more difficult to read . Kurtzman experimented with drawing on blue @-@ lined paper ; the blue lines were not supposed to reproduce visibly when the book was printed , but they were unintentionally reinforced by the gray wash Kurtzman used in the artwork .
Kurtzman used the book to lampoon humankind 's inability or incompetence , its failure to reach its supposed aspirations , and its self @-@ delusion . He also targeted middlebrow entertainment , deflating its pretensions . The women in the stories are extraordinarily curvaceous and are frequently objectified — although the character Sam in " Decadence Degenerated " avoids being ogled or groped , it is only because she is depicted as repulsive .
= = Publication = =
Kurtzman founded the satirical Mad at EC Comics as a color comic book in 1952 , and turned it into a black @-@ and @-@ white comics magazine in 1955 . In 1956 , Kurtzman left over a dispute with EC Comics publisher William Gaines about financial control . Kurtzman tried his hand at another magazine in 1957 with the financial backing of Hugh Hefner . The result , Trump , was slick and lavish , and lasted only two issues before Hefner canceled it . Kurtzman then co @-@ founded and co @-@ published Humbug along with a group of Mad and Trump artists . In 1958 , after eleven unprofitable issues , Humbug also came to an end . Kurtzman was left disillusioned and cynical about the business end of publishing , and struggling financially , with a wife , three children , and a mortgage to take care of .
While still at EC , Kurtzman had overseen the first five Mad pocket books published by Ballantine Books , which went on to become perennial sellers with sales in the millions . When Kurtzman left EC , his royalties from the successful books ceased and Gaines had Kurtzman 's name removed from them . In 1958 Gaines abandoned Ballantine for Signet Books . Kurtzman proposed an original paperback to Ian Ballantine , who was looking for something to replace the Mad line . Kurtzman was well respected at th Ballantine offices , and it was editor Bernard Shir @-@ Cliff who provided Kurtzman with the postcard of the gap @-@ toothed character that was to become Mad 's mascot Alfred E. Neuman . Ballantine had earlier published The Humbug Digest in the same format with material culled from Kurtzman 's Humbug magazine , though it fared poorly in the market .
Rather than reprint material cut @-@ and @-@ pasted to fit the narrow pages of the paperback format as had been done with Ballantine 's Mad books , Kurtzman wanted to create new material designed to fit the page dimensions . Ballantine accepted Kurtzman 's proposal on faith , but he had reservations . He suspected it was the Mad brand name that sold books rather than Kurtzman 's name , although the artist had been the creative force behind Mad . In January Kurtzman signed a contract with Ballantine that came with an advance of $ 1 @,@ 500 with a 4 % royalty per copy sold ; the dealine was 144 pages by May 1 , 1959 . The contracted book was to be called Pleasure Package , for which Kurtman mocked up a cover , but appeared as Harvey Kurtzman 's Jungle Book .
When it was published in September 1959 , Jungle Book was the first mass @-@ market paperback of original comics content in the United States . The 35 ¢ book had small dimensions at 4 1 ⁄ 4 × 7 inches ( 11 × 18 cm ) and was poorly printed from low @-@ grade Kodak Velox onto low @-@ quality paper . Ballantine printed 150 @,@ 000 copies for the books first run , a low number for the company . Jungle Book sold poorly ; after five years and despite an offer of copies with subscriptions to Kurtzman 's Help ! magazine only 78 @,@ 000 copies had sold — for Ballantine to break even 107 @,@ 000 copies would have to have been sold . Ballantine pulped the remaining copies , and Kurtzman and the company 's relationship came to an end .
Kurtzman lamented the book 's poor sales as he " truly liked the format " . Kurtzman had been developing at least one other story , a science @-@ fiction parody , but abandoned it after two pages . If Jungle Book had been a market success , Kurtzman had intended to continue producing books in the format . Kurtzman reprinted " Decadence Degenerated " in the second issue of Help ! , a magazine he edited in the 1960s . " Compulsion on the Range " was reprinted in the underground comic book Yellow Dog # 15 in 1969 . Kitchen Sink Press reprinted Jungle Book in 1986 in a deluxe hardcover format with the pages reproduced at the size in which they were drawn . The reprinting included an introduction by Art Spiegelman .
= = Reception and legacy = =
Jungle Book sold poorly , but developed a fan following and became a collectors ' item . This group included pioneering underground cartoonists such as Joel Beck , Denis Kitchen , Jay Lynch , Spain Rodriguez , Gilbert Shelton , Art Spiegelman , Skip Williamson , and Robert Crumb , who wrote " [ s ] ome of [ Kurtzman 's ] greatest stuff was done in a little Ballantine Book called Harvey Kurtzman ’ s Jungle Book " . Goodman Beaver later appeared in a series of stories drawn by Will Elder in Kurtzman 's Help ! , and was later adapted into Little Annie Fanny in Playboy magazine .
Biographers Denis Kitchen and Paul Buhle see the book as a precursor of the graphic novel . In 1962 , Kurtzman made another aborted attempt at this form with Marley 's Ghost , an adaptation of A Christmas Carol by Charles Dickens , a project he had conceived in 1954 . He finished seven of the project 's projected 100 pages , and had long @-@ time collaborator Jack Davis reinterpret one of the pages as part of the proposal . The project failed to interest a publisher . Graphic novels did not start to become widespread until 1978 , a year which saw the publication of McGregor and Gulacy 's Sabre and Eisner 's A Contract with God , the latter a book also made up of four short stories . By the time of the publication of these books a well @-@ organized comics fandom had developed whose conventions , fanzines , and comic shops provided a more receptive environment for such innovations .
The Comics Journal placed Jungle Book 26th on its 1999 list of " Top 100 English @-@ Language Comics of the Century " , along with four other works with which Kurtzman was involved . Kim Thompson described the book as " the biggest ' if ' in comics ' history : What if it had been a success ? " Thompson speculated on what Kurtzman may have been capable of if he had not had to resort to teaching , illustration , and Little Annie Fanny . Thompson called the book " one of the artform 's most stunning successes , and one of the field 's most heartbreaking failures " . Kurtzman 's self @-@ portrait from the back cover of the book has become iconic , and is used in connection with the Harvey Awards , named in Kurtzman 's honor .
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= Bovista pila =
Bovista pila , commonly known as the tumbling puffball , is a species of puffball fungus in the family Agaricaceae . A temperate species , it is widely distributed in North America , where it grows on the ground on road sides , in pastures , grassy areas , and open woods . There are few well @-@ documented occurrences of B. pila outside North America . B. pila closely resembles the European B. nigrescens , from which it can be reliably distinguished only by microscopic characteristics .
The egg @-@ shaped to spherical puffball of B. pila measures up to 8 cm ( 3 in ) in diameter . Its white outer skin flakes off in age to reveal a shiny , bronze @-@ colored inner skin that encloses a spore sac . The spores are more or less spherical , with short tube @-@ like extensions . The puffballs are initially attached to the ground by a small cord that readily breaks off , leaving the mature puffball to be blown about . Young puffballs are edible while their internal tissue is still white and firm . B. pila puffballs have been used by the Chippewa people of North America as a charm , and as an ethnoveterinary medicine for livestock farming in western Canada .
= = Taxonomy = =
The species was described as new to science in 1873 by Miles Joseph Berkeley and Moses Ashley Curtis , from specimens collected in Wisconsin . In their short description , they emphasize the short pedicels ( tube @-@ like extensions ) on the spores , and indicate that these pedicels — initially about as long as the spore is wide — soon break off . According to the nomenclatural authority MycoBank , taxonomic synonyms ( i.e. , having different type specimens ) include Pier Andrea Saccardo 's 1882 Bovista tabacina , Job Bicknell Ellis and Benjamin Matlack Everhart 's 1885 Mycenastrum oregonense , and Andrew Price Morgan 's 1892 Bovista montana . William Chambers Coker and John Nathaniel Couch called B. pila " the American representative of B. nigrescens in Europe " , referring to their close resemblance .
Bovista pila is commonly known as the tumbling puffball , referring to the propensity of detached puffballs to be blown about by the wind . The specific epithet pila is Latin for " ball " .
= = Description = =
B. pila has an egg @-@ shaped to roughly spherical fruit body measuring up to 8 cm ( 3 @.@ 1 in ) in diameter . The thin ( 0 @.@ 25 millimeter ) outer tissue layer ( exoperidium ) is white to slightly pink . Its surface texture , initially appearing as if covered with minute flakes of bran ( furfuraceous ) , becomes marked with irregular , crooked lines ( rivulose ) . The exoperidium flakes off in maturity to reveal a thin , inner peridium ( endoperidium ) . The color of this shiny inner skin , splotched with darker areas , resembles the metallic colors of bronze and copper . Bovista pila puffballs are attached to the ground by a small cord ( a rhizomorph ) that typically breaks off when the puffball is mature . The interior flesh , or gleba , comprises spores and surrounding capillitial tissue . Initially white and firm with tiny , irregularly shaped chambers ( visible with a magnifying glass ) , the gleba later becomes greenish and then brown and powdery as the spores mature . In age , the upper surface of the puffball cracks and tears open . The resilient texture of the inner peridium enables the puffball to maintain its ball @-@ like shape after it has detached from the ground . As the old puffballs get blown around , spores get shaken out of the tears .
The spores of Bovista pila are spherical , smooth ( when viewed with a light microscope ) , and measure 3 @.@ 5 – 4 @.@ 5 μm . They have thick walls and very short pedicels . Basidia ( spore @-@ bearing cells ) are club @-@ shaped , measuring 8 – 10 @.@ 5 by 14 – 18 μm . They are usually four @-@ spored ( rarely , some are three @-@ spored ) , with unequal length sterigmata between 4 and 7 @.@ 4 μm . The capillitia ( sterile fibers interspersed among the spores ) tend to form loose balls about 2 mm in diameter . The main , trunk @-@ like branches of the capillitia are up to 15 μm in diameter , with walls that are typically 2 – 3 μm thick .
= = = Similar species = = =
Characteristics typically used to identify Bovista pila in the field include its relatively small size , the metallic lustre of the endoperidium , and the presence of rhizomorphs . B. plumbea is similar in appearance , but can be distinguished by its typically smaller fruit body and the blue @-@ gray color of its inner coat . Unlike B. pila , B. plumbea is attached to the ground by a mass of mycelial fibers known as a sterile base . Microscopically , B. plumbea has larger spores ( 5 – 7 by 4 @.@ 5 – 6 @.@ 0 μm ) ; with long pedicels ( 9 – 14 μm ) . Another lookalike is the European B. nigrescens , which can most reliably be distinguished from B. pila by its microscopic characteristics . The spores of B. nigrescens are oval rather than spherical , rougher than those of B. pila , and have a hyaline ( translucent ) pedicel about equal in length to the spore diameter ( 5 μm ) . The puffball Disciseda pila was named for its external resemblance to B. pila . Found in Texas and Argentina , it has much larger , warted spores that measure 7 @.@ 9 – 9 @.@ 4 μm .
= = Habitat and distribution = =
Bovista pila is found in corrals , stables , roadsides , pastures and open woods . The puffballs fruit singly , scattered , or in groups on the ground . It is also known to grow in lawns and parks . The puffball spore cases are persistent and may overwinter . Fruiting occurs throughout the mushroom season .
Bovista pila is widely distributed in North America ( including Hawaii ) . There are few well @-@ documented occurrences of B. pila outside North America . Hanns Kreisel recorded it from Russia , in what is now known as the Sakha Republic . The puffball has been tentatively identified from the Galápagos Islands , and has been collected from Pernambuco and São Paulo , Brazil . The South American material , however , has grayish @-@ yellow coloration in the gleba , which may be indicative of not yet fully matured specimens . This renders identification of this material tentative , as unripe material may have different microscopic characteristics from mature material . Although the puffball has been reported from both the European part of Turkey as well as Anatolia , and from Morocco , reports without supporting microscopic or macroscopic information are viewed with skepticism .
= = Uses = =
Edible when the interior gleba is still firm and white , Bovista pila puffballs have a mild taste and odor .
The puffball was used by the Chippewa people of North America as a charm , and medicinally as a hemostat . In British Columbia , Canada , it is used by livestock farmers who are not allowed to use conventional drugs under certified organic programs . The spore mass of the puffball is applied to bleeding hoof trimming ' nicks ' , and then wrapped with breathable first @-@ aid tape . It is also similarly used on bleeding areas resulting from disbudding , and wounds resulting from sternal abscesses .
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= Cadet Nurse Corps =
The United States Cadet Nurse Corps was established by the U.S. Congress on June 15 , 1943 , and signed into law by president Franklin D. Roosevelt on July 1 , 1943 . Its purpose was to ensure the country had enough nurses to care for its citizens at home and abroad during World War II . It was a non @-@ discriminatory program that allowed Native Americans , African Americans , and relocated Japanese Americans to participate . The Corps was supervised by the United States Public Health Service ( USPHS ) , whose duty was to train young women as nurses during the war .
The program was open to all women between the ages of 17 and 35 , in good health , who had graduated from an accredited high school . Successful applicants were eligible for a government subsidy , paying for tuition , books , uniforms , and a stipend . In exchange , they were required to pledge to actively serve in essential civilian or federal government services for the duration of World War II . All state nursing schools were eligible to participate in the program . However , they needed to be accredited by the accrediting agency in their state , and connected with a hospital that had been approved by the American College of Surgeons .
Cadet nurses came from across the United States and from all backgrounds . Some joined because they wanted to become nurses , others for the free education , and others joined because their country needed them . Attrition rates for cadets were comparable to those reported for other nursing schools in the same period . The corps was the largest of the federal nurse @-@ training programs , and allowed young women to serve their country in uniform and without discrimination . The American Hospital Association credited the cadet student nurses with helping to prevent the collapse of civilian nursing during the war .
The unique feature of the program was its accelerated training curricula . The nursing schools were required to compress the traditional nursing program of 36 months to 30 months . Of the 1 @,@ 300 schools of nursing in the country , 1 @,@ 125 participated in the program . The Corps operated from 1943 until 1948 , and during this period 179 @,@ 294 student nurses enrolled in the program and 124 @,@ 065 of them graduated from participating nursing schools . The enrollment included over 3 @,@ 000 African Americans , 40 Native Americans , and 400 Japanese Americans . The federal government spent $ 160 @,@ 326 @,@ 237 on the nursing program .
The Cadet Nurse Corps alleviated the critical shortage of nurses during World War II and thus fulfilled its congressional mandate . In the process , it positively influenced the way future nurses would be educated and trained in the United States .
= = History = =
= = = Background = = =
Nurses were in short supply before the United States entered World War II . In July 1940 , a meeting was organized by the American Nurses Association to discuss the role nursing might play in wartime . Those in attendance included representatives from six nursing organizations , the American Red Cross , and federal agencies involved with nursing . The gathering resulted in the formation of the Nursing Council for National Defense . One of the council 's first acts was to survey nursing resources and schools throughout the country . They determined that 100 @,@ 000 nurses were eligible for military service and found most nursing schools were ill @-@ equipped to expand their instructional or housing capabilities . In response , the Council urged the federal government to appropriate public funds to support nursing education .
In the subsequent fiscal years 1941 and 1942 , the federal government partially funded the education of 12 @,@ 000 students at 309 nursing schools . Through that initiative , 3 @,@ 800 inactive nurses received refresher courses and 4 @,@ 800 graduated nurses received postgraduate training . By the end of 1942 , 47 @,@ 500 students were enrolled in nursing schools but that did not meet the country 's need . At this point , it was clear that nurses could not be trained quickly enough to keep abreast of both civilian and military needs . The need for additional federal aid for the recruitment of nurses became apparent when the U.S. Army and Navy called for 2 @,@ 500 new nurses each month during the fiscal year 1943 .
Meanwhile , supporters of nurse training programs recommended the doubling of federal aid for basic nursing education in the fiscal year 1943 . Representative Frances P. Bolton of Ohio , an advocate of nursing , supported the proposed increase in federal aid . She told Congress further expansion of nursing schools might be needed the following year .
= = = Creation of the program = = =
On March 29 , 1943 , Bolton introduced H.R. 2326 , a bill that would " provide for the training of nurses for the armed forces , government and civilian hospitals , health agencies , and war industries through grants to the institutions providing the training " . The act also stated that the nurses trained by its funding would be a uniformed body . An amendment by the Senate prohibited discrimination against race , creed , or color . The Nurse Training Act , also called the Bolton Act , was passed unanimously by Congress on June 15 , 1943 , and became Public Law No. 74 on July 1 , 1943 . The Division of Nurse Education of the USPHS was established to supervise the program and was answerable to the U.S. Surgeon General , Thomas Parran , Jr . He appointed Lucile Petry , a registered nurse ( RN ) , as director of the corps ; she was the first woman to head a division in the USPHS .
Shortly after the Nurse Training Act was passed , the Surgeon General sent a lengthy telegram outlining the program to 1 @,@ 300 nursing schools in the United States and Puerto Rico . This was followed up with applications and instructions sent by mail . Hawaii 's two nursing schools were not eligible for the program because they were in the war zone ; Alaska did not have any nursing schools at the time .
Regulations required interested nursing schools to : ( 1 ) be state accredited ; ( 2 ) be connected with a hospital approved by the American College of Surgeons or a hospital of equal standards ; ( 3 ) maintain adequate instructional facilities and personnel ; ( 4 ) provide adequate clinical experience in four basic services — medicine , surgery , pediatrics and obstetrics ; ( 5 ) provide maintenance and a stipend of $ 30 @.@ 00 for all Senior Cadet Nurses , or arrange for their requested transfer to federal or other hospitals ; ( 6 ) provide satisfactory living facilities and an adequate health service for students ; ( 7 ) provide for an accelerated program ; and ( 8 ) restrict its hours of practice . The standards of the National League of Nursing Education were adopted to evaluate the participating schools . After issuing these regulations , the Surgeon General said , " The schools of nursing are free to select students , to plan curricula , and to formulate policies consistent with the Act and the traditions of the institution concerned . This is a partnership job between the USPHS , the institutions , and the students ... "
The Federal Security Administrator was required by law to appoint an advisory committee for federal nurse training programs . The committee , which was appointed for the Nurse Training Act , consisted of people in nursing and related fields drawn from various parts of the country . Once in place , the committee met with designated federal officials and formulated the regulations necessary to carry out the act . The agreed @-@ upon rules were then approved by the Surgeon General and published in the Federal Register . The committee was also responsible for naming the new program . The Victory Nurse Corps and the Student War Nursing Reserve were considered , but both were rejected in favor of the United States Cadet Nurse Corps .
By the time the Nurse Training Act was passed by congress in 1943 , the U.S. had been involved in World War II for nearly two years , and a serious shortage of nurses already existed at home and abroad . The Cadet Nurse Corps was open to all women between the ages of 17 and 35 , in good health , who had graduated from an accredited high school . Marriage was permissible subject to guidelines . Successful applicants were eligible for a government subsidy , which paid for tuition , books , uniforms , and a living stipend . In exchange , student cadets were required to pledge to actively serve in essential civilian or federal government services for the duration of World War II . All state accredited schools of nursing were eligible to participate in the program ; however , each school was required to apply individually . Of the 1 @,@ 300 nursing schools in the country , 1 @,@ 125 participated . For the purposes of the program , the traditional 36 @-@ month nurse training program was accelerated to a 30 @-@ month program . Senior nursing students were required to work for a six @-@ month period in a federal or non @-@ federal hospital , or in other health agency . In return , the federal government would pay the schools for the related tuition and fees of the students .
= = = Recruitment = = =
The USPHS and cooperating groups created the plan for the recruitment of cadet nursing students . It was broad in scope to attract the maximum number of potential applicants in the shortest time . The primary target was the high school graduate but college girls were also recruited . The selling point of the program was that the cadets would obtain a free education in a proud profession and provide an essential service to their country . Appeals to join the Corps reached more than 7 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 newspaper and magazine readers , millions of radio listeners , and movie patrons around the country . Pleas were made in a thousand speeches , through 2 @,@ 800 @,@ 000 car @-@ boards and billboards , and in several million leaflets . U.S. corporations donated $ 13 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 worth of advertising space and technical services to the program in one year . Few media sources lacked advertising for the Corps .
For example , Eastman Kodak sponsored a full @-@ page advertisement in Life magazine ( January 24 , 1944 ) touting the U.S. Cadet Nurse Corps as a way to serve the country in the war job with a future . The ad proposed that young women who could qualify as a Cadet Nurse were lucky girls , lucky in so many different ways . Ads promised free training with pay , room and board , and gray uniforms with gray berets . The uniforms were sold with the slogan " There 's one for summer and one for winter , and it 's hard to say which is the smarter , which you 'll wear with more pride " . Applicants were assured they could wear something " frilly and feminine " for dances and they would have time for dating .
In 1944 , David O. Selznick 's Vanguard Films produced a short film , Reward Unlimited , to promote the Cadet Nurse Corps . Starring Dorothy McGuire in one of her first films , and directed by Jacques Tourneur , the 10 @-@ minute film was exhibited in theaters and at Cadet Nurse Corps recruitment events in 1944 and 1945 . The story , by Mary C. McCall , Jr . , dramatizes the choice that young Peggy Adams makes to become a nurse , her training , and her volunteering for military nursing service . The cast includes Aline MacMahon , James Brown , Spring Byington and Tom Tully .
Recruitment centers were established by the American Hospital Association in all 1 @,@ 125 participating nursing schools . Using recruiting booths , volunteers disseminated information about the opportunities offered by the Corps to potential candidates . State and local nursing councils , and many other organizations , associations , and volunteers aided the recruitment effort . 65 @,@ 521 nursing students — 521 more than projected — registered for the program in the fiscal year 1943 , the first year of enrollment . In the 1944 enrollment period , 61 @,@ 471 registered , exceeding the estimate by 1 @,@ 471 . In the 1945 enrollment period , 3 @,@ 000 students were admitted to what would be the final class of the program . As a result of the non @-@ discriminatory provision , by 1945 , over 3 @,@ 000 African Americans , 40 Native Americans , and 400 Japanese Americans had enrolled in the Corps .
= = = Uniforms = = =
The official outdoor uniforms of the Cadet Nurse Corps were distinctive ; there was one for summer and another for winter . The summer uniform consisted of a two @-@ piece , gray @-@ and @-@ white @-@ striped cotton suit and a gray twill raincoat . The winter uniform was a gray , woollen , single @-@ breasted jacket suit , a gored skirt and a gray velour overcoat . A gray Montgomery beret was worn with both uniforms . The winter uniform was one of three designs created by professional designers and introduced at a fashion show in New York City on August 16 , 1943 . Thirty @-@ two fashion editors judged this uniform and the Montgomery beret — resembling the one worn by the British general — as the winners . The uniform was " ... heralded as the most attractive for all women who served during World War II , provided a strong incentive for young women to join the corps " .
The official outdoor uniforms — with the exception of blouse , gloves , shoes , and stockings — were supplied to the cadets by the institution in which they were enrolled . The students paid for the items . Indoor uniforms varied from school to school , and were purchased by the school from federal grants . Models recruiting for the corps wore the first available cadet uniforms , which were first issued to cadets in May 1944 .
The insignia of the Cadet Nurse Corps was the Maltese Cross . The patch was worn on the left shoulder of the uniforms and on the student nurse uniform of the official school of nursing . The USPHS official insignia was worn on jacket lapels and was also present on the silver buttons . On the Montgomery beret , the USPHS insignia was worn beneath the spread eagle and the American Shield .
= = = Training = = =
A key feature of the Cadet Nurse Corps program was its accelerated training curricula . Participating schools of nursing were required to compress the traditional nursing program of 36 months to 30 months . They were also bound to provide the students with the four clinical experiences of medical , surgical , obstetrics , and pediatrics . The students became senior cadets in the last six months before graduation , requiring them to serve in a federal or civilian hospital . They rendered full @-@ time service equivalent to that of a graduate nurse . During their first nine months of service , the cadets were protected by regulation from working on the wards for more than 24 hours each week . Junior cadets typically worked between 40 and 48 hours each week , including classes . Senior cadets were free of classes . All State Boards of Nursing modified their regulations to agree with the accelerated program .
The quality and standards of the educational systems in which the cadets would be trained varied considerably . In 1943 , nursing schools , hospital administrators , and government officials assured the U.S. Congress the federally , subsidized training of nurses would at least conform to minimum standards . With his rule @-@ making powers , the Surgeon General issued regulations ; schools had to :
be accredited by the appropriate accrediting agency for schools of nursing in the state or territory ;
be connected with a hospital that had been approved by the American College of Surgeons , or that maintained standards of nursing equivalent to those required by the college . In rural schools of nursing , the major hospital clinical unit had to meet these standards ;
require for admission not less than graduation from an accredited high school ;
maintain an educational staff adequate to provide satisfactory instruction and supervision ;
provide adequate clinical experience in the four basic services – medicine , surgery , pediatrics , and obstetrics ;
provide well @-@ balanced schedules of organized instruction , experience and study ;
provide adequate and well equipped class rooms , laboratories , libraries , and other necessary facilities for the program ;
provide satisfactory living facilities and health service for students .
Institutions offering degrees in nursing had to be accredited by the appropriate nursing agency for universities and colleges . The curriculum had to include all units of instruction necessary to conform with accepted practices in basic nursing education . It had to be arranged so the entire program of combined study and practice would be completed in 24 to 30 months . The standards of the National League of Nursing Education were to be used as a guide for evaluating the adequacy of school facilities to meet the requirements specified .
Congressional hearings on appropriations emphasized that all schools — regardless of location or size — should be allowed to participate in the cadet nurse program . However , when the educational consultants Division of Nurse Education tested the standards against actual conditions , they did not seem possible for some schools to achieve . Adjustments were made for certain schools , setting lower standards for them . They would be judged by criteria included the qualifications and number of instructional personnel , their clinical facilities , the curricula , the weekly schedule of hours , and the health and guidance programs . Borderline schools produced a small percentage of the total cadet force . The educational consultants traveled thousands of miles , wrote thousands of letters , and provided support services while monitoring the standards of the 1 @,@ 125 approved schools of nursing .
= = = Cadet nurses = = =
Cadet nurses came from across the U.S. and from all economic backgrounds . Some joined because they wished to become nurses , others for the education , and others joined for the temporary World War II service . Cadets shared accepted the pledge to serve and contributed nursing services to the nation when it was needed . The Cadet Pledge was :
At this moment of my induction into the United States Cadet Nurse Corps of the United States Public Health Service , I am solemnly aware of the obligations I assume toward my country and toward my chosen profession ; I will follow faithfully the teachings of my instructors and the guidance of the physicians with whom I work ; I will hold in trust the finest traditions of nursing and the spirit of the Corps ; I will keep my body strong , my mind alert , and my heart steadfast ; I will be kind , tolerant , and understanding ; Above all , I will dedicate myself now and forever to the triumph of life over death ; As a Cadet nurse , I pledge to my county my service in essential nursing for the duration of the war .
The cadet pledge was considered a statement of intention rather than a binding contract . The attrition rate for cadets was comparable to that reported for other schools of nursing in the same period . The main cause of withdrawals was homesickness ; some married students withdrew to be with their husbands when they were released from the military ; others when the hostilities ceased ; some failed in their studies ; others left for health reasons ; and some left because of the realities of a nursing career .
The Cadet Nurses Corps was the largest of the federal nurse @-@ training programs ; it allowed young women to serve their country in uniform and without discrimination . It also influenced the way in which nurses would be educated and trained in the United States . The American Hospital Association credited the cadet student nurses with helping to prevent the collapse of civilian nursing care , and commended them for replacing graduate nurses who enlisted in the armed forces during World War II .
= = = End of the Corps = = =
Following the surrender of Japan in August 1945 , President Harry Truman set October 5 , 1945 , as the final date for new student admissions , allowing for an “ orderly transition of an important wartime activity ” . At the time , 116 @,@ 498 students were still in training and 3 @,@ 000 more were admitted for the fall and final term . Student nurses were providing 80 % of the country 's nursing care in more than 1 @,@ 000 civilian hospitals . Of the 1 @,@ 300 nursing schools contacted by the Surgeon General , 1 @,@ 125 participated in the Cadet Nurse Corps . The program was operational from 1943 to 1948 , which included three enrollment periods , or fall terms : the first term was 1943 , the second was 1944 , and the third and final term was 1945 . During this time , 179 @,@ 294 student nurses enrolled in the program and 124 @,@ 065 of them graduated from participating nursing schools .
The federal government spent $ 160 @,@ 326 @,@ 237 on the Nurse Training Act of 1943 for administration , uniforms , maintenance , tuition , fees and stipends . By the end of the program , the records of all participating schools of nursing had been audited by up to 32 field auditors , who were assigned to each ( USPHS ) district office and covered the schools in that area . The work of the field auditors resulted in the recovery of $ 2 @,@ 200 @,@ 000 of prepaid funds .
In January 1945 , the Surgeon General , Thomas Parran , Jr . , appeared before the House Committee on Military Affairs and said , " In my opinion , the country has received and increasingly will receive substantial returns on this investment . We can not measure what the loss to the country would have been if civilian nursing service had collapsed , any more than we could measure the cost of failure at the Normandy beachheads . "
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= A Fresh Start =
A Fresh Start is a 1910 American silent short drama produced by the Thanhouser Company . The film is the story of Jim , a chauffeur , who is fired from his job for drunkenness . Jim becomes a tramp , but decides to reform after a little girl orders her butler to give him food . He encounters her again at the zoo and notices that two men are following the girl and her parents . Jim uncovers a plot to kidnap her and takes the place of their chauffeur . Jim then drives the kidnappers to the police station and secures a new position as the family 's chauffeur . According to a trade review , the actual kidnapping scene and where Jim overpowers the villain 's chauffeur is not actually depicted . The reviewer also stated the strength of the production is not in the plot , but in the staging and photography . The film was released on September 2 , 1910 and it likely had a wide national release . The film is presumed lost .
= = Plot = =
Though the film is presumed lost , a synopsis survives in The Moving Picture World from September 3 , 1910 . It states : " Jim , an expert chauffeur , is discharged from a garage , for insobriety . Penniless and being unable to obtain a new situation , he takes to the road , a common tramp . At one house where he applies for food , he is harshly refused , and is about to turn away and try his luck elsewhere , when little Marie , the daughter of the house , comes to his assistance and orders the butler to at once give him the food he requires . She also picks a rose for him from the garden . Jim strolls into a nearby park and sits on a bench to enjoy his lunch . He is about to take a drink from the ever @-@ present flask , which he takes from his pocket , when the sight of the rose , which the sweet @-@ faced little girl gave him , inspires him with a desire to reform . He throws the flask from him , and refreshed by the lunch , he starts out with a new ambition to face the world . "
" Little Marie also visits the park with her parents . While viewing the wonderful zoo it contains she is seen and recognized by Jim . While admiring the little girl and viewing her enjoyment over the wonders of the zoo , Jim notices that two evil @-@ looking men are apparently shadowing the little one and her parents . Jim 's suspicions are aroused , and he determines to watch closely the actions of the mysterious pair . He finds that they have arranged with a chauffeur to assist in carrying off little Marie and holding her for ransom . Seizing an opportune moment , Jim forces the plotting chauffeur to turn over his auto , and disguised in the other man 's coat , cap and goggles , he calmly awaits the conspirators . When the two wicked men return , after having successful enticed Marie away from her parents , they give the driver of their auto directions as to where to drive . Jim simply nods assent and drives quickly off , but instead of taking them to the destination they directed , he lands them safe at the police station , where they are quickly taken into custody . Here Marie is united to her parents , whom she easily persuades to offer her rescuer a life position . "
= = Production = =
The writer of the scenario is unknown , but it was most likely Lloyd Lonergan . He was an experienced newspaperman employed by The New York Evening World while writing scripts for the Thanhouser productions . The film director is unknown , but it may have been Barry O 'Neil . Film historian Q. David Bowers does not attribute a cameraman for this production , but at least two possible candidates exist . Blair Smith was the first cameraman of the Thanhouser company , but he was soon joined by Carl Louis Gregory who had years of experience as a still and motion picture photographer . The role of the cameraman was uncredited in 1910 productions . Only the role of Marie Eline is cited by Bowers , but a surviving film still raises the possibility of identifying several more actors in the production . Bowers states that most of the credits are fragmentary for 1910 Thanhouser productions .
Little is known on the actual production of the film , but the The New York Dramatic Mirror reviewer provided some insight into the production . The review and the synopsis are at odds on several aspects including on whether or not the man was fired for drunkenness or for no reason . In this case , it can be assumed that a drunken state was either not depicted or done inadequately . The reviewer states the " impossible parts of the plot are gracefully omitted " in reference to the abduction of the little girl played by Marie Eline and the overpowering of the chauffeur . Here the synopsis also differs , saying the girl is enticed away instead of being kidnapped . Though the overpowering of the chauffeur is required and acknowledged in the synopsis , the reviewer makes clear the actual method is not depicted . The reviewer also had a keen eye for detail , stating that the passengers disembarked into the middle of the street instead of on the sidewalk . The final scene 's setting is captured in a surviving film still that shows the little girl persuading her parents to hire Jim in the police station with three officers looking on in the background .
= = Release and reception = =
The single reel drama , approximately 1 @,@ 000 feet long , was released on September 2 , 1910 . The film was distributed by the Motion Picture Distributing and Sales Company . The film likely had a wide release like other Thanhouser releases . Known advertisements by theaters include those in Minnesota , Kansas , and Indiana . The film received mainly positive reviews from trade publications including The New York Dramatic Mirror which stated , " Although the story of the film does not promise a great deal , the scenes are developed with enough care for details to carry it easily . More is due to the stage management in this case than to the author . A chauffeur , dismissed for no reason by his employer , is down and out . Resorting to beggary , he is kindly treated by a little girl whom he later repays by rescuing her from two abductors . The grateful parents immediately give him a new chance at which he doubtless makes good . Except for the point where the beggar overhears the accomplices , the acting is good . The impossible parts of the plot are gracefully omitted - the abduction itself , and the overpowering of the chauffeur who was in the plot . In the last scene it is noted that the occupants of the automobile all disembark into the middle of the street instead of upon the sidewalk . Doubtless their excitement excuses their indiscretion . " This review serves to highlight the actual action of the lost film and some of the execution of the scenes . The reviewer states that the chauffeur is dismissed for no reason , whereas the synopsis for drunkenness and it is possible that the scene was not depicted . Walton of The Moving Picture News approved of the film for its plot and execution . The Moving Picture World review is a more neutral one , but it concludes that , " [ p ] ictures like this might serve as an encouragement to reformation , but it is better to consider them as a species of entertainment , not to be despised , and yet , on the other hand , not to be accepted too literally . "
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= Thanksgiving ( Family Guy ) =
" Thanksgiving " is the sixth episode of the tenth season of the animated comedy series Family Guy . The episode originally aired on Fox in the United States on November 20 , 2011 . The episode follows the Griffin family , and several of their neighbors , as they celebrate the Thanksgiving holiday . As they sit down for dinner , they are shocked to see that Kevin Swanson , son of Joe and Bonnie Swanson , has returned from Iraq .
The episode was written by Patrick Meighan and directed by Jerry Langford . It received mostly mixed reviews from critics for its storyline , and many cultural references . According to Nielsen ratings , it was viewed in 6 @.@ 04 million homes in its original airing . The episode featured guest performances by Max Burkholder , Jackson Douglas , Kevin Durand , Colin Ford , Zachary Gordon , Scott Grimes , Julie Hagerty , Jonathan Morgan Heit , Christine Lakin and Patrick Stewart , along with several recurring guest voice actors for the series .
= = Plot = =
As the Thanksgiving holiday begins , Lois invites Glenn Quagmire and his father Dan / Ida , the Swansons , Carter and Babs Pewterschmidt , Mayor Adam West , and Carol Pewterschmidt to join the Griffin family in a Thanksgiving dinner .
Once the guests arrive , they then begin eating their meal , when suddenly another guest arrives at the door . It is revealed to be Kevin Swanson , the son of Joe and Bonnie Swanson , whom they had presumed had died fighting in the war in Iraq . Overjoyed , they ask why the army had reported that he had died in action . Kevin then tells them a story that he was in a coma following a bomb that had been placed inside a turkey during Thanksgiving years before . Later , while having dessert , Kevin voices his distaste of the war , and reveals several inconsistencies about his time in Iraq . Kevin then tells his father that he had actually gone A.W.O.L. , and because most of his unit was killed in the bombing but he miraculously survived , he faked his own death in order to leave the war and return home . Joe then arrests his son for the crime of desertion with the rest of the family criticizing him for lying about being a war hero .
Brian , the family dog , asks Kevin to explain why he deserted the army , with Kevin telling him that he had grown tired of the war , and had befriended many of the Iraqis , leading him to want to try to escape . Kevin and the family then begin fighting over the United States 's occupation of Iraq , with Brian sympathizing with him , and several others , including Quagmire 's Dad , a war veteran , disagreeing with Kevin 's choice to desert the army . Angered , Joe then begins to take his son to jail and handcuffs him . Kevin reminds his father of a time when he let a homeless man get away with stealing a can of tomato soup to feed his hungry family , for whom he had felt sorry . Emotional and sympathetic , Joe agrees to let his son off the hook , and the two make amends .
As the family goes to finish eating dinner , another man resembling Kevin Swanson enters the family 's home , saying that the other Kevin is an imposter , but Peter says " Guys , I don 't think we have time for this " and the episode ends .
= = Production and development = =
The episode was directed by series regular Jerry Langford , shortly after the conclusion of the ninth production season , in his first episode of the season . Langford joined the series in its seventh season , directing the episode " Tales of a Third Grade Nothing " . The episode was written by series regular Patrick Meighan , who joined the show as a writer in its fourth season , writing the episode " 8 Simple Rules for Buying My Teenage Daughter " . Series regulars Peter Shin and James Purdum served as supervising directors , with Andrew Goldberg , Alex Carter , Spencer Porter , Anthony Blasucci , Mike Desilets , and Deepak Sethi serving as staff writers for the episode . Composer Ron Jones , who has worked on the series since its inception , returned to compose the music for " Thanksgiving " .
The role of Kevin Swanson has been portrayed by several people , including actor Jon Cryer , in the second season episode " There 's Something About Paulie " . In subsequent appearances , Kevin was voiced by series creator and executive producer Seth MacFarlane , until his eventual disappearance from the series , when it was revealed that he had supposedly died in Iraq . Actor Scott Grimes , who notably portrays the character Steve Smith in MacFarlane 's second animated series American Dad ! , took over the role of Kevin in the episode .
In addition to Grimes and the regular cast , actor Max Burkholder , actor Jackson Douglas , actor Kevin Durand , voice actor Colin Ford , actor Zachary Gordon , actress and model Julie Hagerty , actor Jonathan Morgan Heit , actress Christine Lakin and actor Patrick Stewart guest starred in the episode . Recurring guest voice actors Alexandra Breckenridge , actor Chris Cox , writer Mike Desilets , actor Ralph Garman , writer Gary Janetti , writer Danny Smith , writer Alec Sulkin , and writer John Viener also made minor appearances throughout the episode . Recurring guest cast members Adam West , Jennifer Tilly and Patrick Warburton also appeared in the episode as Mayor Adam West , Bonnie Swanson , and Joe Swanson respectively .
= = Cultural references = =
As the Griffin family prepare to sit down for their dinner , baby Stewie is shown watching television , with the annual Macy 's Thanksgiving Day Parade taking place on the screen . Stewie notices a hot air balloon in the parade resembling himself . After the family decides to go to the Griffin family 's backyard to play football , Joe approaches his son to encourage him to beat the other team . Joe then references the 2009 war film The Hurt Locker , with Kevin responding with disdain for the film , despite supposedly being in a coma during its release . Joe also goes on to point out that Kevin is wearing an Ed Hardy t @-@ shirt , which also became popularized during his supposed coma , and despite Kevin telling his father that he flew straight home after he awoke . Later during dinner , when Kevin reveals that he went A.W.O.L. , Peter makes an off the wall reference , causing the episode to cut to a room showing several of the show 's editors , who become confused about what cutaway to play on the screen . They then decide to play a clip involving several characters from The Wizard of Oz , including the Cowardly Lion , who is shown to be actress Lindsay Lohan 's gynecologist .
= = Reception = =
" Thanksgiving " was broadcast on November 20 , 2011 , as a part of an animated television night on Fox , and was preceded by The Simpsons and Allen Gregory , and followed by Family Guy creator and executive producer Seth MacFarlane 's second show , American Dad ! . It was watched by 6 @.@ 04 million viewers , according to Nielsen ratings , despite airing simultaneously with the American Music Awards on ABC , The Amazing Race on CBS and Sunday Night Football on NBC . The episode also acquired a 3 @.@ 1 / 7 rating in the 18 – 49 demographic , beating The Simpsons , Allen Gregory , American Dad ! , in addition to significantly edging out all three shows in total viewership . The episode 's ratings increased slightly from the previous week 's episode , " Back to the Pilot " .
Reviews of the episode were mostly mixed , calling the storyline " a loudspeaker for political views . " Kevin McFarland of The A.V. Club wrote of the episode , " I had a hard time listening to the characters spout out opinions , since none of them really made sense as character views and felt distinctly like the writers just wanted a place to dump their liberalisms – I don 't want to only call out Seth MacFarlane because he didn 't write this episode , but considering the little bit I know about the show 's writer 's room , it 's pretty safe to assume he has final say on this sort of thing , especially given his 9 / 11 experience . " He also compared the A @-@ story to the television series South Park , noting , " It 's very clear that South Park benefits from the short turnaround time between production and air , because it allows that show to comment very quickly on current events , and stay timely . Family Guy seems to do the exact opposite , waiting an extraordinarily long time to weigh in on a serious issue it doesn ’ t satirize for comedy . " He ended his review by commenting , " After last week 's bright spot , I knew we were headed back down for another helping of the usual misery , but this week offered neither a surprise nor an all @-@ out failure , just expected , bland mediocrity . " He graded the episode as a C. In a much more positive review , Terren R. Moore of Ology , writing , " It 's just funny , and it 's got a lot of ways of achieving that funniness , and it 's definitely true that the show isn 't always in its best form , but " Thanksgiving " shows that Family Guy refuses to be dead yet . " He also praised the episode for giving each character their own part in the episode , adding , " while most of the story revolves around Joe , Kevin , and Peter , the three kids and Brian also get time in as well . " Moore also stated his enjoyment of the cultural references in the episode , stating , " It 's all good fun , and the cutaways are also top notch , including Peter 's First Holiday and The Cowardly Lion as Lindsay Lohan 's gynecologist . I nearly fell out when Peter described his probably @-@ black coworker who turned out to be a white guy , which I should have seen coming because it 's very Family Guy , but still managed to get a laugh out of me . " He gave the episode a nine out of ten .
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= Homer Badman =
" Homer Badman " , also known as " Homer : Bad Man " , is the ninth episode of The Simpsons ' sixth season . It originally aired on the Fox network in the United States on November 27 , 1994 . It was written by Greg Daniels and directed by Jeffrey Lynch . In the episode , Homer is falsely accused of sexual harassment after a babysitter mistakes him grabbing a gummi candy stuck to her pants for a sexual pass at her , resulting in Homer becoming public enemy number one . Dennis Franz guest stars as himself .
= = Plot = =
Homer and Marge attend a candy convention and hire Ashley Grant , a feminist graduate student , to babysit Bart , Maggie and Lisa . At the convention , Homer outfits Marge with an oversized trenchcoat and is vigilant in smuggling out as much candy as possible in her pockets , including a rare gummy Venus de Milo .
That night , Homer searches for the gummy Venus amongst his smuggled goods , but is unable to find it . Marge reminds him to take Ashley home and Homer grudgingly obliges . As Ashley is exiting Homer 's car , he sees the gummy Venus stuck to the backside of her jeans . Homer innocently grabs the candy , and Ashley turns around to see Homer drooling lustfully at the piece of candy . Misinterpreting his poor tact and drooling as a deliberate sexual advance , Ashley runs off screaming in terror while Homer gleefully eats the candy .
The next morning , an angry mob marches onto the Simpsons ' lawn and claims that Homer sexually harassed Ashley . The crowd refuses to listen to Homer , who was trying to tell his side of the story . When Rock Bottom , a tabloid news show , asks to interview him about his predicament , he agrees in the hope that it will clear his name . However , the interview is heavily ( and poorly ) edited into a totally inaccurate segment where Homer is portrayed as a pervert . Things go from bad to worse as a media circus arrives at the Simpson home to provide 24 @-@ hour coverage of things such as Marge letting the cat out and the family watching TV ; Fox even produces a TV movie , Homer S. : Portrait of an Ass @-@ Grabber , starring Dennis Franz as a lascivious Homer . Lisa and Marge suggest Homer videotape himself telling his side of the story to air on a Public @-@ access television cable TV , but all he succeeds at accomplishing is angering an old @-@ time bicyclist . It was to appear Homer will most likely be guilty .
However , Groundskeeper Willie also saw Homer 's speech , and arrives at the Simpson home with a video tape of what happened the night Homer took Ashley home . The tape clearly shows that Homer was grabbing the Gummy Venus , and upon seeing it , Ashley and the media apologize for labeling Homer a monster . Later on , the Simpson family is watching a " Rock Bottom " episode that labels Willie as a disgusting voyeur and Homer immediately declares that he is evil . Marge asks Homer if he learned anything from his experiences , to which Homer replies that he has not learned a thing . After the rest of the family leaves the room , Homer embraces the television and quietly says to it , " Let 's never fight again . "
= = Production = =
Greg Daniels , the writer of the episode , originally pitched this episode as being more centered on Lisa and Homer 's opposing ideas on feminism . Eventually , the episode became more of a satire of the media and shows like Hard Copy . David Mirkin , the show runner at the time , felt very strongly about the " tabloidization of the media " and has said that the episode is as current today as it was at the time and things have since gotten worse . Several gags in the episode are based on what real life shows like Hard Copy would do , such as making people look to be guilty without a trial as well as a complete invasion of privacy by setting up camp outside people 's homes . The talk show " Ben " , which is hosted by a bear named " Gentle Ben " wearing a microphone on its head , reflects the writers ' feeling that anyone could host a talk show because all they need is a microphone and an audience .
Dennis Franz was the writers ' second choice for the role of Homer when the first choice pulled out . According to the DVD commentary , the original actor was more " barrel chested . "
= = Cultural references = =
The action sequence at the Candy convention is " based on every Bruce Willis movie ever made . " Homer 's imagination of living underwater is a parody of the song " Under the Sea " from the Disney film The Little Mermaid . David Mirkin says he thought the sequence would be funny because Homer would eat all of the characters from The Little Mermaid . Groundskeeper Willie is referred to as Rowdy Roddy Peeper , a reference to " Rowdy " Roddy Piper , a wrestler who used a Scotsman gimmick . When Homer is found naked by an invasive camera crew outside his bathroom window underneath his clear shower curtain , ( the helicopter camera crew startled Homer as he was taking his shower causing him to rip the curtain and fall underneath it ) , A channel 6 journalist reports that Homer sleeps under an oxygen tent giving him sexual powers , is a reference to the rumor about Michael Jackson sleeping in a hyperbaric oxygen chamber to extend his life . The talk show Ben , hosted by a bear named " Gentle Ben " , refers to the 1960s television series Gentle Ben about a wild black bear who became a little boy 's best friend . Among the TV shows parodied during the episode : Hard Copy , Sally Jessy Raphael , the Late Show with David Letterman and media coverage of the O.J. Simpson standoff .
= = Reception = =
In its original broadcast , " Homer Badman " finished 50th in ratings for the week of November 21 – 27 , 1994 , with a Nielsen rating of 9 @.@ 5 , equivalent to approximately 9 @.@ 1 million viewing households . It was the highest @-@ rated show on the Fox network that week , beating Married ... with Children .
According to David Mirkin , this episode is very highly ranked among Simpsons fans . In Entertainment Weekly 's top 25 The Simpsons episodes in 2003 , " Homer Badman " was placed eighteenth . The Quindecim , a college newspaper , made their own top 25 list , with this episode at 15th place . The Daily Telegraph characterized the episode as one of " The 10 Best Simpsons TV Episodes . "
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= The Secret of the Unicorn =
The Secret of the Unicorn ( French : Le Secret de la Licorne ) is the eleventh volume of The Adventures of Tintin , the comics series by Belgian cartoonist Hergé . The story was serialised daily in Le Soir , Belgium 's leading francophone newspaper , from June 1942 to January 1943 amidst the German occupation of Belgium during World War II . The story revolves around young reporter Tintin , his dog Snowy , and his friend Captain Haddock , who discover a riddle left by Haddock 's ancestor , the 17th century Sir Francis Haddock , which could lead them to the hidden treasure of the pirate Red Rackham . To unravel the riddle , Tintin and Haddock must obtain three identical models of Sir Francis 's ship , the Unicorn , but they discover that criminals are also after these model ships and are willing to kill in order to obtain them .
The Secret of the Unicorn was a commercial success and was published in book form by Casterman shortly after its conclusion . Hergé concluded the arc begun in this story with Red Rackham 's Treasure , while the series itself became a defining part of the Franco @-@ Belgian comics tradition . The Secret of the Unicorn remained Hergé 's favourite of his own works until creating Tintin in Tibet ( 1960 ) . The story was adapted for the 1957 Belvision animated series , Hergé 's Adventures of Tintin , for the 1991 animated series The Adventures of Tintin by Ellipse and Nelvana , and for the feature film The Adventures of Tintin : The Secret of the Unicorn ( 2011 ) .
= = Synopsis = =
While browsing in a Brussels market , Tintin purchases an antique model ship which he intends to give Captain Haddock . Two strangers , model ship collector Ivan Ivanovitch Sakharine and antique @-@ scout Barnaby , independently try to persuade Tintin to sell the model to them . He also sees the two police detectives , Thomson and Thompson , on the look out for a pickpocket . At Tintin 's flat , Snowy accidentally knocks the model over and breaks its mainmast . Having repaired it , and shown the ship to Haddock , Tintin discovers that the ship is named the Unicorn , after a ship commanded by Haddock 's ancestor . While Tintin is out , the ship is stolen from his apartment ; in the investigation , he discovers that Sakharine owns an identical model , also named the Unicorn . At home , Tintin discovers a miniature scroll , and realises that this must have been hidden in the mast of the model which Snowy had broken . Written on the parchment is a riddle : " Three brothers joyned . Three Unicorns in company sailing in the noonday sunne will speak . For ' tis from the light that light will dawn , and then shines forth the Eagle 's cross " .
Upon hearing of the riddle , Captain Haddock explains that the Unicorn was a 17th @-@ century warship captained by his ancestor , Sir Francis Haddock , but seized by a pirate band led by Red Rackham . Alone of his crew to survive the capture , Sir Francis killed Rackham in single combat and destroyed the Unicorn ; but later built three models , which he left to his sons . Meanwhile , Barnaby requests a meeting with Tintin , but is gunned down on Tintin 's doorstep before he can speak , and points to sparrows as a cryptic clue to the identity of his assailant . Later , Tintin is kidnapped by the perpetrators of the shooting : the Bird brothers , two unscrupulous antique dealers who own the third model of the Unicorn , and who now seek the treasure plundered by Rackham . Tintin escapes from the cellars of the Bird brothers ' country estate , Marlinspike Hall , while the Captain arrives with officers Thomson and Thompson to arrest them . It is found that the Bird Brothers have only one of the parchments , as two were lost when their wallet was stolen . Tintin and Thomson and Thompson track down the pickpocket , Aristides Silk , a kleptomaniac who has a penchant for collecting wallets , and obtain the Bird Brothers ' wallet , containing the missing two parchments . By combining the three parchments and holding them to the light , Tintin and Haddock discover the coordinates ( 20 ° 37 ' 42 @.@ 0 " N 70 ° 52 ' 15 @.@ 0 " W ) of the lost treasure and plan an expedition to find it .
= = History = =
= = = Background = = =
Amidst the German occupation of Belgium during World War II , Hergé had accepted a position working for Le Soir , Belgian 's largest Francophone daily newspaper . Confiscated from its original owners , the German authorities permitted Le Soir to reopen under the directorship of Belgian editor Raymond de Becker , although it remained firmly under Nazi control , supporting the German war effort and espousing anti @-@ Semitism . After joining Le Soir on 15 October 1940 , Hergé became editor of its new children 's supplement Le Soir Jeunesse , with assistance by old friend Paul Jamin and cartoonist Jacques Van Melkebeke , before paper shortages forced Tintin to be serialised daily in the main pages of Le Soir . Some Belgians were upset that Hergé was willing to work for a newspaper controlled by the occupying Nazi administration , although he was heavily enticed by the size of Le Soir 's readership , which reached 600 @,@ 000 . Faced with the reality of Nazi oversight , Hergé abandoned the overt political themes that had pervaded much of his earlier work , instead adopting a policy of neutrality . Without the need to satirise political types , entertainment producer and author Harry Thompson observed that " Hergé was now concentrating more on plot and on developing a new style of character comedy . The public reacted positively . "
The Secret of the Unicorn was the first of The Adventures of Tintin which Hergé had collaborated on with Van Melkebeke to a significant degree ; biographer Benoît Peeters suggested that Van Melkebeke should rightly be considered the story 's " co @-@ scriptwriter " . It was Hergé 's discussions with Van Melkebeke that led him to craft a more complex story than he had in prior Adventures . Van Melkebeke had been strongly influenced by the adventure novels of writers like Jules Verne and Paul d 'Ivoi , with this influence being apparent throughout the story . The inclusion of three hidden scrolls has parallels with Verne 's 1867 story , The Children of Captain Grant , which Van Melkebeke had recommended to Hergé . Hergé acknowledged Van Melkebeke 's contribution by including a cameo of him within the market scene at the start of the story ; this was particularly apt as Van Melkebeke had purchased his books in Brussels ' Old Market as a child .
The Secret of the Unicorn was the first half of a two @-@ part story arc that was concluded in the following adventure , Red Rackham 's Treasure . This arc was the first that Hergé had utilised since Cigars of the Pharaoh and The Blue Lotus ( 1934 – 36 ) . However , as Tintin expert Michael Farr related , whereas Cigars of the Pharaoh and The Blue Lotus had been largely " self @-@ sufficient and self @-@ contained " , the connection between The Secret of the Unicorn and Red Rackham 's Treasure would be far closer .
In previous works , Hergé had drawn upon a variety of pictorial sources , such as newspaper clippings , from which to draw the scenes and characters ; for The Secret of the Unicorn he drew upon an unprecedented variety of these sources . In drawing many of the old vessels , Hergé initially consulted the then recently published L 'Art et le Mer ( " Art and the Sea " ) by Alexandre Berqueman . Seeking further accurate depictions of old naval vessels , Hergé consulted a friend of his , Gérard Liger @-@ Belair , who owned a Brussels shop specialising in model ships . Liger @-@ Belair produced plans of a 17th @-@ century French fifty @-@ gun warship for Hergé to copy ; Le Brillant , which had been constructed in Le Havre in 1690 by the shipwright Salicon and then decorated by Jean Bérain the Elder .
He also studied other vessels from the period , such as the Le Soleil Royal , La Couronne , La Royale and Le Reale de France , to better understand 17th @-@ century ship design . It was from the Le Reale de France that he gained a basis for his design of the Unicorn 's jolly boat . No ship named the Unicorn was listed in the annals of the French Navy , but Hergé instead took the name from a British frigate which had been active in the mid @-@ 18th century ; the fictional ship 's unicorn figurehead was also adopted from the frigate .
The character of Red Rackham was partly inspired by Jean Rackam , a fictional pirate who appeared in a story alongside female pirates Anne Bonny and Mary Read that Hergé encountered in a November 1938 edition of Dimanche @-@ Illustré . Red Rackham 's looks and costumes were also inspired by the character , Lerouge , who appears in C. S. Forester 's novel , The Captain from Connecticut , and by the 17th @-@ century French buccaneer Daniel Montbars . The name of Marlinspike Hall — Moulinsart in French — was based upon the name of the real Belgian town , Sart @-@ Moulin . The actual design of the building was based upon the Château de Cheverny , albeit with the two outer wings removed . In introducing Francis Haddock to the story , Hergé made Captain Haddock the only character in the series ( except Jolyon Wagg , introduced later ) to have a family and an ancestry . The Secret of the Unicorn was set entirely in Belgium and was the last Adventure to be set there until The Castafiore Emerald . It would also be Hergé 's favourite story until Tintin in Tibet .
= = = Historical parallels = = =
After publishing the book , Hergé learned that there had actually been an Admiral Haddock who had served in the British Royal Navy during the late 17th and early 18th centuries : Sir Richard Haddock ( 1629 – 1715 ) . Richard Haddock was in charge of the Royal James , the flagship of the Earl of Sandwich during the Battle of Solebay of 1672 , the first naval battle of the Third Anglo @-@ Dutch War . During the fighting , the Royal James was set alight and Haddock escaped but had to be rescued from the sea , following which his bravery was recognised by the British monarch , King Charles II . He subsequently took command of another ship , the Royal Charles , before becoming a naval administrator in later life . Admiral Haddock 's grandfather , also named Richard , commanded the ship of the line HMS Unicorn during the reign of King Charles I.
Another individual known as Captain Haddock had lived in this period , who had commanded a fire ship , the Anne and Christopher . It was recorded by David Ogg that this captain and his ship had been separated from their squadron whilst out at sea and so docked at Málaga to purchase goods that could be taken back to Britain and sold for a profit . For this action , Haddock was brought before an admiralty tribunal in 1674 , where he was ordered to forfeit all profits from the transaction and suspended from his command for six months .
= = = Publication = = =
Le Secret De La Licorne began serialisation as a daily strip in newspaper Le Soir from 11 June 1942 . As with previous adventures , it then began serialisation in the French Catholic newspaper Cœurs Vaillants , from 19 March 1944 . In Belgium , it was then published in a 62 @-@ page book format by Editions Casterman in 1943 . Now fully coloured , the book included a new cover design created by Hergé after he had completed the original serialisation of the story , along with six large colour drawings . The first printing sold 30 @,@ 000 copies in Francophone Belgium .
The Secret of the Unicorn and Red Rackham 's Treasure were the first two Adventures of Tintin to be published in English @-@ language translations for the British market . Published by Casterman , these two editions sold poorly and have since become rare collector 's items . Both stories would be republished for the British market seven years later , this time by Methuen with new translations provided by Michael Turner and Leslie Lonsdale @-@ Cooper . In the English translation , Sir Francis Haddock was described as serving the British monarch Charles II , in contrast to the original French version , in which he serves French king Louis XIV .
The series ' Danish publishers , Carlsen , later located a model of an early @-@ 17th @-@ century Danish ship called the Enhjørnigen ( The Unicorn ) which they gave to Hergé . Constructed in 1605 , Enhjørnigen had been wrecked in an attempt to navigate the Northwest Passage .
= = Critical analysis = =
The Secret of the Unicorn resembled the earlier Adventures of Tintin in its use of style , colour and content , leading Harry Thompson to remark that it " unquestionably " belongs to the 1930s , considering it to be " the last and best of Hergé 's detective mysteries . " He asserted that this story and Red Rackham 's Treasure marked the third and central stage of " Tintin 's career " , also stating that here , Tintin has been converted from a reporter into an explorer to cope with the new political climate . He further added his opinion that it was " the most successful of all Tintin 's adventures " . Jean @-@ Marc Lofficier and Randy Lofficier asserted that Sir Francis Haddock was " the best realised character " in the story , conversely describing the Bird Brothers as " relatively uninspired villains " . They went on to state that The Secret of the Unicorn @-@ Red Rackham 's Treasure arc represents " a turning point " for the series as it shifts the reader 's attention from Tintin to Haddock , who has become " by far , the most interesting character " . They praised the " truly outstanding storytelling " of The Secret of the Unicorn , ultimately awarding it a rating of four out of five .
Phillipe Goddin commented on the scene in the story in which Haddock relates the life of his ancestor , stating that the reader is " alternately projected into the present and the past with staggering mastery . Periods interlocked , enriched one another , were amplified and married in a stunning fluidity . Hergé was at the height of his powers . "
Hergé biographer Benoît Peeters asserted that both The Secret of the Unicorn and Red Rackham 's Treasure " hold a crucial position " in The Adventures of Tintin as they establish the " Tintin universe " with its core set of characters . Focusing on the former comic , he described it as one of Hergé 's " greatest narrative successes " through the manner in which it interweaves three separate plots . He felt that while religious elements had been present in previous stories , they were even stronger in The Secret of the Unicorn and its sequel , something which he attributed to Van Melkebeke 's influence . Elsewhere he asserted that it " explores this prelude with extraordinary narrative virtuosity . "
Biographer Pierre Assouline stated that the story was " clearly influenced ... in spirit if not in detail " by Robert Louis Stevenson 's book , Treasure Island in that it " seemed to cater to a need for escapism " . He described the adventure as " a new development in Hergé 's work , a flight from the topical to epics of pirate adventures set in distant horizons " . Assouline also expressed the view that the ancestral figure of Sir Francis Haddock reflected Hergé 's attempt to incorporate one of his own family secrets , that he had an aristocratic ancestor , into the story .
Michael Farr believed that the " most remarkable " factor of the book was its introduction of Sir Francis Haddock , highlighting that in his mannerisms and visual depiction , he is " scarely distinguishable " from Captain Haddock . He also highlighted that the scenes in which Captain Haddock relates the tale of his ancestor carries on the " merging of dreams and reality " that Hergé had " experimented with " in The Crab with the Golden Claws and The Shooting Star . Noting that unlike The Shooting Star , this two @-@ book story arc contains " scarcely an allusion to occupation and war " , he praised the arc 's narrative as " perfectly paced , without that feeling of haste " present in some of Hergé 's earlier work .
In his psychoanalytical study of the Adventures of Tintin , the academic Jean @-@ Marie Apostolidès characterised the Secret of the Unicorn @-@ Red Rackham 's Treasure arc as being about the characters going on a " treasure hunt that turns out to be at the same time a search for their roots . " He stated that the arc delves into Haddock 's ancestry , and in doing so " deals with the meanings of symbolic relations within personal life " . Discussing the character of Sir Francis Haddock , he states that this ancestral figure resembles both Tintin and Haddock , " the foundling and the bastard " , thus making the duo brothers as well as close friends . He adds that when Captain Haddock reenacts his ancestor 's fight with Rackham , he adopts his " very soul , his mana , and is transformed in the process . " Comparing Sir Francis Haddock to Robinson Crusoe , he also draws a comparison between the way that the Caribbean natives deified Sir Francis Haddock by erecting a statue of him in the same manner that the Congolese deify Tintin at the end of Tintin in the Congo . Apostolidès also discusses Red Rackham , noting that the name " Red " conjures up " the forbidden colour of blood and wine " while " Rackham " combines raca ( " false brother " ) with the French word for scum ( racaille ) , then highlighting a potential link between Rackham 's name and that of Rascar Capac , an Incan mummy who appears in The Seven Crystal Balls . He further draws parallels between the model ships containing the secret parchments with the Arumbaya fetish containing a rare diamond which appears in The Broken Ear .
Literary critic Tom McCarthy highlighted the scene in which Tintin was imprisoned in the Marlinspike crypt , observing that it had parallels with Tintin 's exploration of tombs and other secret chambers throughout the series . He identified the mystery left in Francis Haddock 's parchments to be another appearance of Tintin 's adventures being " framed by enigmas " . To this he adds that in solving the enigma , Tintin shows that he is " the best reader " in the series , and it is this which establishes him as " the oeuvre 's hero " . McCarthy praised Hergé 's Silk as one of the pivotal characters in the series who can " exude a presence far beyond that which we might expect from a novelist , let alone a cartoonist " .
Pierre Fresnault @-@ Deruelle discussed the scene in the story in which Tintin was imprisoned in the crypt of Marlinspike Hall . He stated that in this section , " Hergé offers us an embedded story , a kind of interlude in which the artist , setting aside the use value of objects , takes the liberty of giving them mischievous powers , akin to a certain surrealism . "
= = Adaptations = =
In 1957 , the animation company Belvision Studios produced Hergé 's Adventures of Tintin , a series of daily five @-@ minute colour adaptations based upon Hergé 's original comics . The Secret of the Unicorn was the fourth to be adapted in the second animated series ; it was directed by Ray Goossens and written by Greg , a well @-@ known cartoonist who was to become editor @-@ in @-@ chief of Tintin magazine .
In 1991 , a collaboration between the French studio Ellipse and the Canadian animation company Nelvana adapted 21 of the stories into a series of episodes . The Secret of the Unicorn was the ninth story of The Adventures of Tintin to be produced and was divided into two thirty @-@ minute episodes . Directed by Stéphane Bernasconi , the series has been praised for being " generally faithful " to the original comics , to the extent that the animation was directly adopted from Hergé 's original panels .
A 2011 motion capture feature film The Adventures of Tintin : The Secret of the Unicorn , directed by Steven Spielberg and produced by Peter Jackson , was released in most of the world October – November 2011 and in the US on 21 December 2011 . The film is based partly upon The Secret of the Unicorn and partly on both Red Rackham 's Treasure and The Crab with the Golden Claws . A video @-@ game tie @-@ in to the movie was released October 2011 .
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= Hamlet =
The Tragedy of Hamlet , Prince of Denmark , often shortened to Hamlet ( / ˈhæmlᵻt / ) , is a tragedy written by William Shakespeare at an uncertain date between 1599 and 1602 . Set in the Kingdom of Denmark , the play dramatises the revenge Prince Hamlet is called to wreak upon his uncle , Claudius , by the ghost of Hamlet 's father , King Hamlet . Claudius had murdered his own brother and seized the throne , also marrying his deceased brother 's widow . Hamlet is Shakespeare 's longest play , and is ranked among the most powerful and influential tragedies in English literature , with a story capable of " seemingly endless retelling and adaptation by others " . The play likely was one of Shakespeare 's most popular works during his lifetime , and still ranks among his most performed , topping the performance list of the Royal Shakespeare Company and its predecessors in Stratford @-@ upon @-@ Avon since 1879 . It has inspired many other writers – from Johann Wolfgang von Goethe and Charles Dickens to James Joyce and Iris Murdoch – and has been described as " the world 's most filmed story after Cinderella " . The story of Shakespeare 's Hamlet was derived from the legend of Amleth , preserved by 13th @-@ century chronicler Saxo Grammaticus in his Gesta Danorum , as subsequently retold by 16th @-@ century scholar François de Belleforest . Shakespeare may also have drawn on an earlier ( hypothetical ) Elizabethan play known today as the Ur @-@ Hamlet , though some scholars believe he himself wrote the Ur @-@ Hamlet , later revising it to create the version of Hamlet we now have . He almost certainly wrote his version of the title role for his fellow actor , Richard Burbage , the leading tragedian of Shakespeare 's time . In the 400 years since its inception , the role has been performed by numerous highly acclaimed actors in each successive century .
Three different early versions of the play are extant : the First Quarto ( Q1 , 1603 ) ; the Second Quarto ( Q2 , 1604 ) ; and the First Folio ( F1 , 1623 ) . Each version includes lines and entire scenes missing from the others . The play 's structure and depth of characterisation have inspired much critical scrutiny . One such example is the centuries @-@ old debate about Hamlet 's hesitation to kill his uncle , which some see as merely a plot device to prolong the action , but which others argue is a dramatisation of the complex philosophical and ethical issues that surround cold @-@ blooded murder , calculated revenge , and thwarted desire . More recently , psychoanalytic critics have examined Hamlet 's unconscious desires , while feminist critics have re @-@ evaluated and attempted to rehabilitate the often maligned characters of Ophelia and Gertrude .
= = Characters = =
= = Plot = =
Act I
The protagonist of Hamlet is Prince Hamlet of Denmark , son of the recently deceased King Hamlet , and nephew of King Claudius , his father 's brother and successor . Claudius hastily married King Hamlet 's widow , Gertrude , Hamlet 's mother , and took the throne for himself . Denmark has a long @-@ standing feud with neighboring Norway , which culminated when King Hamlet slew King Fortinbras of Norway in a battle years ago . Although Denmark defeated Norway , and the Norwegian throne fell to King Fortinbras 's infirm brother , Denmark fears that an invasion led by the dead Norwegian king 's son , Prince Fortinbras , is imminent .
On a cold night on the ramparts of Elsinore , the Danish royal castle , the sentries Bernardo and Marcellus and Hamlet 's friend Horatio encounter a ghost that looks like the late King Hamlet . They vow to tell Prince Hamlet what they have witnessed .
As the Court gathers the next day , while King Claudius and Queen Gertrude discuss affairs of state with their elderly adviser Polonius , Hamlet looks on glumly . After the Court exits , Hamlet despairs of his father 's death and his mother 's hasty remarriage . Learning of the Ghost from Horatio , Hamlet resolves to see it himself .
As Polonius 's son Laertes prepares to depart for a visit to France , Polonius gives him contradictory advice that culminates in the ironic maxim " to thine own self be true " . Polonius 's daughter , Ophelia , admits her interest in Hamlet , but both Polonius and Laertes warn her against seeking the prince 's attention . That night on the rampart , the Ghost appears to Hamlet , telling the prince that he was murdered by Claudius and demanding that Hamlet avenge him . Hamlet agrees and the Ghost vanishes . The prince confides to Horatio and the sentries that from now on he plans to " put an antic disposition on " and forces them to swear to keep his plans for revenge secret . Privately , however , he remains uncertain of the Ghost 's reliability .
Act II
Soon thereafter , Ophelia rushes to her father , telling him that Hamlet arrived at her door the prior night half @-@ undressed and behaving crazily . Polonius blames love for Hamlet 's madness and resolves to inform Claudius and Gertrude . As he enters to do so , the king and queen finish welcoming Rosencrantz and Guildenstern , two student acquaintances of Hamlet , to Elsinore . The royal couple has requested that the students investigate the cause of Hamlet 's mood and behavior . Additional news requires that Polonius wait to be heard : messengers from Norway inform Claudius that the King of Norway has rebuked Prince Fortinbras for attempting to re @-@ fight his father 's battles . The forces that Fortinbras conscripted to march against Denmark will instead be sent against Poland , though they will pass through a portion of Denmark to get there .
Polonius tells Claudius and Gertrude his theory regarding Hamlet 's behavior , and speaks to Hamlet in a hall of the castle to try to uncover more information . Hamlet feigns madness but subtly insults Polonius all the while . When Rosencrantz and Guildenstern arrive , Hamlet greets his friends warmly , but quickly discerns that they are spies . Hamlet becomes bitter , admitting that he is upset at his situation but refusing to give the true reason why , instead commenting on " what a piece of work " humanity is . Rosencrantz and Guildenstern tell Hamlet that they have brought along a troupe of actors that they met while traveling to Elsinore . Hamlet , after welcoming the actors and dismissing his friends @-@ turned @-@ spies , plots to stage a play featuring a death in the style of his father 's murder , thereby determining the truth of the Ghost 's story , as well as Claudius 's guilt or innocence , by studying Claudius 's reaction .
Act III
Polonius forces Ophelia to return Hamlet 's love letters and tokens of affection to the prince while he and Claudius watch from afar to evaluate Hamlet 's reaction . Hamlet is walking alone in the hall as the King and Polonius await Ophelia 's entrance , musing whether " to be or not to be " . When Ophelia enters and tries to return Hamlet 's things , Hamlet accuses her of immodesty and cries " get thee to a nunnery , " though it is unclear whether this , too , is a show of madness or genuine distress . His reaction convinces Claudius that Hamlet is not mad for love . Shortly thereafter , the court assembles to watch the play Hamlet has commissioned . After seeing the Player King murdered by his rival pouring poison in his ear , Claudius abruptly rises and runs from the room : proof positive for Hamlet of his uncle 's guilt .
Gertrude summons Hamlet to her room to demand an explanation . Meanwhile , Claudius talks to himself about the impossibility of repenting , since he still has possession of his ill @-@ gotten goods : his brother 's crown and wife . He sinks to his knees . Hamlet , on his way to visit his mother , sneaks up behind him , but does not kill him , reasoning that killing Claudius while he is praying will send him straight to heaven while the Ghost is stuck in purgatory . In the queen 's bedchamber , Hamlet and Gertrude fight bitterly . Polonius , spying on the conversation from behind a tapestry , makes a noise . Hamlet , believing it is Claudius , stabs wildly , killing Polonius , but pulls aside the curtain and sees his mistake . In a rage , Hamlet brutally insults his mother for her apparent ignorance of Claudius 's villainy , but the Ghost enters and reprimands Hamlet for his inaction and harsh words . Unable to see or hear the Ghost herself , Gertrude takes Hamlet 's conversation with it as further evidence of madness . After begging the queen to stop sleeping with Claudius , Hamlet leaves , dragging Polonius 's corpse away . Hamlet jokes with Claudius about where he has hidden Polonius 's body , and the king , fearing for his life , sends Rosencrantz and Guildenstern to accompany Hamlet to England with a sealed letter to the English king requesting that Hamlet be executed immediately .
Act IV
Demented by grief at Polonius 's death , Ophelia wanders Elsinore . Laertes arrives back from France , enraged by his father 's death and his sister 's madness . Claudius convinces Laertes that Hamlet is solely responsible , but a letter soon arrives indicating that Hamlet has returned to Denmark , foiling Claudius 's plan . Claudius switches tactics , proposing a fencing match between Laertes and Hamlet to settle their differences . Laertes will be given a poison @-@ tipped foil , and Claudius will offer Hamlet poisoned wine as a congratulation if that fails . Gertrude interrupts to report that Ophelia has drowned , though it is unclear whether it was suicide or an accident exacerbated by her madness .
Act V
Horatio has received a letter from Hamlet , explaining that the prince escaped by negotiating with pirates who attempted to attack his England @-@ bound ship , and the friends reunite offstage . Two gravediggers discuss Ophelia 's apparent suicide while digging her grave . Hamlet arrives with Horatio and banters with one of the gravediggers , who unearths the skull of a jester from Hamlet 's childhood , Yorick . Hamlet picks up the skull , saying " alas , poor Yorick " as he contemplates mortality . Ophelia 's funeral procession approaches , led by Laertes . Hamlet and Horatio initially hide , but when Hamlet realizes that Ophelia is the one being buried , he reveals himself , proclaiming his love for her . Laertes and Hamlet fight by Ophelia 's graveside , but the brawl is broken up .
Back at Elsinore , Hamlet explains to Horatio that he had discovered Claudius 's letter with Rosencrantz and Guildenstern 's belongings and replaced it with a forged copy indicating that his former friends should be killed instead . A foppish courtier , Osric , interrupts the conversation to deliver the fencing challenge to Hamlet . Hamlet , despite Horatio 's advice , accepts it . Hamlet does well at first , leading the match by two hits to none , and Gertrude raises a toast to him using the poisoned glass of wine Claudius had set aside for Hamlet . Claudius tries to stop her , but is too late : she drinks , and Laertes realizes the plot will be revealed . Laertes slashes Hamlet with his poisoned blade . In the ensuing scuffle , they switch weapons and Hamlet wounds Laertes with his own poisoned sword . Gertrude collapses and , claiming she has been poisoned , dies . In his dying moments , Laertes reconciles with Hamlet and reveals Claudius 's plan . Hamlet rushes at Claudius and kills him . As the poison takes effect , Hamlet , hearing that Fortinbras is marching through the area , names the Norwegian prince as his successor . Horatio , distraught at the thought of being the last survivor , says he will commit suicide by drinking the dregs of Gertrude 's poisoned wine , but Hamlet begs him to live on and tell his story . Hamlet dies , proclaiming " the rest is silence " . Fortinbras , who was ostensibly marching towards Poland with his army , arrives at the palace , along with an English ambassador bringing news of Rosencrantz and Guildenstern 's deaths . Horatio promises to recount the full story of what happened , and Fortinbras , seeing the entire Danish royal family dead , takes the crown for himself .
= = Date = =
" Any dating of Hamlet must be tentative " , cautions the New Cambridge editor , Phillip Edwards . The earliest date estimate relies on Hamlet 's frequent allusions to Shakespeare 's Julius Caesar , itself dated to mid @-@ 1599 . The latest date estimate is based on an entry , of 26 July 1602 , in the Register of the Stationers ' Company , indicating that Hamlet was " latelie Acted by the Lo : Chamberleyne his servantes " .
In 1598 , Francis Meres published his Palladis Tamia , a survey of English literature from Chaucer to its present day , within which twelve of Shakespeare 's plays are named . Hamlet is not among them , suggesting that it had not yet been written . As Hamlet was very popular , Bernard Lott , the series editor of New Swan , believes it " unlikely that he [ Meres ] would have overlooked ... so significant a piece " .
The phrase " little eyases " in the First Folio ( F1 ) may allude to the Children of the Chapel , whose popularity in London forced the Globe company into provincial touring . This became known as the War of the Theatres , and supports a 1601 dating . Katherine Duncan @-@ Jones accepts a 1600 – 1 attribution for the date Hamlet was written , but notes that the Lord Chamberlain 's Men , playing Hamlet in the 3000 @-@ capacity Globe , were unlikely to be put to any disadvantage by an audience of " barely one hundred " for the Children of the Chapel 's equivalent play , Antonio 's Revenge ; she believes that Shakespeare , confident in the superiority of his own work , was making a playful and charitable allusion to his friend John Marston 's very similar piece .
A contemporary of Shakespeare 's , Gabriel Harvey , wrote a marginal note in his copy of the 1598 edition of Chaucer 's works , which some scholars use as dating evidence . Harvey 's note says that " the wiser sort " enjoy Hamlet , and implies that the Earl of Essex — executed in February 1601 for rebellion — was still alive . Other scholars consider this inconclusive . Edwards , for example , concludes that the " sense of time is so confused in Harvey 's note that it is really of little use in trying to date Hamlet " . This is because the same note also refers to Spenser and Watson as if they were still alive ( " our flourishing metricians " ) , but also mentions " Owen 's new epigrams " , published in 1607 .
= = Texts = =
Three early editions of the text have survived , making attempts to establish a single " authentic " text problematic . Each is different from the others :
First Quarto ( Q1 ) : In 1603 the booksellers Nicholas Ling and John Trundell published , and Valentine Simmes printed , the so @-@ called " bad " first quarto . Q1 contains just over half of the text of the later second quarto .
Second Quarto ( Q2 ) : In 1604 Nicholas Ling published , and James Roberts printed , the second quarto . Some copies are dated 1605 , which may indicate a second impression ; consequently , Q2 is often dated " 1604 / 5 " . Q2 is the longest early edition , although it omits about 77 lines found in F1 ( most likely to avoid offending James I 's queen , Anne of Denmark ) .
First Folio ( F1 ) : In 1623 Edward Blount and William and Isaac Jaggard published the First Folio , the first edition of Shakespeare 's Complete Works .
Other folios and quartos were subsequently published — including John Smethwick 's Q3 , Q4 , and Q5 ( 1611 – 37 ) — but these are regarded as derivatives of the first three editions .
Early editors of Shakespeare 's works , beginning with Nicholas Rowe ( 1709 ) and Lewis Theobald ( 1733 ) , combined material from the two earliest sources of Hamlet available at the time , Q2 and F1 . Each text contains material that the other lacks , with many minor differences in wording : scarcely 200 lines are identical in the two . Editors have combined them in an effort to create one " inclusive " text that reflects an imagined " ideal " of Shakespeare 's original . Theobald 's version became standard for a long time , and his " full text " approach continues to influence editorial practice to the present day . Some contemporary scholarship , however , discounts this approach , instead considering " an authentic Hamlet an unrealisable ideal . ... there are texts of this play but no text " . The 2006 publication by Arden Shakespeare of different Hamlet texts in different volumes is perhaps evidence of this shifting focus and emphasis . Other editors have continued to argue the need for well @-@ edited editions taking material from all versions of the play . Colin Burrow has argued that " most of us should read a text that is made up by conflating all three versions ... it 's about as likely that Shakespeare wrote : " To be or not to be , ay , there 's the point " [ in Q1 ] , as that he wrote the works of Francis Bacon . I suspect most people just won 't want to read a three @-@ text play ... [ multi @-@ text editions are ] a version of the play that is out of touch with the needs of a wider public . "
Traditionally , editors of Shakespeare 's plays have divided them into five acts . None of the early texts of Hamlet , however , were arranged this way , and the play 's division into acts and scenes derives from a 1676 quarto . Modern editors generally follow this traditional division , but consider it unsatisfactory ; for example , after Hamlet drags Polonius 's body out of Gertrude 's bedchamber , there is an act @-@ break after which the action appears to continue uninterrupted .
The discovery in 1823 of Q1 — whose existence had been quite unsuspected — caused considerable interest and excitement , raising many questions of editorial practice and interpretation . Scholars immediately identified apparent deficiencies in Q1 , which was instrumental in the development of the concept of a Shakespearean " bad quarto " . Yet Q1 has value : it contains stage directions ( such as Ophelia entering with a lute and her hair down ) that reveal actual stage practices in a way that Q2 and F1 do not ; it contains an entire scene ( usually labelled 4 @.@ 6 ) that does not appear in either Q2 or F1 ; and it is useful for comparison with the later editions . The major deficiency of Q1 is in the language : particularly noticeable in the opening lines of the famous " To be , or not to be " soliloquy : " To be , or not to be , aye there 's the point . / To die , to sleep , is that all ? Aye all : / No , to sleep , to dream , aye marry there it goes . " However , the scene order is more coherent , without the problems of Q2 and F1 of Hamlet seeming to resolve something in one scene and enter the next drowning in indecision . New Cambridge editor Kathleen Irace has noted that " Q1 's more linear plot design is certainly easier [ … ] to follow [ … ] but the simplicity of the Q1 plot arrangement eliminates the alternating plot elements that correspond to Hamlet 's shifts in mood . "
Q1 is considerably shorter than Q2 or F1 and may be a memorial reconstruction of the play as Shakespeare 's company performed it , by an actor who played a minor role ( most likely Marcellus ) . Scholars disagree whether the reconstruction was pirated or authorised . It is suggested by Irace that Q1 is an abridged version intended especially for travelling productions , thus the question of length may be considered as separate from issues of poor textual quality . Editing Q1 thus poses problems in whether or not to " correct " differences from Q2 and F. Irace , in her introduction to Q1 , wrote that " I have avoided as many other alterations as possible , because the differences ... are especially intriguing ... I have recorded a selection of Q2 / F readings in the collation . " The idea that Q1 is not riddled with error but is instead eminently fit for the stage has led to at least 28 different Q1 productions since 1881 . Other productions have used the probably superior Q2 and Folio texts , but used Q1 's running order , in particular moving the to be or not to be soliloquy earlier . Developing this , some editors such as Jonathan Bate have argued that Q2 may represent " a ' reading ' text as opposed to a ' performance ' one " of Hamlet , analogous to how modern films released on disc may include deleted scenes : an edition containing all of Shakespeare 's material for the play for the pleasure of readers , so not representing the play as it would have been staged .
= = Analysis and criticism = =
= = = Critical history = = =
From the early 17th century , the play was famous for its ghost and vivid dramatisation of melancholy and insanity , leading to a procession of mad courtiers and ladies in Jacobean and Caroline drama . Though it remained popular with mass audiences , late 17th @-@ century Restoration critics saw Hamlet as primitive and disapproved of its lack of unity and decorum . This view changed drastically in the 18th century , when critics regarded Hamlet as a hero — a pure , brilliant young man thrust into unfortunate circumstances . By the mid @-@ 18th century , however , the advent of Gothic literature brought psychological and mystical readings , returning madness and the Ghost to the forefront . Not until the late 18th century did critics and performers begin to view Hamlet as confusing and inconsistent . Before then , he was either mad , or not ; either a hero , or not ; with no in @-@ betweens . These developments represented a fundamental change in literary criticism , which came to focus more on character and less on plot . By the 19th century , Romantic critics valued Hamlet for its internal , individual conflict reflecting the strong contemporary emphasis on internal struggles and inner character in general . Then too , critics started to focus on Hamlet 's delay as a character trait , rather than a plot device . This focus on character and internal struggle continued into the 20th century , when criticism branched in several directions , discussed in context and interpretation below .
= = = Dramatic structure = = =
Hamlet departed from contemporary dramatic convention in several ways . For example , in Shakespeare 's day , plays were usually expected to follow the advice of Aristotle in his Poetics : that a drama should focus on action , not character . In Hamlet , Shakespeare reverses this so that it is through the soliloquies , not the action , that the audience learns Hamlet 's motives and thoughts . The play is full of seeming discontinuities and irregularities of action , except in the " bad " quarto . At one point , as in the Gravedigger scene , Hamlet seems resolved to kill Claudius : in the next scene , however , when Claudius appears , he is suddenly tame . Scholars still debate whether these twists are mistakes or intentional additions to add to the play 's themes of confusion and duality . Finally , in a period when most plays ran for two hours or so , the full text of Hamlet — Shakespeare 's longest play , with 4 @,@ 042 lines , totalling 29 @,@ 551 words — often takes over four hours to deliver . Even today the play is rarely performed in its entirety , and has only once been dramatised on film completely , in Kenneth Branagh 's 1996 version . Hamlet also contains a favourite Shakespearean device , a play within the play , a literary device or conceit in which one story is told during the action of another story .
= = = Language = = =
Much of Hamlet 's language is courtly : elaborate , witty discourse , as recommended by Baldassare Castiglione 's 1528 etiquette guide , The Courtier . This work specifically advises royal retainers to amuse their masters with inventive language . Osric and Polonius , especially , seem to respect this injunction . Claudius 's speech is rich with rhetorical figures — as is Hamlet 's and , at times , Ophelia 's — while the language of Horatio , the guards , and the gravediggers is simpler . Claudius 's high status is reinforced by using the royal first person plural ( " we " or " us " ) , and anaphora mixed with metaphor to resonate with Greek political speeches .
Hamlet is the most skilled of all at rhetoric . He uses highly developed metaphors , stichomythia , and in nine memorable words deploys both anaphora and asyndeton : " to die : to sleep — / To sleep , perchance to dream " . In contrast , when occasion demands , he is precise and straightforward , as when he explains his inward emotion to his mother : " But I have that within which passes show , / These but the trappings and the suits of woe " . At times , he relies heavily on puns to express his true thoughts while simultaneously concealing them . His " nunnery " remarks to Ophelia are an example of a cruel double meaning as nunnery was Elizabethan slang for brothel . His very first words in the play are a pun ; when Claudius addresses him as " my cousin Hamlet , and my son " , Hamlet says as an aside : " A little more than kin , and less than kind . "
An unusual rhetorical device , hendiadys , appears in several places in the play . Examples are found in Ophelia 's speech at the end of the nunnery scene : " Th 'expectancy and rose of the fair state " and " And I , of ladies most deject and wretched " . Many scholars have found it odd that Shakespeare would , seemingly arbitrarily , use this rhetorical form throughout the play . One explanation may be that Hamlet was written later in Shakespeare 's life , when he was adept at matching rhetorical devices to characters and the plot . Linguist George T. Wright suggests that hendiadys had been used deliberately to heighten the play 's sense of duality and dislocation . Pauline Kiernan argues that Shakespeare changed English drama forever in Hamlet because he " showed how a character 's language can often be saying several things at once , and contradictory meanings at that , to reflect fragmented thoughts and disturbed feelings " . She gives the example of Hamlet 's advice to Ophelia , " get thee to a nunnery " , which is simultaneously a reference to a place of chastity and a slang term for a brothel , reflecting Hamlet 's confused feelings about female sexuality .
Hamlet 's soliloquies have also captured the attention of scholars . Hamlet interrupts himself , vocalising either disgust or agreement with himself , and embellishing his own words . He has difficulty expressing himself directly and instead blunts the thrust of his thought with wordplay . It is not until late in the play , after his experience with the pirates , that Hamlet is able to articulate his feelings freely .
= = Context and interpretation = =
= = = Religious = = =
Written at a time of religious upheaval , and in the wake of the English Reformation , the play is alternately Catholic ( or piously medieval ) and Protestant ( or consciously modern ) . The Ghost describes himself as being in purgatory , and as dying without last rites . This and Ophelia 's burial ceremony , which is characteristically Catholic , make up most of the play 's Catholic connections . Some scholars have observed that revenge tragedies come from traditionally Catholic countries , such as Spain and Italy ; and they present a contradiction , since according to Catholic doctrine the strongest duty is to God and family . Hamlet 's conundrum , then , is whether to avenge his father and kill Claudius , or to leave the vengeance to God , as his religion requires .
Much of the play 's Protestantism derives from its location in Denmark — both then and now a predominantly Protestant country , though it is unclear whether the fictional Denmark of the play is intended to mirror this fact . The play does mention Wittenberg , where Hamlet , Horatio , and Rosencrantz and Guildenstern attend university , and where Martin Luther first proposed his 95 theses in 1517 , effectively ushering in the Protestant Reformation .
= = = Philosophical = = =
Hamlet is often perceived as a philosophical character , expounding ideas that are now described as relativist , existentialist , and sceptical . For example , he expresses a subjectivistic idea when he says to Rosencrantz : " there is nothing either good or bad , but thinking makes it so " . The idea that nothing is real except in the mind of the individual finds its roots in the Greek Sophists , who argued that since nothing can be perceived except through the senses — and since all individuals sense , and therefore perceive things differently — there is no absolute truth , but rather only relative truth . The clearest alleged instance of existentialism is in the " to be , or not to be " speech , where Hamlet is thought by some to use " being " to allude to life and action , and " not being " to death and inaction .
Hamlet reflects the contemporary scepticism promoted by the French Renaissance humanist Michel de Montaigne . Prior to Montaigne 's time , humanists such as Pico della Mirandola had argued that man was God 's greatest creation , made in God 's image and able to choose his own nature , but this view was subsequently challenged in Montaigne 's Essais of 1580 . Hamlet 's " What a piece of work is a man " could supposedly echo many of Montaigne 's ideas , and many scholars have disagreed on whether Shakespeare drew directly from Montaigne or whether both men were simply reacting similarly to the spirit of the times .
= = = Psychoanalytic = = =
In the first half of the 20th century , when psychoanalysis was at the height of its influence , its concepts were applied to Hamlet , notably by Sigmund Freud , Ernest Jones , and Jacques Lacan , and these studies influenced theatrical productions . In his The Interpretation of Dreams ( 1900 ) , Freud 's analysis starts from the premise that " the play is built up on Hamlet 's hesitations over fulfilling the task of revenge that is assigned to him ; but its text offers no reasons or motives for these hesitations " . After reviewing various literary theories , Freud concludes that Hamlet has an " Oedipal desire for his mother and the subsequent guilt [ is ] preventing him from murdering the man [ Claudius ] who has done what he unconsciously wanted to do " . Confronted with his repressed desires , Hamlet realises that " he himself is literally no better than the sinner whom he is to punish " . Freud suggests that Hamlet 's apparent " distaste for sexuality " — articulated in his " nunnery " conversation with Ophelia — accords with this interpretation . John Barrymore 's long @-@ running 1922 performance in New York , directed by Thomas Hopkins , " broke new ground in its Freudian approach to character " , in keeping with the post @-@ World War I rebellion against everything Victorian . He had a " blunter intention " than presenting the genteel , sweet prince of 19th @-@ century tradition , imbuing his character with virility and lust .
Beginning in 1910 , with the publication of " The Œdipus @-@ Complex as an Explanation of Hamlet 's Mystery : A Study in Motive " Ernest Jones — a psychoanalyst and Freud 's biographer — developed Freud 's ideas into a series of essays that culminated in his book Hamlet and Oedipus ( 1949 ) . Influenced by Jones 's psychoanalytic approach , several productions have portrayed the " closet scene " , where Hamlet confronts his mother in her private quarters , in a sexual light . In this reading , Hamlet is disgusted by his mother 's " incestuous " relationship with Claudius while simultaneously fearful of killing him , as this would clear Hamlet 's path to his mother 's bed . Ophelia 's madness after her father 's death may also be read through the Freudian lens : as a reaction to the death of her hoped @-@ for lover , her father . She is overwhelmed by having her unfulfilled love for him so abruptly terminated and drifts into the oblivion of insanity . In 1937 , Tyrone Guthrie directed Laurence Olivier in a Jones @-@ inspired Hamlet at The Old Vic . Olivier later used some of these same ideas in his 1948 film version of the play .
In the 1950s , Lacan 's structuralist theories about Hamlet were first presented in a series of seminars given in Paris and later published in " Desire and the Interpretation of Desire in Hamlet " . Lacan postulated that the human psyche is determined by structures of language and that the linguistic structures of Hamlet shed light on human desire . His point of departure is Freud 's Oedipal theories , and the central theme of mourning that runs through Hamlet . In Lacan 's analysis , Hamlet unconsciously assumes the role of phallus — the cause of his inaction — and is increasingly distanced from reality " by mourning , fantasy , narcissism and psychosis " , which create holes ( or lack ) in the real , imaginary , and symbolic aspects of his psyche . Lacan 's theories influenced literary criticism of Hamlet because of his alternative vision of the play and his use of semantics to explore the play 's psychological landscape .
In the Bloom 's Shakespeare Through the Ages volume on Hamlet , editors Bloom and Foster express a conviction that the intentions of Shakespeare in portraying the character of Hamlet in the play exceeded the capacity of the Freudian Oedipus complex to completely encompass the extent of characteristics depicted in Hamlet throughout the tragedy : " For once , Freud regressed in attempting to fasten the Oedipus Complex upon Hamlet : it will not stick , and merely showed that Freud did better than T.S. Eliot , who preferred Coriolanus to Hamlet , or so he said . Who can believe Eliot , when he exposes his own Hamlet Complex by declaring the play to be an aesthetic failure ? " The book also notes James Joyce 's interpretation , stating that he " did far better in the Library Scene of Ulysses , where Stephen marvelously credits Shakespeare , in this play , with universal fatherhood while accurately implying that Hamlet is fatherless , thus opening a pragmatic gap between Shakespeare and Hamlet . "
Joshua Rothman has written in The New Yorker that " we tell the story wrong when we say that Freud used the idea of the Oedipus complex to understand Hamlet " . Rothman suggests that " it was the other way around : Hamlet helped Freud understand , and perhaps even invent , psychoanalysis " . He concludes , " The Oedipus complex is a misnomer . It should be called the ' Hamlet complex ' . "
In the essay " Hamlet Made Simple " , David P. Gontar turns the tables on the psychoanalysts by suggesting that Claudius is not a symbolic father figure but actually Prince Hamlet 's biological father . The hesitation in killing Claudius results from an unwillingness on Hamlet 's part to slay his real father . If Hamlet is the biological son of Claudius , that explains many things . Hamlet doesn 't become King of Denmark on the occasion of the King 's death inasmuch as it is an open secret in court that he is Claudius 's biological son , and as such he is merely a court bastard not in the line of succession . He is angry with his mother because of her long standing affair with a man Hamlet hates , and Hamlet must face the fact that he has been sired by the man he loathes . That point overturns T. S. Eliot 's complaint that the play is a failure for not furnishing an " objective correlative " to account for Hamlet 's rage at his mother . Gontar suggests that if the reader assumes that Hamlet is not who he seems to be , the objective correlative becomes apparent . Hamlet is suicidal in the first soliloquy not because his mother quickly remarries but because of her adulterous affair with the despised Claudius which makes Hamlet his son . Finally , the Ghost 's confirmation of an alternative fatherhood for Hamlet is a fabrication that gives the Prince a motive for revenge .
= = = Feminist = = =
In the 20th century , feminist critics opened up new approaches to Gertrude and Ophelia . New Historicist and cultural materialist critics examined the play in its historical context , attempting to piece together its original cultural environment . They focused on the gender system of early modern England , pointing to the common trinity of maid , wife , or widow , with whores outside of that stereotype . In this analysis , the essence of Hamlet is the central character 's changed perception of his mother as a whore because of her failure to remain faithful to Old Hamlet . In consequence , Hamlet loses his faith in all women , treating Ophelia as if she too were a whore and dishonest with Hamlet . Ophelia , by some critics , can be seen as honest and fair ; however , it is virtually impossible to link these two traits , since ' fairness ' is an outward trait , while ' honesty ' is an inward trait .
Carolyn Heilbrun 's 1957 essay " The Character of Hamlet 's Mother " defends Gertrude , arguing that the text never hints that Gertrude knew of Claudius poisoning King Hamlet . This analysis has been praised by many feminist critics , combating what is , by Heilbrun 's argument , centuries ' worth of misinterpretation . By this account , Gertrude 's worst crime is of pragmatically marrying her brother @-@ in @-@ law in order to avoid a power vacuum . This is borne out by the fact that King Hamlet 's ghost tells Hamlet to leave Gertrude out of Hamlet 's revenge , to leave her to heaven , an arbitrary mercy to grant to a conspirator to murder . This view has not been without objection from some critics .
Ophelia has also been defended by feminist critics , most notably Elaine Showalter . Ophelia is surrounded by powerful men : her father , brother , and Hamlet . All three disappear : Laertes leaves , Hamlet abandons her , and Polonius dies . Conventional theories had argued that without these three powerful men making decisions for her , Ophelia is driven into madness . Feminist theorists argue that she goes mad with guilt because , when Hamlet kills her father , he has fulfilled her sexual desire to have Hamlet kill her father so they can be together . Showalter points out that Ophelia has become the symbol of the distraught and hysterical woman in modern culture .
= = Influence = =
See also Literary influence of Hamlet
Hamlet is one of the most quoted works in the English language , and is often included on lists of the world 's greatest literature . As such , it reverberates through the writing of later centuries . Academic Laurie Osborne identifies the direct influence of Hamlet in numerous modern narratives , and divides them into four main categories : fictional accounts of the play 's composition , simplifications of the story for young readers , stories expanding the role of one or more characters , and narratives featuring performances of the play .
Henry Fielding 's Tom Jones , published about 1749 , describes a visit to Hamlet by Tom Jones and Mr Partridge , with similarities to the " play within a play " . In contrast , Goethe 's Bildungsroman Wilhelm Meister 's Apprenticeship , written between 1776 and 1796 , not only has a production of Hamlet at its core but also creates parallels between the Ghost and Wilhelm Meister 's dead father . In the early 1850s , in Pierre , Herman Melville focuses on a Hamlet @-@ like character 's long development as a writer . Ten years later , Dickens 's Great Expectations contains many Hamlet @-@ like plot elements : it is driven by revenge @-@ motivated actions , contains ghost @-@ like characters ( Abel Magwitch and Miss Havisham ) , and focuses on the hero 's guilt . Academic Alexander Welsh notes that Great Expectations is an " autobiographical novel " and " anticipates psychoanalytic readings of Hamlet itself " . About the same time , George Eliot 's The Mill on the Floss was published , introducing Maggie Tulliver " who is explicitly compared with Hamlet " though " with a reputation for sanity " .
L. Frank Baum 's first published short story was " They Played a New Hamlet " ( 1895 ) . When Baum had been touring New York State in the title role , the actor playing the ghost fell through the floorboards , and the rural audience thought it was part of the show and demanded that the actor repeat the fall , because they thought it was funny . Baum would later recount the actual story in an article , but the short story is told from the point of view of the actor playing the Ghost .
In the 1920s , James Joyce managed " a more upbeat version " of Hamlet — stripped of obsession and revenge — in Ulysses , though its main parallels are with Homer 's Odyssey . In the 1990s , two novelists were explicitly influenced by Hamlet . In Angela Carter 's Wise Children , To be or not to be is reworked as a song and dance routine , and Iris Murdoch 's The Black Prince has Oedipal themes and murder intertwined with a love affair between a Hamlet @-@ obsessed writer , Bradley Pearson , and the daughter of his rival .
There is the story of the woman who read Hamlet for the first time and said , " I don 't see why people admire that play so . It is nothing but a bunch of quotations strung together . "
— Isaac Asimov , Asimov 's Guide to Shakespeare , pg vii , Avenal Books , 1970
= = Performance history = =
= = = Shakespeare 's day to the Interregnum = = =
Shakespeare almost certainly wrote the role of Hamlet for Richard Burbage . He was the chief tragedian of the Lord Chamberlain 's Men , with a capacious memory for lines and a wide emotional range . Judging by the number of reprints , Hamlet appears to have been Shakespeare 's fourth most popular play during his lifetime — only Henry IV Part 1 , Richard III and Pericles eclipsed it . Shakespeare provides no clear indication of when his play is set ; however , as Elizabethan actors performed at the Globe in contemporary dress on minimal sets , this would not have affected the staging .
Firm evidence for specific early performances of the play is scant . What is known is that the crew of the ship Red Dragon , anchored off Sierra Leone , performed Hamlet in September 1607 ; that the play toured in Germany within five years of Shakespeare 's death ; and that it was performed before James I in 1619 and Charles I in 1637 . Oxford editor George Hibbard argues that , since the contemporary literature contains many allusions and references to Hamlet ( only Falstaff is mentioned more , from Shakespeare ) , the play was surely performed with a frequency that the historical record misses .
All theatres were closed down by the Puritan government during the Interregnum . Even during this time , however , playlets known as drolls were often performed illegally , including one called The Grave @-@ Makers based on Act 5 , Scene 1 of Hamlet .
= = = Restoration and 18th century = = =
The play was revived early in the Restoration . When the existing stock of pre @-@ civil war plays was divided between the two newly created patent theatre companies , Hamlet was the only Shakespearean favourite that Sir William Davenant 's Duke 's Company secured . It became the first of Shakespeare 's plays to be presented with movable flats painted with generic scenery behind the proscenium arch of Lincoln 's Inn Fields Theatre . This new stage convention highlighted the frequency with which Shakespeare shifts dramatic location , encouraging the recurrent criticisms of his violation of the neoclassical principle of maintaining a unity of place . Davenant cast Thomas Betterton in the eponymous role , and he continued to play the Dane until he was 74 . David Garrick at Drury Lane produced a version that adapted Shakespeare heavily ; he declared : " I had sworn I would not leave the stage till I had rescued that noble play from all the rubbish of the fifth act . I have brought it forth without the grave @-@ digger 's trick , Osrick , & the fencing match " . The first actor known to have played Hamlet in North America is Lewis Hallam . Jr . , in the American Company 's production in Philadelphia in 1759 .
John Philip Kemble made his Drury Lane debut as Hamlet in 1783 . His performance was said to be 20 minutes longer than anyone else 's , and his lengthy pauses provoked the suggestion by Richard Brinsley Sheridan that " music should be played between the words " . Sarah Siddons was the first actress known to play Hamlet ; many women have since played him as a breeches role , to great acclaim . In 1748 , Alexander Sumarokov wrote a Russian adaptation that focused on Prince Hamlet as the embodiment of an opposition to Claudius 's tyranny — a treatment that would recur in Eastern European versions into the 20th century . In the years following America 's independence , Thomas Apthorpe Cooper , the young nation 's leading tragedian , performed Hamlet among other plays at the Chestnut Street Theatre in Philadelphia , and at the Park Theatre in New York . Although chided for " acknowledging acquaintances in the audience " and " inadequate memorisation of his lines " , he became a national celebrity .
= = = 19th century = = =
From around 1810 to 1840 , the best @-@ known Shakespearean performances in the United States were tours by leading London actors — including George Frederick Cooke , Junius Brutus Booth , Edmund Kean , William Charles Macready , and Charles Kemble . Of these , Booth remained to make his career in the States , fathering the nation 's most notorious actor , John Wilkes Booth ( who later assassinated Abraham Lincoln ) , and its most famous Hamlet , Edwin Booth . Edwin Booth 's Hamlet at the Fifth Avenue Theatre in 1875 was described as " … the dark , sad , dreamy , mysterious hero of a poem . … [ acted ] in an ideal manner , as far removed as possible from the plane of actual life " . Booth played Hamlet for 100 nights in the 1864 / 5 season at The Winter Garden Theatre , inaugurating the era of long @-@ run Shakespeare in America .
In the United Kingdom , the actor @-@ managers of the Victorian era ( including Kean , Samuel Phelps , Macready , and Henry Irving ) staged Shakespeare in a grand manner , with elaborate scenery and costumes . The tendency of actor @-@ managers to emphasise the importance of their own central character did not always meet with the critics ' approval . George Bernard Shaw 's praise for Johnston Forbes @-@ Robertson 's performance contains a sideswipe at Irving : " The story of the play was perfectly intelligible , and quite took the attention of the audience off the principal actor at moments . What is the Lyceum coming to ? "
In London , Edmund Kean was the first Hamlet to abandon the regal finery usually associated with the role in favour of a plain costume , and he is said to have surprised his audience by playing Hamlet as serious and introspective . In stark contrast to earlier opulence , William Poel 's 1881 production of the Q1 text was an early attempt at reconstructing the Elizabethan theatre 's austerity ; his only backdrop was a set of red curtains . Sarah Bernhardt played the prince in her popular 1899 London production . In contrast to the " effeminate " view of the central character that usually accompanied a female casting , she described her character as " manly and resolute , but nonetheless thoughtful ... [ he ] thinks before he acts , a trait indicative of great strength and great spiritual power " .
In France , Charles Kemble initiated an enthusiasm for Shakespeare ; and leading members of the Romantic movement such as Victor Hugo and Alexandre Dumas saw his 1827 Paris performance of Hamlet , particularly admiring the madness of Harriet Smithson 's Ophelia . In Germany , Hamlet had become so assimilated by the mid @-@ 19th century that Ferdinand Freiligrath declared that " Germany is Hamlet " . From the 1850s , the Parsi theatre tradition in India transformed Hamlet into folk performances , with dozens of songs added .
= = = 20th century = = =
Apart from some western troupes ' 19th @-@ century visits , the first professional performance of Hamlet in Japan was Otojirō Kawakami 's 1903 Shimpa ( " new school theatre " ) adaptation . Shoyo Tsubouchi translated Hamlet and produced a performance in 1911 that blended Shingeki ( " new drama " ) and Kabuki styles . This hybrid @-@ genre reached its peak in Tsuneari Fukuda 's 1955 Hamlet . In 1998 , Yukio Ninagawa produced an acclaimed version of Hamlet in the style of Nō theatre , which he took to London .
Constantin Stanislavski and Edward Gordon Craig — two of the 20th century 's most influential theatre practitioners — collaborated on the Moscow Art Theatre 's seminal production of 1911 – 12 . While Craig favoured stylised abstraction , Stanislavski , armed with his ' system , ' explored psychological motivation . Craig conceived of the play as a symbolist monodrama , offering a dream @-@ like vision as seen through Hamlet 's eyes alone . This was most evident in the staging of the first court scene . The most famous aspect of the production is Craig 's use of large , abstract screens that altered the size and shape of the acting area for each scene , representing the character 's state of mind spatially or visualising a dramaturgical progression . The production attracted enthusiastic and unprecedented world @-@ wide attention for the theatre and placed it " on the cultural map for Western Europe " .
Hamlet is often played with contemporary political overtones . Leopold Jessner 's 1926 production at the Berlin Staatstheater portrayed Claudius 's court as a parody of the corrupt and fawning court of Kaiser Wilhelm . In Poland , the number of productions of Hamlet has tended to increase at times of political unrest , since its political themes ( suspected crimes , coups , surveillance ) can be used to comment on a contemporary situation . Similarly , Czech directors have used the play at times of occupation : a 1941 Vinohrady Theatre production " emphasised , with due caution , the helpless situation of an intellectual attempting to endure in a ruthless environment " . In China , performances of Hamlet often have political significance : Gu Wuwei 's 1916 The Usurper of State Power , an amalgam of Hamlet and Macbeth , was an attack on Yuan Shikai 's attempt to overthrow the republic . In 1942 , Jiao Juyin directed the play in a Confucian temple in Sichuan Province , to which the government had retreated from the advancing Japanese . In the immediate aftermath of the collapse of the protests at Tiananmen Square , Lin Zhaohua staged a 1990 Hamlet in which the prince was an ordinary individual tortured by a loss of meaning . In this production , the actors playing Hamlet , Claudius and Polonius exchanged roles at crucial moments in the performance , including the moment of Claudius 's death , at which point the actor mainly associated with Hamlet fell to the ground .
Notable stagings in London and New York include Barrymore 's 1925 production at the Haymarket ; it influenced subsequent performances by John Gielgud and Laurence Olivier . Gielgud played the central role many times : his 1936 New York production ran for 132 performances , leading to the accolade that he was " the finest interpreter of the role since Barrymore " . Although " posterity has treated Maurice Evans less kindly " , throughout the 1930s and 1940s he was regarded by many as the leading interpreter of Shakespeare in the United States and in the 1938 / 9 season he presented Broadway 's first uncut Hamlet , running four and a half hours . Evans later performed a highly truncated version of the play that he played for South Pacific war zones during World War II which made the prince a more decisive character . The staging , known as the " G.I. Hamlet , " was produced on Broadway for 131 performances in 1945 / 46 . Olivier 's 1937 performance at The Old Vic was popular with audiences but not with critics , with James Agate writing in a famous review in The Sunday Times , " Mr. Olivier does not speak poetry badly . He does not speak it at all . " . In 1937 Tyrone Guthrie directed the play at Elsinore , Denmark with Laurence Olivier as Hamlet and Vivien Leigh as Ophelia .
In 1963 , Olivier directed Peter O 'Toole as Hamlet in the inaugural performance of the newly formed National Theatre ; critics found resonance between O 'Toole 's Hamlet and John Osborne 's hero , Jimmy Porter , from Look Back in Anger .
Richard Burton received his third Tony Award nomination when he played his second Hamlet , his first under John Gielgud 's direction , in 1964 in a production that holds the record for the longest run of the play in Broadway history ( 137 performances ) . The performance was set on a bare stage , conceived to appear like a dress rehearsal , with Burton in a black v @-@ neck sweater , and Gielgud himself tape @-@ recorded the voice for the Ghost ( which appeared as a looming shadow ) . It was immortalised both on record and on a film that played in US theatres for a week in 1964 as well as being the subject of books written by cast members William Redfield and Richard L. Sterne . Other New York portrayals of Hamlet of note include that of Ralph Fiennes 's in 1995 ( for which he won the Tony Award for Best Actor ) – which ran , from first preview to closing night , a total of one hundred performances . About the Fiennes Hamlet Vincent Canby wrote in The New York Times that it was " … not one for literary sleuths and Shakespeare scholars . It respects the play , but it doesn 't provide any new material for arcane debates on what it all means . Instead it 's an intelligent , beautifully read … " Stacy Keach played the role with an all @-@ star cast at Joseph Papp 's Delacorte Theatre in the early 70s , with Colleen Dewhurst 's Gertrude , James Earl Jones 's King , Barnard Hughes 's Polonius , Sam Waterston 's Laertes and Raúl Juliá 's Osric . Sam Waterston later played the role himself at the Delacorte for the New York Shakespeare Festival , and the show transferred to the Vivian Beaumont Theatre in 1975 ( Stephen Lang played Bernardo and other roles ) . Stephen Lang 's Hamlet for the Roundabout Theatre Company in 1992 received mixed reviews and ran for sixty @-@ one performances . David Warner played the role with the Royal Shakespeare Theatre in 1965 . William Hurt ( at Circle Rep Off @-@ Broadway , memorably performing " To Be Or Not to Be " while lying on the floor ) , Jon Voight at Rutgers , and Christopher Walken ( fiercely ) at Stratford CT have all played the role , as has Diane Venora at the Public Theatre . Off Broadway , the Riverside Shakespeare Company mounted an uncut first folio Hamlet in 1978 at Columbia University , with a playing time of under three hours . In fact , Hamlet is the most produced Shakespeare play in New York theatre history , with sixty @-@ four recorded productions on Broadway , and an untold number Off Broadway .
Ian Charleson performed Hamlet from 9 October to 13 November 1989 , in Richard Eyre 's production at the Olivier Theatre , replacing Daniel Day @-@ Lewis , who had abandoned the production . Seriously ill from AIDS at the time , Charleson died eight weeks after his last performance . Fellow actor and friend , Sir Ian McKellen , said that Charleson played Hamlet so well it was as if he had rehearsed the role all his life ; McKellen called it " the perfect Hamlet " . The performance garnered other major accolades as well , some critics echoing McKellen in calling it the definitive Hamlet performance .
= = = 21st century = = =
Hamlet continues to be staged regularly , with actors such as Simon Russell Beale , Ben Whishaw , David Tennant , Angela Winkler , Samuel West , Christopher Eccleston , Maxine Peake , Rory Kinnear , Christian Camargo and Andrew Scott , performing the lead role .
In May 2009 , Hamlet opened with Jude Law in the title role at the Donmar Warehouse West End season at Wyndham 's Theatre . The production officially opened on 3 June and ran through 22 August 2009 . A further production of the play ran at Elsinore Castle in Denmark from 25 – 30 August 2009 . The Jude Law Hamlet then moved to Broadway , and ran for 12 weeks at the Broadhurst Theatre in New York .
In 2013 , American actor Paul Giamatti won critical acclaim for his performance on stage in the title role of Hamlet , performed in modern dress , at the Yale Repertory Theater , at Yale University in New Haven , Connecticut .
The Globe Theatre of London initiated a project in 2014 to perform Hamlet in every country in the world in the space of two years . Titled Globe to Globe Hamlet , it began its tour on 23 April 2014 , the 450th anniversary of Shakespeare 's birth . As of 23 February 2016 , the project had performed in 170 different countries .
Benedict Cumberbatch played the role for a 12 @-@ week run in a production at the Barbican Theatre , opening on 25 August 2015 . The play was produced by Sonia Friedman , and directed by Lyndsey Turner , with set design by Es Devlin . It was called the " most in @-@ demand theatre production of all time " . The entire run sold out in seven hours after tickets went on sale 11 August 2014 , more than a year before the play opened .
= = = Film and TV performances = = =
The earliest screen success for Hamlet was Sarah Bernhardt 's five @-@ minute film of the fencing scene , which was produced in 1900 . The film was an early attempt at combining sound and film , music and words were recorded on phonograph records , to be played along with the film . Silent versions were released in 1907 , 1908 , 1910 , 1913 , 1917 , and 1920 . In the 1920 version , Asta Nielsen played the role of Hamlet as a woman who spends her life disguised as a man .
Laurence Olivier 's 1948 moody black @-@ and @-@ white Hamlet won best picture and best actor Oscars , and is still , as of 2015 , the only Shakespeare film to have done so . His interpretation stressed the Oedipal overtones of the play , and cast 28 @-@ year @-@ old Eileen Herlie as Hamlet 's mother , opposite himself , at 41 , as Hamlet . In 1953 , actor Jack Manning performed the play in 15 @-@ minute segments over two weeks in the short @-@ lived late night DuMont series Monodrama Theater . New York Times TV critic Jack Gould praised Manning 's performance as Hamlet .
Shakespeare experts Sir John Gielgud and Kenneth Branagh consider the definitive rendition of the Bard 's tragic tale to be the 1964 Russian film Gamlet ( Russian : Гамлет ) based on a translation by Boris Pasternak and directed by Grigori Kozintsev , with a score by Dmitri Shostakovich . Innokenty Smoktunovsky was cast in the role of Hamlet ; he was particularly praised by Sir Laurence Olivier .
John Gielgud directed Richard Burton in a Broadway production at the Lunt @-@ Fontanne Theatre in 1964 – 5 , the longest @-@ running Hamlet in the U.S. to date . A live film of the production was produced using " Electronovision " , a method of recording a live performance with multiple video cameras and converting the image to film . Eileen Herlie repeated her role from Olivier 's film version as the Queen , and the voice of Gielgud was heard as the Ghost . The Gielgud / Burton production was also recorded complete and released on LP by Columbia Masterworks .
The first Hamlet in color was a 1969 film directed by Tony Richardson with Nicol Williamson as Hamlet and Marianne Faithfull as Ophelia .
In 1990 Franco Zeffirelli , whose Shakespeare films have been described as " sensual rather than cerebral " , cast Mel Gibson — then famous for the Mad Max and Lethal Weapon movies — in the title role of his 1990 version ; Glenn Close — then famous as the psychotic " other woman " in Fatal Attraction — played Gertrude , and Paul Scofield played Hamlet 's father . In contrast to Zeffirelli , whose Hamlet was heavily cut , Kenneth Branagh adapted , directed , and starred in a 1996 version containing every word of Shakespeare 's play , combining the material from the F1 and Q2 texts . Branagh 's Hamlet runs for around four hours . Branagh set the film with late 19th @-@ century costuming and furnishings ; and Blenheim Palace , built in the early 18th century , became Elsinore Castle in the external scenes . The film is structured as an epic and makes frequent use of flashbacks to highlight elements not made explicit in the play : Hamlet 's sexual relationship with Kate Winslet 's Ophelia , for example , or his childhood affection for Yorick ( played by Ken Dodd ) .
In 2000 , Michael Almereyda 's Hamlet set the story in contemporary Manhattan , with Ethan Hawke playing Hamlet as a film student . Claudius ( played by Kyle MacLachlan ) became the CEO of " Denmark Corporation " , having taken over the company by killing his brother .
Notable made @-@ for @-@ television productions of Hamlet include those starring Christopher Plummer ( 1964 ) , Richard Chamberlain ( 1970 ; Hallmark Hall of Fame ) , Derek Jacobi ( 1980 ; Royal Shakespeare Company , BBC ) , Kevin Kline ( 1990 ) , Campbell Scott ( 2000 ) and David Tennant ( 2009 ; Royal Shakespeare Company , BBC ) .
There have also been several films that transposed the general storyline of Hamlet or elements thereof to other settings . There have also been many films which included performances of scenes from Hamlet as a play @-@ within @-@ a @-@ film . See Hamlet on screen for further details .
= = Stage pastiches = =
There have been various " derivative works " of Hamlet which recast the story from the point of view of other characters , or transpose the story into a new setting or act as sequels or prequels to Hamlet . This section is limited to those written for the stage .
The best @-@ known is Tom Stoppard 's 1966 play Rosencrantz and Guildenstern Are Dead , which retells many of the events of the story from the point of view of the characters Rosencrantz and Guildenstern and gives them a backstory of their own . Several times since 1995 , the American Shakespeare Center has mounted repertories that included both Hamlet and Rosencrantz and Guildenstern , with the same actors performing the same roles in each ; in their 2001 and 2009 seasons the two plays were " directed , designed , and rehearsed together to make the most out of the shared scenes and situations " .
W.S. Gilbert wrote a short comic play titled Rosencrantz and Guildenstern , in Hamlet 's play is presented as a tragedy written by Claudius in his youth of which he is greatly embarrassed . Through the chaos triggered by Hamlet 's staging of it , Guildenstern helps Rosencrantz vie with Hamlet to make Ophelia his bride .
Lee Blessing 's Fortinbras is a comical sequel to Hamlet in which all the deceased characters come back as ghosts . The New York Times reviewed the play , saying it is " scarcely more than an extended comedy sketch , lacking the portent and linguistic complexity of Tom Stoppard 's Rosencrantz and Guildenstern Are Dead . Fortinbras operates on a far less ambitious plane , but it is a ripping yarn and offers Keith Reddin a role in which he can commit comic mayhem . "
Heiner Müller 's postmodern drama The Hamletmachine was first produced in Paris by director Jean Jourdheuil in 1979 . This play in turn inspired Giannina Braschi 's dramatic novel United States of Banana , which takes place at the Statue of Liberty in post @-@ 9 / 11 New York City . In it , Hamlet , Zarathustra , and Giannina are on a quest to free the Puerto Rican prisoner Segismundo from the dungeon of Liberty , where Segismundo 's father , Basilio , the King of the United States of Banana , imprisoned him for the crime of having been born . The work intertwines the plots and characters of Pedro Calderón de la Barca 's Life Is a Dream with Shakespeare 's Hamlet .
Caridad Svich 's 12 Ophelias ( a play with broken songs ) includes elements of the story of Hamlet but focuses on Ophelia . In Svich 's play , Ophelia is resurrected and rises from a pool of water , after her death in Hamlet . The play is a series of scenes and songs , and was first staged at public swimming pool in Brooklyn . Heidi Weiss of the Chicago Sun @-@ Times said of the play , " Far more surreal and twisted than Tom Stoppard 's Rosencrantz and Guildenstern are Dead , 12 Ophelias is a reminder of just how morphable and mysterious Shakespeare 's original remains . " Other characters are renamed : Hamlet is Rude Boy , Rosencrantz and Guildenstern are androgynous helpers known simply as R and G , Gertrude is the madam of a brothel , Horatio becomes H and continues to be Hamlet 's best friend / confidante , and a chorus of Ophelias serves as guide . A new character , Mina , is introduced , and she is a whore in Gertrude 's brothel .
David Davalos ' Wittenberg is a " tragical @-@ comical @-@ historical " prequel to Hamlet that depicts the Danish prince as a student at Wittenberg University ( now known as the University of Halle @-@ Wittenberg ) , where he is torn between the conflicting teachings of his mentors John Faustus and Martin Luther . The New York Times reviewed the play , saying , " Mr. Davalos has molded a daft campus comedy out of this unlikely convergence , " and nytheatre 's review said the playwright " has imagined a fascinating alternate reality , and quite possibly , given the fictional Hamlet a back story that will inform the role for the future . "
= = = Editions of Hamlet = = =
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= Kevin Kolb =
Kevin Benjamin Kolb ( / ˈkɒb / ; born August 24 , 1984 ) is a former American football quarterback . He was drafted by the Philadelphia Eagles in the second round of the 2007 NFL Draft . He has also been a member of the Arizona Cardinals and the Buffalo Bills . He played college football for the Houston Cougars .
Kolb attended Stephenville High School in Stephenville , Texas , where he was a three @-@ year starter at quarterback . He moved on to the University of Houston where he earned Conference USA Offensive Most Valuable Player of the Year honors in 2006 . Kolb started for two games in place of the injured Donovan McNabb during the 2009 NFL season for the Eagles , and earned NFC Player of the Week honors following his week 3 performance against the Kansas City Chiefs . Following McNabb 's trade to the Washington Redskins in April 2010 , Kolb became the starting quarterback for the Eagles . However , after suffering a concussion in week 1 against the Green Bay Packers , Kolb was replaced at quarterback by Michael Vick . Vick suffered a rib cartilage injury in week four and Kolb was named the starter . When Vick returned after week eight , Kolb was relegated to a backup role . Kolb was traded to the Arizona Cardinals prior to the start of the 2011 season . Kolb was released by the Cardinals on March 15 , 2013 .
= = Early years = =
While attending Stephenville High School in Stephenville , Texas , Kolb became the starting quarterback for the Yellow Jackets during his sophomore year . He was a two @-@ time UIL District 8 @-@ 4A offensive MVP . His most outstanding year was his senior year , 2002 , in which he completed 206 of 321 passing attempts for 3 @,@ 357 yards and 29 touchdowns , as well as rushing for 197 yards . At the end of the 2002 season , he earned honorable mention All @-@ State and second @-@ team Academic All @-@ State honors .
= = College career = =
Kolb initially committed to Oklahoma State to play college football but rescinded this commitment when Houston hired head coach Art Briles , a former head coach at Stephenville High School . Kolb was also recruited by TCU , Oklahoma and Texas Tech .
= = = 2003 = = =
One day before the season @-@ opener in 2003 , Kolb was named the starter in Houston as a true freshman , the first true freshman quarterback to start in the season @-@ opener in school history , making his debut against Rice at Robertson Stadium . On September 20 , Kolb threw for 321 yards and four touchdowns and went 20 @-@ for @-@ 29 passing in the 42 – 35 win over Mississippi State . He was named Conference USA Player of the Week for his performance . On October 25 , Kolb accounted for over 400 yards passing and 100 yards rushing against TCU in a 62 @-@ 55 loss to the Horned Frogs , only the fourth time this feat had been achieved in Division I @-@ A. He tied the league record with 578 total yards , and earned Conference USA offensive co @-@ player of the week honors for his performance . Kolb finished the season with 3 @,@ 131 passing yards , 25 touchdowns , and only six interceptions en route to a 7 @-@ 6 record on the year , which ended with a 54 @-@ 48 loss to Hawaii in the Hawaii Bowl . Following the season , Kolb was named Conference USA Freshman of the Year .
= = = 2004 = = =
Kolb was named to the Walter Camp Award , Davey O 'Brien Award and Maxwell Award watchlists prior to the start of the 2004 season . He started in all 11 games in 2004 , finishing first in the conference in total offense with 256 @.@ 1 yards per game , and he passed for 2 @,@ 766 yards and 11 touchdowns .
= = = 2005 = = =
Kolb was named to the Maxwell Award and Davey O 'Brien Award watchlists for the second straight year in 2005 . After a losing season in 2004 , Kolb led the Cougars to a 6 @-@ 5 regular @-@ season record in 2005 . He was named the Cougars ' MVP in the Fort Worth Bowl in a 42 @-@ 13 loss to Kansas after passing for 214 yards and scoring one rushing touchdown . He finished the season with 3 @,@ 258 passing yards , and became the school 's all @-@ time total offense leader . He earned third @-@ team All @-@ Conference USA honors following the season .
= = = 2006 = = =
Kolb was named to the Maxwell Award watchlist for the third consecutive year in 2006 . He was named the consensus Conference USA Preseason Offensive Player of the Year , and he earned preseason all @-@ conference honors . The 2006 season was Kolb 's signature college year , in which he threw 30 touchdowns and only four interceptions on the way to a 10 @-@ 4 record and a Conference USA championship . He went 22 @-@ for @-@ 35 for 235 yards and three touchdowns in a win over Rice University on September 2 , and was named the Conference USA Player of the Week for his efforts . He was named as a finalist for the Johnny Unitas Golden Arm Award on November 1 . He was named the Conference USA Offensive Player of the Year on November 30 . Kolb won the conference 's offensive MVP , but Houston lost to South Carolina 44 @-@ 36 in the Liberty Bowl . He finished the season with 3 @,@ 808 passing yards , 30 touchdowns and four interceptions . Kolb ended his career with 12 @,@ 964 total passing yards , fifth all @-@ time .
Kolb was invited to play in the 2007 East – West Shrine Game on January 20 , 2007 , and the 2007 Senior Bowl on January 27 .
= = Professional career = =
= = = Pre @-@ draft = = =
Kolb was rated as the sixth @-@ best quarterback in the 2007 NFL Draft by NFLDraftScout.com , and was projected to be drafted in the third or fourth round . He hired Jeff Nalley and Vann McElroy as his agents prior to the draft , and they hired former NFL quarterback Jerry Rhome to work with Kolb to get him ready for the pre @-@ draft workouts . He worked out with Danny Arnold in Stafford , Texas in February 2007 in order to prepare for the NFL Scouting Combine . Kolb worked out for the Baltimore Ravens in the first week of April , and followed it up with a visit to the Philadelphia Eagles .
= = = Philadelphia Eagles = = =
Kolb was drafted by the Philadelphia Eagles in the second round ( 36th overall ) of the 2007 NFL Draft . He was the third quarterback taken in the draft behind JaMarcus Russell ( 1st overall ) and Brady Quinn ( 22nd overall ) . He signed a four @-@ year , $ 4 @.@ 285 million contract with the team on July 25 , 2007 . Kolb spent 2007 as the third @-@ string quarterback behind Donovan McNabb and A. J. Feeley .
In his second year in the league , Kolb was promoted to second @-@ string quarterback ahead of A. J. Feeley . He played the entire second half of the Eagles game against the Baltimore Ravens on November 23 after an infamous benching of McNabb . Kolb threw an interception in the endzone to Ed Reed , who took it back 108 yards for a touchdown , an NFL record . Kolb completed only 17 passes on 34 attempts for 144 yards , throwing no touchdowns and four interceptions during the season .
Kolb 's first NFL start was a 48 @-@ 22 loss against the New Orleans Saints at home on September 20 , 2009 due to an injury to Donovan McNabb . His first career touchdown was recorded in the first quarter of that game on a 71 @-@ yard pass to DeSean Jackson ; he threw for 391 yards on 31 completions . On September 27 , 2009 , Kolb made his second start in place of McNabb , throwing for 327 yards and two touchdowns in a 34 @-@ 14 win against the Kansas City Chiefs . Kolb became the first quarterback in NFL history to throw for more than 300 yards in each of his first two career starts . He was named the NFC Offensive Player of the Week after his efforts against the Chiefs .
Kolb expressed his desire to be the starting quarterback for the Eagles during the 2010 offseason : " Obviously my goal is to be the starter and to start for 16 games and to lead this team as far as we can go . Personally , I don 't have a lot of personal goals right now , they 're more team @-@ oriented , besides me getting on the field and proving I can take over this thing . " Kolb gained many comparisons to the situation Aaron Rodgers endured backing up Brett Favre during his first three seasons . Kolb and Rodgers reached out to one another to share their similar plights .
On March 26 , Adam Schefter reported that the Eagles expected Kolb to be the starting quarterback for the 2010 season . On April 4 , McNabb was traded to the Washington Redskins , making Kolb the starting quarterback . Kolb signed a one @-@ year contract extension worth $ 12 @.@ 25 million on April 29 , keeping him under contract with the Eagles through the 2011 season .
In the Eagles ' season @-@ opener against the Green Bay Packers , the supposed start of the " Kevin Kolb Era , " he was tackled by Packers linebacker Clay Matthews , and sustained a concussion . For precautionary measures , Kolb was withdrawn from the game . After passing a series of tests , he was nonetheless withheld for the game against the Detroit Lions . On September 21 , backup quarterback Michael Vick was named the starting quarterback over Kolb for the rest of the season following Vick 's win over the Lions . Kolb took over for Vick in a game against the Redskins in week 4 after Vick suffered a chest injury . Kolb went 22 @-@ for @-@ 35 with 201 passing yards , one touchdown and an interception in place of Vick . However , he was still beaten by the Redskins and their new starting quarterback , Donovan McNabb , 12 @-@ 17 . Against the Atlanta Falcons in week 6 , Kolb went 23 @-@ for @-@ 29 for 326 yards , three touchdowns and one interception , and was named the NFC Offensive Player of the Week following his performance . During the game , Kolb made an illegal horse @-@ collar tackle on Falcons safety William Moore following an interception . The Eagles were penalized 15 yards and Kolb was later fined $ 5 @,@ 000 by the league , the first time a quarterback was fined for a horse @-@ collar tackle .
After the 2010 season , there was speculation that the Eagles would look to make a deal for Kolb since Vick was the clear starting quarterback . However , due to the 2011 NFL Labor Dispute , the Eagles were unable to trade away Kolb . On July 19 , 2011 , Kolb expressed interest in playing for the Arizona Cardinals , saying " Arizona would be a great place " to play .
= = = Arizona Cardinals = = =
Kolb was traded to the Arizona Cardinals on July 28 , 2011 , in exchange for cornerback Dominique Rodgers @-@ Cromartie and a second @-@ round draft pick in the 2012 NFL Draft ( which the Eagles traded for draft picks used on Vinny Curry and Brandon Boykin ) . Expected to start , Kolb had a decent preseason debut for the Cardinals in preseason play against the Oakland Raiders , going 4 @-@ for @-@ 7 for 68 yards ; among the four completions was a 43 @-@ yard pass to wide receiver Larry Fitzgerald .
Kolb started his first game for the Cardinals on September 11 , 2011 against the Carolina Panthers in the first week of the 2011 NFL season . Kolb was 18 of 27 for 309 yards , two touchdowns , and no picks in the 28 @-@ 21 win over the Panthers . He also posted a 130 @.@ 0 passer rating in the game , third best in the NFL in Week 1 . However , over the rest of the season , his play markedly deteriorated as the Cardinals lost several close games . Furthermore , he was hampered by various injuries . A foot injury ( turf @-@ toe ) that he incurred in a game against the Baltimore Ravens sidelined him for several games . His backup quarterback , John Skelton , performed ably as he stepped in and won games against St. Louis ( once at home , once away ) and against Philadelphia . Upon return from his turf @-@ toe injury , Kevin led the Cardinals to a comeback win against the Dallas Cowboys in overtime . The game was memorable for the blunder committed by Cowboys head coach Jason Garrett , who called a time @-@ out to " ice " his own kicker on a potential game @-@ winning field goal . The ensuing kick after the time @-@ out was not good , and in overtime , Kevin threw a touch @-@ pass to LaRod Stephens @-@ Howling who ran it into the end @-@ zone for the winning score . But in the very next game against the San Francisco 49ers , Kolb was inadvertently kicked in the back of the head early in the first series . He left the game with concussion @-@ related symptoms , and did not return that season .
Following a quarterback battle , Kolb lost his starting position to John Skelton for the 2012 NFL season . Following a Week 1 injury to Skelton , Kolb entered the game during the 4th quarter , leading the team on a come @-@ from @-@ behind victory . Skelton was eventually ruled out for the Week 2 matchup against the New England Patriots . Arizona was handed their first loss of the season by the 2 @-@ 2 St. Louis Rams , by a final score of 17 @-@ 3 . Kolb completed just around 50 % of his passes , and was sacked 9 times ( The 2012 Cardinals became the first team since their 2003 counterparts to allow eight or more sacks in consecutive games ) .
Kolb proved his worth to the coaching staff following October 14 's matchup against the Buffalo Bills , in which Kolb suffered a rib injury late in the fourth quarter . Skelton began taking snaps for the injured Kolb and was only able to complete 2 of 10 passes with a game @-@ costing interception in the OT period . This injury caused Kolb to miss the following seven games , all of which the Cardinals lost .
The Cardinals released Kolb on March 15 , 2013 after failing to agree to a restructured contract .
= = = Buffalo Bills = = =
Kolb agreed to a two @-@ year contract for $ 13 million with the Buffalo Bills on March 30 , 2013 . On August 24 , Kolb suffered a severe concussion in a preseason game against the Washington Redskins . He was placed on injured reserve on August 30 . Kolb was released on March 11 , 2014 .
= = = Retirement = = =
Kolb retired in 2014 due to Post @-@ concussion syndrome , citing lingering effects from 3 career concussions .
= = = Career statistics = = =
Kolb married his wife Whitney Huddleston in February 2007 . Whitney gave birth to their first child , a daughter named Kamryn June , on January 10 , 2009 , and their second child , a daughter named Atley Rose , was born in April 2010 .
= = Personal = =
Kolb majored in business entrepreneurship at the University of Houston .
Kolb competed in North Texas fishing tournaments in the offseason . Kolb also enjoys hunting wild hogs in his spare time . It may seem dangerous to hunt with just a twelve @-@ inch Bowie knife , but Kolb , assured the public , " Our dogs go and find ' em first , and then we stab the pigs . It 's a little bit dangerous , but as long as you know what you 're doing , you 'll be alright . "
On June 28 , 2014 , Kolb was arrested in Willacy County , Texas , for boating while intoxicated .
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= Mussel Slough Tragedy =
The Mussel Slough Tragedy was a dispute over land titles between settlers and the Southern Pacific Railroad ( SP ) that took place on May 11 , 1880 , on a farm located 5 @.@ 6 miles ( 9 km ) northwest of Hanford , California , in the central San Joaquin Valley , leaving seven people dead . Frank Norris ' 1901 novel , The Octopus : A Story of California , was inspired by this incident , as was W. C. Morrow 's 1882 novel Blood @-@ Money . May Merrill Miller 's novel , First the Blade , includes a fictionalized account of the conflict . The exact history of the incident has been the source of some disagreement , largely because popular anti @-@ railroad sentiment in the 1880s made the incident to be a clear example of corrupt and cold @-@ blooded corporate greed . Muckraking journalists and anti @-@ railroad activists glorified the settlers and used the events as evidence and justification for their anti @-@ corporate crusades . The site of the episode is now registered as California Historical Landmark # 245 . A historical marker on the east side of 14th Avenue , 350 yards ( 320 m ) north of Elder Avenue , memorializes the site .
= = Background = =
The region known in the late 19th century as the Mussel Slough country was mostly in what was then Tulare County , California , with a small portion in what was then Fresno County ( later the entire area became part of Kings County after the latter was formed in 1893 ) . The Mussel Slough country took its name from a slough which went from the Kings River to Tulare Lake . This area had remained unsettled as it was a broad , dry plain suitable only for cattle ranching . However , in 1866 Congress authorized the railroad companies to build a line through the area , and created numbered lots of one square mile ( or 640 acres ( 3 km2 ) ) each . The Southern Pacific Railroad ( SP ) received the odd @-@ numbered sections of land , totaling about 25 @,@ 000 acres ( 101 km2 ) worth . The even @-@ numbered sections were given to homesteaders by the government and were not subject to the events which followed . Given SP 's history of encouraging settlement and development along its lines , land prices were expected to appreciate considerably .
Settlers , who had spent a great deal of money and time in building their houses and farms , had begun to file for homesteads in the area on the railroad lands starting in 1869 , in anticipation of the completion of the line . In 1872 , the Central Pacific Railroad completed work to Goshen from the north and the Southern Pacific was to construct the southern portion ( although not generally known by the public at the time , the two railroad systems were owned and operated by the same people although they were technically separate corporations ) . The SP 's brochures had stated the price of the land would be " $ 2 @.@ 50 per acre and upwards " , leading many people to mistakenly believe that $ 2 @.@ 50 / acre was a set price . Furthermore , other brochures indicated that any improvements the settlers made to the land would not be counted when the prices were fixed . However , when the settlers attempted to acquire their land , the asking price was significantly greater than that , which SP attributed to rising property values because of the laying of the railroad , although many settlers believed it was due to their own improvements such as irrigation , housing , fences , and barns . Settlers protested against the railroads , but to no avail . A bill in the United States Congress that would have fixed the price at $ 2 @.@ 50 / acre failed to pass . The Southern Pacific then filed and won a lawsuit in 1878 against the settlers , amidst allegations of court bias ( former California Governor Leland Stanford was also president of SP ) .
While the issue was still pending in court , the SP decided to change the course of the route , claiming that was its prerogative , despite the Department of the Interior having already granted homestead rights . Those who had been building homes along the previous course were distraught . Settlers argued in court that by not building the line where the federal government had deeded the land , SP forfeited the title . On the other hand , the SP was convinced of its legal ownership of the land and felt it should have the freedom to set whatever prices it deemed fit for its property . Others took the opportunity to move onto the SP 's parcels , anticipating that the courts would rule against the company , thus allowing them to get the land for free . The Supreme Court finally ruled in Schulenberg v. Harriman 21 Wall . 44 ( 1874 ) that SP still owned the lands and as such , the SP was justified to reclaim the land without compensation unless the settlers were willing to pay their asking price , now up to $ 35 / acre . Still , the Settler 's League , which was formed in 1878 in opposition to the SP 's Mussel Slough actions , even attempted to appeal directly to President Rutherford B. Hayes during his visit to San Francisco in 1880 , presenting him a petition which read ,
Besides the 1874 Supreme Court ruling , a critical moment came on December 15 , 1879 , when Judge Lorenzo Sawyer of the Ninth Circuit Court ruled in Orton , 32 F. 457 ( C.C.D. Cal . 1879 ) , that the federal government controlled the railroad land grants , and more importantly , the state could not control ultra vires acts of corporations .
Given the legal system 's affirmation of its position , the SP began to forcibly remove some of the settlers . Their agents would attempt to serve eviction notices , but often would not find anyone at home , as homeowners knew they were coming . In these cases , the agents then tried removing the furniture from the homes , but the Settler 's League would just put the furniture back after the agents ' departure . Finally , it escalated to the point at which the agents would then disassemble the houses , but again , volunteers would just put them back together . The settlers were not above their own brand of justice , either . People who had purchased land from those forced to sell would be harassed by locals , and in one case one farmer who had aligned with the SP had his house burned down . Those supporting the railroads tended to be wealthier than the others , deriding the Settler 's League as " a set of demagogues " who were " very anxious to get something for nothing . "
Although the settlers received the benefit of a section of public opinion , politically and legally every decision was going the way of the railroad . In March 1880 , Stanford himself attempted a reconciliation by appearing in Hanford and meeting with the Settler 's League in an attempt to find some sort of compromise .
= = The Mussel Slough Tragedy = =
On May 11 , 1880 , a picnic was being held in Hanford which was to feature a speech by pro @-@ settler former California Supreme Court Justice David S. Terry ( who was actually unable to appear ) , when word reached the picnickers that four " railroad men " ( A U.S. Marshal , an SP land appraiser , and two locals ) were actively evicting settlers on railroad lands , and a group of about twenty people left to confront them ( the historical marker indicates that the two local men were Deputy U.S. Marshals , which was not in fact the case ) . However , the rumors were only partially true ; in addition to serving eviction notices , the group was also purchasing land ( and any improvements ) from settlers who had refused to pay SP 's asking price . This act was seen as a betrayal of Stanford 's visit a mere two months earlier .
= = = List of involved persons = = =
= = = = Marshal 's group = = = =
Alonzo W. Poole , U.S. Marshal
William H. Clark , railroad land grader
Walter J. Crow , settler ( killed )
Mills Hartt , settler ( killed )
= = = = Settlers ' group = = = =
James N. Patterson , leader of the group
William Braden
B. S. Burr
James Harris ( killed )
Edwin Haymaker ( died of pneumonia soon after and was considered a victim of the fight )
John E. Henderson ( killed )
Daniel Kelly ( killed )
Iver Knutson ( killed )
Archibald McGregor ( killed )
W. L. Morton
Wayman L. Pryor
John D. Pursell
= = = Sequence of events = = =
The parties met at the homestead of Henry D. Brewer three miles ( 4 @.@ 8 km ) north of Grangeville ( which is near Hanford ) , the marshal 's group having just been at Braden 's house . Later testimony from uninvolved parties indicated that the party of settlers were lightly armed and had every intention of persuading the railroad party to delay their actions until a pending court case could be resolved . However , there was bad blood between Crow and Harris , and Hartt had previously threatened to kill any " sandlappers " ( a derisive term for homesteaders , equivalent to the modern day " redneck " ) , and an argument broke out between them . Harris and Hartt simultaneously opened fire at each other . Crow , a skilled marksman who was armed with a shotgun , singlehandedly killed or wounded most of the settlers ' party . After the initial exchange of gunfire ended , Crow fled the scene , but was shot in the back about 1 @.@ 5 mi ( 2 @.@ 4 km ) away by an unknown assailant before he could reach safety . Poole and Clark did not participate in the battle and left immediately after the incident , possibly defusing tensions enough to avoid further bloodshed .
= = = Aftermath = = =
Afterwards , seventeen people were indicted by a federal grand jury and five were found guilty of wilfully interfering with a marshal in performance of his duties ( Braden , Patterson , Pryor , Purcell , and John J. Doyle , a leader in the Settler 's League ) . They were convicted in federal court ( with Judge Sawyer presiding ) and sentenced to eight months in prison and fined $ 300 each . Their time spent in imprisonment was hardly difficult . Three of the men 's wives were allowed to live with them , and Susan Curtis , daughter of one of the jailers , fell in love with and later married Braden . Upon their release in September 1881 , they were greeted by a joyous crowd of 3 @,@ 000 in Hanford . Such was the anti @-@ railroad sentiment that the five were looked upon as heroes by many across California , and those killed were considered martyrs who had given their lives for a cause .
Nevertheless , the affair brought such a shock that people were sobered . The legal battle had been lost , the railroad had won , and there was not enough public support for changing the policy of granting public lands to railroads . The only concession SP made was to reduce the land price slightly . In the end , most people simply stayed where they were and purchased the land .
= = The Mussel Slough myth = =
The Mussel Slough affair was seized upon by newspaper editors as well as a number of popular writers soon after the tragic shootout , as an example of corporate greed and the abuses of freewheeling market capitalism around the start of the 20th century . Muckraking novels such as W. C. Morrow 's Blood @-@ Money ( 1882 ) and Charles Cyril Post 's Driven from Sea to Sea ; or , Just A ' Campin ' ( 1884 ) exaggerate the fault of the railroad for the events as they unfolded in San Joaquin and romanticize the ranchers according to a Jeffersonian agrarian ideal . Ambrose Bierce attempted to lionize Crow , calling him " this bravest of Americans . "
Later novels depicting the affair , such as the philosopher Josiah Royce 's The Feud of Oakfield Creek ( 1887 ) and novelist Frank Norris ' The Octopus ( 1901 ) are slightly less hagiographic in their portrayals of the Mussel Slough ranchers , but nevertheless give a fairly one @-@ sided , anti @-@ railroad view of the Mussel Slough affair . Richard Orsi 's history of the Southern Pacific , Sunset Limited , includes a chapter outlining some common misconceptions about the Mussel Slough affair which Orsi suggests have been perpetuated through the mythic retellings of Morrow , Post , Royce , and Norris , among others .
The significance of the Mussel Slough myth in the history of California and the Southern Pacific Railroad is evident from a quote by Theodore Roosevelt , who as president focused considerable time and energy in redressing the wrongs and abuses of corporate monopolies throughout the U.S. After reading Norris ' The Octopus , Roosevelt stated he was " inclined to think [ ... ] that conditions were worse in California than elsewhere . " These mythic narratives about Mussel Slough helped bolster public anti @-@ railroad sentiments , and encouraged continued rebellion among homesteaders , squatters and poachers against railroad land agents , who " came to accept squatters as an ordinary , if disagreeable , part of the land business " .
Despite the nationwide attention the incident received , the Mussel Slough Tragedy is not remembered much today as well as later gunfights such as the gunfight at the O.K. Corral . Richard Maxwell Brown argues in No Duty to Retreat that the Mussel Slough shootout did not fit the mold of the gunfight / hero myth , which usually ignores such factors as ideology , and social and economic conflict , thus not implanting it in the lore of the American Old West .
= = Tragedy Oak = =
Six victims of the shooting were carried to the porch of the Brewer house , which was shaded by a tall oak tree . The tree became famously known as the Tragedy Oak . It blew down in a storm in the early 1990s . A piece of the tree was saved as a memorial and is on display at nearby Pioneer Elementary School in Hanford .
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= Ahmad ibn Tulun =
Ahmad ibn Tulun ( Arabic : أحمد بن طولون , DMG Aḥmad ibn Ṭūlūn ; ca . 20 September 835 – 10 May 884 ) was the founder of the Tulunid dynasty that ruled Egypt and Syria between 868 and 905 . Originally a Turkic slave @-@ soldier , in 868 Ibn Tulun was sent to Egypt as governor by the Abbasid caliph . Within four years Ibn Tulun had established himself as a virtually independent ruler by evicting the caliphal fiscal agent , Ibn al @-@ Mudabbir , taking over control of Egypt 's finances , and establishing a large military force personally loyal to himself . This process was facilitated by the volatile political situation in the Abbasid court and the preoccupation of the Abbasid regent , al @-@ Muwaffaq , with the wars against the Saffarids and the Zanj Rebellion . Ibn Tulun also took care to establish an efficient administration in Egypt . After reforms to the tax system , repairs to the irrigation system , and other measures , the annual tax yield grew markedly . As a symbol of his new regime , he built a new capital , al @-@ Qata 'i , north of the old capital Fustat .
After 875 / 6 he entered into open conflict with al @-@ Muwaffaq , who tried unsuccessfully to unseat him . In 878 , with the support of al @-@ Muwaffaq 's brother , Caliph al @-@ Mu 'tamid , Ibn Tulun took over the governance of Syria as well as the frontier districts with the Byzantine Empire , although control of Tarsus in particular proved tenuous . During his absence in Syria , his eldest son and deputy , Abbas , tried to usurp power in Egypt , leading to the imprisonment of Abbas and the nomination of Ibn Tulun 's second son , Khumarawayh , as his heir . The defection in 882 of a senior commander , Lu 'lu ' , to al @-@ Muwaffaq , and the defection of Tarsus , forced Ibn Tulun to return to Syria . Now virtually powerless , al @-@ Mu 'tamid tried to escape from his brother 's control to Ibn Tulun 's domains but was captured by al @-@ Muwaffaq 's agents , and Ibn Tulun convened an assembly of jurists at Damascus to denounce al @-@ Muwaffaq as a usurper . His attempt in autumn 883 to bring Tarsus to heel failed , and he fell sick . Returning to Egypt , he died in May 884 and was succeeded by Khumarawayh .
Ibn Tulun stands out as the first governor of a major province of the Abbasid Caliphate to not only establish himself as its master independently of the Abbasid court , but to also pass power on to his son . He was thus also the first ruler since the Ptolemaic Pharaohs to make Egypt an independent political power again , with a sphere of influence encompassing Syria and parts of the Maghreb , setting the tone for later Egypt @-@ based regimes like the Ikhshidids and the Fatimids .
= = Life = =
= = = Early life and career = = =
Ahmad ibn Tulun was born on the 23rd day of the month of Ramadan 220 AH ( 20 September 835 ) or slightly later , probably in Baghdad . His father , Tulun , was a Turk from a locality known in Arabic sources as Tagharghar or Toghuz [ o ] ghuz , i.e. the Uyghur confederation . In the year 815 / 6 ( 200 AH ) Tulun was taken captive along with other Turks , and sent as part of the tribute of the Samanid governor of Bukhara Nuh ibn Asad to the Caliph al @-@ Ma 'mun ( reigned 813 – 833 ) , who at the time resided in Khurasan . After al @-@ Ma 'mun returned to Baghdad in 819 , these Turkish slaves were formed into a guard corps of slave soldiers ( ghilmān , sing. ghulām ) entrusted to al @-@ Ma 'mun 's brother and eventual successor , al @-@ Mu 'tasim ( r . 833 – 842 ) . Tulun did well for himself , eventually coming to command the Caliph 's private guard . Ahmad 's mother , called Qasim , was one of his father 's slaves . In 854 / 5 , Tulun died , and Qasim is commonly held to have married a second time , to the Turkish general Bayakbak or Bakbak . This report , however , does not appear in Ibn al @-@ Daya or al @-@ Balawi , and may be spurious . According to al @-@ Balawi , after his father 's death Ahmad came under the tutelage by Yalbakh , a close companion of Tulun , who had been taken captive alongside him . At his deathbed , Tulun urged his friend to take care of his wife and son , and Bakbak thereafter treated the young Ahmad as his own son .
The young Ahmad ibn Tulun received a thorough education , involving military training at the new Abbasid capital of Samarra and studies in Islamic theology at Tarsus , acquiring a reputation not only for his knowledge but also for his pious and ascetic way of life . He became popular among his fellow Turks , who would confide secrets and entrust their money and even their women to him . While at Tarsus , Ibn Tulun fought in the frontier wars with the Byzantine Empire . There he also met another senior Turkish leader , Yarjukh , whose daughter , variously given as Majur or Khatun , became his first wife and the mother of his eldest son , Abbas , and his daughter Fatimah . On one occasion , while returning to Samarra , he saved a caravan bearing a caliphal envoy returning from Constantinople from a Bedouin raiding party , and accompanied it to Samarra . This act gained him the favour of Caliph al @-@ Musta 'in ( r . 862 – 866 ) , as well as a thousand gold dinars and the hand of the slave Miyas , the mother of his second son , Khumarawayh . When the Caliph abdicated and went into exile at Wasit in 866 , he chose Ibn Tulun to be his guard . Qubayha , the mother of the new caliph , al @-@ Mu 'tazz ( r . 866 – 869 ) , schemed to remove the deposed al @-@ Musta 'in , and offered Ibn Tulun the governorship of Wasit if he would murder him . Ibn Tulun refused and was replaced by another , who carried out the deed . Ibn Tulun himself played no part in the assassination , but gave his master a burial and returned to Samarra .
= = = Governor of Egypt = = =
Already under Caliph al @-@ Mu 'tasim , senior Turkish leaders began being appointed as governors of provinces of the Caliphate as a form of appanage . Thereby they secured immediate access to the province 's tax revenue for themselves and their troops , bypassing the civilian bureaucracy . The Turkish generals usually remained close to the centre of power in Samarra , sending deputies to govern in their name . Thus when al @-@ Mu 'tazz gave Bakbak charge of Egypt in 868 , Bakbak in turn sent his stepson Ahmad as his lieutenant and resident governor . Ahmad ibn Tulun entered Egypt on 27 August 868 , and the Egyptian capital , Fustat , on 15 September .
Ibn Tulun 's position after his appointment was far from undisputed within his province . As governor of Fustat he oversaw the province 's garrison and was the head of the Muslim community as recognized in his title of " overseer of the army and the Friday prayer " ( wāli al @-@ jaysh waʾl @-@ ṣalāt ) , but the fiscal administration , in particular the collection of the land tax ( kharāj ) was in the hands of the powerful veteran administrator Ibn al @-@ Mudabbir . The latter had been appointed as fiscal agent ( ʿāmil ) already since ca . 861 , and had rapidly become the most hated man in the country as he doubled the taxes and imposed new ones on Muslims and non @-@ Muslims alike . Ibn Tulun quickly signalled his intention to be sole master of his province : on his arrival at Fustat , when both Ibn al @-@ Mudabbir and Shukayr , the head of the postal service ( barīd ) and of correspondence with the caliphal government , came out to meet him with a gift of 10 @,@ 000 dinars , he refused to accept it . For the next four years , Ibn Tulun and his rivals fought via their emissaries and relatives at the caliphal court in Samarra to neutralize each other ; in the end , Ibn Tulun managed to secure Ibn al @-@ Mudabbir 's transfer to Syria in July 871 , and assumed collection of the kharāj himself . At the same time , Ibn Tulun also secured the dismissal of Shukayr , who died shortly after . Thus by 872 Ibn Tulun had assumed control of all branches of the administration in Egypt , becoming de facto independent of the Abbasid central government .
At the time of Ibn Tulun 's appointment , Egypt was undergoing a transformative process . In 834 its early Muslim elite , the Arab settler families ( jund ) of Fustat , lost their privileges and government pay , and power passed to officials sent by the Abbasid court . At about the same time , for the first time the Muslim population began surpassing the Coptic Christians in numbers , and the rural districts were increasingly subject to both Arabization and Islamization . The rapidity of this process , and the influx of settlers after the discovery of gold and emerald mines at Aswan , meant that Upper Egypt in particular was only superficially controlled by the local governor . Furthermore , the persistence of internecine strife and turmoil at the heart of the Abbasid state — the so @-@ called " Anarchy at Samarra " — led to the appearance of millennialist revolutionary movements in the province under a series of Alid pretenders . One of them was Ibn al @-@ Sufi , a descendant of Ali 's son Umar , who rebelled in late 869 and massacred the populace of Esna . In winter 870 he defeated an army sent against him by Ibn Tulun , but was driven to the oases of the desert in spring . He remained there until he was defeated in a struggle with another regional strongman , Abu Abdallah ibn Abd al @-@ Hamid al @-@ Umari in 872 , fleeing to Mecca . There he was seized and imprisoned for a while by Ibn Tulun . One of his followers , Abu Ruh Sukun , rebelled in the oases in 873 / 4 and was successful enough for Ibn Tulun to offer him an amnesty . Ibn al @-@ Sufi 's vanquisher , al @-@ Umari , was another descendant of Ali who had created an autonomous principality around the gold mines , defeating the forces sent against him . Another revolt broke out in 874 / 5 by the governor of Barqa , Muhammad ibn al @-@ Faraj al @-@ Farghani . Ibn Tulun tried to reconcile him at first but was eventually forced to send an army to besiege and storm the city , although the reprisals were limited . The re @-@ imposition of his authority over Barqa however led to the strengthening of ties with Ifriqiya to the west , including , according to Ibn al @-@ Athir , the erection of a series of lighthouses and messaging beacons along the coast .
In the meantime , in Palestine , the local governor , Isa ibn al @-@ Shaykh al @-@ Shaybani , had used the anarchy in Iraq to set up a quasi @-@ independent Bedouin regime , intercepting the tax caravans from Egypt and threatening Damascus . When Caliph al @-@ Muhtadi ascended the throne in July 869 , he offered a general amnesty , and wrote to Ibn al @-@ Shaykh , offering a pardon in exchange for him handing over the treasure he had wrongfully appropriated . When Ibn al @-@ Shaykh refused , the Caliph ordered Ibn Tulun to march against him . Ibn Tulun complied and began a mass purchase of black African ( Sudān ) and Greek ( Rūm ) slaves to form an army over the winter of 869 / 70 , but no sooner had he arrived at al @-@ Arish with his army in summer 870 than orders came to turn back . Ibn al @-@ Shaykh 's revolt was crushed soon after by another Turkish soldier , Amajur al @-@ Turki , who continued to govern Syria for the Abbasids until his death in 878 . This episode was nevertheless of major importance as it allowed Ibn Tulun to recruit an army of his own with caliphal sanction . The Tulunid army , which eventually grew to reportedly 100 @,@ 000 men — other sources give a breakdown of 24 @,@ 000 Turkish ghilmān and 42 @,@ 000 black African and Greek slaves , as well as a mercenary corps composed mostly of Greeks — became the foundation of Ibn Tulun 's power and independence . For his personal protection , Ibn Tulun reportedly employed a corps of ghilmān from Ghur .
Ibn Tulun 's stepfather Bakbak was murdered in 869 / 70 , but luckily for him in the summer of 871 the supervision of Egypt passed to his father @-@ in @-@ law Yarjukh . Yarjukh not only confirmed Ibn Tulun in his post , but in addition conferred to him the authority over Alexandria and Barqa . In 873 , Ibn Tulun entrusted the government of Alexandria to his eldest son , Abbas . Ibn Tulun 's growing power was manifested in the establishment of a new palace city to the northeast of Fustat , called al @-@ Qata 'i , in 870 . The project was a conscious emulation of , and rival to , the Abbasid capital Samarra . Just like Samarra , the new city was designed as quarters for Ibn Tulun 's new army with the aim of reducing frictions with the urban populace of Fustat . Each unit received an allotment or ward ( whence the city 's name ) to settle , after which the ward was named . The new city 's centrepiece was the Mosque of Ibn Tulun , which was built in 878 – 880 under the supervision of the Mesopotamian Christian architect Ibn Katib al @-@ Farghani . A royal palace adjoined the mosque , and the rest of the city was laid out around them . Beside government buildings , it included markets , a hospital ( al @-@ bimāristān ) that provided services free of charge , and a hippodrome . Nevertheless , Ibn Tulun himself preferred to reside in the Coptic monastery of Qusayr outside Fustat .
= = = Ibn Tulun 's new regime = = =
The administration of Egypt was already well developed before Ibn Tulun 's arrival , with a number of departments ( dīwāns ) responsible for the collection of the land tax , the supervision of the post , the public granaries ( dīwān al @-@ ahrāʿ ) , the Nile Delta lands ( dīwān asfal al @-@ arḍ ) , and possibly a privy purse ( dīwān al @-@ khaṣṣ ) for the governor 's personal use . A chancery ( dīwān al @-@ inshāʾ ) possibly also already existed , but it may have been first established under Ibn Tulun , when he remodelled the Egyptian administration after the Abbasid central government . Most of the officials employed by Ibn Tulun were like him trained in the caliphal court at Samarra . Ibn Tulun 's chancellor was the capable Abu Ja 'far Muhammad ibn Abd al @-@ Kan ( died 891 ) , while other important positions in the administration were held by the four al @-@ Muhajir brothers and Ibn al @-@ Daya . Al @-@ Balawi also reports several anecdotes about Ibn Tulun 's extensive use of spies and his own ability to uncover spies sent against him , and claims that the chancery was established so that Ibn Tulun could check up on every piece of correspondence with the caliphal court .
Unsurprisingly , given his own origins as a slave soldier , Ibn Tulun 's regime was in many ways typical of the " ghulām system " that became one of the two main paradigms of Islamic polities in the 9th and 10th centuries , as the Abbasid Caliphate fragmented and new dynasties emerged . These regimes were based on the power of a regular army composed of the ghilmān , but in turn , according to Hugh N. Kennedy , " the paying of the troops was the major preoccupation of government " . It is therefore in the context of the increased financial requirements that in 879 , the supervision of the finances in Egypt and Syria passed to Abu Bakr Ahmad ibn Ibrahim al @-@ Madhara 'i , the founder of the al @-@ Madhara 'i bureaucratic dynasty that dominated the fiscal apparatus of Egypt for the next 70 years . Although , as Zaky M. Hassan notes , " fragmentary evidence does not permit a thorough assessment of Tulunid economic and financial policies " , it appears that the peace and security provided by the Tulunid regime , the establishment of an efficient administration , and repairs and expansions to the irrigation system , coupled with a consistently high level of Nile floods , resulted in a major increase in revenue . By the time of Ibn Tulun 's death , income from the land tax alone had risen from 800 @,@ 000 dinars under Ibn al @-@ Mudabbir to the sum of 4 @.@ 3 million dinars , and Ibn Tulun bequeathed his successor a fiscal reserve of ten million dinars . Crucial to this was the reform of the tax assessment and collection system , including the introduction of tax farming — which at the same time led to the rise of a new landholding class . Additional revenue was collected from commercial activities , most notably textiles and in particular linen .
Ibn Tulun 's regime was highly centralized , but also featured " consistent attempts to win the backing of Egypt 's commercial , religious and social élite " , according to Zaky M. Hassan . Thus the wealthy merchant Ma 'mar al @-@ Jawhar functioned both as Ibn Tulun 's personal financier and as the head of an informal intelligence network through his contacts in Iraq . A further " notable characteristic " of Ibn Tulun 's rule , according to Thierry Bianquis , was " the quality of relations it maintained with Christians and Jews " ; according to a letter by the Patriarch of Jerusalem , Elias III , when he took over Palestine , he appointed a Christian as governor of Jerusalem , and possibly even of the provincial capital , Ramla , thereby putting an end to the persecution of Christians and allowing the renovation of churches .
= = = Expansion into Syria = = =
In the early 870s , a major change took place in the Abbasid government , as the Abbasid prince al @-@ Muwaffaq emerged as the de facto regent of the empire , sidelining his brother , Caliph al @-@ Mu 'tamid ( r . 870 – 892 ) . Officially , al @-@ Muwaffaq controlled the eastern half of the Caliphate , while al @-@ Mu 'tamid 's son and first heir al @-@ Mufawwad controlled the western , with the aid of the Turkish general Musa ibn Bugha . In reality al @-@ Muwaffaq held the actual reins of power . Al @-@ Muwaffaq however was preoccupied with the more immediate threats to the Abbasid government presented by the rise of the Saffarids in the east and by the Zanj Rebellion in Iraq itself , as well as with keeping in check the Turkish troops and managing the internal tensions of the caliphal government . This gave Ibn Tulun the necessary space to consolidate his own position in Egypt . Ibn Tulun kept himself out of the Zanj conflict , and even refused to recognize al @-@ Mufawwad as his suzerain , who in turn did not confirm him in his position .
Open conflict between Ibn Tulun and al @-@ Muwaffaq broke out in 875 / 6 , on the occasion of a large remittance of revenue to the central government . Counting on the rivalry between the Caliph and his over @-@ mighty brother to maintain his own position , Ibn Tulun forwarded a larger share of the taxes to al @-@ Mu 'tamid instead of al @-@ Muwaffaq : 2 @.@ 2 million dinars went to the Caliph and only 1 @.@ 2 million dinars to his brother . Al @-@ Muwaffaq , who in his fight against the Zanj considered himself entitled to the major share of the provincial revenues , was angered by this , and by the implied machinations between Ibn Tulun and his brother . Al @-@ Muwaffaq sought a volunteer to replace him , but all the officials in Baghdad had been bought off by Ibn Tulun and refused . Al @-@ Muwaffaq sent a letter to the Egyptian ruler demanding his resignation , which the latter predictably refused . Both sides geared for war . Ibn Tulun created a fleet and fortified his borders and ports , including Alexandria , and a new fortress on Rawda Island to protect Fustat . Al @-@ Muwaffaq nominated Musa ibn Bugha as governor of Egypt and sent him with troops to Syria . In the event , due to a combination of lack of pay and supplies for the troops , and the fear generated by Ibn Tulun 's army , Musa never got further than al @-@ Raqqah . After ten months of inaction and a rebellion by his troops , Musa returned to Iraq . In a public gesture of support for al @-@ Mu 'tamid and opposition to al @-@ Muwaffaq , Ibn Tulun would assume the title of " Servant of the Commander of the Faithful " ( mawlā amīr al @-@ muʾminīn ) in 878 .
Ibn Tulun now seized the initiative . Having served in his youth in the border wars with the Byzantine Empire at Tarsus , he now requested to be conferred the command of the frontier districts of Cilicia ( the Thughūr ) . Al @-@ Muwaffaq initially refused , but following the Byzantine successes of the previous years al @-@ Mu 'tamid prevailed upon his brother and in 877 / 8 Ibn Tulun received responsibility for the entirety of Syria and the Cilician frontier . Ibn Tulun marched into Syria in person . He received the submission of the son of Amajur , who had recently died , whom he appointed governor at Ramla , and proceeded to take possession of Damascus , Homs , Hama , and Aleppo . At Damascus Ibn Tulun encountered his old rival Ibn al @-@ Mudabbir , who since his eviction from Egypt had served as Amajur 's ʿāmil for Palestine and Damascus . Ibn al @-@ Mudabbir was fined 600 @,@ 000 dinars and thrown into prison , where he died in 883 / 4 . In the rest of the provincial administration , however , he largely left the people who had served under Amajur in place . Only the governor of Aleppo , Sima al @-@ Tawil , resisted , and fled to Antioch . Ibn Tulun laid siege to the city until Sima was killed , reportedly by a local woman . He then continued on to Tarsus , where he began preparing for a campaign against the Byzantines . The presence of his numerous soldiers , however , led to a rapid rise in prices , causing great hostility among the Tarsians , who demanded that he either leave or reduce his army . At this juncture , news arrived from Egypt that his son Abbas , whom he had left as his regent , was preparing to usurp his position under the influence of his entourage . Ibn Tulun hastily withdrew from Tarsus , but as more information about the situation in Egypt began to arrive , clarifying that Abbas posed no real threat , Ibn Tulun decided to spend more time in Syria and consolidate his authority . He redressed the injustices of Sima , installed troops in Aleppo ( under his ghulam Lu 'lu ' ) and Harran , secured the co @-@ operation of the Banu Kilab tribe and their leader Ibn al @-@ Abbas , and captured the rebel Musa ibn Atamish . At some point after his takeover of Syria , Ibn Tulun ordered the refortification of Akka , a task undertaken by Abu Bakr al @-@ Banna , the grandfather of al @-@ Muqaddasi , who provides a detailed description of the work .
Only then , in April 879 , did Ibn Tulun return to Egypt . Abbas fled west with his supporters , and from Barqa tried to take over Ifriqiya . Defeated by the Ifriqiyans ( probably in the winter of 880 – 881 ) , he retreated back east to Alexandria , where he was finally confronted and captured by Ibn Tulun 's forces . After being publicly paraded seated on a mule , Ibn Tulun ordered his son to execute or mutilate his companions , who had driven him to rebel . Ibn Tulun reportedly secretly hoped that his son would refuse to do such a dishonourable act , but he agreed . Weeping , Ibn Tulun had Abbas whipped and imprisoned . He then named his second son , Khumarawayh , as his heir @-@ apparent .
= = = Final years and death = = =
Following his return from Syria , Ibn Tulun added his own name to coins issued by the mints under his control , along with those of the Caliph and heir apparent , al @-@ Mufawwad . In the autumn of 882 , the Tulunid general Lu 'lu ' defected to the Abbasids . At the same time , the Tulunid @-@ appointed governor of Tarsus and the Thughūr died , and his replacement , Yazaman al @-@ Khadim , with popular backing , refused to acknowledge Tulunid rule . Ibn Tulun immediately left in person for Syria — taking the chained Abbas with him as a precaution — and headed for Tarsus . At Damascus , he received a message from al @-@ Mu 'tamid informing him that the by now nearly powerless Caliph had escaped Samarra and was heading for Syria . Taking custody of al @-@ Mu 'tamid would have immensely boosted Ibn Tulun 's standing : not only would the sole source of political legitimacy in the Muslim world reside under his control , but he would also be able to pose as the " rescuer " of the Caliph . Ibn Tulun therefore decided to halt and await al @-@ Mu 'tamid 's arrival . In the event , however , the Caliph was overtaken at al @-@ Haditha on the Euphrates by the governor of Mosul , Ishaq ibn Kundaj , who defeated the caliphal escort and brought him back to Samarra ( February 883 ) and thence south to Wasit , where al @-@ Muwaffaq could better control him . This opened anew the rift between the two rulers : al @-@ Muwaffaq nominated Ishaq ibn Kundaj as governor of Egypt and Syria — in reality a largely symbolic appointment — while Ibn Tulun organized an assembly of religious jurists at Damascus which denounced al @-@ Muwaffaq as a usurper , condemned his maltreatment of the Caliph , declared his place in the succession as void , and called for a jihād against him . Only three participants , including the chief qāḍī of Egypt , Bakkar ibn Qutayba , refused to pronounce the call for jihād publicly . Ibn Tulun had his rival duly denounced in sermons in the mosques across the Tulunid domains , while the Abbasid regent responded in kind with a ritual denunciation of Ibn Tulun . Despite the belligerent rhetoric , however , neither made moves to confront the other militarily .
After his failure to take control of the Caliph , Ibn Tulun turned on Tarsus . He appointed Abdallah ibn Fath in Lu 'lu 's place in Aleppo , and marched in person to Cilicia . The Egyptian ruler laid siege to Tarsus in autumn 883 , but Yazaman diverted the local river , inundating the Tulunid camp and forcing Ibn Tulun to retreat . Ibn Tulun fell ill on his return to Egypt , and was carried to Fustat on a wheeled vehicle . In the same year , a campaign to take over the two holy cities of Islam , Mecca and Medina , also failed . Back in Egypt , he ordered Bakkar to be arrested and replaced him with Muhammad ibn Shadhan al @-@ Jawhari . A thorough examination of Bakkar 's accounts while head of the charitable endowments , however , revealed no misappropriations . Although Ibn Tulun ordered him released , the elderly and sick qāḍī refused to leave his cell . At the same time , the illness of Ibn Tulun himself worsened . " Muslims , Christians and Jews , including women and children , converged separately upon the flank of the Muqattam to implore God to save him " , as Bianquis writes , but Ibn Tulun died at Fustat on 10 May 884 and was interred on the slopes of the Muqattam . According to al @-@ Balawi , Ibn Tulun left his heir 24 @,@ 000 servants , 7 @,@ 000 men and 7 @,@ 000 horses , 3 @,@ 000 camels , 1 @,@ 000 mules , 350 ceremonial horses , and 200 fully equipped warships .
At Ibn Tulun 's death , Khumarawayh , with the backing of the Tulunid elites , succeeded without opposition . Ibn Tulun bequeathed his heir " with a seasoned military , a stable economy , and a coterie of experienced commanders and bureaucrats " . Khumarawayh was able to preserve his authority against the Abbasid attempt to overthrow him at the Battle of Tawahin and even made additional territorial gains , but his extravagant spending exhausted the treasury , and his assassination in 896 began the rapid decline of the Tulunid regime . Internal strife sapped Tulunid power . Khumarawayh 's son Jaysh was a drunkard who executed his uncle , Mudar ibn Ahmad ibn Tulun ; he was deposed after only a few months and replaced by his brother Harun ibn Khumarawayh . Harun too was a weak ruler , and although a revolt by his uncle Rabi 'ah in Alexandria was suppressed , the Tulunids were unable to confront the attacks of the Qarmatians who began at the same time . In addition , many commanders defected to the Abbasids , whose power revived under the capable leadership of al @-@ Muwaffaq 's son , Caliph al @-@ Mu 'tadid ( r . 892 – 902 ) . Finally , in December 904 , two other sons of Ibn Tulun , Ali and Shayban , murdered their nephew and assumed control of the Tulunid state . Far from halting the decline , this event alienated key commanders in Syria and led to the rapid and relatively unopposed reconquest of Syria and Egypt by the Abbasids under Muhammad ibn Sulayman al @-@ Katib , who entered Fustat in January 905 . With the exception of the great Mosque of Ibn Tulun , the victorious Abbasid troops pillaged al @-@ Qata 'i and razed it to the ground .
= = = Offspring = = =
According to al @-@ Balawi , from his various wives and concubines , Ibn Tulun had 33 children , 17 sons and 16 daughters . The only modern edition of al @-@ Balawi provides the following list :
Male children : Abū al @-@ Faḍl al @-@ ʿAbbās ( the eldest ) , Abū al @-@ Jaysh Khumārawayh , Abū al @-@ Ashāʾir Muḍar , Abū al @-@ Mukarram Rabīʿah , Abū al @-@ Maqānib Shaybān , Abū Nāhiḍ ' Iyāḍ , Abū Maʿd ʿAdnān , Abū al @-@ Karādīs Kazraj , Abū Ḥabshūn ʿAdī , Abū Shujāʿ Kindah , Abū Manṣūr Aghlab , Abū Lahjah Maysarah , Abū al @-@ Baqāʾ Hudā , Abū al @-@ Mufawwaḍ Ghassān , Abū al @-@ Faraj Mubārak , Abū ʿAbdallāh Muhammad , and Abū al @-@ Fataj Muẓaffar .
Female children ( note that only 15 names are listed ) : Fāṭimah , Lamīs , ( unreadable ) , Ṣafiyyah , Khadījah , Maymūnah , Maryam , ʿĀʾishah , Umm al @-@ Hudā , Muʾminah , ʿAzīzah , Zaynab , Samānah , Sārah , and Ghurayrah .
= = Legacy = =
Despite the downfall of his dynasty , Ibn Tulun 's rule was a seminal event not only for Egypt , but for the entire Islamic world . For Egypt itself , his reign marks a turning point as the country for the first time since the Pharaohs ceased being a passive province subject to a foreign imperial power , and became once again a centre of power in its own right . The new realm he forged , encompassing Egypt and Syria as well as the Jazira and Cilicia , and to a lesser extent the eastern parts of the Maghreb , established a new political zone separated from the Islamic lands further east , restoring in a fashion the frontier that had existed between the Byzantine and Sassanid Persian realms in Antiquity . Egypt was the basis of Ibn Tulun 's power ; he paid particular attention to restoring its economy , as well as establishing an autonomous bureaucracy , army , and navy . These policies were continued by later Egypt @-@ based regimes , the Ikhshidids ( 935 – 969 ) and eventually the Fatimids ( 969 – 1171 ) , who likewise used Egypt 's wealth to establish control over parts or even most of Syria . Indeed , as Thierry Bianquis remarks , the territory ruled by Ibn Tulun in Syria was remarkably similar to that controlled by the later , similarly Egypt @-@ based regimes of Saladin and the Mamluk Sultanate .
Ibn Tulun 's relations with and quest for autonomy from the Abbasids is a " central problem of Tulunid history " . Modern scholars see in Ibn Tulun 's policies a " careful balancing act " ( Matthew S. Gordon ) and notice that he never fully severed himself from the Caliphate , remaining conspicuously loyal to the person of al @-@ Mu 'tamid , who , after all , was a powerless figurehead . Nevertheless , the move towards increasing autonomy is evident throughout his reign . His relations with the Abbasid government were dominated by his conflict with al @-@ Muwaffaq , resulting from the latter 's attempts to establish control over Egypt — whose wealth was direly needed during the costly war against the Zanj — and prevent the further rise of Ibn Tulun . In a certain sense , writes Matthew Gordon , many of Ibn Tulun 's measures " were as much the means by which imperial interests were protected against the ambitions of al @-@ Muwaffaq and his ( largely Turkish ) military coterie in Iraq as they were efforts to secure Tulunid authority " . Given that Ibn Tulun at least twice ( in 871 and 875 / 6 ) remitted huge sums to the caliphal treasury , it remains an open question whether without the conflict with al @-@ Muwaffaq , this would have been a more regular occurrence .
Ibn Tulun 's role in the wider Islamic history is as the herald of the Abbasid Caliphate 's disintegration and the rise of local dynasties . This became particularly evident with the succession of Khumarawayh : as Thierry Bianquis explains , " this was the first time in Abbasid history with regard to the government of so large and rich a territory , that a wāli , whose legitimacy derived from the caliph who had designated him , was succeeded openly by an amīr who claimed his legitimacy by inheritance " . Thus Zaky M. Hassan calls Ibn Tulun a " typical example of the Turkish slaves who from the time of Harun al @-@ Rashid were enlisted in the private service of the caliph and the principal officers of state , and whose ambition and spirit of intrigue and independence [ eventually made ] them the real masters of Islam " .
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= Gunnerkrigg Court =
Gunnerkrigg Court is a science @-@ fantasy webcomic created by Tom Siddell and launched in April 2005 . It is updated online three days a week , and the first volume of the comic was published in print format by Archaia Studios Press and Titan Books ( in the UK and Ireland ) . The comic has been critically acclaimed and has won numerous Web Cartoonists ' Choice Awards , as well as receiving positive reviews for its artwork and storytelling .
The comic tells the story of Antimony Carver , a young girl who has just started attending a strange and mysterious school called Gunnerkrigg Court , and the events that unfold around her as she becomes embroiled in political intrigues between Gunnerkrigg Court and the inhabitants of the Gillitie Wood , a forest outside the school . The comic 's style and themes include elements from science , fantasy creatures , mythology from a variety of traditions , and alchemical symbols and theories ; the literary style is heavily influenced by mystery and manga comics .
= = Production = =
Gunnerkrigg Court was first posted online on 4 April 2005 , and was originally updated two days per week . The comic began updating three days per week on 25 December 2006 . The end of the seventh chapter in May 2006 marked the end of the " first book , " which Siddell published through Lulu.com in 2007 ; that book is no longer in print . In August 2008 , Tom Siddell explained that the comic had a standard " comic book format " which was useful when he had sufficient pages to print a hard copy . The first fourteen chapters of the webcomic were printed as the first Archaia Studios Press edition of 296 pages bound in a hardcover collection titled " Orientation " . In 2012 he announced that he had quit his regular job to work on the comic full @-@ time . In addition to books and merchandising the comic is supported through crowdfunding by Patreon since July 2014 .
= = = Format = = =
The Gunnerkrigg Court webcomic is told in a series of episodic chapters such that each , while forming part of the overall storyline , also functions individually as a stand @-@ alone plot arc . The themes and topics of the chapters vary widely : as one reviewer describes , " You are also not subjected to 400 @-@ plus pages of intricate plot movement . While there is an overall story arc , there are also lighter chapters that focus on unusual classes ... or small moments that build the main characters . " Each chapter begins with a title page and ends with one or more " bonus pages , " which are not integral to the main storyline but often offer ancillary details about the world of Gunnerkrigg Court or about minor characters . The chapters have varied in length from four pages to over eighty . Each page is drawn in traditional ( A4 ; 210 × 297 mm ) page format and divided arbitrarily into frames . At the bottom of the most recent page is a link to a comments thread for that page , in which readers may comment on and discuss that day 's comic .
= = = Influences = = =
Siddell has stated that he enjoyed reading Alfred Hitchcock & The Three Investigators as a child , and that it has heavily influenced the literary style of his comic . His artistic style is influenced by many artists , among which he cites as his favorites Jamie Hewlett , Yukito Kishiro , and Mike Mignola , as well as the manga Nausicaä of the Valley of the Wind and Dragon Ball .
One notable feature of the comic is the blending of mythological elements from many different cultural traditions , especially from the British Isles and Native American mythology . Siddell attributes this style to his experience as a child : " I moved about a lot when I was younger and had the opportunity to grow up hearing stories from different parts of the world and I 've always been fascinated by them . " In addition to mythology , Siddell makes heavy use of alchemical themes ; for example , the main character is named Antimony , after a toxic chemical element , and many pages feature artistic depictions of alchemical symbols . The symbol for antimony appears frequently in Gunnerkrigg Court : the character Antimony wears a necklace shaped like that symbol , the character Reynardine has the symbol imprinted on his wolf body , and the symbol is used to mark the end of a chapter .
The artwork of Gunnerkrigg Court has been described as " stylized , " with simple character designs . At least one reviewer , on the other hand , has noticed that the backgrounds , in contrast to the characters , are often very elaborate . The comic has also been described as having a " rich " look in spite of its limited color palette , and Siddell himself has stated that he first developed the idea for the comic using only a limited number of colors . The pieces of artwork that Siddell has posted at the end of each printed book , entitled " Treatise " and " Second Treatise , " demonstrate many such of Siddell 's artistic and storytelling motifs : they integrate alchemical symbols , mythological figures , nature , and technology .
= = Synopsis = =
= = = Setting = = =
Gunnerkrigg Court is set in a boarding school in a country that resembles the United Kingdom , identifiable from the grey skies and mandatory uniforms . The comic contains other clues about the setting , such as the house system that is described at the end of the first chapter . This system is similar to that used by many UK schools , including the one the author attended ; Siddell has even stated that the school in which Gunnerkrigg Court takes place is modeled after his own secondary school .
Gunnerkrigg Court , the fictional school around which the story revolves , is a mysterious and vast establishment that many characters suspect hides much more than just a school . The school appears to actively recruit many talented or extraordinary students . As the story progresses , it is soon revealed that the school is inhabited by a wide variety of both supernatural creatures — many of which become characters involved in the story 's plot — and ultra @-@ modern technology . One character explains that " the Court was founded on a union between technological and etheric design . " Another describes it as " man 's endeavor to become god . "
The court is built on the edge of a wide chasm , on the other side of which lies the Gillitie Wood , which is inhabited by " etheric " or magical creatures . At the time when the main story takes place , the two sides exist in a kind of truce , with the Court as the realm of science and technology and the Wood the realm of nature and the etheric . The denizens of the Gillitie Wood do not allow technology in the Wood , and the rules of the Court forbid students from leaving school grounds .
= = = Plot = = =
The story of Gunnerkrigg Court involves several different ongoing plot arcs . The main story is that of the protagonist , Antimony Carver , and her deepening involvement in the intrigues between Gunnerkrigg Court and the Gillitie Wood , the forest outside Gunnerkrigg Court ; she is accompanied throughout the storyline by her friend and classmate Katerina Donlan and her companion Reynardine , a demon living within her stuffed animal . As the story progresses , Antimony and her companions also slowly learn more about their surroundings , the relationship between Gunnerkrigg Court and the Gillitie Wood , and the beings they encounter .
The story begins when Antimony builds a robot to transport a mysterious shadow into Gillitie Wood , the forest outside Gunnerkrigg Court . Several chapters later in the comic , and apparently several months later in the story 's timeline , the robot reappears on the bridge outside Gunnerkrigg Court ; being controlled by a malevolent creature from Gillitie Wood , it pushes Antimony off the bridge when she goes out to it . Antimony spends a night at the banks of the river below the bridge , and encounters a ghost , before she is rescued by Kat and taken back to the school . Her brief time outside Gunnerkrigg Court , though , sets off a dispute between Gunnerkrigg Court and the Gillitie Wood . Not long after Antimony 's return , the Court is visited by Coyote , a god from the Gillitie Wood , and General Ysengrin , the being who caused the robot to attack Antimony at the bridge . They express anger over the robot 's visit to the forest , and over the damage Antimony caused when she left the Court .
During the time that the robot is gone , Antimony meets a creature named Reynardine , who tries to take over her body but , by accident , instead becomes trapped in the body of a stuffed animal she carries ; and becomes subject to her command . Because of her relationship with Reynardine and the events with Coyote and Ysengrin , Antimony is nominated to begin training to become a medium , one of the individuals who moderate disputes between the Wood and the Court and communicates with etheric beings , and she decides to return to the woods to speak with Coyote . When Antimony visits Coyote , she learns that in the past Coyote had travelled across the sea to find Reynardine and Ysengrin and make them into " powerful being [ s ] " like himself . He had given Ysengrin " power over the trees " and given Reynardine the power to take bodies , but bodies that Reynardine took always died after he left them and Ysengrin was hardly strong enough to stand without the help of Coyote 's tree armor . Reynardine had been in love with Antimony 's mother , Surma , and had used his power to steal a young man 's body and woo Surma ; the man died , however , and Reynardine was imprisoned in Gunnerkrigg Court until the events surrounding his first meeting with Antimony .
In addition to this plotline , the story includes several additional plot arcs interspersed with the main story . One concerns two girls from the Court , Zimmy and Gamma , who communicate with one another telepathically . Zimmy sees hallucinations of monsters which her etheric abilities turn into reality , which she relies on Gamma to dispel . In one chapter , Antimony and another student , Jack , also become trapped briefly in Zimmy 's hallucinatory world , and escape after they " find " Gamma there . Another storyline revolves around Kat 's attempts to repair Antimony 's robot ( which had been temporarily taken control of when it pushed her off the bridge ) , during which time they discover a set of highly complex robots that Antimony speculates are related in some way to the ghost she encountered at the river .
= = = Main characters = = =
= = Reception = =
In addition to being officially recognized at the Web Cartoonists ' Choice Awards , Gunnerkrigg Court has been critically acclaimed in a number of online reviews , and has a large readership and an active forum . Author Tom Siddell has been interviewed about his work numerous times , mostly by non @-@ mainstream online magazines such as ComixTalk . Kevin Powers of the Comics Bulletin and Graphic Smash listed Gunnerkrigg Court as one of the series he " respect [ s ] , " and ComixTalk ( then called Comixpedia ) listed Siddell as one of the twenty @-@ five " People of Webcomics " in 2006 .
The comic has received praise for its artwork and use of color , dark mood , slowly revealed mysteries , and pacing . Al Schroeder of ComixTalk has called Gunnerkrigg Court 's setting " marvelous " and " unique , " and said the comic is " delightfully fun " in spite of its moody backdrop . Along with the evolution in art style since the start of the comic , many reviewers have praised the age progression of the protagonists and their maturation with the plot , likening it to that of Harry Potter .
Some reviewers , on the other hand , have criticized its dark and depressing tone as potentially being frightening for younger audiences , also noting that there can be " lots [ of information ] to take in at times . "
In 2006 , science fiction author Neil Gaiman praised Gunnerkrigg Court in his blog , which brought the comic to the attention of many more readers .
= = = Awards = = =
Gunnerkrigg Court has been nominated for and has won a number of Web Cartoonist 's Choice Awards , shown in the table below . When the Web Cartoonists ' Choice Awards were discontinued in 2008 and replaced by The Webcomic List Awards ( run by The Webcomic List Community ) in 2009 , it won several of those as well . It was also nominated in 2006 for a Clickie award in the " International Clickie " category at Stripdagen Haarlem , a webcomics festival in the Netherlands . Gunnerkrigg Court : Orientation won a 2008 gold book of the year award from ForeWord magazine in their graphic novel category . Gunnerkrigg Court : Orientation was nominated for a 2009 Cybils Award in the graphic novel category . Gunnerkrigg Court was nominated for the 2014 Harvey Award for Best Online Comics Work .
= = Books = =
Siddell , Tom ( 2008 ) . Gunnerkrigg Court : Orientation . Gunnerkrigg Court . Kearny : Archaia Studios Press . ISBN 978 @-@ 1932386349 . Diamond Code : FEB08 3463 . Archived from the original on 1 May 2010 .
Siddell , Tom ( 2008 ) . Gunnerkrigg Court : Orientation . Gunnerkrigg Court . Titan Books . ISBN 978 @-@ 1848561755 .
Siddell , Tom ( 2010 ) . Gunnerkrigg Court , Volume 2 : Research . Gunnerkrigg Court . Archaia Studios Press . ISBN 978 @-@ 1932386776 .
Siddell , Tom ( 2011 ) . Gunnerkrigg Court Volume 3 : Reason . Gunnerkrigg Court . Archaia Studios Press . ISBN 978 @-@ 1 @-@ 936393 @-@ 23 @-@ 7 .
Siddell , Tom ( 2013 ) . Gunnerkrigg Court , Volume 4 : Materia . Gunnerkrigg Court . Archaia Studios Press . ISBN 978 @-@ 1936393992 .
Siddell , Tom ( 2015 ) . Gunnerkrigg Court Volume 5 : Refine . Gunnerkrigg Court . Archaia Studios Press . ISBN 978 @-@ 1608866915 .
= = = Side comics = = =
Siddell , Tom ( 2013 ) . Annie in the Forest Part One . Beyond The Walls . Robot Voice Comics .
Siddell , Tom ( 2013 ) . Annie in the Forest Part Two . Beyond The Walls . Robot Voice Comics .
Siddell , Tom ( 2015 ) . Traveller . Beyond The Walls . Robot Voice Comics .
= = = Explanatory footnotes = = =
= = = Story notes = = =
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= You da One =
" You da One " is a song by Barbadian recording artist Rihanna recorded for her sixth studio album , Talk That Talk ( 2011 ) . It was co @-@ written by Rihanna with Ester Dean , Henry Walter , John Hill and Lukasz Gottwald . Production of the song was completed by Gottwald , under his production name Dr. Luke , and Cirkut . Kuk Harrell and Marcas Tovar recorded the track at the Sofital Paris Le Laubourg , Room 538 , and Westlake Recording Studios in Los Angeles , California . It premiered on US radio on November 11 , 2011 , and was made available to download digitally throughout Europe and Australasia on November 14 , 2011 . It was added to US Mainstream , rhythmic and urban radio station playlists on November 29 , 2011 . Throughout December 2011 and January 2012 , a remix extended play ( EP ) was released worldwide .
Musically , " You Da One " is a mid @-@ tempo pop and reggae song , which incorporates elements of electropop , dancehall and dubstep . It also features a dubstep bridge before the final chorus . It garnered positive reviews from music critics , many of whom complimented the West Indian and Caribbean tone , and compared it to " What 's My Name ? " and " Man Down " , from her previous studio album Loud ( 2010 ) . The song achieved moderate chart success ; it peaked at number one on the US Hot Dance Club Songs and number 14 on the Billboard Hot 100 . Internationally , it peaked inside the top 10 in New Zealand , South Korea and on the UK R & B Chart , and attained top twenty positions in Canada , Hungary , Norway and Sweden .
To promote the song , an accompanying music video was shot in East London and directed by Melina Matsoukas . It was inspired by the 1971 film A Clockwork Orange , and premiered on December 23 , 2011 . It was mainly shot in black and white , and features Rihanna in a variety of different set ups , such as in a photo shoot and a lyric video game . At various points , lyrics are stamped across the video as Rihanna sings them . Hours after the release of the video , Norwegian photographer Sølve Sundsbø accused Rihanna and Matsoukas of plagiarism , suggesting that the scene featuring the singer wearing a white outfit with black dots was deliberately copied from his 2008 montage " Numero 93 " .
= = Recording and production = =
" You da One " was written by Ester Dean , Henry Walter , John Hill , Lukasz Gottwald and Rihanna . Production of the song was helmed by Dr. Luke and Cirkut . Rihanna recorded the song at several recording studios around the world during her Loud Tour ( 2011 ) , which included Sofital Paris Le Laubourg in Room 538 and at Westlake Recording Studios in Studio B in Los Angeles , California . Vocal recording and production was carried out by Kuk Harrell and Marcos Tovar . Alejandro Barajas and Jennifer Rosales served as the vocal recording and production assistants to Harrel and Tovar . " You da One " was mixed by Serban Ghenea and assisted by Phil Seaford , at Mixstar Studios , Virginia Beach , Virginia . John Hanes served as the mixing engineer . The song was engineered by Aubrey “ Big Juice ” Delaine and Clint Gibbs , and were assisted by Chris Sclafani and Jonathon Steer . All instrumentation was provided by Dr. Luke , Cirkut and Hill , and the production coordinators were Irene Richter and Katie Mitzell .
= = Background and release = =
During an interview with Ryan Seacrest on his radio show On Air with Ryan Seacrest , Rihanna revealed that she found " You da One " to be a highly addictive to listen to after she heard the final cut , saying " ' You da One ' is one of those records that became very addictive for me . I could not stop listening to this song . It 's very infectious . " The artwork for the single was shot in black @-@ and @-@ white , the same technique which was used for Rihanna 's previous single 's artwork , " We Found Love " . " You da One " ' s artwork displays the singer with her head tilted back and her eyes closed holding a cigarette between her lips . It prompted a mixed reaction from Sarah Anne Hughes for The Washington Post ; while she noted that Rihanna looks " perfectly coiffed , " she criticized the inclusion of the cigarette , and called it a " social taboo . "
The song was released as the second single from Talk That Talk , and premièred in the United States nationwide on November 11 , 2011 , via the Clear Channel Radio station network . " You Da One " was made available to download digitally via iTunes on November 14 , 2011 , in Australia , New Zealand , South America , the United States and multiple European countries .
= = Composition = =
" You da One " is a pop and reggae song with just a touch of a dubstep groove that embraces Caribbean rhythms , reggae , and pulsing house beats. which incorporates elements of dancehall The song also features a dubstep bridge before the final chorus . " You da One " runs for 3 minutes and 19 seconds , and it was composed in the key of E ♭ major using common time and a moderate groove of 126 beats per minute ; it follows a chord progression of A ♭ – Cm – E ♭ . Instrumentation is provided by a piano . Rihanna 's vocal range spans one octave from the low note of B ♭ 3 to the high note of B ♭ 4 on the song . According to Bradley Stern of MTV , the song 's musical structure bore a resemblance to Britney Spears ' " Inside Out " , writing that Rihanna " gets squeezed between a killer dubstep @-@ to @-@ death breakdown , not unlike the ex @-@ sexin ' jam Dr. Luke crafted for Britney 's ' Femme Fatale ' cut . " James Montgomery of the same publication commented on the song 's structure , writing that the song " starts in traditional [ Rihanna ] territory — building on a slow , skanking rhythm — expands with a starbursty chorus , then contracts nearly as quickly on a knotty , ratcheting middle . "
The lyrics to " You da One " are about a stable and comfortable relationship , which can be heard in the lyrics " You know how to love me hard / I won 't lie , I 'm falling hard / Yup , I 'm falling for ya , but there 's nothing wrong with that . " Michael Cragg of The Guardian explained some of the lyrics in the song as part of his review , writing " It 's perhaps less immediate , but there 's a lovely pre @-@ chorus of ' My love is your love , your love is my love ' that leads into a refrain about how great it is to have found someone decent , ( ' I 'm so happy that you came in my life ' ) .
= = Critical reception = =
" You da One " garnered positive reviews from music critics . In regards to the song 's sexually lewd demeanor , Jocelyn Vena of MTV News felt that Rihanna embodied a " potty @-@ mouthed sex kitten " ; Vena continued to write that the song is the most radio friendly on Talk That Talk , despite the excessive use of " NSFW lyrics " . Robert Copsey for Digital Spy praised the song , writing that it is " bouncy " and is " oozing with Caribbean flavor " . The song was also positively reviewed by Sadao Turner of On Air with Ryan Seacrest , who said that " ' You da One ' is a radio @-@ friendly record with island influence teeming with pop goodness and that signature Rihanna sound that carries across a dancefloor " . Amanda Dobbins of New York wrote that " You da One " and " We Found Love " are " relatively PG " compared to other songs on Talk That Talk . Entertainment Weekly 's Melissa Maerz praised the song , writing that " You da One " is " the perfect opener to set the tone for an album that embraces Caribbean rhythms , reggae , and pulsing house beats . " Maerz continued to call the song " an island @-@ breezy tribute to some guy who 's got [ Rihanna ] ' dreaming all the time ' . " Jason Lipshutz of Billboard magazine noted that the song is similar to some of Rihanna 's previous dancehall influenced songs , such as " What 's My Name ? " and " Man Down " , from her previous studio album Loud ( 2010 ) . Leah Collins of Dose praised the lyrics in the song which she described as " lovey @-@ dovey and most definitely radio @-@ friendly . "
Andrew Martin of Prefix Magazine commented on the infectiousness of the song , writing that once it has been listened to , it is hard to stop thinking about it . Martin continued to praise the " sugary sweetness of the song " , but criticized the incorporation of the dubstep breakdown toward the end of the song , citing that the reason as to why it was included was to try and make the song " even bigger " . Michael Cragg of The Guardian also noted that the song has a relaxed feel to it , and compared it to some of the singer 's previous dancehall songs , " What 's My Name ? " and " Rude Boy " . A reviewer for Spin criticized the song , writing " [ Rihanna ] is giving us a half @-@ limp reggae jam full of platitudes like , ' [ You da ] one I dream about all day ' . " The reviewer continued to write that there is " more chaste " on " You da One " than there was presented on Britney Spears ' guest vocal on " S & M " .
= = Chart performance = =
= = = North America = = =
In the United States , " You da One " debuted on the Billboard Hot 100 chart at number 73 on November 16 , 2011 , two days after it was released to iTunes . The following week , it peaked at number 14 . It debuted at number 28 on the US Radio Songs , the apex of its stay , with a first week audience impression of 28 million . With this chart entry , the song became the highest chart position debut since Lady Gaga 's " Born This Way " , which debuted at number six in February 2011 . On the US Hot Digital Songs chart , the song debuted and peaked at number nine with digital download sales of 124 @,@ 000 units sold . With this chart entry , Rihanna became the first female artist in the history of the chart to have three songs in the top 10 of the Digital Songs Chart ; that week , the lead single from Talk That Talk , " We Found Love " , was at number one with sales of 211 @,@ 000 units , while her duet with Drake , " Take Care " from album of the same name , was at number four with sales of 162 @,@ 000 units . She became the first artist to have three songs in the top 10 of the chart since Michael Jackson had a record breaking six songs in the top 10 following his death in July 2009 .
On the US Pop Songs , " You da One " debuted at number 26 on November 26 , 2011 , and was awarded the honor of that week 's Greatest Gainer , and peaked at number 19 . " You da One " achieved the most success on the US Hot Dance Club Songs chart , where it peaked at number one , and became her seventeenth number one song on the chart . With this chart entry , she tied with Beyoncé Knowles for the third most Hot Dance Club Songs chart number one songs in the chart 's 35 @-@ year history . Only Madonna ( 42 ) and Janet Jackson ( 19 ) have achieved more number songs on the chart . The song also peaked at number 60 on the US Hot R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Songs chart , and number 12 on the Canadian Hot 100 . In the United States , " You da One " was certified platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) on March 27 , 2012 , denoting shipments of over one million units
= = = Europe and Australasia = = =
In France , " You da One " debuted at number 64 on November 19 , 2011 , and reached a 2011 peak of 28 . In its ninth week on the chart , February 14 , 2012 , the song peaked at number 23 ; it spent 23 weeks on the chart in total . In The Netherlands , " You da One " debuted at number 92 on November 19 , 2011 , and peaked at number 53 in its third week . It made a re @-@ entry on the chart at number 61 on December 31 , 2011 , and remained on the chart for a further two weeks in January 2012 . Elsewhere in Europe , the song managed to peak inside the top twenty in Ireland at number 12 , in Norway at number 16 , and in Sweden at number 17 . It peaked inside the top fifty in Austria , Switzerland , and Spain . In the United Kingdom , " You da One " debuted on the UK Singles Chart at number 39 on December 3 , 2011 . The following week , it fell by one position to number 40 . In the last week of December 2011 , it charted at number 22 . In the first week of January 2012 , the song reached its peak of number 16 . On the UK R & B Chart , " You da One " debuted at number 11 on December 3 , 2011 , and reached a 2011 peak of number six . On January 1 , 2012 , it peaked at number five .
In Australia , " You da One " debuted at number 41 on December 14 , 2011 , and peaked at number 26 in its third week . In 2012 , it reached a peak of number 35 . In total , it remained on that countries singles chart for a period of 10 weeks . It has since been certified platinum by the Australian Recording Industry Association ( ARIA ) denoting shipments of over 70 @,@ 000 units . In New Zealand , it debuted at number 22 on November 21 , 2011 , and peaked at number 10 in its third week . In 2012 , it reached a peak of number 27 . It remained on the chart for a total of 10 weeks .
= = Music video = =
= = = Background and synopsis = = =
The music video for " You da One " was filmed on November 30 , 2011 at MC Motors in Dalston , East London . It was directed by Melina Matsoukas , who also directed the controversial video for her previous single , " We Found Love " . In the first images from the London set , Rihanna sported short blonde hair , torn denim shorts , patterned leggings , and a white bowler hat . She held a black cane as she performed scenes in front of a bright pink wall in the visuals inspired by the 1971 film A Clockwork Orange . It premiered on December 23 , 2011 .
The clip is partly a photo shoot and a lyric video as lyrics are stamped across the screen and Rihanna 's body , and was shot mainly in black and white . She wears numerous outfits and blonde wigs throughout the video as she emulates the clothes from A Clockwork Orange by wearing a white bowler hat and cane from Laird Hatters , sporting a smoky eye in homage , and smacking her pink pouty lips with bubblegum . Rihanna later strips down to a flesh @-@ coloured leotard as she writhes on the floor with strategically placed artistic shards of light to create leopard spots and tiger stripes on her skin . Several scenes capture solely her mouth ; first with a gold grill covering her bottom row of teeth , and later with smoke billowing from her lips transitioning into and out of the words " Dream " and later " You Da One " . Another scene finds Rihanna in a white tank top and tattered jean shorts , swinging a cane in between two brick buildings . She continuously exudes sexuality ; in several scenes , she touches and thrusts her crotch ( reminiscent of Michael Jackson 's dance moves , as noted by Jason Lipshutz of Billboard ) , struts toward the camera with a pimp cane , endorses provocative dance moves , and drapes herself over a giant ball . Using the latter move , she is found in a black and white chequered background room where she moves around a larger than life playing card . The video ends with Rihanna running away from the camera and jumping into a chair , throwing her legs over the side with a smile on her face .
= = = Reception and plagiarism allegations = = =
A reviewer for Idolator described the video as " glorious . " Amy Sciarretto for PopCrush wrote " Judging from the song 's official video , it is , since RiRi can ’ t keep her hands to herself . The black and white video features the newly blond singer cavorting in an array of black and white outfits , dancing , smiling , giggling and grabbing her crotch with a great degree of regularity . " Hours after the release of the video , Norwegian photographer Sølve Sundsbø alleged that the scene of Rihanna wearing a white outfit with black dots shining on her ( pictured ) is the same as a photo shoot he completed in 2008 titled " Numero 93 ' " . A reviewer for Idolator wrote that " the evidence really doesn ’ t look to be in Rihanna 's favor . " The reviewer continued to write " Not only are the projected shapes similar , but both Rihanna and the model are wearing nearly @-@ identical body suits and wigs ( though the color differs ) . Plus , those pink lips providing the only splash of color also look pretty familiar . " A reviewer for The Huffington Post concurred with Idolator 's observations , and noted " The nakedness , the projections , the interplay of light and shadow ... even the haircut " were very similar to that of the work by Sundsbo .
= = Track listing = =
= = Credits and personnel = =
Recording locations
Vocal recording – Sofital Paris Le Laubourg , Room 538 ; Westlake Recording Studios ( Studio B ) , Los Angeles , California .
Music recording – eightysevenfourteen Studios , Brentwood , California .
Mixing – Mixstar Studios , Virginia Beach , Virginia .
Personnel
Credits adapted from the liner notes of Talk That Talk , Def Jam Recordings , SRP Records .
= = Charts = =
= = Certifications = =
= = Radio and release history = =
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= Hurricane Gerda ( 1969 ) =
Hurricane Gerda was a North Atlantic tropical cyclone that formed during the 1969 Atlantic hurricane season . It was the seventh named storm , fifth hurricane and third major hurricane of the 1969 season . Gerda formed on September 6 and crossed Florida as a tropical depression . Gerda later became a tropical storm after making a hard right turn and moving northeast and reaching hurricane status on September 8 . Gerda brushed past the Outer Banks of North Carolina before reaching maximum intensity of 125 mph ( 205 km / h ) and a low barometric pressure of 979 millibars ( 28 @.@ 9 inHg ) . On September 10 , Gerda made landfall near Eastport , Maine , and became extratropical the following day .
Hurricane Gerda brought light rain across southern Florida and moderate to heavy rain across eastern North Carolina and New England , causing minor damage to trees and powerlines . The highest amount of rain was 5 @.@ 67 inches ( 144 mm ) which was recorded in South Wellfleet , Massachusetts on Cape Cod . There were no fatalities or injuries from Gerda although planes at Otis Air Force Base were moved to their hangars and two ships from Naval Station Newport left their berth to ride out the storm .
= = Meteorological history = =
A tropical wave moved off the eastern coast of Africa on August 21 and moved westward across the Atlantic Ocean without development . On September 3 , the disturbance merged with a dissipating upper level low pressure system over Hispaniola and Puerto Rico and developed an increasing cloud mass as it continued westward . As the disturbance crossed the Bahamas , satellite imagery showed the disturbance gaining a distinct circulation on September 5 . On September 6 , the disturbance became a Tropical Depression before it made landfall in southeastern Florida on the same day .
After crossing Florida , the depression drifted northeastward back over the western Atlantic Ocean on September 7 . As the system headed northeastward , hurricane hunter aircraft recorded winds of 45 mph ( 72 km / h ) , and barometric pressure fell to 1 @,@ 000 millibars ( 30 inHg ) . Forecasters at the National Hurricane Center upgraded the system to tropical storm status and named it Gerda . Gerda continued to move rapidly northeast in response to an approaching trough and the storm reached hurricane status on September 8 . Gerda 's forward speed approached 40 mph ( 64 km / h ) as the eye of the hurricane passed 50 miles ( 80 km ) east of Cape Cod on September 9 , with maximum sustained winds of 125 mph ( 205 km / h ) . Because the storm was interacting with the trough to the west and was moving rapidly northeastward , the result was the minimum central barometric pressure was an unusually high 979 millibars ( 28 @.@ 9 inHg ) . Gerda later made landfall near Eastport , Maine later that day as a Category 2 hurricane , one of the strongest to ever make landfall in the state . Gerda then became extratropical as it crossed into Canada as an 80 mph ( 130 km / h ) extratropical storm on September 10 . The storm later dissipated the following day .
= = Preparations = =
Gale warnings and small craft advisories were issued along the coast of North Carolina stretching from Wilmington to Cape Hatteras . Storm shelters in Kitty Hawk and Manteo , North Carolina were opened and the American Red Cross sent relief workers and equipment to North Carolina . In Frederick County , Maryland , local forecasters and the National Weather Service issued a flood watch while the National Hurricane Center issued a hurricane watch for the county , as well as the rest of eastern Maryland . Officials at the National Weather Service and National Hurricane Center predicted that the western half of the storm would lash New York City and much of New England ( which were under a hurricane watch ) with high winds and torrential rainfall .
Ships and other water craft were advised to avoid the Cape Cod area as the storm was forecast to brush that area , which was put under a hurricane warning by the National Hurricane Center . In Massachusetts , schools were closed and emergency shelters were opened to accommodate evacuees . Evacuations were ordered for residents living in low lying areas in Cape Cod . In Boston , the threat of the storm caused both elementary and middle schools to close at noon while high schools were closed at 1 p.m. ( est ) . The approach of the storm also postponed a fair at a local hospital and planes at Otis Air Force Base were quickly moved to their hangars . Much of southeastern Massachusetts civil defense and fire departments were alerted in preparation of the storm 's impact . In Rhode Island , schools and other buildings were used as shelter to house evacuees . As Hurricane Gerda sped up the East Coast of the United States , the National Hurricane Center extended the hurricane warnings from Block Island , Rhode Island to Eastport , Maine . At Naval Station Newport in Newport , Rhode Island , two ships of the United States Navy left their berths to ride out the storm . One of which was the Comsixthflt flagship USS Puget Sound ( AD @-@ 38 ) .
= = Impact = =
Hurricane Gerda affected much of eastern North Carolina and New England with gusty rain and heavy rainfall causing minor to moderate damage . In Florida , Gerda dropped light rainfall across southern and central portions of the state . Damage there , if any , was unknown . In South Carolina , Gerda brought sustained winds of 20 mph ( 32 km / h ) . In Canada , Gerda passed over Labrador as a strong extratropical storm with hurricane force winds . Damage there is unknown .
In North Carolina , Gerda produced moderate rainfall across the Outer Banks . The highest rainfall total on the Outer Banks was 1 @.@ 32 inches ( 34 mm ) in Cape Hatteras . Elsewhere on the Outer Banks , the storm produced 27 mph ( 43 km / h ) winds with gusts up to 36 mph ( 58 km / h ) . A tide gauge in Ocracoke Island reported a tide of 1 @.@ 5 feet ( 0 @.@ 45 meter ) above normal . Gerda then dropped heavy rainfall across eastern Virginia , Maryland , New Jersey and New York . There was no reported damage from Gerda 's impact on North Carolina and the Mid @-@ Atlantic States .
Gerda produced heavy rainfall throughout much of southeastern New England . In Massachusetts , a rain gauge in South Wellfleet reported rainfall of 5 @.@ 67 inches ( 144 mm ) . The city of Lowell also reported heavy rainfall from the storm as 2 inches ( 51 mm ) of rain fell in a 24 ‑ hour period . The heavy rainfall caused isolated street flooding due to clogged storm drains . In Fitchburg , the storm dropped 1 @.@ 87 inches ( 47 mm ) of rain while Cape Cod received tides 3 – 6 feet ( 0 @.@ 91 @-@ 1 @.@ 83 meters ) above normal . Elsewhere in New England , the storm caused minor damage to trees , powerlines and highways . There were no reported fatalities or injuries from Gerda 's impact on New England .
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= Shelly Manne =
Sheldon " Shelly " Manne ( June 11 , 1920 – September 26 , 1984 ) , was an American jazz drummer . Most frequently associated with West Coast jazz , he was known for his versatility and also played in a number of other styles , including Dixieland , swing , bebop , avant @-@ garde jazz and fusion , as well as contributing to the musical background of hundreds of Hollywood films and television programs .
= = Family and origins = =
Manne 's father and uncles were drummers . In his youth he admired many of the leading swing drummers of the day , especially Jo Jones and Dave Tough . Billy Gladstone , a colleague of Manne 's father and the most admired percussionist on the New York theatrical scene , offered the teenage Shelly tips and encouragement . From that time , Manne rapidly developed his style in the clubs of 52nd Street in New York in the late 1930s and 1940s . His first professional job with a known big band was with the Bobby Byrne Orchestra in 1940 . In those years , as he became known , he recorded with jazz stars like Coleman Hawkins , Charlie Shavers , and Don Byas . He also worked with a number of musicians mainly associated with Duke Ellington , like Johnny Hodges , Harry Carney , Lawrence Brown , and Rex Stewart .
In 1943 , Manne married a Rockette named Florence Butterfield ( known affectionately to family and friends as " Flip " ) . The marriage would last 41 years , until the end of Manne 's life .
When the bebop movement began to change jazz in the 1940s , Manne loved it and adapted to the style rapidly , performing with Dizzy Gillespie and Charlie Parker . Around this time he also worked with rising stars like Flip Phillips , Charlie Ventura , Lennie Tristano , and Lee Konitz .
Manne rose to stardom when he became part of the working bands of Woody Herman and , especially , Stan Kenton in the late 1940s and early 1950s , winning awards and developing a following at a time when jazz was the most popular music in the United States . Joining the hard @-@ swinging Herman outfit allowed Manne to play the bebop he loved . The controversial Kenton band , on the other hand , with its " progressive jazz " , presented obstacles , and many of the complex , overwrought arrangements made it harder to swing . But Manne appreciated the musical freedom that Kenton gave him and saw it as an opportunity to experiment along with what was still a highly innovative band . He rose to the challenge , finding new colors and rhythms , and developing his ability to provide support in a variety of musical situations .
= = In California = =
In the early 1950s , Manne left New York and settled permanently on a ranch in an outlying part of Los Angeles , where he and his wife raised horses . From this point on , he played an important role in the West Coast school of jazz , performing on the Los Angeles jazz scene with Shorty Rogers , Hampton Hawes , Red Mitchell , Art Pepper , Russ Freeman , Frank Rosolino , Chet Baker , Leroy Vinnegar , Pete Jolly , Howard McGhee , Bob Gordon , Conte Candoli , Sonny Criss , and numerous others . Many of his recordings around this time were for Lester Koenig 's Contemporary Records , where for a period Manne had a contract as an " exclusive " artist ( meaning that he could not record for other labels without permission ) .
Manne led a number of small groups that recorded under his name and leadership . One consisting of Manne on drums , trumpeter Joe Gordon , saxophonist Richie Kamuca , bassist Monty Budwig , and pianist Victor Feldman performed for three days in 1959 at the famous Black Hawk club in San Francisco . Their music was recorded on the spot , and four LPs were issued . Highly regarded as an innovative example of a " live " jazz recording , the Black Hawk sessions were reissued on CD in augmented form years later .
= = West Coast jazz = =
Manne is often associated with the once frequently criticized West Coast school of jazz . He has been considered " the quintessential " drummer in what was seen as a West Coast movement , though Manne himself did not care to be so pigeonholed . In the 1950s , much of what he did could be seen as in the West Coast style : performing in tightly arranged compositions in what was a cool style , as in his 1953 album named The West Coast Sound , for which he commissioned several original compositions . Some of West Coast jazz was experimental , avant @-@ garde music several years before the more mainstream avant @-@ garde playing of Cecil Taylor and Ornette Coleman ( Manne also recorded with Coleman in 1959 ) ; a good deal of Manne 's work with Jimmy Giuffre was of this kind . Critics would condemn much of this music as overly cerebral .
Another side of West Coast jazz that also came under critical fire was music in a lighter style , intended for popular consumption . Manne made contributions here too . Best known is the series of albums he recorded with pianist André Previn and with members of his groups , based on music from popular Broadway shows , movies , and television programs . ( The first and most famous of these was the one based on My Fair Lady , recorded by Previn , Manne , and bassist Leroy Vinnegar in 1956 . See My Fair Lady ( Shelly Manne album ) . ) The music — with each album devoted to a single show — was improvised in the manner of jazz , but always in a light , immediately appealing style aimed at popular taste , which did not always go over well with aficionados of " serious " jazz music , which may be one reason why Manne has been frequently overlooked in accounts of major jazz drummers of the 20th century . Much of the music produced on the West Coast in those years , as Robert Gordon concedes , was in fact imitative and " lacked the fire and intensity associated with the best jazz performances " . But Gordon also points out that there is a level of musical sophistication , as well as an intensity and " swing " , in the music recorded by Manne with Previn and Vinnegar ( and later Red Mitchell ) that is missing in the many lackluster albums of this type produced by others in that period .
West Coast jazz , however , represented only a small part of Manne 's playing . In Los Angeles and occasionally returning to New York and elsewhere , Manne recorded with musicians of all schools and styles , ranging from those of the swing era through bebop to later developments in modern jazz , including hard bop , usually seen as the antithesis to the cool jazz frequently associated with West Coast playing .
= = Collaborations = =
From the 78 @-@ rpm recordings of the 1940s to the LPs of the 1950s and later , to the hundreds of film soundtracks he appeared on , Manne 's recorded output was enormous and often hard to pin down . According to the jazz writer Leonard Feather , Manne 's drumming had been heard on well " over a thousand LPs " — a statement that Feather made in 1960 , when Manne had not reached even the midpoint of his 45 @-@ year @-@ long career .
An extremely selective list of those with whom Manne performed includes Benny Carter , Earl Hines , Clifford Brown , Zoot Sims , Ben Webster , Maynard Ferguson , Wardell Gray , Lionel Hampton , Junior Mance , Jimmy Giuffre , and Stan Getz . In the 1950s , he recorded two solid albums with Sonny Rollins — Way Out West ( Contemporary , 1957 ) received particular acclaim and helped dispel the notion that West Coast jazz was always different from jazz made on the East Coast — and , in the 1960s , two with Bill Evans . Around the same time in 1959 , Manne recorded with the traditional Benny Goodman and the iconoclastic Ornette Coleman , a striking example of his versatility .
One of Manne 's most adventurous 1960s collaborations was with Jack Marshall , the guitarist and arranger celebrated for composing the theme and incidental music for The Munsters TV show in that period . Two duet albums ( Sounds Unheard Of ! , 1962 , and Sounds ! , 1966 ) feature Marshall on guitar , accompanied by Manne playing drums and a wide variety of percussion instruments unusual in jazz , from " Hawaiian slit bamboo sticks " , to a Chinese gong , to castanets , to piccolo Boo @-@ Bam .
Another example of Manne 's ability to transcend the narrow borders of any particular school is the series of trio albums he recorded with guitarist Barney Kessel and bassist Ray Brown as " The Poll Winners " . ( They had all won numerous polls conducted by the popular publications of the day ; the polls are now forgotten , but the albums endure , now reissued on CD . ) Manne even dabbled in Dixieland and fusion , as well as " Third Stream " music . He participated in the revival of that jazz precursor ragtime ( he appears on several albums devoted to the music of Scott Joplin ) , and sometimes recorded with musicians best associated with European classical music . He always , however , returned to the straight @-@ ahead jazz he loved best .
= = Style and influences = =
In addition to Dave Tough and Jo Jones , Manne admired and learned from contemporaries like Max Roach and Kenny Clarke , and later from younger drummers like Elvin Jones and Tony Williams . Consciously or unconsciously , he borrowed a little from all of them , always searching to extend his playing into new territory .
Despite these and numerous other influences , however , Shelly Manne 's style of drumming was always his own — personal , precise , clear , and at the same time multilayered , using a very broad range of colors . Manne was often experimental , and had participated in such musically exploratory groups of the early 1950s as those of Jimmy Giuffre and Teddy Charles . Yet his playing never became overly cerebral , and he never neglected that element usually considered fundamental to all jazz : time .
Whether playing Dixieland , bebop , or avant @-@ garde jazz , in big bands or in small groups , Manne 's self @-@ professed goal was to make the music swing . His fellow musicians attested to his listening appreciatively to those around him and being ultra @-@ sensitive to the needs and the nuances of the music played by the others in the band , his goal being to make them — and the music as a whole — sound better , rather than calling attention to himself with overbearing solos .
Manne refused to play in a powerhouse style , but his understated drumming was appreciated for its own strengths . In 1957 , critic Nat Hentoff called Manne one of the most " musical " and " illuminatively imaginative " drummers . Composer and multi @-@ instrumentalist Bob Cooper called him " the most imaginative drummer I 've worked with " . In later years this kind of appreciation for what Manne could do was echoed by jazz notables like Louie Bellson , John Lewis , Ray Brown , Harry " Sweets " Edison , and numerous others who had worked with him at various times . Composer , arranger , bandleader , and multi @-@ instrumentalist Benny Carter was " a great admirer of his work " . " He could read anything , get any sort of effect " , said Carter , who worked closely with Manne over many decades .
Though he always insisted on the importance of time and " swing " , Manne 's concept of his own drumming style typically pointed to his melody @-@ based approach . He contrasted his style with that of Max Roach : " Max plays melodically from the rhythms he plays . I play rhythms from thinking melodically " .
Manne had strong preferences in his choice of drum set . Those preferences , however , changed several times over his career . He began with Gretsch drums . In 1957 , intrigued by the sound of a kind of drum made by Leedy ( then owned by Slingerland ) , he had a line made for him that also became popular with other drummers . In the 1970s , after trying and abandoning many others for reasons of sound or maintainability , he settled on the Japanese @-@ made Pearl Drums .
= = Singers = =
Manne was also acclaimed by singers . Jackie Cain , of the vocal team of Jackie and Roy ( " Roy " being Roy Kral ) , claimed that she had " never heard a drummer play so beautifully behind a singer " . Jackie and Roy were only two of the many singers he played behind , recording several albums with that husband @-@ and @-@ wife team , with their contemporary June Christy , and with Helen Humes , originally made famous by her singing with the Count Basie orchestra .
Over decades , Manne recorded additional albums , or sometimes just sat in on drums here and there , with renowned vocalists like Ella Fitzgerald , Mel Tormé , Peggy Lee , Frank Sinatra , Ernestine Anderson , Sarah Vaughan , Lena Horne , Blossom Dearie , and Nancy Wilson . Not all the singers Manne accompanied were even primarily jazz artists . Performers as diverse as Teresa Brewer , Leontyne Price , Tom Waits , and Barry Manilow included Manne in their recording sessions .
= = Film and television = =
At first , jazz was heard in film soundtracks only as jazz bands performed in the story . Early in his career , Manne was occasionally seen and heard in the movies , for example in the 1942 film Seven Days Leave , as the drummer in the highly popular Les Brown orchestra ( soon to be known as " Les Brown and His Band of Renown " ) .
In the 1950s , however , jazz began to be used for all or parts of film soundtracks , and Manne pioneered in these efforts , beginning with The Wild One ( 1953 ) . As jazz quickly assumed a major role in the musical background of films , so did Manne assume a major role as a drummer and percussionist on those soundtracks . A notable early example was 1955 's The Man with the Golden Arm ; Manne not only played drums throughout but functioned as a personal assistant to director Otto Preminger and tutored star Frank Sinatra . The Decca soundtrack LP credits him prominently for the " Drumming Sequences " .
From then on , as jazz became more prominent in the movies , Manne became the go @-@ to percussion man in the film industry ; he even appeared on screen in some minor roles . A major example is Johnny Mandel 's jazz score for I Want to Live ! in 1958 .
Soon , Manne began to contribute to film music in a broader way , often combining jazz , pop , and classical music . Henry Mancini in particular found plenty of work for him ; the two shared an interest in experimenting with tone colors , and Mancini came to rely on Manne to shape the percussive effects in his music . Breakfast at Tiffany 's ( 1961 ) , Hatari ! ( 1962 ) and The Pink Panther ( 1963 ) are only a few of Mancini 's films where Manne 's drums and special percussive effects could be heard .
Manne frequently collaborated with Mancini in television as well , such as in the series Peter Gunn ( 1958 – 1961 ) and Mr. Lucky ( 1959 – 1960 ) . Although Mancini developed such a close partnership with Manne that he was using him for practically all his scores and other music at this time , the drummer still found time to perform on movie soundtracks and in TV shows with music by others , including the series Richard Diamond ( music by Pete Rugolo , 1959 – 1960 ) , and Checkmate ( music by John Williams , 1959 – 1962 ) , and the film version of Leonard Bernstein 's West Side Story ( 1961 ) .
In the late 1950s , Manne began to compose his own film scores , such as that for The Proper Time ( 1959 ) , with the music also played by his own group , Shelly Manne and His Men , and issued on a Contemporary LP . In later years , Manne divided his time playing the drums on , adding special percussive effects to , and sometimes writing complete scores for both film and television . He even provided a musical setting for a recording of the Dr. Seuss children 's classic Green Eggs and Ham ( 1960 ) and later performed in and sometimes wrote music for the backgrounds of numerous animated cartoons . For example , he joined other notable jazz musicians ( including Ray Brown and Jimmy Rowles ) in playing Doug Goodwin 's music for the cartoon series The Ant and the Aardvark ( 1969 – 1971 ) . Notable examples of later scores that Manne wrote himself and also performed in are , for the movies , Young Billy Young ( 1969 ) and Trader Horn ( 1973 ) , and , for television , Daktari , 1966 – 1969 . With these and other contributions to cartoons , children 's stories , movies , television programs ( and even commercials ) , Manne 's drumming became woven into the popular culture of several decades .
= = Later career = =
A star in Stan Kenton 's famous orchestra in the 1940s and 1950s , as well as that of Woody Herman , also in the 1940s , and winner of numerous awards , Manne slipped from public view as jazz became less central in popular music . In the 1960s and early 1970s , however , he helped keep jazz alive on the Los Angeles scene as part owner of the nightclub Shelly 's Manne @-@ Hole on North Cahuenga Boulevard . There , the house band was Shelly Manne and His Men , which featured some of his favorite sidemen , such as Russ Freeman , Monty Budwig , Richie Kamuca , Conte Candoli , and later Frank Strozier , John Morell , and Mike Wofford , among many other notable West Coast jazz musicians . Also appearing was a roster of jazz stars from different eras and all regions , including Ben Webster , Rahsaan Roland Kirk , Les McCann , Bill Evans , John Coltrane , Sonny Stitt , Thelonious Monk , Michel Legrand , Carmen McRae , Milt Jackson , Teddy Edwards , Monty Alexander , Lenny Breau , Miles Davis , and many , many others . Stan Getz was the last to be featured ( at a briefly occupied second location at Tetou 's restaurant on Wilshire Boulevard ) , when , late in 1973 , Manne was forced to close the club for financial reasons .
From that point , Manne refocused his attention on his own drumming . It might be argued that he never played with more taste , refinement , and soulful swing than in the 1970s , when he recorded numerous albums with musicians like trumpeter Red Rodney , pianist Hank Jones , saxophonists Art Pepper and Lew Tabackin , and composer @-@ arranger @-@ saxophonist Oliver Nelson .
From 1974 to 1977 he joined guitarist Laurindo Almeida , saxophonist and flutist Bud Shank , and bassist Ray Brown to perform as the group The L.A. Four , which recorded four albums before Manne left the ensemble .
In the 1980s , Manne recorded with such stars as trumpeter Harry " Sweets " Edison , saxophonist Zoot Sims , guitarists Joe Pass and Herb Ellis , and pianist John Lewis ( famous as the musical director of the Modern Jazz Quartet ) .
Meanwhile , he continued to record with various small groups of his own . Just one representative example of his work in this period is a live concert recorded at the Los Angeles club " Carmelo 's " in 1980 with pianists Bill Mays and Alan Broadbent and bassist Chuck Domanico . With their enthusiasm and spontaneity , and the sense that the audience in the intimate ambience of the club is participating in the music , these performances share the characteristics that had been celebrated more than two decades before in the better @-@ known Black Hawk performances . Although this phase of his career has frequently been overlooked , Manne , by this time , had greatly refined his ability to back other musicians sympathetically , yet make his own musical thoughts clearly heard .
Manne 's heavy load of Hollywood studio work sometimes shifted his attention from his mainstream jazz playing . Even in lackluster films , however , he nevertheless often succeeded in making art of what might be called hackwork . Still , for all his tireless work in the studios , Manne 's labor of love was his contribution to jazz as an American art form , to which he had dedicated himself since his youth and continued to work at almost to the last day of his life .
Manne died somewhat before the popular revival of interest in jazz had gained momentum . But in his last few years , his immense contribution to the music regained at least some local recognition , and the role Manne had played in the culture of his adopted city began to draw public appreciation . Two weeks before his sudden death of a heart attack , he was honored by the City of Los Angeles in conjunction with the Hollywood Arts Council when September 9 , 1984 was declared " Shelly Manne Day " .
= = Discography = =
= = = As leader = = =
" The Three " & " The Two " ( Contemporary , 1954 [ 1960 ] ) - compilation of previously issued 10 @-@ inch LPs
The West Coast Sound ( Contemporary , 1953 – 55 [ 1955 ] ) - re @-@ release of the first Shelly Manne & His Men 10 @-@ inch LP with additional material
Swinging Sounds ( Contemporary , 1956 )
More Swinging Sounds ( Contemporary , 1956 )
Shelly Manne & His Friends ( Contemporary , 1956 )
My Fair Lady ( Contemporary , 1956 )
Li 'l Abner ( Contemporary , 1957 )
Concerto for Clarinet & Combo ( Contemporary , 1955 @-@ 57 [ 1957 ] )
The Gambit ( Contemporary , 1957 @-@ 58 [ 1958 ] )
Bells Are Ringing ( Contemporary , 1958 )
Shelly Manne & His Men Play Peter Gunn ( Contemporary , 1959 )
Son of Gunn ! ! ( Contemporary , 1959 )
At the Black Hawk 1 ( Contemporary , 1959 )
At the Black Hawk 2 ( Contemporary , 1959 )
At the Black Hawk 3 ( Contemporary , 1959 )
At the Black Hawk 4 ( Contemporary , 1959 )
At the Black Hawk 5 ( Contemporary , 1959 [ 1991 ] )
The Proper Time ( Contemporary , 1960 ) - Motion Picture Soundtrack
Ruth Price with Shelly Manne & His Men at the Manne @-@ Hole ( Contemporary , 1961 ) - with Ruth Price
Live ! Shelly Manne & His Men at the Manne @-@ Hole ( Contemporary , 1961 ) - Double LP , reissued on 2 separate CDs
Shelly Manne & His Men Play Checkmate ( Contemporary , 1961 )
Sounds Unheard Of ! ( Contemporary , 1962 ) with Jack Marshall - stereo demonstration record
2 @-@ 3 @-@ 4 ( Impulse ! , 1962 ) , with Coleman Hawkins
Empathy ( Verve , 1962 ) with Bill Evans
My Son the Jazz Drummer ! ( Contemporary , 1962 ) - reissued as Steps to the Desert in 2004
My Fair Lady with the Un @-@ original Cast ( Capitol , 1964 ) , arranged and conducted by Johnny Williams with Jack Sheldon and Irene Kral
Manne – That 's Gershwin ! ( Capitol , 1965 ) , arranged and directed by John Williams
Sounds ! ( Capitol , 1966 ) with Jack Marshall
Boss Sounds ! ( Atlantic , 1966 )
Jazz Gunn ( Atlantic , 1967 )
Perk Up ( Concord , 1967 [ 1976 ] )
Daktari ( Atlantic , 1967 )
Young Billy Young ( United Artists , 1969 ) - Motion Picture Soundtrack
Outside ( Contemporary , 1969 [ 1970 ] )
Alive in London ( Contemporary , 1970 )
Mannekind ( Mainstream , 1972 )
Hot Coles ( Flying Dutchman , 1975 )
Essence ( Galaxy , 1977 )
French Concert ( Galaxy , 1977 [ 1979 ] ) with Lee Konitz
Rex : Shelly Manne Plays Richard Rogers ( Discovery , 1977 )
Double Piano Jazz Quartet in Concert at Carmelo 's ( Trend 1980 )
Hollywood Jam ( Atlas , 1981 )
Fingering ( Atlas , 1981 ) with Monty Alexander and Ray Brown
One on One ( Atlas , 1982 ) with Russ Freeman
The Shelly Manne Trio in Zurich ( Contemporary , 1984 )
= = = As sideman = = =
With Chet Baker
Grey December ( Pacific Jazz , 1953 [ 1992 ] )
Witch Doctor ( Contemporary , 1953 [ 1985 ] )
West Coast Live - with Stan Getz ( 1954 [ 1997 ] )
Pretty / Groovy ( World Pacific , 1953 @-@ 54 [ 1958 ] )
The Trumpet Artistry of Chet Baker ( Prestige , 1953 – 54 )
Chet Baker & Strings ( Columbia , 1954 )
Quartet : Russ Freeman / Chet Baker ( Pacific Jazz , 1956 )
With Elmer Bernstein
The Man with the Golden Arm ( Decca , 1956 )
Sweet Smell of Success ( Decca , 1957 )
With Brass Fever
Brass Fever ( Impulse ! , 1975 )
With Benny Carter
Jazz Giant ( Contemporary , 1958 )
Swingin ' the ' 20s ( Contemporary , 1958 ) with Earl Hines
With Teddy Charles
Collaboration West ( Prestige , 1953 )
Evolution ( Prestige , 1953 [ 1957 ] )
With Ornette Coleman
Tomorrow Is the Question ! ( Contemporary , 1959 )
With Buddy Collette
Nice Day with Buddy Collette ( Contemporary , 1957 )
At the Cinema ! ( Mercury , 1959 )
With Sonny Criss
I 'll Catch the Sun ! ( Prestige , 1969 )
With Bill Evans
A Simple Matter of Conviction ( Verve , 1966 )
With Art Farmer
On the Road ( Contemporary , 1976 )
With Maynard Ferguson
Maynard Ferguson 's Hollywood Party ( EmArcy , 1954 )
Dimensions ( EmArcy , 1955 )
Maynard Ferguson Octet ( EmArcy , 1955 )
With Ella Fitzgerald
Whisper Not ( Verve , 1967 )
With Stan Getz
West Coast Jazz ( Norgran , 1955 )
Stan Getz and the Cool Sounds ( Verve , 1953 @-@ 55 [ 1957 ] )
Hamp and Getz ( Norgran , 1955 ) with Lionel Hampton
With Dizzy Gillespie
The Complete RCA Victor Recordings ( Bluebird , 1937 – 1949 [ 1995 ] )
With Jimmy Giuffre
Jimmy Giuffre ( Capitol , 1955 )
The Jimmy Giuffre Clarinet ( Atlantic , 1956 )
With Hampton Hawes
Four ! ( Contemporary , 1958 )
Hampton Hawes at the Piano ( Contemporary , 1976 [ 1978 ] )
With Paul Horn
Plenty of Horn ( Dot , 1958 )
With Hank Jones
Just for Fun ( Galaxy , 1977 )
With Stan Kenton
Stan Kenton 's Milestones ( Capitol , 1943 @-@ 47 [ 1950 ] )
Stan Kenton Classics ( Capitol , 1944 @-@ 47 [ 1952 ] )
Artistry in Rhythm ( Capitol , 1946 )
Encores ( Capitol , 1947 )
A Presentation of Progressive Jazz ( Capitol , 1947 )
Innovations in Modern Music ( Capitol , 1950 )
Stan Kenton Presents ( Capitol , 1950 )
City of Glass ( Capitol , 1951 )
Popular Favorites by Stan Kenton ( Capitol , 1953 )
This Modern World ( Capitol , 1953 )
The Kenton Era ( Capitol , 1940 – 54 [ 1955 ] )
Kenton with Voices ( Capitol , 1957 )
Lush Interlude ( Capitol , 1958 )
The Innovations Orchestra ( Capitol , 1950 @-@ 51 [ 1997 ] )
With Barney Kessel
Easy Like ( Contemporary , 1953 – 56 )
Kessel Plays Standards ( Contemporary , 1954 )
To Swing or Not to Swing ( Contemporary , 1955 )
Music to Listen to Barney Kessel By ( Contemporary , 1956 )
The Poll Winners ( Contemporary , 1957 ) with Ray Brown
Let 's Cook ! ( Contemporary , 1957 [ 1962 ] )
The Poll Winners Ride Again ! ( Contemporary , 1958 ) with Ray Brown
Carmen ( Contemporary , 1959 )
Some Like It Hot ( Contemporary , 1959 )
Poll Winners Three ! ( Contemporary , 1959 )
Exploring the Scene ! ( Contemporary , 1960 )
With John Klemmer
Constant Throb ( Impulse ! , 1971 )
With John Lewis
Kansas City Breaks ( Finesse , 1982 )
With Henry Mancini
More Music from Peter Gunn ( RCA Victor , 1959 )
The Mancini Touch ( RCA Victor , 1960 )
Combo ! ( RCA Victor , 1961 )
With Johnny Mandel
I Want to Live ( United Artists , 1958 )
With Bill Mays
Tha 's Delights ( Trend , 1983 )
With Howard McGhee
Maggie 's Back in Town ! ! ( Contemporary , 1961 )
With Jack Montrose
Arranged by Montrose ( Pacific Jazz , 1954 )
Arranged / Played / Composed by Jack Montrose ( Atlantic , 1955 )
Jack Montrose Sextet ( Pacific Jazz , 1955 )
Blues and Vanilla ( RCA Victor , 1956 )
With Gerry Mulligan
I Want to Live ( United Artists , 1958 )
With Oliver Nelson
Sound Pieces ( Impulse ! , 1966 )
Skull Session ( Flying Dutchman , 1975 )
Stolen Moments ( East Wind , 1975 )
With Art Pepper
Popo ( Xanadu , 1951 [ 1980 ] ) with Shorty Rogers
Living Legend ( Contemporary , 1975 )
With André Previn
Pal Joey ( Contemporary , 1957 )
The Subterraneans ( Soundtrack ) ( MGM , 1960 )
A Different Kind of Blues ( Angel , 1980 ) with Itzhak Perlman
With Shorty Rogers
Shorty Rogers and His Giants ( RCA Victor , 1953 )
Cool and Crazy ( RCA Victor , 1953 )
Shorty Rogers Courts the Count ( RCA Victor , 1954 )
Collaboration ( RCA Victor , 1954 ) with André Previn
The Swinging Mr. Rogers ( Atlantic , 1955 )
Martians Come Back ! ( Atlantic , 1955 [ 1956 ] )
Way Up There ( Atlantic , 1955 [ 1957 ] )
Afro @-@ Cuban Influence ( RCA Victor , 1958 )
With Sonny Rollins
Way Out West ( Contemporary , 1957 )
With Joe Sample and Ray Brown
The Three , The Three ( East Wind , 1975 )
With Lalo Schifrin
Gone with the Wave ( Colpix , 1964 )
Music from Mission : Impossible ( Dot , 1967 )
There 's a Whole Lalo Schifrin Goin ' On ( Dot , 1968 )
With Bud Shank
Strings & Trombones ( Pacific Jazz , 1955 )
Barefoot Adventure ( Pacific Jazz , 1961 )
Windmills of Your Mind ( Pacific Jazz , 1969 )
With Sonny Stitt
Dumpy Mama ( Flying Dutchman , 1975 )
With Tom Waits
Small Change ( Asylum Records , 1976 )
Foreign Affairs ( Asylum Records , 1977 )
One from the Heart ( CBS Records , 1982 )
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= Hurricane Isidore =
Hurricane Isidore was the ninth named storm and the second hurricane in the 2002 Atlantic hurricane season . Isidore was the fifth of eight named storms to occur in September . The tropical cyclone peaked as a Category 3 hurricane , causing damage as well as four fatalities in Jamaica , Cuba , Mexico , and the United States . Isidore is noted for threatening to strike the northern Gulf Coast as a Category 4 hurricane , but instead striking as a moderate tropical storm due to a track change that brought the storm over the Yucatán Peninsula for over a day , which significantly weakened the cyclone . Its primary impact was the heavy rainfall which fell across southeast Mexico and from the central United States Gulf coast into the Ohio Valley .
= = Meteorological history = =
On September 9 , a tropical wave moved off the coast of Africa . Despite moving through a dry environment , its convection became organized as an anticyclone developed over the wave . On September 14 , convection was well @-@ organized enough around a small closed wind circulation to classify the system as Tropical Depression Ten near Trinidad and Tobago . Land interaction from Venezuela later weakened the depression back to a tropical wave . The wave continued west @-@ northwestward through the Caribbean , and redeveloped into a tropical depression on September 17 while 140 miles ( 230 km ) south of Jamaica .
Embedded within a weak steering current , it drifted to the northwest , and strengthened into Tropical Storm Isidore on September 18 near Jamaica . After grazing the island , it quickly intensified to a hurricane late on September 19 while south of Cuba . Isidore 's maximum sustained winds reached 100 miles per hour ( 160 km / h ) near the Isle of Youth , and weakened slightly to an 85 miles per hour ( 137 km / h ) hurricane as it made landfall on Cabo Frances late on September 20 . The hurricane crossed the island , then slowed as it moved westward across the Gulf of Mexico . Favorable conditions aloft with warm water temperatures allowed Isidore to quickly intensify to a peak of 125 miles per hour ( 201 km / h ) winds on September 21 .
Despite Dvorak satellite estimates of 145 miles per hour ( 233 km / h ) , reconnaissance aircraft indicated Isidore remained a 125 miles per hour ( 201 km / h ) Category 3 hurricane , with pressures dropping to 934 mbar ( 27 @.@ 6 inHg ) , typical of a Category 4 hurricane . It is the lowest minimum pressure ever observed for an Atlantic hurricane which did not exceed Category 3 intensity . With nearly ideal conditions for development , Isidore was forecast to reach winds of 150 miles per hour ( 240 km / h ) over the northern Gulf of Mexico . High pressures to its north forced it southward , and Isidore made landfall at Telchac Puerto in Yucatán as a major hurricane on September 22 . It weakened rapidly as it nearly stalled over Yucatán , and was only a minimal tropical storm after being inland for 30 hours .
The inner core of convection collapsed while over southeast Mexico , and upon moving northward and reaching the Gulf of Mexico again , it was a large but weak tropical storm . Conditions favored significant strengthening , but Isidore did not redevelop central convection until reaching the northern Gulf of Mexico . The strengthening system hit Grand Isle , Louisiana on September 26 as a 65 miles per hour ( 105 km / h ) tropical storm , but weakened quickly into a tropical depression after moving inland . The system raced to the northeast , and became an extratropical cyclone on September 27 before becoming absorbed in a frontal zone over Pennsylvania that night .
= = Preparations = =
Before Isidore became a hurricane , there were fears that the storm would end up being a significant threat . The upper level environment ahead of the storm was very favorable , and the oceanic heat content was very high . Just ten months after the destructive Hurricane Michelle , Hurricane Isidore threatened to cause similar effects in Cuba . In preparation for the storm , about 292 @,@ 000 people and thousands of farm animals were evacuated in the Pinar del Río province . Hurricane Warnings were posted about 48 hours before landfall , leaving ample time to prepare for the storm .
Once in the Gulf of Mexico , Hurricane Isidore became a major Category 3 storm with winds of 125 miles per hour ( 201 km / h ) . The forecasts then predicted Isidore to move westward in the Gulf of Mexico for a few days , before turning northward towards the Gulf Coast as what was predicted by then to be a strong Category 4 hurricane . Initially expected to remain north of the peninsula , hurricane warnings were issued just over a day prior to landfall , with no watch preceding Isidore 's passage . More than 70 @,@ 000 people were evacuated , and ports on the Gulf coast of Yucatán were closed . Mexican authorities declared a state of emergency prior to the arrival of the storm . Due to Isidore 's unexpected southward turn into the Yucatán Peninsula , Isidore weakened significantly to a tropical storm which limited potential damage along the United States Gulf Coast . In preparation for the hurricane , the Red Cross mobilized its members across Texas , Alabama , Louisiana , Mississippi , and Florida days before Isidore 's expected landfall . Volunteers were sent in the days prior to ensure families had a family disaster plan and a disaster supplies kit in their household . Hurricane watches raised for the United States Gulf coast between Cameron , Louisiana and Pascagoula , Mississippi late on the morning of September 24 were discontinued early on the morning of September 25 , when the storm was no longer expected to restrengthen into a hurricane .
= = Impact = =
= = = Caribbean islands = = =
In the Windward Islands , Isidore was a weak tropical depression that caused no reported damage or casualties . The Cayman Islands reported tropical storm force winds , and likely experienced flooding to some degree , but Isidore caused no reported damage or casualties . Isidore brought heavy rains to Jamaica , totalling 27 @.@ 2 inches ( 690 mm ) at Cotton Tree Gully .
= = = Cuba = = =
Hurricane Isidore brought torrential rainfall , with many areas reporting over 1 foot ( 300 mm ) of rain . The maximum reported was 21 @.@ 7 inches ( 550 mm ) at Isabel Rubio in western Cuba . The rainfall , combined with a 12 feet ( 3 @.@ 7 m ) storm surge , destroyed 77 houses , caused power outages , uprooted trees and blew off roofs . Over 130 tobacco drying houses were affected to some degree , damaging valuable tobacco stock . A total of 24 @,@ 000 metric tons of citrus and 132 metric tons of coffee were lost from the storm . Thousands of livestock perished . No deaths were reported .
= = = Southeast Mexico = = =
Hurricane Isidore was one of only four storms to hit the north side of the Yucatán since records have been kept . It was the first tropical cyclone to hit the area since Tropical Depression Greta in 1970 , the first tropical storm since 1935 , the first hurricane since 1888 , and only major hurricane to ever hit the area .
The storm shut down oil production of the Mexican state @-@ run oil company , PEMEX . Drilling operations , as well as exports from Mexico , stopped for one week which cost the oil company US $ 108 @.@ 7 million . The Gulf Coast island of Isla Arena was nearly covered by Isidore 's storm surge . Its residents evacuated prior to the storm 's passage .
Hurricane Isidore hit near Mérida , Yucatán , as a 125 miles per hour ( 201 km / h ) hurricane , and remained over the area for around 36 hours . Over 30 inches ( 760 mm ) of rainfall fell , with the maximum recorded near Campeche . The storm surge reached as high as 6 metres ( 20 ft ) over southern portions of Yucatán state . Nearly one @-@ third of all fishing vessels were damaged by Isidore . Nearly 36 @,@ 500 houses were destroyed in Yucatán from the intense winds , 83 @,@ 000 homes damaged , and 500 @,@ 000 were left homeless . Downed trees and power lines were common over much of the northern Yucatán Peninsula , and 75 % of barns and warehouses were either severely damage or destroyed . Damage to crops and livestock was extreme ; 2 @,@ 000 square kilometres of maize and 400 square kilometres of fruit trees were damaged across the country . A total of 70 % of the poultry production and livestock were lost during the storm in Yucatán . Damage to Mexico 's power grid reached US $ 19 @.@ 76 million . Over one @-@ fourth of the roads across the peninsula were moderately or severely damaged , which resulted in losses of US $ 9 @.@ 88 million to rural areas . Farming in Campeche experienced significant damage , with 30 @,@ 000 cattle and 100 @,@ 000 acres ( 400 km ² ) of agricultural land lost .
Throughout the Yucatán Peninsula , there were 17 deaths were attributed to Hurricane Isidore , two of which were indirectly related to the storm . Damage in the country totaled $ 950 million ( 2002 USD ) .
= = = Central America = = =
Isidore caused heavy rains in Guatemala due to upslope flow from the Pacific Ocean , which led to landslides and flooding across southern and western portions of the country . The rains led to the drowning of two people when they tried to cross a rain @-@ swollen river . Three hundred and fifty households reported losses .
= = = Eastern United States = = =
In the open Gulf of Mexico , Hurricane Isidore and later Hurricane Lili contributed to the shutdown of offshore oil and gas platforms . The effects of back @-@ to @-@ back storms resulted in the loss of production of 14 @.@ 4 million barrels ( 2 @,@ 290 @,@ 000 m3 ) of oil and 88 @.@ 9 billion cubic feet ( 2 @.@ 52 × 109 m3 ) of natural gas . A storm surge of 8 @.@ 3 feet ( 2 @.@ 5 m ) was measured at Rigoletes , Louisiana and at Gulfport Harbor , Mississippi . Hurricane Isidore brought widespread heavy rainfall from the central Gulf coast into the Ohio Valley , with a maximum of 15 @.@ 97 inches ( 406 mm ) at Metairie , Louisiana . The flooding was responsible for moderate crop damage , with a total of $ 330 million in damage ( 2002 USD , 360 million 2006 USD ) . Isidore claimed five lives ; four direct and one indirect . The indirect death was from a man that went into cardiac arrest in Mississippi , whereas the other four were drowning deaths .
= = = Retirement = = =
The name Isidore was retired in the spring of 2003 and will never be used for an Atlantic hurricane again . It was replaced with Ike in the 2008 season . That name itself was retired and replaced with Isaias after Hurricane Ike caused immense destruction in the United States and Cuba .
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= Spanish conquest of the Maya =
The Spanish conquest of the Maya was a protracted conflict during the Spanish colonisation of the Americas , in which the Spanish conquistadores and their allies gradually incorporated the territory of the Late Postclassic Maya states and polities into the colonial Viceroyalty of New Spain . The Maya occupied a territory that is now incorporated into the modern countries of Mexico , Guatemala , Belize , Honduras and El Salvador ; the conquest began in the early 16th century and is generally considered to have ended in 1697 .
The conquest of the Maya was hindered by their politically fragmented state . Spanish and native tactics and technology differed greatly . The Spanish engaged in a strategy of concentrating native populations in newly founded colonial towns ; they viewed the taking of prisoners as a hindrance to outright victory , whereas the Maya prioritised the capture of live prisoners and of booty . Among the Maya , ambush was a favoured tactic ; in response to the use of Spanish cavalry , the highland Maya took to digging pits and lining them with wooden stakes . Native resistance to the new nucleated settlements took the form of the flight into inaccessible regions such as the forest or joining neighbouring Maya groups that had not yet submitted to the European conquerors . Spanish weaponry included broadswords , rapiers , lances , pikes , halberds , crossbows , matchlocks and light artillery . Maya warriors fought with flint @-@ tipped spears , bows and arrows , stones , and wooden swords with inset obsidian blades , and wore padded cotton armour to protect themselves . The Maya lacked key elements of Old World technology such as a functional wheel , horses , iron , steel , and gunpowder ; they were also extremely susceptible to Old World diseases , against which they had no resistance .
Before the conquest , Maya territory contained a number of competing kingdoms . Many conquistadors viewed the Maya as " infidels " who needed to be forcefully converted and pacified , disregarding the achievements of their civilization . The first contact between the Maya and European explorers came in the early 16th century when a Spanish ship sailing from Panama to Santo Domingo was wrecked on the east coast of the Yucatán Peninsula in 1511 . Several Spanish expeditions followed in 1517 and 1519 , making landfall on various parts of the Yucatán coast . The Spanish conquest of the Maya was a prolonged affair ; the Maya kingdoms resisted integration into the Spanish Empire with such tenacity that their defeat took almost two centuries . The Itza Maya and other lowland groups in the Petén Basin were first contacted by Hernán Cortés in 1525 , but remained independent and hostile to the encroaching Spanish until 1697 , when a concerted Spanish assault led by Martín de Urzúa y Arizmendi finally defeated the last independent Maya kingdom .
= = Geography = =
The Maya civilization occupied a wide territory that included southeastern Mexico and northern Central America ; this area included the entire Yucatán Peninsula , and all of the territory now incorporated into the modern countries of Guatemala and Belize , as well as the western portions of Honduras and El Salvador . In Mexico , the Maya occupied territory now incorporated into the states of Chiapas , Tabasco , Campeche , Quintana Roo and Yucatán .
The Yucatán Peninsula is bordered by the Caribbean Sea to the east and by the Gulf of Mexico to the north and west . It incorporates the modern Mexican states of Yucatán , Quintana Roo and Campeche , the eastern portion of the state of Tabasco , most of the Guatemalan department of Petén , and all of Belize . Most of the peninsula is formed by a vast plain with few hills or mountains and a generally low coastline . The northwestern and northern portions of the Yucatán Peninsula experience lower rainfall than the rest of the peninsula ; these regions feature highly porous limestone bedrock resulting in less surface water . In contrast , the northeastern portion of the peninsula is characterised by forested swamplands . The northern portion of the peninsula lacks rivers , except for the Champotón River – all other rivers are located in the south .
The Petén region consists of densely forested low @-@ lying limestone plain , crossed by low east – west oriented ridges and is characterised by a variety of forest and soil types ; water sources include generally small rivers and low @-@ lying seasonal swamps known as bajos . A chain of fourteen lakes runs across the central drainage basin of Petén . The largest lake is Lake Petén Itza ; it measures 32 by 5 kilometres ( 19 @.@ 9 by 3 @.@ 1 mi ) . A broad savannah extends south of the central lakes . To the north of the lakes region bajos become more frequent , interspersed with forest . To the south the plain gradually rises towards the Guatemalan Highlands . Dense forest covers northern Petén and Belize , most of Quintana Roo , southern Campeche and a portion of the south of Yucatán state . Further north , the vegetation turns to lower forest consisting of dense scrub .
Chiapas occupies the extreme southeast of Mexico ; it possesses 260 kilometres ( 160 mi ) of Pacific coastline . Chiapas features two principal highland regions ; to the south is the Sierra Madre de Chiapas and in central Chiapas are the Montañas Centrales ( Central Highlands ) . They are separated by the Depresión Central , containing the drainage basin of the Grijalva River , featuring a hot climate with moderate rainfall . The Sierra Madre highlands gain altitude from west to east , with the highest mountains near the Guatemalan border . The Central Highlands of Chiapas rise sharply to the north of the Grijalva , to a maximum altitude of 2 @,@ 400 metres ( 7 @,@ 900 ft ) , then descend gradually towards the Yucatán Peninsula . They are cut by deep valleys running parallel to the Pacific coast , and feature a complex drainage system that feeds both the Grijalva and the Lacantún River . At the eastern end of the Central Highlands is the Lacandon Forest , this region is largely mountainous with lowland tropical plains at its easternmost extreme . The littoral zone of Soconusco lies to the south of the Sierra Madre de Chiapas , and consists of a narrow coastal plain and the foothills of the Sierra Madre .
= = Maya region before the conquest = =
The Maya had never been unified as a single empire , but by the time the Spanish arrived Maya civilization was thousands of years old and had already seen the rise and fall of great cities .
= = = Yucatán = = =
The first large Maya cities developed in the Petén Basin in the far south of the Yucatán Peninsula as far back as the Middle Preclassic ( c . 600 – 350 BC ) , and Petén formed the heartland of the ancient Maya civilization during the Classic period ( c . AD 250 – 900 ) . The 16th @-@ century Maya provinces of northern Yucatán are likely to have evolved out of polities of the Maya Classic period . The great cities that dominated Petén had fallen into ruin by the beginning of the 10th century with the onset of the Classic Maya collapse . A significant Maya presence remained in Petén into the Postclassic period after the abandonment of the major Classic period cities ; the population was particularly concentrated near permanent water sources .
In the early 16th century , the Yucatán Peninsula was still dominated by the Maya civilization . It was divided into a number of independent provinces that shared a common culture but varied in their internal sociopolitical organisation . When the Spanish discovered Yucatán , the provinces of Mani and Sotuta were two of the most important polities in the region . They were mutually hostile ; the Xiu Maya of Mani allied themselves with the Spanish , while the Cocom Maya of Sotuta became the implacable enemies of the European colonisers .
At the time of conquest , polities in the northern Yucatán peninsula included Mani , Cehpech and Chakan ; further east along the north coast were Ah Kin Chel , Cupul , and Chikinchel . Ecab , Uaymil , Chetumal all bordered on the Caribbean Sea . Cochuah was also in the eastern half of the peninsula . Tases , Hocaba and Sotuta were all landlocked provinces . Chanputun ( modern Champotón ) was on the coast of the Gulf of Mexico , as was Acalan . In the southern portion of the peninsula , a number of polities occupied the Petén Basin . The Kejache occupied a territory between the Petén lakes and what is now Campeche . The Cholan Maya @-@ speaking Lakandon ( not to be confused with the modern inhabitants of Chiapas by that name ) controlled territory along the tributaries of the Usumacinta River spanning eastern Chiapas and southwestern Petén . The Lakandon had a fierce reputation amongst the Spanish .
Before their defeat in 1697 the Itza controlled or influenced much of Petén and parts of Belize . The Itza were warlike , and their capital was Nojpetén , an island city upon Lake Petén Itzá . The Kowoj were the second in importance ; they were hostile towards their Itza neighbours . The Kowoj were located around the eastern Petén lakes . The Yalain occupied a territory that extended eastwards to Tipuj in Belize . Other groups in Petén are less well known , and their precise territorial extent and political makeup remains obscure ; among them were the Chinamita , the Icaiche , the Kejache , the Lakandon Ch 'ol , the Manche Ch 'ol , and the Mopan .
= = = Maya Highlands = = =
What is now the Mexican state of Chiapas was divided roughly equally between the non @-@ Maya Zoque in the western half and Maya in the eastern half ; this distribution continued up to the time of the Spanish conquest . On the eve of the conquest the highlands of Guatemala were dominated by several powerful Maya states . In the centuries preceding the arrival of the Spanish the K 'iche ' had carved out a small empire covering a large part of the western Guatemalan Highlands and the neighbouring Pacific coastal plain . However , in the late 15th century the Kaqchikel rebelled against their former K 'iche ' allies and founded a new kingdom to the southeast with Iximche as its capital . In the decades before the Spanish invasion the Kaqchikel kingdom had been steadily eroding the kingdom of the K 'iche ' . Other highland groups included the Tz 'utujil around Lake Atitlán , the Mam in the western highlands and the Poqomam in the eastern highlands . The central highlands of Chiapas were occupied by a number of Maya peoples , including the Tzotzil , who were divided into a number of provinces ; the province of Chamula was said to have five small towns grouped closely together . The Tojolabal held territory around Comitán . The Coxoh Maya held territory in the upper reaches of the Grijalva drainage , near the Guatemalan border , and were probably a subgroup of the Tojolabal .
= = = Pacific lowlands = = =
Soconusco was an important communication route between the central Mexican highlands and Central America . It had been subjugated by the Aztec Triple Alliance at the end of the 15th century , under the emperor Ahuizotl , and paid tribute in cacao . The highland K 'iche ' dominated the Pacific coastal plain of western Guatemala . The eastern portion of the Pacific plain was occupied by the non @-@ Maya Pipil and Xinca .
= = Background to the conquest = =
Christopher Columbus discovered the New World for the Kingdom of Castile and Leon in 1492 . Private adventurers thereafter entered into contracts with the Spanish Crown to conquer the newly discovered lands in return for tax revenues and the power to rule . In the first decades after the discovery of the new lands , the Spanish colonised the Caribbean and established a centre of operations on the island of Cuba . By August 1521 the Aztec capital of Tenochtitlan had fallen to the Spanish . Within three years of the fall of Tenochtitlan the Spanish had conquered a large part of Mexico , extending as far south as the Isthmus of Tehuantepec . The newly conquered territory became New Spain , headed by a viceroy who answered to the king of Spain via the Council of the Indies .
= = Weaponry , strategies and tactics = =
The conquistadors were all volunteers , the majority of whom did not receive a fixed salary but instead a portion of the spoils of victory , in the form of precious metals , land grants and provision of native labour . Many of the Spanish were already experienced soldiers who had previously campaigned in Europe . In addition to Spaniards , the invasion force probably included dozens of armed African slaves and freemen . The politically fragmented state of the Yucatán Peninsula at the time of conquest hindered the Spanish invasion , since there was no central political authority to be overthrown . However , the Spanish exploited this fragmentation by taking advantage of pre @-@ existing rivalries between polities . Among Mesoamerican peoples the capture of prisoners was a priority , while to the Spanish such taking of prisoners was a hindrance to outright victory . The Spanish engaged in a strategy of concentrating native populations in newly founded colonial towns , or reducciones ( also known as congregaciones ) . Native resistance to the new nucleated settlements took the form of the flight of the indigenous inhabitants into inaccessible regions such as the forest or joining neighbouring Maya groups that had not yet submitted to the Spanish . Those that remained behind in the reducciones often fell victim to contagious diseases ; coastal reducciones , while convenient for Spanish administration , were also vulnerable to pirate attacks .
= = = Spanish weapons and tactics = = =
Spanish weaponry and tactics differed greatly from that of the indigenous peoples . This included the Spanish use of crossbows , firearms ( including muskets , arquebuses and cannon ) , war dogs and war horses . Horses had never been encountered by the Maya before , and their use gave the mounted conquistador an overwhelming advantage over his unmounted opponent , allowing the rider to strike with greater force while simultaneously making him less vulnerable to attack . The mounted conquistador was highly manoeuvrable and this allowed groups of combatants to quickly displace themselves across the battlefield . The horse itself was not passive , and could buffet the enemy combatant .
The crossbows and early firearms were unwieldy and deteriorated rapidly in the field , often becoming unusable after a few weeks of campaigning due to the effects of the climate . The Maya lacked key elements of Old World technology , such as the use of iron and steel and functional wheels . The use of steel swords was perhaps the greatest technological advantage held by the Spanish , although the deployment of cavalry helped them to rout indigenous armies on occasion . The Spanish were sufficiently impressed by the quilted cotton armour of their Maya enemies that they adopted it in preference to their own steel armour . The conquistadors applied a more effective military organisation and strategic awareness than their opponents , allowing them to deploy troops and supplies in a way that increased the Spanish advantage .
The 16th @-@ century Spanish conquistadors were armed with one- and two @-@ handed broadswords , lances , pikes , rapiers , halberds , crossbows , matchlocks and light artillery . Crossbows were easier to maintain than matchlocks , especially in the humid tropical climate of the Caribbean region that included much of the Yucatán Peninsula .
In Guatemala the Spanish routinely fielded indigenous allies ; at first these were Nahua brought from the recently conquered Mexico , later they also included Maya . It is estimated that for every Spaniard on the field of battle , there were at least 10 native auxiliaries . Sometimes there were as many as 30 indigenous warriors for every Spaniard , and the participation of these Mesoamerican allies was decisive .
= = = Native weapons and tactics = = =
Maya armies were highly disciplined , and warriors participated in regular training exercises and drills ; every able @-@ bodied adult male was available for military service . Maya states did not maintain standing armies ; warriors were mustered by local officials who reported back to appointed warleaders . There were also units of full @-@ time mercenaries who followed permanent leaders . Most warriors were not full @-@ time , however , and were primarily farmers ; the needs of their crops usually came before warfare . Maya warfare was not so much aimed at destruction of the enemy as the seizure of captives and plunder . Maya warriors entered battle against the Spanish with flint @-@ tipped spears , bows and arrows and stones . They wore padded cotton armour to protect themselves . The Spanish described the weapons of war of the Petén Maya as bows and arrows , fire @-@ sharpened poles , flint @-@ headed spears and two @-@ handed swords crafted from strong wood with the blade fashioned from inset obsidian , similar to the Aztec macuahuitl . Maya warriors wore body armour in the form of quilted cotton that had been soaked in salt water to toughen it ; the resulting armour compared favourably to the steel armour worn by the Spanish . Warriors bore wooden or animal hide shields decorated with feathers and animal skins . The Maya had historically employed ambush and raiding as their preferred tactic , and its employment against the Spanish proved troublesome for the Europeans . In response to the use of cavalry , the highland Maya took to digging pits on the roads , lining them with fire @-@ hardened stakes and camouflaging them with grass and weeds , a tactic that according to the Kaqchikel killed many horses .
= = Impact of Old World diseases = =
Epidemics accidentally introduced by the Spanish included smallpox , measles and influenza . These diseases , together with typhus and yellow fever , had a major impact on Maya populations . The Old World diseases brought with the Spanish and against which the indigenous New World peoples had no resistance were a deciding factor in the conquest ; they decimated populations before battles were even fought . It is estimated that 90 % of the indigenous population had been eliminated by disease within the first century of European contact .
A single soldier arriving in Mexico in 1520 was carrying smallpox and initiated the devastating plagues that swept through the native populations of the Americas . Modern estimates of native population decline vary from 75 % to 90 % mortality . Maya written histories suggest that smallpox was rapidly transmitted throughout the Maya area the same year that it arrived in central Mexico . Among the most deadly diseases were the aforementioned smallpox , influenza , measles and a number of pulmonary diseases , including tuberculosis . Modern knowledge of the impact of these diseases on populations with no prior exposure suggests that 33 – 50 % of the population of the Maya highlands perished .
These diseases swept through Yucatán in the 1520s and 1530s , with periodic recurrences throughout the 16th century . By the late 16th century , malaria had arrived in the region , and yellow fever was first reported in the mid @-@ 17th century . Mortality was high , with approximately 50 % of the population of some Yucatec Maya settlements being wiped out . Those areas of the peninsula that experience damper conditions became rapidly depopulated after the conquest with the introduction of malaria and other waterborne parasites . The native population of the northeastern portion of the peninsula was almost completely eliminated within fifty years of the conquest . Soconusco also suffered catastrophic population collapse , with an estimated 90 – 95 % drop .
In the south , conditions conducive to the spread of malaria existed throughout Petén and Belize . In Tabasco the population of approximately 30 @,@ 000 was reduced by an estimated 90 % , with measles , smallpox , catarrhs , dysentery and fevers being the main culprits . At the time of the fall of Nojpetén in 1697 , there are estimated to have been 60 @,@ 000 Maya living around Lake Petén Itzá , including a large number of refugees from other areas . It is estimated that 88 % of them died during the first ten years of colonial rule owing to a combination of disease and war .
= = First encounters : 1502 and 1511 = =
On 30 July 1502 , during his fourth voyage , Christopher Columbus arrived at Guanaja , one of the Bay Islands off the coast of Honduras . He sent his brother Bartholomew to scout the island . As Bartholomew explored , a large trading canoe approached . Bartholomew Columbus boarded the canoe , and found it was a Maya trading vessel from Yucatán , carrying well @-@ dressed Maya and a rich cargo . The Europeans looted whatever took their interest from amongst the cargo and seized the elderly captain to serve as an interpreter ; the canoe was then allowed to continue on its way . This was the first recorded contact between Europeans and the Maya . It is likely that news of the piratical strangers in the Caribbean passed along the Maya trade routes – the first prophecies of bearded invaders sent by Kukulkan , the northern Maya feathered serpent god , were probably recorded around this time , and in due course passed into the books of Chilam Balam .
In 1511 the Spanish caravel Santa María de la Barca sailed along the Central American coast under the command of Pedro de Valdivia . The ship foundered upon a reef somewhere off Jamaica . There were just twenty survivors from the wreck , including Captain Valdivia , Gerónimo de Aguilar and Gonzalo Guerrero . They set themselves adrift in one of the ship 's boats and after thirteen days , during which half of the survivors died , they made landfall upon the coast of Yucatán . There they were seized by Halach Uinik , a Maya lord . Captain Vildivia was sacrificed with four of his companions , and their flesh was served at a feast . Aguilar and Guerrero were held prisoner and fattened for killing , together with five or six of their shipmates . Aguilar and Guerrero managed to escape their captors and fled to a neighbouring lord , who took them prisoner and kept them as slaves . After a time , Gonzalo Guerrero was passed as a slave to the lord Nachan Can of Chetumal . Guerrero became completely Mayanised and by 1514 Guerrero had achieved the rank of nacom , a war leader who served against Nachan Chan 's enemies .
= = Exploration of the Yucatán coast , 1517 – 1519 = =
= = = Francisco Hernández de Córdoba , 1517 = = =
In 1517 , Francisco Hernández de Córdoba set sail from Cuba with a small fleet . The expedition sailed west from Cuba for three weeks before sighting the northeastern tip of the Yucatán Peninsula . The ships could not put in close to the shore due to the coastal shallows . However , they could see a Maya city some two leagues inland . The following morning , ten large canoes rowed out to meet the Spanish ships , and over thirty Maya boarded the vessels and mixed freely with the Spaniards . The following day the conquistadors put ashore . As the Spanish party advanced along a path towards the city , they were ambushed by Maya warriors . Thirteen Spaniards were injured by arrows in the first assault , but the conquistadors regrouped and repulsed the Maya attack . They advanced to a small plaza upon the outskirts of the city . When the Spaniards ransacked nearby temples they found a number of low @-@ grade gold items , which filled them with enthusiasm . The expedition captured two Mayas to be used as interpreters and retreated to the ships . The Spanish discovered that the Maya arrowheads were fashioned from flint and tended to shatter on impact , causing infected wounds and a slow death ; two of the wounded Spaniards died from the arrow @-@ wounds inflicted in the ambush .
Over the next fifteen days the fleet followed the coastline west , and then south . The expedition was now perilously short of fresh water , and shore parties searching for water were left dangerously exposed because the ships could not pull close to the shore due to the shallows . On 23 February 1517 , the Spanish spotted the Maya city of Campeche . A large contingent put ashore to fill their water casks . They were approached by about fifty finely @-@ dressed and unarmed Indians while the water was being loaded into the boats ; they questioned the Spaniards as to their purpose by means of signs . The Spanish party then accepted an invitation to enter the city . Once inside the city , the Maya leaders made it clear that the Spanish would be killed if they did not withdraw immediately . The Spanish party retreated in defensive formation to the safety of the ships .
After ten more days , the ships spotted an inlet close Champotón , and a landing party discovered fresh water . Armed Maya warriors approached from the city , and communication was attempted with signs . Night fell by the time the water casks had been filled and the attempts at communication concluded . By sunrise the Spanish had been surrounded by a sizeable army . The massed Maya warriors launched an assault and all of the Spanish party received wounds in the frantic melee that followed , including Hernández de Córdoba . The Spanish regrouped and forced passage to the shore , where their discipline collapsed and a frantic scramble for the boats ensued , leaving the Spanish vulnerable to the pursuing Maya warriors who waded into the sea behind them . By the end of the battle , the Spanish had lost over fifty men , more than half their number , and five more men died from their wounds in the following days . The battle had lasted only an hour . They were now far from help and low on supplies ; too many men had been lost and injured to sail all three ships back to Cuba , so one was abandoned . The ship 's pilot then steered a course for Cuba via Florida , and Hernández de Cordóba wrote a report to Governor Diego Velázquez describing the voyage and , most importantly , the discovery of gold . Hernández died soon after from his wounds .
= = = Juan de Grijalva , 1518 = = =
Diego Velázquez , the governor of Cuba , was enthused by Hernández de Córdoba 's report of gold in Yucatán . He organised a new expedition and placed his nephew Juan de Grijalva in command over his four ships . The small fleet left Cuba in April 1518 , and made its first landfall upon the island of Cozumel , off the east coast of Yucatán . The Maya inhabitants of Cozumel fled the Spanish and would not respond to Grijalva 's friendly overtures . The fleet then sailed south along the east coast of the peninsula . The Spanish spotted three large Maya cities along the coast , but Grijalva did not land at any of these and turned back north to loop around the north of the peninsula and sail down the west coast . At Campeche the Spanish tried to barter for water but the Maya refused , so Grijalva opened fire against the city with small cannon ; the inhabitants fled , allowing the Spanish to take the abandoned city . Messages were sent with a few Maya who had been too slow to escape but the Maya remained hidden in the forest ; the Spanish boarded their ships and continued along the coast .
At Champotón , the fleet was approached by a small number of large war canoes , but the ships ' cannon soon put them to flight . At the mouth of the Tabasco River the Spanish sighted massed warriors and canoes but the natives did not approach . By means of interpreters , Grijalva indicated that he wished to trade and bartered wine and beads in exchange for food and other supplies . From the natives they received a few gold trinkets and news of the riches of the Aztec Empire to the west . The expedition continued far enough to confirm the reality of the gold @-@ rich empire , sailing as far north as Pánuco River . As the fleet returned to Cuba , the Spanish attacked Champotón to avenge the previous year 's defeat of the Spanish expedition led by Hernández . One Spaniard was killed and fifty were wounded in the ensuing battle , including Grijalva . Grijalva put into Havana five months after he had left .
= = = Hernán Cortés , 1519 = = =
Grijalva 's return aroused great interest in Cuba , and Yucatán was believed to be a land of riches waiting to be plundered . A new expedition was organised , with a fleet of eleven ships carrying 500 men and some horses . Hernán Cortés was placed in command , and his crew included officers that would become famous conquistadors , including Pedro de Alvarado , Cristóbal de Olid , Gonzalo de Sandoval and Diego de Ordaz . Also aboard were Francisco de Montejo and Bernal Díaz del Castillo , veterans of the Grijalva expedition .
The fleet made its first landfall at Cozumel ; Maya temples were cast down and a Christian cross was put up on one of them . At Cozumel Cortés heard rumours of bearded men on the Yucatán mainland , who he presumed were Europeans . Cortés sent out messengers to them and was able to rescue the shipwrecked Gerónimo de Aguilar , who had been enslaved by a Maya lord . Aguilar had learnt the Yucatec Maya language and became Cortés ' interpreter .
From Cozumel , the fleet looped around the north of the Yucatán Peninsula and followed the coast to the Grijalva River , which Cortés named in honour of the Spanish captain who had discovered it . In Tabasco , Cortés anchored his ships at Potonchán , a Chontal Maya town . The Maya prepared for battle but the Spanish horses and firearms quickly decided the outcome . The defeated Chontal Maya lords offered gold , food , clothing and a group of young women in tribute to the victors . Among these women was a young Maya noblewoman called Malintzin , who was given the Spanish name Marina . She spoke Maya and Nahuatl and became the means by which Cortés was able to communicate with the Aztecs . From Tabasco , Cortés continued to along the coast , and went on to conquer the Aztecs .
= = Preparations for conquest of the Highlands , 1522 – 1523 = =
After the Aztec capital Tenochtitlan fell to the Spanish in 1521 , the Kaqchikel Maya of Iximche sent envoys to Hernán Cortés to declare their allegiance to the new ruler of Mexico , and the K 'iche ' Maya of Q 'umarkaj may also have sent a delegation . In 1522 Cortés sent Mexican allies to scout the Soconusco region of lowland Chiapas , where they met new delegations from Iximche and Q 'umarkaj at Tuxpán ; both of the powerful highland Maya kingdoms declared their loyalty to the King of Spain . But Cortés ' allies in Soconusco soon informed him that the K 'iche ' and the Kaqchikel were not loyal , and were harassing Spain 's allies in the region . Cortés despatched Pedro de Alvarado with 180 cavalry , 300 infantry , 4 cannons , and thousands of allied warriors from central Mexico ; they arrived in Soconusco in 1523 .
= = Soconusco , 1523 – 1524 = =
Pedro de Alvarado passed through Soconusco with a sizeable force in 1523 , en route to conquer Guatemala . Alvarado 's army included hardened veterans of the conquest of the Aztecs , and included cavalry and artillery ; he was accompanied by a great many indigenous allies . Alvarado was received in peace in Soconusco , and the inhabitants swore allegiance to the Spanish Crown . They reported that neighbouring groups in Guatemala were attacking them because of their friendly outlook towards the Spanish . By 1524 , Soconusco had been completely pacified by Alvarado and his forces . Due to the economic importance of cacao to the new colony , the Spanish were reluctant to move the indigenous inhabitants far from their established cacao orchards . As a result , the inhabitants of Soconusco were less likely to be rounded up into new reducción settlements than elsewhere in Chiapas , since the planting of a new cacao crop would have required five years to mature .
= = Hernán Cortés in the Maya lowlands , 1524 – 25 = =
In 1524 , after the Spanish conquest of the Aztec Empire , Hernán Cortés led an expedition to Honduras over land , cutting across Acalan in southern Campeche and the Itza kingdom in what is now the northern Petén Department of Guatemala . His aim was to subdue the rebellious Cristóbal de Olid , whom he had sent to conquer Honduras , and who had set himself up independently in that territory . Cortés left Tenochtitlan on 12 October 1524 with 140 Spanish soldiers , 93 of them mounted , 3 @,@ 000 Mexican warriors , 150 horses , artillery , munitions and other supplies . Cortés marched into Maya territory in Tabasco ; the army crossed the Usumacinta River near Tenosique and crossed into the Chontal Maya province of Acalan , where he recruited 600 Chontal Maya carriers . Cortés and his army left Acalan on 5 March 1525 .
The expedition passed onwards through Kejache territory , and arrived at the north shore of Lake Petén Itzá on 13 March 1525 . The Roman Catholic priests accompanying the expedition celebrated mass in the presence of the king of the Itza , who was said to be so impressed that he pledged to worship the cross and to destroy his idols . Cortés accepted an invitation from Kan Ek ' to visit Nojpetén . On his departure , Cortés left behind a cross and a lame horse that the Itza treated as a deity , but the animal soon died .
From the lake , Cortés continued on the arduous journey south along the western slopes of the Maya Mountains , during which he lost most of his horses . The expedition became lost in the hills north of Lake Izabal and came close to starvation before they captured a Maya boy who led them to safety . Cortés found a village on the shore of Lake Izabal , and crossed the Dulce River to the settlement of Nito , somewhere on the Amatique Bay , with about a dozen companions , and waited there for the rest of his army to regroup over the next week . By this time the remnants of the expedition had been reduced to a few hundred ; Cortés succeeded in contacting the Spaniards he was searching for , only to find that Cristóbal de Olid 's own officers had already put down his rebellion . Cortés then returned to Mexico by sea .
= = Fringes of empire : Belize , 16th – 17th centuries = =
No Spanish military expeditions were launched against the Maya of Belize , although both Dominican and Franciscan friars penetrated the region in attempts at evangelising the natives . The only Spanish settlement in the territory was established by Alonso d 'Avila in 1531 and lasted less than two years . In 1574 , fifty households of Manche Ch 'ol were relocated from Campin and Yaxal , in southern Belize , to the shore of Lake Izabal , but they soon fled back into the forest . In order to counter Spanish encroachment into their territory , the local Maya maintained an uneasy friendship with British loggers operating in central Belize . In 1641 , the Franciscans established two reducciones among the Muzul Maya of central Belize , at Zoite and Cehake ; both settlements were sacked by Dutch corsairs within a year .
= = Conquest of the Maya Highlands , 1524 – 1526 = =
= = = Subjugation of the K 'iche ' , 1524 = = =
Pedro de Alvarado and his army advanced along the Pacific coast unopposed until they reached the Samalá River in western Guatemala . This region formed a part of the K 'iche ' kingdom , and a K 'iche ' army tried unsuccessfully to prevent the Spanish from crossing the river . Once across , the conquistadors ransacked nearby settlements . On 8 February 1524 Alvarado 's army fought a battle at Xetulul , ( modern San Francisco Zapotitlán ) . The Spanish and their allies stormed the town and set up camp in the marketplace . Alvarado then headed upriver into the Sierra Madre mountains towards the K 'iche ' heartlands , crossing the pass into the valley of Quetzaltenango . On 12 February 1524 Alvarado 's Mexican allies were ambushed in the pass and driven back by K 'iche ' warriors but a Spanish cavalry charge scattered the K 'iche ' and the army crossed to the city of Xelaju ( modern Quetzaltenango ) to find it deserted . The Spanish accounts relate that at least one and possibly two of the ruling lords of Q 'umarkaj died in the fierce battles upon the initial approach to Quetzaltenango . Almost a week later , on 18 February 1524 , a 30 @,@ 000 @-@ strong K 'iche ' army confronted the Spanish army in the Quetzaltenango valley and was comprehensively defeated ; many K 'iche ' nobles were among the dead . This battle exhausted the K 'iche ' militarily and they asked for peace , and invited Pedro de Alvarado into their capital Q 'umarkaj . Alvarado was deeply suspicious of K 'iche ' intentions but accepted the offer and marched to Q 'umarkaj with his army . At Tzakahá the Spanish conducted a Roman Catholic mass under a makeshift roof ; this site was chosen to build the first church in Guatemala . The first Easter mass held in Guatemala was celebrated in the new church , during which high @-@ ranking natives were baptised .
In March 1524 Pedro de Alvarado encamped on the plain outside the Q 'umarkaj . Not wishing to enter the narrow streets of Q 'umarkaj , he invited the K 'iche ' lords Oxib @-@ Keh ( the ajpop , or king ) and Beleheb @-@ Tzy ( the ajpop k 'amha , or king elect ) to visit him in his camp . As soon as they did so , he seized them and kept them as prisoners . In response , the K 'iche ' warriors attacked the Spaniards ' indigenous allies and killed one of the Spanish soldiers . At this point Alvarado had the captured K 'iche ' lords burnt to death , and then proceeded to burn the entire city . After the destruction of Q 'umarkaj , Pedro de Alvarado sent messages to Iximche , capital of the Kaqchikel , proposing an alliance against the remaining K 'iche ' resistance . Alvarado wrote that they sent 4000 warriors to assist him , although the Kaqchikel recorded that they sent only 400 . With the capitulation of the K 'iche ' kingdom , various non @-@ K 'iche ' peoples under K 'iche ' dominion also submitted to the Spanish . This included the Mam inhabitants of the area now within the modern department of San Marcos .
= = = Kaqchikel alliance and conquest of the Tz 'utujil , 1524 = = =
On 14 April 1524 , the Spanish were invited into Iximche and were well received by the lords Belehe Qat and Cahi Imox . The Kaqchikel kings provided native soldiers to assist the conquistadors against continuing K 'iche ' resistance and to help with the defeat of the neighbouring Tz 'utujil kingdom . The Spanish only stayed briefly before continuing to Atitlan and the Pacific coast . The Spanish returned to the Kaqchikel capital on 23 July 1524 and on 27 July Pedro de Alvarado declared Iximche as the first capital of Guatemala , Santiago de los Caballeros de Guatemala ( " St. James of the Knights of Guatemala " ) .
After two Kaqchikel messengers sent by Pedro de Alvarado were killed by the Tz 'utujil , the conquistadors and their Kaqchikel allies marched against the Tz 'utujil . Pedro de Alvarado led 60 cavalry , 150 Spanish infantry and an unspecified number of Kaqchikel warriors . The Spanish and their allies arrived at the lakeshore after a day 's march , and Alvarado rode ahead with 30 cavalry along the lake shore until he engaged a hostile Tz 'utujil force , which was broken by the Spanish charge . The survivors were pursued across a causeway to an island on foot before the inhabitants could break the bridges . The rest of Alvarado 's army soon arrived and they successfully stormed the island . The surviving Tz 'utujil fled into the lake and swam to safety . The Spanish could not pursue them because 300 canoes sent by the Kaqchikels had not yet arrived . This battle took place on 18 April .
The following day the Spanish entered Tecpan Atitlan , the Tz 'utujil capital , but found it deserted . The Tz 'utujil leaders responded to Alvarado 's messengers by surrendering to Pedro de Alvarado and swearing loyalty to Spain , at which point Alvarado considered them pacified and returned to Iximche ; three days later , the lords of the Tz 'utujil arrived there to pledge their loyalty and offer tribute to the conquistadors .
= = = Reconnaissance of the Chiapas Highlands , 1524 = = =
In 1524 Luis Marín led a small party on a reconnaissance expedition into Chiapas . He set out from Coatzacoalcos ( renamed Espíritu Santo by the Spanish ) , on the coast of the Gulf of Mexico . His party followed the Grijalva upriver ; near modern Chiapa de Corzo the Spanish party fought and defeated the Chiapanecos . Following this battle , Marín headed into the central highlands of Chiapas ; around Easter he passed through the Tzotzil Maya town Zinacantan without opposition from the inhabitants . The Zinacantecos , true to their pledge of allegiance two years earlier , aided the Spanish against the other indigenous peoples of the region .
Marín was initially met by a peaceful embassy as he approached the Tzoztzil town of Chamula . He took this as the submission of the inhabitants , but was met by armed resistance when he tried to enter the province . The Spanish found that the Chamula Tzotzil had abandoned their lands and stripped them of food in an attempt to discourage the invaders . A day after their initial approach , Marín found that the Chamula Tzotzil had gathered their warriors upon a ridge that was too steep for the Spanish horses to climb . The conquistadors were met with a barrage of missiles and boiling water , and found the nearby town defended by a formidable 1 @.@ 2 @-@ metre ( 4 ft ) thick defensive wall . The Spanish stormed the wall , to find that the inhabitants had withdrawn under cover of torrential rain that had interrupted the battle . After taking the deserted Chamula , the Spanish expedition continued against their allies at Huixtan . Again the inhabitants offered armed resistance before abandoning their town to the Spanish . Conquistador Diego Godoy wrote that the Indians killed or captured at Huixtan numbered no more than 500 . The Spanish , by now disappointed with the scarce pickings , decided to retreat to Coatzacoalcos in May 1524 .
= = = Kaqchikel rebellion , 1524 – 1530 = = =
Pedro de Alvarado rapidly began to demand gold in tribute from the Kaqchikels , souring the friendship between the two peoples , and the Kaqchikel people abandoned their city and fled to the forests and hills on 28 August 1524 . Ten days later the Spanish declared war on the Kaqchikel . Two years later , on 9 February 1526 , a group of sixteen Spanish deserters burnt the palace of the Ahpo Xahil , sacked the temples and kidnapped a priest , acts that the Kaqchikel blamed on Pedro de Alvarado .
The Spanish founded a new town at nearby Tecpán Guatemala . The Spanish abandoned Tecpán in 1527 , because of continuous Kaqchikel attacks , and moved to the Almolonga Valley to the east , refounding their capital at Ciudad Vieja . The Kaqchikel kept up resistance against the Spanish for a number of years , but on 9 May 1530 , exhausted by warfare , the two kings of the most important clans returned from the wilds . A day later they were joined by many nobles and their families and many more people ; they then surrendered at the new Spanish capital at Ciudad Vieja . The former inhabitants of Iximche were dispersed ; some were moved to Tecpán , the rest to Sololá and other towns around Lake Atitlán .
= = = Siege of Zaculeu , 1525 = = =
At the time of the conquest , the main Mam population was situated in Xinabahul ( modern Huehuetenango city ) , but Zaculeu 's fortifications led to its use as a refuge during the conquest . The refuge was attacked by Gonzalo de Alvarado y Contreras , brother of Pedro de Alvarado , in 1525 , with 40 Spanish cavalry and 80 Spanish infantry , and some 2 @,@ 000 Mexican and K 'iche ' allies . Gonzalo de Alvarado left the Spanish camp at Tecpán Guatemala in July 1525 and marched to Momostenango , which quickly fell to the Spanish after a four @-@ hour battle . The following day Gonzalo de Alvarado marched on Huehuetenango and was confronted by a Mam army of 5 @,@ 000 warriors from Malacatán . The Mam army advanced across the plain in battle formation and was met by a Spanish cavalry charge that threw them into disarray , with the infantry mopping up those Mam that survived the cavalry . The Mam leader Canil Acab was killed and the surviving warriors fled to the hills . The Spanish army rested for a few days , then continued onwards to Huehuetenango only to find it deserted .
Kayb 'il B 'alam had received news of the Spanish advance and had withdrawn to his fortress at Zaculeu , with some 6 @,@ 000 warriors gathered from the surrounding area . The fortress possessed formidable defences , and Gonzalo de Alvarado launched an assault on the weaker northern entrance . Mam warriors initially held firm against the Spanish infantry but fell back before repeated cavalry charges . Kayb 'il B 'alam , seeing that outright victory on an open battlefield was impossible , withdrew his army back within the safety of the walls . As Alvarado dug in and laid siege to the fortress , an army of approximately 8 @,@ 000 Mam warriors descended on Zaculeu from the Cuchumatanes mountains to the north , drawn from towns allied with the city ; the relief army was annihilated by the Spanish cavalry . After several months the Mam were reduced to starvation . Kayb 'il B 'alam finally surrendered the city to the Spanish in the middle of October 1525 . When the Spanish entered the city they found 1 @,@ 800 dead Indians , and the survivors eating the corpses . After the fall of Zaculeu , a Spanish garrison was established at Huehuetenango , and Gonzalo de Alvarado returned to Tecpán Guatemala .
= = = Pedro de Alvarado in the Chiapas Highlands , 1525 = = =
A year after Luis Marín 's reconnaissance expedition , Pedro de Alvarado entered Chiapas when he crossed a part of the Lacandon Forest in an attempt to link up with Hernán Cortés ' expedition heading for Honduras . Alvarado entered Chiapas from Guatemala via the territory of the Acala Ch 'ol ; he was unable to locate Cortés , and his scouts eventually led him to Tecpan Puyumatlan ( modern Santa Eulalia , Huehuetenango ) , in a mountainous region near the territory of the Lakandon Ch 'ol . The inhabitants of Tecpan Puyumatlan offered fierce resistance against the Spanish @-@ led expedition , and Gonzalo de Alvarado wrote that the Spanish suffered many losses , including the killing of messengers sent to summon the natives to swear loyalty to the Spanish Crown . After failing to locate Cortés , the Alvarados returned to Guatemala .
= = = Central and eastern Guatemalan Highlands , 1525 – 1532 = = =
In 1525 Pedro de Alvarado sent a small company to conquer Mixco Viejo ( Chinautla Viejo ) , the capital of the Poqomam . The Spanish attempted an approach through a narrow pass but were forced back with heavy losses . Alvarado himself launched the second assault with 200 Tlaxcalan allies but was also beaten back . The Poqomam then received reinforcements , and the two armies clashed on open ground outside of the city . The battle was chaotic and lasted for most of the day , but was finally decided by the Spanish cavalry . The leaders of the reinforcements surrendered to the Spanish three days after their retreat and revealed that the city had a secret entrance in the form of a cave . Alvarado sent 40 men to cover the exit from the cave and launched another assault along the ravine , in single file owing to its narrowness , with crossbowmen alternating with musketmen , each with a companion sheltering him with a shield . This tactic allowed the Spanish to break through the pass and storm the entrance of the city . The Poqomam warriors fell back in disorder in a chaotic retreat through the city . Those who managed to retreat down the neighbouring valley were ambushed by Spanish cavalry who had been posted to block the exit from the cave , the survivors were captured and brought back to the city . The siege had lasted more than a month , and because of the defensive strength of the city , Alvarado ordered it to be burned and moved the inhabitants to the new colonial village of Mixco .
There are no direct sources describing the conquest of the Chajoma by the Spanish but it appears to have been a drawn @-@ out campaign rather than a rapid victory . After the conquest , the inhabitants of the kingdom were resettled in San Pedro Sacatepéquez , and San Martín Jilotepeque . The Chajoma rebelled against the Spanish in 1526 , fighting a battle at Ukub 'il , an unidentified site somewhere near the modern towns of San Juan Sacatepéquez and San Pedro Sacatepéquez .
Chiquimula de la Sierra ( " Chiquimula in the Highlands " ) was inhabited by Ch 'orti ' Maya at the time of the conquest . The first Spanish reconnaissance of this region took place in 1524 . In 1526 three Spanish captains invaded Chiquimula on the orders of Pedro de Alvarado . The indigenous population soon rebelled against excessive Spanish demands , but the rebellion was quickly put down in April 1530 . However , the region was not considered fully conquered until a campaign by Jorge de Bocanegra in 1531 – 1532 that also took in parts of Jalapa . The afflictions of Old World diseases , war and overwork in the mines and encomiendas took a heavy toll on the inhabitants of eastern Guatemala , to the extent that indigenous population levels never recovered to their pre @-@ conquest levels .
= = Francisco de Montejo in Yucatán , 1527 – 28 = =
The richer lands of Mexico engaged the main attention of the Conquistadors for some years , then in 1526 Francisco de Montejo ( a veteran of the Grijalva and Cortés expeditions ) successfully petitioned the King of Spain for the right to conquer Yucatán . On 8 December of that year he was issued with the hereditary military title of adelantado and permission to colonise the Yucatán Peninsula . In 1527 he left Spain with 400 men in four ships , with horses , small arms , cannon and provisions . One of the ships was left at Santo Domingo as a supply ship to provide later support ; the other ships set sail and reached Cozumel , an island off the east coast of Yucatán , in the second half of September 1527 . Montejo was received in there in peace by the lord Aj Naum Pat . The ships only stopped briefly before making for the mainland , making landfall somewhere near Xelha in the Maya province of Ekab .
Montejo garrisoned Xelha with 40 soldiers and posted 20 more at nearby Pole . Xelha was renamed Salamanca de Xelha and became the first Spanish settlement in the peninsula . The provisions were soon exhausted and additional food was requisitioned from the local Maya villagers ; this too was soon consumed . Many local Maya fled into the forest and Spanish raiding parties scoured the surrounding area for food , finding little . With discontent growing among his men , Montejo took the drastic step of burning his ships ; this strengthened the resolve of his troops , who gradually acclimatised to the harsh conditions of Yucatán . Montejo was able to get more food from the still @-@ friendly Aj Nuam Pat of Cozumel . Montejo took 125 men and set out on an expedition to explore the north @-@ eastern portion of the Yucatán peninsula . At Belma , Montejo gathered the leaders of the nearby Maya towns and instructed them to swear loyalty to the Spanish Crown . After this , Montejo led his men to Conil , a town in Ekab , where the Spanish party halted for two months .
In the spring of 1528 , Montejo left Conil for the city of Chauaca , which was abandoned by its Maya inhabitants under cover of darkness . The following morning the inhabitants attacked the Spanish party but were defeated . The Spanish then continued to Ake , where they engaged in a major battle , which left more than 1 @,@ 200 Maya dead . After this Spanish victory , the neighbouring Maya leaders all surrendered . Montejo 's party then continued to Sisia and Loche before heading back to Xelha . Montejo arrived at Xelha with only 60 of his party , and found that only 12 of his 40 @-@ strong garrison survived , while the entire garrison at Pole had been slaughtered .
The support ship eventually arrived from Santo Domingo , and Montejo used it to sail south along the coast , while he sent his second @-@ in @-@ command Alonso d 'Avila via land . Montejo discovered the thriving port city of Chaktumal ( modern Chetumal ) . The Maya at Chaktumal fed false information to the Spanish , and Montejo was unable link up with d 'Avila , who returned overland to Xelha . The fledgling Spanish colony was moved to nearby Xamanha , modern Playa del Carmen , which Montejo considered to be a better port . After waiting for d 'Avila without result , Montejo sailed south as far as Honduras before turning around and heading back up the coast to finally meet up with his lieutenant at Xamanha . Late in 1528 , Montejo left d 'Avila to oversee Xamanha and sailed north to loop around the Yucatán Peninsula and head for the Spanish colony of New Spain in central Mexico .
= = Conquest of the Chiapas Highlands , 1527 – 1547 = =
Pedro de Portocarrero , a young nobleman , led the next expedition into Chiapas after Alvarado , again from Guatemala . His campaign is largely undocumented but in January 1528 he successfully established the settlement of San Cristóbal de los Llanos in the Comitán valley , in the territory of the Tojolabal Maya . This served as a base of operations that allowed the Spanish to extend their control towards the Ocosingo valley . One of the scarce mentions of Portocarrero 's campaign suggests that there was some indigenous resistance but its exact form and extent is unknown . Portocarrero established Spanish dominion over a number of Tzeltal and Tojolabal settlements , and penetrated as far as the Tzotzil town of Huixtan .
By 1528 , Spanish colonial power had been established in the Chiapas Highlands , and encomienda rights were being issued to individual conquistadores . Spanish dominion extended from the upper drainage of the Grijalva , across Comitán and Teopisca to the Ocosingo valley . The north and northwest were incorporated into the Villa de Espíritu Santo district , that included Ch 'ol Maya territory around Tila . In the early years of conquest , encomienda rights effectively meant rights to pillage and round up slaves , usually in the form of a group of mounted conquistadores launching a lightning slave raid upon an unsuspecting population centre . Prisoners would be branded as slaves , and were sold in exchange for weapons , supplies , and horses .
= = = Diego Mazariegos , 1528 = = =
In 1528 , captain Diego Mazariegos crossed into Chiapas via the Isthmus of Tehuantepec with artilley and raw recruits recently arrived from Spain . By this time , the indigenous population had been greatly reduced by a combination of disease and famine . They first travelled to Jiquipilas to meet up with a delegation from Zinacantan , who had asked for Spanish assistance against rebellious vassals ; a small contingent of Spanish cavalry was enough to bring these back into line . After this , Mazariegos and his companions proceeded to Chiapan and set up a temporary camp nearby , that they named Villa Real . Mazariegos had arrived with a mandate to establish a new colonial province of Chiapa in the Chiapas Highlands . He initially met with resistance from the veteran conquistadores who had already established themselves in the region . Mazariegos heard that Pedro de Portocarrero was in the highlands , and sought him out in order to persuade him to leave . The two conquistadors eventually met up in Huixtan . Mazariegos entered into protracted three @-@ month negotiations with the Spanish settlers in Coatzacoalcos ( Espíritu Santo ) and San Cristóbal de los Llanos . Eventually an agreement was reached , and the encomiendas of Espíritu Santo that lay in the highlands were merged those of San Cristóbal to form the new province . Unknown to Mazariegos , the king had already issued an order that the settlements of San Cristóbal de los Llanos be transferred to Pedro de Alvarado . The end result of the negotiations between Mazariegos and the established settlers was that Villa de San Cristóbal de los Llanos was broken up , and those settlers who wished to remain were transferred to Villa Real , which had been moved to the fertile Jovel valley . Pedro de Portocarrero left Chiapas , and he returned to Guatemala . Mazariegos proceeded with the policy of moving the Indians into reducciones ; this process was made easier by the much reduced indigenous population levels . Mazariegos issued licences of encomienda covering still unconquered regions in order to encourage colonists to conquer new territory . The Province of Chiapa had no coastal territory , and at the end of this process about 100 Spanish settlers were concentrated in the remote provincial capital at Villa Real , surrounded by hostile Indian settlements , and with deep internal divisions .
= = = Rebellion in the Chiapas Highlands , 1528 = = =
Although Mazariegos had managed to establish his new provincial capital without armed conflict , excessive Spanish demands for labour and supplies soon provoked the locals into rebellion . In August 1528 , Mazariegos replaced the existing encomenderos with his friends and allies ; the natives , seeing the Spanish isolated and witnessing the hostility between the original and newly arrived settlers , took this opportunity to rebel and refused to supply their new masters . Zinacantán was the only indigenous settlement that remained loyal to the Spanish .
Villa Real was now surrounded by hostile territory , and any Spanish help was too far away to be of value . The colonists quickly ran short of food and responded by taking up arms and riding against the Indians in search of food and slaves . The Indians abandoned their towns and hid their women and children in caves . The rebellious populations concentrated themselves on easily defended mountaintops . At Quetzaltepeque a lengthy battle was fought between the Tzeltal Maya and the Spanish , resulting in the deaths of a number of Spanish . The battle lasted several days , and the Spanish were supported by indigenous warriors from central Mexico . The battle eventually resulted in a Spanish victory , but the rest of the province of Chiapa remained rebellious .
After the battle of Quetzaltepeque , Villa Real was still short on food and Mazariegos was ill ; he retreated to Copanaguastla against the protests of the town council , which was left to defend the fledgling colony . By now , Nuño de Guzmán was governor in Mexico , and he despatched Juan Enríquez de Guzmán to Chiapa as end @-@ of @-@ term judge over Mazariegos , and as alcalde mayor ( a local colonial governor ) . He occupied his post for a year , during which time he attempted to reestablish Spanish control over the province , especially the northern and eastern regions , but was unable to make much headway .
= = = Founding of Ciudad Real , Chiapa , 1531 – 1535 = = =
In 1531 , Pedro de Alvarado finally took up the post of governor of Chiapa . He immediately reinstated the old name of San Cristóbal de los Llanos upon Villa Real . Once again , the encomiendas of Chiapa were transferred to new owners . The Spanish launched an expedition against Puyumatlan ; it was not successful in terms of conquest , but enabled the Spanish to seize more slaves to trade for weapons and horses . The newly acquired supplies would then be used in further expeditions to conquer and pacify still @-@ independent regions , leading to a cycle of slave raids , trade for supplies , followed by further conquests and slave raids . The Mazariegos family managed to establish a power base in the local colonial institutions and , in 1535 , they succeeded in having San Cristóbal de los Llanos declared a city , with the new name of Ciudad Real . They also managed to acquire special privileges from the Crown in order to stabilise the colony , such as an edict that specified that the governor of Chiapa must govern in person and not through a delegated representative . In practise , the quick turnover of encomiendas continued , since few Spaniards had legal Spanish wives and legitimate children who could inherit . This situation would not stabilise until the 1540s , when the dire shortage of Spanish women in the colony was alleviated by an influx of new colonists .
= = = Establishment of the Dominicans in Chiapa , 1545 – 1547 = = =
In 1542 , the New Laws were issued with the aim of protecting the indigenous peoples of the Spanish colonies from their overexploitation by the encomenderos . Friar Bartolomé de las Casas and his followers left Spain in July 1544 to enforce the New Laws . Las Casas arrived in Ciudad Real with 16 fellow Dominicans on 12 March 1545 . The Dominicans were the first religious order to attempt the evangelisation of the native population . Their arrival meant that the colonists were no longer free to treat the natives as they saw fit without the risk of intervention by the religious authorities . The Dominicans soon came into conflict with the established colonists . Colonial opposition to the Dominicans was such that the Dominicans were forced to flee Ciudad Real in fear of their lives . They established themselves nearby in two indigenous villages , the old site of Villa Real de Chiapa and Cinacantlán . From Villa Real , Bartolomé de las Casas and his companions prepared for the evangelisation of all the territory that fell within the Bishopric of Chiapa . The Dominicans promoted the veneration of Santiago Matamoros ( St. James the Moor @-@ slayer ) as a readily identifiable image of Spanish military superiority . The Dominicans soon saw the need to reestablish themselves in Ciudad Real , and the hostilities with the colonists were calmed . In 1547 , the first stone for the new Dominican convent in Ciudad Real was placed .
= = Francisco de Montejo and Alonso d 'Avila , Yucatán 1531 – 35 = =
Montejo was appointed alcalde mayor ( a local colonial governor ) of Tabasco in 1529 , and pacified that province with the aid of his son , also named Francisco de Montejo . D 'Avila was sent from eastern Yucatán to conquer Acalan , which extended southeast of the Laguna de Terminos . Montejo the Younger founded Salamanca de Xicalango as a base of operations . In 1530 d 'Avila established Salamanca de Acalán as a base from which to launch new attempts to conquer Yucatán . Salamanca de Acalán proved a disappointment , with no gold for the taking and with lower levels of population than had been hoped . D 'Avila soon abandoned the new settlement and set off across the lands of the Kejache to Champotón , arriving there towards the end of 1530 , where he was later joined by the Montejos .
In 1531 Montejo moved his base of operations to Campeche . Alonso d 'Avila was sent overland to the east of the peninsula , passing through Maní where he was well received by the Xiu Maya . D 'Avila continued southeast to Chetumal where he founded the Spanish town of Villa Real just within the borders of modern Belize . The local Maya fiercely resisted the placement of the new Spanish colony and d 'Avila and his men were forced to abandon it and make for Honduras in canoes .
At Campeche , a strong Maya force attacked the city , but was repulsed by the Spanish . Aj Canul , the lord of the attacking Maya , surrendered to the Spanish . After this battle , the younger Francisco de Montejo was despatched to the northern Cupul province , where the lord Naabon Cupul reluctantly allowed him to found the Spanish town of Ciudad Real at Chichen Itza . Montejo parcelled out the province amongst his soldiers as encomiendas . After six months of Spanish rule , Naabon Cupul was killed during a failed attempt to kill Montejo the Younger . The death of their lord only served to inflame Cupul anger and , in mid 1533 , they laid siege to the small Spanish garrison at Chichen Itza . Montejo the Younger abandoned Ciudad Real by night , and he and his men fled west , where the Chel , Pech and Xiu provinces remained obedient to Spanish rule . Montejo the Younger was received in friendship by the lord of the Chel province . In the spring of 1534 he rejoined his father in the Chakan province at Dzikabal , ( near modern Mérida ) .
The Xiu Maya maintained their friendship with the Spanish throughout the conquest and Spanish authority was eventually established over Yucatán in large part due to Xiu support . The Montejos founded a new Spanish town at Dzilam , although the Spanish suffered hardships there . Montejo the Elder returned to Campeche , where he was received with friendship by the local Maya . He was accompanied by the friendly Chel lord Namux Chel . Montejo the Younger remained behind in Dzilam to continue his attempts at conquest of the region but soon retreated to Campeche to rejoin his father and Alonso d 'Avila , who had returned to Campeche shortly beforehand . Around this time the news began to arrive of Francisco Pizarro 's conquests in Peru and the rich plunder there . Montejo 's soldiers began to abandon him to seek their fortune elsewhere ; in seven years of attempted conquest in the northern provinces of the Yucatán Peninsula , very little gold had been found . Towards the end of 1534 or the beginning of the next year , Montejo the Elder and his son retreated to Veracruz , taking their remaining soldiers with them .
Montejo the Elder became embroiled in colonial infighting over the right to rule Honduras , a claim that put him in conflict with Pedro de Alvarado , captain general of Guatemala , who also claimed Honduras as part of his jurisdiction . Alvarado was ultimately to prove successful . In Montejo the Elder 's absence , first in central Mexico , and then in Honduras , Montejo the Younger acted as lieutenant governor and captain general in Tabasco .
= = = Conflict at Champoton = = =
The Franciscan friar Jacobo de Testera arrived in Champoton in 1535 to attempt the peaceful incorporation of Yucatán into the Spanish Empire . His initial efforts were proving successful when Captain Lorenzo de Godoy arrived in Champoton at the command of soldiers despatched there by Montejo the Younger . Godoy and Testera were soon in conflict and the friar was forced to abandon Champoton and return to central Mexico . Godoy 's attempt to subdue the Maya around Champoton was unsuccessful , so Montejo the Younger sent his cousin to take command ; his diplomatic overtures to the Champoton Kowoj were successful and they submitted to Spanish rule . Champoton was the last Spanish outpost in the Yucatán Peninsula ; it was increasingly isolated and the situation there became difficult .
= = San Marcos : Province of Tecusitlán and Lacandón , 1533 = =
In 1533 Pedro de Alvarado ordered de León y Cardona to explore and conquer the area around the Tacaná , Tajumulco , Lacandón and San Antonio volcanoes ; in colonial times this area was referred to as the Province of Tecusitlán and Lacandón . De León marched to a Maya city named Quezalli by his Nahuatl @-@ speaking allies with a force of fifty Spaniards ; his Mexican allies also referred to the city by the name Sacatepequez . De León renamed the city as San Pedro Sacatepéquez . The Spanish founded a village nearby at Candacuchex in April that year , renaming it as San Marcos .
= = Campaigns in the Cuchumatanes and Lacandon Forest = =
In the ten years after the fall of Zaculeu various Spanish expeditions crossed into the Sierra de los Cuchumatanes and engaged in the gradual and complex conquest of the Chuj and Q 'anjob 'al . The Spanish were attracted to the region in the hope of extracting gold , silver and other riches from the mountains but their remoteness , the difficult terrain and relatively low population made their conquest and exploitation extremely difficult . The population of the Cuchumatanes is estimated to have been 260 @,@ 000 before European contact . By the time the Spanish physically arrived in the region this had collapsed to 150 @,@ 000 because of the effects of the Old World diseases that had run ahead of them .
= = = Eastern Cuchumatanes , 1529 – 1530 = = =
After Zaculeu fell to the Spanish , the Ixil and Uspantek Maya were sufficiently isolated to evade immediate Spanish attention . The Uspantek and the Ixil were allies and in 1529 Uspantek warriors were harassing Spanish forces and the city of Uspantán was trying to foment rebellion among the K 'iche ' ; the Spanish decided that military action was necessary . Gaspar Arias , magistrate of Guatemala , penetrated the eastern Cuchumatanes with sixty Spanish infantry and three hundred allied indigenous warriors . By early September he had imposed temporary Spanish authority over the Ixil towns of Chajul and Nebaj . The Spanish army then marched east toward Uspantán ; Arias then handed command over to the inexperienced Pedro de Olmos and returned to the capital . Olmos then launched a disastrous full @-@ scale frontal assault on the city . As soon as the Spanish attacked , they were ambushed from the rear by over two thousand Uspantek warriors . The Spanish forces were routed with heavy losses ; many of their indigenous allies were slain , and many more were captured alive by the Uspantek warriors only to be sacrificed .
A year later Francisco de Castellanos set out from Santiago de los Caballeros de Guatemala ( by now relocated to Ciudad Vieja ) on another expedition , leading eight corporals , thirty @-@ two cavalry , forty Spanish infantry and several hundred allied indigenous warriors . The expedition recruited further forces on the march north to the Cuchumatanes . On the steep southern slopes they clashed with between four and five thousand Ixil warriors ; a lengthy battle followed during which the Spanish cavalry outflanked the Ixil army and forced them to retreat to their mountaintop fortress at Nebaj . The Spanish besieged the city , and their indigenous allies managed to penetrate the stronghold and set it on fire . This allowed the Spanish to storm the entrance and break the defences . The victorious Spanish branded surviving warriors as slaves . The inhabitants of Chajul immediately capitulated to the Spanish as soon as news of the battle reached them . The Spanish continued east towards Uspantán to find it defended by ten thousand warriors , including forces from Cotzal , Cunén , Sacapulas and Verapaz . Although heavily outnumbered , the Spanish cavalry and firearms decided the battle . The Spanish overran Uspantán and again branded all surviving warriors as slaves . The surrounding towns also surrendered , and December 1530 marked the end of the military stage of the conquest of the Cuchumatanes .
= = = Western Cuchumatanas and Lacandon Forest , 1529 – 1686 = = =
In 1529 the Chuj city of San Mateo Ixtatán ( then known by the name of Ystapalapán ) was given in encomienda to the conquistador Gonzalo de Ovalle together with Santa Eulalia and Jacaltenango . In 1549 , the first reduction ( reducción in Spanish ) of San Mateo Ixtatán took place , overseen by Dominican missionaries , in the same year the Q 'anjob 'al reducción settlement of Santa Eulalia was founded . Further Q 'anjob 'al reducciones were in place by 1560 . Q 'anjob 'al resistance was largely passive , based on withdrawal to the inaccessible mountains and forests . In 1586 the Mercedarian Order built the first church in Santa Eulalia . The Chuj of San Mateo Ixtatán remained rebellious and resisted Spanish control for longer than their highland neighbours , resistance that was possible owing to their alliance with the lowland Lakandon Ch 'ol to the north .
By the mid @-@ 16th century , the Spanish frontier expanding outwards from Comitán and Ocosingo reached the Lacandon Forest , and further advancement was impeded by the region 's fiercely independent inhabitants . At the time of Spanish contact in the 16th century , the Lacandon Forest was inhabited by Ch 'ol people referred to as Lakam Tun . This name was Hispanicised to Lacandon . The Lakandon were aggressive , and their numbers were swelled by refugees from neighbouring indigenous groups fleeing Spanish domination . The ecclesiastical authorities were so worried by this threat to their peaceful efforts at evangelisation that they eventually supported military intervention . The first Spanish expedition against the Lakandon was carried out in 1559 , commanded by Pedro Ramírez de Quiñones . Repeated expeditions into the Lacandon Forest succeeded in destroying some villages but did not manage to subdue the inhabitants of the region , nor bring it within the Spanish Empire . This successful resistance against Spanish attempts at domination served to attract ever more Indians fleeing colonial rule .
In 1684 , a council led by Enrique Enríquez de Guzmán , the governor of Guatemala , decided on the reduction of San Mateo Ixtatán and nearby Santa Eulalia . On 29 January 1686 , Captain Melchor Rodríguez Mazariegos , acting under orders from the governor , left Huehuetenango for San Mateo Ixtatán , where he recruited indigenous warriors from the nearby villages . To prevent news of the Spanish advance reaching the inhabitants of the Lacandon area , the governor ordered the capture of three of San Mateo 's community leaders , and had them sent under guard to be imprisoned in Huehuetenango . The governor joined Captain Rodríguez Mazariegos in San Mateo Ixtatán on 3 February ; he ordered the captain to remain in the village and use it as a base of operations for penetrating the Lacandon region . Two Spanish missionaries also remained in the town . Governor Enriquez de Guzmán subsequently left San Mateo Ixtatán for Comitán in Chiapas , to enter the Lacandon region via Ocosingo .
= = = Conquest of the Lakandon , 1695 – 1696 = = =
In 1695 the colonial authorities decided to act upon a plan to connect the province of Guatemala with Yucatán , and a three @-@ way invasion of the Lacandon was launched simultaneously from San Mateo Ixtatán , Cobán and Ocosingo . Captain Rodriguez Mazariegos , accompanied by Fray de Rivas and 6 other missionaries together with 50 Spanish soldiers , left Huehuetenango for San Mateo Ixtatán . Following the same route used in 1686 , they managed on the way to recruit 200 indigenous Maya warriors from Santa Eulalia , San Juan Solomá and San Mateo . On 28 February 1695 , all three groups left their respective bases of operations to conquer the Lacandon . The San Mateo group headed northeast into the Lacandon Jungle , and joined up with Jacinto de Barrios Leal , president of the Royal Audiencia of Guatemala .
The soldiers commanded by Barrios Leal conquered a number of Ch 'ol communities . The most important of these was Sakb 'ajlan on the Lacantún River , which was renamed as Nuestra Señora de Dolores , or Dolores del Lakandon , in April 1695 . The Spanish built a fort and garrisoned it with 30 Spanish soldiers . Mercederian friar Diego de Rivas was based at Dolores del Lakandon , and he and his fellow Mercederians baptised several hundred Lakandon Ch 'ols in the following months and established contacts with neighbouring Ch 'ol communities . The third group , under Juan Díaz de Velasco , marched from Verapaz against the Itza of northern Petén . Barrios Leal was accompanied by Franciscan friar Antonio Margil , who remained in Dolores del Lakandon until 1697 . The Ch 'ol of the Lacandon Forest were resettled in Huehuetenango , in the Guatemalan Highlands , in the early 18th century .
= = Land of War : Verapaz , 1537 – 1555 = =
By 1537 the area immediately north of the new colony of Guatemala was being referred to as the Tierra de Guerra ( " Land of War " ) . Paradoxically , it was simultaneously known as Verapaz ( " True Peace " ) . The Land of War described an area that was undergoing conquest ; it was a region of dense forest that was difficult for the Spanish to penetrate militarily . Whenever the Spanish located a centre of population in this region , the inhabitants were moved and concentrated in a new colonial settlement near the edge of the jungle where the Spanish could more easily control them . This strategy resulted in the gradual depopulation of the forest , simultaneously converting it into a wilderness refuge for those fleeing Spanish domination , both for individual refugees and for entire communities . The Land of War , from the 16th century through to the start of the 18th century , included a vast area from Sacapulas in the west to Nito on the Caribbean coast and extended northwards from Rabinal and Salamá , and was an intermediate area between the highlands and the northern lowlands .
Dominican friar Bartolomé de las Casas arrived in the colony of Guatemala in 1537 and immediately campaigned to replace violent military conquest with peaceful missionary work . Las Casas offered to achieve the conquest of the Land of War through the preaching of the Catholic faith .
In this way they congregated a group of Christian Indians in the location of what is now the town of Rabinal . Las Casas was instrumental in the introduction of the New Laws in 1542 , established by the Spanish Crown to control the excesses of the colonists against the indigenous inhabitants of the Americas . As a result , the Dominicans met substantial resistance from the Spanish colonists ; this distracted the Dominicans from their efforts to establish peaceful control over the Land of War .
In 1555 Spanish friar Domingo de Vico offended a local Ch 'ol ruler and was killed by the Acala Ch 'ol and their Lakandon allies . In response to the killing , a punitive expedition was launched , headed by Juan Matalbatz , a Q 'eqchi ' leader from Chamelco ; the independent Indians captured by the Q 'eqchi ' expedition were taken back to Cobán and resettled in Santo Tomás Apóstol .
The Dominicans established themselves in Xocolo on the shore of Lake Izabal in the mid @-@ 16th century . Xocolo became infamous among the Dominican missionaries for the practice of witchcraft by its inhabitants . By 1574 it was the most important staging post for European expeditions into the interior , and it remained important in that role until as late as 1630 , although it was abandoned in 1631 .
= = Conquest and settlement in northern Yucatán , 1540 – 46 = =
In 1540 Montejo the Elder , who was now in his late 60s , turned his royal rights to colonise Yucatán over to his son , Francisco Montejo the Younger . In early 1541 Montejo the Younger joined his cousin in Champton ; he did not remain there long , and quickly moved his forces to Campeche . Once there Montejo the Younger , commanding between three and four hundred Spanish soldiers , established the first permanent Spanish town council in the Yucatán Peninsula . Shortly afterwards , Montejo the Younger summoned the local Maya lords and commanded them to submit to the Spanish Crown . A number of lords submitted peacefully , including the ruler of the Xiu Maya . The lord of the Canul Maya refused to submit and Montejo the Younger sent his cousin against them ( also called Francisco de Montejo ) ; Montejo the Younger remained in Campeche awaiting reinforcements .
Montejo the Younger 's cousin met the Canul Maya at Chakan , not far from T 'ho . On 6 January 1542 he founded the second permanent town council , calling the new colonial town Mérida . On 23 January , Tutul Xiu , the lord of Mani , approached the Spanish encampment at Mérida in peace . He was greatly impressed by a Roman Catholic mass celebrated for his benefit and converted to the new religion . Tutul Xiu was the ruler of the most powerful province of northern Yucatán and his submission to Spain and conversion to Christianity had repercussions throughout the peninsula , and encouraged the lords of the western provinces of the peninsula to accept Spanish rule . The eastern provinces continued to resist Spanish overtures .
Montejo the Younger then sent his cousin to Chauaca where most of the eastern lords greeted him in peace . The Cochua Maya resisted fiercely but were soon defeated . The Cupul Maya also opposed Spanish domination , but were quickly defeated . Montejo continued to the eastern Ekab province . When nine Spaniards were drowned in a storm off Cozumel and another was killed by hostile Maya , rumours grew in the telling and both the Cupul and Cochua provinces once again rose up against their would @-@ be overlords . The Spanish hold on the eastern portion of the peninsula remained tenuous and a number of Maya polities remained independent , including Chetumal , Cochua , Cupul , Sotuta and the Tazes .
On 8 November 1546 an alliance of eastern provinces launched a coordinated uprising against the Spanish . The provinces of Cupul , Cochua , Sotuta , Tazes , Uaymil , Chetumal and Chikinchel united in an effort to drive the invaders from the peninsula ; the uprising lasted four months . Eighteen Spaniards were surprised in the eastern towns , and were sacrificed , and over 400 allied Maya were killed . Mérida and Campeche were forewarned of the impending attack ; Montejo the Younger and his cousin were in Campeche . Montejo the Elder arrived in Mérida from Chiapas in December 1546 , with reinforcements gathered from Champoton and Campeche . The rebellious eastern Maya were finally defeated in a single battle , in which twenty Spaniards and several hundred allied Maya were killed . This battle marked the final conquest of the northern portion of the Yucatán Peninsula . As a result of the uprising and the Spanish response , many of the Maya inhabitants of the eastern and southern territories fled to the still unconquered Petén Basin , in the extreme south .
= = Southern lowlands , 1618 – 97 = =
The Petén Basin covers an area that is now part of Guatemala ; in colonial times it originally fell under the jurisdiction of the Governor of Yucatán , before being transferred to the jurisdiction of the Audiencia Real of Guatemala in 1703 . The Contact Period in the Petén lowlands lasted from 1525 through to 1700 . Superior Spanish weaponry and the use of cavalry , although decisive in the northern Yucatán , were ill @-@ suited to warfare in the dense forests of lowland Petén .
= = = Early 17th century = = =
The leaders of Xocolo and Amatique , backed by the threat of Spanish action , persuaded a community of 190 Toquegua to settle on the Amatique coast in April 1604 . The new settlement immediately suffered a drop in population , but although the Amatique Toquegua were reported extinct before 1613 in some sources , Mercedarian friars were still attending to them in 1625 . In 1628 the towns of the Manche Ch 'ol were placed under the administration of the governor of Verapaz , with Francisco Morán as their ecclesiastical head . Morán moved Spanish soldiers into the region to protect against raids from the Itza to the north . The new Spanish garrison in an area that had not previously seen a heavy Spanish military presence provoked the Manche to revolt , which was followed by abandonment of the indigenous settlements .
Following Cortés ' visit in 1525 , no Spanish attempted to visit the warlike Itza inhabitants of Nojpetén for almost a hundred years . In 1618 two Franciscan friars set out from Mérida on a mission to attempt the peaceful conversion of the still pagan Itza in central Petén . Bartolomé de Fuensalida and Juan de Orbita were accompanied by some Christianised Maya . They were well received at Nojpetén by the current Kan Ek ' . Attempts to convert the Itza failed , and the friars left Nojpetén on friendly terms with the Itza king . The friars returned in October 1619 , and again Kan Ek ' welcomed them in a friendly manner , but this time the Maya priesthood were hostile and the missionaries were expelled without food or water , but survived the journey back to Mérida .
In March 1622 , Captain Francisco de Mirones Lezcano set out from Yucatán with 20 Spanish soldiers and 80 Mayas to launch an assault upon the Itza . His was joined by Franciscan friar Diego Delgado . In May the expedition advanced to Sakalum , where they waited for reinforcements . En route to Nojpetén , Delgado left the expedition to make his own way to Nojpetén with eighty Christianised Maya from Tipuj in Belize ; he was joined by an escort of 13 soldiers . Soon after their arrival at the Itza capital , the Itza seized and sacrificed the Spanish party . Soon afterwards , on 27 January 1624 , an Itza war party led by AjK 'in P 'ol caught Mirones and his soldiers off guard and unarmed in the church at Sakalum and slaughtered them . Spanish reinforcements arrived too late . A number of local Maya men and women had also been killed , and the attackers burned the town .
Following these massacres , the Maya governor of Oxkutzcab , Fernando Kamal , set out with 150 Maya archers to track AjK 'in P 'ol down . The captured Itza captain and his followers were taken back to the Spanish Captain Antonio Méndez de Canzo , interrogated under torture , tried , and executed . These events ended all Spanish attempts to contact the Itza until 1695 . In the 1640s internal strife in Spain distracted the government from attempts to conquer unknown lands ; the Spanish Crown lacked the time , money or interest in such colonial adventures for the next four decades .
= = = Late 17th century = = =
In 1692 Basque nobleman Martín de Ursúa y Arizmendi proposed to the Spanish king the construction of a road from Mérida southwards to link with the Guatemalan colony , in the process " reducing " any independent native populations into colonial congregaciones ; this was part of a greater plan to subjugate the Lakandon and Manche Ch 'ol of southern Petén and the upper reaches of the Usumacinta River . At the beginning of March 1695 , Captain Alonso García de Paredes led a group of 50 Spanish soldiers south into Kejache territory , accompanied by native guides , muleteers and labourers . He rounded up some natives to be moved into colonial settlements , but met with armed Kejache resistance , and retreated around the middle of April .
In March 1695 , Captain Juan Díaz de Velasco set out from Cahabón in Alta Verapaz , Guatemala , with 70 Spanish soldiers , accompanied by a large number of Maya archers from Verapaz , native muleteers , and four Dominican friars . They pressed ahead to Lake Petén Itzá and engaged in a series of fierce skirmishes with Itza hunting parties . At the lakeshore , the Spanish encountered such a large force of Itzas that they retreated south , back to their main camp . The expedition almost immediately withdrew back to Cahabón .
In mid @-@ May 1695 García again marched southwards from Campeche , with 115 Spanish soldiers and 150 Maya musketeers , plus Maya labourers and muleteers . The expedition was joined by two companies of Maya musketeers . García ordered the construction of a fort at Chuntuki , some 25 leagues ( approximately 65 miles or 105 km ) north of Lake Petén Itzá , which served as the main military base for the Camino Real ( " Royal Road " ) project .
The Sajkab 'chen company of native musketeers engaged in a skirmish with about 25 Kejache near the abandoned Kejache town of Chunpich . Several musketeers were injured , and the Kejache retreated without injury . The company seized large amounts of abandoned food from two more deserted settlements and then also retreated . A small group of Franciscans led by friar Andrés de Avendaño sought out the Chunpich Kejache that had engaged the Sajkab 'chen musketeers but were unable to find them , and Avendaño returned to Mérida . Meanwhile , another group of Franciscans continued following the roadbuilders into Kejache territory . Around 3 August García moved his entire army forward to Chunpich , and by October Spanish soldiers had established themselves near the source of the San Pedro River . By November Tzuktok ' was garrisoned with 86 soldiers and more at Chuntuki . In December 1695 the main force was reinforced with 250 soldiers , of which 150 were Spanish and pardo and 100 were Maya , together with labourers and muleteers .
= = = = Franciscan expeditions , September 1695 – January 1696 = = = =
Juan de San Buenaventura 's small group of Franciscans arrived in Chuntuki on 30 August 1695 . In early November 1695 , two Franciscans were sent to establish a mission at Pak 'ek 'em , where they were well received by the cacique ( native chief ) and his pagan priest . Pak 'ek 'em was sufficiently far from the new Spanish road that it was free from military interference , and the friars oversaw the building of a church in what was the largest mission town in Kejache territory . A second church was built at B 'atkab ' to attend to over 100 K 'ejache refugees who had been gathered there under the stewardship of a Spanish friar ; a further church was established at Tzuktok ' , overseen by another friar .
Franciscan Andrés de Avendaño left Mérida on 13 December 1695 , and arrived in Nojpetén around 14 January 1696 , accompanied by four companions . The Franciscans baptised over 300 Itza children over the following four days . Avendaño tried to convince Kan Ek ' to convert to Christianity and surrender to the Spanish Crown , without success . The king of the Itza , cited Itza prophecy and said the time was not yet right . Kan Ek ' learnt of a plot by the Kowoj and their allies to ambush and kill the Franciscans , and the Itza king advised them to return to Mérida via Tipuj .
= = = = February – March 1696 = = = =
When Captain García de Paredes arrived at Chuntuki in mid @-@ January , he only had 90 soldiers plus labourers . Captain Pedro de Zubiaur , García ’ s senior officer , arrived at Lake Petén Itza with 60 musketeers , two Franciscans , and allied Yucatec Maya warriors . They were also accompanied by about 40 Maya porters . They were approached by about 300 canoes carrying approximately 2 @,@ 000 Itza warriors . The warriors mingled freely with the Spanish party and the encounter degenerated into a skirmish . About a dozen of the Spanish party were seized , and three were killed . The Spanish soldiers opened fire with their muskets , and the Itza retreated across the lake with their prisoners , who included the two Franciscans . The Spanish party retreated from the lake shore and regrouped on open ground where they were surrounded by thousands of Itza warriors . Zubiaur ordered his men to fire a volley that killed between 30 and 40 Itzas . Realising that they were hopelessly outnumbered , the Spanish retreated towards Chuntuki , abandoning their captured companions . Martín de Ursúa now began to organise an all @-@ out assault on Nojpetén . Work on the road was redoubled and about a month after the battle at Ch 'ich ' the Spanish arrived at the lakeshore , now supported by artillery .
A Guatemalan expedition against the Itza set out from Cahabón in early 1696 . An advance party was led into an Itza trap and 87 expedition members were lost , including 50 soldiers , two Dominicans and about 35 Maya helpers . The rest of the party arrived at the shore of Lake Petén Itzá , but quickly retreated back to Guatemala .
= = = = Assault on Nojpetén = = = =
Martín de Urzúa y Arizmendi arrived on the western shore of Lake Petén Itzá with his soldiers on 26 February 1697 . Once there they built a heavily @-@ armed galeota attack boat , which carried 114 men and at least five artillery pieces . On 10 March , Ursúa received a mixed Itza and Yalain embassy in peace , and invited Kan Ek ' to visit his encampment three days later . On the appointed day , Kan Ek ' failed to arrive ; instead Maya warriors amassed both along the shore and in canoes upon the lake . That morning , a waterbourne assault was launched upon Kan Ek 's capital . The galeota , commanded by Ursúa , rowed east with 108 soldiers ; half way across the lake it encountered a large fleet of canoes blocking the approach to Nojpetén – and simply rowed through them . A large quantity of defenders had gathered along the shore of Nojpetén and on the roofs of the city . Itza archers shot at the invaders from the canoes , but the defending Itza soon fled from the withering Spanish gunfire .
The city fell after a brief but bloody battle in which many Itza warriors died ; the Spanish suffered only minor casualties . After the battle the surviving defenders swam across to the mainland and melted away into the forests , leaving the Spanish to occupy the abandoned town . Martín de Ursúa renamed Nojpetén as Nuestra Señora de los Remedios y San Pablo , Laguna del Itza ( " Our Lady of Remedy and Saint Paul , Lake of the Itza " ) . Kan Ek ' was soon captured with help from the Yalain Maya ruler Chamach Xulu ; The Kowoj king was also soon captured , together with other Maya nobles and their families . With the defeat of the Itza , the last independent and unconquered native kingdom in the Americas fell to the European colonisers .
= = Final years of conquest = =
During the campaign to conquer the Itza of Petén , the Spanish sent expeditions to harass and relocate the Mopan north of Lake Izabal and the Ch 'ol Maya of the Amatique forests to the east . They were resettled on the south shore of the lake . By the latter half of the 18th century , the local inhabitants consisted entirely of Spaniards , mulattos and others of mixed race , all associated with the Castillo de San Felipe de Lara fort guarding the entrance to Lake Izabal . There was a drastic depopulation of Lake Izabal and the Motagua Delta due to constant slave raids by the Miskito Sambu of the Caribbean coast that effectively ended the Maya population of the region ; the captured Maya were sold into slavery in the British colony of Jamaica .
In the late 17th century the small population of Ch 'ol Maya in southern Petén and Belize was forcibly removed to Alta Verapaz , where the people were absorbed into the Q 'eqchi ' population . The Ch 'ol of the Lacandon Jungle were resettled in Huehuetenango in the early 18th century . By 1699 the neighbouring Toquegua no longer existed as a separate people because of a combination of high mortality and intermarriage with the Amatique Indians . At around this time the Spanish decided on the reduction of the independent Mopan Maya living to the north of Lake Izabal . Catholic priests from Yucatán founded several mission towns around Lake Petén Itzá in 1702 – 1703 . Surviving Itza and Kowoj were resettled in the new colonial towns by a mixture of persuasion and force . Kowoj and Itza leaders in these mission towns rebelled in 1704 , but although well @-@ planned , the rebellion was quickly crushed . Its leaders were executed and most of the mission towns were abandoned . By 1708 only about 6 @,@ 000 Maya remained in central Petén , compared to ten times that number in 1697 . Although disease was responsible for the majority of deaths , Spanish expeditions and internecine warfare between indigenous groups also played their part .
= = Legacy of the Spanish conquest = =
The initial shock of the Spanish conquest was followed by decades of heavy exploitation of the indigenous peoples , allies and foes alike . Over the following two hundred years colonial rule gradually imposed Spanish cultural standards on the subjugated peoples . The Spanish reducciones created new nucleated settlements laid out in a grid pattern in the Spanish style , with a central plaza , a church and the town hall housing the civil government , known as the ayuntamiento . This style of settlement can still be seen in the villages and towns of the area . The introduction of Catholicism was the main vehicle for cultural change , and resulted in religious syncretism . Old World cultural elements came to be thoroughly adopted by Maya groups . The greatest change was replacement of the pre @-@ Columbian economic order by European technology and livestock ; this included the introduction of iron and steel tools to replace Neolithic tools , and of cattle , pigs and chickens . New crops were also introduced ; however , sugarcane and coffee led to plantations that economically exploited native labour . Some indigenous elites such as the Xajil Kaqchikel noble family did manage to maintain a level of status into the colonial period . During the second half of the 18th century , adult male Indians were heavily taxed , often being forced into debt peonage . Western Petén and neighbouring Chiapas remained sparsely populated , and the Maya inhabitants avoided contact with the Spanish .
= = Historical sources = =
The sources describing the Spanish conquest of Guatemala include those written by the Spanish themselves , among them two letters written by conquistador Pedro de Alvarado in 1524 , describing the initial campaign to subjugate the Guatemalan Highlands . Gonzalo de Alvarado y Chávez wrote an account that mostly supports that of Pedro de Alvarado . Pedro de Alvarado 's brother Jorge wrote another account to the king of Spain that explained it was his own campaign of 1527 – 1529 that established the Spanish colony . Bernal Díaz del Castillo wrote a lengthy account of the conquest of Mexico and neighbouring regions , the Historia verdadera de la conquista de la Nueva España ( " True History of the Conquest of New Spain " ) ; his account of the conquest of Guatemala generally agrees with that of the Alvarados . He also included his own description of Cortes ' expedition , and an account of the conquest of the Chiapas highlands . Conquistador Diego Godoy accompanied Luis Marín on his reconnaissance of Chiapas , and wrote an account of the battle against the inhabitants of Chamula . Hernán Cortés described his expedition to Honduras in the fifth letter of his Cartas de Relación . Dominican friar Bartolomé de las Casas wrote a highly critical account of the Spanish conquest of the Americas and included accounts of some incidents in Guatemala .
The Tlaxcalan allies of the Spanish wrote their own accounts of the conquest ; these included a letter to the Spanish king protesting at their poor treatment once the campaign was over . Other accounts were in the form of questionnaires answered before colonial magistrates to protest and register a claim for recompense . Two pictorial accounts painted in the stylised indigenous pictographic tradition have survived ; these are the Lienzo de Quauhquechollan , and the Lienzo de Tlaxcala . Accounts of the conquest as seen from the point of view of the defeated highland Maya kingdoms are included in a number of indigenous documents , including the Annals of the Kaqchikels . A letter from the defeated Tz 'utujil Maya nobility to the Spanish king written in 1571 details the exploitation of the subjugated peoples . Francisco Antonio de Fuentes y Guzmán was a colonial Guatemalan historian of Spanish descent who wrote La Recordación Florida . The book was written in 1690 and is regarded as one of the most important works of Guatemalan history . Field investigation has tended to support the estimates of indigenous population and army sizes given by Fuentes y Guzmán .
In 1688 colonial historian Diego López de Cogolludo detailed the expeditions of the Spanish missionaries in 1618 and 1619 in his Los tres siglos de la dominación española en Yucatán o sea historia de esta provincia ( " The three centuries of Spanish domination in Yucatán , or the history of this province " ) ; he based it upon Fuensalida 's report , which is now lost .
Franciscan friar Andrés Avendaño y Loyola recorded his own account of his late 17th century journeys to Nojpetén . When the Spanish finally conquered Petén in 1697 they produced a vast quantity of documentation . Juan de Villagutierre Soto @-@ Mayor was a Spanish colonial official who wrote the Historia de la Conquista de la Provincia de el Itza , reduccion , y progressos de la de el Lacandon , y otras naciones de indios barbaros , de la mediacion de el Reyno de Guatimala , a las provincias del Yucatan en la América Septentrional ( " History of the Conquest of the Province of the Itza , reduction , and advances in that of the Lacandon , and other nations of barbarous indians , and the intervention of the Kingdom of Guatemala , and the provinces of Yucatan in Northern America " ) . This detailed the history of Petén from 1525 through to 1699 .
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= Editors ( band ) =
Editors are an English rock band , formed in 2002 in Stafford . Previously known as Pilot , The Pride and Snowfield , the band currently consists of Tom Smith ( lead vocals , guitar , piano ) , Russell Leetch ( bass guitar , synthesizer , backing vocals ) , Ed Lay ( drums , percussion , backing vocals ) , Justin Lockey ( lead guitar ) , and Elliott Williams ( keys , synthesizers , guitars , and backing vocals ) .
Editors have so far released two platinum studio albums , and five in total , with several million combined sales . Their debut album The Back Room was released in 2005 . It contained the hits " Munich " and " Blood " and the following year received a Mercury Prize nomination .
Their follow @-@ up album An End Has a Start went to number 1 in the UK Album Chart in June 2007 and earned the band a Brit Awards nomination for best British Band . It also spawned another Top 10 hit single , " Smokers Outside the Hospital Doors " . The band 's third album , In This Light and on This Evening , was released in October 2009 and went straight to number 1 in the UK Album Chart . The band released their fourth studio album , The Weight of Your Love , in July 2013 , followed by self @-@ produced In Dream in October 2015 .
Alongside their critical acclaim and strong success in the charts , Editors have consistently enjoyed sold @-@ out tours and numerous headlining festival slots . Their brand of dark indie rock is commonly compared to the sound of bands such as Echo & the Bunnymen , Joy Division , Interpol , The Chameleons and U2 .
= = History = =
= = = Formation ( 2002 – 2004 ) = = =
The band met while studying Music Technology at Staffordshire University , but they realised technology wasn 't the right career for them and instead formed a band , and went on to perform in Wolverhampton , Birmingham and Stafford .
The band was initially known as Pilot and played its first show under this name in 2002 . While in college , the band constructed a marketing strategy which involved placing hundreds of promotional stickers across the walls of Stafford asking " Who 's the Pilot ? " . However , they realised the name was already taken by a 1970s Scottish pop group , so they changed their name to The Pride .
They made a promo under this name with the tracks " Come Share the View " and " Forest Fire " and then uploaded them onto the internet , making the songs available to listen to on BBC Radio 1 's Onemusic Unsigned . A review of the songs reads " The Pride keep things subliminally lo @-@ fi . Refreshingly simple and restrained , " Come Share The View " is a lesson in welding hypnotic soundscapes with white noise while showing allegiance to the school of slo @-@ mo on " Forest Fire " " . The band then took its music offline to create mystery and anxiousness and ensure that more " A & R " representatives came to see them perform .
They then changed the line @-@ up with Ed Lay replacing Geraint Owen on drums as he began to focus on his Welsh band The Heights . Under this lineup they became known as Snowfield . They played their debut gig under this name at the request of Fused Magazine in March 2003 . The following summer the band self @-@ released a demo six @-@ track EP , all of which went on to become future Editors songs . Then , as it was the home of their management and the nearest big city , the band relocated to Birmingham after graduation in the autumn of 2003 .
For the next year , the different band members then worked part @-@ time jobs along with the rest of their work with the band . After continuous gigging around the Midlands , it wasn 't long until word of mouth helped them become a popular unsigned band . The band then sent out a one track demo cd of Bullets , earning them the interest of several British labels , with thirty A & R reps coming to see them play at Birmingham . In October 2004 , the group signed to Newcastle based indie label Kitchenware Records . Upon signing to the record label they changed their band name to Editors .
= = = The Back Room ( 2005 – 2006 ) = = =
After supporting bands such as Puressence and Oceansize , Editors released debut single " Bullets " recorded with producer Gavin Monaghan as a limited edition of 1000 copies on Kitchenware Records on 24 January 2005 . The song had previously been played by BBC Radio 1 disc jockey Zane Lowe , where it earned the honour of ' Single of the Week ' . The limited run then sold out on the day of its release , with copies famously then sold later in the week for more than £ 30 on eBay .
The release of " Munich " followed in April of that year and gave the band their first Top 25 hit , another sold out UK tour and a place on MTV ’ s Spanking New Music show in Manchester . At this point , due to the band 's increasing popularity , Editors and Kitchenware signed an exclusive distribution deal with Sony BMG . " Blood " was released two months later , reaching number 18 in the UK Singles Chart in its first week , selling 5 @,@ 286 copies . With these releases their fanbase continued to grow and on 25 July 2005 their debut album The Back Room was released to critical acclaim and commercial success . In its first week , the album entered the charts at number 13 , selling 17 @,@ 627 copies . After re @-@ issuing " Bullets " and achieving another Top 30 hit , Editors gained a high profile support slot , supporting Franz Ferdinand in arenas across the UK and Europe .
Editors then re @-@ issued " Munich " in January 2006 , selling one and half thousand more copies than the last time it was released . The song gave Editors their first Top 10 single and an appearance on Top of the Pops . With the single release , The Back Room also rose back up the album charts , peaking at number 2 . It sold an additional 40 @,@ 000 copies in the week of " Munich " ' s release and went platinum in the process . A joint North American tour with Stellastarr * coincided with the American release of The Back Room in March 2006 . It was released by Fader Label and sold 35 @,@ 000 albums after 20 weeks . The band went on to play influential American festivals in 2006 such as Coachella and Lollapalooza . Editors proceeded to perform " Munich " on the American television show Late Night with Conan O 'Brien .
At the end of March , Editors released " All Sparks " as a single in the United Kingdom , achieving a position of 21 in the singles chart . After a European tour which included three successive nights at Brixton Academy , Editors re @-@ issued a limited edition of " Blood " . It entered the Top 40 , pushing the album up the chart 45 places . Shortly after this , The Back Room hit the million mark in sales worldwide and was also nominated for the 2006 Mercury Prize . After a string of high @-@ profile festival shows across Europe , including slots on T in the Park , V 2006 and the Isle of Wight Festival , Editors began work on their second album .
= = = An End Has a Start ( 2007 – 2008 ) = = =
Editors recorded their second album An End Has a Start with producer Jacknife Lee in Grouse Lodge , Ireland over a two @-@ month period beginning in late November 2006 . It was released on 25 June 2007 and went straight to number 1 in the UK album charts , selling 59 @,@ 405 copies in its first week . The album was preceded by the Top 10 single " Smokers Outside the Hospital Doors " on the 18th . The song was Editors ' highest @-@ charting single at number 7 and it also earned its own Making the Video episode on MTV .
Just after its release , Editors played at the Glastonbury Festival with a second from top slot on The Other Stage . They also played many other festivals such as Oxegen , Lowlands and Pukkelpop over the following weeks , as well as playing their first ever tour dates in Australia and New Zealand . They then released the album 's title track " An End Has a Start " in September to coincide with their North American tour . Editors went on to play the song live on American television shows such as Jimmy Kimmel Live ! and The Tonight Show with Jay Leno .
Upon returning to the UK , the band contributed a cover of The Cure 's " Lullaby " to the Radio 1 Established 1967 compilation , which was released on 1 October 2007 . Shortly after this , Editors played a 75 @-@ minute set for the BBC Electric Proms at KOKO in London with backing from a classical string quartet . In November , they released " The Racing Rats " as the third single off the album . Editors played it live on ' Friday Night with Jonathan Ross ' and it helped the song reach number 26 in the UK Charts . It also reached number 12 in the Dutch Top 40 , the band 's highest ever single charting outside of the UK at that point .
For the first two months of 2008 , Editors played 30 shows on a tour across America and Canada . During the tour Editors were nominated for a Brit Award , in the Best British Group Category . The nomination resulted in increased acclaim from the media with The Mail on Sunday newspaper declaring them as the second biggest British band of the 2000s decade after Arctic Monkeys . Also as a result of the nomination , one of the North American tour dates had to be cancelled , as the band had to return to London to attend the prize ceremony . A month later , Editors announced " Push Your Head Towards the Air " to be the fourth single from An End Has a Start . This release was a limited special edition which was ineligible to chart . Along with this release Editors engaged in their biggest and most extensive British tour to date . They played arenas such as the 12 @,@ 000 capacity National Indoor Arena in Birmingham and two sold out dates in London 's Alexandra Palace .
In June , they released " Bones " as a download only single in Continental Europe to coincide with the summer festival season , the video of which was directed by the band 's bassist Russell Leetch . Shortly afterwards , Editors played at the Glastonbury Festival , playing on the pyramid stage for the first time . The band then played their second major support slot of their history supporting R.E.M. on a 16 date summer tour across Europe alongside their festival dates which included the headlining of the Lowlands Festival in August .
= = = In This Light and on This Evening ( 2009 – 2010 ) = = =
Lead singer Smith revealed that the band will explore a new direction on their next album , pursuing a new , rawer sound . Before January 2009 , Editors had written around eighteen new songs for the new album and they have been described as some of the most synthetic , raw and anthemic songs they have written to date . In October the band went to the studio to record some demos . The band spent the first week of April recording the album and on 8 April , they released a short video with information about the recording process . It announced that Mark ' Flood ' Ellis would be the producer for the album . Earlier on in the year , the sound of the album was said to have a very electric feel ; the band often using the Terminator theme song as a reference .
On 2 June 2009 , it was announced that the new album title would be In This Light and on This Evening and that they would be the first band to play at the new O2 Academy Birmingham . Through producer Flood 's heavy usage of synthesisers , the album provided a synthpop / post @-@ punk sound to Editors ' production . Flood , who is famous for collaborating with electronic music influenced bands like U2 , Depeche Mode , The Killers and Erasure , helped develop synthetic elements on the album , which resulted in a mixed reception from long @-@ term fans as to the group 's new direction .
The album was released on 12 October and debuted at number one on the UK Albums Chart . Alongside the album , the band released lead single " Papillon " and it led them to their first taste of number one success outside the UK , with the song hitting the top position in Belgium and being certified Gold in the process . After releasing singles " You Don 't Know Love " , " Last Day " and " Eat Raw Meat = Blood Drool " to limited chart success , it was announced that their unreleased song " No Sound But the Wind " would appear on the New Moon soundtrack . A live version of the song was later released in continental Europe in September 2010 and again achieved the same success as " Papillon " in Belgium , going to number 1 and being certified Gold .
In November 2010 it was confirmed that a boxset called Unedited compiling the first 3 albums , as well as b @-@ sides and previously unreleased songs on 7 12 " vinyls , 7 CDs and 7 MP3 albums , alongside a book of photos and words , would be released in early 2011 . The boxset included the full band version of " No Sound But The Wind " , demos of " Camera " and " These Streets Are Still Home To Me " , and an unreleased version of " The Weight of the World " , called " Every Little Piece " .
= = = The Weight of Your Love and Urbanowicz 's departure ( 2011 – 2014 ) = = =
On 26 November 2010 Smith announced on the band 's website that they had started work on a new album , that it would again be produced by Flood , and that they were recording " in stages over 2011 " , and that first rehearsals started in " a matter of days " .
On 26 March 2011 , Editors performed their first tour date of the year at the Royal Albert Hall as the headline act for the penultimate show in the 2011 Teenage Cancer Trust , during which they showcased two new songs , " Two Hearted Spider " and " The Sting " . In October 2011 , Editors played their first shows ever in Latin America with two dates in Mexico City .
In October 2011 , Smith spoke to Q Radio about the new album . " It 's still going to be fairly electronic , I think , compared to our earlier records . So far it feels quite muscular with a bit of swagger and a bit more of a groove . The last record was liberating in lots of different ways and I think we just need to , kind of , build on that ..... with a nod to our past as well . It 's our fourth record and we don 't want to feel like we 're doing the same thing again . "
On 22 November 2011 , Russell Leetch , the band 's bassist posted on the band 's official site saying they have seven songs ready to record and some more ideas " floating around " and that the album " will be with you next year . "
On 16 April 2012 , it was announced that Chris Urbanowicz had left the group due to a difference in musical direction .
Following Urbanowicz 's departure the band played their first shows as a five piece with new members Justin Lockey and Elliot Williams in Birmingham , UK on 26 and 27 June 2012 . On 29 June , they played at Main Square Festival in Arras , France , and on 30 June they headlined Rock Werchter festival in Belgium . At the shows they played new versions of " Two Hearted Spider " and " The Sting " as well as two new songs , " Sugar " and " Nothing " .
On 8 April 2013 Tom Smith stated , via his official Twitter account , that " the record is being mastered today. it 's finished. done . "
On 6 May 2013 Zane Lowe stated , via his official Twitter account , that the new Editors record would be entitled The Weight of Your Love . The first single for this album is " A Ton of Love " . In February 2014 the band released their fourth single , " Sugar " .
During 2014 , Elliot Williams left the band for a period of touring to work on his own music project YdotOdotU , supporting The 1975 . The band continued to tour with musician Nicholas Willes .
= = = In Dream ( 2014 – present ) = = =
In October 2014 , the band reconvened in Scotland to work on their fifth album . During a session supporting Andy Burrows on Jo Wiley 's Radio 2 show , Tom Smith confirmed the album 's songs had been written .
On 20 April 2015 , the band released a new song entitled ' No Harm ' for free download . The song later became available through retailers , and on 11 May , its official video was posted on their YouTube channel . On 18 June , they released a video for the album 's lead single , ' Marching Orders ' . The video , directed by Rahi Rezvani ( as was ' No Harm ' ) , was filmed in the Western Highlands of Scotland . The song was released on 19 June for digital download , and a limited run of 300 12 " vinyl test pressings were distributed randomly throughout Oxfam stores .
On 15 July 2015 the band announced the album In Dream via Facebook . It is the first Editors record to feature a duet . The third single and video ' Life is a Fear ' got its first play on Zane Lowe 's Apple Music Beats1 radio show on 11 August 2015 . Its video , again directed by Rahi Rezvani , was uploaded to YouTube on the same day . On 22 September , Editors shared ' The Law ' , an album track which features Rachel Goswell of Slowdive .
The fifth album In Dream , produced by Editors themselves and mixed by Alan Moulder , was released on 2 October 2015 . It marks the band 's collaboration with the Iranian born Dutch photographer , film and music video director Rahi Rezvani who also directed the video for ' Ocean of Night ' , released on 24 November . In October 2015 , Editors together with Brussels Beer Project has released their own beer ' Salvation ' , named after a track on their album In Dream .
In support of the album the band embarked on a 42 @-@ date tour , playing throughout October , November and December in the UK , Ireland and Europe . Editors supported Manic Street Preachers across the UK on the 20th anniversary tour of the album Everything Must Go . They are confirmed for the Glastonbury , Bråvalla , Hurricane / Southside , Rock Werchter and Bilbao BBK Live 2016 festivals , among many others .
= = Musical style = =
Editors ' own variation of dark indie guitar rock draws on influences from both older and contemporary bands . Their influences include Echo & the Bunnymen , Joy Division , The Strokes , The Walkmen , Elbow. and R.E.M .. The band draw their musical style particularly from the latter two bands ' debut albums Asleep in the Back and Murmur . While often compared to Joy Division and Echo and the Bunnymen by the media , the band commented that those bands are too old to have a major impact on their musical style . Upon Editors ' first appearances in the British music scene , they were also heavily compared to American indie band Interpol .
Editors ' first album , The Back Room , was described as having a wiry and raw sound , which led it to being famously dubbed ' dark disco ' by the NME . This sound was created by the use of synthesizers , catchy guitar riffs and simple , ambiguous lyrics . An End Has a Start showed progression to a new ' bigger ' sound . This new sound was created by adding more textured layers to the songs as well as incorporating new forms of music into them . These include the adding of a choir in " Smokers Outside the Hospital Doors " and the inclusion of the sounds of the band playing Hide @-@ and @-@ seek in the song " Spiders " .
Lead singer Smith announced that the band would explore a new direction on their next album , pursuing a new , rawer sound . The new sound materialised itself on the third album through the use of traditional synthesizers instead of the band 's previous use of guitars . The producer of In This Light and on This Evening , Flood also increased the importance of " vibe " in the music 's sound , making it darker than the previous two albums , while also attempting to make the album sound as if it had been recorded live .
While Smith tends to write the lyrics and chords , song writing overall is a collaborative effort . The song writing starts with Smith on the piano or acoustic guitar where he records them and sends them to the other band members where the song is turned into a full ' Editors song ' . Smith has said that he purposely makes the lyrics ambiguous so people can draw their own conclusions .
" To us , it 's interesting if it has a darkness , " said Smith in 2015 . " Whatever that is . On the lyric side of things , if I was singing about dancefloors or happier or rosier things , it wouldn 't ring true for me . I don 't know why that is . People quite often say , ' oh , you write these sad lyrics but you 're not a sad person ' - and I 'm not ... I don 't think you need to be sad to write a sad song , everybody has a dark side . "
= = Discography = =
Studio albums
The Back Room ( 2005 )
An End Has a Start ( 2007 )
In This Light and on This Evening ( 2009 )
The Weight of Your Love ( 2013 )
In Dream ( 2015 )
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= Darren O 'Dea =
Darren O 'Dea ( born 4 February 1987 ) is an Irish professional footballer who plays as a centre @-@ back for Scottish Premiership club Dundee .
O 'Dea began his career on the youth team of Celtic , with whom he played from 2006 to 2012 . During his time on Celtic , he was loaned to Reading , Ipswich Town and Leeds United . While playing for Leeds , O 'Dea won the Ireland Young International Player of the Year Award . For more first @-@ team opportunities he switched clubs and countries , joining Toronto FC of Major League Soccer for a year until 2013 . The following season , he represented FC Metalurh Donetsk in Ukraine . O 'Dea 's stint was cut short due to the Ukrainian political situation , and he returned to England with Blackpool . In July 2015 , he signed with Indian Super League club Mumbai City FC .
After being capped by the youth national teams of the Republic of Ireland , O 'Dea made his senior @-@ team debut in 2009 and has been capped 20 times . He represented Ireland at the 2012 UEFA European Championship .
= = Club career = =
= = = Celtic = = =
Born in Dublin , O 'Dea played for Home Farm before he was signed by Celtic as a teenager . After making his way through the reserves and academy side , he made his first @-@ team debut for Celtic in the Scottish League Cup against St Mirren in September 2006 . A month later , O 'Dea made his league debut against Inverness Caledonian Thistle , where he played the last thirty minutes after substituting for Gary Caldwell . His UEFA Champions League debut was on 6 December against Danish club F.C. Copenhagen as a substitute for the injured Stephen McManus . O 'Dea made his first league starting appearance against Dunfermline Athletic four days after his Champions League debut . Later that month he scored his first goal in a match against Dundee United , with his rebound of a 78th @-@ minute free kick by Shunsuke Nakamura tying the match 2 – 2 . O 'Dea 's first season saw Celtic win the 2007 Scottish Cup Final , where he scored a goal against Livingston .
After playing 16 times for Celtic , O 'Dea signed a three @-@ year contract in March 2007 and considered it a " reward for the hard work " he had done . In his second season he incorporated Celtic win the league championship , although he did not feature in the final against Dundee . After O 'Dea did not play for two months ( since his last Champions League match against FC Spartak Moscow ) , the BBC reported in October that he would be recalled to the injury @-@ plagued team as a replacement for Gary Caldwell , and he played the entire league match against Rangers on 20 October 2007 . That season , he primarily played centre @-@ back .
During the 2008 – 09 season O 'Dea made a total of sixteen appearances , scoring twice . His extra @-@ time goal in the 2009 Scottish League Cup Final gave Celtic the trophy . After playing fifty times for the club , O 'Dea was loaned to championship club Reading in September 2009 for more first @-@ team experience and he called it a " massive chance " to represent Celtic . He made his debut in a 0 – 0 draw against Doncaster Rovers , with his second @-@ half shot saved by Doncaster goalkeeper Neil Sullivan . In a September interview , O 'Dea was reluctant to return to Celtic 's few match opportunities .
Returning from Reading in January 2010 , he started all five games that month . O 'Dea was appointed stand @-@ in captain after Stephen McManus went on loan to Middlesbrough and Gary Caldwell left for Wigan . Again superfluous on Celtic , he was loaned to Ipswich Town on 18 August 2010 until January 2011 and made his Ipswich debut against Crystal Palace on 21 August . In January O 'Dea said he was uncertain if his loan would be extended because of the sacking of Ipswich manager Roy Keane , expressing his desire to stay . New manager Paul Jewell unexpectedly extended his loan to the end of the season . Vital Football praised O 'Dea 's performance in a league cup match against Arsenal , with Jewell calling it " tremendous and crucial in the result " . Two months later , he expressed a desire to return to Celtic instead of signing permanently with Ipswich . O 'Dea said he would play for another club if he did not have first @-@ team opportunities at Celtic , since he felt that playing was " not about sitting on a bench " .
In May 2011 , he said he " may quit Celtic " to play regularly and represent the national team at the 2012 UEFA Euro qualifiers . The following month Leeds United signed him on loan until the end of the season , and he said his objective on his new club was to win promotion to Premier League . O 'Dea made his Leeds debut in a 3 – 1 loss to Southampton . He scored his first goal for the club against Coventry City , an " angled shot " for a 1 – 1 draw . O 'Dea again found the net in the next game , against Peterborough United , in the 95th minute for a 3 – 2 win . Against Cardiff City , according to the BBC Leeds conceded a goal due to O 'Dea 's " indecision " which " opened the door for Joe Mason " . In a January 2012 interview he expressed his desire to sign permanently with Leeds , although he received a red card in a loss to Blackpool . O 'Dea played 38 times for Leeds , scoring twice . Due to his form with Leeds and Ireland , O 'Dea and teammate Aidy White were nominated for the Young International Player of the Year at the Football Association of Ireland International Football Awards . He won the award in a ceremony held in February 2012 .
After spending the previous two seasons out on loan , O 'Dea was released by Celtic at the end of his contract on 1 June 2012 despite a one @-@ year contract @-@ extension option . He said he " had a great time at Celtic and have a lot of friends there so it was important for me that I left properly " .
= = = Toronto FC = = =
O 'Dea signed with Major League Soccer club Toronto FC on 3 August 2012 , and made his club debut on 18 August in a 1 – 0 home loss to Sporting Kansas City . According to CBC News , he looked " lively " in his first match with the team . In a match against Houston Dynamo he passed to Terry Dunfield , who scored , and at the end of the game said he was " delighted " with the result . Manager Paul Mariner named O 'Dea team captain in September , succeeding the injured Torsten Frings . The following month , he was unable to play a match against Montreal Impact due to a thigh injury sustained during World Cup qualifying play for Ireland . In O 'Dea 's first season for Toronto , he played nine times as Toronto finished tenth in the Eastern Conference . O 'Dea was employed at left back for the 2013 season after the regular player at that position was injured . According to him , it had been two years since he had previously played left back . O 'Dea scored his first goal for Toronto on 3 July 2013 in a 3 – 3 home draw with Canadian rivals Montreal Impact . Because of his " keen sense of positioning and timing " against Sporting Kansas City , he was named to the Team of the Week for 12 March . Originally part of a transfer ( a " win @-@ win for both parties " , according to head coach Ryan Nelsen , since O 'Dea was the highest @-@ paid player in the league ) , he was released by Toronto on 18 July 2013 to sign with FC Metalurh Donetsk . Club president Kevin Payne wished him luck and hoped he would return in the future . O 'Dea played a total of 26 times for Toronto , scoring one goal and setting up three , and was succeeded as team captain by Steven Caldwell .
= = = Metalurh Donetsk = = =
After his release from Toronto O 'Dea signed a three @-@ year contract with Ukraine 's FC Metalurh Donetsk . He debuted for the team in a July 20 , 2013 1 – 1 draw with FC Karpaty Lviv , playing 46 minutes before being substituted . O 'Dea scored his first goal for Metalurh in his second game , a 2 – 1 away win over Vorskla Poltava . He left the club in August 2014 , terminating his contract two years early due to the unrest in Ukraine . O 'Dea described the situation in the country as " hostile and intense , but also surreal " .
= = = Blackpool = = =
O 'Dea then signed with championship club Blackpool in December 2014 , making his debut in a 6 – 1 loss to Bournemouth . Bournemouth 's fourth goal was scored by Brett Pitman , converting a penalty shot incurred by O 'Dea ( who fouled Callum Wilson in the penalty area ) . Against Wolverhampton Wanderers , the BBC reported that he " got into a terrible muddle trying to cut out a pass from Kevin McDonald " and allowed Benik Afobe ( in his first game for Wolverhampton ) to score the second goal . O 'Dea was injured in a match against Nottingham Forest in February 2015 , forcing him to miss the game with Blackburn Rovers . Released when his contract expired in May , he said the club had a " disastrous season " . O 'Dea played 20 times for Blackpool .
= = = Mumbai City = = =
Although the Toronto Sun reported in May 2015 that O 'Dea might re @-@ sign with the city 's MLS club , he signed a contract until 22 December with Indian Super League club Mumbai City FC , managed by Nicolas Anelka . Calling his signing " a new experience , a new chapter " , he said he knew little about the quality of football in the league . O 'Dea made his ISL debut on 10 October , starting in a goalless draw at Kerala Blasters . He left the club after making nine appearances .
= = = Dundee = = =
O 'Dea signed a short @-@ term contract with Dundee in January 2016 . On 22 March 2016 , he signed a new three @-@ year contract .
= = International career = =
After playing for the Irish under @-@ 19 and under @-@ 21 teams , O 'Dea was called up to the international squad within a year . Promoted to the Irish under @-@ 21 international squad by manager Don Givens on 3 March 2007 , he was the team captain . Less than a week later , O 'Dea was named to the international squad for Ireland 's UEFA Euro 2008 qualifying Group D matches on 24 and 28 March .
On 13 May 2008 , he was listed on Giovanni Trapattoni 's first squad as Ireland 's manager for the 2010 FIFA World Cup qualification – UEFA Group 8 matches against Bulgaria and Italy . O 'Dea made his senior @-@ team debut on 8 September 2009 in a 1 – 0 friendly win over South Africa at Thomond Park in Limerick as a 60th @-@ minute substitute for Paul McShane .
After a match against the Czech Republic , O 'Dea said he dreamed of being named to the Irish squad for UEFA Euro 2012 . Although he was on the roster for the tournament in Poland and Ukraine , he did not appear ; the Irish were eliminated from the group stage . O 'Dea scored his first senior goal for Ireland , an 88th @-@ minute header , in a World Cup qualifying match against the Faroe Islands on 16 October 2012 which Ireland won 4 – 1 .
= = Playing style = =
O 'Dea 's manager at Toronto FC , Paul Mariner , described him as a " different specimen " with " fantastic habits " and a good leader . According to Miloš Kocić , he is a good defender of set pieces .
= = Career statistics = =
As of 23 July 2016
= = Honours = =
= = = Club = = =
Celtic
Scottish Premier League : 2006 – 07 , 2007 – 08
Scottish League Cup : 2008 – 09
Scottish Cup : 2006 – 07
International
Nations Cup : 2011
= = = Individual = = =
Ireland Young International Player of the Year Award 2012
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= Star Alliance =
Star Alliance is the world 's largest global airline alliance . Founded on 14 May 1997 , its current CEO is Mark Schwab and its headquarters is in Frankfurt am Main , Germany . As of 31 March 2014 , Star Alliance is the largest global alliance by passenger count with 637 @.@ 6 million , ahead of SkyTeam ( 588 million ) and Oneworld ( 512 @.@ 8 million ) . Its slogan is " The Way The Earth Connects " .
Star Alliance 's 27 member airlines operate a fleet of approximately 4 @,@ 000 aircraft , serve more than 1 @,@ 000 airports in 194 countries and carry 637 @.@ 6 million passengers per year on more than 18 @,@ 000 daily departures . The alliance has a two @-@ tier rewards program , Silver and Gold , with incentives including priority boarding and upgrades . Like other airline alliances , Star Alliance airlines share airport terminals ( known as co @-@ location ) and many member planes are painted in the alliance 's livery .
= = History = =
= = = 1997 – 1999 : First alliance = = =
On 14 May 1997 , an agreement was announced forming Star Alliance from five airlines on three continents : Scandinavian Airlines , Thai Airways International , Air Canada , Lufthansa , and United Airlines . The alliance chose Young & Rubicam for advertising , with a budget of $ 25 million ( € 18 million ) . The airlines shared the star logo from the beginning , with its five points representing the founding airlines . The alliance adopted its first slogan , " The Airline Network for Earth " , with its goal " an alliance that will take passengers to every major city on earth " .
= = = Additions = = =
The now defunct Brazilian airline VARIG joined the Star Alliance network on 22 October 1997 , extending the alliance into South America . Also joining were Ansett Australia and Air New Zealand , expanding Star Alliance to Australia and the Pacific . With the addition of the latter two carriers , the alliance served 720 destinations in 110 countries with a combined fleet of 1 @,@ 650 aircraft . The next airline to join was All Nippon Airways ( ANA ) , the group 's second Asian airline , on 15 October 1999 .
= = = 2000 @-@ 2006 : Expansion = = =
During the early 2000s , a number of airlines joined Star Alliance ; the Austrian Airlines Group ( Austrian Airlines , Tyrolean Airways and Lauda Air ) joined on 26 March 2000 and Singapore Airlines on 1 April . BMI ( British Midland ) and Mexicana Airlines joined on 1 July , bringing the alliance 's membership to 13 . The addition of BMI made London Heathrow the only European hub with two alliances . During the year , Emirates considered joining Star Alliance , but decided against it . That year the now @-@ defunct BWIA West Indies Airways , which had entered an alliance with United Airlines , considered becoming a member but did not . In 2000 , the alliance also opened its first three business centers ( in Los Angeles , Frankfurt , and Bangkok ) and announced the formation of an Alliance Management Team ( AMT ) , the partnership 's executive body . In September 2001 , Ansett Australia ( the alliance 's only Australian member ) left Star Alliance due to bankruptcy , giving most of the Australian market to Qantas ( a Oneworld member ) . That year , Star Alliance announced the appointment of a new CEO , Jaan Albrecht .
Asiana Airlines joined the alliance on 1 March 2003 , Spanair on 1 May , and LOT Polish Airlines ( Poland 's flag carrier ) in October . Around this time , Mexicana Airlines left the alliance after deciding not to renew a codeshare agreement with United Airlines , later joining Oneworld . US Airways joined the alliance in May 2003 , becoming its second US @-@ based airline . In November Adria Airways , Blue1 and Croatia Airlines joined the alliance as its first three regional members .
Although Star Alliance invited Lineas Aereas Azteca in 2005 to join in mid @-@ 2007 , the airline filed for bankruptcy . TAP Portugal joined on 14 March 2005 , adding African destinations to the network . In April 2006 Swiss International Air Lines , the alliance 's sixth European airline , and South African Airways ( its first African carrier ) became the 17th and 18th members .
= = = 2007 : Tenth anniversary = = =
By May 2007 , Star Alliance 's 10th anniversary , its members had a combined 16 @,@ 000 daily departures to 855 destinations in 155 countries and served 406 million passengers annually . The alliance introduced Biosphere Connections , a partnership with UNESCO , the International Union for Conservation of Nature ( IUCN ) , and the Ramsar Convention On Wetlands to promote environmental sustainability .
Today , nearly 30 % of global air travellers use the services of our member carriers or , looking at it from an overall industry perspective , two thirds of worldwide air travellers use one of the three airline alliances .
VARIG left the alliance on 31 January 2007 , and the two Chinese airlines Air China and Shanghai Airlines joined on 12 December .
= = = 2008 – 2010 : Second decade of operations = = =
On 1 April 2008 , Turkish Airlines joined the alliance after a 15 @-@ month integration process beginning in December 2006 , becoming its seventh European airline and 20th member . EgyptAir , Egypt 's national airline and Star Alliance 's second African carrier , joined on 11 July 2008 .
On 27 October 2009 , Continental Airlines became the 25th member of Star Alliance after leaving SkyTeam three days earlier . According to alliance CEO Jaan Albrecht , " Bringing Continental Airlines into Star Alliance has been a truly unique experience . This is the first time an airline has moved directly from one alliance to another and I would like to thank all those involved in ensuring a smooth switch " . At the time , it was rumored that the switch was Continental 's first move in a planned United Airlines @-@ Continental merge . Two months later , Brussels Airlines joined the alliance .
Brazilian carrier TAM Airlines joined Star Alliance on 13 May 2010 , increasing its foothold in South America . Aegean Airlines , Greece 's largest airline by number of passengers , joined on 30 June .
Shanghai Airlines left the alliance on 31 October 2010 when it merged with China Eastern Airlines , a SkyTeam member . On 29 September , the chief executive board approved Ethiopian Airlines as Star Alliance 's 30th member . In 2010 the alliance flew to 1 @,@ 172 airports in 181 countries , with about 21 @,@ 200 daily departures .
= = = 2011 @-@ present : Further expansion = = =
Since 2011 , more airlines have joined , and others have left due to their collapse or restructuring . In August 2011 , after several delays , Air India was rejected for membership when it did not meet alliance requirements . On 13 December 2011 , Ethiopian Airlines joined , adding five countries and 24 destinations to the alliance 's map .
Star Alliance had a tumultuous 2012 , with Spanair leaving early in the year when the carrier ceased operations . In early March , Continental merged with United Airlines , ending its membership in the alliance . BMI left on 20 April after its acquisition by International Airlines Group ( IAG ) , the parent company of Oneworld members Iberia and British Airways . On 21 June , Avianca , TACA Airlines and Copa Airlines joined the alliance , increasing its Latin American presence . In November , Blue1 left the alliance , becoming an affiliate of parent Scandinavian Airlines . Shenzhen Airlines joined on 29 November , augmenting Air China 's Chinese network .
On 8 March 2013 , TAM Airlines announced its departure due to its merger with LAN Airlines to become LATAM Airlines Group . With the addition of EVA Air on 18 June and TACA 's integration into Avianca , the alliance now had 28 members and was the largest of the three major airline alliances . On 13 December , Air India was again invited to begin an integration process with Star Alliance . On 31 March 2014 , TAM Airlines moved to Oneworld , and US Airways and an American Airlines affiliate also left the alliance . That day , Avianca Brazil announced that it would join Star Alliance in 2014 as an affiliate of Avianca . After TAM Airlines and US Airways left , the alliance had 26 members . On 24 June , Air India was approved , joining the alliance on 11 July . Avianca Brazil then joined the alliance on 22 July 2015 . Future Connecting Partners member Mango , South African Airways ' low @-@ cost subsidiary , will be joining in 3Q 2016 .
= = Member airlines and affiliates = =
= = = Members and affiliates = = =
A Founding member.B Airlines operating under Air Canada Express , Air New Zealand Link , Cimber A / S , Lufthansa Regional , Tyrolean Airways and United Express are not necessarily members of Star Alliance . However , flights are operated on behalf of the respective member airlines , carry their designator code and are Star Alliance flights.C Members of Lufthansa Regional that are fully owned by Deutsche Lufthansa AG.D Air Canada Express flights are operated by Air Georgian , EVAS Air , Jazz Aviation , Sky Regional Airlines.E Air India Regional flights are operated by Alliance Air.F Air New Zealand Link flights are operated by Air Nelson , Eagle Airways and Mount Cook Airline.G Lufthansa Regional flights are operated by Air Dolomiti , Eurowings and Lufthansa CityLine.H United Express flights are operated by Cape Air , CommutAir , ExpressJet Airlines , GoJet Airlines , Mesa Airlines , Republic Airlines , Shuttle America , SkyWest Airlines and Trans States Airlines.I South African low @-@ cost airline Mango will join the alliance as a Connecting Partner in the third quarter of 2016.K Vanilla Air and Tigerair are now part of Value Alliance .
= = Former members and affiliates = =
= = Customer service = =
Codeshare flights of Star Alliance airlines are consistent . This cooperation led to suspicions of anti @-@ competitive behavior ; the alliance was suspected by the European Union of being a virtual merger of its members , and speculation existed that if government regulations were relaxed the members would merge into one corporation .
Star Alliance developed a " regional " concept in 2004 , which helped it penetrate markets with participation by smaller regional carriers . Regional Star Alliance members had to be sponsored by an alliance member . The alliance no longer designates airlines as " regional " members , now referring to its 27 airlines as " members " .
In 2007 , alliance members flew 18 @,@ 521 daily flights to 1 @,@ 321 airports in 193 countries with a fleet of 4 @,@ 025 aircraft . Its members carried a total of 627 @.@ 52 million passengers , with revenue of US $ 156 @.@ 8 billion ( € 145 billion ) . It had 28 percent of the global market based on revenue passenger kilometers ( RPK ) , greater than the combined market share of all airlines not in one of the three major alliances . All alliance carriers combined employed over 405 @,@ 000 pilots , flight attendants , and other staff . Star Alliance was voted best airline alliance in the Skytrax 2007 World Airline Awards .
= = = Member hubs = = =
= = = Co @-@ location at airports ( under one roof ) = = =
= = = Premiums = = =
Star Alliance has two premium levels ( Silver and Gold ) , based on a customer 's status in a member 's frequent @-@ flyer program . Member and regional airlines recognize Star Silver and Gold status , with a few exceptions mostly pertaining to airport lounge access . Membership is based on the frequent @-@ flyer programs of the individual airlines . Many members have a premium status beyond Gold , which is not recognized across the alliance .
= = = = Star Alliance Silver = = = =
Star Alliance Silver status is given to customers who have reached a premium level of a member carrier 's frequent @-@ flyer program . Benefits are priority reservation wait @-@ listing and airport stand @-@ by . Some airlines also offer priority airport check @-@ in , baggage handling and boarding ; preferred seating ; an additional checked @-@ luggage allowance , and waived fees for two checked bags .
= = = = Star Alliance Gold = = = =
Star Alliance Gold status is given to customers who have reached a higher level of a member airline 's frequent @-@ flyer program . Benefits are priority reservations wait @-@ listing , airport stand @-@ by and check @-@ in and baggage handling ; an additional checked luggage allowance of 20 kg ( or one extra piece , where the piece rule applies ) , and access to designated Star Alliance Gold lounges the day and place of departure with the presentation of a Star Alliance boarding pass . Some airlines also offer preferred seating ( an exit seat or a special section of the plane ) ; guaranteed seating on fully booked flights , subject to the booking class code and notice period , and free upgrades in the form of a voucher , certificate or automatic upgrade at check @-@ in . United restricts US lounge access for their Gold Members to long @-@ haul international passengers ; Gold members from other carriers are welcome in US lounges run by United on all itineraries .
= = = = Qualifying tiers by airline = = = =
= = Livery and logo = =
Some Star Alliance members paint some of their aircraft with the alliance livery , usually a white fuselage with " Star Alliance " across it and a black tail fin with the alliance logo ; the color or design of the engine cowlings or winglets remains , depending on the member 's livery . Singapore Airlines is the only exception , formerly keeping its own logo on the tails of its aircraft but now using the Star Alliance logo on white tails . Asiana Airlines was the first Star Alliance member to paint its aircraft in the current Star Alliance livery . Aircraft painted in an airline 's regular livery have the Star Alliance logo between the cockpit and the first set of cabin doors .
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= Arrow ( Israeli missile ) =
The Arrow or Hetz ( Hebrew : חֵץ , pronounced [ ˈχet ͡ s ] ) is a family of anti @-@ ballistic missiles designed to fulfill an Israeli requirement for a theater missile defense system that would be more effective against ballistic missiles than the MIM @-@ 104 Patriot surface @-@ to @-@ air missile . Jointly funded and produced by Israel and the United States , development of the system began in 1986 and has continued since , drawing some contested criticism . Undertaken by Israel Aerospace Industries ( IAI ) and Boeing , it is overseen by the Israeli Ministry of Defense 's " Homa " ( Hebrew : חומה , pronounced [ χoma ] , " rampart " ) administration and the U.S. Missile Defense Agency .
The Arrow system consists of the joint production hypersonic Arrow anti @-@ missile interceptor , the Elta EL / M @-@ 2080 " Green Pine " early @-@ warning AESA radar , the Elisra " Golden Citron " ( " Citron Tree " ) C3I center , and the Israel Aerospace Industries " Brown Hazelnut " ( " Hazelnut Tree " ) launch control center . The system is transportable , as it can be moved to other prepared sites .
Following the construction and testing of the Arrow 1 technology demonstrator , production and deployment began with the Arrow 2 version of the missile . The Arrow is considered one of the most advanced missile defense programs currently in existence . It is the first operational missile defense system specifically designed and built to intercept and destroy ballistic missiles . The first Arrow battery was declared fully operational in October 2000 . Although several of its components have been exported , the Israeli Air Defense Command within the Israeli Air Force ( IAF ) of the Israel Defense Forces ( IDF ) is currently the sole user of the complete Arrow system .
= = Background = =
The Arrow program was launched in light of the acquisition by Arab states of long ranged surface @-@ to @-@ surface missiles . It was chosen over RAFAEL Armament Development Authority 's AB @-@ 10 missile defense system since the Arrow was judged to be a more complete concept and have greater range . The AB @-@ 10 system was criticized as being merely an improved MIM @-@ 23 Hawk , rather than a system designed from the outset for missile interception .
The United States and Israel signed a memorandum of understanding to co @-@ fund the Arrow program on May 6 , 1986 , and in 1988 the United States Department of Defense Strategic Defense Initiative Organization ( SDIO ) placed an order with Israel Aircraft Industries for the Arrow 1 technology demonstrator . The Gulf War , which exposed the controversial performance of the Patriot missile against Iraqi " Al Hussein " missiles , gave further impetus to the development of the Arrow . It was initially designed to intercept missiles such as the SS @-@ 1 " Scud " , its " Al Hussein " derivative , the SS @-@ 21 " Scarab " operated by Syria , and the CSS @-@ 2 operated by Saudi Arabia . The Arrow evolved also with an eye on the advanced missile programs of Iran . Yitzhak Rabin , then Defense Minister of Israel , viewed the emerging missile threat as one of the most dangerous future threats on Israel 's security . He said of the program that :
The Israeli Administration for the Development of Weapons and Technological Infrastructure , part of the Israeli Ministry of Defense , runs the Arrow development project under the " Homa " administration . The " Homa " administration , which is also commonly referred to as the IMDO – Israel Missile Defense Organization , is responsible for coordinating industrial activities of Israel 's different defense companies involved in the development of the Arrow system .
= = = Funding = = =
The multibillion @-@ dollar development program of the Arrow is undertaken in Israel with the financial support of the United States . When the development program began , the projection for the total cost of its development and manufacture – including the initial production of missiles – was an estimated $ 1 @.@ 6 billion . The price of a single Arrow missile was estimated at $ 3 million . Between 1989 and 2007 some $ 2 @.@ 4 billion had been reportedly invested in the Arrow program , 50 – 80 percent of which was funded by the United States . Israel contributes approximately $ 65 million annually .
= = = Criticism and opposition = = =
The Arrow program encountered opposition from the IAF , whose traditional doctrine of deterrence and use of preemptive strikes stand in sharp contrast with the nature of the missile . In addition , the IAF feared that the procurement of the costly missiles would diminish the resources allocated towards offensive projects such as fighter aircraft .
A criticism of the concept of missile defense for Israel was aired by Dr. Reuven Pedatzur in a comprehensive study published in 1993 by the Jaffee Center for Strategic Studies . The arguments made in the study conformed to the opinions of numerous defense officials and analysts , and echoed many of the arguments made by the Strategic Defense Initiative critics in the United States .
Pedatzur argued that it was exceedingly simple to fool an Arrow @-@ type defensive system with simple , cheap , and easily installed countermeasures , which would render the Arrow system ineffective . He doubted Israel 's defense industries could rise to the challenge of such a complex system , citing anonymous experts in the IDF who predicted that the system would not be available before 2010 . He envisaged enormous costs , around $ 10 billion , that would distort budgeting priorities and divert funds from the vital enhancement of the IDF 's warfighting capability , thus forcing a profound revision of Israel 's national security doctrine . He further argued that even if effective against missiles with conventional , chemical or biological warheads , the Arrow would not be relevant against future threats of missiles with nuclear warheads , since it would never be able to supply hermetic defense and the impact of even a single nuclear warhead in Israel 's densely populated urban area would be an existential threat to Israel .
At the same time , John E. Pike , who worked then with the Federation of American Scientists , stated that " given technical problems with the systems radar and command system , coupled with its high development cost , the Arrow program may soon fall by the wayside " . Victoria Samson , a research associate of the Center for Defense Information , also stated in October 2002 that the Arrow system cannot track an incoming missile that has split its warhead into submunitions .
In June 2003 a group of Israeli chief engineers , co @-@ inventors , and project managers of IAI and subcontractors were awarded the Israel Defense Prize for the development and production of the Arrow system .
According to Dr. Uzi Rubin , first Director of IMDO , with the passage of time most of the pessimistic predictions have proven to be unfounded . Israel 's defense industries overcame the technical challenge , the system 's development was completed a full decade ahead of what was predicted , and there are no indications that the expenditures for the Arrow harmed other IDF procurement plans to any degree whatsoever . Rubin insists that Israel 's missile defense is now an established fact and that most of the warnings issued by critics have failed to materialize . Pedatzur , however , remained unconvinced .
= = Development = =
= = = Arrow 1 = = =
The first launch of the Arrow interceptor took place on August 9 , 1990 , designed to test the missile 's control and guidance systems . The test came to a halt seconds after take off and the missile was intentionally destroyed due to fears it might go off track and hit a settled location . This was caused by the failure of the ground tracking radars to track the missile 's trajectory . Test number two took place on March 25 , 1991 . Designed to check missile components during launch , it was conducted from a ship at sea . Once again a missile malfunction resulted in the abortion of the experiment . A third test , designed to examine the Arrow 's interception capabilities , was conducted on October 31 , 1991 . The missile was once again launched from a ship at sea , and was once more aborted because of a repeat of previous malfunctions .
On September 23 , 1992 , in another test of the missile components during launch , the systems finally operated as planned and the Arrow reached its designated point in the sky , 45 seconds after launch . As planned , the missile was then destroyed . This successful experiment ended the system 's preliminary testing phase . The fifth , sixth , and seventh tests took place on February 28 , July 14 , and October 14 , 1993 respectively . During these , the Arrow managed to pass in close proximity to the target missiles , thereby proving its ability to intercept surface @-@ to @-@ surface missiles . During test number eight on March 1 , 1994 , the missile was not launched due to a ground computer failure . The ninth test launch on June 12 , 1994 , also known as ATD # 1 ( Arrow Demonstration Test 1 ) , saw an Arrow 1 successfully intercepted a target missile launched from a ship anchored in the middle of the Mediterranean .
The Arrow 1 was reportedly a two @-@ stage solid propellant missile , with an overall length of 7 @.@ 5 m ( 25 ft ) , a body diameter of 1 @,@ 200 mm ( 47 in ) , and a launch weight of around 2 @,@ 000 kg ( 4 @,@ 400 lb ) . It was estimated that the second stage had a length of 2 @.@ 5 m ( 8 @.@ 2 ft ) , and that it had inertial and command update mid @-@ course guidance , with a terminal infrared focal plane array . The missile was described as being relatively high @-@ speed and maneuverable , with thrust vectoring in the both stages . The range capability has been described as around 50 km ( 31 mi ) . On the other hand , the Arrow 1 could be a single stage missile . Development of the " big and cumbersome " Arrow 1 then ceased and further research continued with the " smaller , faster and more lethal " Arrow 2 .
= = = Arrow 2 = = =
Two successful tests ( designated IIT # 21 and IIT # 22 ) of the steering , control and cruising systems were conducted without target missiles on July 30 , 1995 and February 20 , 1996 . Two successful interceptions took place on August 20 , 1996 and March 11 , 1997 , and were designated AIT # 21 and AIT # 22 . Another interception test ( AIT # 23 ) was conducted on August 20 , 1997 , but the missile was destroyed when its steering system malfunctioned . The fault was corrected in time to ensure the success of AST # 3 , the first comprehensive test of the entire system . On September 14 , 1998 , all system components successfully countered a computer @-@ simulated threat . On November 29 , 1998 , Israel Aerospace Industries delivered the first operational Arrow 2 interceptor to the Israeli Ministry of Defense .
A full system interception test ( AST # 4 ) was held on November 1 , 1999 . During this test the Arrow system located , tracked and intercepted a TM @-@ 91C target missile simulating a " Scud " missile , launched on a very steep trajectory from a ship located offshore . The IAI TM @-@ 91C target missile was itself based on the Arrow 1 interceptor . On March 14 , 2000 , the first complete Arrow 2 battery was rolled out in a ceremony at Palmachim Airbase . In his speech , then IAF commander Aluf Eitan Ben Eliyahu said :
Another Arrow 2 test ( AST # 5 ) took place on September 14 , 2000 , this time with a new target missile , the Rafael Advanced Defense Systems " Black Sparrow " . This airborne ballistic target missile , launched by an IAF F @-@ 15 towards Israel 's coastline at a ballistic trajectory simulating an aggressor " Scud " , was intercepted and destroyed . Consequently , the following month saw the Palmachim Arrow battery declared operational by the Israeli Air Defense Command . The " Black Sparrow " has since been used as the aggressor target in the AST # 6 , AST # 9 , and AST # 10 tests . Reportedly , in June 2001 Arrow missiles were test @-@ fired in the course of a joint American @-@ Israeli @-@ Turkish exercise code @-@ named Anatolian Eagle , in the southeast of Turkey . On August 27 , 2001 ( AST # 6 ) , the Arrow system successfully intercepted its target at some 100 km ( 62 mi ) from shore , the highest and farthest that the Arrow 2 had been tested to date . In October 2002 the second battery was declared operational .
= = = = Block @-@ 2 = = = =
A successful test of the Arrow 2 block @-@ 2 took place on January 5 , 2003 ( AST # 8 ) . Four missiles were launched towards four simulated targets in order to examine the interceptor 's performance during special flight conditions as well as system performance during a sequence of launches . The test did not include actual interceptions . Another successful test held on December 16 , 2003 ( AST # 9 ) , examined the system 's ability to intercept and destroy incoming missiles at significantly high altitudes , around 60 km ( 37 mi ) . Reportedly , AST # 8 and AST # 9 also tested integration of the Arrow with Patriot batteries .
On July 29 , 2004 , Israel and the United States carried out a joint test at the Naval Air Station Point Mugu ( NAS Point Mugu ) Missile Test Center in California , in which the Arrow interceptor was launched against a real " Scud @-@ B " missile . The test represented a realistic scenario that could not have been tested in Israel due to test @-@ field safety restrictions . To enable the test a full battery was shipped to Point Mugu . The " Green Pine " radar and command @-@ and @-@ control systems were deployed at the base , while the Arrow launcher was installed 100 km ( 62 mi ) offshore on an island that forms part of the test range . The test was a success , with the interceptor destroying the " Scud " that flew a 300 km ( 190 mi ) trajectory at an altitude of 40 km ( 25 mi ) , west of San Nicolas Island . This was the twelfth Arrow interceptor test and the seventh test of the complete system , the first interception of a real " Scud " . This significant test became known as the AST USFT # 1 . Following this test , then Defense Minister of Israel , Shaul Mofaz , said :
AST USFT # 2 was conducted at NAS Point Mugu a month later , on August 26 . This test was aimed at examining the Arrow 's ability to detect a splitting warhead of a separating ballistic missile . It detected the true target , but a technical malfunction reportedly prevented it from maneuvering to strike it , leading to a suspension of testing . In March – April 2005 the ability of " Green Pine " and " Golden Citron " to work with Patriot system elements operated by U.S. Army was successfully tested against simulated " Scud " -type targets during regular series of U.S. – Israeli biennial exercises code @-@ named " Juniper Cobra " . Actual testing of the complete Arrow system was resumed in December 2005 , when the system successfully intercepted a target at an unspecified but reported record low altitude . This test ( AST # 10 ) was the fourteenth test of the Arrow missile and the ninth test of the complete system .
= = = = Block @-@ 3 = = = =
On February 11 , 2007 an Arrow 2 block @-@ 3 successfully intercepted and destroyed a " Black Sparrow " target missile simulating a ballistic missile at high altitude . It was the first so @-@ called distributed weapon system test conducted in Israel , which required two Arrow units deployed some 100 km ( 62 mi ) apart to share data on incoming threats and coordinate launching assignments . It was also the first time the Link 16 data distribution system was used to connect two Arrow units , although the system had been used in previous tests to connect Arrow and Patriot batteries . Furthermore , an improved launcher was used . Another " Juniper Cobra " exercises ran from March 10 to 20 , 2007 . The computer simulation used for " Juniper Cobra 2007 " was similar to the computer simulation used in " Juniper Cobra 2005 " .
A precursor of the next block was launched without a target on March 26 , 2007 in order to gather information on its flight and performance , introducing unspecified modifications to its hardware and electronics and reduced manufacturing costs by some 20 percent . Arieh Herzog , then Director of IMDO , has said : " Our Arrow operational system can without a doubt deal with all of the operational threats in the Middle East , particularly in Iran and Syria . "
= = = = Block @-@ 4 = = = =
On April 15 , 2008 the Arrow weapon system successfully detected and made a simulated intercept of a new target missile , the " Blue Sparrow " , a successor of the " Black Sparrow " capable of simulating " Scud @-@ C / D " missiles and reportedly the Iranian Shahab @-@ 3 as well . During the test , a target missile was launched from an IAF F @-@ 15 at a height of 90 @,@ 000 feet ( 27 @.@ 5 km ) . The missile split into multiple warheads , making it harder to intercept it . Nevertheless , " Green Pine " tracked the warhead , simulating an intercept . In September 2008 the IDF attempted a test of actual Arrow 2 block @-@ 4 missile against the " Blue Sparrow " . The drill had to be aborted , however , when the target missile malfunctioned shortly after launch . Eventually the Arrow 2 block @-@ 4 was successfully tested against the " Blue Sparrow " on April 7 , 2009 .
A July 22 , 2009 , joint test of the Arrow 2 block @-@ 4 against an airborne target missile with a range of over 1 @,@ 000 km ( 620 mi ) once again at the NAS Point Mugu , was reportedly aborted in the final second before launch after the missile failed to establish a communications link . A target had been released from a C @-@ 17 Globemaster III aircraft , the radar detected the target and transferred its tracks , but the interceptor was not launched . " Tracking of the target worked well , but tracking trajectory information that the radar transferred to the battle management center erroneously showed we would be out of the prescribed safety range , so the mission was aborted , " a program source said . The aborted interception came after two earlier setbacks in the planned test , initially scheduled for July 17 . The first try was scuttled due to a technical glitch in the C @-@ 17 aircraft , and a planned July 20 attempt was scrubbed due to a malfunctioning electric battery that was not providing enough power to a key element of the Arrow system . The test was widely referred to as a failure , however objectives of interoperability with other ballistic missile defense systems were achieved .
On February 22 , 2011 the Arrow system successfully intercepted a long @-@ range ballistic target missile during a flight test conducted at NAS Point Mugu . The target missile was launched from a mobile launch platform off the coast of California , within the Point Mugu test range . The test validated new block @-@ 4 versions designed to improve discriminating capabilities of the Arrow 2 interceptor . It was a body @-@ to @-@ body impact that completely destroyed the target .
On February 10 , 2012 developers successfully conducted the final target @-@ tracking test prior to delivery of block @-@ 4 Arrow system . The Blue Sparrow target missile was detected and tracked by the radar , the intercept solutions were plotted by the battle management controller and transferred to the launch units .
According to Arieh Herzog , block @-@ 4 upgrades " improve the process of discrimination of what happens in the sky and the transmission of target data for much better situational control . " Block @-@ 4 upgrades also refine midcourse guidance which , when coupled with improved target identification and discrimination capabilities , improves lethality .
Block @-@ 4 @.@ 1 is expected to include a new Battle Management Center , armored launchers with high shooting availability , better communication with other missile systems and wider ranges of interceptions . On September 9 , 2014 an intercept test was conducted over the Mediterranean Sea with block @-@ 4 @.@ 1 versions of the operational system . The outcome was inconclusive and remained so until data was fully analyzed . In February 2015 , an official at the IMDO acknowledged that a test successfully acquired , but narrowly missed its target . The exact reason behind the failure was not provided , but officials initially attributed the glitch to easily correctable software issues .
= = = = Block @-@ 5 = = = =
IMDO recently launched initial definition of a new block @-@ 5 upgrade to the complete Arrow system that will merge the lower @-@ tier Arrow 2 and exoatmospheric Arrow 3 into a single national missile defense system . According to Arieh Herzog , the planned block @-@ 5 will include new ground- and airborne sensors , a command and control system , and a new target missile – the Silver Sparrow – to simulate potentially nuclear @-@ capable delivery vehicles developed by Iran . According to the U.S. Missile Defense Agency , block @-@ 5 is expected to be able to deal with " more stressing regional threats " by increasing total defended area by some 50 percent .
The planned block @-@ 5 will optimize the existing Super Green Pine radar to operate with the AN / TPY @-@ 2 radar as well as with radars commanding anti @-@ ballistic missiles aboard United States Navy destroyers . U.S. radars will be used to support closed @-@ loop operations if Israel and U.S. targets in the region come under attack .
= = = Arrow 3 = = =
By August 2008 the United States and Israeli governments have initiated development of an upper @-@ tier component to the Israeli Air Defense Command , known as Arrow 3 . The development is based on an architecture definition study conducted in 2006 – 2007 , determining the need for the upper @-@ tier component to be integrated into Israel 's ballistic missile defense system . According to Arieh Herzog , the main element of this upper tier will be an exoatmospheric interceptor , to be jointly developed by IAI and Boeing .
= = Specifications = =
The Arrow system was originally designed and optimized to intercept short and medium @-@ range ballistic missiles with ranges above 200 km ( 120 mi ) . It is not intended to intercept either military aircraft or artillery rockets , the second of which are relatively small and short ranged . In contrast to THAAD , RIM @-@ 161 Standard Missile 3 , and MIM @-@ 104 Patriot PAC @-@ 3 , that use kinetic , direct impact to destroy the target ( " hit @-@ to @-@ kill " ) the Arrow 2 relies on explosive detonation . Arrow 2 is able to intercept its targets above the stratosphere , high enough so that any nuclear , chemical , or biological weapons do not scatter over Israel . The developers ' intention was to perform the destruction sequence away from populated locations . According to Dr. Uzi Rubin , the missile was tested to determine whether chemical warfare agents would reach the ground should such a warhead be intercepted . The conclusion was that nothing would reach the ground if the warhead is destroyed above the jet stream , which flows from west to east and would therefore blow any chemical residue . Nevertheless , Arrow is also capable of low altitude interception , as well as multi @-@ tactical ballistic missiles interception .
The two @-@ stage missile is equipped with solid propellant booster and sustainer rocket motors . The missile uses an initial burn to carry out a vertical hot launch from the container and a secondary burn to sustain the missile 's trajectory towards the target at a maximum speed of Mach 9 , or 2 @.@ 5 km / s ( 1 @.@ 6 mi / s ) . Thrust vector control is used in the boost and sustainer phases of flight . At the ignition of the second stage sustainer motor , the first stage assembly separates . The Arrow missile is launched before the threat missile 's trajectory and intercept point are accurately known . As more trajectory data becomes available , the optimum intercept point is more precisely defined , towards which the missiles is then guided . The 500 kg ( 1 @,@ 100 lb ) kill vehicle section of the missile , containing the warhead , fusing and the terminal seeker , is equipped with four moving delta aerodynamic control fins to give low altitude interception capability . The dual mode missile seeker has a passive infrared seeker for the acquisition and tracking of tactical ballistic missiles and an active radar seeker used to home on air @-@ breathing targets at low altitudes . The infrared seeker is an indium antimonide focal plane array . The kill vehicle is designed to achieve a hit @-@ to @-@ kill interception , but if this is not achieved , the proximity fuze will direct the warhead fragments at the target shortly before reaching the closest point to the target . The high explosive directed blast fragmentation warhead is capable of destroying a target within a 40 – 50 m ( 130 – 160 ft ) radius . In this manner , Arrow also differs from Patriot PAC @-@ 3 , THAAD , and Standard Missile 3 , which rely purely on hit @-@ to @-@ kill technology in which the kinetic force of a precise impact causes the destruction of the threat .
According to Dov Raviv , a senior developer dubbed " the father of the Arrow anti @-@ ballistic missile " , a single Arrow interceptor has a 90 percent probability of destroying a target missile at the highest altitude possible . In case of failure two more interceptors can be launched towards the target at short time intervals . If the first of these destroys the target , the second can be directed to another target . Using this technique , three independent interception possibilities are provided which raise the interception probability from 90 percent to 99 @.@ 9 percent , thus satisfying the leakage rate requirement . The Arrow also has the capability to simultaneously intercept a salvo of more than five incoming missiles , with the target missiles arriving within a 30 @-@ second span . Such capability is currently possessed only by the United States and Russia . According to Raviv , the Arrow can discriminate between a warhead and a decoy .
Each Arrow battery is equipped with typically four to eight erectors – launchers , its manning requires about 100 personnel . Each trailer @-@ mounted erector – launcher weighs 35 tonnes ( 77 @,@ 000 lb ) when loaded with six launch tubes with ready @-@ to @-@ fire missiles . After firing the launchers can be reloaded in an hour . The system is transportable rather than mobile , as it can be moved to other prepared sites , but cannot be set up just anywhere .
= = = Green Pine = = =
The " Green Pine " is an active electronically scanned array ( AESA ) solid state radar operating at L band in the range 500 MHz to 1 @,@ 000 MHz , or 1 @,@ 000 MHz to 2 @,@ 000 MHz . It operates in search , detection , tracking , and missile guidance modes simultaneously . It is capable of detecting targets at ranges of up to about 500 km ( 310 mi ) and is able to track more than 30 targets at speeds over 3 @,@ 000 m / s ( 10 @,@ 000 ft / s ) . The radar illuminates the target and guides the Arrow missile to within 4 m ( 13 ft ) of the target .
Super Green Pine
An advanced version of the radar , called " Super Green Pine " , " Green Pine " Block @-@ B , or " Great Pine " ( Hebrew : אורן אדיר , pronounced [ oʁen adiʁ ] ) , is to take the place of the original " Green Pine . As of 2008 both versions were active . The " Super Green Pine " extends detection range to about 800 – 900 km ( 500 – 560 mi ) . An even more advanced upgrade of the Super Green Pine is under development .
= = = Golden Citron = = =
The " Golden Citron " ( Hebrew : אתרוג זהב , pronounced [ etʁoɡ zahav ] ) truck @-@ mounted net @-@ centric open systems architecture Battle Management Command , Control , Communication & Intelligence Center can control up to 14 intercepts simultaneously . As of 2007 it was one of the world 's most advanced net @-@ centric systems . The system provides fully automatic as well as Human @-@ in @-@ the @-@ Loop options at every stage of battle operation management . It is also capable of interoperability with other theater missile defense systems and C3I systems . Notably Link 16 , TADIL @-@ J , communications were being altered to allow interoperability with Patriot fire control units . Assigned targets can be handed over to the Patriot 's AN / MPQ @-@ 53 fire control radar . Tests carried out by the U.S and Israel have successfully linked the Arrow with both U.S and Israeli versions of the Patriot .
The " Citron Tree " has three banks of operator consoles laid out in a U shape . In the center sits the officer in command who oversees the engagement , but also has links to the other parts of the battery as well as to IAF headquarters . On the commander 's right sits the engagement officer , who ensures that targets are assigned to other engagement officers sitting on the right @-@ hand leg of the U. Each is assigned a geographical area to defend and two of the officers are more senior as they have an overview of Patriot batteries . To the left of the commander is the resource officer , who monitors the status and readiness of the missiles . On the left of the U sits the sky picture officer , who is in contact with the Home Front Command and uses the center 's ability to predict impact point to alert the civil authorities . Also at these consoles are an intelligence officer and an after @-@ action / debrief officer , who uses recordings as it is impossible to absorb all the information during engagements . All in all , the " Golden Citron " is manned by 7 – 10 operators .
= = = Brown Hazelnut = = =
The " Brown Hazelnut " ( Hebrew : אגוז חום , pronounced [ eɡoz χum ] ) launch control center is located at the launch site , up to 300 km ( 190 mi ) from the " Golden Citron " fire control center . It employs microwave and radio data and voice communications links to the " Green Pine " and " Golden Citron " . The launch method is a vertical hot launch from a sealed canister , providing all @-@ azimuth coverage . " Brown Hazelnut " also has missile maintenance and diagnostic capabilities .
= = Production = =
Israel initially produced the Arrow system domestically , but on February 11 , 2003 IAI and Boeing signed an agreement , valued at over $ 25 million for fiscal years 2003 – 2004 , to establish production facilities for the manufacture of components for the Arrow missile in the United States . In March 2004 , IAI awarded a $ 78 million production contract to Boeing ; the total contract value could exceed $ 225 million through second quarter 2008 . As a result of successful implementation of this contract Boeing is responsible for production of about 35 percent of Arrow missile components , including the electronics section , booster motor case and missile canister , at its Huntsville , Alabama facilities . IAI , the prime contractor of the Arrow system , is responsible for integration and the final assembly of the Arrow missile in Israel . Boeing also coordinates the production of Arrow missile components manufactured by more than 150 American companies located in over 25 states . Boeing delivered its first Arrow 2 interceptor to Israel in 2005 . Co @-@ produced interceptors has been tested since February 12 , 2007 . Final deliveries to the Israel Air Force were planned by the end of 2010 .
Other major contractors are :
Elta – produces the " Green Pine " / " Super Green Pine " radar ;
Elisra – produces the " Golden Citron " C3I Center ;
Rafael Advanced Defense Systems – produces the sustainer motor and the warhead ;
Israel Military Industries – produces the booster motor ;
Alliant Techsystems – produces the motor cases and the first stage nozzle ;
Lockheed Martin – produces the active radar seeker ;
Raytheon – produces the infrared seeker ;
Ceradyne – produces the ceramic radome .
= = Deployment = =
According to its original 1986 schedule , the Arrow system was supposed to enter operational service in 1995 . The first operational Arrow battery was deployed , however , in March 2000 in Palmachim Airbase , near the city of Rishon LeZion , south of the Tel Aviv metropolitan area . It was declared operational in October 2000 , and reached its full capacity in March 2001 . Deployment of the second battery at Ein Shemer ( Ein Shemer Airfield ) , near the city of Hadera , Haifa District , northern Israel , was delayed by strong opposition from local residents who feared its radar would be hazardous to their health . The situation was eventually resolved and Israel 's second battery completed its deployment , turned operational and linked up with first battery in October 2002 . In 2007 the IDF has reportedly decided to modify its missile defense doctrine and in order to counter possible Syrian and Iranian missile barrages and has quietly modified its deployment of the Arrow in northern Israel .
The IDF planned to procure 50 – 100 interceptors for each battery . As of 1998 , a battery was estimated to cost about $ 170 million . As of 2012 , reportedly one " Great Pine " radar is deployed alongside two " Green Pine " radars .
Israel had originally planned to deploy two Arrow 2 batteries but has since sought and won promises of funding for a third battery . Some reports stated that a third battery was already deployed , or in development in the south , while others claimed that a decision on deployment of a third battery has not yet been made , although it was under discussion for service entry in 2012 . Another report stated that Israel planned to deploy not one , but two additional Arrow 2 batteries to defend the country 's southern region , also covering sensitive sites such as the Negev Nuclear Research Center . However the decision about the third battery was taken in October 2010 . The new battery was expected to be put into operational use in 2012 in the center of the country . According to Jane 's Defence Weekly , some sources indicate that the new Arrow 2 battery became operational in 2012 in an Israeli Air Force facility at Tal Shahar , roughly halfway between Jerusalem and Ashdod , near Beit Shemesh .
= = = Export = = =
Apart from Israel no country has purchased a full Arrow system , although India had acquired and deployed three " Green Pine " radars by August 2005 . The Indian government has sought to purchase the Arrow system since 1999 , however in early 2002 the U.S. vetoed Israel 's request to sell the Arrow 2 missiles to India , exercising its right as a major funding contributor . U.S. officials argued that the sale would violate the Missile Technology Control Regime ( MTCR ) . Although the Arrow 2 could possibly achieve a range of 300 km ( 190 mi ) , it is designed for intercepts at shorter ranges , and it is unclear whether it could carry a 500 kg ( 1 @,@ 100 lb ) payload to this range specified in the MTCR . In 2011 once again an Indian Army official said that the Arrow 2 might become part of India 's missile defense solution .
Turkey also planned to buy anti @-@ missile air defense systems worth more than $ 1 billion . The Arrow was considered a potential contender , but was rejected on political grounds . In the past , the United Kingdom , Japan , and Singapore were mentioned as then potential foreign customers of the Arrow system . Netherlands reportedly expressed interest in the " Golden Citron " C3I center in November 1999 .
In the late 1990s officials of Jordan have expressed concern that any conflagration between Israel and Iraq or Iran would impact its territory . The problem becomes more difficult for Jordan when the warheads are not conventional . Therefore , Benjamin Netanyahu , during his first term of office as Prime Minister of Israel , reportedly offered Jordan " a defensive umbrella of Arrow 2 " . Without allowing Israel to forward deploy the Arrow launchers close to the Iraqi border , the other option is for Israel to sell Jordan the Arrow system . This is most likely what Prime Minister Netanyahu meant above . In May 1999 Israel reportedly requested U.S. approval for selling Arrow batteries to Jordan , but apparently no such approval has been given yet .
Armed with marketing approval by their respective governments , a U.S. – Israeli industrial team plans to offer the Arrow system to South Korea . The potential deal , estimated to exceed $ 1 billion .
For the United States , the Arrow has provided important technical and operational data . It remains a key element in the Missile Defense Agency ’ s plan for a layered missile defense architecture , and an example of a successful , affordable program . At the moment , however , the United States does not have any plans to procure and deploy the Arrow . Nevertheless , in September 2009 the Arrow system was mentioned by then U.S. Secretary of Defense Robert Gates and then Vice Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff General James Cartwright among the alternative to the proposed U.S. missile defense assets in Europe . The Arrow system is being incorporated into U.S. anti @-@ ballistic capability in Europe , they said .
In a June 2011 interview Lieutenant General Patrick J. O 'Reilly said that Arrow 2 will be integrated into a regional defense array planned by the U.S. in the Middle East . According to the interview , it may also protect Arab countries who are allies of the U.S. but with which Israel has no diplomatic ties . By October 2015 , the countries of the Gulf Cooperation Council ( GCC ) had become interested in procuring the Arrow system for themselves .
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= Cyclone Waka =
Severe Tropical Cyclone Waka ( Fiji Meteorological Service designation : 03F , Joint Typhoon Warning Center designation : 07P ) was one of the most destructive tropical cyclones ever to affect the South Pacific Kingdom of Tonga . Waka originated within the near @-@ equatorial trough in mid @-@ December 2001 , although the system remained disorganized for more than a week . The storm gradually matured and attained tropical cyclone status on December 29 . Subsequently , Waka underwent rapid intensification in which it attained its peak intensity as a Category 4 severe tropical cyclone ( Australian tropical cyclone intensity scale ) on December 31 , with winds of 185 km / h ( 115 mph ) . Shortly thereafter , it passed directly over Vava 'u , Tonga , resulting in widespread damage . By January 1 , 2002 , the cyclone began to weaken as it underwent an extratropical transition . The remnants of Waka persisted for several more days and were last observed near the Southern Ocean on January 6 .
Although the storm affected several countries along its path , Waka left the most significant losses in Tonga , where it killed one person and wrought 104 @.@ 2 million paʻanga ( $ 51 @.@ 3 million USD ) in damage . Hundreds of structures , including 200 in the island 's largest city , and much of the nation 's agriculture were destroyed . Winds in excess of 185 km / h ( 115 mph ) battered Vava 'u , defoliating nearly every tree on the island . In addition to infrastructural and public losses , the environment was also severely affected ; a native species of bat lost roughly 80 % of its population due to the lack of fruit . Following the storm , Tonga requested international aid to cope with the scale of damage . Due to the severity of damage , the name Waka was later retired and replaced with Wiki . According to a study by Janet Franklin et al . , storms similar in intensity to Waka , on average , strike Tonga once every 33 years .
= = Meteorological history = =
In mid @-@ December 2001 , at the end of a Madden – Julian oscillation pulse , twin equatorial monsoonal troughs developed in the Northern and Southern Hemispheres . Although warm sea surface temperatures of 30 ° C ( 86 ° F ) in the region favored development of a tropical cyclone , the southern trough developed substantially slower than the northern one . On December 19 , the southern component was classified as Tropical Depression 03F by the Regional Specialized Meteorological Center in Nadi , Fiji ( Fiji Meteorological Service ) ; at this time the depression was situated just east of the Solomon Islands . The northern component eventually developed into Typhoon Faxai , an extremely powerful Category 5 equivalent cyclone . Unlike Faxai , the precursor to Cyclone Waka developed slowly , mainly because of moderate wind shear in the region . Moving southeastward , the system gradually became more organized . On two occasions , the Joint Typhoon Warning Center ( JTWC ) issued a Tropical Cyclone Formation Alert ; however , the agency later canceled them both times . By December 27 , the depression had entered a region of lesser shear , favoring significant development of the system . The following day , the JTWC classified the system as Tropical Depression 07P , when the storm was situated roughly 640 km ( 400 mi ) northwest of Pago Pago , American Samoa .
Tracking towards the southwest in response to a mid @-@ level ridge to the southeast , the depression quickly intensified , attaining gale @-@ force winds on December 29 . Upon doing so , it was upgraded to a tropical cyclone and given the name Waka . Shortly thereafter , the storm underwent rapid intensification ; roughly 24 hours after being named , Waka attained sustained winds of 120 km / h ( 75 mph ) . During December 30 , the center of the storm brushed Wallis Island before turning towards the southeast and accelerating due to an approaching trough from the northwest . Continuing to intensify , Waka passed directly over Niuafo 'ou on December 31 with winds of 150 km / h ( 90 mph ) . Later that day , the cyclone attained its peak intensity as a Category 4 severe tropical cyclone with ten @-@ minute sustained winds of 185 km / h ( 115 km / h ) and a barometric pressure of 930 mbar ( hPa ; 27 @.@ 46 inHg ) . The JTWC assessed the storm to have attained similar one @-@ minute sustained winds upon peaking ; however , this was due to discrepancies between the two warning centers . At this time , Waka displayed a well @-@ defined , circular eye roughly 60 km ( 37 mi ) in diameter . Shortly after attaining its peak intensity , the center of Waka passed over Vava 'u .
Continuing into the new year , Waka gradually weakened on January 1 , 2002 as it entered a less favorable region for tropical cyclones . As a result , wind shear displaced convection from the center and its eyewall broke apart . Moving over decreasing sea surface temperatures , Waka began to undergo an extratropical transition , which it completed on January 2 . Tracking southeastward , the remnant cyclone briefly slowed over open waters before again accelerating . Over the following few days , the system gradually weakened , with sustained winds decreasing below gale @-@ force by January 5 . The storm was last noted on January 6 near the Southern Ocean , about 2 @,@ 200 km ( 1 @,@ 400 mi ) north @-@ northwest of Antarctica , at which time it had a pressure of 972 mbar ( hPa ; 28 @.@ 7 inHg ) .
= = Preparations and impact = =
= = = Tonga = = =
On December 30 , just a day before Waka passed through Tonga , warnings were issued for numerous islands , including parts of Fiji and Samoa . Forecasts showed the storm passing directly over the low @-@ lying Tongan capital of Nuku 'alofa as a Category 3 cyclone . Owing to warnings from local media , all New Year 's Eve celebrations were canceled as residents and tourists boarded up their homes . All airports in the region were shut down and ferry service was suspended . Many residents on the small island of Niuafo 'ou , about 35 km2 ( 13 @.@ 5 mi2 ) in size , evacuated to other islands prior to Waka 's arrival .
When the storm was moving through the islands of Tonga at peak strength , a few islands recorded hurricane @-@ force winds ; the city of Neiafu measured the strongest winds , peaking at 185 km / h ( 115 mph ) . In the southern islands , wind gusts up to 250 km / h ( 155 mph ) affected isolated areas . In the Haʻapai islands , sustained winds reached 100 km / h ( 65 mph ) and gusted to 140 km / h ( 85 mph ) . Heavy rains also fell during Waka 's passage , amounting to over 200 mm ( 7 @.@ 9 in ) in Haʻapai .
Initial reports from Nukuʻalofa on December 31 indicated severe agricultural damage but few infrastructural losses . Following the passage of Waka , communication with Niuas and Vava 'u were lost . According to local reports , high winds sandblasted Neiafu and downed nearly every tree . Surveys by the Red Cross revealed that roughly 200 homes in the city were severely damaged or destroyed and those left standing lost their roofs . Vava 'u lost roughly 90 % of its crops , including essential food crops such as taro , yams and bananas . In Ha 'apai , one person died from cardiac arrest brought on by the storm . Fallen trees blocked numerous roads ; power and water supplies were also interrupted to most residents . Severe damage also took place on Niuatoputapu where coastal homes were impacted by Waka 's storm surge and several structures lost their roofs . In one instance , a yacht was brought onshore by the surge and crashed into a restaurant , destroying both .
According to damage surveys , 13 of the country 's islands sustained damage ; 470 homes and 6 schools were destroyed and hundreds more damaged . Damage throughout Tonga amounted to 104 @.@ 2 million paʻanga ( $ 51 @.@ 3 million USD ) . In addition to infrastructural and public damage , the environment sustained catastrophic losses on Tonga . The Insular Flying Fox ( Pteropus tonganus ) , a native species of bat , suffered great losses from Waka . Compared to pre @-@ cyclone population levels , 79 @.@ 8 % ( ± 9 @.@ 9 % ) of the species was killed across six islands . This was due to widespread destruction of their natural food source , which decreased by 85 % ( ± 11 @.@ 8 % ) following Waka . Trees across Vava 'u were completely defoliated , although only 6 @.@ 6 % were killed , leaving no food for the bats . The greatest decline in bats was on Utula 'aina Island at 95 @.@ 7 % ; A 'a Island sustained a complete loss of food @-@ bearing plants . Six months after the storm , the bat population in Vava 'u was still only 20 % of the pre @-@ storm level .
= = = Elsewhere = = =
During the cyclone 's formative stages , it brought significant winds and swells to Tokelau , resulting in localized flooding and crop damage . American Samoa also experienced heavy rains , amounting to 56 @.@ 9 mm ( 2 @.@ 24 in ) , and gusts up to 90 km / h ( 56 mph ) . The winds downed a few trees and caused minor crop damage , with losses amounting to US $ 120 @,@ 000 . Large swells affected the island for roughly a week as the storm developed and moved away from the region . Cyclone Waka also affected Wallis and Futuna , prompting tropical cyclone watches and warnings from December 28 to 31 , and later impacted Niue , prompting warnings there from December 30 to January 1 . On Wallis Island , one home was destroyed and 50 % of the banana crop was lost . A maximum of 112 mm ( 4 @.@ 4 in ) of rain fell in Hihifo during the passage of Waka . A wind gust of 126 km / h ( 78 mph ) and swells up to 7 m ( 23 ft ) were recorded in Wallis . Niue received more significant damage , experiencing a storm surge of up to 8 m ( 26 ft ) and sea spray up to 100 m ( 330 ft ) inland . Numerous fallen trees and power lines blocked roads and left southern areas of the island without power for roughly six hours . Damage in Niue amounted to US $ 10 @,@ 000 .
After moving through the Tongan islands , the remnants of Waka brought large swells , estimated up to 2 @.@ 5 m ( 8 @.@ 2 ft ) , to the North Island of New Zealand . Thousands of residents and tourists were in the region following the New Year 's holiday . Meteorologists warned that the oceans would be increasingly dangerous and advised people not to venture into the water . Every lifeguard in Whangamata , as well as former lifeguards , were called in to assist in keeping an estimated 8 @,@ 000 people out of the water . Although most people stayed within a designated swimming area , several rescues had to be made . Rip currents also pulled 38 people out to sea in Mount Maunganui Main Beach ; all were quickly rescued by lifeguards .
= = Aftermath = =
Within a day of Cyclone Waka 's passage in Tonga , the Government of New Zealand deployed an aircraft to survey the scale of damage and reestablish contact with the Tongan Islands . This aircraft was sent in accordance with the FRANZ Agreement , enacted in 1992 , which states that assests from one country would be used in relief operations . On January 2 , the head of Tonga 's Disaster Office announced that they would likely need international assistance to recover from the storm . Due to the substantial damage to agriculture , food shortages were expected to impact the region over the following months . By January 7 , the Red Cross began sending supplies to Tonga . Hundreds of tents and tarpaulins were brought in by an Australian AC @-@ 130 to help with the recovery process . On January 12 , a New Zealand Lockheed C @-@ 130 Hercules carrying US $ 700 @,@ 000 worth of supplies flew to the area to deliver aid . An additional US $ 700 @,@ 000 was given in relief funds to repair damage wrought by the storm . Of this , US $ 500 @,@ 000 would be used to repair schools that were damaged or destroyed and the remaining US $ 200 @,@ 000 would be used for emergency lighting , cooking and food supply recovery .
Further funds came from the United States Agency for International Development , which offered US $ 25 @,@ 000 by mid @-@ January . The French Polynesian assembly in Tahiti also provided US $ 770 @,@ 000 worth of relief supplies and aid . The main industry of Tonga , tourism , was devastated by the storm as no tourists were allowed to travel to the region for at least two weeks after Waka 's passage . The Government of Tonga requested a total of US $ 39 @.@ 2 million in international aid , most of which was dedicated to rehabilitation of infrastructure . Medical supplies and personnel were later deployed by the World Health Organization . In early March , a relief fund based on donations was set up by the United Methodist Committee on Relief to provide US $ 210 @,@ 000 for 30 families impacted by the storm . About 180 people were given assistance in rebuilding their homes by the Church World Service later that month . As food shortages became severe in April , emergency supplies were sent to the outlying Niuas islands of Tonga . In May , US $ 5 @.@ 85 million was approved for emergency funds by the World Bank to assist in infrastructural rehabilitation .
Vava 'u suffered a tremendous decrease in agricultural exports due to Waka , dropping 86 @.@ 5 % from the previous year . Despite substantial agricultural losses , the sector ended up expanding roughly 2 % by the end of 2002 and the overall economy grew by 2 @.@ 9 % . Owing to the severity of damage wrought by the cyclone , the World Meteorological Organization retired the name Waka following its using and replaced it with Wiki .
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= 1990 Andhra Pradesh cyclone =
The 1990 Andhra Pradesh cyclone or the 1990 Machilipatnam Cyclone was the worst disaster to affect Southern India since the 1977 Andhra Pradesh cyclone . The system was first noted as a depression on May 4 , 1990 , while it was located over the Bay of Bengal about 600 km ( 375 mi ) to the southeast of Chennai , India . During the next day the depression intensified into a cyclonic storm and started to intensify rapidly , becoming a super cyclonic storm early on May 8 . The cyclone weakened slightly before it made landfall on India about 300 km ( 190 mi ) to the north of Madras in the Andhra Pradesh state as a very severe cyclonic storm with winds of 165 km / h ( 105 mph ) . While over land the cyclone gradually dissipated . The cyclone had a severe impact on India , with over 967 people reported to have been killed . Over 100 @,@ 000 animals also died in the cyclone with the total cost of damages to crops estimated at over $ 600 million ( 1990 USD ) .
= = Meteorological history = =
On May 4 , 1990 the India Meteorological Department ( IMD ) reported that a depression had developed over the Bay of Bengal about 600 km ( 375 mi ) to the southeast of Chennai , India . During that day the system gradually developed further and became the subject of a tropical cyclone formation alert , by the Joint Typhoon Warning Center as it moved westwards under the influence of the subtropical ridge of high pressure . The depression subsequently intensified into a cyclonic storm early the next day , before the JTWC initiated advisories on the system and designated it as Tropical Cyclone 02B later that day . At this stage the JTWC only expected the cyclone to intensify marginally , before it weakened as it made landfall in Southern India within 72 hours . During May 6 , the system started to move more towards the north @-@ west because of a weakness in the subtropical ridge , as it continued to intensify and became a Very Severe Cyclonic Storm . This turn towards the northwest turned out to be more northerly than had been expected , which as a result allowed the system to stay offshore for longer than had been expected by the JTWC .
Over the next couple of days the system rapidly intensified before the JTWC reported early on May 8 , that the system had peaked with 1 @-@ minute sustained windspeeds of 230 km / h ( 145 mph ) , which made the system equivalent to a category 4 hurricane on the Saffir – Simpson hurricane wind scale . At around the same time the IMD also reported that the cyclone had peaked as a Super Cyclonic Storm , with 3 @-@ minute sustained wind speeds of 235 km / h ( 145 mph ) and an estimated central pressure of 920 hPa ( 27 @.@ 17 inHg ) . By this time the system was located about 150 km ( 95 mi ) to the northeast of Madras and was moving northwards slowly . Later that day as the ship Visvamohini moved through the systems eye region , it measured a central pressure of 912 hPa ( 26 @.@ 93 inHg ) , which the IMD reported would be one of the lowest central pressures ever measured in the Bay of Bengal if it was correct . The system subsequently started to weaken and had become a Very Severe Cyclonic Storm by the time it made landfall during May 9 , near the mouth of the Krishna River in southern Andhra Pradesh . The system subsequently moved north @-@ westwards and gradually weakened further , before it was last noted during May 11 , by both the IMD and JTWC .
= = Preparations , impact and aftermath = =
= = = Preparations = = =
As a result of timely warnings issued by the IMD , the Indian government was able to launch an evacuation campaign and order that all fisherman return to shore . This led to more than 150 @,@ 000 people being evacuated to relief camps which had been set up on higher ground . Due to the thorough preparations , there was fewer deaths than in the 1977 Andhra Pradesh cyclone .
= = = Impact = = =
On Edurumandi Island over 7 @,@ 000 people were left stranded after they refused to evacuate . The island itself was reported to have experienced the full brunt of the system . However , all of the residents reportedly sought protection within a shelter provided by the government . The cyclone had a significant effect on India , with storm surge tides as high as 4 @.@ 9 meters ( 16 ft ) above normal . Consequently , over 100 villages were submerged in water and destroyed . At least 967 people were killed by the cyclone ; most of the deaths occurred when houses made mostly out of mud and straw collapsed . Other people were killed when electrical wires were knocked down and while some people were carried away by flooded rivers . The storm left at least 3 million people homeless , while over 100 @,@ 000 farm animals were killed . At least 435 @,@ 000 acres ( 1 @,@ 760 km2 ) of rice paddies were destroyed along with huge tracts of mango and banana trees . The total damage to crops and property was estimated at over $ 600 million ( 1990 USD ) . The cyclone was described as the worst disaster in southern India since the 1977 storm . Sea water contaminated fresh drinking wells , prompting warnings about outbreaks of Cholera and Typhoid as many people were drinking and cooking with water from the drains which was causing stomach disorders .
= = = = Tamil Nadu = = = =
Overall the cyclone only caused minor damage to Tamil Nadu with the worst affected area being the district of Chingleput , where one of the old shrines of Kasiviswanather Temple collapsed as high waves hit the coast . A large number of huts were also washed away by the waves , while six deaths were reported in the state .
= = = = Andhra Pradesh = = = =
= = = Aftermath = = =
On May 11 , two days after the cyclone had hit , the Indian Government launched a massive relief and rescue operation . The Indian Army and Naval helicopters took surveys of areas affected by the cyclone , and also dropped food packets . Although the Indian Government did not request international assistance , the Red Cross provided food , oil , medicines and water tanks for the affected families ; the wcc / cicarws issued an appeal for $ 262 thousand ( 1990 USD ) so they could provide immediate needs with World Vision providing $ 160 thousand ( 1990 USD ) for food blankets and utensils .
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= Mary McLeod Bethune =
Mary Jane McLeod Bethune ( born Mary Jane McLeod ; July 10 , 1875 – May 18 , 1955 ) was an American educator , stateswoman , philanthropist , humanitarian and civil rights activist best known for starting a private school for African @-@ American students in Daytona Beach , Florida . She attracted donations of time and money , and developed the academic school as a college . It later continued to develop as Bethune @-@ Cookman University . She also was appointed as a national adviser to President Franklin D. Roosevelt as part of what was known as his Black Cabinet . She was known as " The First Lady of The Struggle " because of her commitment to gain better lives for African Americans .
Born in Mayesville , South Carolina , to parents who had been slaves , she started working in fields with her family at age five . She took an early interest in becoming educated ; with the help of benefactors , Bethune attended college hoping to become a missionary in Africa . She started a school for African @-@ American girls in Daytona Beach , Florida . It later merged with a private institute for African @-@ American boys , and was known as the Bethune @-@ Cookman School . Bethune maintained high standards and promoted the school with tourists and donors , to demonstrate what educated African Americans could do . She was president of the college from 1923 to 1942 , and 1946 to 1947 . She was one of the few women in the world to serve as a college president at that time .
Bethune was also active in women 's clubs , which were strong civic organizations supporting welfare and other needs , and became a national leader . After working on the presidential campaign for Franklin D. Roosevelt in 1932 , she was invited as a member of his Black Cabinet . She advised him on concerns of black people and helped share Roosevelt 's message and achievements with blacks , who had historically been Republican voters since the Civil War . At the time , blacks had been largely disenfranchised in the South since the turn of the century , so she was speaking to black voters across the North . Upon her death , columnist Louis E. Martin said , " She gave out faith and hope as if they were pills and she some sort of doctor . "
Honors include designation of her home in Daytona Beach as a National Historic Landmark , her house in Washington , D.C. as a National Historic Site , and the installation of a sculpture of her in Lincoln Park in Washington , D.C.
= = Early life and education = =
Mary Jane McLeod was born in 1875 in a small log cabin near Mayesville , South Carolina , on a rice and cotton farm in Sumter County . She was the fifteenth of seventeen children born to Sam and Patsy ( McIntosh ) McLeod , both former slaves . Most of her siblings had been born into slavery . Her mother worked for her former master , and her father farmed cotton near a large house they called " The Homestead . "
Her parents wanted to be independent so had sacrificed to buy a farm for the family . As a child , Mary would accompany her mother to deliver " white people ’ s " wash . Allowed to go into the white children ’ s nursery , Mary became fascinated with their toys . One day she picked up a book and as she opened it , a white child took it away from her , saying she didn ’ t know how to read . Mary decided then that the only difference between white and colored people was the ability to read and write . She was inspired to learn .
McLeod attended Mayesville 's one @-@ room black schoolhouse , Trinity Mission School , which was run by the Presbyterian Board of Missions of Freedmen . She was the only child in her family to attend school , so each day , she taught her family what she had learned . To get to and from school , Mary walked five miles each day . Her teacher Emma Jane Wilson became a significant mentor in her life . Wilson had attended Scotia Seminary ( now Barber @-@ Scotia College ) . She helped McLeod attend the same school on a scholarship , which she did from 1888 – 1893 . The following year , she attended Dwight L. Moody 's Institute for Home and Foreign Missions in Chicago ( now the Moody Bible Institute ) , hoping to become a missionary in Africa . Told that black missionaries were not needed , she planned to teach , as education was a prime goal among African Americans .
= = Marriage and family = =
McLeod married Albertus Bethune in 1898 , and they lived for a year in Savannah , Georgia , where she did social work . They had a son Albert together . Coyden Harold Uggams , a visiting Presbyterian minister , persuaded the couple to relocate to Palatka , Florida , to run a mission school . The Bethunes moved in 1899 ; Mary ran the mission school and began an outreach to prisoners . Albertus left the family in 1907 ; he never got a divorce but relocated to South Carolina . He died in 1918 from tuberculosis .
= = Teaching career = =
= = = Foundations with Lucy Craft Laney = = =
Bethune worked as a teacher briefly at her former elementary school in Sumter County . In 1896 , she began teaching at Haines Normal and Industrial Institute in Augusta , Georgia , which was part of a Presbyterian mission organized by northern congregations . It was founded and run by Lucy Craft Laney . As the daughter of former slaves , Laney ran her school with a Christian missionary zeal , emphasizing character and practical education for girls . She also accepted the boys who showed up eager to learn . Laney 's mission was to imbue Christian moral education in her students to arm them for their life challenges . Of her year at Laney 's school , Bethune said ,
" I was so impressed with her fearlessness , her amazing touch in every respect , an energy that seemed inexhaustible and her mighty power to command respect and admiration from her students and all who knew her . She handled her domain with the art of a master . "
Bethune adopted many of Laney 's educational philosophies , including her emphasis on educating girls and women to improve the conditions of black people : " I believe that the greatest hope for the development of my race lies in training our women thoroughly and practically . " ( This is a strategy being followed by organizers in numerous developing countries . Educating women raises the lives of families as a whole . ) After one year at Haines , Bethune was transferred by the Presbyterian mission to the Kindell Institute in Sumter , South Carolina , where she had met her current husband .
= = = School in Daytona = = =
After her marriage and move to Florida , Bethune became determined to start a school for girls . Bethune moved from Palatka to Daytona because it had more economic opportunity ; it had become a popular tourist destination and businesses were thriving . In October 1904 , she rented a small house for $ 11 @.@ 00 per month . She made benches and desks from discarded crates , and acquired other items through charity . Bethune used $ 1 @.@ 50 to start the Literary and Industrial Training School for Negro Girls . She initially had six students — five girls aged six to twelve , and her son Albert . The school bordered Daytona 's dump . Bethune , parents of students , and church members raised money by making sweet potato pies , ice cream , and fried fish , and selling them to crews at the dump .
In the early days , the students made ink for pens from elderberry juice , and pencils from burned wood ; they asked local businesses for furniture . Bethune wrote later , " I considered cash money as the smallest part of my resources . I had faith in a loving God , faith in myself , and a desire to serve . " The school received donations of money , equipment , and labor from local black churches . Within a year , Bethune was teaching more than 30 girls at the school .
Bethune also courted wealthy white organizations , such as the ladies ' Palmetto Club . She invited influential white men to sit on her school board of trustees , gaining participation by James Gamble ( of Procter & Gamble ) and Thomas H. White ( of White Sewing Machines ) . When Booker T. Washington of Tuskegee Institute visited in 1912 , he advised her of the importance of gaining support by white benefactors for funding . Bethune had met with Washington in 1896 and was impressed by his clout with his donors .
The rigorous curriculum had the girls rise at 5 : 30 a.m. for Bible study . The classes in home economics and industrial skills such as dressmaking , millinery , cooking , and other crafts emphasized a life of self @-@ sufficiency for them as women . Students ' days ended at 9 pm . Soon Bethune added science and business courses , then high school @-@ level courses of math , English , and foreign languages . Bethune was always seeking donations to keep her school operating ; as she traveled , she was fundraising . A donation of $ 62 @,@ 000 by John D. Rockefeller helped , as did her friendship with Franklin D. Roosevelt and his wife , beginning in the 1930s , who gave her entree to a progressive network .
In 1931 , the Methodist Church helped the merger of her school with the boys ' Cookman Institute , forming the Bethune @-@ Cookman College , a coeducational junior college . Bethune became president . Through the Great Depression , Bethune @-@ Cookman School continued to operate , and met the educational standards of the State of Florida . From 1936 to 1942 , Bethune had to cut back her time as president because of her duties in Washington , DC . Funding declined during this period of her absence . But , by 1941 the college had developed a four @-@ year curriculum and achieved full college status . By 1942 Bethune gave up the presidency , as her health was being adversely affected by her many responsibilities .
= = Career as a public leader = =
= = = National Association of Colored Women = = =
In 1896 , the National Association of Colored Women was formed to promote the needs of black women . Bethune served as the Florida chapter president of the NACW from 1917 to 1925 . She worked to register black voters , which was resisted by white society and had been made almost impossible by a variety of obstacles in Florida law and practices controlled by white administrators . She was threatened by members of the resurgent Ku Klux Klan in those years . Bethune also served as the president of the Southeastern Federation of Colored Women 's Clubs from 1920 to 1925 , which worked to improve opportunities for black women .
She was elected as national president of the NACW in 1924 . While the organization struggled to raise funds for regular operations , Bethune envisioned its acquiring a headquarters and hiring a professional executive secretary ; she implemented this when NACW bought a property at 1318 Vermont Avenue in Washington , DC . She led it to be the first black @-@ controlled organization with headquarters in the capital .
Gaining a national reputation , in 1928 Bethune was invited to attend the Child Welfare Conference called by Republican President Calvin Coolidge . In 1930 President Herbert Hoover appointed her to the White House Conference on Child Health .
= = = Southeastern Association of Colored Women 's Clubs = = =
The Southeastern Federation of Colored Women ’ s Clubs ( eventually renamed as the Southeastern Association of Colored Women ’ s Clubs ) elected Bethune as president after its first conference in 1920 at the Tuskegee Institute . They intended to reach out to Southern Women ( specifically white women ) for support and unity in gaining rights for black women . The women met in Memphis , Tennessee to discuss interracial problems . In many respects , all of the women agreed about what needed to be changed , until they came to the topic of suffrage . The white women at the conference tried to strike down a resolution on black suffrage . The SACWC responded by issuing a pamphlet entitled Southern Negro Women and Race Co @-@ Operation ; it delineated their demands regarding conditions in domestic service , child welfare , conditions of travel , education , lynching , the public press , and voting rights . The group went on to help register black women to vote after they were granted suffrage a few months later after passage of the constitutional amendment . Within the state , however , and in other southern states , black men and women were largely disenfranchised by discriminatory application of literacy and comprehension tests , as well as requirements to pay poll taxes , lengthy residency requirements , and the need to keep and display records .
= = = National Council of Negro Women = = =
In 1935 Bethune founded the National Council of Negro Women in New York City , bringing together representatives of 28 different organizations to work to improve the lives of black women and their communities . Bethune said of the council :
" It is our pledge to make a lasting contribution to all that is finest and best in America , to cherish and enrich her heritage of freedom and progress by working for the integration of all her people regardless of race , creed , or national origin , into her spiritual , social , cultural , civic , and economic life , and thus aid her to achieve the glorious destiny of a true and unfettered democracy . "
In 1938 , the NCNW hosted the White House Conference on Negro Women and Children , demonstrating the importance of black women in democratic roles . During World War II , the NCNW gained approval for black women to be commissioned as officers in the Women 's Army Corps . Bethune also served as a political appointee and the Special Assistant to the Secretary of War during the war .
In the 1990s , the headquarters for the National Council for Negro Women moved to Pennsylvania Avenue , centrally located between the White House and the U.S. Capitol . The former headquarters , where Bethune also lived at one time , has been designated as a National Historic Site .
= = = National Youth Administration = = =
The National Youth Administration ( NYA ) was a federal agency created under Roosevelt 's Works Progress Administration ( WPA ) . It provided programs specifically to promote relief and employment for young people . It focused on unemployed citizens aged sixteen to twenty @-@ five years who were not in school . Bethune lobbied the organization so aggressively and effectively for minority involvement that she earned a full @-@ time staff position in 1936 as an assistant .
Within two years , Bethune was appointed to position of Director of the Division of Negro Affairs , and as such , became the first African @-@ American female division head . She managed NYA funds to help black students through school @-@ based programs . She was the only black agent of the NYA who was a financial manager . She ensured black colleges participation in the Civilian Pilot Training Program , which graduated some of the first black pilots . The director of the NYA said in 1939 : " No one can do what Mrs. Bethune can do . "
Bethune ’ s determination helped national officials recognize the need to improve employment for black youth . The NYA ’ s final report , issued in 1943 , stated ,
" more than 300 @,@ 000 black young men and women were given employment and work training on NYA projects . These projects opened to these youth , training opportunities and enabled the majority of them to qualify for jobs heretofore closed to them . "
Within the administration , Bethune advocated for the appointment of black NYA officials to positions of political power . Bethune ’ s administrative assistants served as liaisons between the National Division of Negro Affairs and the NYA agencies on the state and local levels . The high number of administrative assistants composed a work force commanded by Bethune . They helped gain better job and salary opportunities for blacks across the country . During her tenure , Bethune also pushed federal officials to approve a program of consumer education for blacks , and a foundation for black crippled children . She planned for studies for black workers ’ education councils . National officials did not support these due to inadequate funding and fear of duplicating the work of private non @-@ governmental agencies . The NYA was terminated in 1943 .
= = = Black Cabinet = = =
Bethune became a close and loyal friend of Eleanor and Franklin Roosevelt . At the Southern Conference on Human Welfare in 1938 , held in Birmingham , Alabama , Eleanor Roosevelt requested a seat next to Bethune despite state segregation laws . Roosevelt frequently referred to Bethune as " her closest friend in her age group . " Bethune told black voters about the work being done on their behalf by the Roosevelt Administration , and made their concerns known to the Roosevelts . She had unprecedented access to the White House through her relationship with the First Lady .
She used her access to form a coalition of leaders from black organizations called the Federal Council of Negro Affairs , but which came to be known as the Black Cabinet . It served as an advisory board to the Roosevelt administration on issues facing black people in America . It was composed of numerous talented blacks , mostly men , who had been appointed to positions in federal agencies . This was the first collective of black people working in higher positions in government . It showed voters that the Roosevelt administration cared about black concerns . The group gathered in Bethune 's office or apartment and met informally , rarely keeping minutes . Although as advisers they did not directly create public policy , they were a respected leadership among black voters ; they influenced political appointments and disbursement of funds to organizations that would benefit black people .
= = = Civil Rights = = =
In 1931 the Methodist Church supported merging of the Daytona Normal and Industrial School and the Cookman College for Men into Bethune @-@ Cookman College , established first as a junior college . Bethune became a member of the church but it was segregated in the South . Essentially two organizations operated in the Methodist denomination . Bethune was prominent in the primarily black Florida Conference . While she worked to integrate the mostly white Methodist Episcopal Church , South , she protested its initial plans for integration because they proposed separate jurisdictions based on race .
Bethune worked to educate both whites and blacks about the accomplishments and needs of black people , writing in 1938 @,@
" If our people are to fight their way up out of bondage we must arm them with the sword and the shield and buckler of pride – belief in themselves and their possibilities , based upon a sure knowledge of the achievements of the past . " A year later she wrote , " Not only the Negro child but children of all races should read and know of the achievements , accomplishments and deeds of the Negro . World peace and brotherhood are based on a common understanding of the contributions and cultures of all races and creeds . "
On Sundays she opened her school to tourists in Daytona Beach , showing off her students ' accomplishments , hosting national speakers on black issues , and taking donations . She ensured that these Community Meetings were integrated . A black who was a teenager in Daytona at the turn of the 20th century later recalled : " Many tourists attended , sitting wherever there were empty seats . There was no special section for white people . "
When the U.S. Supreme Court ruled in Brown v. Board of Education ( 1954 ) that segregation of public schools was unconstitutional , Bethune defended the decision by writing in the Chicago Defender that year :
There can be no divided democracy , no class government , no half @-@ free county , under the constitution . Therefore , there can be no discrimination , no segregation , no separation of some citizens from the rights which belong to all .... We are on our way . But these are frontiers which we must conquer .... We must gain full equality in education ... in the franchise ... in economic opportunity , and full equality in the abundance of life .
Bethune organized the first officer candidate schools for black women . She lobbied federal officials , including Roosevelt , on behalf of African @-@ American women who wanted to join the military .
= = Death and accolades = =
On May 18 , 1955 , Bethune died of a heart attack . Her death was followed by editorial tributes in African @-@ American newspapers across the United States . The Oklahoma City Black Dispatch stated she was , " Exhibit No. 1 for all who have faith in America and the democratic process . " The Atlanta Daily World said her life was , " One of the most dramatic careers ever enacted at any time upon the stage of human activity . " And the Pittsburgh Courier wrote , " In any race or nation she would have been an outstanding personality and made a noteworthy contribution because her chief attribute was her indomitable soul . "
The mainstream press praised her as well . Christian Century suggested , " the story of her life should be taught to every school child for generations to come . " The New York Times noted she was , " one of the most potent factors in the growth of interracial goodwill in America . " The Washington Post said : " So great were her dynamism and force that it was almost impossible to resist her ... Not only her own people , but all America has been enriched and ennobled by her courageous , ebullient spirit . " Her hometown newspaper , the Daytona Beach Evening News printed , " To some she seemed unreal , something that could not be .... What right had she to greatness ? ... The lesson of Mrs. Bethune 's life is that genius knows no racial barriers . "
= = Honors = =
In 1930 , journalist Ida Tarbell included Bethune as number 10 on her list of America 's greatest women . Bethune was awarded the Spingarn Medal in 1935 by the NAACP .
Mary McLeod Bethune was the only black woman present at the founding of the United Nations in San Francisco in 1945 , representing the NAACP with W. E. B. Du Bois and Walter White . In 1949 she became the first woman to receive the National Order of Honour and Merit , Haiti 's highest award . She served as the US emissary to the induction of President William V.S. Tubman of Liberia in 1949 .
She also served as an adviser to five of the Presidents of the United States . Calvin Coolidge and Franklin D. Roosevelt appointed her to several government positions which included : Special Advisor in Minority Affairs , director of the Division of Negro Affairs of the National Youth Administration , and chair of Federal Council of Negro Affairs . Among her honors , she was an assistant director of the Women 's Army Corps . She was also an honorary member of Delta Sigma Theta sorority .
= = Personal life = =
Bethune was described as " ebony " in complexion . She carried a cane , not for support but for effect . She said it gave her " swank " . She was a teetotaler and preached temperance for African Americans , taking opportunities to chastise drunken blacks she encountered in public . Bethune said more than once that the school and the students in Daytona were her first family , and that her son and extended family came second . Her students often referred to her as " Mama Bethune . "
She was noted for achieving her goals . Dr. Robert Weaver , who also served in Roosevelt 's Black Cabinet , said of her , " She had the most marvelous gift of effecting feminine helplessness in order to attain her aims with masculine ruthlessness . " But when a white Daytona resident threatened Bethune 's students with a rifle , Bethune worked to make an ally of him . The director of the McLeod Hospital recalled , " Mrs. Bethune treated him with courtesy and developed such goodwill in him that we found him protecting the children and going so far as to say , ' If anybody bothers old Mary , I will protect her with my life . ' "
Self @-@ sufficiency was a high priority throughout her life . Bethune invested in several businesses , including the Pittsburgh Courier , a black newspaper , and several life insurance companies . She founded Central Life Insurance of Florida . She eventually retired in Florida . Due to state segregation , blacks were not allowed to visit the beach . Bethune and several other business owners invested in Paradise Beach : they purchased a 2 @-@ mile ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) stretch of beach and the surrounding properties , selling these to black families . They did allow white families to visit the waterfront . Paradise Beach was later renamed as Bethune @-@ Volusia Beach in her honor . She also was a one @-@ fourth owner of the Welricha Motel in Daytona .
= = Legacy and honors = =
In 1973 , Mary McLeod Bethune was inducted into the National Women 's Hall of Fame . On July 10 , 1974 , the anniversary of her 99th birthday , the Mary McLeod Bethune Memorial , by artist Robert Berks , was erected in her honor in Lincoln Park ( Washington , D.C. ) The funds for the monument were raised by the National Council of Negro Women . It was the first monument honoring an African American or a woman to be installed in a public park in the District of Columbia . The inscription on the pedestal reads " let her works praise her , " while the side is engraved with a passage from her " Last Will and Testament " :
I leave you love . I leave you hope . I leave you the challenge of developing confidence in one another . I leave you a thirst for education . I leave you a respect for the use of power . I leave you faith . I leave you racial dignity . I leave you a desire to live harmoniously with your fellow men . I leave you a responsibility to our young people .
Approximately 250 @,@ 000 people attended the unveiling ceremony , including Shirley Chisholm , the first African @-@ American woman elected to Congress .
In 1985 the US Postal Service issued a stamp in Bethune 's honor . In 1989 Ebony Magazine listed her as one of " 50 Most Important Figures in Black US History . " In 1999 , Ebony Magazine included her as one of the " 100 Most Fascinating Black Women of the 20th century . "
In 1991 , the International Astronomical Union named the Bethune Patera on planet Venus in her honor .
In 1994 , the National Park Service acquired Bethune 's last residence , the NACW Council House at 1318 Vermont Avenue . The former headquarters was designated as the Mary McLeod Bethune Council House National Historic Site . The NACW is now located on Pennsylvania Avenue .
Schools have been named in her honor in Los Angeles , Chicago , San Diego , Dallas , Palm Beach , Florida , Moreno Valley , California , Minneapolis , Ft . Lauderdale , Atlanta , Philadelphia , Folkston and College Park , Georgia , New Orleans , Rochester , New York , Cleveland , South Boston , Virginia , Jacksonville , Florida , and Milwaukee , Wisconsin .
In 2002 , scholar Molefi Kete Asante listed Mary McLeod Bethune on his list of 100 Greatest African Americans .
In 2004 , Bethune @-@ Cookman University celebrated its hundredth anniversary from its founding as a primary school . It has a 82 @.@ 2 acres ( 333 @,@ 000 m2 ) campus in Daytona Beach and 40 buildings . The former 2nd Avenue on one side of the university was renamed as Mary Mcleod Bethune Boulevard . The university offers 35 majors in six major colleges . The university 's website says , " the vision of the founder remains in full view over one @-@ hundred years later . The institution prevails in order that others might improve their heads , hearts , and hands . " The university 's vice president recalled her legacy : " During Mrs. Bethune 's time , this was the only place in the city of Daytona Beach where Whites and Blacks could sit in the same room and enjoy what she called ' gems from students ' — their recitations and songs . This is a person who was able to bring Black people and White together . "
An historical marker in Mayesville , Sumter County , South Carolina , commemorates her birthplace .
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= Hartford City Glass Company =
Hartford City Glass Company was among the top three window glass manufacturers in the United States between 1890 and 1899 , and continued to be one of the nation 's largest after its acquisition . It was also the country 's largest manufacturer of chipped glass , with capacity double that of its nearest competitor . The company 's works was the first of eight glass plants that existed in Hartford City , Indiana during the Indiana Gas Boom . It became the city 's largest manufacturer and employer , peaking with 600 employees .
Many of the skilled workers employed at the Hartford City Glass Company were from Belgium , at the time the world ’ s leading manufacturer of window glass . The Belgian workers and their families accounted for over one @-@ third of Hartford City 's population during the 1890s , and lived on the city 's south side . Because of the importance of the French @-@ speaking Belgians , one of the local newspapers featured articles in French .
In 1899 , Hartford City Glass was acquired by the American Window Glass Company , which controlled 85 percent of the American window glass manufacturing capacity . During the next decade , the company began replacing its skilled and well – paid Belgian glass blowers with machines and less @-@ skilled machine operators . The company used the Hartford City plant to test and refine the new technology . Most of the Belgian glass workers left town .
During the 1920s , competitors developed new window glass production processes that eclipsed the American Window Glass technology , and the company lost its advantage . By the time the Great Depression struck , the Hartford City plant had closed .
= = Manufacturers drawn to Indiana = =
During the late 1880s , the discovery of natural gas in Eaton , Indiana started an economic boom period in East Central Indiana . Manufacturers were lured to the region to take advantage of the low cost fuel . Blackford County , a small rural county located close to Eaton , had only 181 people working in manufacturing in 1880 . By 1901 , the county had over 1 @,@ 100 people employed at manufacturing plants in small communities such as Hartford City , Indiana . Between 1880 and 1900 , populations doubled in area counties such as Blackford , Delaware , and Grant . The region became Indiana ’ s major manufacturing center .
= = = Hartford City = = =
Like many Indiana communities during the gas boom , Hartford City ’ s leaders sought to take advantage of their newfound energy resource . The Hartford City Land Company was formed in 1891 as part of the effort to attract manufacturers . The company offered " free sites , free gas , excellent switching facilities , and reasonable cash subsidies " as enticements for manufacturers to locate in the boom town . Manufacturers that used high quantities of energy were especially attracted to no @-@ cost or low @-@ cost natural gas sites , and glassmaking was one of those energy @-@ consuming industries .
Hartford City 's success in attracting manufacturers can be indirectly measured by its population growth . The city 's population was 2 @,@ 287 in 1890 , but grew to 5 @,@ 912 by 1900 . In 1890 , the city convinced glassmaker Richard Heagany to relocate from Kokomo , Indiana . An additional glass maker , Sneath Glass Company , relocated from Tiffin , Ohio , in 1894 . During 1901 , Indiana state inspectors visited 15 manufacturing facilities in Hartford City . These manufacturers employed 1 @,@ 077 people , and the American Window Glass plant ( the former Hartford City Glass Company ) plus the Sneath Glass works accounted for over half of the manufacturing employees . By 1902 , Hartford City was the home of 8 glass factories .
= = Organization and management = =
In 1878 , glassmaker Richard Heagany organized a window glass plant in New York and was the factory 's superintendent . That plant became the largest window glass plant in the state . In 1886 , he moved to Kokomo , Indiana and opened the first window glass plant in the region to use natural gas as a fuel source . Heagany 's Kokomo plant lasted three years before it was destroyed by fire . Instead of rebuilding in Kokomo , he moved to Hartford City and organized the Hartford City Glass Company . The company was organized in 1890 with the financial assistance of several capitalists . Production began in early 1891 after the plant was constructed . Heagany was the plant manager until his retirement in 1899 .
= = = Capitalists = = =
One of the principal stockholders of the new company was multi @-@ millionaire A. M. Barber . Barber was involved in grain and banking in Akron , Ohio . Another important investor from Akron was Colonel Arthur Latham Conger , who was the company 's first president . Conger was a Civil War veteran who invested in companies in Ohio and Indiana ( including in Kokomo ) . He was also elected president of the Hartford City Land Company in 1893 . Hartford City 's Sydney W. Cantwell was secretary of the Hartford City Glass Company during its early years . He was also president of the state organization of window glass manufacturers . Cantwell was an attorney involved with the Blackford County Bank , Akron Oil Company , and Hartford City Land Company . Another Hartford City investor , Henry " H. B. " Smith , was president of Hartford City 's Citizen 's Bank .
= = = Management change = = =
Top management changed during 1895 after the company 's annual shareholders ' meeting . Colonel A. L. Conger , who had been president since the company 's beginning , lost his position to another colonel from Akron , George T. Perkins . Conger had fallen into disfavor with many of the local citizens . He immediately expressed his unhappiness with the election by selling his company stock and leaving town . Conger 's stock was purchased by Kokomo banker John A. Jay . Officers of Hartford City Glass in 1896 were George T. Perkins , President ; John A. Jay , Vice President ; H.B. Smith , Treasurer ; Richard Heagany , General Manager ; and John Rodgers Johnston , Secretary .
Colonel George Tod Perkins was a Civil War veteran and president of the B. F. Goodrich Company . He was also involved in banking and had been president of the Bank of Akron . John R. Johnston began working at the Hartford City plant in 1890 as a bookkeeper . He was elected secretary after 4 years . Johnston lived in Hartford City and helped Heagany run the business . Heagany submitted his resignation at the August 1899 board meeting , retiring after 42 years in the glass business . Johnston became plant manager at that time . Johnston resigned a short time later , effective April 1900 . He formed Hartford City 's Johnston Glass Company in September of the same year .
= = Workforce = =
During its peak years , Hartford City Glass Company employed 500 to 600 people . In 1894 , it employed 100 glass blowers as part of a total workforce of 540 people . The wages for that workforce were said to be equivalent to " about 1500 men in any other industry . " Not only was the glass works the largest industry in the county , it was thought to be the second @-@ largest plant of any industry located in the Indiana Gas Belt . To help meet the housing needs for the factory 's many employees , 184 houses were built nearby . In 1896 , 443 workers at the plant lived in Hartford City , especially on the south side . Assuming each local worker had a family of five , over one @-@ third of the city 's population ( 2 @,@ 235 of " an estimated 6 @,@ 000 " ) was financially dependent upon Hartford City Glass .
= = = Glassmakers = = =
The window glass manufacturing process used by Hartford City Glass was known as the Cylinder Method . The process was labor @-@ intensive , and required the services of a glass blower and glass cutter — who were both highly skilled and well paid . The glass blower led a small production crew that included skilled and unskilled workers . At older plants , the glass blower 's workstation was adjacent to a ceramic pot located inside the furnace . Each pot contained molten glass created by melting a batch of ingredients that included sand , soda , and lime . At newer plants such as the Hartford City works , tanks were used instead of pots . The tanks were essentially huge brick pots with multiple workstations . A tank furnace is more efficient than a pot furnace , but more costly to build .
In the first step of the glass @-@ making process , molten glass was extracted from the pot or tank . The glass blower and his helper used a blowpipe , which was typically 4 feet ( 1 @.@ 2 m ) to 5 feet ( 1 @.@ 5 m ) long , to create a bubble of molten glass . The glass blower manipulated the bubble into a cylinder , and removed it from the pot or tank . The cylinders were 12 inches ( 30 @.@ 5 cm ) to 16 inches ( 40 @.@ 6 cm ) in diameter , and 4 feet ( 1 @.@ 2 m ) or 5 feet ( 1 @.@ 5 m ) long .
Next , the glass – cutter cut the cylinder , and the glass was flattened . It was necessary to gradually cool the glass , a process known as annealing , to prevent it from breaking . A lehr or annealing oven was used to anneal the product . A typical 20th @-@ century lehr was a large conveyor inside a long oven . The newly made glass gradually moved from the hot end of the lehr to its opposite end , which was at room temperature . The glass would then be cut into the desired window glass size , placed in a box , and moved to inventory . It is not known if ( or when ) the lehrs at the Hartford City plant had conveyors .
= = = The Belgians = = =
During the late 19th century , glass blowers were difficult to find . Belgium was the largest exporter of window glass to the United States , and plant manager Heagany previously used the skills of glass blowers from that country in his Kokomo glass works . In Hartford City , Heagany again relied upon Belgian workers for the skilled positions in his glass works .
The city 's influx of French @-@ speaking Belgians had an impact on the town . The south side ( south of Lick Creek ) became known as Belgium Town . Most Belgians were Catholic , and they built the city 's Catholic church near their homes on the city 's south side . The church 's Father Dhe was a native of France and was also involved with glass making . During the early 1900s , the local Blackford County Gazette claimed to be the " only newspaper in State that prints French and circulates among the window glass and iron workers , the highest paid skilled mechanics in the world . "
The Belgian workforce also had an impact on the city 's north side . Hartford City 's Presbyterian Church , which is now part of the National Register of Historical Places , was built one block north of the courthouse in 1894 — and features large stained glass windows imported from Belgium . For over 50 years , the bigger of two huge windows was considered the largest single @-@ frame window in the state of Indiana . These stained @-@ glass windows , plus at least four smaller ones , were installed by the local ( and mostly Catholic ) Belgian glass workers .
= = Infrastructure = =
Construction of Hartford City 's new glass works was completed in early January 1891 , and production started shortly thereafter . The glass works was located on Hartford City 's south side , and originally occupied 12 acres ( 4 @.@ 9 ha ) . Natural gas was the plant 's original fuel source for both the furnace used to make the glass and the ovens used to gradually cool it .
In the United States , two systems were used during the 1890s to create molten glass . The older system used a pot furnace , where ceramic pots were heated inside the furnace to melt the batch of ingredients needed to make the molten glass . The newer system used a large brick tank that could be operated continuously or by the batch . The Hartford City plant used the tank system , and it was originally the " largest tank window glass factory in the world " . The tank had a capacity equivalent to 30 pots , giving the Hartford City plant more than double the capacity of some of the window glass plants built a few years earlier in Ohio .
With its size , newest technology , and newly built facilities , the plant was " said to be the largest and best arranged window glass works in the world . " During its existence , the plant was always one of the largest window glass works in the United States .
Initial production at the Hartford City plant continued until June , when the works was shut down to decrease inventories . Summer shutdowns were normal in the glass industry at that time . The heat from the furnaces combined with summer weather made extremely uncomfortable working conditions , justifying the summer months as the best time to shut down for maintenance ( or for manipulation of inventories ) . In the case of the first year 's shutdown for the Hartford City Glass works , production was restarted in October .
= = = Expansion = = =
In 1892 , management decided to expand the factory 's capacity by adding a second tank . The new tank would add approximately 50 pots of capacity . In early April , construction of the facilities for the new tank began . " Modern and improved methods in all departments of the works " were used , improving the efficiency in manufacturing and shipping . The new buildings were made fire @-@ resistant by using stone , brick , and iron for construction materials . They were also well ventilated , which made the work environment more comfortable for the glass workers . The expansion increased total capacity to about 90 pots . This made the works the second @-@ largest glass factory in the United States . Expenditures necessary to finance the expansion were $ 100 @,@ 000 ( over $ 2 @.@ 5 million in 2012 dollars ) .
During 1893 , the company considered adding a third tank , which would add another 60 pots of capacity . The expansion cost estimate was $ 150 @,@ 000 ( over $ 3 @.@ 8 million in 2012 dollars ) , and was said to " give employment to 350 men . " Two major concerns voiced by management to community leaders were adequate fire protection and housing for the workers . Community leaders did not respond soon enough , and the expansion was postponed . However , it is no coincidence that Hartford City 's waterworks began operations in 1894 , and the plant was built on the city 's south side . The city also acquired a chemical fire engine from the Chicago Fire Extinguisher Company , which was delivered in February 1894 .
Although the third tank was not added in 1893 , a new ware room was built . The room was 60 feet ( 18 @.@ 3 m ) long by 120 feet ( 36 @.@ 6 m ) wide , and could hold 20 @,@ 000 boxes . The roof and walls were covered in iron . By September ( without the capacity expansion ) , the plant had a payroll of $ 45 @,@ 000 ( over $ 1 @.@ 1 million in 2012 dollars ) per month , and employed 500 glass workers .
In 1896 , the plant employed 550 people , and produced about 2 million square feet of window glass per month . In addition to window glass , the company was the nation ’ s largest producer of chipped glass , with capacity double that of the second @-@ largest manufacturer . Chipped glass was a popular ornamental glass used for interiors of office buildings and with furniture . At that time , the plant was the second @-@ largest window glass producer in the country , although it became the third @-@ largest later in the year . Its grounds had grown to cover 25 acres ( 10 @.@ 1 ha ) , and included a railroad spur off of the Pennsylvania Railroad . The grounds contained two melting rooms , two warehouses , a blacksmith shop , and a machine shop . The tank in one of the melting rooms was 18 feet ( 5 @.@ 5 m ) long , 18 feet ( 5 @.@ 5 m ) wide , and 6 feet ( 1 @.@ 8 m ) deep . One tank required 4 flattening ovens and a cutting room .
Plans for the addition of another tank began again in late 1896 . A third tank would make the Hartford City plant the largest in the country . As part of the conditions for expansion , the plant owners requested housing for its potential new workers . Although the houses were built , the company was not satisfied , as the expansion was never consummated . Without the third tank , the workforce still grew to 600 by 1898 .
= = Acquisition = =
In 1898 , a group of men led by James A. Chambers organized a glass trust called American Window Glass Company . The company was formed from the American Glass Company , but did not incorporate until 1899 . The trust planned to acquire 70 glass plants , " some of which it will close to bring the production down to the demand . " The prices offered for the glass plants were very generous . Owners of the glass plants could sell their plant for either cash or a combination of cash and stock in the new company . Many owners chose to receive stock .
The trust was incorporated effective August 2 , 1899 . James A. Chambers continued as president , and Hartford City ’ s H.B. Smith was one of the directors of the newly incorporated company . Initial acquisitions included over 20 major window glass plants , including Hartford City Glass Company . Most of the original acquisitions were from Indiana and Pennsylvania . Those glass plants were important enough to enable American Window Glass to control 85 percent of the window glass production in the United States .
Many of the Indiana glass works acquired by the trust were from the East Central Indiana Gas Belt . Among those plants were the Hartford City Glass Company ; and the nearby Muncie plants of Maring , Hart , and Company and C. H. Over . Other plants were located in Anderson , Dunkirk , and Fairmount , Indiana . The Hartford City Glass Company became known as Plant Number 3 of the American Window Glass Company . J. R. Johnston , already manager for Hartford City Glass Company , was named manager of the American Window Glass version of the same plant in December . A second window glass factory from Hartford City , Jones Glass Company , was also acquired — and became plant No. 32 . Eventually , the company acquired 41 glass factories .
= = American Window Glass = =
After the acquisition , the Hartford City Glass works became known as plant number 3 of the American Window Glass Company . The plant employed 450 people in 1901 . As natural gas supplies in Indiana became depleted , many manufacturers moved or did not survive . The major plants of the American Window Glass successfully changed energy sources from natural gas to gas made from coal . The company also had a technological advantage . Instead of using a glass blower , American Window Glass plants extracted molten glass with a machine . The machine , which was not immediately utilized at all American Window Glass plants , was known as the Lubbers blowing machine . Refinements to the machine and glass @-@ making process were made at the Hartford City works by plant manager Harry G. Slingluff . Production records for the entire company were set at the Hartford City plant in 1905 and 1907 — using the Lubbers machines .
= = = Lubbers machine = = =
The glass blowing machine used by American Window Glass factories was created by Pittsburgh resident John H. Lubbers , and he continued to contribute improvements to the machine over the next decade . By using the Lubbers machine , human glass blowers were replaced with a machine operator paid 30 percent of the glass blower wage . The machine was also five times more productive than the human blowers . It could make windows four times as large because a larger cylinder was extracted from the tank of molten glass . Thus , the highest – paid skilled workers in the United States were considered obsolete . In the case of Hartford City , machines replaced most of the human glass blowers by 1908 .
= = = Consolidation = = =
During the spring of 1900 , rumors circulated that American Window Glass planned to move production from smaller plants in nearby Dunkirk and Redkey ( factories 17 , 30 , 34 , and 41 ) to the large southside Hartford City plant . If the Hartford City plant would have its capacity expanded equal to the capacity of the plants to be consolidated , then Hartford City would have " become the greatest window glass town in the world . " The plant would have employed nearly 1000 people , equaling the largest window glass plant in the world in capacity . That plant in combination with Hartford City 's two other window glass factories , not even considering the flint glass plants or bottle plants , would make the city 's window glass capacity the highest in the world . The rumor had some truth — smaller plants were eventually closed . However , Hartford City 's large southside plant was not expanded .
In 1905 American Window Glass sold some of its smaller plants , including Hartford City 's plant number 32 . Plant number 3 still continued operations . It employed 500 people in 1910 . Before the start of World War I , American Window Glass Company was still the dominant window glass manufacturer , accounting for over half of the nation 's window glass manufacturing capacity . In 1913 , the company continued to close many of its smaller plants , while the large plants were equipped with the glass blowing machines . Plant number 3 was the third largest window glass factory in the United States , and the largest west of Pennsylvania . The Belgian portion of Hartford City 's glassmaking workforce was dramatically reduced because of two factors : the glass @-@ blowing machine replaced human glass blowers ; and Belgians had difficulty returning from summer vacations in their European homeland after the start of World War I.
American Window Glass made record profits in 1920 . All of the company 's small plants had been sold or closed by that time . The glass @-@ blowing machines were still being used to extract molten glass . The company was described as having " six large and well @-@ equipped plants located near the Pittsburgh district , and one large plant at Hartford City , Ind . "
= = Decline = =
During the beginning of the 20th century , competitors of the American Window Glass trust used a different approach to gain a technological advantage . The machines used by American Window Glass replaced glass blowers , but still used the same blowing and cutting process used in the 1880s — although the company was constantly working to make the process more efficient . Competitors such as American inventor Irving W. Colburn began working on a machine that produced window glass using a different process . Colburn patented his work during the first decade of the 20th century . Although he filed for bankruptcy in 1912 , his patents were purchased by Edward Drummond Libbey and Michael J. Owens — who hired Colburn to continue work on the machine . Owens was the creator of the Owens Bottling Machine that revolutionized the glass bottle industry . Working with Colburn , Owens improved the window glass machine enough that it began being used for production in 1921 . By 1926 , Libbey @-@ Owens had gained a window glass market share of 29 percent , while American Window Glass 's share was 59 percent . During the 1920s , Pittsburgh Plate Glass also developed a new process for making window glass , creating even more competition in the window glass industry .
Because of the improved technology and processes utilized by competitors , many of the American Window Glass patents , and much of its machinery , became obsolete . By the late 1920s , American Window Glass was forced to begin re @-@ equipping its plants with new machinery . The company underwent a financial reorganization in 1929 . Dividends on its preferred stock were lowered . Although a few plants were re @-@ equipped , the Hartford City plant was not . Hartford City 's natural gas supply was depleted , and the type of sand used to produce glass was in better supply near other American Window Glass plants in Pennsylvania . Thus , American Window Glass Company plant number 3 , the former Hartford City Glass Company , was closed in 1929 .
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= Byzantine Empire =
The Byzantine Empire , sometimes referred to as the Eastern Roman Empire , was the continuation of the Roman Empire in the East during Late Antiquity and the Middle Ages , when its capital city was Constantinople ( modern @-@ day Istanbul , originally founded as Byzantium ) . It survived the fragmentation and fall of the Western Roman Empire in the 5th century AD and continued to exist for an additional thousand years until it fell to the Ottoman Turks in 1453 . During most of its existence , the empire was the most powerful economic , cultural , and military force in Europe . Both " Byzantine Empire " and " Eastern Roman Empire " are historiographical terms created after the end of the realm ; its citizens continued to refer to their empire as the Roman Empire ( Ancient Greek : Βασιλεία τῶν Ῥωμαίων , tr . Basileia tôn Rhōmaiōn ; Latin : Imperium Romanum ) , or Romania ( Ῥωμανία ) , and to themselves as " Romans " .
Several signal events from the 4th to 6th centuries mark the period of transition during which the Roman Empire 's Greek East and Latin West divided . Constantine I ( r . 324 – 337 ) reorganised the empire , made Constantinople the new capital , and legalised Christianity . Under Theodosius I ( r . 379 – 395 ) , Christianity became the Empire 's official state religion and other religious practices were proscribed . Finally , under the reign of Heraclius ( r . 610 – 641 ) , the Empire 's military and administration were restructured and adopted Greek for official use instead of Latin . Thus , although the Roman state continued and Roman state traditions were maintained , modern historians distinguish Byzantium from ancient Rome insofar as it was centred on Constantinople , oriented towards Greek rather than Latin culture , and characterised by Orthodox Christianity .
The borders of the Empire evolved significantly over its existence , as it went through several cycles of decline and recovery . During the reign of Justinian I ( r . 527 – 565 ) , the Empire reached its greatest extent after reconquering much of the historically Roman western Mediterranean coast , including North Africa , Italy , and Rome itself , which it held for two more centuries . During the reign of Maurice ( r . 582 – 602 ) , the Empire 's eastern frontier was expanded and the north stabilised . However , his assassination caused the Byzantine – Sasanian War of 602 – 628 , which exhausted the Empire 's resources and contributed to major territorial losses during the Muslim conquests of the seventh century . In a matter of years the Empire lost its richest provinces , Egypt and Syria , to the Arabs .
During the Macedonian dynasty ( 10th – 11th centuries ) , the Empire again expanded and experienced the two @-@ century long Macedonian Renaissance , which came to an end with the loss of much of Asia Minor to the Seljuk Turks after the Battle of Manzikert in 1071 . This battle opened the way for the Turks to settle in Anatolia as a homeland .
The Empire recovered again during the Komnenian restoration , such that by the 12th century Constantinople was the largest and wealthiest European city . However , it was delivered a mortal blow during the Fourth Crusade , when Constantinople was sacked in 1204 and the territories that the Empire formerly governed were divided into competing Byzantine Greek and Latin realms . Despite the eventual recovery of Constantinople in 1261 , the Byzantine Empire remained only one of several small rival states in the area for the final two centuries of its existence . Its remaining territories were progressively annexed by the Ottomans over the 15th century . The Fall of Constantinople to the Ottoman Empire in 1453 finally ended the Byzantine Empire .
= = Nomenclature = =
The first use of the term " Byzantine " to label the later years of the Roman Empire was in 1557 , when the German historian Hieronymus Wolf published his work Corpus Historiæ Byzantinæ , a collection of historical sources . The term comes from " Byzantium " , the name of the city of Constantinople before it became Constantine 's capital . This older name of the city would rarely be used from this point onward except in historical or poetic contexts . The publication in 1648 of the Byzantine du Louvre ( Corpus Scriptorum Historiae Byzantinae ) , and in 1680 of Du Cange 's Historia Byzantina further popularised the use of " Byzantine " among French authors , such as Montesquieu . However , it was not until the mid @-@ 19th century that the term came into general use in the Western world .
The Byzantine Empire was known to its inhabitants as the " Roman Empire " , the " Empire of the Romans " ( Latin : Imperium Romanum , Imperium Romanorum ; Greek : Βασιλεία τῶν Ῥωμαίων Basileia tōn Rhōmaiōn , Ἀρχὴ τῶν Ῥωμαίων Archē tōn Rhōmaiōn ) , " Romania " ( Latin : Romania ; Greek : Ῥωμανία Rhōmania ) , the " Roman Republic " ( Latin : Res Publica Romana ; Greek : Πολιτεία τῶν Ῥωμαίων Politeia tōn Rhōmaiōn ) , Graikia ( Greek : Γραικία ) , and also as Rhōmais ( Greek : Ῥωμαΐς ) . The inhabitants called themselves Romaioi and Graikoi , and even as late as the 19th century Greeks typically referred to their modern language as Romaika and Graikika .
Although the Byzantine Empire had a multi @-@ ethnic character during most of its history and preserved Romano @-@ Hellenistic traditions , it became identified by its western and northern contemporaries with its increasingly predominant Greek element . The occasional use of the term " Empire of the Greeks " ( Latin : Imperium Graecorum ) in the West to refer to the Eastern Roman Empire and of the Byzantine Emperor as Imperator Graecorum ( Emperor of the Greeks ) were also used to separate it from the prestige of the Roman Empire within the new kingdoms of the West .
The authority of the Byzantine emperor as the legitimate Roman emperor was challenged by the coronation of Charlemagne as Imperator Augustus by Pope Leo III in the year 800 . Needing Charlemagne 's support in his struggle against his enemies in Rome , Leo used the lack of a male occupant of the throne of the Roman Empire at the time to claim that it was vacant and that he could therefore crown a new Emperor himself . Whenever the Popes or the rulers of the West made use of the name Roman to refer to the Eastern Roman Emperors , they usually preferred the term Imperator Romaniae ( meaning Emperor of Romania ) instead of Imperator Romanorum ( meaning Emperor of the Romans ) , a title that they applied only to Charlemagne and his successors .
No such distinction existed in the Islamic and Slavic worlds , where the Empire was more straightforwardly seen as the continuation of the Roman Empire . In the Islamic world , the Roman Empire was known primarily as Rûm . The name millet @-@ i Rûm , or " Roman nation , " was used by the Ottomans through the 20th century to refer to the former subjects of the Byzantine Empire , that is , the Orthodox Christian community within Ottoman realms .
= = History = =
= = = Early history = = =
The Roman army succeeded in conquering many territories covering the entire Mediterranean region and coastal regions in southwestern Europe and north Africa . These territories were home to many different cultural groups , both urban populations and rural populations . Generally speaking , the eastern Mediterranean provinces were more urbanised than the western , having previously been united under the Macedonian Empire and Hellenised by the influence of Greek culture .
The West also suffered more heavily from the instability of the 3rd century AD . This distinction between the established Hellenised East and the younger Latinised West persisted and became increasingly important in later centuries , leading to a gradual estrangement of the two worlds .
= = = Decentralization of power = = =
To maintain control and improve administration , various schemes to divide the work of the Roman Emperor by sharing it between individuals were tried between 285 and 324 , from 337 to 350 , from 364 to 392 , and again between 395 and 480 . Although the administrative subdivisions varied , they generally involved a division of labour between East and West . Each division was a form of power @-@ sharing ( or even job @-@ sharing ) , for the ultimate imperium was not divisible and therefore the empire remained legally one state — although the co @-@ emperors often saw each other as rivals or enemies .
In 293 , emperor Diocletian created a new administrative system ( the tetrarchy ) , to guarantee security in all endangered regions of his Empire . He associated himself with a co @-@ emperor ( Augustus ) , and each co @-@ emperor then adopted a young colleague given the title of Caesar , to share in their rule and eventually to succeed the senior partner . The tetrarchy collapsed , however , in 313 and a few years later Constantine I reunited the two administrative divisions of the Empire as sole Augustus .
= = = Recentralisation = = =
In 330 , Constantine moved the seat of the Empire to Constantinople , which he founded as a second Rome on the site of Byzantium , a city strategically located on the trade routes between Europe and Asia and between the Mediterranean and the Black Sea . Constantine introduced important changes into the Empire 's military , monetary , civil and religious institutions . As regards his economic policies in particular , he has been accused by certain scholars of " reckless fiscality " , but the gold solidus he introduced became a stable currency that transformed the economy and promoted development .
Under Constantine , Christianity did not become the exclusive religion of the state , but enjoyed imperial preference , because the emperor supported it with generous privileges . Constantine established the principle that emperors could not settle questions of doctrine on their own , but should summon instead general ecclesiastical councils for that purpose . His convening of both the Synod of Arles and the First Council of Nicaea indicated his interest in the unity of the Church , and showcased his claim to be its head . The rise of Christianity was briefly interrupted on the accession of the emperor Julian in 361 , who made a determined effort to restore polytheism throughout the empire and was thus dubbed " Julian the Apostate " by the Church . However this was reversed when Julian was killed in battle in 363 .
Theodosius I ( 379 @-@ 395 ) was the last Emperor to rule both the Eastern and Western halves of the Empire . In 391 and 392 he issued a series of edicts essentially banning pagan religion . Pagan festivals and sacrifices were banned , as was access to all pagan temples and places of worship . The last Olympic Games are believed to have been held in 393 . In 395 , Theodosius I bequeathed the imperial office jointly to his sons : Arcadius in the East and Honorius in the West , once again dividing Imperial administration . In the 5th century the Eastern part of the empire was largely spared the difficulties faced by the West — due in part to a more established urban culture and greater financial resources , which allowed it to placate invaders with tribute and pay foreign mercenaries . This success allowed Theodosius II to focus on the codification of Roman law and further fortification of the walls of Constantinople , which left the city impervious to most attacks until 1204 . Large portions of the Theodosian Walls are preserved to the present day .
To fend off the Huns , Theodosius had to pay an enormous annual tribute to Attila . His successor , Marcian , refused to continue to pay the tribute , but Attila had already diverted his attention to the West . After his death in 453 , the Hunnic Empire collapsed , and many of the remaining Huns were often hired as mercenaries by Constantinople .
= = = Loss of the Western Roman Empire = = =
After the fall of Attila , the Eastern Empire enjoyed a period of peace , while the Western Empire deteriorated due to continuing migration and expansion by the Germanic nations ( its end is usually dated in 476 when the Germanic Roman general Odoacer deposed the usurper Western Emperor Romulus Augustulus ) .
In 480 with the death of the Western Emperor Julius Nepos , Eastern Emperor Zeno became sole Emperor of the empire . Odoacer , now ruler of Italy , was nominally Zeno 's subordinate but acted with complete autonomy , eventually providing support to a rebellion against the Emperor .
Zeno negotiated with the invading Ostrogoths , who had settled in Moesia , convincing the Gothic king Theodoric to depart for Italy as magister militum per Italiam ( " commander in chief for Italy " ) with the aim of deposing Odoacer . By urging Theodoric to conquer Italy , Zeno rid the Eastern Empire of an unruly subordinate ( Odoacer ) and moved another ( Theodoric ) further from the heart of the Empire . After Odoacer 's defeat in 493 , Theodoric ruled Italy de facto , although he was never recognised by the eastern emperors as " king " ( rex ) .
In 491 , Anastasius I , an aged civil officer of Roman origin , became Emperor , but it was not until 497 that the forces of the new emperor effectively took the measure of Isaurian resistance . Anastasius revealed himself as an energetic reformer and an able administrator . He perfected Constantine I 's coinage system by definitively setting the weight of the copper follis , the coin used in most everyday transactions . He also reformed the tax system and permanently abolished the chrysargyron tax . The State Treasury contained the enormous sum of 320 @,@ 000 lb ( 150 @,@ 000 kg ) of gold when Anastasius died in 518 .
= = = Justinian dynasty = = =
The Justinian dynasty was founded by Justin I , who though illiterate , rose through the ranks of the military to become Emperor in 518 . He was succeeded by his nephew Justinian I in 527 , who may already have exerted effective control during Justin 's reign . One of the most important figures of late antiquity and possibly the last Roman emperor to speak Latin as a first language , Justinian 's rule constitutes a distinct epoch , marked by the ambitious but only partly realized renovatio imperii , or " restoration of the Empire " . His wife Theodora was particularly influential .
In 529 , Justinian appointed a ten @-@ man commission chaired by John the Cappadocian to revise Roman law and create a new codification of laws and jurists ' extracts , known as the " Corpus Juris Civilis " . In 534 , the Corpus was updated and , along with the enactments promulgated by Justinian after 534 , formed the system of law used for most of the rest of the Byzantine era . The Corpus forms the basis of civil law of many modern states .
In 532 , attempting to secure his eastern frontier , Justinian signed a peace treaty with Khosrau I of Persia agreeing to pay a large annual tribute to the Sassanids . In the same year , he survived a revolt in Constantinople ( the Nika riots ) , which solidified his power but ended with the deaths of a reported 30 @,@ 000 to 35 @,@ 000 rioters on his orders . The western conquests began in 533 , as Justinian sent his general Belisarius to reclaim the former province of Africa from the Vandals who had been in control since 429 with their capital at Carthage . Their success came with surprising ease , but it was not until 548 that the major local tribes were subdued . In Ostrogothic Italy , the deaths of Theodoric , his nephew and heir Athalaric , and his daughter Amalasuntha had left her murderer , Theodahad ( r . 534 – 536 ) , on the throne despite his weakened authority .
In 535 , a small Byzantine expedition to Sicily met with easy success , but the Goths soon stiffened their resistance , and victory did not come until 540 , when Belisarius captured Ravenna , after successful sieges of Naples and Rome . In 535 – 536 , Theodahad sent Pope Agapetus I to Constantinople to request the removal of Byzantine forces from Sicily , Dalmatia , and Italy . Although Agapetus failed in his mission to sign a peace with Justinian , he succeeded in having the Monophysite Patriarch Anthimus I of Constantinople denounced , despite empress Theodora 's support and protection .
The Ostrogoths were soon reunited under the command of King Totila and captured Rome in 546 . Belisarius , who had been sent back to Italy in 544 , was eventually recalled to Constantinople in 549 . The arrival of the Armenian eunuch Narses in Italy ( late 551 ) with an army of 35 @,@ 000 men marked another shift in Gothic fortunes . Totila was defeated at the Battle of Taginae and his successor , Teia , was defeated at the Battle of Mons Lactarius ( October 552 ) . Despite continuing resistance from a few Gothic garrisons and two subsequent invasions by the Franks and Alemanni , the war for the Italian peninsula was at an end . In 551 , Athanagild , a noble from Visigothic Hispania , sought Justinian 's help in a rebellion against the king , and the emperor dispatched a force under Liberius , a successful military commander . The empire held on to a small slice of the Iberian Peninsula coast until the reign of Heraclius .
In the east , the Roman – Persian Wars continued until 561 when the envoys of Justinian and Khosrau agreed on a 50 @-@ year peace . By the mid @-@ 550s , Justinian had won victories in most theatres of operation , with the notable exception of the Balkans , which were subjected to repeated incursions from the Slavs and the Gepids . Tribes of Serbs and Croats were later resettled in the northwestern Balkans , during the reign of Heraclius . Justinian called Belisarius out of retirement and defeated the new Hunnish threat . The strengthening of the Danube fleet caused the Kutrigur Huns to withdraw and they agreed to a treaty that allowed safe passage back across the Danube .
Although polytheism had been suppressed by the state since at least the time of Constantine in the 4th century , traditional Greco @-@ Roman culture was still influential in the Eastern empire in the 6th century . Philosophers such as John Philoponus drew on neoplatonic ideas in addition to Christian thought and empiricism . Nevertheless , Hellenistic philosophy began to be gradually supplanted by or amalgamated into newer Christian philosophy . The closure of the Platonic Academy in 529 was a notable turning point . Hymns written by Romanos the Melodist marked the development of the Divine Liturgy , while the architects Isidore of Miletus and Anthemius of Tralles worked to complete the new Church of the Holy Wisdom , Hagia Sophia , which was designed to replace an older church destroyed during the Nika Revolt . Completed in 537 , the Hagia Sophia stands today as one of the major monuments of Byzantine architectural history . During the 6th and 7th centuries , the Empire was struck by a series of epidemics , which greatly devastated the population and contributed to a significant economic decline and a weakening of the Empire .
After Justinian died in 565 , his successor , Justin II refused to pay the large tribute to the Persians . Meanwhile , the Germanic Lombards invaded Italy ; by the end of the century only a third of Italy was in Byzantine hands . Justin 's successor , Tiberius II , choosing between his enemies , awarded subsidies to the Avars while taking military action against the Persians . Though Tiberius ' general , Maurice , led an effective campaign on the eastern frontier , subsidies failed to restrain the Avars . They captured the Balkan fortress of Sirmium in 582 , while the Slavs began to make inroads across the Danube .
Maurice , who meanwhile succeeded Tiberius , intervened in a Persian civil war , placed the legitimate Khosrau II back on the throne and married his daughter to him . Maurice 's treaty with his new brother @-@ in @-@ law enlarged the territories of the Empire to the East and allowed the energetic Emperor to focus on the Balkans . By 602 , a series of successful Byzantine campaigns had pushed the Avars and Slavs back across the Danube . However , Maurice 's refusal to ransom several thousand captives taken by the Avars , and his order to the troops to winter in the Danube caused his popularity to plummet . A revolt broke out under an officer named Phocas , who marched the troops back to Constantinople ; Maurice and his family were murdered while trying to escape .
= = = Shrinking borders = = =
= = = = Heraclian dynasty = = = =
After Maurice 's murder by Phocas , Khosrau used the pretext to reconquer the Roman province of Mesopotamia . Phocas , an unpopular ruler invariably described in Byzantine sources as a " tyrant " , was the target of a number of Senate @-@ led plots . He was eventually deposed in 610 by Heraclius , who sailed to Constantinople from Carthage with an icon affixed to the prow of his ship .
Following the accession of Heraclius , the Sassanid advance pushed deep into the Levant , occupying Damascus and Jerusalem and removing the True Cross to Ctesiphon . The counter @-@ attack launched by Heraclius took on the character of a holy war , and an acheiropoietos image of Christ was carried as a military standard ( similarly , when Constantinople was saved from a combined Avar - Sassanid - Slavic siege in 626 , the victory was attributed to the icons of the Virgin that were led in procession by Patriarch Sergius about the walls of the city ) . In this very siege of Constantinople of the year 626 , amidst the climactic Byzantine – Sasanian War of 602 – 628 , the combined Avar , Sassanid , and Slavic forces unsuccessfully besieged the Byzantine capital between June and July . After this , the Sassanid army was forced to withdraw to Anatolia . The loss came just after news had reached them of yet another Byzantine victory , where Heraclius 's brother Theodore scored well against the Persian general Shahin . Following this , Heraclius led an invasion into Sassanid Mesopotamia once again .
The main Sassanid force was destroyed at Nineveh in 627 , and in 629 Heraclius restored the True Cross to Jerusalem in a majestic ceremony , as he marched into the Sassanid capital of Ctesiphon , where anarchy and civil war reigned as a result of the enduring war . Eventually , the Persians were obliged to withdraw all armed forces and return Sassanid @-@ ruled Egypt , the Levant and whatever imperial territories of Mesopotamia and Armenia were in Roman hands at the time of an earlier peace treaty in c . 595 . The war had exhausted both the Byzantines and Sassanids , however , and left them extremely vulnerable to the Muslim forces that emerged in the following years . The Byzantines suffered a crushing defeat by the Arabs at the Battle of Yarmouk in 636 , while Ctesiphon fell in 637 .
= = = = Siege of Constantinople ( 674 – 678 ) = = = =
The Arabs , now firmly in control of Syria and the Levant , sent frequent raiding parties deep into Asia Minor , and in 674 – 678 laid siege to Constantinople itself . The Arab fleet was finally repulsed through the use of Greek fire , and a thirty @-@ years ' truce was signed between the Empire and the Umayyad Caliphate . However , the Anatolian raids continued unabated , and accelerated the demise of classical urban culture , with the inhabitants of many cities either refortifying much smaller areas within the old city walls , or relocating entirely to nearby fortresses . Constantinople itself dropped substantially in size , from 500 @,@ 000 inhabitants to just 40 @,@ 000 – 70 @,@ 000 , and , like other urban centres , it was partly ruralised . The city also lost the free grain shipments in 618 , after Egypt fell first to the Persians and then to the Arabs , and public wheat distribution ceased .
The void left by the disappearance of the old semi @-@ autonomous civic institutions was filled by the theme system , which entailed dividing Asia Minor into " provinces " occupied by distinct armies that assumed civil authority and answered directly to the imperial administration . This system may have had its roots in certain ad hoc measures taken by Heraclius , but over the course of the 7th century it developed into an entirely new system of imperial governance . The massive cultural and institutional restructuring of the Empire consequent on the loss of territory in the 7th century has been said to have caused a decisive break in east Mediterranean Romanness and that the Byzantine state is subsequently best understood as another successor state rather than a real continuation of the Roman Empire .
The withdrawal of large numbers of troops from the Balkans to combat the Persians and then the Arabs in the east opened the door for the gradual southward expansion of Slavic peoples into the peninsula , and , as in Asia Minor , many cities shrank to small fortified settlements . In the 670s , the Bulgars were pushed south of the Danube by the arrival of the Khazars . In 680 , Byzantine forces sent to disperse these new settlements were defeated .
In 681 , Constantine IV signed a treaty with the Bulgar khan Asparukh , and the new Bulgarian state assumed sovereignty over a number of Slavic tribes that had previously , at least in name , recognised Byzantine rule . In 687 – 688 , the final Heraclian emperor , Justinian II , led an expedition against the Slavs and Bulgarians , and made significant gains , although the fact that he had to fight his way from Thrace to Macedonia demonstrates the degree to which Byzantine power in the north Balkans had declined .
Justinian II attempted to break the power of the urban aristocracy through severe taxation and the appointment of " outsiders " to administrative posts . He was driven from power in 695 , and took shelter first with the Khazars and then with the Bulgarians . In 705 , he returned to Constantinople with the armies of the Bulgarian khan Tervel , retook the throne , and instituted a reign of terror against his enemies . With his final overthrow in 711 , supported once more by the urban aristocracy , the Heraclian dynasty came to an end .
= = = = Isaurian dynasty to the accession of Basil I = = = =
Leo III the Isaurian turned back the Muslim assault in 718 and addressed himself to the task of reorganising and consolidating the themes in Asia Minor . His successor , Constantine V , won noteworthy victories in northern Syria and thoroughly undermined Bulgarian strength .
Taking advantage of the Empire 's weakness after the Revolt of Thomas the Slav in the early 820s , the Arabs re @-@ emerged and captured Crete . They also successfully attacked Sicily , but in 863 general Petronas gained a decisive victory against Umar al @-@ Aqta , the emir of Melitene ( Malatya ) . Under the leadership of emperor Krum , the Bulgarian threat also re @-@ emerged , but in 815 – 816 Krum 's son , Omurtag , signed a peace treaty with Leo V.
= = = = Religious dispute over iconoclasm = = = =
The 8th and early 9th centuries were also dominated by controversy and religious division over Iconoclasm , which was the main political issue in the Empire for over a century . Icons ( here meaning all forms of religious imagery ) were banned by Leo and Constantine from around 730 , leading to revolts by iconodules ( supporters of icons ) throughout the empire . After the efforts of empress Irene , the Second Council of Nicaea met in 787 and affirmed that icons could be venerated but not worshiped . Irene is said to have endeavoured to negotiate a marriage between herself and Charlemagne , but , according to Theophanes the Confessor , the scheme was frustrated by Aetios , one of her favourites .
In the early 9th century , Leo V reintroduced the policy of iconoclasm , but in 843 empress Theodora restored the veneration of icons with the help of Patriarch Methodios . Iconoclasm played a part in the further alienation of East from West , which worsened during the so @-@ called Photian schism , when Pope Nicholas I challenged the elevation of Photios to the patriarchate .
= = = Macedonian dynasty and resurgence ( 867 – 1025 ) = = =
The accession of Basil I to the throne in 867 marks the beginning of the Macedonian dynasty , which would rule for the next two and a half centuries . This dynasty included some of the most able emperors in Byzantium 's history , and the period is one of revival and resurgence . The Empire moved from defending against external enemies to reconquest of territories formerly lost .
In addition to a reassertion of Byzantine military power and political authority , the period under the Macedonian dynasty is characterised by a cultural revival in spheres such as philosophy and the arts . There was a conscious effort to restore the brilliance of the period before the Slavic and subsequent Arab invasions , and the Macedonian era has been dubbed the " Golden Age " of Byzantium . Though the Empire was significantly smaller than during the reign of Justinian , it had regained significant strength , as the remaining territories were less geographically dispersed and more politically , economically , and culturally integrated .
= = = = Wars against the Arabs = = = =
In the early years of Basil I 's reign , Arab raids on the coasts of Dalmatia were successfully repelled , and the region once again came under secure Byzantine control . This enabled Byzantine missionaries to penetrate to the interior and convert the Serbs and the principalities of modern @-@ day Herzegovina and Montenegro to Orthodox Christianity . An attempt to retake Malta ended disastrously , however , when the local population sided with the Arabs and massacred the Byzantine garrison .
By contrast , the Byzantine position in Southern Italy was gradually consolidated so that by 873 Bari had once again come under Byzantine rule , and most of Southern Italy would remain in the Empire for the next 200 years . On the more important eastern front , the Empire rebuilt its defences and went on the offensive . The Paulicians were defeated and their capital of Tephrike ( Divrigi ) taken , while the offensive against the Abbasid Caliphate began with the recapture of Samosata .
Under Basil 's son and successor , Leo VI the Wise , the gains in the east against the now @-@ weak Abbasid Caliphate continued . However , Sicily was lost to the Arabs in 902 , and in 904 Thessaloniki , the Empire 's second city , was sacked by an Arab fleet . The weakness of the Empire in the naval sphere was quickly rectified , so that a few years later a Byzantine fleet had re @-@ occupied Cyprus , lost in the 7th century , and also stormed Laodicea in Syria . Despite this revenge , the Byzantines were still unable to strike a decisive blow against the Muslims , who inflicted a crushing defeat on the imperial forces when they attempted to regain Crete in 911 .
The death of the Bulgarian tsar Simeon I in 927 severely weakened the Bulgarians , allowing the Byzantines to concentrate on the eastern front . Melitene was permanently recaptured in 934 , and in 943 the famous general John Kourkouas continued the offensive in Mesopotamia with some noteworthy victories , culminating in the reconquest of Edessa . Kourkouas was especially celebrated for returning to Constantinople the venerated Mandylion , a relic purportedly imprinted with a portrait of Christ .
The soldier @-@ emperors Nikephoros II Phokas ( reigned 963 – 969 ) and John I Tzimiskes ( 969 – 976 ) expanded the empire well into Syria , defeating the emirs of north @-@ west Iraq . The great city of Aleppo was taken by Nikephoros in 962 , and the Arabs were decisively expelled from Crete in 963 . The recapture of Crete put an end to Arab raids in the Aegean , allowing mainland Greece to flourish once again . Cyprus was permanently retaken in 965 , and the successes of Nikephoros culminated in 969 with the recapture of Antioch , which he incorporated as a province of the Empire . His successor John Tzimiskes recaptured Damascus , Beirut , Acre , Sidon , Caesarea , and Tiberias , putting Byzantine armies within striking distance of Jerusalem , although the Muslim power centres in Iraq and Egypt were left untouched . After much campaigning in the north , the last Arab threat to Byzantium , the rich province of Sicily , was targeted in 1025 by Basil II , who died before the expedition could be completed . Nevertheless , by that time the Empire stretched from the straits of Messina to the Euphrates and from the Danube to Syria .
= = = = Wars against the Bulgarian Empire = = = =
The traditional struggle with the See of Rome continued through the Macedonian period , spurred by the question of religious supremacy over the newly Christianised state of Bulgaria . Ending eighty years of peace between the two states , the powerful Bulgarian tsar Simeon I invaded in 894 but was pushed back by the Byzantines , who used their fleet to sail up the Black Sea to attack the Bulgarian rear , enlisting the support of the Hungarians . The Byzantines were defeated at the Battle of Boulgarophygon in 896 , however , and agreed to pay annual subsidies to the Bulgarians .
Leo the Wise died in 912 , and hostilities soon resumed as Simeon marched to Constantinople at the head of a large army . Though the walls of the city were impregnable , the Byzantine administration was in disarray and Simeon was invited into the city , where he was granted the crown of basileus ( emperor ) of Bulgaria and had the young emperor Constantine VII marry one of his daughters . When a revolt in Constantinople halted his dynastic project , he again invaded Thrace and conquered Adrianople . The Empire now faced the problem of a powerful Christian state within a few days ' marching distance from Constantinople , as well as having to fight on two fronts .
A great imperial expedition under Leo Phocas and Romanos I Lekapenos ended with another crushing Byzantine defeat at the Battle of Achelous in 917 , and the following year the Bulgarians were free to ravage northern Greece . Adrianople was plundered again in 923 , and a Bulgarian army laid siege to Constantinople in 924 . Simeon died suddenly in 927 , however , and Bulgarian power collapsed with him . Bulgaria and Byzantium entered a long period of peaceful relations , and the Empire was now free to concentrate on the eastern front against the Muslims . In 968 , Bulgaria was overrun by the Rus ' under Sviatoslav I of Kiev , but three years later , John I Tzimiskes defeated the Rus ' and re @-@ incorporated Eastern Bulgaria into the Byzantine Empire .
Bulgarian resistance revived under the rule of the Cometopuli dynasty , but the new emperor Basil II ( r . 976 – 1025 ) made the submission of the Bulgarians his primary goal . Basil 's first expedition against Bulgaria , however , resulted in a humiliating defeat at the Gates of Trajan . For the next few years , the emperor would be preoccupied with internal revolts in Anatolia , while the Bulgarians expanded their realm in the Balkans . The war dragged on for nearly twenty years . The Byzantine victories of Spercheios and Skopje decisively weakened the Bulgarian army , and in annual campaigns , Basil methodically reduced the Bulgarian strongholds . At the Battle of Kleidion in 1014 the Bulgarians were annihilated : their army was captured , and it is said that 99 out of every 100 men were blinded , with the hundredth man left with one eye so he could lead his compatriots home . When Tsar Samuil saw the broken remains of his once formidable army , he died of shock . By 1018 , the last Bulgarian strongholds had surrendered , and the country became part of the Empire . This victory restored the Danube frontier , which had not been held since the days of the emperor Heraclius .
= = = = Relations with the Kievan Rus ' = = = =
Between 850 and 1100 , the Empire developed a mixed relationship with the new state of the Kievan Rus ' , which had emerged to the north across the Black Sea . This relationship would have long @-@ lasting repercussions in the history of the East Slavs , and the Empire quickly became the main trading and cultural partner for Kiev . The Rus ' launched their first attack against Constantinople in 860 , pillaging the suburbs of the city . In 941 , they appeared on the Asian shore of the Bosphorus , but this time they were crushed , an indication of the improvements in the Byzantine military position after 907 , when only diplomacy had been able to push back the invaders . Basil II could not ignore the emerging power of the Rus ' , and , following the example of his predecessors , he used religion as a means for the achievement of political purposes . Rus ' – Byzantine relations became closer following the marriage of Anna Porphyrogeneta to Vladimir the Great in 988 , and the subsequent Christianisation of the Rus ' . Byzantine priests , architects , and artists were invited to work on numerous cathedrals and churches around Rus ' , expanding Byzantine cultural influence even further , while numerous Rus ' served in the Byzantine army as mercenaries , most notably as the famous Varangian Guard .
Even after the Christianisation of the Rus ' , however , relations were not always friendly . The most serious conflict between the two powers was the war of 968 – 971 in Bulgaria , but several Rus ' raiding expeditions against the Byzantine cities of the Black Sea coast and Constantinople itself are also recorded . Although most were repulsed , they were often followed by treaties that were generally favourable to the Rus ' , such as the one concluded at the end of the war of 1043 , during which the Rus ' gave an indication of their ambitions to compete with the Byzantines as an independent power .
= = = = Apex = = = =
By 1025 , the date of Basil II 's death , the Byzantine Empire stretched from Armenia in the east to Calabria in Southern Italy in the west . Many successes had been achieved , ranging from the conquest of Bulgaria to the annexation of parts of Georgia and Armenia , and the reconquest of Crete , Cyprus , and the important city of Antioch . These were not temporary tactical gains but long @-@ term reconquests .
Leo VI achieved the complete codification of Byzantine law in Greek . This monumental work of 60 volumes became the foundation of all subsequent Byzantine law and is still studied today . Leo also reformed the administration of the Empire , redrawing the borders of the administrative subdivisions ( the Themata , or " Themes " ) and tidying up the system of ranks and privileges , as well as regulating the behaviour of the various trade guilds in Constantinople . Leo 's reform did much to reduce the previous fragmentation of the Empire , which henceforth had one center of power , Constantinople . However , the increasing military success of the Empire greatly enriched and empowered the provincial nobility with respect to the peasantry , who were essentially reduced to a state of serfdom .
Under the Macedonian emperors , the city of Constantinople flourished , becoming the largest and wealthiest city in Europe , with a population of approximately 400 @,@ 000 in the 9th and 10th centuries . During this period , the Byzantine Empire employed a strong civil service staffed by competent aristocrats that oversaw the collection of taxes , domestic administration , and foreign policy . The Macedonian emperors also increased the Empire 's wealth by fostering trade with Western Europe , particularly through the sale of silk and metalwork .
= = = = Split between Orthodox Christianity and Catholicism ( 1054 ) = = = =
The Macedonian period also included events of momentous religious significance . The conversion of the Bulgarians , Serbs and Rus ' to Orthodox Christianity permanently changed the religious map of Europe and still resonates today . Cyril and Methodius , two Byzantine Greek brothers from Thessaloniki , contributed significantly to the Christianization of the Slavs and in the process devised the Glagolitic alphabet , ancestor to the Cyrillic script .
In 1054 , relations between the Eastern and Western traditions within the Christian Church reached a terminal crisis , known as the East – West Schism . Although there was a formal declaration of institutional separation , on July 16 , when three papal legates entered the Hagia Sophia during Divine Liturgy on a Saturday afternoon and placed a bull of excommunication on the altar , the so @-@ called Great Schism was actually the culmination of centuries of gradual separation .
= = = Crisis and fragmentation = = =
The Empire soon fell into a period of difficulties , caused to a large extent by the undermining of the theme system and the neglect of the military . Nikephoros II , John Tzimiskes , and Basil II changed the military divisions ( τάγματα , tagmata ) from a rapid response , primarily defensive , citizen army into a professional , campaigning army , increasingly manned by mercenaries . Mercenaries were expensive , however , and as the threat of invasion receded in the 10th century , so did the need for maintaining large garrisons and expensive fortifications . Basil II left a burgeoning treasury upon his death , but he neglected to plan for his succession . None of his immediate successors had any particular military or political talent and the administration of the Empire increasingly fell into the hands of the civil service . Efforts to revive the Byzantine economy only resulted in inflation and a debased gold coinage . The army was now seen as both an unnecessary expense and a political threat . Native troops were therefore cashiered and replaced by foreign mercenaries on specific contract .
At the same time , the Empire was faced with new enemies . Provinces in southern Italy faced the Normans , who arrived in Italy at the beginning of the 11th century . During a period of strife between Constantinople and Rome culminating in the East @-@ West Schism of 1054 , the Normans began to advance , slowly but steadily , into Byzantine Italy . Reggio , the capital of the tagma of Calabria , was captured in 1060 by Robert Guiscard , followed by Otranto in 1068 . Bari , the main Byzantine stronghold in Apulia , was besieged in August 1068 and fell in April 1071 . The Byzantines also lost their influence over the Dalmatian coastal cities to Peter Krešimir IV of Croatia ( r . 1058 – 1074 / 1075 ) in 1069 .
The greatest disaster took place in Asia Minor , however , where the Seljuq Turks made their first explorations across the Byzantine frontier into Armenia in 1065 and 1067 . The emergency lent weight to the military aristocracy in Anatolia , who in 1068 secured the election of one of their own , Romanos Diogenes , as emperor . In the summer of 1071 , Romanos undertook a massive eastern campaign to draw the Seljuks into a general engagement with the Byzantine army . At the Battle of Manzikert , Romanos suffered a surprise defeat by Sultan Alp Arslan , and he was captured . Alp Arslan treated him with respect and imposed no harsh terms on the Byzantines . In Constantinople , however , a coup put in power Michael Doukas , who soon faced the opposition of Nikephoros Bryennios and Nikephoros Botaneiates . By 1081 , the Seljuks had expanded their rule over virtually the entire Anatolian plateau from Armenia in the east to Bithynia in the west , and they had founded their capital at Nicaea , just 90 kilometres ( 56 miles ) from Constantinople .
= = = Komnenian dynasty and the crusaders = = =
During the Komnenian , or Comnenian , period from about 1081 to about 1185 , the five emperors of the Komnenos dynasty ( Alexios I , John II , Manuel I , Alexios II , and Andronikos I ) presided over a sustained , though ultimately incomplete , restoration of the military , territorial , economic , and political position of the Byzantine Empire . Although the Seljuk Turks occupied the heartland of the Empire in Anatolia , most Byzantine military efforts during this period were directed against Western powers , particularly the Normans .
The Empire under the Komnenoi played a key role in the history of the Crusades in the Holy Land , which Alexios I had helped bring about , while also exerting enormous cultural and political influence in Europe , the Near East , and the lands around the Mediterranean Sea under John and Manuel . Contact between Byzantium and the " Latin " West , including the Crusader states , increased significantly during the Komnenian period . Venetian and other Italian traders became resident in large numbers in Constantinople and the empire ( there were an estimated 60 @,@ 000 Latins in Constantinople alone , out of a population of three to four hundred thousand ) , and their presence together with the numerous Latin mercenaries who were employed by Manuel helped to spread Byzantine technology , art , literature and culture throughout the Latin West , while also leading to a flow of Western ideas and customs into the Empire .
In terms of prosperity and cultural life , the Komnenian period was one of the peaks in Byzantine history , and Constantinople remained the leading city of the Christian world in size , wealth , and culture . There was a renewed interest in classical Greek philosophy , as well as an increase in literary output in vernacular Greek . Byzantine art and literature held a pre @-@ eminent place in Europe , and the cultural impact of Byzantine art on the west during this period was enormous and of long lasting significance .
= = = = Alexios I and the First Crusade = = = =
After Manzikert , a partial recovery ( referred to as the Komnenian restoration ) was made possible by the Komnenian dynasty . The first Komnenian emperor was Isaac I ( 1057 – 1059 ) , after which the Doukas dynasty held power ( 1059 – 81 ) . The Komnenoi attained power again under Alexios I in 1081 . From the outset of his reign , Alexios faced a formidable attack by the Normans under Robert Guiscard and his son Bohemund of Taranto , who captured Dyrrhachium and Corfu , and laid siege to Larissa in Thessaly . Robert Guiscard 's death in 1085 temporarily eased the Norman problem . The following year , the Seljuq sultan died , and the sultanate was split by internal rivalries . By his own efforts , Alexios defeated the Pechenegs ; they were caught by surprise and annihilated at the Battle of Levounion on 28 April 1091 .
Having achieved stability in the West , Alexios could turn his attention to the severe economic difficulties and the disintegration of the Empire 's traditional defences . However , he still did not have enough manpower to recover the lost territories in Asia Minor and to advance against the Seljuks . At the Council of Piacenza in 1095 , envoys from Alexios spoke to Pope Urban II about the suffering of the Christians of the East , and underscored that without help from the West they would continue to suffer under Muslim rule .
Urban saw Alexios 's request as a dual opportunity to cement Western Europe and reunite the Eastern Orthodox Church with the Roman Catholic Church under his rule . On 27 November 1095 , Pope Urban II called together the Council of Clermont , and urged all those present to take up arms under the sign of the Cross and launch an armed pilgrimage to recover Jerusalem and the East from the Muslims . The response in Western Europe was overwhelming .
Alexios had anticipated help in the form of mercenary forces from the West , but he was totally unprepared for the immense and undisciplined force that soon arrived in Byzantine territory . It was no comfort to Alexios to learn that four of the eight leaders of the main body of the Crusade were Normans , among them Bohemund . Since the crusade had to pass through Constantinople , however , the Emperor had some control over it . He required its leaders to swear to restore to the empire any towns or territories they might reconquer from the Turks on their way to the Holy Land . In return , he gave them guides and a military escort .
Alexios was able to recover a number of important cities and islands , and in fact much of western Asia Minor . Nevertheless , the Catholic / Latin crusaders believed their oaths were invalidated when Alexios did not help them during the siege of Antioch ( he had in fact set out on the road to Antioch but had been persuaded to turn back by Stephen of Blois , who assured him that all was lost and that the expedition had already failed ) . Bohemund , who had set himself up as Prince of Antioch , briefly went to war with the Byzantines , but he agreed to become Alexios ' vassal under the Treaty of Devol in 1108 , which marked the end of the Norman threat during Alexios ' reign .
= = = = John II , Manuel I and the Second Crusade = = = =
Alexios 's son John II Komnenos succeeded him in 1118 and ruled until 1143 . John was a pious and dedicated Emperor who was determined to undo the damage to the empire suffered at the Battle of Manzikert , half a century earlier . Famed for his piety and his remarkably mild and just reign , John was an exceptional example of a moral ruler at a time when cruelty was the norm . For this reason , he has been called the Byzantine Marcus Aurelius .
During his twenty @-@ five year reign , John made alliances with the Holy Roman Empire in the West and decisively defeated the Pechenegs at the Battle of Beroia . He thwarted Hungarian and Serbian threats during the 1120s , and in 1130 he allied himself with the German emperor Lothair III against the Norman king Roger II of Sicily .
In the later part of his reign , John focused his activities on the East , personally leading numerous campaigns against the Turks in Asia Minor . His campaigns fundamentally altered the balance of power in the East , forcing the Turks onto the defensive , while restoring many towns , fortresses , and cities across the peninsula to the Byzantines . He defeated the Danishmend Emirate of Melitene and reconquered all of Cilicia , while forcing Raymond of Poitiers , Prince of Antioch , to recognise Byzantine suzerainty . In an effort to demonstrate the Emperor 's role as the leader of the Christian world , John marched into the Holy Land at the head of the combined forces of the Empire and the Crusader states ; yet despite his great vigour pressing the campaign , his hopes were disappointed by the treachery of his Crusader allies . In 1142 , John returned to press his claims to Antioch , but he died in the spring of 1143 following a hunting accident . Raymond was emboldened to invade Cilicia , but he was defeated and forced to go to Constantinople to beg mercy from the new Emperor .
John 's chosen heir was his fourth son , Manuel I Komnenos , who campaigned aggressively against his neighbours both in the west and in the east . In Palestine , Manuel allied with the Crusader Kingdom of Jerusalem and sent a large fleet to participate in a combined invasion of Fatimid Egypt . Manuel reinforced his position as overlord of the Crusader states , with his hegemony over Antioch and Jerusalem secured by agreement with Raynald , Prince of Antioch , and Amalric , King of Jerusalem . In an effort to restore Byzantine control over the ports of southern Italy , he sent an expedition to Italy in 1155 , but disputes within the coalition led to the eventual failure of the campaign . Despite this military setback , Manuel 's armies successfully invaded the Southern parts of Kingdom of Hungary in 1167 , defeating the Hungarians at the Battle of Sirmium . By 1168 , nearly the whole of the eastern Adriatic coast lay in Manuel 's hands . Manuel made several alliances with the Pope and Western Christian kingdoms , and he successfully handled the passage of the Second Crusade through his empire .
In the east , however , Manuel suffered a major defeat in 1176 at the Battle of Myriokephalon , against the Turks . Yet the losses were quickly recovered , and in the following year Manuel 's forces inflicted a defeat upon a force of " picked Turks " . The Byzantine commander John Vatatzes , who destroyed the Turkish invaders at the Battle of Hyelion and Leimocheir , not only brought troops from the capital but also was able to gather an army along the way , a sign that the Byzantine army remained strong and that the defensive program of western Asia Minor was still successful .
= = = = 12th @-@ century Renaissance = = = =
John and Manuel pursued active military policies , and both deployed considerable resources on sieges and on city defences ; aggressive fortification policies were at the heart of their imperial military policies . Despite the defeat at Myriokephalon , the policies of Alexios , John and Manuel resulted in vast territorial gains , increased frontier stability in Asia Minor , and secured the stabilisation of the Empire 's European frontiers . From c . 1081 to c . 1180 , the Komnenian army assured the Empire 's security , enabling Byzantine civilisation to flourish .
This allowed the Western provinces to achieve an economic revival that continued until the close of the century . It has been argued that Byzantium under the Komnenian rule was more prosperous than at any time since the Persian invasions of the 7th century . During the 12th century , population levels rose and extensive tracts of new agricultural land were brought into production . Archaeological evidence from both Europe and Asia Minor shows a considerable increase in the size of urban settlements , together with a notable upsurge in new towns . Trade was also flourishing ; the Venetians , the Genoese and others opened up the ports of the Aegean to commerce , shipping goods from the Crusader kingdoms of Outremer and Fatimid Egypt to the west and trading with the Empire via Constantinople .
In artistic terms , there was a revival in mosaic , and regional schools of architecture began producing many distinctive styles that drew on a range of cultural influences . During the 12th century , the Byzantines provided their model of early humanism as a renaissance of interest in classical authors . In Eustathius of Thessalonica , Byzantine humanism found its most characteristic expression . In philosophy , there was resurgence of classical learning not seen since the 7th century , characterised by a significant increase in the publication of commentaries on classical works . In addition , the first transmission of classical Greek knowledge to the West occurred during the Komnenian period .
= = = Decline and disintegration = = =
= = = = Angelid dynasty = = = =
Manuel 's death on 24 September 1180 left his 11 @-@ year @-@ old son Alexios II Komnenos on the throne . Alexios was highly incompetent at the office , but it was his mother , Maria of Antioch , and her Frankish background that made his regency unpopular . Eventually , Andronikos I Komnenos , a grandson of Alexios I , launched a revolt against his younger relative and managed to overthrow him in a violent coup d 'état . Utilizing his good looks and his immense popularity with the army , he marched on to Constantinople in August 1182 and incited a massacre of the Latins . After eliminating his potential rivals , he had himself crowned as co @-@ emperor in September 1183 . He eliminated Alexios II , and took his 12 @-@ year @-@ old wife Agnes of France for himself .
Andronikos began his reign well ; in particular , the measures he took to reform the government of the Empire have been praised by historians . According to George Ostrogorsky , Andronikos was determined to root out corruption : Under his rule , the sale of offices ceased ; selection was based on merit , rather than favouritism ; officials were paid an adequate salary so as to reduce the temptation of bribery . In the provinces , Andronikos 's reforms produced a speedy and marked improvement . The aristocrats were infuriated against him , and to make matters worse , Andronikos seems to have become increasingly unbalanced ; executions and violence became increasingly common , and his reign turned into a reign of terror . Andronikos seemed almost to seek the extermination of the aristocracy as a whole . The struggle against the aristocracy turned into wholesale slaughter , while the Emperor resorted to ever more ruthless measures to shore up his regime .
Despite his military background , Andronikos failed to deal with Isaac Komnenos , Béla III of Hungary ( r . 1172 – 1196 ) who reincorporated Croatian territories into Hungary , and Stephen Nemanja of Serbia ( r . 1166 – 1196 ) who declared his independence from the Byzantine Empire . Yet , none of these troubles would compare to William II of Sicily 's ( r . 1166 – 1189 ) invasion force of 300 ships and 80 @,@ 000 men , arriving in 1185 . Andronikos mobilised a small fleet of 100 ships to defend the capital , but other than that he was indifferent to the populace . He was finally overthrown when Isaac Angelos , surviving an imperial assassination attempt , seized power with the aid of the people and had Andronikos killed .
The reign of Isaac II , and more so that of his brother Alexios III , saw the collapse of what remained of the centralised machinery of Byzantine government and defence . Although the Normans were driven out of Greece , in 1186 the Vlachs and Bulgars began a rebellion that led to the formation of the Second Bulgarian Empire . The internal policy of the Angeloi was characterised by the squandering of the public treasure and fiscal maladministration . Imperial authority was severely weakened , and the growing power vacuum at the center of the Empire encouraged fragmentation . There is evidence that some Komnenian heirs had set up a semi @-@ independent state in Trebizond before 1204 . According to Alexander Vasiliev , " the dynasty of the Angeloi , Greek in its origin , ... accelerated the ruin of the Empire , already weakened without and disunited within . "
= = = = Fourth Crusade = = = =
In 1198 , Pope Innocent III broached the subject of a new crusade through legates and encyclical letters . The stated intent of the crusade was to conquer Egypt , now the centre of Muslim power in the Levant . The crusader army that arrived at Venice in the summer of 1202 was somewhat smaller than had been anticipated , and there were not sufficient funds to pay the Venetians , whose fleet was hired by the crusaders to take them to Egypt . Venetian policy under the ageing and blind but still ambitious Doge Enrico Dandolo was potentially at variance with that of the Pope and the crusaders , because Venice was closely related commercially with Egypt . The crusaders accepted the suggestion that in lieu of payment they assist the Venetians in the capture of the ( Christian ) port of Zara in Dalmatia ( vassal city of Venice , which had rebelled and placed itself under Hungary 's protection in 1186 ) . The city fell in November 1202 after a brief siege . Innocent tried to forbid this political attack on a Christian city , but was ignored . Reluctant to jeopardise his own agenda for the Crusade , he gave conditional absolution to the crusaders — not , however , to the Venetians .
After the death of Theobald III , Count of Champagne , the leadership of the Crusade passed to Boniface of Montferrat , a friend of the Hohenstaufen Philip of Swabia . Both Boniface and Philip had married into the Byzantine Imperial family . In fact , Philip 's brother @-@ in @-@ law , Alexios Angelos , son of the deposed and blinded Emperor Isaac II Angelos , had appeared in Europe seeking aid and had made contacts with the crusaders . Alexios offered to reunite the Byzantine church with Rome , pay the crusaders 200 @,@ 000 silver marks , join the crusade and provide all the supplies they needed to get to Egypt . Innocent was aware of a plan to divert the Crusade to Constantinople and forbade any attack on the city , but the papal letter arrived after the fleets had left Zara .
= = = = Crusader sack of Constantinople ( 1204 ) = = = =
The crusaders arrived at Constantinople in the summer of 1203 and quickly attacked , started a major fire that damaged large parts of the city , and briefly seized control . Alexios III fled from the capital , and Alexios Angelos was elevated to the throne as Alexios IV along with his blind father Isaac . However , Alexios IV and Isaac II were unable to keep their promises and were deposed by Alexios V. The crusaders again took the city on 13 April 1204 , and Constantinople was subjected to pillage and massacre by the rank and file for three days . Many priceless icons , relics , and other objects later turned up in Western Europe , a large number in Venice . According to Choniates , a prostitute was even set up on the Patriarchal throne . When Innocent III heard of the conduct of his crusaders , he castigated them in no uncertain terms . But the situation was beyond his control , especially after his legate , on his own initiative , had absolved the crusaders from their vow to proceed to the Holy Land . When order had been restored , the crusaders and the Venetians proceeded to implement their agreement ; Baldwin of Flanders was elected Emperor of a new Latin Empire , and the Venetian Thomas Morosini was chosen as Patriarch . The lands divided up among the leaders included most of the former Byzantine possessions , though resistance would continue through the Byzantine remnants of the Nicaea , Trebizond , and Epirus . Although Venice was more interested in commerce than conquering territory , it took key areas of Constantinople , and the Doge took the title of " Lord of a Quarter and Half a Quarter of the Roman Empire " .
= = = Fall = = =
= = = = Empire in exile = = = =
After the sack of Constantinople in 1204 by Latin crusaders , two Byzantine successor states were established : the Empire of Nicaea , and the Despotate of Epirus . A third , the Empire of Trebizond , was created by Alexios I of Trebizond a few weeks before the sack of Constantinople . Of the three successor states , Epirus and Nicaea stood the best chance of reclaiming Constantinople . The Nicaean Empire struggled to survive the next few decades , however , and by the mid @-@ 13th century it had lost much of southern Anatolia . The weakening of the Sultanate of Rûm following the Mongol invasion in 1242 – 43 allowed many beyliks and ghazis to set up their own principalities in Anatolia , weakening the Byzantine hold on Asia Minor . In time , one of the Beys , Osman I , created an empire that would eventually conquer Constantinople . However , the Mongol invasion also gave Nicaea a temporary respite from Seljuk attacks , allowing it to concentrate on the Latin Empire to its north .
= = = = Reconquest of Constantinople = = = =
The Empire of Nicaea , founded by the Laskarid dynasty , managed to reclaim Constantinople from the Latins in 1261 and defeat Epirus . This led to a short @-@ lived revival of Byzantine fortunes under Michael VIII Palaiologos , but the war @-@ ravaged Empire was ill @-@ equipped to deal with the enemies that now surrounded it . To maintain his campaigns against the Latins , Michael pulled troops from Asia Minor and levied crippling taxes on the peasantry , causing much resentment . Massive construction projects were completed in Constantinople to repair the damage of the Fourth Crusade , but none of these initiatives was of any comfort to the farmers in Asia Minor suffering raids from Muslim ghazis .
Rather than holding on to his possessions in Asia Minor , Michael chose to expand the Empire , gaining only short @-@ term success . To avoid another sacking of the capital by the Latins , he forced the Church to submit to Rome , again a temporary solution for which the peasantry hated Michael and Constantinople . The efforts of Andronikos II and later his grandson Andronikos III marked Byzantium 's last genuine attempts in restoring the glory of the Empire . However , the use of mercenaries by Andronikos II would often backfire , with the Catalan Company ravaging the countryside and increasing resentment towards Constantinople .
= = = = Rise of the Ottomans and fall of Constantinople = = = =
The situation became worse for Byzantium during the civil wars after Andronikos III died . A six @-@ year @-@ long civil war devastated the empire , allowing the Serbian ruler Stefan Dušan ( r . 1331 – 1346 ) to overrun most of the Empire 's remaining territory and establish a Serbian Empire . In 1354 , an earthquake at Gallipoli devastated the fort , allowing the Ottomans ( who were hired as mercenaries during the civil war by John VI Kantakouzenos ) to establish themselves in Europe . By the time the Byzantine civil wars had ended , the Ottomans had defeated the Serbians and subjugated them as vassals . Following the Battle of Kosovo , much of the Balkans became dominated by the Ottomans .
The Byzantine emperors appealed to the West for help , but the Pope would only consider sending aid in return for a reunion of the Eastern Orthodox Church with the See of Rome . Church unity was considered , and occasionally accomplished by imperial decree , but the Orthodox citizenry and clergy intensely resented the authority of Rome and the Latin Rite . Some Western troops arrived to bolster the Christian defence of Constantinople , but most Western rulers , distracted by their own affairs , did nothing as the Ottomans picked apart the remaining Byzantine territories .
Constantinople by this stage was underpopulated and dilapidated . The population of the city had collapsed so severely that it was now little more than a cluster of villages separated by fields . On 2 April 1453 , Sultan Mehmed 's army of 80 @,@ 000 men and large numbers of irregulars laid siege to the city . Despite a desperate last @-@ ditch defence of the city by the massively outnumbered Christian forces ( c . 7 @,@ 000 men , 2 @,@ 000 of whom were foreign ) , Constantinople finally fell to the Ottomans after a two @-@ month siege on 29 May 1453 . The last Byzantine emperor , Constantine XI Palaiologos , was last seen casting off his imperial regalia and throwing himself into hand @-@ to @-@ hand combat after the walls of the city were taken .
= = = Political aftermath = = =
By the time of the fall of Constantinople , the only remaining territory of the Byzantine Empire was the Despotate of the Morea ( Peloponnese ) , which was ruled by brothers of the last Emperor , Thomas Palaiologos and Demetrios Palaiologos . The Despotate continued on as an independent state by paying an annual tribute to the Ottomans . Incompetent rule , failure to pay the annual tribute and a revolt against the Ottomans finally led to Mehmed II 's invasion of Morea in May 1460 . Demetrios asked the Ottomans to invade and drive Thomas out . Thomas fled . The Ottomans moved through the Morea and conquered virtually the entire Despotate by the summer . Demetrios thought the Morea would be restored to him to rule , but it was incorporated into the Ottoman fold .
A few holdouts remained for a time . The island of Monemvasia refused to surrender and it was first ruled for a short time by an Aragonese corsair . When the population drove him out they obtained the consent of Thomas to place themselves under the Pope 's protection before the end of 1460 . The Mani Peninsula , on the Morea 's south end , resisted under a loose coalition of the local clans and then that area came under Venice 's rule . The very last holdout was Salmeniko , in the Morea 's northwest . Graitzas Palaiologos was the military commander there , stationed at Salmeniko Castle . While the town eventually surrendered , Graitzas and his garrison and some town residents held out in the castle until July 1461 , when they escaped and reached Venetian territory .
The Empire of Trebizond , which had split away from the Byzantine Empire just weeks before Constantinople was taken by the Crusaders in 1204 , became the last remnant and last de facto successor state to the Byzantine Empire . Efforts by the Emperor David to recruit European powers for an anti @-@ Ottoman crusade provoked war between the Ottomans and Trebizond in the summer of 1461 . After a month @-@ long siege , David surrendered the city of Trebizond on 14 August 1461 . The Empire of Trebizond 's Crimean principality , the Principality of Theodoro ( part of the Perateia ) , lasted another 14 years , falling to the Ottomans in 1475 .
A nephew of the last Emperor , Constantine XI , Andreas Palaiologos claimed to have inherited the title of Byzantine Emperor . He lived in the Morea until its fall in 1460 , then escaped to Rome where he lived under the protection of the Papal States for the remainder of his life . Since the office of emperor had never been technically hereditary , Andreas ' claim would have been without merit under Byzantine law . However , the Empire had vanished , and Western states generally followed the Roman @-@ church @-@ sanctioned principles of hereditary sovereignty . Seeking a life in the west , Andreas styled himself Imperator Constantinopolitanus ( " Emperor of Constantinople " ) , and sold his succession rights to both Charles VIII of France and the Catholic Monarchs . However , no one ever invoked the title after Andreas 's death .
Constantine XI died without producing an heir , and had Constantinople not fallen he might have been succeeded by the sons of his deceased elder brother , who were taken into the palace service of Mehmed II after the fall of Constantinople . The oldest boy , re @-@ christened as Has Murad , became a personal favorite of Mehmed and served as Beylerbey ( Governor @-@ General ) of the Balkans . The younger son , renamed Mesih Pasha , became Admiral of the Ottoman fleet and Sancak Beg ( Governor ) of the Province of Gallipoli . He eventually served twice as Grand Vizier under Mehmed 's son , Bayezid II .
Mehmed II and his successors continued to consider themselves heirs to the Roman Empire until the demise of the Ottoman Empire in the early 20th century . They considered that they had simply shifted its religious basis as Constantine had done before , and they continued to refer to their conquered Eastern Roman inhabitants ( Orthodox Christians ) as Rûm . Meanwhile , the Danubian Principalities ( whose rulers also considered themselves the heirs of the Eastern Roman Emperors ) harboured Orthodox refugees , including some Byzantine nobles .
At his death , the role of the emperor as a patron of Eastern Orthodoxy was claimed by Ivan III , Grand duke of Muscovy . He had married Andreas ' sister , Sophia Paleologue , whose grandson , Ivan IV , would become the first Tsar of Russia ( tsar , or czar , meaning caesar , is a term traditionally applied by Slavs to the Byzantine Emperors ) . Their successors supported the idea that Moscow was the proper heir to Rome and Constantinople . The idea of the Russian Empire as the successive Third Rome was kept alive until its demise with the Russian Revolution .
= = Economy = =
The Byzantine economy was among the most advanced in Europe and the Mediterranean for many centuries . Europe , in particular , could not match Byzantine economic strength until late in the Middle Ages . Constantinople operated as a prime hub in a trading network that at various times extended across nearly all of Eurasia and North Africa , in particular as the primary western terminus of the famous Silk Road . Until the first half of the 6th century and in sharp contrast with the decaying West , the Byzantine economy was flourishing and resilient .
The Plague of Justinian and the Arab conquests would represent a substantial reversal of fortunes contributing to a period of stagnation and decline . Isaurian reforms and , in particular , Constantine V 's repopulation , public works and tax measures , marked the beginning of a revival that continued until 1204 , despite territorial contraction . From the 10th century until the end of the 12th , the Byzantine Empire projected an image of luxury and travellers were impressed by the wealth accumulated in the capital .
The Fourth Crusade resulted in the disruption of Byzantine manufacturing and the commercial dominance of the Western Europeans in the eastern Mediterranean , events that amounted to an economic catastrophe for the Empire . The Palaiologoi tried to revive the economy , but the late Byzantine state would not gain full control of either the foreign or domestic economic forces . Gradually , it also lost its influence on the modalities of trade and the price mechanisms , and its control over the outflow of precious metals and , according to some scholars , even over the minting of coins .
One of the economic foundations of Byzantium was trade , fostered by the maritime character of the Empire . Textiles must have been by far the most important item of export ; silks were certainly imported into Egypt , and appeared also in Bulgaria , and the West . The state strictly controlled both the internal and the international trade , and retained the monopoly of issuing coinage , maintaining a durable and flexible monetary system adaptable to trade needs .
The government attempted to exercise formal control over interest rates , and set the parameters for the activity of the guilds and corporations , in which it had a special interest . The emperor and his officials intervened at times of crisis to ensure the provisioning of the capital , and to keep down the price of cereals . Finally , the government often collected part of the surplus through taxation , and put it back into circulation , through redistribution in the form of salaries to state officials , or in the form of investment in public works .
= = Science , medicine and law = =
The writings of Classical antiquity never ceased to be cultivated in Byzantium . Therefore , Byzantine science was in every period closely connected with ancient philosophy , and metaphysics . In the field of engineering Isidore of Miletus , the Greek mathematician and architect of the Hagia Sophia , produced the first compilation of Archimedes works c . 530 , and it is through this tradition , kept alive by the school of mathematics and engineering founded c . 850 during the " Byzantine Renaissance " by Leo the Geometer that such works are known today ( see Archimedes Palimpsest ) . Indeed , geometry and its applications ( architecture and engineering instruments of war ) remained a specialty of the Byzantines .
Though scholarship lagged during the dark years following the Arab conquests , during the so @-@ called Byzantine Renaissance at the end of the first millennium Byzantine scholars re @-@ asserted themselves becoming experts in the scientific developments of the Arabs and Persians , particularly in astronomy and mathematics . The Byzantines are also credited with several technological advancements , particularly in architecture ( e.g. the pendentive dome ) and warfare technology ( e.g. Greek fire ) .
Although at various times the Byzantines made magnificent achievements in the application of the sciences ( notably in the construction of the Hagia Sophia ) , and although they preserved much of the ancient knowledge of science and geometry , after the 6th century Byzantine scholars made few novel contributions to science in terms of developing new theories or extending the ideas of classical authors .
In the final century of the Empire , Byzantine grammarians were those principally responsible for carrying , in person and in writing , ancient Greek grammatical and literary studies to early Renaissance Italy . During this period , astronomy and other mathematical sciences were taught in Trebizond ; medicine attracted the interest of almost all scholars .
In the field of law , Justinian I 's reforms had a clear effect on the evolution of jurisprudence , and Leo III 's Ecloga influenced the formation of legal institutions in the Slavic world . In the 10th century , Leo VI the Wise achieved the complete codification of the whole of Byzantine law in Greek , which became the foundation of all subsequent Byzantine law , generating interest to the present day .
= = Religion = =
The Byzantine Empire was a theocracy , said to be ruled by God working through the Emperor . Jennifer Fretland VanVoorst argues , " The Byzantine Empire became a theocracy in the sense that Christian values and ideals were the foundation of the empire 's political ideals and heavily entwined with its political goals . " Steven Runciman says in his book on The Byzantine Theocracy ( 2004 ) :
The constitution of the Byzantine Empire was based on the conviction that it was the earthly copy of the Kingdom of Heaven . Just as God ruled in Heaven , so the Emperor , made in his image , should rule on earth and carry out his commandments ... It saw itself as a universal empire . Ideally , it should embrace all the peoples of the Earth who , ideally , should all be members of the one true Christian Church , its own Orthodox Church . Just as man was made in God 's image , so man 's kingdom on Earth was made in the image of the Kingdom of Heaven . " The survival of the Empire in the East assured an active role of the Emperor in the affairs of the Church . The Byzantine state inherited from pagan times the administrative , and financial routine of administering religious affairs , and this routine was applied to the Christian Church . Following the pattern set by Eusebius of Caesarea , the Byzantines viewed the Emperor as a representative or messenger of Christ , responsible particularly for the propagation of Christianity among pagans , and for the " externals " of the religion , such as administration and finances . As Cyril Mango points out , the Byzantine political thinking can be summarised in the motto " One God , one empire , one religion " .
The imperial role in the affairs of the Church never developed into a fixed , legally defined system . With the decline of Rome , and internal dissension in the other Eastern Patriarchates , the Church of Constantinople became , between the 6th and 11th centuries , the richest and most influential center of Christendom . Even when the Empire was reduced to only a shadow of its former self , the Church continued to exercise significant influence both inside and outside of the imperial frontiers . As George Ostrogorsky points out :
The Patriarchate of Constantinople remained the center of the Orthodox world , with subordinate metropolitan sees and archbishoprics in the territory of Asia Minor and the Balkans , now lost to Byzantium , as well as in Caucasus , Russia and Lithuania . The Church remained the most stable element in the Byzantine Empire .
The official state Christian doctrine was determined by the first seven ecumenical councils , and it was then the emperor 's duty to impose it to his subjects . An imperial decree of 388 , which was later incorporated into the Codex Justinianus , orders the population of the Empire " to assume the name of Catholic Christians " , and regards all those who will not abide by the law as " mad and foolish persons " ; as followers of " heretical dogmas " .
Despite imperial decrees and the stringent stance of the state church itself , which came to be known as the Eastern Orthodox Church or Eastern Christianity , the latter never represented all Christians in Byzantium . Mango believes that , in the early stages of the Empire , the " mad and foolish persons " , those labelled " heretics " by the state church , were the majority of the population . Besides the pagans , who existed until the end of the 6th century , and the Jews , there were many followers – sometimes even emperors – of various Christian doctrines , such as Nestorianism , Monophysitism , Arianism , and Paulicianism , whose teachings were in some opposition to the main theological doctrine , as determined by the Ecumenical Councils .
Another division among Christians occurred , when Leo III ordered the destruction of icons throughout the Empire . This led to a significant religious crisis , which ended in mid @-@ 9th century with the restoration of icons . During the same period , a new wave of pagans emerged in the Balkans , originating mainly from Slavic people . These were gradually Christianised , and by Byzantium 's late stages , Eastern Orthodoxy represented most Christians and , in general , most people in what remained of the Empire .
Jews were a significant minority in the Byzantine state throughout its history , and , according to Roman law , they constituted a legally recognised religious group . In the early Byzantine period they were generally tolerated , but then periods of tensions and persecutions ensued . In any case , after the Arab conquests , the majority of Jews found themselves outside the Empire ; those left inside the Byzantine borders apparently lived in relative peace from the 10th century onwards .
Georgian monasteries first appear in Constantinople and on Mount Olympos in northwestern Asia Minor in the second half of the ninth century , and from then on Georgians played an increasingly important role in the Empire .
= = Art and literature = =
Surviving Byzantine art is mostly religious and with exceptions at certain periods is highly conventionalised , following traditional models that translate carefully controlled church theology into artistic terms . Painting in fresco , illuminated manuscripts and on wood panel and , especially in earlier periods , mosaic were the main media , and figurative sculpture very rare except for small carved ivories . Manuscript painting preserved to the end some of the classical realist tradition that was missing in larger works . Byzantine art was highly prestigious and sought @-@ after in Western Europe , where it maintained a continuous influence on medieval art until near the end of the period . This was especially so in Italy , where Byzantine styles persisted in modified form through the 12th century , and became formative influences on Italian Renaissance art . But few incoming influences affected Byzantine style . By means of the expansion of the Eastern Orthodox church , Byzantine forms and styles spread to all the Orthodox world and beyond . Influences from Byzantine architecture , particularly in religious buildings , can be found in diverse regions from Egypt and Arabia to Russia and Romania .
In Byzantine literature , four different cultural elements are recognised : the Greek , the Christian , the Roman , and the Oriental . Byzantine literature is often classified in five groups : historians and annalists , encyclopaedists ( Patriarch Photios , Michael Psellus , and Michael Choniates are regarded as the greatest encyclopaedists of Byzantium ) and essayists , and writers of secular poetry . The only genuine heroic epic of the Byzantines is the Digenis Acritas . The remaining two groups include the new literary species : ecclesiastical and theological literature , and popular poetry .
Of the approximately two to three thousand volumes of Byzantine literature that survive , only three hundred and thirty consist of secular poetry , history , science and pseudo @-@ science . While the most flourishing period of the secular literature of Byzantium runs from the 9th to the 12th century , its religious literature ( sermons , liturgical books and poetry , theology , devotional treatises , etc . ) developed much earlier with Romanos the Melodist being its most prominent representative .
= = Music = =
The ecclesiastical forms of Byzantine music , composed to Greek texts as ceremonial , festival , or church music , are , today , the most well @-@ known forms . Ecclesiastical chants were a fundamental part of this genre . Greek and foreign historians agree that the ecclesiastical tones and in general the whole system of Byzantine music is closely related to the ancient Greek system . It remains the oldest genre of extant music , of which the manner of performance and ( with increasing accuracy from the 5th century onwards ) the names of the composers , and sometimes the particulars of each musical work 's circumstances , are known .
The 9th century Persian geographer Ibn Khurradadhbih ( d . 911 ) ; in his lexicographical discussion of instruments cited the lyra ( lūrā ) as the typical instrument of the Byzantines along with the urghun ( organ ) , shilyani ( probably a type of harp or lyre ) and the salandj ( probably a bagpipe ) . The first of these , the early bowed stringed instrument known as the Byzantine lyra , would come to be called the lira da braccio , in Venice , where it is considered by many to have been the predecessor of the contemporary violin , which later flourished there . The bowed " lyra " is still played in former Byzantine regions , where it is known as the Politiki lyra ( lit . " lyra of the City " i.e. Constantinople ) in Greece , the Calabrian lira in Southern Italy , and the Lijerica in Dalmatia . The second instrument , the organ , originated in the Hellenistic world ( see Hydraulis ) and was used in the Hippodrome during races . A pipe organ with " great leaden pipes " was sent by the emperor Constantine V to Pepin the Short King of the Franks in 757 . Pepin 's son Charlemagne requested a similar organ for his chapel in Aachen in 812 , beginning its establishment in Western church music . The final Byzantine instrument , the bagpipes , known as Dankiyo ( from ancient Greek : angion ( Τὸ ἀγγεῖον ) " the container " ) , had been played even in Roman times . Dio Chrysostom wrote in the 1st century of a contemporary sovereign ( possibly Nero ) who could play a pipe ( tibia , Roman reedpipes similar to Greek aulos ) with his mouth as well as by tucking a bladder beneath his armpit . The bagpipes continued to be played throughout the empire 's former realms through to the present . ( See Balkan Gaida , Greek Tsampouna , Pontic Tulum , Cretan Askomandoura , Armenian Parkapzuk , and Romanian Cimpoi . )
= = Cuisine = =
The Byzantine culture was , initially , the same as Late Greco @-@ Roman , but over the following millennium of the empire 's existence it slowly changed into something more similar to modern Balkan and Anatolian culture . The cuisine still relied heavily on the Greco @-@ Roman fish @-@ sauce condiment garos , but it also contained foods still familiar today , such as the cured meat pastirma ( known as " paston " in Byzantine Greek ) , baklava ( known as koptoplakous κοπτοπλακοῦς ) , tiropita ( known as plakountas tetyromenous or tyritas plakountas ) , and the famed medieval sweet wines ( Commandaria and the eponymous Rumney wine ) . Retsina , wine flavored with pine resin , was also drunk , as it still is in Greece today , producing similar reactions from unfamiliar visitors ; " To add to our calamity the Greek wine , on account of being mixed with pitch , resin , and plaster was to us undrinkable , " complained Liutprand of Cremona , who was the ambassador sent to Constantinople in 968 by the German Holy Roman Emperor Otto I. The garos fish sauce condiment was also not much appreciated by the unaccustomed ; Liutprand of Cremona described being served food covered in an " exceedingly bad fish liquor . " The Byzantines also used a soy sauce like condiment , murri , a fermented barley sauce , which , like soy sauce , provided umami flavoring to their dishes .
= = Recreation = =
Byzantines were avid players of tavli ( Byzantine Greek : τάβλη ) , a game known in English as backgammon , which is still popular in former Byzantine realms , and still known by the name tavli in Greece . Byzantine nobles were devoted to horsemanship , particularly tzykanion , now known as polo . The game came from Sassanid Persia in the early period and a Tzykanisterion ( stadium for playing the game ) was built by Theodosius II ( r . 408 – 450 ) inside the Great Palace of Constantinople . Emperor Basil I ( r . 867 – 886 ) excelled at it ; Emperor Alexander ( r . 912 – 913 ) died from exhaustion while playing , Emperor Alexios I Komnenos ( r . 1081 – 1118 ) was injured while playing with Tatikios , and John I of Trebizond ( r . 1235 – 1238 ) died from a fatal injury during a game . Aside from Constantinople and Trebizond , other Byzantine cities also featured tzykanisteria , most notably Sparta , Ephesus , and Athens , an indication of a thriving urban aristocracy . The game was introduced to the West by crusaders , who developed a taste for it particularly during the pro @-@ Western reign of emperor Manuel I Komnenos .
= = Government and bureaucracy = =
In the Byzantine state , the emperor was the sole and absolute ruler , and his power was regarded as having divine origin . The Senate had ceased to have real political and legislative authority but remained as an honorary council with titular members . By the end of the 8th century , a civil administration focused on the court was formed as part of a large @-@ scale consolidation of power in the capital ( the rise to pre @-@ eminence of the position of sakellarios is related to this change ) . The most important administrative reform , which probably started in the mid @-@ 7th century , was the creation of themes , where civil and military administration was exercised by one person , the strategos .
Despite the occasionally derogatory use of the terms " Byzantine " and " Byzantinism " , the Byzantine bureaucracy had a distinct ability for reconstituting itself in accordance with the Empire 's situation . The elaborate system of titulature and precedence gave the court prestige and influence . Officials were arranged in strict order around the emperor , and depended upon the imperial will for their ranks . There were also actual administrative jobs , but authority could be vested in individuals rather than offices .
In the 8th and 9th centuries , civil service constituted the clearest path to aristocratic status , but , starting in the 9th century , the civil aristocracy was rivalled by an aristocracy of nobility . According to some studies of Byzantine government , 11th @-@ century politics were dominated by competition between the civil and the military aristocracy . During this period , Alexios I undertook important administrative reforms , including the creation of new courtly dignities and offices .
= = = Diplomacy = = =
After the fall of Rome , the key challenge to the Empire was to maintain a set of relations between itself and its neighbours . When these nations set about forging formal political institutions , they often modelled themselves on Constantinople . Byzantine diplomacy soon managed to draw its neighbours into a network of international and inter @-@ state relations . This network revolved around treaty making , and included the welcoming of the new ruler into the family of kings , and the assimilation of Byzantine social attitudes , values and institutions . Whereas classical writers are fond of making ethical and legal distinctions between peace and war , Byzantines regarded diplomacy as a form of war by other means . For example , a Bulgarian threat could be countered by providing money to the Kievan Rus ' .
Diplomacy in the era was understood to have an intelligence @-@ gathering function on top of its pure political function . The Bureau of Barbarians in Constantinople handled matters of protocol and record keeping for any issues related to the " barbarians " , and thus had , perhaps , a basic intelligence function itself . John B. Bury believed that the office exercised supervision over all foreigners visiting Constantinople , and that they were under the supervision of the Logothetes tou dromou . While on the surface a protocol office – its main duty was to ensure foreign envoys were properly cared for and received sufficient state funds for their maintenance , and it kept all the official translators – it probably had a security function as well .
Byzantines availed themselves of a number of diplomatic practices . For example , embassies to the capital would often stay on for years . A member of other royal houses would routinely be requested to stay on in Constantinople , not only as a potential hostage , but also as a useful pawn in case political conditions where he came from changed . Another key practice was to overwhelm visitors by sumptuous displays . According to Dimitri Obolensky , the preservation of the ancient civilisation in Europe was due to the skill and resourcefulness of Byzantine diplomacy , which remains one of Byzantium 's lasting contributions to the history of Europe .
= = = Flags and insignia = = =
For most of its history , the Byzantine Empire did not know or use heraldry in the West European sense . Various emblems ( Greek : σημεία , sēmeia ; sing. σημείον , sēmeion ) were used in official occasions and for military purposes , such as banners or shields displaying various motifs such as the cross or the labarum . The use of the cross , and of images of Christ , the Virgin Mary and various saints is also attested on seals of officials , but these were personal rather than family emblems .
Double @-@ headed eagle
Tetragrammic cross
= = Language = =
Apart from the Imperial court , administration and military , the primary language used in the eastern Roman provinces even before the decline of the Western Empire was Greek , having been spoken in the region for centuries before Latin . Following Rome 's conquest of the east its ' Pax Romana ' , inclusionist political practices and development of public infrastructure , facilitated the further spreading and entrenchment of Greek language in the east . Indeed , early on in the life of the Roman Empire , Greek had become the common language of the Church , the language of scholarship and the arts , and , to a large degree , the lingua franca for trade between provinces and with other nations . Greek for a time became diglossic with the spoken language , known as Koine ( eventually evolving into Demotic Greek ) , used alongside an older written form until Koine won out as the spoken and written standard .
The use of Latin as the language of administration persisted until formally abolished by Heraclius in the 7th century . Scholarly Latin would rapidly fall into disuse among the educated classes although the language would continue to be at least a ceremonial part of the Empire 's culture for some time . Additionally , Vulgar Latin remained a minority language in the Empire , mainly along the Dalmatian coast ( Dalmatian ) and among the Romanian peoples .
Many other languages existed in the multi @-@ ethnic Empire , and some of these were given limited official status in their provinces at various times . Notably , by the beginning of the Middle Ages , Syriac had become more widely used by the educated classes in the far eastern provinces . Similarly Coptic , Armenian , and Georgian became significant among the educated in their provinces , and later foreign contacts made Old Church Slavic , Middle Persian , and Arabic important in the Empire and its sphere of influence .
Aside from these , since Constantinople was a prime trading center in the Mediterranean region and beyond , virtually every known language of the Middle Ages was spoken in the Empire at some time , even Chinese . As the Empire entered its final decline , the Empire 's citizens became more culturally homogeneous and the Greek language became integral to their identity and religion .
= = Legacy = =
Byzantium has been often identified with absolutism , orthodox spirituality , orientalism and exoticism , while the terms " Byzantine " and " Byzantinism " have been used as bywords for decadence , complex bureaucracy , and repression . In the countries of Central and Southeast Europe that exited the Eastern Bloc in the late 1980s and early 1990s , the assessment of Byzantine civilisation and its legacy was strongly negative due to their connection with an alleged " Eastern authoritarianism and autocracy . " Both Eastern and Western European authors have often perceived Byzantium as a body of religious , political , and philosophical ideas contrary to those of the West . Even in 19th @-@ century Greece , the focus was mainly on the classical past , while Byzantine tradition had been associated with negative connotations .
This traditional approach towards Byzantium has been partially or wholly disputed and revised by modern studies , which focus on the positive aspects of Byzantine culture and legacy . Averil Cameron regards as undeniable the Byzantine contribution to the formation of the medieval Europe , and both Cameron and Obolensky recognise the major role of Byzantium in shaping Orthodoxy , which in turn occupies a central position in the history and societies of Greece , Romania , Bulgaria , Russia , Georgia , Serbia and other countries . The Byzantines also preserved and copied classical manuscripts , and they are thus regarded as transmitters of the classical knowledge , as important contributors to the modern European civilization , and as precursors of both the Renaissance humanism and the Slav Orthodox culture .
As the only stable long @-@ term state in Europe during the Middle Ages , Byzantium isolated Western Europe from newly emerging forces to the East . Constantly under attack , it distanced Western Europe from Persians , Arabs , Seljuk Turks , and for a time , the Ottomans . From a different perspective , since the 7th century , the evolution and constant reshaping of the Byzantine state were directly related to the respective progress of Islam .
Following the conquest of Constantinople by the Ottoman Turks in 1453 , Sultan Mehmed II took the title " Kaysar @-@ i Rûm " ( the Ottoman Turkish equivalent of Caesar of Rome ) , since he was determined to make the Ottoman Empire the heir of the Eastern Roman Empire . According to Cameron , regarding themselves as " heirs " of Byzantium , the Ottomans preserved important aspects of its tradition , which in turn facilitated an " Orthodox revival " during the post @-@ communist period of the Eastern European states .
= = Annotations = =
= = = Byzantine studies , resources and bibliography = = =
Fox , Clinton R. What , If Anything , Is a Byzantine ? ( Online Encyclopedia of Roman Emperors )
Byzantine studies homepage at Dumbarton Oaks . Includes links to numerous electronic texts .
Byzantium : Byzantine studies on the Internet . Links to various online resources .
Translations from Byzantine Sources : The Imperial Centuries , c . 700 – 1204 . Online sourcebook .
De Re Militari . Resources for medieval history , including numerous translated sources on the Byzantine wars .
Medieval Sourcebook : Byzantium . Numerous primary sources on Byzantine history .
Bibliography on Byzantine Material Culture and Daily Life . Hosted by the University of Vienna ; in English .
Constantinople Home Page . Links to texts , images and videos on Byzantium .
Byzantium in Crimea : Political History , Art and Culture .
Institute for Byzantine Studies of the Austrian Academy of Sciences ( with further resources and a repository with papers on various aspects of the Byzantine Empire )
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= Apatosaurus =
Apatosaurus ( / əˌpætəˈsɔːrəs / ; meaning " deceptive lizard " ) is a genus of extinct sauropod dinosaurs that lived in North America during the Late Jurassic period . Othniel Charles Marsh described and named the first @-@ known species , A. ajax in 1877 , and a second species , A. louisae , was discovered and named by William H. Holland in 1916 . They lived about 152 to 151 million years ago ( mya ) , during the early Tithonian age , and are now known from fossils in the Morrison Formation of modern @-@ day Colorado , Oklahoma , and Utah , in the United States . Apatosaurus had an average length of 21 – 22 @.@ 8 m ( 69 – 75 ft ) , and an average mass of 16 @.@ 4 – 22 @.@ 4 t ( 16 @.@ 1 – 22 @.@ 0 long tons ; 18 @.@ 1 – 24 @.@ 7 short tons ) . A few specimens indicate a maximum length of 11 – 30 % greater than average and a mass of 32 @.@ 7 – 72 @.@ 6 t ( 32 @.@ 2 – 71 @.@ 5 long tons ; 36 @.@ 0 – 80 @.@ 0 short tons ) .
The cervical vertebrae of Apatosaurus are less elongated and more heavily constructed than those of Diplodocus , a diplodocid like Apatosaurus , and the bones of the leg are much stockier despite being longer , implying that Apatosaurus was a more robust animal . The tail was held above the ground during normal locomotion . Apatosaurus had a single claw on each forelimb and three on each hindlimb . The skull of Apatosaurus , long thought to be similar to Camarasaurus , is much more similar to that of Diplodocus . Apatosaurus was a generalized browser that likely held its head elevated . To lighten its vertebrae , Apatosaurus had air sacs that made the bones internally full of holes . Like that of other diplodocids , its tail may have been used as a whip to create loud noises .
The skull of Apatosaurus was confused with that of Camarasaurus and Brachiosaurus until 1909 , when the holotype of A. louisae was found , and a complete skull just a few meters away from the front of the neck . Henry Fairfield Osborn disagreed with this association , and went on to mount a skeleton of Apatosaurus with a Camarasaurus skull cast . Until 1970 , Apatosaurus skeletons were mounted with speculative skull casts , when McIntosh showed that more robust skulls assigned to Diplodocus were more likely from Apatosaurus .
Apatosaurus is a genus in the family Diplodocidae . It is one of the more basal genera , with only Amphicoelias , and possibly a new , unnamed genus more primitive . While the subfamily Apatosaurinae was named in 1929 , the group was not used validly until an extensive 2015 study . Only Brontosaurus is also in the subfamily , with the other genera being considered as synonyms or reclassified as diplodocines . Brontosaurus has long been considered a junior synonym of Apatosaurus ; its only species was reclassified as A. excelsus in 1903 . However , the 2015 study concluded that Brontosaurus was a valid genus of sauropod distinct from Apatosaurus . Nevertheless , not all paleontologists agree with this division . As it existed in North America during the late Jurassic , Apatosaurus would have lived aside dinosaurs such as Allosaurus , Camarasaurus , Diplodocus , and Stegosaurus .
= = Description = =
Apatosaurus was a large , long @-@ necked , quadrupedal animal with a long , whip @-@ like tail . Its forelimbs were slightly shorter than its hindlimbs . Most size estimates are based on specimen CM 3018 , the type specimen of A. louisae . In 1936 , this was measured to be 21 @.@ 8 m ( 72 ft ) , by measuring the vertebral column . Current estimates are similar , which find the individual was 21 – 22 @.@ 8 m ( 69 – 75 ft ) long and had a mass of 16 @.@ 4 – 22 @.@ 4 t ( 16 @.@ 1 – 22 @.@ 0 long tons ; 18 @.@ 1 – 24 @.@ 7 short tons ) . A 2015 study that estimated the mass of volumetric models of Dreadnoughtus , Apatosaurus , and Giraffatitan estimates CM 3018 at 21 @.@ 8 – 38 @.@ 2 t ( 21 @.@ 5 – 37 @.@ 6 long tons ; 24 @.@ 0 – 42 @.@ 1 short tons ) , similar in mass to Dreadnoughtus . Past estimates have put the creature 's mass as high as 35 @.@ 0 t ( 34 @.@ 4 long tons ; 38 @.@ 6 short tons ) . Some specimens of A. ajax ( like OMNH 1670 ) represent individuals 11 – 30 % longer , suggesting masses twice that of CM 3018 or 32 @.@ 7 – 72 @.@ 6 t ( 32 @.@ 2 – 71 @.@ 5 long tons ; 36 @.@ 0 – 80 @.@ 0 short tons ) , potentially rivalling the largest titanosaurs .
The skull is small in comparison with the size of the animal . The jaws are lined with spatulate ( chisel @-@ like ) teeth suited to a herbivorous diet . The snout of Apatosaurus and similar diplodocoids are squared , with only Nigersaurus having a squarer skull . The braincase of Apatosaurus is well preserved in specimen BYU 17096 , which also preserved much of the skeleton . A phylogenetic analysis found that the braincase had a similar morphology to those of other diplodocoids . Some skulls of Apatosaurus have been found still in articulation with their teeth . Those teeth that have the enamel surface exposed do not show any scratches on the surface ; instead they display a sugary texture and little wear .
Like those of other sauropods , the neck vertebrae are deeply bifurcated ; they carried neural spines with a large trough in the middle , resulting in a wide , deep neck . The vertebral formula for the holotype of A. louisae is 15 cervicals , 10 dorsals , 5 sacrals , and 82 caudals . The caudal vertebra number may vary , even within species . The cervical vertebrae of Apatosaurus and Brontosaurus are stouter and more robust than those of other diplodocids , were found to be most similar to Camarasaurus by Charles Whitney Gilmore . In addition , they support cervical ribs that extend farther towards the ground than in diplodocines , and have the vertebrae and ribs narrower towards the top of the neck , making the neck nearly triangular in cross @-@ section . In Apatosaurus louisae , the atlas @-@ axis complex of the first cervicals is nearly fused . The dorsal ribs are not fused or tightly attached to their vertebrae , instead being loosely articulated . Apatosaurus has ten dorsal ribs on either side of the body . The large neck was filled with an extensive system of weight @-@ saving air sacs . Apatosaurus , like its close relative Supersaurus , has neural tall spines , which make up more than half the height of the individual bones of its vertebrae . The shape of the tail is unusual for a diplodocid ; it is comparatively slender because of the rapidly decreasing height of the vertebral spines with increasing distance from the hips . Apatosaurus also had very long ribs compared to most other diplodocids , giving it an unusually deep chest . As in other diplodocids , the tail transformed into a whip @-@ like structure towards its end .
The limb bones are also very robust . Within Apatosaurinae , the scapula of Apatosaurus louisae is intermediate in morphology between those of A. ajax and Brontosaurus excelsus . The arm bones are stout , so the humerus of Apatosaurus resembles that of Camarasaurus , as well as Brontosaurus . However , the humeri of Brontosaurus and A. ajax are more similar to each other than they are to A. louisae . In 1936 , Charles Gilmore noted that previous reconstructions of Apatosaurus forelimbs erroneously proposed that the radius and ulna could cross ; in life they would have remained parallel . Apatosaurus had a single large claw on each forelimb , a feature shared by all sauropods more derived than Shunosaurus . The first three toes had claws on each hindlimb . The phalangeal formula is 2 @-@ 1 @-@ 1 @-@ 1 @-@ 1 , meaning the innermost finger ( phalanx ) on the forelimb has two bones and the next has one . The single manual claw bone ( ungual ) is slightly curved and squarely truncated on the anterior end . The pelvic girdle includes the robust ilia , and the fused ( co @-@ ossified ) pubes and ischia . The femora of Apatosaurus are very stout ; some of the most robust femora of any member of Sauropoda . The tibia and fibula bones are different from the slender bones of Diplodocus , but are nearly indistinguishable from those of Camarasaurus . The fibula is longer and more slender than the tibia . The foot of Apatosaurus has three claws on the innermost digits ; the digit formula is 3 @-@ 4 @-@ 5 @-@ 3 @-@ 2 . The first metatarsal is the stoutest , a feature shared among diplodocids .
= = Discovery and species = =
The name Apatosaurus ajax was coined in 1877 by Othniel Charles Marsh , Professor of Paleontology at Yale University , based on a nearly complete skeleton ( holotype , YPM 1860 ) discovered the eastern foothills of the Rocky Mountains in Gunnison County , Colorado . The composite term Apatosaurus comes from the Greek words apatē ( ἀπάτη ) / apatēlos ( ἀπατηλός ) meaning " deception " / " deceptive " , and sauros ( σαῦρος ) meaning " lizard " ; thus , " deceptive lizard " . Marsh gave it this name based on the chevron bones , which are dissimilar to those of other dinosaurs ; instead , the chevron bones of Apatosaurus showed similarities with those of mosasaurs . During excavation and transportation , the bones of the holotype skeleton were mixed with those of another Apatosaurus individual originally described as Atlantosaurus immanis ; as a consequence , some elements cannot be ascribed to either specimen with confidence anymore . Marsh distinguished the new genus Apatosaurus from Atlantosaurus on the basis of the number of sacral vertebrae , with Apatosaurus possessing three and Atlantosaurus four . Two years later , Marsh announced the discovery of a larger and more complete specimen at Como Bluff , Wyoming . Marsh decided to give this specimen a new name , because conventions and the relative sparse fossil record at that time meant that features then used to distinguish genera and species have now been found to be more widespread among sauropods . He named the new species Brontosaurus excelsus . All specimens currently considered Apatosaurus were from the Morrison Formation , the location of the excavations of Marsh and his rival Edward Drinker Cope .
Another specimen , in American Museum of Natural History and under the specimen number 460 , which is occasionally assigned to Apatosaurus , is very complete ; only the head , feet , and sections of the tail are missing , and it was the first sauropod skeleton mounted . The specimen was found north of Medicine Bow , Wyoming in 1898 by Walter Granger , and took the entire summer to extract . To complete the mount , sauropod feet that were discovered at the same quarry and a tail fashioned to appear as Marsh believed it should — which had too few vertebrae — were added . In addition , a sculpted model of what the museum thought the skull of this massive creature might look like was made . This was not a delicate skull like that of Diplodocus — which was later found to be more accurate — but was based on " the biggest , thickest , strongest skull bones , lower jaws and tooth crowns from three different quarries " . These skulls were likely those of Camarasaurus , the only other sauropod for which good skull material was known at the time . The mount construction was overseen by Adam Hermann , who failed to find Apatosaurus skulls . Hermann was forced to sculpt a stand @-@ in skull by hand . Osborn said in a publication that the skull was " largely conjectural and based on that of Morosaurus " ( now Camarasaurus ) .
In 1903 , Elmer Riggs published a study that described a well @-@ preserved skeleton of a diplodocid from the Grand River Valley near Fruita , Colorado , Field Museum of Natural History specimen P25112 . Riggs thought that the deposits were similar in age to those of the Como Bluff in Wyoming , from which Marsh described Brontosaurus . Most of the skeleton was found , and after comparison with both Brontosaurus and Apatosaurus ajax , Riggs realized that the holotype of A. ajax was immature , and thus the features distinguishing the genera were not valid . Since Apatosaurus was the earlier name , Brontosaurus should be considered a junior synonym of Apatosaurus . Because of this , Riggs recombined Brontosaurus excelsus as Apatosaurus excelsus . Based on comparisons with other species proposed to belong to Apatosaurus , Riggs also determined that the Field Columbian Museum specimen was likely most similar to A. excelsus .
Despite Riggs ' publication , Henry Fairfield Osborn , who was a strong opponent of Marsh and his taxa , labeled the Apatosaurus mount of the American Museum of Natural History Brontosaurus . Because of this decision the name Brontosaurus was commonly used outside of scientific literature for what Riggs considered Apatosaurus , and the museum 's popularity meant that Brontosaurus became one of the best known dinosaurs , even though it was invalid throughout nearly all of the 20th and early 21st centuries .
It was not until 1909 that an Apatosaurus skull was found during the first expedition , led by Earl Douglass , to what would become the Carnegie Quarry at Dinosaur National Monument . The skull was found a short distance from a skeleton ( specimen CM 3018 ) identified as the new species Apatosaurus louisae , named after Louise Carnegie , wife of Andrew Carnegie who funded field research to find complete dinosaur skeletons in the American West . The skull was designated CM 11162 ; it was very similar to the skull of Diplodocus . Another smaller skeleton of A. louisae was found nearby CM 11162 and CM 3018 . The skull was accepted as belonging to the Apatosaurus specimen by Douglass and Carnegie Museum director William H. Holland , although other scientists — most notably Osborn — rejected this identification . Holland defended his view in 1914 in an address to the Paleontological Society of America , yet he left the Carnegie Museum mount headless . While some thought Holland was attempting to avoid conflict with Osborn , others suspected Holland was waiting until an articulated skull and neck were found to confirm the association of the skull and skeleton . After Holland 's death in 1934 , museum staff placed a cast of a Camarasaurus skull on the mount .
While most other museums were using cast or sculpted Camarasaurus skulls on Apatosaurus mounts , the Yale Peabody Museum decided to sculpt a skull based on the lower jaw of a Camarasaurus , with the cranium based on Marsh 's 1891 illustration of the skull . The skull also included forward @-@ pointing nasals — something different to any dinosaur — and fenestrae differing from the drawing and other skulls .
No Apatosaurus skull was mentioned in literature until the 1970s when John Stanton McIntosh and David Berman redescribed the skulls of Diplodocus and Apatosaurus . They found that though he never published his opinion , Holland was almost certainly correct , that Apatosaurus had a Diplodocus @-@ like skull . According to them , many skulls long thought to pertain to Diplodocus might instead be those of Apatosaurus . They reassigned multiple skulls to Apatosaurus based on associated and closely associated vertebrae . Even though they supported Holland , it was noted that Apatosaurus might have possessed a Camarasaurus @-@ like skull , based on a disarticulated Camarasaurus @-@ like tooth found at the precise site where an Apatosaurus specimen was found years before . On October 20 , 1979 , after the publications by McIntosh and Berman , the first true skull of Apatosaurus was mounted on a skeleton in a museum , that of the Carnegie . In 1998 , the Felch Quarry skull that Marsh included in his 1896 skeletal restoration was suggested to belong to Brachiosaurus instead . In 2011 , the first specimen of Apatosaurus where a skull was found articulated with its cervical vertebrae was described . This specimen , CMC VP 7180 , was found to differ in both skull and neck features from A. louisae , but shared many features of the cervical vertebrae with A. ajax . Another well @-@ preserved skull is Brigham Young University specimen 17096 , a well preserved skull and skeleton , with a preserved braincase . The specimen was found in Cactus Park Quarry of western Colorado .
Almost all modern paleontologists agreed with Riggs that the two dinosaurs should be classified together in a single genus . According to the rules of the ICZN ( which governs the scientific names of animals ) , the name Apatosaurus , having been published first , has priority as the official name ; Brontosaurus was considered a junior synonym and was therefore long discarded from formal use . Despite this , at least one paleontologist — Robert T. Bakker — argued in the 1990s that A. ajax and A. excelsus were in fact sufficiently distinct for the latter to merit a separate genus .
In 2015 Emanuel Tschopp , Octávio Mateus , and Roger Benson released a paper on diplodocoid systematics , and proposed that genera could be diagnosed by 13 differing characters , and species separated based on 6 . The minimum number for generic separation was chosen based on the fact that A. ajax and A. louisae differ in 12 characters , and Diplodocus carnegiei and D. hallorum differ in 11 characters . Thus , 13 characters were chosen to validate the separation of genera . The 6 differing features for specific separation were chosen by counting the number of differing features in separate specimens generally agreed to represent one species , with only one differing character in D. carnegiei and A. louisae , but five differing features in B. excelsus . Therefore , Tschopp et al. argued that Apatosaurus excelsus , originally classified as Brontosaurus excelsus , had enough morphological differences from other species of Apatosaurus that it warranted being reclassified as a separate genus again . The conclusion was based on a comparison of 477 morphological characteristics across 81 different dinosaur individuals . Among the many notable differences are the wider — and presumably stronger — neck of Apatosaurus species compared to B. excelsus . Other species previously assigned to Apatosaurus , such as Elosaurus parvus and Eobrontosaurus yahnahpin were also reclassified as Brontosaurus . Some features proposed to separate Brontosaurus from Apatosaurus include : posterior dorsal vertebrae with the centrum longer than wide ; the scapula rear to the acromial edge and the distal blade being excavated ; the acromial edge of the distal scapular blade bears a rounded expansion ; and the ratio of the proximodistal length to transverse breadth of the astragalus is 0 @.@ 55 or greater . Paleontologist Michael D 'Emic made a critique . Palaeontologist Donald Prothero criticized the mass media reaction to this study as superficial and premature , concluding :
Until someone has convincingly addressed the issue , I ’ m going to put “ Brontosaurus ” in quotes and not follow the latest media fad , nor will I overrule Riggs ( 1903 ) and put the name in my books as a valid genus .
= = = Valid species = = =
Multiple species of Apatosaurus have been designated from scant material . Marsh named as many species as he could , which resulted in many being based upon fragmentary and indistinguishable remains . In 2005 , Paul Upchurch and colleagues published a study that analyzed the species and specimen relationships of Apatosaurus . They found that A. louisae was the most basal species , followed by FMNH P25112 , and then a polytomy of A. ajax , A. parvus , and A. excelsus . Their analysis was revised and expanded with many additional diplodocid specimens in 2015 , which resolved the relationships of Apatosaurus slightly differently , and also supported separating Brontosaurus from Apatosaurus .
Apatosaurus ajax was named by Marsh in 1877 after Ajax , a hero from Greek mythology . Marsh designated the incomplete , juvenile skeleton YPM 1860 as its holotype . The species is less studied then Brontosaurus and A. louisae , especially because of the incomplete nature of the holotype . In 2005 , many specimens in addition to the holotype were found assignable to A. ajax , YPM 1840 , NSMT @-@ PV 20375 , YPM 1861 , and AMNH 460 . The specimens date from the late Kimmeridgian to the early Tithonian ages . In 2015 , only the A. ajax holotype YPM 1860 assigned to the species , with AMNH 460 found either to be within Brontosaurus , or potentially its own taxon . However , YPM 1861 and NSMT @-@ PV 20375 only differed in a few characteristics , and cannot be distinguished specifically or generically from A. ajax . YPM 1861 is the holotype of " Atlantosaurus " immanis , which means it might be a junior synonym of A. ajax .
Apatosaurus louisae was named by Holland in 1916 , being first known from a partial skeleton that was found in Utah . The holotype is CM 3018 , with referred specimens including CM 3378 , CM 11162 , and LACM 52844 . The former two consist of a vertebral column ; the latter two consist of a skull and a nearly complete skeleton , respectively . Its specimens all come from the late Kimmeridgian of Dinosaur National Monument . In 2015 , Tschopp et al. found the type specimen of Apatosaurus laticollis to nest closely with CM 3018 , meaning the former is likely a junior synonym of A. louisae .
The cladogram below is the result of an analysis by Tschopp , Mateus , and Benson ( 2015 ) . The authors analyzed most diplodocid type specimens separately to deduce which specimen belonged to which species and genus .
= = = Reassigned species = = =
Apatosaurus grandis was named in 1877 by Marsh in the article that described A. ajax . It was briefly described , figured , and diagnosed . Marsh later mentioned it was only provisionally assigned to Apatosaurus when he reassigned it to his new genus Morosaurus in 1878 . Since Morvosaurus has been considered a synonym of Camarasaurus , C. grandis is the oldest @-@ named species of the latter genus .
Apatosaurus excelsus was the original type species of Brontosaurus , first named by Marsh in 1879 . Elmer Riggs reclassified Brontosaurus as a synonym of Apatosaurus in 1903 , transferring the species B. excelsus to A. excelsus . In 2015 , Tschopp , Mateus , and Benson argued that the species was distinct enough to be placed in its own genus so they reclassified it back into Brontosaurus .
Apatosaurus parvus , first described from a juvenile specimen as Elosaurus in 1902 by Peterson and Gilmore , was reassigned to Apatosaurus in 1994 , and then to Brontosaurus in 2015 . Multiple other , more mature specimens were assigned to it following the 2015 study .
Apatosaurus minimus was originally described as a specimen of Brontosaurus sp. in 1904 by Osborn . In 1917 , Henry Mook named it as its own species , A. minimus , for a pair of ilia and their sacrum . In 2012 , Mike P. Taylor and Matt J. Wedel published a short abstract describing the material of " A. " minimus , finding it hard @-@ to @-@ place among either Diplodocoidea or Macronaria . While it was placed with Saltasaurus in a phylogenetic analysis , it was thought to represent instead some form with convergent features from many groups . The study of Tschopp et al. did find that a camarasaurid position for the taxon was supported , but noted that the position of the taxon was found to be highly variable and there was no clearly more likely position .
Apatosaurus alenquerensis was named in 1957 by Albert @-@ Félix de Lapparent and Georges Zbyweski . It was based on post cranial material from Portugal . In 1990 , this material was reassigned to Camarasaurus , but in 1998 it was given its own genus , Lourinhasaurus . This was further supported by the findings of Tschopp et al. in 2015 , where Lourinhasaurus was found to be sister to Camarasaurus and other camarasaurids .
Apatosaurus yahnahpin was named by James Filla and Patrick Redman in 1994 . Bakker made A. yahnahpin the type species of a new genus , Eobrontosaurus in 1998 , and Tschopp reclassified it as Brontosaurus yahnahpin in 2015 .
= = Classification = =
Apatosaurus is a member of the family Diplodocidae , a clade of gigantic sauropod dinosaurs . The family includes some of the longest creatures ever to walk the earth , including Diplodocus , Supersaurus , and Barosaurus . Apatosaurus is sometimes classified in the subfamily Apatosaurinae , which may also include Suuwassea , Supersaurus , and Brontosaurus . Othniel Charles Marsh described Apatosaurus as allied to Atlantosaurus within the now @-@ defunct group Atlantosauridae . In 1878 , Marsh raised his family to the rank of suborder , including Apatosaurus , Atlantosaurus , Morosaurus ( = Camarasaurus ) and Diplodocus . He classified this group within Sauropoda , a group he erected in the same study . In 1903 , Elmer S. Riggs said the name Sauropoda would be a junior synonym of earlier names ; he grouped Apatosaurus within Opisthocoelia . Sauropoda is still used as the group name . In 2011 , John Whitlock published a study that placed Apatosaurus a more basal diplodocid , sometimes less basal than Supersaurus .
Cladogram of the Diplodocidae after Tschopp , Mateus , and Benson ( 2015 ) .
= = Palaeobiology = =
It was believed throughout the 19th and early 20th centuries that sauropods like Apatosaurus were too massive to support their own weight on dry land . It was theorized that they lived partly submerged in water , perhaps in swamps . Recent findings do not support this ; sauropods are now thought to have been fully terrestrial animals . A study of diplodocid snouts showed that the square snout , large proportion of pits , and fine , subparallel scratches of the teeth of Apatosaurus suggests it was a ground @-@ height , nonselective browser . It may have eaten ferns , cycadeoids , seed ferns , horsetails , and algae . Stevens and Parish ( 2005 ) speculate that these sauropods fed from riverbanks on submerged water plants .
A 2015 study of the necks of Apatosaurus and Brontosaurus found many differences between them and other diplodocids , and that these variations may have shown that the necks of Apatosaurus and Brontosaurus were used for intraspecific combat . Various uses for the single claw on the forelimb of sauropods have been proposed . One suggestion is that they were used for defense , but their shape and size makes this unlikely . It was also possible they were for feeding , but the most probable use for the claw was grasping objects such as tree trunks when rearing .
Trackways of sauropods like Apatosaurus show that they may have had a range of around 25 – 40 km ( 16 – 25 mi ) per day , and they could potentially reach a top speed of 20 – 30 km ( 12 – 19 mi ) per hour . The slow locomotion of sauropods may be due to their minimal muscling , or to recoil after strides . A trackway of a juvenile has led some to believe that they were capable of bipedalism , though this is disputed .
= = = Neck posture = = =
Diplodocids like Apatosaurus are often portrayed with their necks held high up in the air , allowing them to browse on tall trees . Some studies state diplodocid necks were less flexible than previously believed because the structure of the neck vertebrae would not have allowed the neck to bend far upwards , and that sauropods like Apatosaurus were adapted to low browsing or ground feeding .
Other studies by Taylor find that all tetrapods appear to hold their necks at the maximum possible vertical extension when in a normal , alert posture ; they argue the same would hold true for sauropods barring any unknown , unique characteristics that set the soft tissue anatomy of their necks apart from that of other animals . Apatosaurus , like Diplodocus , would have held its neck angled upwards with the head pointing downwards in a resting posture . Kent Stevens and Michael Parrish ( 1999 and 2005 ) state Apatosaurus had a great feeding range ; its neck could bend into a U @-@ shape laterally . The neck 's range of movement would have also allowed the head to feed at the level of the feet .
Matthew Cobley et al . ( 2013 ) dispute this , finding that large muscles and cartilage would have limited movement of the neck . They state the feeding ranges for sauropods like Diplodocus were smaller than previously believed and the animals may have had to move their whole bodies around to better access areas where they could browse vegetation . As such , they might have spent more time foraging to meet their minimum energy needs . The conclusions of Cobley et al. are disputed by Taylor , who analyzed the amount and positioning of intervertebral cartilage to determine the flexibility of the neck of Apatosaurus and Diplodocus . He found that the neck of Apatosaurus was very flexible .
= = = Physiology = = =
Given the large body mass and long neck of sauropods like Apatosaurus , physiologists have encountered problems determining how these animals breathed . Beginning with the assumption that like crocodilians , Apatosaurus did not have a diaphragm , the dead @-@ space volume ( the amount of unused air remaining in the mouth , trachea and air tubes after each breath ) has been estimated at about 0 @.@ 184 m3 ( 184 l ) for a 30 t ( 30 long tons ; 33 short tons ) specimen . Paladino calculates its tidal volume ( the amount of air moved in or out during a single breath ) at 0 @.@ 904 m3 ( 904 l ) with an avian respiratory system , 0 @.@ 225 m3 ( 225 l ) if mammalian , and 0 @.@ 019 m3 ( 19 l ) if reptilian .
On this basis , its respiratory system would likely have been parabronchi , with multiple pulmonary air sacs as in avian lungs , and a flow @-@ through lung . An avian respiratory system would need a lung volume of about 0 @.@ 60 m3 ( 600 l ) compared with a mammalian requirement of 2 @.@ 95 m3 ( 2 @,@ 950 l ) , which would exceed the space available . The overall thoracic volume of Apatosaurus has been estimated at 1 @.@ 7 m3 ( 1 @,@ 700 l ) , allowing for a 0 @.@ 50 m3 ( 500 l ) , four @-@ chambered heart and a 0 @.@ 90 m3 ( 900 l ) lung capacity . That would allow about 0 @.@ 30 m3 ( 300 l ) for the necessary tissue . Evidence for the avian system in Apatosaurus and other sauropods is also present in the pneumaticity of the vertebrae . Though this plays a role in reducing the weight of the animal , Wedel ( 2003 ) states they are also likely connected to air sacs , as in birds .
James Spotila et al . ( 1991 ) concludes that the large body size of sauropods would have made them unable to maintain high metabolic rates because they would not be able to release enough heat . They assumed sauropods had a reptilian respiratory system . Wedel says that an avian system would have allowed it to dump more heat . Some scientists state that the heart would have had trouble sustaining sufficient blood pressure to oxygenate the brain . Others suggest that the near @-@ horizontal posture of the head and neck would have eliminated the problem of supplying blood to the brain because it would not have been elevated .
James Farlow ( 1987 ) calculates that an Apatosaurus @-@ sized dinosaur about 35 t ( 34 long tons ; 39 short tons ) would have possessed 5 @.@ 7 t ( 5 @.@ 6 long tons ; 6 @.@ 3 short tons ) of fermentation contents . Assuming Apatosaurus had an avian respiratory system and a reptilian resting @-@ metabolism , Frank Paladino et al . ( 1997 ) estimate the animal would need to consume only about 262 litres ( 58 imp gal ; 69 US gal ) of water per day .
= = = Growth = = =
A 1999 microscopic study of Apatosaurus and Brontosaurus bones concluded the animals grew rapidly when young and reached near @-@ adult sizes in about 10 years . In 2008 , a study on the growth rates of sauropods was published by Thomas Lehman and Holly Woodward . They said that by using growth lines and length @-@ to @-@ mass ratios , Apatosaurus would have grown to 25 t ( 25 long tons ; 28 short tons ) in 15 years , with growth peaking at 5 @,@ 000 kg ( 11 @,@ 000 lb ) in a single year . An alternative method , using limb length and body mass , found Apatosaurus grew 520 kg ( 1 @,@ 150 lb ) per year , and reached its full mass before it was about 70 years old . These estimates have been called unreliable because the calculation methods are not sound ; old growth lines would have been obliterated by bone remodelling . One of the first identified growth factors of Apatosaurus was the number of sacral vertebrae , which increased to five by the time of the creatures ' maturity . This was first noted in 1903 and again in 1936 .
Long @-@ bone histology enables researchers to estimate the age that a specific individual reached . A study by Eva Griebeler et al . ( 2013 ) examined long bone histological data and concluded the Apatosaurus sp . SMA 0014 weighed 20 @,@ 206 kg ( 22 @.@ 3 short tons ) , reached sexual maturity at 21 years , and died aged 28 . The same growth model indicated Apatosaurus sp . BYU 601 – 17328 weighed 18 @,@ 178 kg ( 20 @.@ 0 short tons ) , reached sexual maturity at 19 years , and died aged 31 .
= = = = Juveniles = = = =
Compared with most sauropods , a relatively large amount of juvenile material is known from Apatosaurus . Multiple specimens in the OMNH are from juveniles of an undetermined species of Apatosaurus ; this material includes partial shoulder and pelvic girdles , some vertebrae , and limb bones . OMNH juvenile material is from at least two different age groups and based on overlapping bones likely comes from more than three individuals . The specimens exhibit features that distinguish Apatosaurus from its relatives , and thus likely belong to the genus . Juvenile sauropods tend to have proportionally shorter necks and tails , and a more pronounced forelimb @-@ hindlimb disparity than in adults .
= = = Tail = = =
An article published in 1997 reported research of the mechanics of Apatosaurus tails by Nathan Myhrvold and paleontologist Philip J. Currie . Myhrvold carried out a computer simulation of the tail , which in diplodocids like Apatosaurus was a very long , tapering structure resembling a bullwhip . This computer modeling suggested sauropods were capable of producing a whiplike cracking sound of over 200 decibels , comparable to the volume of a cannon being fired .
A pathology has been identified on the tail of Apatosaurus , caused by a growth defect . Two caudal vertebrae are seamlessly fused along the entire articulating surface of the bone , including the arches of the neural spines . This defect might have been caused by the lack or inhibition of the substance that forms intervertebral disks or joints . It has been proposed that the whips could have been used in combat , but the tails of diplodocids were quite light and narrow compared to Shunosaurus and mamenchisaurids , and thus to injure another animal with the tail would severely injure the tail itself .
= = Paleoecology = =
The Morrison Formation is a sequence of shallow marine and alluvial sediments which , according to radiometric dating , dates from between 156 @.@ 3 mya at its base , and 146 @.@ 8 mya at the top , placing it in the late Oxfordian , Kimmeridgian , and early Tithonian stages of the Late Jurassic period . This formation is interpreted as originating in a locally semiarid environment with distinct wet and dry seasons . The Morrison Basin , where dinosaurs lived , stretched from New Mexico to Alberta and Saskatchewan ; it was formed when the precursors to the Front Range of the Rocky Mountains started pushing up to the west . The deposits from their east @-@ facing drainage basins were carried by streams and rivers and deposited in swampy lowlands , lakes , river channels , and floodplains . This formation is similar in age to the Lourinhã Formation in Portugal and the Tendaguru Formation in Tanzania .
Apatosaurus was the second @-@ commonest sauropod in the Morrison Formation ecosystem , after Camarasaurus . Apatosaurus may have been more solitary than other Morrison Formation dinosaurs . Supersaurus has a greater total length and is the greatest of all sauropods from the Morrison Formation . Apatosaurus fossils have only been found in the upper levels of the formation . Those of Apatosaurus ajax are known exclusively from the upper Brushy Basin Member , about 152 – 151 mya . A. louisae fossils are rare , known only from one site in the upper Brushy Basin Member ; they date to the late Kimmeridgian stage , about 151 mya . Additional Apatosaurus remains are known from similarly aged or slightly younger rocks , but they have not been identified as any particular species , and thus may instead belong to Brontosaurus .
The Morrison Formation records a time when the local environment was dominated by gigantic sauropod dinosaurs . Dinosaurs known from the Morrison Formation include the theropods Allosaurus , Ceratosaurus , Ornitholestes , Saurophaganax and Torvosaurus ; the sauropods Brontosaurus , Brachiosaurus , Camarasaurus , and Diplodocus ; and the ornithischians Camptosaurus , Dryosaurus , and Stegosaurus . Apatosaurus is commonly found at the same sites as Allosaurus , Camarasaurus , Diplodocus , and Stegosaurus . Allosaurus accounted for 70 – 75 % of theropod specimens and was at the top trophic level of the Morrison food web . Many of the dinosaurs of the Morrison Formation are of the same genera as those seen in Portuguese rocks of the Lourinhã Formation — mainly Allosaurus , Ceratosaurus , and Torvosaurus — or have a close counterpart — Brachiosaurus and Lusotitan , Camptosaurus and Draconyx , Apatosaurus and Dinheirosaurus . Other vertebrates that are known to have shared this paleo @-@ environment include ray @-@ finned fishes , frogs , salamanders , turtles , sphenodonts , lizards , terrestrial and aquatic crocodylomorphans , and several species of pterosaur . Shells of bivalves and aquatic snails are also common . The flora of the period has been evidenced in fossils of green algae , fungi , mosses , horsetails , cycads , ginkgoes , and several families of conifers . Vegetation varied from river @-@ lining forests of tree ferns and ferns ( gallery forests ) , to fern savannas with occasional trees such as the Araucaria @-@ like conifer Brachyphyllum .
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= Partners in Crime ( Doctor Who ) =
" Partners in Crime " is the first episode of the fourth series of the British science fiction television series Doctor Who . It was broadcast on BBC One on 5 April 2008 . The episode reintroduced comedian Catherine Tate as Donna Noble , who had previously appeared in " The Runaway Bride " . Donna and the Doctor ( David Tennant ) meet while separately investigating Adipose Industries , a company that has created a revolutionary diet pill . Together , they attempt to stop the death of thousands of people in London after the head of the company , the alien Miss Foster ( Sarah Lancashire ) , creates the Adipose , short white aliens made from human body fat .
The episode 's alien creatures , the Adipose , were created using the software MASSIVE , commonly used for crowd sequences in fantasy and science fiction films . The episode is stylistically different from other Doctor Who episodes ; " Partners in Crime " has no clear antagonist , and the creatures are in a different style to Doctor Who 's regular " big [ and ] scary " monsters .
" Partners in Crime " features the return of three supporting characters : Jacqueline King reprises her role as Sylvia Noble from " The Runaway Bride " ; Bernard Cribbins reprises his role as Wilfred Mott from " Voyage of the Damned " , to replace the character of Geoff Noble after actor Howard Attfield died ; and Billie Piper briefly reprises her role as Rose Tyler for the first time since the second series ' finale " Doomsday " , in a scene that was not included in preview showings .
The episode received many positive reviews . Most critics liked the special effects used to create the Adipose . Critics also praised Tate 's subdued acting in comparison to " The Runaway Bride " ; Donna was changed from a " shouting fishwife " to a more emotional person when she became a full @-@ time companion . Critics ' opinions were split over the episode 's plot : opinion on executive producer Russell T Davies ' writing ranged from " pure pleasure " to " the back of a fag packet " .
= = Plot = =
Donna Noble has become disenchanted with her normal life for two years since meeting the Doctor in " The Runaway Bride " . She finds herself regretting her decision to decline the Doctor 's invitation to travel in the TARDIS . She has started investigating conspiracy theories in the hope that she will find him again . She confides her regrets to her grandfather Wilfred Mott , who met the Doctor before in " Voyage of the Damned " .
The Doctor and Donna , neither one aware of the other 's involvement , both investigate Adipose Industries , which is marketing a special diet pill to the people of London . They find that the pill 's slogan , The Fat Just Walks Away , is literal . The pills use latent body fat to parthenogenetically create small white aliens called Adipose that spawn at night and leave the host 's body . The Doctor and Donna separately infiltrate the offices of Adipose Industries , each unaware that the other is there . Donna hides out in a toilet cubicle until they close , the Doctor stays in a storage room . As they explore the building , they suddenly encounter each other through opposite windows in an office . They are confronted by Miss Foster , an alien who is using Britain 's overweight population to create the Adipose babies for the Adiposian First Family . Miss Foster pursues the Doctor and Donna around the building , finally catching them in an office . She tells the Doctor that the Adipose lost their breeding planet and hired Miss Foster to find a replacement . The Doctor uses Miss Foster 's sonic pen and his sonic screwdriver to create a diversion and escape .
Miss Foster accelerates her plans , knowing that the Doctor will attempt to stop her . Throughout London , the Adipose begin to spawn and soon number several thousand . The Doctor and Donna prevent total emergency parthenogenesis occurring , which would have killed those who had taken the pill , and the remainder of the young Adipose make their way to Adipose Industries . The Adiposian First Family arrive in a spaceship and begin collecting their young . The Doctor tries to warn Miss Foster about her safety , but she disregards him and is killed when the Adipose drop her from their transport beam to her death , to cover their unsanctioned colonization efforts . The Doctor refrains from killing the young Adipose because they are children , to which Donna remarks that his previous companion Martha Jones made him more human .
At the end of the episode , Donna accepts the Doctor 's original offer to travel in the TARDIS . The Doctor makes it clear to her that he only wants to be friends and nothing more , and she emphatically agrees . She makes a detour to leave her car keys in a litter bin , telling her mother Sylvia to collect them later . While there , she meets a blonde woman and asks her to help Sylvia find the keys . The woman turns out to be Rose Tyler , who fades from view as she walks away from the area . In the final scene , Donna asks the Doctor to fly by her grandfather , Wilfred . He sees her in his telescope and celebrates on his allotment .
= = Production = =
= = = Casting = = =
" Partners in Crime " features several actors returning to the series . Catherine Tate was offered the opportunity to return as Donna Noble during lunch with executive producer Julie Gardner . Tate , who expected Gardner would ask about appearing in a biopic , later admitted it was " the furthest thing from [ her ] mind " . Tate 's return was controversial amongst Doctor Who fans ; the criticism she received was compared to Daniel Craig after he was cast as James Bond . Howard Attfield , who appeared as Donna 's father Geoff in " The Runaway Bride " , filmed several scenes for this episode , but died before his scenes for the remainder of the season were completed . The producers retired his character out of respect , and dedicated him in the closing credits for the episode . Producer Phil Collinson suggested transferring his traits to the unrelated character Stan Mott from " Voyage of the Damned " , and rewriting his role as Donna 's grandfather . Executive producers Russell T Davies and Gardner liked the idea and recalled Bernard Cribbins to the role to re @-@ film Attfield 's scenes , with the character renamed as Wilfred — a name Davies favoured for Donna 's grandfather — in time for the credits of " Voyage of the Damned " to be changed .
= = = Writing = = =
Davies took a different approach while writing the episode . David Tennant and Sarah Lancashire noted the character of Miss Foster had good intentions but was morally ambiguous . The premise of the Adipose pill was equally ambiguous with rare side @-@ effects , but was a " win @-@ win situation " for anyone involved . Davies based the character of Miss Foster on Supernanny star Jo Frost and Argentine philanthropist and politician Eva Perón , and Lancashire compared her character to Mary Poppins . The Adipose are a different style to regular Doctor Who villains ; antagonists such as Lazarus in " The Lazarus Experiment " or the werewolf in " Tooth and Claw " were singular monsters designed to scare the audience ; the Adipose were written as " cute " to provide a " bizarre [ and ] surreal " experience .
Davies made some changes to Donna 's character . The character was " rounded ... out from being a shouting fishwife to someone who 's quite vulnerable and emotional " . Donna was written to provide a " caustic " and " grown @-@ up " attitude towards the Doctor , in opposition to Rose and Martha , who fell in love with him . Tate considered Donna to be more equal to the Doctor because her character did not romanticise him , allowing her to question his morality more easily .
= = = = Donna 's mime = = = =
In this production , the script requires Catherine Tate , as Donna Noble , to reintroduce herself to the Doctor in mime . The stage directions by writer Russell T Davies are as follows .
Donna does a little mime : " I came here , trouble , read about it , internet , I thought , trouble = you ! And this place is weird ! Pills ! So I hid . Back there . Crept along . Looked . You . Cos they ... "
Tate says Davies had suggested that she might come up with something on the day . She improvised her mime during filming .
= = = Filming = = =
The episode was in the fourth production block in the season , and was filmed in October 2007 . The out @-@ of @-@ sequence filming allowed producers to use props to " seed " later episodes ; ATMOS , a plot device in the episodes " The Sontaran Stratagem " and " The Poison Sky " , is referred to by a sticker on a taxi 's windscreen . As the episode mostly takes place at night , many scenes were filmed in the early morning .
The scene where Donna and the Doctor investigate Adipose was difficult to film . The scene took thirty shots to complete , and Tennant and Tate experienced problems avoiding each other on @-@ screen . The scene was filmed in Picture Finance 's call centre on the outskirts of Newport on an early Sunday morning , with the company 's telephonists serving as extras .
Exterior shots of Adipose Industries were filmed at the British Gas building ( Helmont House ) in Cardiff 's city centre . For health and safety reasons , Tennant was prohibited from performing his own stunts in the window cleaning platform . His only shot that required stunts was when he catches Miss Foster 's sonic pen , a shot that took several takes to perfect .
= = = Adipose = = =
The Adipose were inspired by a stuffed toy Davies owned . The name comes from the scientific name for body fat , adipose tissue . Davies ' brief outlined a " cute " child @-@ friendly creature shaped like a block of lard , similar to the Pillsbury Doughboy . Further consultation with post @-@ production team The Mill resulted in the ears and the singular fang each Adipose has . Stephen Regelous , who won an Academy Award for his software Massive , flew to London to supervise the creation of the crowd special effects . Regelous , a Doctor Who fan , was enthusiastic about helping The Mill with special effects , stating that " When I first found out that the Mill was working on Doctor Who , I was quietly hoping that Massive might be used to create hordes of Daleks or Cybermen and with series 4 , I jumped at the opportunity to be involved . " The Mill created two types of Adipose : extras with artificial intelligence and independent movement , and " hero " Adipose , which were hand @-@ animated .
= = Broadcast and reception = =
= = = Broadcast and ratings = = =
The episode was broadcast on 5 April 2008 at 18 : 20 , the earliest timeslot since the show 's revival in 2005 . Davies criticised the BBC 's scheduling department and claimed the show could lose 1 @.@ 5 million viewers . The show retained a similar time of broadcast for a further four episodes , before returning to around 19 : 00 @.@ from " The Doctor 's Daughter " onwards .
The preview version of the episode supplied to the press and aired at the press launch omitted the scene that features Rose ; before broadcast , only the production team , Tate , and Tennant had seen the scene . The scene contains Rose 's departure theme , " Doomsday " . Tennant commented " on the night of transmission ... the Radio Times won 't have told you it 's coming , it 'll come as a genuine [ ... ] prickle up the spine " .
Overnight figures estimated the show was watched by 8 @.@ 4 million viewers , with a peak of 8 @.@ 7 million , 39 @.@ 4 % of the television audience . The consolidated rating was 9 @.@ 1 million viewers . Doctor Who was therefore the most watched show on 5 April , although the Grand National had a higher peak with 10 @.@ 1 million viewers . The episode 's Appreciation Index was 88 ( considered " Excellent " ) , the highest for any television show aired on 5 April .
= = = Critical reception = = =
The episode received many positive reviews . John Preston , writing for The Daily Telegraph , called the episode an " undiluted triumph " . Opening his review , he said " last night 's episode struck me as being as close to 50 minutes of pure pleasure as you 're likely to get on television " . He noted the episode 's clever tackling of the topical theme of obesity , and its mixture of emotion and special effects . In closing , he said " the dejected critic , denied even the smallest nit to pick , walks glumly away " . Scott Matthewman of The Stage lamented that the Adipose were not threatening enough . He liked the Adipose 's execution of Miss Foster , a " momentary pause in mid @-@ air , gravity only kicking in when the character looks down " , comparing it to Wile E. Coyote and Chuck Jones , which " [ was ] a nice little touch in an episode ... full of them " . He also appreciated Tate , saying that " David Tennant finally has a partner who is approaching an equal " . Sam Wollaston of The Guardian wrote that Tate was " not right for this role " and " too hysterical , too comedy , not cool enough " , and felt her inclusion was an attempt to trade on the popularity of her own series and " broaden the appeal of [ Dr Who ] still further " . He also found the music " a bit oppressive " but concluded that , despite these criticisms , the show was " still awfully nice television " . Keith Watson of Metro gave the episode 4 stars out of 5 . He admitted that despite his dislike of Tate , " she isn 't that bad " . His review of the Adipose was positive , citing them as a reason of the quality of the show . Closing , he said " it split [ his ] sides " .
Jon Wise of The People said " Doctor Who is a super @-@ galactic way of spending a Saturday night indoors " , and appreciated that Donna was not romantically interested in the Doctor , unlike Martha or Rose . Ben Rawson @-@ Jones gave the episode a wholly positive review , summarising it as containing " pure fantastic family fun , delivering a winning blend of action , comedy , poignancy and one unexpected shock cameo " .
The episode received several negative reviews . Andrew Billen , writing for The Times , lamented that Davies had " forgotten that Doctor Who 's main task is to send children scuttling behind sofas while entertaining their fathers with the odd philosophical idea , the occasional classical reference , a joke or two they would probably not wish to explain and a wee bit of space totty " . Billen also criticised the writing and acting , but commended Tate for a " toned down performance " . Alan Stanley Blair of SyFy Portal summarised it as " a runaway Saturday morning cartoon in desperate need to a solid story " . Blair found flaws with the comedy and the music in the episode , but was impressed with Tate 's acting and Piper 's cameo . Kevin O 'Sullivan of the Sunday Mirror criticised Tate and Tennant for overacting , and had concerns about the writing : " It didn 't exactly ooze tension . All we got in the way of terrifying space enemies was Sarah Lancashire hamming it up as an intergalactic super nanny , a couple of security guards with guns and lots of cute little fat babies . " Ian Hyland of News of the World criticised the child @-@ friendly storyline , comparing it to " the back of a fag packet " . He also criticised Tennant for appearing " jaded " and Tate for " still shouting " .
= = = Reviews = = =
" Partners in Crime " reviews at The Doctor Who Ratings Guide
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= Jacob Svetoslav =
Jacob Svetoslav ( Bulgarian : Яков Светослав , Yakov Svetoslav ) ( ca . 1210s / 1220s – 1275 or 1276 / 1277 ) was a prominent 13th @-@ century Bulgarian noble ( bolyarin ) of princely Russian origin . Bestowed the title of despot , Jacob Svetoslav was the ruler of a widely autonomous domain of the Second Bulgarian Empire most likely located around Sofia . Seeking further independence and claiming the title of Emperor of Bulgaria , he twice changed allegiance from Bulgaria to the Kingdom of Hungary and vice versa , and the Hungarians recognized his Bulgarian royal rank as their vassal and ruler of Vidin ( medieval Bdin ) .
= = Bulgarian despot = =
Jacob Svetoslav 's exact origin is not clear , though he is known to have been either a Russian noble himself or the son of one . Jacob or his father most likely arrived in Bulgaria with the wave of Russians fleeing the Mongol invasion of Rus ' in the first half of the 13th century . Historian Plamen Pavlov theorizes that Jacob Svetoslav was a descendant of the princes ( knyaze ) of Kievan Rus ' , and estimates his birth date as being in the 1210s or 1220s . In the late 1250s , Jacob Svetoslav was already an influential noble . He married a daughter of Theodore II Laskaris from his marriage with Tsar Ivan Asen II 's daughter Elena . By 1261 , he had become a despot , a high @-@ ranking noble in the Bulgarian hierarchy . The title was awarded to him probably by his own suzerain , the ruler of Bulgaria , rather than a Byzantine emperor , possibly Constantine Tih . Jacob Svetoslav was close to the Bulgarian court and pledged loyalty to Constantine . Thus , the tsar made him the ruler of a domain usually considered to have been south of the Vidin region in the west of the Bulgarian Empire . Byzantine sources indicate his possessions lay " near Haemus " , thus close to Sofia , between the Hungarian possessions to the north and Macedonia to the south .
In 1261 , he commanded the Bulgarian forces in a war against Hungary near Severin ( western Wallachia ) , and in 1262 he possibly fought against Byzantium , as a Byzantine army invaded his lands in the following year during an anti @-@ Bulgarian campaign . Jacob Svetoslav 's continuing ties to his Russian homeland are evidenced by his request to the Bulgarian patriarch . Jacob requested the making of a copy of the Nomocanon which was then sent to Cyril III , the Metropolitan of Kiev . It was supplemented by a letter from Jacob in which the noble calls the metropolitan " the bishop of the entire Russian land ... of my ancestors " . The copy finishes with a passage in which Jacob is called a " Bulgarian despot " . He also minted his own coins bearing the imperfect images of Saint Demetrius of Thessaloniki or Jacob himself , dressed as a warrior wearing a helmet and holding a sword .
= = Hungarian and Bulgarian ruler of Vidin = =
In 1263 , the situation in Bulgaria was far from stable , as Constantine was facing both the threat of his predecessor Mitso Asen 's throne ambitions and a large @-@ scale Byzantine invasion . Because Constantine was unable to assist Jacob against the advancing Byzantines , Jacob sought aid from his northern neighbour , Hungarian king Stephen V. The Hungarians drove the Byzantines out of Jacob 's domain and themselves invaded Byzantine @-@ controlled territories . Rescued from the Byzantine threat , Jacob Svetoslav submitted to Hungarian suzerainty . Stephen V placed him as the ruler of the Vidin province on the Danube River , previously governed for Hungary by the then @-@ deceased Rostislav Mikhailovich , and allowed him to retain his lands to the south . Had it not been for the appointment of Jacob Svetoslav as a Hungarian vassal at Vidin , Bulgaria would have re @-@ established control over the city in 1263 .
In 1264 , however , Hungary was precipitated into another civil war between Stephen V and his father Béla IV . Fearing Bulgarian retribution and lack of Hungarian support should Béla IV come out victorious , in 1265 Jacob Svetoslav changed allegiance to Bulgaria and acknowledged the authority of Constantine Tih . The two crossed the Danube in 1265 and raided the Hungarian fortresses north of the river . By the spring of 1266 , however , Stephen V had established himself as the sole ruler of Hungary , and on 23 June 1266 , conquered Vidin back from Jacob after a brief siege . Two waves of Hungarian raids proceeded to devastate the Vidin province and enter the possessions of Constantine . In spite of Bulgarian resistance , the Hungarians subjugated a number of cities including Pleven . Jacob Svetoslav 's previous defection to Bulgarian suzerainty notwithstanding , the Hungarians restored him as the puppet ruler of the Vidin region . In 1266 , he was even referred to as " Tsar of the Bulgarians " ( imperator Bulgarorum ) in Hungarian sources , possibly to encourage a rivalry between Constantine and Jacob Svetoslav for the Bulgarian throne or simply to satisfy Jacob 's ambitions .
= = Final submission to Bulgaria and death = =
The death of Stephen V in 1272 meant that he was succeeded by his infant son Ladislaus IV , with the widowed consort and mother of the boy , Elizabeth , as his regent . At the time , Jacob Svetoslav still held Vidin as a Hungarian vassal . Possibly in 1273 , Hungarian rule in Braničevo , west of Jacob 's domain , was put to an end by two Cuman – Bulgarian nobles , Darman and Kudelin . Cut off from his Hungarian suzerains and facing the menace of a Bulgarian attack from the east , Jacob Svetoslav once again submitted to Bulgarian rule . He arrived in the capital Tarnovo to negotiate his submission with Constantine 's consort Maria Palaiologina Kantakouzene , who was the dominant figure in the empire at the time due to the Tsar 's paralysis . There , Jacob was formally adopted by the much younger Maria as her second son , after the infant heir Michael Asen II . This adoption solidified Jacob 's ties to the court and meant that he could safely retain his autonomous domain as a Bulgarian vassal . He also harboured hopes to ascend to the throne by ousting Michael when Constantine died . Suspicious of these disloyal intentions of Jacob 's , Constantine 's consort Maria is thought to have poisoned him , and he died in 1275 or 1276 / 1777 , shortly before the Uprising of Ivaylo .
While the fate of the city of Vidin itself is unclear , at least part of Jacob 's possessions were certainly restored to direct Bulgarian rule in the wake of his death . One such territory was the Svrljig region lying southwest of Vidin , which in 1278 was documented as belonging to Bulgaria .
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= Melly Goeslaw =
Mellyana Goeslaw Hoed ( [ məliˈana ˈɡʊslau ̯ ˈhʊt ̚ ] ; born 7 January 1974 ) , better known by her stage name " Melly Goeslaw " , is an Indonesian singer and songwriter . She began singing while in the fifth grade , then began writing songs and took work as a backing vocalist for Elfa Secioria in high school . This led to her family and her moving to Jakarta to further her career . While providing backing vocals for a promotional tour by Katon Bagaskara , she met Anto Hoed and Andi Ayunir . After marrying Hoed , the three formed the band Potret in 1993 . Their 1995 debut album was well received , bringing Goeslaw and her bandmates to fame . After releasing several albums with Potret , Goeslaw attempted to begin a solo career , releasing her self @-@ titled debut album Melly in 1999 . Although Melly sold well , she became more popular as a solo artist after providing the soundtrack for the 2002 hit film Ada Apa dengan Cinta ? together with her husband . Her later releases include solo albums and soundtracks . In 2005 , she released a collection of short stories to celebrate her tenth year anniversary as a popular musician ; four years later , she directed a concert to celebrate the bicentenary of Bandung city . As of 2011 , she has written over 500 songs .
Goeslaw 's onstage persona has been compared to Björk , with " eccentric " costumes , heavy make @-@ up , and " wild " hair colours . Her early songs have been described by The Jakarta Post as being " deliberately antagonistic " , with controversial themes including materialism , sadomasochism , and violence against women . Two of her songs with Potret , " Salah " and " Bunda " , were selected by Rolling Stone Indonesia as some of the best Indonesian songs of all time , while her work with Ada Apa dengan Cinta ? garnered her and her husband a Citra Award at the 2004 Indonesian Film Festival . However , Rolling Stone notes a decline in song quality after Ada Apa dengan Cinta ? . According to The Jakarta Post , Goeslaw is one of the most sought after movie songwriters in Indonesia .
= = Early life = =
Goeslaw was born in Bandung on 7 January 1974 . She is the daughter of Melky Goeslaw , a singer and songwriter , and his wife Ersi Sukaesih . After her parents ' divorce , Goeslaw was raised by her mother ; her sister Yuli , who now serves as her manager , was born from a second marriage . While in elementary school , she enjoyed writing poetry , later recalling that she " was happiest when doodling on paper , writing [ her ] poetry " . While she was in the fifth grade , she began singing after being convinced by her mother , who was convinced that Goeslaw could sing like her father ; originally she did not want to be a singer .
She later switched to songwriting while in high school , writing lyrics on napkins and schoolbooks and recording her humming on a Walkman because she could not play any instruments . During high school , she worked as a backing vocalist for Elfa Secioria . Her family eventually moved to Jakarta to further her singing career , and she was requested to be a backing vocalist for three different pop singers . At one point , she was recording at three different studios every day . The money that she earned convinced her to continue singing .
= = Career = =
= = = 1995 @-@ 99 : Potret band = = =
After replacing a backing vocalist for Katon Bagaskara 's promotional tour for the album Dinda , Goeslaw met Anto Hoed and his friend Arie Ayunir . After marrying Anto later that year , they went on to form the band Potret . The band 's first album was released in 1995 , with the song " Terbujuk " ( " Seduced " ) , dealing with " the ultimate material girl " , becoming instantly popular . The band was very popular between 1995 and 1998 . While with Potret , Goeslaw wrote numerous songs . Some were written conservatively as they were ordered by singers such as Krisdayanti and Ruth Sahanaya ; other songs , generally the more " biting " ones , were used for Potret 's albums .
One of the her songs on Potret 's third album , " Diam " ( " Silent " ) , which dealt with the abuse of women , caused some controversy due to the perceived amount of violence in the music video . Despite this controversy , " Diam " won Video Musik Indonesia 's award for best interpretation of a song .
= = = 1999 @-@ 2009 : Solo career = = =
In 1999 , Goeslaw started her solo career with her self @-@ titled debut album , which sold well . Her second album , the soundtrack for the 2002 teen movie Ada Apa dengan Cinta ? ( What 's Up with Love ) , in which most songs were sung by her and written by her and her husband , led to her being more popular as a solo artist than with Potret ; she was also given the nickname the Queen of Movie Music . Ada Apa Dengan Cinta 's soundtrack later won Best Soundtrack at the Indonesian Film Festival .
Goeslaw later provided the soundtracks for 2003 's Eiffel I 'm in Love , 2005 's Apa Artinya Cinta ( What does Love Mean ) , 2007 's The Butterfly , and 2009 's Ketika Cinta Bertasbih ( When Love Prays ) . She considered the writing of songs for Ketika Cinta Bertasbih to be more difficult than her previous work in teen romances , as it was a religious film . As such , she felt that she had to be extra careful .
In 2005 Goeslaw released a collection of short stories that she had written to celebrate her tenth year as a singer . One of the stories , " Tentang Dia " ( " About Him / Her " ) , was later filmed by Rudy Soedjarwo , the director of Ada Apa dengan Cinta ? . In 2008 Goeslaw wrote and sang " Dibius Cinta " ( " Drugged by Love " ) for the soundtrack of Cicakman 2 – Planet Hitam ( Cicakman 2 – Black Planet ) with Malaysian singer and director of the film Yusri , from the band KRU . Melly requested permission to help with the scoring after watching the original Cicak Man .
After initially refusing to perform solo concerts because of creative differences with the event managers , in 2009 Goeslaw held her first concert , " Glow , Melly Live in Concert " , at Senayan Stadium in Jakarta . The concert , directed by John Fair Kaune and presented by Krisdayanti 's KD Productions , featured a " virtual duet " with Goeslaw 's deceased father and was divided into two portions , one featuring songs from her time with Potret , and one with songs from her solo career . It also featured new songs written by Hoed especially for the concert . The following year she was head of Kampung GASS , an organising committee for a concert celebrating the 200th year since the founding of Bandung .
= = = 2010 @-@ present : Mentoring new singers = = =
Goeslaw is also active scouting for new singers and assisting others , having supported the careers of pop singers Irwansyah and Acha Septriasa . In 2011 she invited aspiring singers to post videos of themselves singing her songs to YouTube or her Facebook profile , later noting that she had already discovered several new talents in that manner . As of 2011 , she has written over 500 songs . Goeslaw released a compilation album , Balance , in January 2013 .
From September through November 2015 , Goeslaw served as a judge on the reality television series La Academia Junior Indonesia for its second season .
= = Songwriting = =
Goeslaw has noted that her most popular songs are generally those which are written quickly , citing the award @-@ winning " Menghitung Hari " ( " Counting the Days " ) , which was written in four days , as an example . She has noted that she abandons songs which leave her with a writer 's block , as even when they are finished they are not well received . Her husband does the arrangement , sometimes meaning that songs are put on hold because he is busy .
The Jakarta Post has described her lyrics as being " deliberately antagonistic " , to which Goeslaw has agreed . Her songs written while with Potret include themes of materialism , sexual deviation , " misbehaving women " , flatulence , and sadomasochism ; she has said that she tries to avoid writing about " issues of ethnicity , religion , race and intergroup relations , especially political matters " . The Jakarta Post also calls her a " deft satirist " . She does not consider herself a feminist , as her songs are written about real women and not about female empowerment ; she has said that her lyrics are not of the " ' hear me roar ' type " .
= = Fashion = =
Goeslaw is known for wearing " eccentric " costumes when performing , leading to her being compared to Icelandic singer Björk , whom she admires . She also dyed her hair in " wild colors " and applied heavy stage make up in the late 1990s , when contemporary Indonesian singers were focusing on " conventional " beauty . In 2008 , Goeslaw said that her make up and hairstyles used to hide her insecurity when she was first starting . She has continued to use them because it is " part of the package " , although she now discusses ideas with her creative team .
= = Awards and recognition = =
Goeslaw 's songs have won awards . In the first Indonesian Film Festival ( after the festival 's twelve @-@ year hiatus between 1992 and 2004 ) , Goeslaw and her husband won Best Soundtrack for their work in Ada Apa Dengan Cinta ? ; it was one of three awards won by the movie at the festival , which covered films from 2002 to 2004 . The Jakarta Post calls her Indonesia 's most sought after movie songwriter , and notes that her songs have been successfully covered by other singers . Her work as a songwriter has led to her becoming an active proponent of intellectual property rights .
In 2009 , Rolling Stone Indonesia listed two songs that Goeslaw performed while with Potret in its list of the 150 Best Indonesian Songs of All Time , both of which were from the album Potret II . " Salah " ( " Wrong " ) was ranked 74th , being noted as the best example of Goeslaw 's " fresh , direct , and often provocative nuances " when writing songs and writing that her " sweet " vocals challenged the paradigm that a singer singing about an affair should be either a victim or full of revenge . The other song , " Bunda " ( " Mother " ) was ranked at 110 ; it was noted being capable of making anyone , " even the most cruel man " , pause for a moment to think of their mother . Rolling Stone Indonesia noted a decrease in the quality of Goeslaw 's songs since Ada Apa Dengan Cinta ? .
= = Personal life = =
Goeslaw is married to guitarist Anto Hoed . Together they have two children , Anakku Lelaki Hoed and Lelaki Bernama Hoed ( literally My Son Hoed and Boy Named Hoed ) . In her spare time she enjoys shopping , playing with her children , and browsing the internet ; she has stated that she finds it increasingly difficult to enjoy shopping due to being constantly recognised . She has stated that she prefers being backstage over giving concerts , as she does not have to wear make @-@ up or rehearse .
= = Discography = =
Pilihanku Deritaku ( 1988 ) – listed as Meliana Cessy
Melly ( 1999 )
Ada Apa dengan Cinta ? ( OST ; 2002 )
Eiffel I 'm in Love ( OST ; 2003 )
Intuisi ( 2005 )
Apa Artinya Cinta ? ( OST ; 2005 )
Mindsoul ( 2007 )
The Butterfly ( OST ; 2008 )
Ketika Cinta Bertasbih ( 2009 )
Glow ( 2009 )
Dancing In The Silence ( 2011 )
Mungkin ( 2009 )
Ada Apa dengan Cinta ? 2 ( OST ; 2016 )
= = Filmography = =
Kabayan Jadi Milyuner ( 2010 )
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= Down Street tube station =
Down Street , also known as Down Street ( Mayfair ) , is a disused station on the London Underground , located in Mayfair , west London . It was opened in 1907 by the Great Northern , Piccadilly and Brompton Railway . It was latterly served by the Piccadilly line and was situated between Dover Street ( now named Green Park ) and Hyde Park Corner stations .
The station was little used and trains often passed through it without stopping . Its lack of patronage coupled with its proximity to other stations resulted in its closure in 1932 . During the Second World War it was used as a bunker by prime minister Winston Churchill and his War Cabinet . The station building survives today and is close to Down Street 's junction with Piccadilly . Part of it is now converted to a retail outlet .
= = History = =
= = = Operation = = =
The station is in Down Street in Mayfair , just off Piccadilly and a short distance from Park Lane . It lies between Green Park ( originally named Dover Street ) and Hyde Park Corner on the Piccadilly line . It was opened by the Great Northern , Piccadilly and Brompton Railway ( GNP & BR ; the precursor to the Piccadilly line ) on 15 March 1907 , a few months after the rest of the line opened . The delay was due to difficulties in purchasing the site for the station building and agreeing a safe layout of the passages below ground with the Board of Trade . The surface building was designed by the Underground Electric Railways Company of London 's ( UERL 's ) architect Leslie Green in the UERL house style of a two @-@ storey steel @-@ framed building faced with red glazed terracotta blocks , with wide semi @-@ circular windows on the upper floor . The station had a pair of Otis lifts , with the platforms located 22 @.@ 2 metres ( 73 ft ) below the street level of Piccadilly .
Down Street was never a busy station , as the surrounding area was largely residential and its residents mostly wealthy enough to travel by other means . The neighbouring stations were also close by , with Dover Street station about 550 metres ( 600 yd ) to the east and Hyde Park Corner 500 metres ( 550 yd ) to the west , . From 1909 , like Brompton Road , Down Street was often skipped by trains . From 1918 it was closed on Sundays .
In 1929 , Down Street was one of the stations suggested for closure in connection with the extension of the Piccadilly line : the elimination of less @-@ busy stations in the central area would improve both reliability and journey times for long @-@ distance commuters . Additionally , the neighbouring stations were being rebuilt with escalators in place of lifts and their new entrances were even nearer to Down Street , further squeezing its catchment area . The station was permanently closed on 21 May 1932 .
After the station was closed it was almost immediately modified . The western headwalls of both platform tunnels were rebuilt to allow a step plate junction to be installed , providing access from the eastbound and westbound tunnels to a new siding located between Down Street and Hyde Park Corner . The siding is mainly used to reverse westbound trains , but could also be used for servicing trains . The siding tunnel is accessible at its western end through a small foot tunnel constructed from Hyde Park Corner station . The lifts were removed and the shafts adapted to provide additional tunnel ventilation .
= = = Wartime use and after = = =
The station was selected for use as an underground bunker in early 1939 as part of a programme of developing deep shelters to protect government operations from bombing in the event of war . The platform faces were bricked up and the enclosed platform areas and space in the circulation passages were divided up into offices , meeting rooms and dormitories . The engineering and structural work was carried out by the London Passenger Transport Board and the fitting @-@ out of the rooms and installation of the power and communications equipment was done by the London , Midland and Scottish Railway . A two @-@ person lift was installed in the original emergency stairwell and a telephone exchange , toilets and bathrooms were added . The main occupant of the shelter was the Railway Executive Committee , but it was also used by prime minister Winston Churchill and his war cabinet until the Cabinet War Rooms were ready for use . Churchill called the establishment at Down Street " The Barn " .
Since the end of the war , the station has been used only as an emergency exit point from the Underground .
In April 2015 , Transport for London announced that it was seeking proposals for the commercial use of parts of the surface building , disused lift shaft and underground passages . Suggested possible uses included a restaurant , a bar , a theatre , a gallery or retail space .
= = Use in media = =
Down Street is the inspiration for a location in the television series and novel Neverwhere , where it provides an entrance to an underground labyrinth . A much modified and expanded version of the station appears as a part of a level in the video game Shadow Man .
Part of the 2004 British horror film Creep was set in Down Street station , although the scenes were actually shot at the disused Aldwych station and on studio sets . The British band Hefner released a song titled " Down Street " on their 2006 album Catfight ; according to its sleeve notes , it is set in the early 1930s and tells the story of two lovers who meet at the station . Steve Hackett also recorded a song titled " Down Street " on his 2006 album Wild Orchids , about the station .
The station features in Billy Connolly 's World Tour Of England , Ireland and Wales , Dan Cruickshank 's National Geographic Channel series Great Railway Adventures and the 2012 TV Series The Tube .
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= Closure ( The X @-@ Files ) =
" Closure " is the eleventh episode of the seventh season of the science fiction television series The X @-@ Files , and the 150th episode overall . It was directed by Kim Manners and written by series creator Chris Carter and Frank Spotnitz . The installment explores the series ' overarching mythology and is the conclusion of a two @-@ part episode revolving around the final revelation of what really happened to Fox Mulder 's ( David Duchovny ) sister , Samantha . Originally aired by the Fox network on February 13 , 2000 , " Closure " received a Nielsen rating of 9 @.@ 1 and was seen by 15 @.@ 35 million viewers . The episode received mostly positive reviews from critics ; many felt that the final reveal was emotional and powerful , although some were unhappy with the resolution .
The show centers on FBI special agents Fox Mulder ( Duchovny ) and Dana Scully ( Gillian Anderson ) who work on cases linked to the paranormal , called X @-@ Files . Mulder is a believer in the paranormal , while the skeptical Scully has been assigned to debunk his work , but the two have developed a deep friendship . In this episode , after Mulder is forced to accept that his mother ’ s death was by her own hand , he is led by a man whose son disappeared years earlier to another truth : that his sister , Samantha , was among the souls taken by ‘ walk @-@ ins ’ , saving the souls of children doomed to live unhappy lives .
" Closure " was a story milestone for the series , finally revealing Samantha 's fate ; this story @-@ arc had driven a large part of the series ' earlier episodes . The episode was written as a continuation to the previous episode , " Sein und Zeit , " but branched off into different territory . Although a majority of the episode was filmed on a soundstage , several scenes were shot on location , such as the scenes at the former Norton Air Force Base in San Bernardino , California . Several of the sequences , specifically those featuring the souls of dead children , required elaborate filming techniques . The episode has been analyzed due to its themes of belief and hope .
= = Plot = =
= = = Background = = =
For the first five seasons of the series , FBI federal agents Fox Mulder ( David Duchovny ) and Dana Scully ( Gillian Anderson ) sought to gain understanding about the disappearance of Mulder 's sister , Samantha , who was abducted when Mulder was 12 years old . In the previous episode , " Sein und Zeit " , Mulder and Scully tracked down a serial killer who targeted children . While investigating the case , Mulder began to get emotionally involved , due to the similarities with his sister 's disappearance .
= = = Events = = =
Mulder and Scully aid the Sacramento Police in the investigation of a brutal murder committed by Truelove , the owner of the Santa Village . As the remains of more children are discovered , he admits killing twenty @-@ four children , but denies murdering Amber Lynn LaPierre , who disappeared from her home in the previous episode . Mulder is approached by psychic Harold Piller , who tells Mulder that he has helped law enforcement across the world , and has proved in various cases that children had been taken by " walk @-@ ins " , beings composed of starlight . Piller believes that walk @-@ ins save children who suffer terrible fates .
Scully becomes worried about Piller 's influence over Mulder . The agents return to Washington , D.C. , where Mulder keeps searching for evidence in the case . Meanwhile , Piller gets another vision of Samantha , leading Mulder to April Air Force Base . Scully finds evidence that Samantha 's disappearance is linked to The Smoking Man ( William B. Davis ) ; when she returns to her apartment , she finds him waiting for her . He tells her that he had called off the search for Mulder 's sister when she vanished because he knew she was dead .
When Mulder returns to April Air Force Base , he uncovers proof that Samantha lived with the Smoking Man along with his son , Jeffrey Spender , and that she was forced to undergo painful tests . Scully finds a 1979 police report of a girl matching Samantha 's description , and learns that she was taken to a hospital emergency room . She and Mulder find the nurse who treated her , and the nurse describes how Samantha disappeared the same way as Amber — without a trace . Mulder later walks through the forest and receives a vision of Samantha along with the spirits of other children . Upon telling Scully and Piller — who reacts badly upon hearing that his son is dead — of his vision , Mulder accepts that his sister is dead and in a better place . When Scully comforts Mulder and asks if he is all right , he responds with a choked " I 'm fine . I 'm free . "
= = Production = =
= = = Writing = = =
" Closure , " written by series creator Chris Carter and executive producer Frank Spotnitz , brought an end to Mulder 's quest for his sister , Samantha , who had been abducted when he was a child . The idea to close the story arc received mixed reactions from various production and crew members . However , many of the show 's producers realized that the time had come to answer one of the show 's biggest questions . Spotnitz explained that , " I think [ series star , David Duchovny ] grew tired of playing the man who is missing his sister . [ ... ] I told him , ' This is going to be the last time you 're going to have to play [ that part ] . ' " Paul Rabwin noted that , " It 's been seven years . I don 't think any of us are going to miss Samantha Mulder . That device and motivation were very strong in the early years of the show . But as the years have gone by , the speculation kind of melted away . "
" Closure " continued the story of the previous episode " Sein und Zeit " and branched off into different territory . Carter later explained that , " emotionally , it was heavy stuff for everybody , but necessarily so . These episodes involved two very personal cases , the search for a serial killer [ in ' Sein und Zeit ' ] and the search for Mulder 's sister [ in ' Closure ' ] . " Marc Shapiro , in his book All Things : The Official Guide to The X @-@ Files , Vol . 6 noted that , in addition to bringing an end to the Samantha story arc , the episode was " very much a [ Smoking Man ] episode " in that it explored his involvement in Samantha 's abduction and revealed to the audience that he was seriously ill . The episode 's tagline was changed from the usual " The Truth is Out There " to " Believe to Understand " .
= = = Filming = = =
Manners noted that " Closure " was one of the first episodes in which the production staff was able to " shoot in Los Angeles with the sun out " . According to Manners , the show was struggling with the fact that " we weren 't in Vancouver anymore and that our show had suddenly become very bright and cheery " . To amend this , Bill Roe , director of photography , used tree branches and c @-@ stands to block out the sunlight . The first scene with the walk @-@ ins rising up from their grave , shot at Griffith Park above the playground , was " tricky , " according to director Kim Manners . Manners felt uncomfortable telling the children to rise out of " graves " , feeling it could psychologically hurt them , so instead the crew called the holes in the ground " forts . " The scenes taking place at April Air Force Base was shot in San Bernardino , California at a closed airfield , the former Norton Air Force Base . On the airbase was a large abandoned house complex of over 400 buildings constructed and used by the United States military . According to Manners , the entire area was " eerie " , and many of the houses still had furniture in them . Originally , the producers wanted to name the fictitious air force March Air Force Base . However , the presence of an actual air force base with the same name necessitated a change to April Air Force Base . One of the shots in the April Air Force Base was filmed at a sound stage in Los Angeles . The scene at the restaurant was shot in a location on Sepulveda Boulevard , at a hotel that had been standing there for 30 to 40 years .
During filming , David Duchovny decided to act out the reunion scene in a manner contrary to what the script called for . Manners later noted , " In the script , it called for his sister to run up and hug him , and Mulder was to start crying . David didn 't want to cry . I said , ' David , you 're finally realizing your sister is , in fact , dead . [ … ] He said , ' Just watch what I do ; trust me . ' And , he held that little girl actress — there was a beatific smile on his face that was absolutely astounding . " Manners was very happy with the change and included it in the final cut of the episode . To create the scene featuring the ghosts of the dead children interacting with the characters , various layers of film had to be overlaid onto each other . Many passes of the shot were taken , which took hours to complete . After the shots had been secured , the film of the ghosts had to be made transparent . The scenes wherein Mulder is interacting with the walk @-@ ins was actually shot in daylight . However , specialized " day for night " photography was used to make the finished scene look as if it had been filmed at night . To achieve this , the subjects were illuminated with bright lights and the sky was completely avoided . The entire scene was shot at 48 frames a second , twice that of normal speed . Rebecca Toolan was flown down from Vancouver specifically for this episode , and " Sein Und Zeit " . To create her ghostly apparition , the production staff had to shoot multiple frames , which were then spliced into footage of Duchovny . Manners played the part of the hypnotist in the video which Scully watches of Mulder under hypnosis . Manners later noted that " I only act when you can 't actually see my face " . Manners was critical of Duchovny 's wig — which had been added to make the footage seem older . He sardonically noted that " this is [ not ] one of the episodes that Cheri Medcalf [ the show 's make @-@ up director ] won an Emmy for . "
Composer Mark Snow described his score as possessing a " sense of biblical fervor and religiosity — an elegy — a feeling about it that was so poignant and touching to me . " " My Weakness " , a song by Moby from his 1999 album Play , is used in this episode , during the first scene when the FBI discover the mass grave and near the end when Mulder encounters his sister 's spirit . Carter never told Snow about the decision to use someone else 's music , although Snow has since said that his reaction to the use of the song was very positive and that the song was a " perfect " fit for the scenes in which it can be heard . Another Moby song , " The Sky is Broken " also from Play , would be featured in the late seventh season episode " all things " .
= = Themes = =
According to Amy M. Donaldson in her book We Want to Believe : Faith and Gospel in The X @-@ Files , Mulder 's opening monologue may be an example of " Mulder now being more receptive to the possibility of God 's intervention " . Throughout much of the series , Mulder has shown a disdain for religion . However , in " Closure " , Donaldson points out that " Mulder 's belief in God , as always , revolves around his beliefs about his sister 's fate " . As such , Mulder expresses hope that those who die in a cruel fashion " live on in some other way " . Furthermore , she argues that because " Closure " opens with the tagline " Believe to understand " , Mulder must " take the leap of faith " in order to find enlightenment , and ultimately the truth about his sister . The first half of the episode plays out according to the tagline ; Mulder first believes in " his desire stated in the opening voiceover " , and then finds closure .
Donaldson also parallels elements in the episode to the plots of other episodes such as the fourth season entry " Paper Hearts " , wherein it is suggested that a serial killer murdered Samantha . In " Paper Hearts " , a father of a victim notes that the uncertainty of his daughter 's murder allowed those who were involved to " consider the possibilities , both for the best and for the worst " . However , once it is revealed that his daughter was murdered , all hope was removed . Conversely , Mulder holds onto the possibility that Samantha is alive through much of the series , but when he realizes that she is indeed dead in " Closure " , hope is removed but in its place is found peace . To parallel Mulder 's acceptance , Harold Piller refuses to believe his son is dead ; as such , he " cling [ s ] to the possibility [ because ] uncertainly allows him hope . "
= = Reception = =
= = = Ratings = = =
" Closure " first aired in the United States on February 13 , 2000 . The episode earned a Nielsen household rating of 9 @.@ 1 , with a 13 share . Nielsen ratings are audience measurement systems that determine the audience size and composition of television programming in the U.S. This means that roughly 9 @.@ 1 percent of all television @-@ equipped households , and 13 percent of households watching television , were watching the episode . It was viewed by 15 @.@ 35 million viewers in the United States . On May 28 , 2000 the episode debuted on Sky 1 in the United Kingdom and gathered 0 @.@ 68 million viewers , making it the eighth most watched program shown on Sky 1 that week , in front of Angel and The Simpsons . The episode was later included on The X @-@ Files Mythology , Volume 3 – Colonization , a DVD collection that contains episodes involved with the alien Colonist 's plans to take over the earth .
= = = Initial reviews = = =
Initial reviews were mixed , with some critics applauding the story 's conclusion , and others deriding it . Tom Kessenich , in his book Examinations : An Unauthorized Look at Seasons 6 – 9 of the X @-@ Files , opined that the episode worked best " if some of the previous Samantha @-@ related clues were forgotten " , such as when the Alien Bounty Hunter told Mulder that she was still alive in " End Game " . Despite this , he wrote that " it was only right that Samantha be dead since Mulder 's life had always been defined by what he has lost , not what he has found " . He surmised that the episode was not " perfect " , but that its " plusses greatly outweighed any missteps along the way " . He was also complimentary towards " the ethereal quality of the final few moments " , writing that they " lifted this episode up and made it one of the season 's most memorable " . Kenneth Silber from Space.com was pleased with the episode , and wrote , " ' Closure ' is a satisfying episode , one that puts to bed the now @-@ tiresome search for Mulder 's sister Samantha . " Jeremy Conrad from IGN referred to the episode as " excellent " and noted that a large portion of The X @-@ Files mythology ended with the resolution of Samantha 's abduction , saying , " [ ' Closure ' is ] a final , and concrete , answer to the single thing that was driving Mulder for the entire run of the series . In some ways , when he got that answer a major part of The X @-@ Files story ended . "
Not all reviews were positive . Paula Vitaris from CFQ gave the episode a negative review and awarded it one @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half stars out of four . She wrote , " Instead of a grand , breath @-@ taking , heart @-@ breaking finale that should be the climax of Mulder 's search for Samantha , the story expires limply with some nonsense about Samantha being of the starlight children . " Bobby Bryant and Tracy Burlison of The State named the episode the " Worst Conspiracy " episode . The two noted that because " a tenet of The X @-@ Files was that Mulder 's sister , Samantha , had been ( a ) kidnapped by aliens or ( b ) kidnapped by government conspirators " , the fact that she had actually been turned into a spirit " insanely offers a supernatural explanation to a science @-@ fiction mystery " .
= = = Later reviews = = =
Later reviews , however , have seen " Closure " in a much more positive light , with many critics praising its ending . Zack Handlen of The A.V. Club awarded the episode an " A – " . He argued that the episode worked due to two scenes : the sequence in which Mulder reads aloud from Samantha 's diary , and the final shot of Mulder being reunited with his sister . He wrote that the " stark simplicity " of the former made it emotionally powerful , and that the latter was " a bit sappy , a bit surreal , a bit lovely " but nonetheless " a beautiful moment " . Meghan Deans of Tor.com felt that the story was " silly " , but that , when paired with the idea that Samantha was truly an innocent victim , successfully becomes a " comfort " . She called it a move that " the show must give Mulder , and us , in order to shut down this storyline for good . " Robert Shearman and Lars Pearson , in their book Wanting to Believe : A Critical Guide to The X @-@ Files , Millennium & The Lone Gunmen , rated the episode four stars out of five , and called it " brave " . The two noted that while some of the sentimentality is pushed too far — such as when Mulder finds his sister 's diary speaking to him , or when Mulder talks about all lost souls being stars — the " critical moment " featuring Mulder reuniting with his sister 's spirit is " extraordinarily moving " .
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= El Ejemplo =
El Ejemplo ( The Example ) is a studio album by Mexican recording artists Los Tigres del Norte . It was released by Fonovisa Records on May 2 , 1995 and includes fourteen tracks written by Teodoro Bello and Enrique Valencia , which span musical genres such as ballad , bolero , corrido , cumbia and ranchera .
The album was a commercial success peaking at number eight in the Billboard Top Latin Albums in the United States , where it was certified Gold by the Recording Industry Association of America . To promote the album , Los Tigres del Norte released four singles , " La Fama de la Pareja " , the title track and " Golpes en el Corazón " that reached top ten in the Billboard Hot Latin Songs , while the single " No Puedo Más " peaked at number 15 in the same chart . " Golpes en el Corazón " , was later included in the setlist of their live album MTV Unplugged : Los Tigres del Norte and Friends as a duet with Mexican singer Paulina Rubio .
= = Release and reception = =
Mexican band Los Tigres del Norte released their twenty @-@ sixth studio album titled El Ejemplo on May 2 , 1995 . The album included twelve tracks written by Teodoro Bello and two songs written by Enrique Valencia . Four corridos ( " El Tamal " , " Tiempos de Mayo " , " La Fama de la Pareja " and " Morir Matando " ) , seven rancheras ( " El Ejemplo " , " Devuélveme " , " No Puedo Más " , " Quién " , " Como Aceite y Como el Agua " , " Un Mar de Vino " and " Te He de Olvidar " ) , one cumbia ( " Me Quedas a la Medida " ) , one ballad ( " Golpes en el Corazón " ) and one bolero ( " Nos Estorbó la Ropa " ) were recorded . The website AllMusic gave the album four stars out of five . Billboard magazine named the album a " likable batch of moving anecdotal corridos , spirited rancheras , and a pair of ballads that would be superb singles : ' Golpes en el Corazón ' and ' Nos Estorbó la Ropa ' . " The first single " La Fama de la Pareja " also received praise , being referred to as a " highlight " of the album .
= = Singles = =
The album lead single " La Fama de la Pareja " ( " The Fame of the Couple " ) , a corrido about a husband and wife dedicated to contraband and drug trafficking , peaked at number five in the Billboard Top Latin Songs chart and at number four in the Regional Mexican Songs chart . The title track was selected as the second single , and is a ranchera track about a love relationship that ended and the impossibility of getting a divorce , staying married for the sake of their children . " El Ejemplo " ( " The Example " ) reached number six at the Billboard Hot Latin Songs and three at the Regional Mexican Songs charts , respectively . " Golpes en el Corazón " ( " Punches to the Heart " ) was released as third single and became the biggest hit of the album , peaking at number two in the Billboard Hot Latin Songs chart for a month ( blocked at the top by " Tú Sólo Tú " by Selena and " Si Nos Dejan " by Luis Miguel for two weeks each ) . " Golpes en el Corazón " , about a failed love relationship , spent eight non @-@ consecutive weeks at the top of the Regional Mexican Songs chart and at the Broadcast Music , Inc. awards of 1997 won the Latin Song of the Year award . It was also nominated Regional Mexican Song of the Year at the 1996 Lo Nuestro Awards . The track regained interest when was included in the setlist for the MTV Unplugged : Los Tigres del Norte and Friends recorded by the band in 2011 with the participation of Mexican singer Paulina Rubio . This version was nominated for Record of the Year at the 12th Latin Grammy Awards ceremony . " No Puedo Más " ( " I Can 't Take it Anymore " ) was chosen as the fourth and last single , peaking at number 15 in the Billboard Top Latin Songs and at number nine in the Regional Mexican Songs charts , respectively .
= = Track listing = =
Source :
= = Chart performance = =
El Ejemplo debuted and peaked at number eight in the Billboard Top Latin Albums chart in the week of May 13 , 1995 , being the second highest debut of the week after Cuando los Ángeles Lloran by Maná at number seven . The album reached a peak of number two in the Regional Mexican Albums chart in the week of September 16 , 1995 , being held at the top by Selena 's Amor Prohibido . The band earned the Regional Mexican Album of the Year , Duo or Group Award at the Billboard Latin Music Awards of 1996 . El Ejemplo was certified Gold by the Recording Industry Association of America , the first for the band . By 1999 , the album had sold over 650 @,@ 000 copies .
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= Cyclone Lua =
Severe Tropical Cyclone Lua affected a sparsely populated region of Western Australia during mid @-@ March 2012 . Originating in a broad low pressure area that formed northwest of Australia by 8 March , the storm was plagued by inhibiting wind shear for the duration of its formative stages . However , it gradually organized , and received the name Lua on 13 March . The cyclone meandered for the first several days of its existence , caught between weak and competing steering currents . After the cyclone drifted northwestward , a building ridge of high pressure to the north drove Lua southeastward toward the Pilbara region . Ultimately intensifying into a borderline Category 4 severe tropical cyclone with maximum sustained 10 @-@ minute winds of 165 km / h ( 105 mph ) , Lua made landfall near the remote community of Pardoo , about 150 km ( 95 mi ) east of Port Hedland . It steadily weakened as it progressed south over interior Western Australia , diminishing below tropical cyclone status on 18 March .
The threat of the impending cyclone halted local industries such as oil production and iron ore mining and exporting . The Port of Port Hedland , a highly important iron ore shipping terminal , was forced to close for about 52 hours , contributing to inflated iron ore prices and delayed shipments . Multiple companies suspended work at oil fields and mines throughout the region , cutting national oil production by 25 % and iron ore exports by 4 @.@ 7 % versus the previous month . Overall , Lua is attributed to $ 217 million ( 2012 AUD ; $ 230 million 2012 USD ) in lost revenue . Lua produced strong winds and widespread rainfall on land , but damage was limited by the lack of population in the storm 's path . The Pardoo Roadhouse bore the brunt of the storm , and damage was reported at several other cattle stations and homesteads ; at these sites , the storm damaged the exteriors of various structures and brought down swaths of trees . Central Western Australia endured several days of record @-@ breaking rainfall and cool weather . The Government of Western Australia provided disaster relief funds to the hardest @-@ hit areas , and Lua was later retired from the list of tropical cyclone names .
= = Meteorological history = =
Cyclone Lua originated in a broad area of disturbed weather that was spawned by a deep trough of low pressure and enhanced by a Madden – Julian oscillation pulse . The precursor to Lua was first identified through satellite imagery by 8 March 2012 , while situated about 1 @,@ 100 km ( 680 mi ) to the north @-@ northwest of Learmonth . Analysis of the disturbance revealed a diffuse low @-@ level center of circulation loosely bounded by sporadic , but multiplying , convection . On 9 March , the Bureau of Meteorology 's ( BoM ) Tropical Cyclone Warning Center ( TCWC ) in Perth recognized the developing system and remarked on the potential for tropical cyclone formation over the following several days . The low pressure area meandered for several days , making some progress toward the east , and gradually consolidated .
By 12 March , the system had developed persistent deep convection over the eastern half of its core and organized banding features elsewhere . Moderate vertical wind shear initially hampered intensification , though the BoM designated the system Tropical Low 16U ; at the time , it was centered roughly 230 km ( 140 mi ) northwest of Karratha , Western Australia . At 2300 UTC on 12 March , the Joint Typhoon Warning Center ( JTWC ) issued a Tropical Cyclone Formation Alert . With increasingly favorable environmental conditions — including warm ocean waters and dwindling wind shear — the low organized significantly between 12 and 13 March , and at 0600 UTC on the 13th , TCWC Perth upgraded the low to Tropical Cyclone Lua . Simultaneously , the JTWC issued its first tropical cyclone warning on 17S . Contrary to real @-@ time operations , the official BoM " best track " database does not list the storm as having attained Category 1 tropical cyclone intensity until 0000 UTC on 14 March .
At the time of its designation , Lua was nearly stationary in terms of forward movement , caught in the equilibrium between a blocking ridge to the southwest and increasing monsoonal winds from the northwest . The ridge began to drive Lua north @-@ northwestward at up to 20 km / h ( 12 mph ) , before the storm resumed its slow pace on 14 March . The storm remained relatively disorganized , its strengthening limited by moderate wind shear and dry air entering its center . Consequently , a large void of thunderstorm activity created a " horseshoe pattern " . Nonetheless , Lua proved resilient , and good outflow helped compensate for the adverse shear . The southwesterly steering currents weakened , causing the storm to begin its anticipated curve toward the east and east @-@ southeast . According to the JTWC , the storm completed a small loop as a result of competing steering factors . At the same time , the upper levels of the atmosphere became far more conducive to the cyclone 's intensification , and the storm 's banding pattern tightened . With a building ridge to its north , Lua accelerated east @-@ southeastward on 15 March , and with wind shear oscillating but generally decreasing , the storm became a Category 3 severe tropical cyclone at 1800 UTC .
Continuing to intensify , Lua began to exhibit an ill @-@ defined eye on visible satellite imagery on 16 March . The storm was expansive , producing storm @-@ force winds in a circular area 850 km ( 530 mi ) across . Still , the deepest convection and most favorable outflow was focused away from the eastern semicircle due to persistent light easterly wind shear . The storm 's structure improved throughout the day and into the night , and at 2000 UTC on 16 March , the storm attained its peak 10 @-@ minute maximum sustained winds of 165 km / h ( 105 mph ) , classifying it as a low @-@ end Category 4 severe tropical cyclone . Early on 17 March , the storm turned due south toward the Pilbara coast , and the JTWC reported that Lua 's peak strength was marked by 1 @-@ minute sustained winds of 175 km / h ( 110 mph ) , at 0600 UTC . At its deepest , the storm possessed a central barometric pressure of 930 hPa ( 27 inHg ) . Lua made landfall near Pardoo , about 150 km ( 95 mi ) east @-@ northeast of Port Hedland , at 0700 UTC while still at peak intensity . The cyclone steadily weakened as it progressed southward , tracking directly over the Yarrie mine before passing about halfway between Newman and Jigalong . With little extant convection and a shallow , exposed center , Lua deteriorated below tropical cyclone status early on 18 March near Wiluna . The cyclone 's remnants later entered the Goldfields @-@ Esperance region .
= = Preparations and economic impact = =
The BoM hoisted its first Cyclone Watch on 14 March for coastal areas between Mardie Station and Cape Leveque . A Cyclone Warning was posted the next day for a smaller stretch of coastline within that range . As Lua approached the coastline , the Cyclone Warning was in place from Cape Leveque to Dampier . Communities between Bidyadanga and Port Hedland were under a Red Alert , the highest level of caution issued by the Fire and Emergency Services Authority of Western Australia ( FESA ) . The alert advised included residents to " go to shelter immediately " . Localities elsewhere between Broome and Whim Creek were on Yellow Alert , while a Blue Alert was issued between Whim Creek and Dampier , to the west of the Yellow Alert area . Work at multiple oil fields and mining sites was suspended or slowed , with non @-@ essential staff being removed at the sites remaining in operation . It was estimated that national oil production was reduced by about 25 % during the storm 's approach .
Officials of the Port of Port Hedland , an important iron ore exporting terminal , closed and evacuated the port by the morning of 16 March , operating under standard emergency preparedness procedure . Overall , nearly 40 ships in the port were relocated from the port out of the path of the storm . The Port of Dampier was also closed . The Port of Port Hedland reopened to shipping on 18 March , about 52 hours after its closure , with little or no damage reported , though the downtime drove iron ore prices up for a time , and reduced exports of the raw material by 4 @.@ 7 % compared to the previous month . In total , Lua cost natural resources companies over $ 217 million ( 2012 AUD ; $ 230 million 2012 USD ) in stunted industry , accounting for nearly all of the monetary losses resulting from the storm .
With the destruction wrought by Cyclone Laurence in 2009 still fresh in their minds , residents , business owners , and farmers worked hurriedly to prepare their properties and livestock for Lua 's onslaught . Horizon Power temporarily redirected power supply in the towns of Marble Bar and Nullagine from solar power stations to diesel generator stations . Evacuation shelters were opened to refugees of the storm with no safe living arrangements starting 16 March . About 110 individuals sought shelter at one such location in Nullagine . As the storm moved inland , flood warnings were posted throughout the Kimberley and the Pilbara , where officials closed public access to Karijini National Park . The impending cyclone forced the closure of the Great Northern and North West Coast highways , while flights to and from several airports were cancelled .
= = Meteorological effects and aftermath = =
On coming ashore , Cyclona Lua produced strong winds , gusting to 150 km / h ( 93 mph ) at Port Hedland , and appreciable rainfall , peaking at 88 @.@ 6 mm ( 3 @.@ 49 in ) at Bidyadanga . The precipitation was widespread , affecting a large area of interior Western Australia . The overcast weather led to abnormally cool temperatures , which broke monthly records in portions of the central and eastern Pilbara . For instance , the Port Hedland Airport recorded a maximum temperature of 24 @.@ 1 ° C on 17 March , the coldest March day in the station 's history ; the previous record of 25 @.@ 8 ° C was set 64 years prior . As the remnants of Lua continued poleward , they continued to drop heavy rainfall , including a daily total ( 19 March ) of 75 @.@ 0 mm ( 2 @.@ 95 in ) at Edjudina , setting the record for the wettest March day there . A barometer reading of 939 hPa ( 27 @.@ 7 inHg ) at Rowley Shoals represented the lowest observed pressure associated with the storm .
Striking a relatively isolated area , the cyclone 's effects were limited , and no fatalities or injuries were reported . Indeed , a FESA official noted that initial reports of damage were " scant " . Preliminary assessments suggested that Pardoo Roadhouse and the small surrounding community bore the brunt of the storm , as most towns and farms in the region escaped relatively unscathed . The manager of the roadhouse relayed that the height of the storm was " absolutely horrific " , downing numerous trees and causing some structural damage . Some destruction was also observed at the Yarrie Homestead , where return to normalcy was expected to take as long as 12 months . Numerous buildings on the Warrawagine Homestead sustained damage such as compromised roofs and doors , which amounted to an estimated $ 70 @,@ 000 ( 2012 AUD ; 74 @,@ 000 2012 USD ) . Several head of cattle were killed by the storm . Moderate to major flooding took place in several areas , especially along the De Grey River drainage basin , though the rainfall proved beneficial in much of the climatologically dry area . The above @-@ normal precipitation allowed farmers to get a head @-@ start on planting winter crops .
In the aftermath of the storm , the Western Australia state government allocated relief funds to offset the cost of recovery and cleanup in several of the affected towns . Individuals and families became eligible to apply for personal grants and small business owners would be considered for special interest rates on new loans . Local government entities listed under the proclamation were the shires of Ashburton , Broome , East Pilbara , Meekatharra , and the Town of Port Hedland . Disaster assistance money in these jurisdictions would be used to restore public assets and infrastructure impaired by the storm . The name Lua was later retired from the cyclical list of tropical cyclone names due to the system 's adverse effects on land and was replaced by the name Luana .
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= South Park ( season 13 ) =
The thirteenth season of South Park , an American animated television comedy series , originally aired in the United States on Comedy Central between March 11 and November 18 , 2009 . The season was headed by the series creators Trey Parker and Matt Stone , who served as executive producers along with Anne Garefino . The season continued to focus on the exploits of protagonists Stan , Kyle , Cartman , Kenny and Butters in the fictional Colorado mountain town of South Park .
The season was the first of three new seasons Parker and Stone agreed to produce for the network under a renewal deal . It consisted of fourteen 22 @-@ minute episodes , which aired in two groups of seven episodes separated by a six @-@ month gap . Prior to the season 's premiere , all South Park episodes were made available for free viewing on the official series website , South Park Studios . The 13th season was the first to be broadcast in high definition and in widescreen . Continuing their practice from previous seasons , Parker and Stone wrote and produced each episode within the week before its broadcast date .
The 13th season satirized such topics as the ACORN scandal , Japanese whaling , piracy in Somalia and the marketing tactics of the Walt Disney Company . Celebrities were spoofed throughout the season , including the Jonas Brothers , Kanye West , Carlos Mencia , Paul Watson and Glenn Beck , all of whom publicly responded to their portrayals . The episode " Fishsticks " attracted particular media attention due to rapper Kanye West 's declaration that its jokes about his arrogance were funny but hurt his feelings . " The F Word " , in which the central characters attempt to change the definition of the word " fag " , was especially controversial and prompted complaints from the Gay & Lesbian Alliance Against Defamation . A broadcast of " Pinewood Derby " in Mexico was pulled , allegedly due to its depiction of Mexican President Felipe Calderón . " Fatbeard " was praised by the crew of the USS Bainbridge , which was involved in the 2009 rescue of the MV Maersk Alabama from Somali pirates .
The 13th season received mixed reviews : some critics called it one of South Park 's strongest seasons , while others claimed the series was starting to decline in quality . The season maintained the average Nielsen rating viewership for the series , around 3 million viewers per episode . The episode " Margaritaville " , which satirized the global recession then affecting much of the industrialized world , won the 2009 Emmy Award for Outstanding Animated Program ( for Programming Less Than One Hour ) .
= = Episodes = =
= = Production = =
= = = Crew = = =
Series creators Trey Parker and Matt Stone were the executive producers of the 13th season of South Park , along with Anne Garefino . The season was distributed by Comedy Central , where the series has aired since its inception in 1997 . Frank C. Agnone II served as supervising producer , while Eric Stough , Adrien Beard , Vernon Chatman , Bruce Howell and Erica Rivinoja worked as producers . Parker also served as director and writer for the thirteenth season . Saturday Night Live cast member Bill Hader , who had previously worked as a consultant on the show , was credited as a producer starting in season 13 . Hader said of his role with the show , " It 's really Trey and Matt who kind of write everything , and you 're just in the room kind of helping them . Basically , I 'm friends with them and they 're just nice enough to invite me into the room and let me goof around . " Ryan Quincy served as director of animation during the 13th season .
= = = Development = = =
South Park was set to expire in 2008 , but in August 2007 it was announced the series would be renewed for at least three more seasons , extending it through 2011 . The new seasons , 13 , 14 and 15 , were each to consist of 14 episodes . Stone said of the announcement , " Three more years of South Park will give us the opportunity to offend that many more people . " Parker and Stone also announced they would partner with Comedy Central to create a Los Angeles – based digital animation studio called South Park Digital Studios , which would serve as the center for all digital extensions of the South Park franchise and other animated projects .
Prior to the broadcast of the 13th season , Parker and Stone made every episode from the previous 12 seasons of South Park available for free viewing on the official series website , South Park Studios . New episodes from the 13th season were made available for one week after the original airdate , then removed for 30 days , after which they were returned to the site permanently . The episodes were uncensored and ad @-@ supported , so no membership fees were required to view the shows . In a statement , Parker and Stone said , " We got really sick of having to download our own show illegally all the time . So we gave ourselves a legal alternative . "
Two months before the 13th season premiered , South Park Studios announced that it would be the first season to be broadcast in high definition and presented in widescreen . Episodes from previous seasons were also converted to high definition . The season 's episodes first aired in the United States on Wednesdays at 10 p.m. Eastern Standard Time on Comedy Central , and were repeated Wednesdays at 12 a.m. , Thursdays at 10 p.m. and 12 a.m. , and Sundays at 11 p.m. and 2 a.m. , all EST . The first seven episodes of the season aired from March 11 , 2009 , premiering with " The Ring " , and ended on April 22 with the mid @-@ season finale " Fatbeard " . The season returned with seven more episodes , resuming on October 7 with " Dead Celebrities " , and ending on November 18 with the season finale , " Pee " .
= = = Writing = = =
Continuing their practice from previous seasons , Parker and Stone wrote and produced each episode within the week before its broadcast date , although as in previous seasons , only Parker was listed as writer in the end credits . The duo conceived a list of episode ideas at the start of the season , but said they preferred to wait until the last minute to start working . Deadline pressure , they explained , energized them as if they were doing a live show . Stone said of the practice , " We kind of need that [ chaos ] to work . We 're , like , ' We have to do something right now . It 's going on the air in just a few minutes . ' " For example , three days before the broadcast of the season premiere , " The Ring " , the script was only half @-@ finished and the animation was incomplete . Likewise , they did not start work on " Whale Whores " until five days before the episode aired , and the scripts for " Margaritaville " and " Pee " were both still being finished the day before the episodes were first broadcast . Parker and Stone said " Dead Celebrities " was a particularly challenging episode to make — they were up all night working on it the day before it aired , and did not finish until 11 a.m. on its broadcast date . Some critics have said that this short turnaround process helps South Park stay fresh and allows the show to address current events in a timely fashion .
The 13th season introduced the characters Katie and Katherine , stars of a television show , The Queef Sisters , that consists largely of vaginal flatulence jokes . They are female equivalents of long @-@ time characters Terrance and Phillip , who are initially angered at the competition from Katie and Katherine , but end up romantically involved with them . Season 13 also marked the final appearance of long @-@ time supporting character Gordon Stoltski , the third grade student who read the morning announcements for South Park Elementary . In the episode " Dances with Smurfs " , Gordon is murdered while reading the announcements by a gunman who mistakes him for a truck driver who slept with his wife . Some critics found the scene disturbing and inappropriate in the light of recent school shootings in the United States .
The running gag of killing protagonist Kenny McCormick continued , though he was killed only three times during the season : in the episode " The Ring " , he contracts syphilis after engaging in oral sex ; in " W.T.F. " , he is shot by a rocket launcher during a professional wrestling match ; and in " Pee " , he drowns in the urine that inundates the water park . During the final half of the season , aliens were hidden in images throughout the episodes as part of a contest offered by South Park Studios . Viewers able to find the alien in the episode could enter a contest , with the grand winner getting an animated version of himself or herself placed in the South Park opening credits starting the next season . In December 2009 , Matthew Klinner was announced winner of the contest .
= = = Cultural references = = =
The 13th season also continued a South Park tradition of lampooning celebrities and timely issues . The episode " Margaritaville " satirized the global recession affecting much of the industrialized world at the time of the episode 's broadcast . Parker and Stone said they had long planned to do an episode about the recession , but did not want to rush it because they wanted to make sure the script was strong . " Fatbeard " was based on real @-@ life piracy in Somalia , which began receiving increasing international media attention in 2008 ; the Somali pirates are portrayed in a sympathetic light in the episode . " Dances with Smurfs " parodied the political commentary of Glenn Beck , a nationally syndicated radio show host and Fox News Channel political pundit . In the episode , Cartman makes outrageous claims with no basis in fact under the guise that he is simply asking rhetorical questions and seeking further discussion , a practice for which Beck has been criticized .
The episode " Whale Whores " addressed the controversies surrounding Japanese whaling , condemning not only the whalers who engaged in the practice , but shows like Whale Wars and activists like television celebrity Paul Watson who profit from fighting whaling . " Butters ' Bottom Bitch " featured a scene in which Butters visits an ACORN office seeking benefits for prostitutes working for him , a reference to a similar 2009 scandal . The episode " Eat , Pray , Queef " demonstrated a double standard between rights of men and women by showing the South Park men , who have no problem with farting , strongly objecting to vaginal flatulence from women . The season finale , " Pee " , satirized the disaster film genre , especially the movie 2012 , which was released five days before the episode aired . Cartman interprets the large number of minorities at his favorite water park as a sign of the 2012 phenomenon , the prediction that cataclysmic events will occur in the year 2012 , which is said to be the end of the Mayan Long Count calendar .
" The Ring " featured parodies of the pop @-@ rock boy band Jonas Brothers and a foul @-@ mouthed , greedy , physically violent Mickey Mouse , satirizing the Walt Disney Company 's exploitation of family @-@ friendly morals to disguise its profit motive . " The Coon " served as a parody of dark @-@ toned comic book movies , like The Dark Knight ( 2008 ) , The Spirit ( 2008 ) and Watchmen ( 2009 ) . " Dead Celebrities " mocked numerous recently deceased celebrities , including Michael Jackson , Billy Mays and David Carradine , as well as the show Ghost Hunters . " Dances with Smurfs " mocked the 2009 James Cameron film Avatar , suggesting the plot borrows heavily from the film Dances with Wolves and comparing Avatar 's blue aliens to the cartoon Smurfs . The episode " W.T.F. " parodied professional wrestling in general and World Wrestling Entertainment in particular , highlighting the soap opera aspects of wrestling storylines and fans who believe the stories are real .
= = = Music = = =
Several original songs written by Parker and Stone were featured in the 13th season . The episode " Fatbeard " features a song , " Somalian Pirates , We " , in which Cartman and his crew of pirates sing in the style of the Golden Age of Piracy . In response to fan requests , the full 90 @-@ second version of the song was made available for download on South Park Studios the week the episode aired . The season finale , " Pee " , features a tune sung by Cartman , " ( Too Many Minorities ) Not My Water Park " , in which he despairs over the large number of African @-@ American , Hispanic @-@ American and Asian @-@ American patrons at his water park . Among other topics , Cartman expresses his anger about long lines full of minorities and park employees speaking Spanish rather than English . The episode " Eat , Pray , Queef " features " Queef Free " , a charity single recorded by the men of South Park after they realize women should be free to queef just as men are free to fart . The song has been described as a parody of such celebrities @-@ for @-@ charity songs as " We Are The World " .
The 13th season also featured or spoofed real @-@ life songs and bands . The episode " Fishsticks " , which prominently featured rapper Kanye West , includes a two @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half minute song , " Gay Fish " , that parodies West 's " Heartless " . " Gay Fish " satirizes the rapper 's tendency to rely on audio processing to correct his mistakes in pitch . After " Fishsticks " aired , the full song was made available for download on South Park Studios . Several fake Jonas Brothers songs , with lyrics about the band members ' physical attractiveness , were written for " The Ring " . Some songs also emphasize the band 's belief in sexual abstinence , with lyrics like , " Who needs sex and drugs and partying when we can cook a meal and sit around and watch Netflix ? " The strongly erotic reactions of the young girls at their concert parody the frenzied female fan reactions the Jonas Brothers tend to elicit , even though their image projects wholesomeness and chastity . In the episode " Whale Wars " , Cartman plays the video game Rock Band and performs a rendition , praised by critics , of the Lady Gaga song " Poker Face " . On March 16 , 2010 , Rock Band developer Harmonix released this version of the song ( along with the original version ) as downloadable content for the game . In " W.T.F. " , during an audition for the boys ' professional wrestling league , one of the participants sings a Broadway @-@ style number — parodying the song " Nothing " from A Chorus Line — about why he wants to be a wrestler . The episode " Fatbeard " received considerable press attention after Ike stated in a letter he would " vomit his balls out through his mouth " if he had to hear anything more about Susan Boyle , the Scottish amateur singer who had recently gained worldwide attention for her performance of " I Dreamed a Dream " on Britain 's Got Talent .
= = Reception = =
= = = Reviews = = =
Ramsey Isler of IGN said South Park continued to be the " best animated comedy show on TV " during its 13th season . He said the season had some low points , particularly " Eat , Pray Queef " , but that episodes like " The F Word " and " Dances with Smurfs " delivered significant social commentary . Isler described " Fishsticks " as a well @-@ timed , hilarious episode that became a " phenomenon " . Ben Flanagan of The Tuscaloosa News said the 13th season was one of the strongest yet for South Park , and that the series continued its tradition of entertainingly combining gross @-@ out comedy with social satire . He wrote , " Whether they tackle the Jonas Brothers , Somali pirates , Kanye West , The Dark Knight , the current economic woes or just the frequent greed and foolishness of the human race , the show continues to solidify itself as not only the funniest show on TV , but the best . "
Not all reviews of the season were positive . A.V. Club writer Sean O 'Neal called it " one of the more hit @-@ or @-@ miss seasons of South Park in the show ’ s history " , but said he was confident the series could do better and that it had yet not entered the " staggering animal begging to be put out of its misery stage of a show 's lifetime " . He described the season as a " weekly exercise in South Park schizophrenia " , with some episodes faring better than others , although he said the first half of the season was generally strong . Josh Modell , also of the A.V. Club , agreed that the season was uneven , with several episodes " you kinda shrugged your shoulders at " , but others like " Butters ' Bottom Bitch " that he found " pretty damn funny " .
" Fishsticks " particularly attracted media attention , and some critics declared it one of the best episodes of the season . In the episode , Jimmy writes a joke that becomes a national sensation , while Cartman tries to steal the credit . A fictionalized version of rapper Kanye West fails to understand the joke . He cannot admit that he does not get it because , in reference to a perceived ego problem on the part of the real West , he considers himself a genius . On September 13 , 2009 , during the MTV Video Music Awards , West interrupted an acceptance speech by country singer Taylor Swift , walking on stage , grabbing the microphone and praising her competitor Beyoncé Knowles . The incident received considerable press coverage and , as a result , Comedy Central rebroadcast " Fishsticks " for two straight hours on September 15 .
" The F Word " was especially controversial , even by South Park standards . In the episode , the South Park boys attempt to change the official definition of the word " fag " from an anti @-@ homosexual slur to a term describing loud and obnoxious Harley bikers . The uncensored word is voiced casually and very frequently throughout the episode . A.V. Club critic Genevieve Koski argued that " The F Word " advocates a philosophy that language is ever @-@ changing and that taboo words receive their stigma purely due to social circumstance . Although some LGBT activists accepted that the episode had noble intentions , the Gay & Lesbian Alliance Against Defamation nevertheless objected to it , claiming that it still used " fag " as a means of insulting others and could be unintentionally harmful to the gay community . Some critics praised the episode and said it addressed an important and difficult issue , whereas others felt the satire was ineffective and unfunny .
= = = Celebrity reactions = = =
Some celebrities who were spoofed in 13th season episodes responded to their portrayals . The day after " Fishsticks " aired , West wrote on his blog , " South Park murdered me last night and it 's pretty damn funny . It hurts my feelings but what can you expect from South Park ! " West thanked the South Park writers in his blog entry and acknowledged he has a problem with his ego , but said he was trying to change . The blog post drew substantial media attention ; Daniel Kreps of Rolling Stone said : " Many have tried , all have failed , but in the end it only took four animated children from Colorado to topple Kanye West 's ego . " Carlos Mencia , host of the Comedy Central show Mind of Mencia , was also spoofed in " Fishsticks " . He is portrayed as knowingly stealing credit for a joke he did not write , which is a reference to accusations other comedians have made that Mencia plagiarizes jokes from other people . After the episode aired , Mencia wrote on his Twitter feed , " They just made fun of me on South Park . I thought it was hysterical . Catch the rerun . "
In " The Coon " , Butters suspects heavyset comedian Bruce Vilanch is Cartman 's superhero alter ego based on his physique . After the episode aired , Vilanch sent a card to Parker and Stone thanking them for referring to him . Shortly after " Whale Whores " aired , Paul Watson said he was not offended by his portrayal in the episode , and was glad South Park brought the issue of dolphin and whale slaughter , and the Japanese role in it , to a large audience . After Billy Mays appeared in " Dead Celebrities " , his son Billy Mays III said he loved the episode and found its portrayal of his father tasteful and respectful . Jason Hawes and Grant Wilson , the stars of Ghost Hunters who were also mocked in " Dead Celebrities " , said they loved the parody and encouraged fans to watch the show on their Twitter accounts . The day after " Dances with Smurfs " originally aired , Glenn Beck discussed the episode on his radio program and said he took the parody as a compliment . The Jonas Brothers ' publicist specifically forbade reporters from asking the band members about their portrayal in " The Ring " . Nevertheless , Nick Jonas said , " We are always open to make fun of ourselves . "
" Pinewood Derby " drew considerable media attention in Mexico when it first aired due to its depiction of Mexican President Felipe Calderón . The episode was due to air in Spanish on MTV Latin America on February 8 , 2010 , but it was pulled a few hours before the scheduled time . Media reports indicated the decision stemmed from the episode 's depiction of Calderón irritating the international community and frivolously spending alien @-@ provided " space cash " on water parks . MTV said the South Park creators did not get a special permit needed to broadcast an image of Mexico 's flag , but the explanation was met with skepticism by Mexican South Park fans , some of whom accused MTV of censorship .
" Fatbeard " included prominent references to the April 2009 hijacking of the MV Maersk Alabama by Somalian pirates . The crew of the USS Bainbridge , the Arleigh Burke – class guided @-@ missile destroyer that participated in the rescue of Richard Phillips from Maersk Alabama , contacted the South Park creators to commend them on the episode . Ensign Jonathan Sieg , the Bainbridge public relations officer , wrote , " Pretty much everyone onboard our ship — from Captain to seaman — is a huge fan of South Park , and when we heard about the episode ' Fatbeard ' , as you can imagine , we were thrilled and very interested to watch . "
= = = Ratings = = =
The 13th season of South Park generally maintained the average Nielsen rating viewership for the series , around 3 million viewers per episode . The season premiere , " The Ring " , was seen in 3 @.@ 41 million households . That would prove to be the largest individual viewership for any Comedy Central show that season , outperforming even a highly anticipated and publicized episode of The Daily Show involving Jon Stewart 's ongoing feud with CNBC and pundit Jim Cramer . The 13th season of South Park received its lowest viewership in the episodes " Dances with Smurfs " , seen in 1 @.@ 47 million households ; " W.T.F. " , seen in 1 @.@ 37 million households ; and " The F Word " , seen in 1 @.@ 99 million households . However , " The F Word " was the highest rated show of the season among viewers between ages 18 and 49 , and outperformed The Jay Leno Show , NBC 's primetime talk show . The season finale , " Pee " , was seen in 2 @.@ 87 million households , which made it the most watched cable show of the night . Likewise , " The Coon " , seen in 3 @.@ 27 million households , was the most watched cable program among ages 18 to 49 the week it aired . Several episodes from the 13th season of South Park were the most watched Comedy Central shows the week they aired , including " Margaritaville " ( 2 @.@ 77 million households ) , " Fatbeard " ( 2 @.@ 59 million households ) , " Eat , Pray , Queef " ( 3 million households ) and " Fishsticks " ( 3 @.@ 1 million households ) . The latter two episodes were watched by over 1 million more viewers than the network 's second @-@ highest @-@ rated shows in their respective weeks .
= = = Awards = = =
Parker and Stone decided to submit " Margaritaville " for an Emmy Award because they had received a large amount of positive feedback about the episode from adult viewers . Since most Emmy voters are older , they decided " Margaritaville " stood the best chance of winning . Stone joked , " If an Emmy voter were to watch this , they might think the show was smarter than it was , so they might be fooled into voting for us . " " Margaritaville " ultimately won the 2009 Emmy Award for Outstanding Animated Program for Programming Less Than One Hour against competing nominees Robot Chicken , The Simpsons and American Dad ! . The victory marked the third consecutive Emmy win for South Park , which won in the same category in 2007 for the 10th season episode " Make Love , Not Warcraft " , and won the award for Outstanding Animated Program for Programming One Hour or More for the 11th season episode " Imaginationland " . Parker , Stone , Agnone , Stough , Beard , Howell , Rivinoja , Chatman , Hader and Quincy were all recipients of the Emmy .
In February 2010 , " Whale Whores " was nominated for a Genesis Award in the television comedy category . The Genesis Awards honor news and entertainment media for outstanding work that raises public understanding of animal issues . " Whale Whores " ultimately lost to the Family Guy episode " Dog Gone . "
= = Home release = =
The season was released by Paramount Home Entertainment in the United States on March 16 , 2010 , on both DVD ( as a three @-@ disc set ) and Blu @-@ ray ( as a two @-@ disc set ) . Each set included all 14 uncensored episodes in 1080p video and Dolby TrueHD sound , as well as brief audio commentaries by Parker and Stone for each episode , seven deleted scenes , codes for unlocking a character and challenge levels in South Park Let 's Go Tower Defense Play ! on Xbox Live Arcade , and a special mini @-@ feature , Inside Xbox : A Behind @-@ the @-@ Scenes Tour of South Park Studios , describing the show 's animation process .
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= Dust My Broom =
" Dust My Broom " is a blues song originally recorded as " I Believe I 'll Dust My Broom " by American blues artist Robert Johnson in 1936 . It is a solo performance in the Delta blues @-@ style with Johnson 's vocal accompanied by his acoustic guitar . As with many of his songs , it is based on earlier blues songs , the earliest of which has been identified as " I Believe I 'll Make a Change " , recorded by the Sparks brothers as " Pinetop and Lindberg " in 1932 . Johnson 's guitar work features an early use of a boogie rhythm pattern , which is seen as a major innovation , as well as a repeating triplets figure . " I Believe I 'll Dust My Broom " was issued before blues records were tracked by recording industry trade publications and , as with most of Johnson 's recordings , has not been otherwise identified as a big seller at the time .
However , Elmore James ' 1951 recording as " Dust My Broom " " made it the classic as we know it " , according to blues historian Gerard Herzhaft . James ' slide guitar adaptation of Johnson 's triplet figure has been identified as one of the most famous blues guitar riffs and has inspired many rock performers . The song has become a blues standard , with numerous renditions by a variety of musicians . It also has been selected for the Blues Foundation Blues Hall of Fame , the Grammy Hall of Fame , and the Library of Congress ' National Recording Registry .
= = Earlier songs = =
Elements of " Dust My Broom " have been traced back to several earlier blues songs . Blues researcher @-@ writer Edward Komara has suggested that Johnson may have begun developing his version as early as 1933 . The Sparks brothers ' 1932 recording of " I Believe I 'll Make A Change " and Jack Kelly 's " Believe I 'll Go Back Home " in 1933 both use a similar melody and lyrics . Some verses are also found in Carl Rafferty 's 1933 " Mr. Carl 's Blues " :
Kokomo Arnold , whose " Old Original Kokomo Blues " served as the basis for Johnson 's " Sweet Home Chicago " , recorded two songs with similar lines , " Sagefield Woman Blues " in 1934 :
and " Sissy Man Blues " in 1935 :
The melody that Johnson uses is also found in 1934 recordings of " I Believe I 'll Make a Change " by Leroy Carr and Josh White .
= = Lyrics and interpretation = =
Johnson 's " I Believe I 'll Dust My Broom " combines lyrics , also identified as " floating verses " , from the earlier songs and adds two new verses of his own . Music historian Elijah Wald calls the result " a more cohesive lyric than either of the Arnold pieces [ and ] concentrates on the theme of traveling , and being away from the girl he loves " . Attempts have been made to read a hoodoo significance into the phrase " dust my broom " . However , bluesman Big Joe Williams , who knew Johnson and was familiar with folk magic , explained it as " leaving for good ... I 'm putting you down , I won 't be back no more " . Music writer Ted Gioia also likens the phrase to the biblical passages about shaking the dust from the feet and symbolizing " the rambling ways of the blues musician " :
While Johnson is disillusioned with one woman , he also yearns for another :
The last verse shows Johnson 's unusual use of geographical references . These are taken from topical events , including the Second Italo @-@ Ethiopian War , the Japanese invasion of Manchuria , and the creation of the Commonwealth of the Philippines . However , their use in Johnson 's song is seen as escapism by music writer Greil Marcus . Music writer Thomas Beebee notes that while the world of many blues listeners was limited to the Mississippi Delta ,
The last stanza of the song raises the stakes , exploding into a fantastic geography — the singer 's voice trails a bit behind the guitar line here , as if burdened by the imaginative leap involved ... Mixed with all the bitterness , after all , is a geographic expansiveness that suddenly stretches the thirty miles of Arkansas backroads into a trip around the world .
" Sweet Home Chicago " ( the next song Johnson recorded ) includes the refrain " Back to the land of California , to my sweet home Chicago " . Comparing the two , Marcus comments , " ' Chicago ' functioned in the lyric as a place as distant as ' the Philippine Islands ' ; ' California ' was a place as mythical as ' Ethiopia ' " .
= = Recording and composition = =
" I Believe I 'll Dust My Broom " was recorded by Johnson during his first recording session on November 23 , 1936 . The recording took place in a makeshift studio in Room 414 at the Gunter Hotel in San Antonio , Texas , and was produced by Art Satherley and Don Law . It was the second song that Johnson recorded and followed " Kind Hearted Woman Blues " . As with most of his recordings , it appears that a second take of the song was recorded and assigned a reference number . Stephen LaVere , who manages Johnson 's recording legacy , notes that this take , along with several others , " remain [ s ] unfound , if ever issued ; destroyed after being recorded ( if ever ) ; or otherwise unknown to collectors " .
Johnson recorded the song as an upbeat boogie shuffle . As with several other Johnson songs and typical of Delta blues from the era , he does not adhere to a strict twelve @-@ bar blues structure , but rather varies the timing to suit his whim . The song is performed in the key of E at a moderate tempo of 100 – 105 beats per minute . Unlike some of the earlier songs that influenced Johnson , " I Believe I 'll Dust My Broom " does not feature a bottleneck or slide guitar . Instead , Johnson employs a fingerstyle guitar in which melodic lines are played against a driving bass boogie figure , creating an effect similar to the then popular combination of piano and guitar accompaniment . Wald has identified the use of the boogie bass line , adapted for guitar from the piano boogie style , as a major innovation by Johnson , although it had been used in a 1935 recording by Johnny Temple , titled " Lead Pencil Blues ( It Just Won 't Write ) " . To facilitate his fingerpicking style , Johnson also used an open tuning . Komara describes it as a modified open @-@ A tuning with the fifth string retuned from A to B , giving a new tuning of E – B – E – A – C ♯ – E or a standard open E tuning of E – B – E – G ♯ – B – E.
The song also features Johnson 's use of a repeating guitar figure consisting of fast high @-@ note triplets . This riff came to define the song , although Johnson also used it in several other of his songs , including a slide version for " Ramblin ' on My Mind " .
= = Releases = =
" I Believe I 'll Dust My Broom " was released in 1937 by three related record companies : Vocalion Records ( using catalogue number 03475 ) , ARC ( no . 7 @-@ 02 @-@ 81 ) , and Conqueror Records ( no . 8871 ) . These were issued on the then standard ten @-@ inch 78 rpm record , backed with Johnson 's " Dead Shrimp Blues " . The single was Johnson 's third record of eleven released during his lifetime .
As one of three Johnson songs to become early blues standards , Wald questions why " I Believe I 'll Dust My Broom " was not included on the first reissue of his recordings , the King of the Delta Blues Singers album released by Columbia in 1961 . Authors Pearson and McCulloch note that its place on the album " would have connected Johnson to the rightful inheritors of his musical ideas — big @-@ city African American artists whose high @-@ powered , electrically amplified blues remained solidly in touch with Johnson 's musical legacy " . In 1970 , the song was included on Columbia 's second Johnson compilation , King of the Delta Blues Singers , Vol . II , in 1990 , on the The Complete Recordings box set , and on several compilation albums .
= = Elmore James renditions = =
= = = Background = = =
" Dust My Broom " was one of the earliest songs Elmore James performed regularly while he was still living in the Mississippi Delta in the late 1930s . Blues historian Ray Topping has suggested that James may have encountered Robert Johnson during this time , when he learned how to play the song . James often performed with Aleck Rice Miller , better known as Sonny Boy Williamson II as a duo . However , his music career was interrupted by a stint in the U.S. Navy during World War II . After his discharge , he again joined up with Williamson , who regularly performed on radio . In January 1951 , Williamson was offered the opportunity to record some songs for Trumpet Records , where , by one account , he was accompanied by James . In August , the duo auditioned " Dust My Broom " for Trumpet owner Lillian McMurry , who signed James to a recording contract . Meanwhile , two versions of " Dust My Broom " were recorded — Arthur " Big Boy " Crudup in 1949 and Robert Lockwood in 1951 . Neither rendition appeared in the record charts .
= = = Recording and composition = = =
On August 5 , 1951 , after a Sonny Boy Williamson II recording session , Elmore James recorded " Dust My Broom " at Ivan Scott 's Radio Service Studio in Jackson , Mississippi . James , who provided the vocals and amplified slide guitar , is accompanied by Williamson on harmonica , Leonard Ware on bass , and Frock O 'Dell on drums . The recording studio had not made the transition to tape technology , so the group was recorded direct @-@ to @-@ disc using one microphone . It was the only song recorded by James ; Trumpet 's McMurray felt that his other songs were not suitable for recording . However , Williamson and James ' cousin , Homesick James , later claimed that McMurry secretly taped the performance and that Elmore was so upset that he was unable to record a B @-@ side . McMurray denied this and presented a check made out to and endorsed by James the day before the session to show his knowledge of and agreement to participate in the recording .
To record his song , Elmore James used Robert Johnson 's first four verses and concluded with one similar to that found in Arthur Crudup 's 1949 recording :
James ' song also followed Johnson 's melody , key , and tempo , but adhered more closely to the chord changes of a typical twelve @-@ bar blues . However , according to musicologist Robert Palmer , he " transformed what had been a brisk country blues into a rocking , heavily amplified shuffle " . Besides the backing musicians , the most notable addition to the song is James ' overdriven slide guitar , which plays the repeating triplet figure and adds a twelve @-@ bar solo after the fifth verse . Compared to Johnson guitar work , Gioia describes them as " more insistent , firing out a machine @-@ gun triplet beat that would become a defining sound of the early rockers " . His use of vibrato with the slide has been called as " his distinctive jangling guitar style " by musicologist Charlie Gillett . Music critic Cub Koda notes that , in James ' hands , " this may be the most famous blues riff of all time , [ n ] ext to the four @-@ note intro of Bo Diddley 's ' I 'm a Man ' " .
= = = Releases and charts = = =
Elmore James never recorded any more of his own material for Trumpet , although he later appeared as a sideman . McMurry , who was unaware of prior recordings of the song , arranged to copyright " Dust My Broom " in James ' name and subsequently issued the single , with a rendition of " Catfish Blues " by Bobo Thomas as the B @-@ side . Both songs listed the performer as " Elmo James " , although James does not perform with Thomas . Regional record charts show that " Dust My Broom " gradually gained popularity in different parts of the U.S. It eventually entered Billboard magazine 's national Top R & B singles chart April 5 , 1952 and peaked at number nine . In 1955 , after the release of an updated version by another record label , McMurray leased the recording to Ace Records , who re @-@ released it . Jewel Records also re @-@ released the original Trumpet recording as a single in 1965 .
Since it was originally released by Trumpet , the original recording does not appear on many of James ' early compilation albums by Crown / Kent . However , it is included on King Biscuit Time , a Sonny Boy Williamson II collection by Arhoolie Records , and a James box set , The Early Classic Recordings 1951 – 1956 . The versions of " Dust My Broom " that appear on many Fire / Fury / Enjoy / Sphere / Sue compilations , such as King of the Slide Guitar , were recorded during his first session in Chicago in 1959 and last session in New York in late @-@ 1962 or early @-@ 1963 . These later renditions do not include harmonica , but have piano accompaniment .
= = = Derivatives and " Dust My Blues " = = =
The success of the single by the relatively small Trumpet Records led other record companies to pursue James in the hope of landing his follow @-@ up singles . Joe Bihari , who owned Los Angeles @-@ based Modern Records with his brothers , and his talent scout Ike Turner were one of the first . A later session in Chicago produced " I Believe " , a " Dust My Broom " knockoff , that became a number nine charting single and the first issued on the new Modern subsidiary Meteor Records in 1953 . Being able to score two hits within a year with essentially the same song by the same artist prompted record companies to exploit it as much as possible . Thus , many re @-@ workings of " Dust My Broom " with small variations were recorded by James for different record labels during his career .
In 1955 , Flair Records , another Bihari label , issued a reworking of the song titled " Dust My Blues " ( catalogue no . 1074 ) . Recorded in New Orleans at Cosimo Matassa 's J & M Studios , James was backed by veteran New Orleans musicians , including bassist Frank Fields , drummer Earl Palmer , and pianist Edward Frank . Topping calls it " a powerful reincarnation of the old broom theme " and Gillett adds that it is " a fine hard driving song " . " Dust My Blues " is perhaps the definitive re @-@ recording of the James ' original , with an updated accompaniment . It appeared in some regional charts when the single was reissued in the 1960s . Following the 1964 UK release of " Dust My Blues " , James ' slide guitar sound was adapted by many British blues @-@ oriented guitarists .
= = = Recognition = = =
Elmore James ' " Dust My Broom " was inducted into the Blues Foundation Blues Hall of Fame in 1983 ; Jim O 'Neal that it received more votes than any other record in the first year of balloting for singles . His song was also inducted into the Grammy Hall of Fame in 1998 . In 2003 , the original 1951 Trumpet recording was selected for preservation in the U.S. Library of Congress ' National Recording Registry , which commented " James is known to have tinkered with his guitar pickups and fans still argue about how he achieved his signature sound . Whatever combination of guitar and pickup was used in his slide guitar opening , Elmore James created the most recognizable guitar riff in the history of the blues " .
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= Law school of Beirut =
The law school of Beirut ( also known as the law school of Berytus and the school of Roman law at Berytus ) was a center for the study of Roman law in classical antiquity located in Beirut ( Latin : Berytus ) . It flourished under the patronage of the Roman emperors and functioned as the Roman Empire 's preeminent center of jurisprudence until its destruction in A.D. 551 .
The law schools of the Roman Empire established organized repositories of imperial constitutions and institutionalized the study and practice of jurisprudence to relieve the busy imperial courts . The archiving of imperial constitutions facilitated the task of jurists in referring to legal precedents . The origins of the law school of Beirut are obscure . The earliest written mention of the school dates to 239 , when its reputation had already been established . The school attracted young , affluent Roman citizens , and its professors made major contributions to the Codex of Justinian . The school achieved such wide recognition throughout the Empire that Beirut was known as the " Mother of Laws " . Beirut was one of the few schools allowed to continue teaching jurisprudence when Byzantine emperor Justinian I shut down other provincial law schools .
The course of study at Beirut lasted for five years and consisted in the revision and analysis of classical juridic texts and imperial constitutions , in addition to case discussions . Justinian took a personal interest in the teaching process , charging the bishop of Beirut , the governor of Phoenicia Maritima and the teachers with discipline maintenance in the school .
The school 's facilities were destroyed in the aftermath of a massive earthquake that hit the Phoenician coastline . It was moved to Sidon but did not survive the Arab conquest of 635 . Ancient texts attest that the school was next to the ancient Anastasis church , vestiges of which lie beneath the Saint George Greek Orthodox Cathedral in Beirut 's historic center .
= = Background = =
As the guarantor of justice , the Roman emperor was expected to devote substantial amounts of time to judicial matters . He was the chief magistrate whose major prerogative ( jus ) was the ordering of all public affairs , for which he could demand assistance from anyone at any time .
With legal appeals , petitions from subjects and judicial queries of magistrates and governors , the emperors were careful to consult with the jurists ( iuris consulti ) , who were usually secretaries drafted from the equestrian order . From the reign of Augustus ( 27 BC – AD 14 ) , jurists began compiling organized repositories of imperial edicts ( constitutiones ) , and juristic scholarship became an imperially sponsored function of administration . Every new judicial decision was founded on archived legal precedents and earlier deliberations . The edict repositories and the imperially sponsored juristic scholarship gave rise to the earliest law school system of the Western world , aimed specifically at training professional jurists .
= = History = =
During the reign of Augustus , Beirut was established under the name Colonia Iulia Augusta Felix Berytus ( and granted the status of Ius Italicum ) as a colony for Battle of Actium veterans from the fifth Macedonian and the third Gallic legions . It was chosen as a regional center instead of the more prominent Phoenician cities of Tyre and Sidon , which had a history of belligerence against Rome .
Beirut was first mentioned in writing as a major center for the study of law in the 239 works of Gregory Thaumaturgus , the bishop of Neo @-@ Caesarea . Other early written sources do not mention when the law school was established , and the date is much debated among modern historians and scholars . Edward Gibbon suggested its founding may have been directed by locally born Emperor Alexander Severus , who reigned during A.D. 222 – 235 ; this hypothesis had been supported by Gilles Ménage , a late 17th @-@ century French scholar . Italian jurist Scipione Gentili , however , attributed the school 's foundation to Augustus , while 19th @-@ century German theologian Karl Hase advocated its establishment shortly after the victory at Actium ( 31 BC ) . Adolf Friedrich Rudorff dated it to the reign of Hadrian , while Franz Peter Bremer suggested that it opened around 200 , based on Thaumaturgus .
Theodor Mommsen linked the establishment of the law school in Beirut with the need for jurists , since the city was chosen to serve as a repository for Roman imperial edicts concerning the eastern provinces . After arriving in Beirut , these were translated into Greek , published and archived . This function was first recorded in 196 , the date of the earliest constitutions contained in the Gregorian Codex , but the city is thought to have served as a repository since earlier times . The proximity of the repository to the law school allowed the Beiruti jurists to consult archived documents and for students to learn of the most recent imperial decrees — an advantage that the law schools of Caesarea Maritima and Alexandria lacked .
The 3rd @-@ century emperors Diocletian and Maximian issued constitutions exempting the students of the law school of Beirut from compulsory service in their hometowns . In the 4th century , the Greek rhetorician Libanius reported that the school attracted young students from affluent families and deplored the school 's instructional use of Latin , which was gradually abandoned in favor of Greek in the course of the century . By the 5th century , Beirut had established its leading position and repute among the Empire 's law schools ; its teachers were highly regarded and played a chief role in the development of juristic learning in the East to the point that they were dubbed " Oecumenical Masters " . From 425 , the law school of Constantinople became a rival center of law study and was the only school , along with Beirut 's , to be maintained after Justinian I closed those of Alexandria , Caesarea Maritima and Athens in 529 because their teachings contradicted with Christian faith .
On July 9 , 551 , the Phoenician coastal cities were devastated by a high @-@ magnitude earthquake . In Beirut the earthquake was followed by a tsunami and a fire that obliterated the city . In the aftermath , 30 @,@ 000 people lost their lives , including many students from abroad . Justinian allocated funds to rebuild Beirut , and the law school was temporarily moved to the southern Phoenician city of Sidon , pending reconstruction ; the best teachers , however , moved to Constantinople . Misfortune hit Beirut again in 560 when a massive fire ravaged the recovering city . The law school was not reopened , and all prospect for its return was abandoned with the Arab conquest in 635 .
= = Academia = =
The study course at the law school of Beirut was restricted to Roman law ; it did not cover the local laws of the province of Phoenicia . Ancient texts provide an idea of the curriculum , the teaching method , the course languages and its duration .
= = = Preparatory studies = = =
Potential students were expected to have undergone grammar , rhetoric and encyclopedic sciences studies . Another prerequisite was the mastery of Greek and Latin , given that the classical juridic references and imperial constitutions used in the teaching program were written in Latin . The aspirants could pursue their preparatory studies in public schools or have private tutors .
= = = Curriculum = = =
Little is known about the Beirut law school 's curriculum before the 5th century . The Scholia Sinaitica and the Scholia to the Basilica provide glimpses of the school 's teaching method , comparable to the method of rhetoric schools at the time . The lecturer would discuss and analyze juridic texts by adding his own comments , which included references to analogous passages from imperial constitutions or from the works of prominent classical Roman jurists , such as Ulpian . He would then formulate the general legal principles and use these to resolve legal problems inspired from actual , practical cases . This method differed from the scheme of classical times in which the student had to master the law basics before engaging in case studies .
Jurisprudence was taught in Latin , even in the law schools of the East , but toward the end of the fourth and the beginning of the 5th century , Latin was supplanted by Greek at Beirut , which was the long @-@ established lingua franca of the eastern territories of the Roman Empire . A similar shift probably occurred at the school of Constantinople at about the same time .
The Omnem constitution at the beginning of the Digest is the only source of information about the existing study system in the 5th century until the Justinian reforms of 533 . The old program was a four @-@ year course to be completed before the age of 25 . The courses were based on the works of Gaius , Ulpian , Papinian and Paulus . Students attended lectures for three years and spent the fourth year in private study of Paulus ' Responsa ; they had the option to stay for a fifth year to study imperial constitutions . The students of each year were distinguished by special nicknames : first year , Dupondii ; second , Edictales ; third , Papinianistae ; fourth , Lytae .
Justinian 's Omnem constitution fixed the duration of the legal course in the schools of Beirut and Constantinople at five years . The courses consisted of lectures and self @-@ study using materials advanced in his Corpus Juris Civilis , namely the Institutiones ( Institutes ) , Digesta ( Digest ) and Codex ( Code ) . First @-@ year students were lectured on the Institutes and on the first part of the Digest ; second @-@ year students were taught the greater part of the Digest , and third @-@ year students had to learn various texts from Papinian and the leges singulares . There were no lectures during the course 's fourth year but the pupils studied the remainder of the Digest . Nicknames were still given according to the year of study , but Justinian changed the name of first @-@ year students from the frivolous Dupondii ( which means " two pennies " ) to Iustiniani novi and dubbed fifth @-@ year students Prolytae . At the end of the course , graduands were given certificates allowing them to work as court advocates or in the imperial civil service .
= = = Professorial body = = =
Ancient texts reveal the names and deeds of some of the most notable law professors at the Beirut school . The scarce sources include historical accounts , juridic works , anthologies , ancient correspondences and funerary inscriptions .
Antioch @-@ based rhetoric teacher Libanius wrote many letters of correspondence to Domninus the Elder , a 4th @-@ century law school professor . In 360 , Libanius invited Domninus to leave Beirut and teach with him at the rhetoric school of Antioch . Domninus apparently declined the offer , since later correspondence to him from Libanius , between 361 and 364 , served as recommendations for law school candidates .
The most brilliant era of Beirut 's law school , spanning the century between 400 and 500 , was known as the era of the " Ecumenical Masters " ( Greek : τῆς οἰκουμένης διδάσκαλοι ) . During this period , a succession of seven highly esteemed law masters was largely responsible for the revival of legal education in the Eastern Roman Empire . The seven revered masters , cited with praise by 6th @-@ century scholars , were Cyrillus , Patricius , Domninus , Demosthenes , Eudoxius , Leontius and Amblichus .
Cyrillus was the founder of the ecumenical school of jurists . He is believed to have taught as of c . 400 or c . 410 . Styled " the great " due to his reputation as a teacher , he was known for his direct use of ancient sources of law and for interpreting jurists such as Ulpian and Papinian . Cyrillus wrote a precise treatise on definitions that supplied the materials for many important scholia appended to the first and second titles of the eleventh book of the Basilica . Patricius was praised in the third preface of the Justinian Digest ( Tanta @-@ Dedoken ) as a distinguished professor of the Beirut law school . Archaeological excavations done in Beirut at the turn of the 20th century revealed a funerary monument believed to have belonged to Patricius . The son of Eudoxius , Leontius was described by ecclesiastical historian Zacharias Rhetor , who was his first @-@ year student in 487 or 488 , to have a great reputation in the legal field . He was raised to the office of Praetorian prefect of the East under Emperor Anastasius I between 503 and 504 , and became Magister militum in 528 . Leontius was also involved as a commissioner in the preparation of the first codex of Justinian . His contemporary , Amblichus , wrote a commentary on Ulpian 's Libri ad Edictum .
Historical sources also tell of Euxenius , a teacher at the Beirut law school who taught during the times of the " Ecumenical Masters " . Euxenius was the brother of the city 's bishop Eustathius and was involved in the 460 religious controversy caused by Timothy Aelurus , which opposed the Miaphysites to the followers of the Council of Chalcedon . Dorotheus , Anatolius ( son of Leontius ) and Julianus were school professors contemporary to Justinian I. The first two were summoned to the imperial court and commissioned to draft the Digesta . Under the supervision of Tribonian , Dorotheus also collaborated with Theophilus , a Constantinopolitan law teacher , in drafting the Institutiones . Julianus , the last known professor of Beirut 's law school , was extolled by Theaetetus as " the light of the law " . After the earthquake , Julianus left Beirut and settled in Constantinople , where he authored the Epitome Iuliani in 555 .
Under Justinian , there were eight teachers in the law schools of the Byzantine Empire , presumably four in each of Beirut and Constantinople 's schools . Justinian mandated the supervision and enforcement of discipline in the school of Beirut to the teachers , the city 's bishop and the governor of Phoenicia Maritima .
= = = Notable students = = =
While most of the law school 's students are not remembered by history , ancient historians and sources recount the stories of some of those who were deemed notable and achieved fame .
According to Eusebius of Caesarea , Pamphilus of Caesarea was born into a rich family in Beirut in the latter half of the 3rd century and attended its law school . Pamphilus later became the presbyter of Caesarea Maritima and the founder of its extensive Christian library . He is celebrated as a martyr by both the Roman Catholic Church and the Eastern Orthodox Church . Eusebius also tells of martyred brothers Aphian and Aedesius , born to a noble Lycian family . They converted to Christianity while studying law in Beirut and were persecuted and executed for their beliefs .
Fourth @-@ century historian Eunapius wrote of Anatolius , a high @-@ ranking Roman official known to his enemies as Azutrio . Anatolius occupied the offices of consul of Syria , vicarius of the Diocese of Asia , proconsul of Constantinople , urban prefect of Constantinople in 354 , and Praetorian prefect of Illyricum until his death in 360 . In his account of Anatolius , Eunapius summarized : " He reached the summit of the science of law . Nothing about this is surprising because Beirut , his homeland , is the mother and nurse of these studies " . Libanius ' correspondence with Gaianus of Tyre discusses the latter 's achievements after his graduation from the law school of Beirut ; Gaianus became the consular governor of Phoenicia in 362 . Gazan lawyer and church historian Sozomen , also a law student at Beirut , wrote in his Historia Ecclesiastica about Triphyllius , a convert to Christendom who became the bishop of Nicosia . Triphyllius received juridic training in Beirut and was criticized by his teacher Saint Spyridon for his atticism and for using legal vocabulary instead of that of the Bible .
Zacharias Rhetor studied law at Beirut between 487 and 492 , then worked as a lawyer in Constantinople until his imperial contacts won him the appointment as bishop of Mytilene . Among Rhetor 's works is the biography of Severus , the last miaphysite patriarch of Antioch and one of the founders of the Syriac Orthodox Church , who had also been a law student in Beirut as of 486 . Another late 5th @-@ century student was John Rufus , an anti @-@ Chalcedonian priest who moved to Maiuma after the expulsion of his master , Peter the Fuller . In Maiuma , John Rufus authored the Plerophoriae and the Life of Peter the Iberian .
= = Location = =
Historically , Roman stationes or auditoria , where teaching was done , stood next to public libraries housed in temples . This arrangement was copied in the Roman colony at Beirut . The first mention of the school 's premises dates to 350 , but the description does not specify its location . In the 5th century , Zacharias Rhetor reported that the school stood next to the " Temple of God " , the description of which permitted its identification with the Byzantine Anastasis cathedral .
At the turn of the 20th century , archaeological excavations in the souq between the Saint George Greek Orthodox Cathedral and Saint George Cathedral of the Maronites unearthed a funerary stele etched with an epitaph to a man named Patricius , " whose career was consecrated for the study of law " . The epitaph was identified as being dedicated to the famous 5th @-@ century law school professor . In 1994 , archaeological diggings underneath the Saint George Greek Orthodox Cathedral in Beirut Central District 's Nejmeh Square identified structural elements of the Anastasis cathedral , but they were restricted to an area of 316 square metres ( 3 @,@ 400 sq ft ) and failed to unearth the interred school .
= = Reputation and legacy = =
The law school of Beirut supplied the Roman Empire , especially its eastern provinces , with lawyers and magistrates for three centuries until the school 's destruction . The influx of students was abundant and persistent because of the affluence , honor and secured employment offered by the profession . A degree in law became highly sought following an edict issued in 460 by Emperor Leo I. The edict ordered that candidates for the bar of the Eastern praetorian prefecture had to produce certificates of proficiency from the law teachers who instructed them at one of the recognized law schools of the Empire .
The in @-@ depth studies of the juridic classical works in Beirut , and later in Constantinople , conferred an unprecedented scientific dimension to jurisprudence ; this academic movement gave rise to the minds behind Justinian 's juridic reforms . As a result of the new understanding of the classical juridic texts , the imperial laws of the late 5th and early 6th centuries were clearer and more coherent than those of the early Postclassical Era , according to legal historian George Mousourakis and other scholars .
The school garnered accolades throughout its existence and was bestowed with the title Berytus Nutrix Legum ( Beirut , Mother of Laws ) by Eunapius , Libanius , Zacharias Rhetor and finally by Emperor Justinian . His 533 Omnem constitution read :
These three works which we have composed we desire should be put in their hands in royal cities as well as in the most fair city of Berytus , which may well be styled the nursing mother of law , as indeed previous Emperors have commanded , but in no other places which did not enjoy the same privilege in old times , as we have heard that even in the brilliant city of Alexandria , and in Caesarea and others , there have been ignorant men who , instead of doing their duty , conveyed spurious lessons to their pupils , and such as these we desire to make desist from that attempt by laying down the above limits , so that , if they should hereafter be guilty of such conduct and carry on their duties outside the royal cities and the metropolis Berytus , they may be punished by a fine of ten pounds of gold and be expelled from the city in which instead of teaching the law they transgress the law .
From the 3rd century , the school tolerated Christian teachings , producing a number of students who would become influential church leaders and bishops , such as Pamphilus of Caesarea , Severus of Antioch and Aphian . Under Cyrillus , the first of the Ecumenical Masters , the Christian faith was consolidated as an integral element of the juristic training .
Two professors from the law school of Beirut , Dorotheus and Anatolius , had such a repute for their wisdom and knowledge that they were especially praised by Justinian in the opening of his Tanta constitution . The emperor summoned both professors to assist his minister Tribonian in compiling the Codex of Justinian , the Empire 's body of civil laws issued between 529 and 534 . The Tanta passage reads :
Dorotheus , an illustrious man , of great eloquence and quæstorian rank , whom , when he was engaged in delivering the law to students in the most brilliant city of Berytus , we , moved by his great reputation and renown , summoned to our presence and made to share in the work in question ; again , Anatolius , an illustrious person , a magistrate , who , like the last , was invited to this work when acting as an exponent of law at Berytus , a man who came of an ancient stock , as both his father Leontius and his grandfather Eudoxius left behind them an excellent report in respect of legal learning ...
For centuries following its compilation , the work of Justinian 's commission was studied and incorporated into the legal systems of different nations and has profoundly impacted the Byzantine law and the Western legal tradition . Peter Stein asserts that the texts of ancient Roman law have constituted " a kind of legal supermarket , in which lawyers of different periods have found what they needed at the time . "
The Corpus Juris Civilis remained the basis of Byzantine law until the publication of the Ecloga legum in 741 by Emperor Leo III and his son and co @-@ regent Constantine V. The Ecloga was a shortened and more philanthropic version of the Codex of Justinian , whose dispositions were more in tune with Christian values . It was written in Greek , since Latin had fallen into disuse , and its provisions continued to be applied in later centuries in the neighboring Balkan and Asia Minor regions , with surviving translations in Slavic , Armenian and Arabic . Emperor Basil I , who ruled in the 9th century , issued the Prochiron and the Epanagoge , which were legal compilations invalidating parts of the Ecloga and restoring the Justinian laws . The Prochiron served as the basis for the legal writings of the 12th @-@ century first archbishop of Serbia , Saint Sava . His legal compilation was intended for the Serbian church but the influential work was adopted as the basic constitution for the Bulgarian and Russian orthodox churches . Around 900 , Emperor Leo VI commissioned the Basilica , a Greek rewriting of the Justinian laws that is considered the ancestor of modern Greece 's law until the enactment of the Code of 1940 .
The Codex of Justinian also had a great influence on Western law , particularly on the juridic history and tradition of western Europe and its American colonies . In Italy , a single complete copy of the Justinian Digest survived and lay forgotten until its rediscovery in 1070 . In 1088 , Irnerius , a jurist and teacher of the liberal arts in Bologna , was the first to teach the newly recovered Digest and the rest of Justinian 's books . He and his successors explained the Roman laws to their students by means of glosses or explanatory notes written on the edges or between the text lines . The Roman legal concepts resulting from the studies of these " glossators " spread to the universities and law courts of Europe . The Roman law revival that started in Italy , during the Middle Ages , was taken up by France , the Netherlands and Germany in later centuries . The enactment of the German Civil Code in 1900 put an end to the application of extant forms of law derived from the Justinian codes in most European states .
The reputation of Beirut as " mother of laws " reemerged in modern times . In 1913 , Paul Huvelin , the first dean of the newly established Université Saint @-@ Joseph 's Faculty of Law , dedicated the inaugural speech to the classical law school of Beirut in an effort to confer legitimacy to the new academy . The epithet Berytus Nutrix Legum is used as a motto and as part of the emblem of the Beirut Bar Association , founded in 1919 . It is also featured in the seal and flag of the Municipality of Beirut .
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= Ralambo =
Ralambo was the ruler of the Kingdom of Imerina in the central Highlands region of Madagascar from 1575 to 1612 . Ruling from Ambohidrabiby , Ralambo expanded the realm of his father , Andriamanelo , and was the first to assign the name of Imerina to the region . Oral history has preserved numerous legends about this king , including several dramatic military victories , contributing to his heroic and near @-@ mythical status among the kings of ancient Imerina . The circumstances surrounding his birth , which occurred on the highly auspicious date of the first of the year , are said to be supernatural in nature and further add to the mystique of this sovereign .
Oral history attributes numerous significant and lasting political and cultural innovations to King Ralambo . He is credited with popularizing the consumption of beef in the Kingdom of Imerina and celebrating this discovery with the establishment of the fandroana New Year 's festival which traditionally took place on the day of Ralambo 's birth . According to legend , circumcision and polygamy were also introduced under his rule , as was the division of the noble class ( andriana ) into four sub @-@ castes . Oral history furthermore traces the tradition of royal idols ( sampy ) in Imerina to the reign of Ralambo , who made heavy use of these supernatural objects to expand his realm and consolidate the divine nature of his sovereignty . Due to the enduring cultural legacy left by this king , Ralambo is often considered a key figure in the development of Merina cultural identity .
= = Early life = =
Born in the sacred highland village of Alasora to King Andriamanelo and Queen Randapavola , Ralambo was the only one of his parents ' children to survive to adulthood . According to one legend , as a child he may have been known by the name Rabiby , being given the name Ralambo after successfully killing a particularly ferocious wild boar ( lambo ) in the woods . Another story attributes his name to a wild boar that walked past the threshold of the house where his mother was resting shortly after giving birth to him . However , both of these explanations are likely to have originated at some point after his reign ; it is more probable that he took the name Ralambo after propagating the consumption of the meat of the zebu , called lambo in the proto @-@ Malagasy language and the Malayo @-@ Polynesian tongue from which it derived .
A popular legend imbues the birth of Ralambo with a mystical character . The legend relates that his mother , who was known in her youth as Ramaitsoanala ( " Green Forest " ) , was the daughter of the Vazimba water goddess Ivorombe ( " Great Bird " ) . With the assistance of her celestial mother , Ramaitsoanala confronted and overcame numerous obstacles . After her marriage to Andriamanelo ( whereupon she assumed the name Queen Randapavola ) , one of these obstacles took the form of reproductive difficulties : six consecutive times Randapavola miscarried or lost her children in infancy . When she was pregnant with her seventh child , the queen was especially afraid for her unborn child because the number seven was traditionally associated with death . This time , Randapavola sought the guidance of an astrologer to protect the unborn child from an evil fate . On his advice she chose to defy the tradition of delivering the baby at her parents ' home village of Ambohidrabiby , rather choosing the village of Alasora , to the north of Antananarivo , because this cardinal direction embodied great power . According to the tale , the queen gave birth in a house built to resemble a boat ( called a kisambosambo ) evocative of the transoceanic origins of the Malagasy people . There , Randapavola took the name Rasolobe upon delivering a healthy son , Ralambo , on the first day of the first month of the year ( Alahamady ) , the most auspicious date for the birth of a sovereign .
= = Reign = =
Ralambo 's many enduring and significant political and cultural achievements of his reign have earned him a heroic and near mythical status among the greatest ancient sovereigns of Merina history . Ralambo was the first to assign the name of Imerina ( " Land of the Merina people " ) to the central highland territories where he ruled . He moved his capital from Alasora to Ambohidrabiby , location of the former capital of his maternal grandfather King Rabiby . The first sub @-@ divisions of the andriana noble caste were created when Ralambo split it into four ranks . He introduced the traditions of circumcision and family intermarriage ( such as between parent and step @-@ child , or between half @-@ siblings ) among Merina nobles , these practices having already existed among certain other Malagasy ethnic groups . The practice of sanctifying deceased Merina sovereigns is also believed to have originated with this king .
Ralambo is credited with introducing the tradition of polygamy in Imerina . The Merina legend of the origin of this practice was recorded in the 19th @-@ century collection of Merina andriana oral history and genealogy entitled Tantara ny Andriana eto Madagasikara . According to this source , Ralambo had already married once when his servant encountered the beautiful princess Rafotsimarobavina and four female companions gathering edible greens in a valley west of Ambohidrabiby . Upon hearing of her beauty , Ralambo instructed the servant to make her a marriage offer on his behalf . The servant asked three times , and each time the princess refused to give her consent , instead replying " If Ralambo is king and I am queen . " The fourth time , after Ralambo had instructed his servant to carry her to him by force , the princess agreed to marry on the condition that it be done properly with the consent of her parents , a condition to which the king agreed . Ralambo then informed his first wife of his intention to marry again , to which she replied , " I approve your decision , " and the marriage was made . Ralambo ultimately took four wives in total : Rafotsitohina , Rafotsiramarobavina , Ratsitohinina and Rafotsindrindra . These marriages produced three daughters and twelve sons , the eldest of whom , Andriantompokoindrindra , was passed over for Ralambo 's succession in favor of his second son , Andrianjaka .
Ralambo expanded and defended his realm through a combination of diplomacy and successful military action aided by the procurement of the first firearms in Imerina by way of trade with kingdoms on the coast . According to legend , when a group of warriors from a village near the Ikopa river attempted to attack the village of Ambohibaoladina , Ralambo so frightened the warriors with the noise of a single shotgun blast that every warrior ran into the Ikopa river and drowned . Imposing a capitation tax for the first time ( the vadin @-@ aina , or " price of secure life " ) , he was able to establish the first standing Merina royal army and established units of blacksmiths and silversmiths to equip them . He famously repelled an attempted invasion by an army of the powerful western coastal Betsimisaraka people at a site now known as Mandamako ( " Lazy " ) at Androkaroka , north of Alasora . The Betsimisaraka traditionally only fought at night and so were found asleep in their camp by Ralambo and his men and were easily vanquished . In another famous incident , Ralambo 's army set a trap for a Vazimba king named Andrianafovaratra who claimed to control thunder . Ralambo 's emissary , a man named Andriamandritany , was sent to the Vazimba king to invite him to participate in a contest of superiority against Ralambo . While Andrianafovaratra traveled to join Ralambo for the competition , Andriamandritany set fire to the Vazimba capital of Imerinkasinina . The Vazimba king saw the smoke and began to hasten back to the village but was captured in an ambush laid by Ralambo 's troops and was forced to exile himself in the forests far to the east .
= = = Fandroana = = =
According to oral history , the wild zebu cattle that roamed the Highlands were first domesticated for food in Imerina under the reign of Ralambo . Different legends attribute the discovery that zebu were edible to the king 's servant or to Ralambo himself . Ralambo disseminated this discovery throughout his realm , as well as the practice and design of cattle pen construction . Ralambo is likewise credited with founding the traditional ceremony of the fandroana ( the " Royal Bath " ) , although others have suggested he merely added certain practices to the celebration of a long @-@ standing ritual . Among the Merina , legend characterizes the fandroana as a festival established by Ralambo to celebrate his culinary discovery .
According to one version of the story , while traversing the countryside , Radama and his men came across a wild zebu so exceptionally fat that the king decided to make a burnt offering of it . As the zebu flesh cooked , the enticing smell led Ralambo to taste the meat . He declared zebu meat to be fit for human consumption . In honor of the discovery , he decided to establish a holiday called fandroana that would be distinguished by the consumption of well @-@ fattened zebu meat . The holiday was to be celebrated on the day of his birth , which coincided with the first day of the year . To this end , the holiday symbolically represented a community @-@ wide renewal that would take place over a period of several days before and after the first of the year .
Although the precise form of the original holiday cannot be known with certainty and its traditions have evolved over time , 18th- and 19th @-@ century accounts provide insight into the festival as it was practiced at that time . Accounts from these centuries indicate that all family members were required to reunite in their home villages during the festival period . Estranged family members were expected to attempt to reconcile . Homes were cleaned and repaired and new housewares and clothing were purchased . The symbolism of renewal was particularly embodied in the traditional sexual permissiveness encouraged on the eve of the fandroana ( characterized by early 19th @-@ century British missionaries as an " orgy " ) and the following morning 's return to rigid social order with the sovereign firmly at the helm of the kingdom . On this morning , the first day of the year , a red rooster was traditionally sacrificed and its blood used to anoint the sovereign and others present at the ceremony . Afterward the sovereign would bathe in sanctified water , then sprinkle it upon attendees to purify and bless them and ensure an auspicious start to the year . Children would celebrate the fandroana by carrying lighted torches and lanterns in a nighttime processional through their villages . The zebu meat eaten over the course of the festival was primarily grilled or consumed as jaka , a preparation reserved uniquely for this holiday . This delicacy was made during the festival by sealing shredded zebu meat with suet in a decorative clay jar . The confit would then be conserved in an underground pit for twelve months to be served at the next year 's fandroana .
= = = Sampy = = =
Amulets and idols fashioned from assorted natural materials have occupied an important place among many ethnic groups of Madagascar for centuries . Ody , personal amulets believed to protect or allocate powers to the wearer , were commonplace objects possessed by anyone from slave children to kings . The name sampy was given to those amulets that , while physically indistinguishable from ody , were distinct in that their powers extended over an entire community . The sampy were often personified — complete with a distinct personality — and offered their own house with guardians dedicated to their service . Ralambo amassed twelve of the most reputed and powerful sampy from neighboring communities . He furthermore transformed the nature of the relationship between sampy and ruler : whereas previously the sampy had been seen as tools at the disposal of community leaders , under Ralambo they became divine protectors of the leader 's sovereignty and the integrity of the state which would be preserved through their power on the condition that the line of sovereigns ensured the sampy were shown the respect due to them . By collecting the twelve greatest sampy — twelve being a sacred number in Merina cosmology — and transforming their nature , Ralambo strengthened the supernatural power and legitimacy of the royal line of Imerina .
The Tantara ny Andriana eto Madagasikara , the 19th @-@ century transcription of Merina oral history , offers an account of the idols ' introduction into Imerina . According to legend , one day during Ralambo 's reign a woman named Kalobe arrived in Imerina carrying a small object wrapped in banana leaves and grass . She had traveled from her village located at Isondra in Betsileo country to the south which had been destroyed by fire , walking the great distance and traveling only at night in order to deliver to the king what she called Kelimalaza ( " the Little Famous One " ) , giving the impression that it was no less than the greatest treasure in the land . Ralambo took the sampy and built a house for it in a nearby village . He then selected a group of adepts who were to study under Kalobe to learn the mysteries of Kelimalaza . Oral history maintains that Kalobe was " made to disappear " after the adepts ' training was completed in order to prevent her from absconding with the precious idol .
Not long after , the legend continues , a group of Sakalava ( or , by some accounts , Vazimba ) warriors were preparing to attack a village north of Alasora called Ambohipeno . Ralambo announced that it would be sufficient to throw a rotten egg at the warriors , and Kelimalaza would take care of the rest . According to oral history , the egg was thrown and hit a warrior in the head , killing him on contact ; his corpse fell onto another warrior and killed him , and this corpse fell onto another and so forth , until the warriors had all been destroyed , forevermore confirming the power of Kelimalaza as the protector of the kingdom in the minds of the Merina populace . Similarly , at the besieged Imerina village of Ambohimanambola , invoking Kelimalaza was said to have produced a massive hailstorm that wiped out the enemy warriors .
The honored place that Ralambo awarded to Kelimalaza encouraged others like Kalobe to bring their own sampy to Ralambo from neighboring lands where they had been introduced long before by the Antaimoro . First after Kelimalaza was Ramahavaly , said to control snakes and repel attacks . The next arrival , Manjakatsiroa , protected the sovereignty of the king from rivals and became the favorite of Ralambo , who kept it always near him . Afterward came Rafantaka , believed to protect against injury and death ; others followed , all of Antaimoro origin with the possible exception of Mosasa , which had come from the Tanala forest people to the east . The propagation of similar sampy at the service of less powerful citizens consequently increased throughout Imerina under Ralambo 's rule : nearly every village chief , as well as many common families , had one in their possession and claimed the powers and protection their communal sampy offered them . These lesser sampy were destroyed or reduced to the status of ody ( personal talismans ) by the end of the reign of Ralambo 's son , Andrianjaka , officially leaving only twelve truly powerful sampy ( known as the sampin 'andriana : the " Royal Sampy " ) which were all in the possession of the king . These royal sampy , including Kelimalaza , continued to be worshiped until their supposed destruction in a bonfire by Queen Ranavalona II upon her public conversion to Christianity in 1869 .
= = Death and succession = =
Ralambo is believed to have died around 1612 . He was buried in the traditional stone tomb of his grandfather , King Rabiby , which still stands at the highland village of Ambohidrabiby . According to a 19th @-@ century source , his death was mourned for a full year . His burial reportedly took place at night and a royal mausoleum ( trano masina ) was constructed over his tomb , a royal Merina tradition that would continue until the collapse of the 19th century Kingdom of Madagascar . The rules of succession established by Andriamanelo obliged Ralambo to pass over his eldest son ( by his second wife ) in favor of the succession of Andrianjaka , his younger son by his first wife , Rafotsindrindramanjaka .
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= Petersen Rock Garden =
Petersen Rock Garden , formerly Petersen 's Rock Garden and also known as the Petersen Rock Gardens , is a rock garden and museum on 4 acres ( 1 @.@ 6 ha ) , located between the cities of Bend and Redmond in Deschutes County , Oregon , United States . Rasmus Petersen , a Danish immigrant who settled in Central Oregon in the early 1900s , began constructing the garden in 1935 using rocks he found within an 85 @-@ mile ( 137 km ) radius of his family home . Petersen constructed detailed miniature castles , churches and other small buildings and monuments from a variety of rock types . He incorporated other design elements such as bridges , water features and natural landscaping . Petersen worked on the garden until his death in 1952 ; the garden has remained in his family 's care since then . The garden , considered a roadside attraction with novelty architecture , includes roaming peafowl and a museum with a gift shop that sells rocks .
In 2011 , Petersen Rock Garden was named one of Oregon 's Most Endangered Places by the Historic Preservation League of Oregon ( now known as Restore Oregon ) . In 2012 , accidental damage to one of the stone bridges by a contractor catalyzed an effort to document the garden using laser scanning and other technologies . The garden was closed temporarily in 2013 to undergo repair and review for listing on the National Register of Historic Places . Petersen has been praised for his creative work , and the garden has received a positive reception for its uniqueness and local significance . Listing on the National Register was achieved on October 30 , 2013 .
= = Description = =
Petersen Rock Garden , considered a roadside attraction with " eclectic " novelty architecture , is located 3 miles ( 4 @.@ 8 km ) off U.S. Route 97 , 10 miles ( 16 km ) north of Bend and 7 miles ( 11 km ) south of Redmond . It contains dozens of " fanciful " and " intricately detailed " miniature buildings , including castles , churches and cottages , constructed from agate , jasper , lava , malachite , obsidian , petrified wood and thundereggs . The 4 @-@ acre ( 1 @.@ 6 ha ) grounds also contain roaming peafowl and a small museum with a gift shop that sells rocks , including crystals , fossils and semiprecious gemstones . The museum features a fluorescent room with miniature castles constructed from manganese , tungsten , uranium and zinc that glow in the dark . Petersen Rock Garden is open every day from 9 a.m. until closing time , which varies depending on the season . As of 2009 , admission is $ 4 @.@ 50 for adults , at self @-@ pay stations . It is not a member of the Oregon Museums Association .
= = History = =
Rasmus Petersen , a Danish immigrant who settled in Central Oregon in the early 1900s at age 17 , began constructing the rock garden on the grounds of his family home in 1935 . The " eccentric " farmer used rocks that he found within an 85 @-@ mile ( 137 km ) radius . He attempted to evoke his native country with his designs , but also created monuments to the United States , including a concrete American flag and a 7 @-@ foot ( 2 @.@ 1 m ) replica of the Statue of Liberty . Petersen incorporated other design elements such as bridges , water features ( lagoons , lily ponds and streams ) and natural landscaping . He worked on the garden until his death in 1952 ; the garden has remained in his family 's care since then . A bronze plaque in front of the Statue of Liberty replica reads : " Enjoy yourself : it 's later than you think . " Petersen 's Rock Garden became known as Petersen Rock Garden in the mid @-@ 1950s . At its height , supported by traffic from the Old Bend @-@ Redmond Highway , the garden drew approximately 150 @,@ 000 visitors a year .
The garden is managed and owned by Petersen 's grand @-@ stepdaughter , Susan Caward , and her family , who has struggled to maintain the lawns and dozens of sculptures . In 2011 , the garden was named one of Oregon 's Most Endangered Places by the Historic Preservation League of Oregon ( now known as Restore Oregon ) . The " Endangered Places " program raises awareness of the state 's " historic treasures in need of the advocacy and support to save them from demise " . According to the League , the deteriorating garden needed " maintenance , a business plan and a publicity campaign to ensure stewardship and funds are available to overcome vandalism , theft , and condition issues " . In 2012 , a contractor accidentally damaged one of the stone bridges , catalyzing an effort to document the garden using laser scanning and other technologies . The Portland @-@ based company i @-@ Ten measured and archived the site 's geospatial data , allowing potential future rebuilding to match the original construction .
The garden was closed from February 1 through May 24 , 2013 to undergo repair and review for listing on the National Register of Historic Places . The family and ten volunteers worked for nearly six months to restore the grounds . The cleanup process included the removal of dead vegetation and junk from outbuildings , and an estate sale that included items from before Petersen 's death . On May 25 , 2013 , Petersen Rock Garden hosted its " grand reopening " . The opening was attended by members of the Confederated Tribes of Warm Springs , who sang and blessed the garden . Caward has considered opening a cafe on the grounds , and turning the family home into a bed and breakfast . Owen Evans , a friend of the family who has assisted with the restoration , has also envisioned a museum reorganization , a small amphitheater to host outdoor concerts and other events , and additional rock sculptures mimicking Petersen 's style .
Petersen Rock Garden was added to the National Register of Historic Places on October 30 , 2013 .
= = Reception = =
According to the Northwest Digital Archives , photographer Myron Symons typed the following description of the garden during the 1940s within a photo album that is now part of University of Washington Libraries , Special Collections :
Miniature castles , picturesque fountains and beautiful terraces within the grounds pictured here , on the Rasmus Peterson [ sic ] place between Bend and Redmond , Oregon , tell their own stories , but unless the visitor inspects the grounds carefully , and with a questing heart , he will fail to read the strange stories told by the ancient stones used in the construction .... Look twice at that bit of petrified wood , for it is a remnant of a great redwood forest that once flourished in Central Oregon .... Examine that banded rock carefully : It is a bit of a thunderegg hatched in the lavas of old Oregon .... Feel the cool surface of those glass @-@ like rocks : They are volcanic glasses melted in plutonic fires .... Trace the growth rings on that bit of petrified sequoia : They tell a story of weather born of oceans that swept over beaches now elevated into Oregon mountains . Enjoy the blooms of these rock gardens , but do not overlook the stories of the rocks .
Petersen Rock Garden has attracted visitors from around the world . In 2009 , The Oregonian 's Terry Richard wrote that Petersen 's work is " more than a half @-@ century old , but it 's still amazing " . The Historic Preservation League of Oregon considers the garden a " real gem " for its local significance and its " unique expression of mid @-@ century roadside architecture " . Moon Publications described it as a " full @-@ fledged rock fantasy " and a " rock garden to end all rock gardens " , with a " funky " museum . Via , the online magazine for the American Automobile Association 's West Coast club , called the garden " folksy " and Petersen " imaginative " for his work .
The garden has inspired at least one other Oregon resident to construct rock sculptures . Following his visit to Petersen Rock Garden in the early 1980s , Ira McKissen built nearly a dozen castles on the terraces of his Rowena home ; some of them have since been relocated to his daughter 's house , located 5 miles ( 8 @.@ 0 km ) west of The Dalles along the Historic Columbia River Highway ( U.S. Route 30 ) . In 2013 , Pennan Brae released a music video for the song " Don 't Know Nothing ' Bout Love " , which was filmed at Petersen Rock Garden .
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= Nicholas Fuller ( lawyer ) =
Sir Nicholas Fuller ( 1543 – 23 February 1620 ) was an English barrister and Member of Parliament . After studying at Christ 's College , Cambridge , Fuller became a barrister of Gray 's Inn . His legal career there began prosperously — he was employed by the Privy Council to examine witnesses — but was hampered later by his representation of The Puritans , a religious group which did not conform with the established Church of England . Fuller was repeatedly in contention with the ecclesiastical courts , including the Star Chamber and Court of High Commission , and was once expelled for the zeal with which he defended his client . In 1593 he was returned as the Member of Parliament for St Mawes , where he campaigned against the extension of recusancy laws . Outside of Parliament , he successfully brought a patents case which not only undermined the right of the Crown to issue patents but accurately predicted the attitude taken by the Statute of Monopolies two decades later .
Returned to Parliament in 1604 for the City of London , Fuller became considered the " leader of the opposition " due to his conflict with the government over policy , fighting the impositions on currants , the patent on blue starch , and opposing the proposed union with Scotland on legal and economic grounds . In 1607 , in what became known as Fuller 's Case , he again began challenging the Court of High Commission , and eventually got the Court of Common Pleas under Sir Edward Coke to agree that the common law courts had the power to free imprisoned ecclesiastical prisoners . These encounters with the ecclesiastical courts were described as " bruising " , but by 1610 he was considered an " elder statesman " , introducing bills on ecclesiastical reform and the statutory management of customs duties . He continued to sit in Parliament until his death on 23 February 1620 .
= = Early life and career = =
Fuller was born in 1543 to Nicholas Fuller of Neat 's Hall on the Isle of Sheppey , a merchant from London . In December 1560 he was admitted to Christ 's College , Cambridge , and graduated in 1563 , joining Gray 's Inn during the same year . After an initial upset ( on 26 May 1579 , it was noted that " Mr Fuller , Reader of Staple Inn , is discharged for negligence , and fined £ 1 " ) , Fuller was highly successful at Gray 's ; he became Reader on 26 May 1587 , Dean of the chapel on 8 February 1588 and Treasurer in 1591 . Fuller was a Puritan , and much engaged in their legal and other activities , for example , he arranged a lecturer for St Christopher le Stocks , a church in London , in April 1577 .
From December 1588 he was employed repeatedly by the Privy Council to examine witnesses , and in 1590 was charged with interrogating Sir Thomas Fitzherbert . Although his career had begun promisingly , Fuller soon found himself at odds with the authorities due to his religion , and the religion of those he chose to represent . A favoured barrister of Puritans prosecuted based on their faith , Fuller represented John Udall at Croydon assizes , when Udall was charged with having written A Discovery of the Discipline , an allegedly seditious book . The judge instructed the jury to find Udall guilty , and " leave the felony to us " ; Fuller protested so vociferously at this that he was forced out of the court . In 1591 , following the collapse of their case in front of the Court of High Commission , Thomas Cartwright and other Puritan ministers were tried by the Star Chamber ; Fuller provided legal representation . The case was made more complicated when several of the ministers , on 16 July 1591 , " proclaimed Elizabeth deposed , and William Hacket the new messiah and king of Europe " ; this certainly was sedition , and saw the ministers confined to Fleet Prison , along with Fuller for offering to represent them . Cartwright and several other ministers were never convicted , however , which is attributed to " the highly professional resistance of the puritan lawyers [ which ] perhaps owed much to Nicholas Fuller " . Fuller was confined until 15 August .
= = Parliament = =
= = = Puritanism and patents = = =
Fuller was returned for St Mawes in 1593 , apparently thanks to the influence of William Cecil , and immediately began campaigning against government attempts to extend recusancy laws to Protestant splitters from the Church of England . The government introduced two such bills ; the second , sent down from the House of Lords on 5 April 1593 , was protested down by Fuller as " dangerous to good subjects " , because it made " schisms to be equal with seditions and treasons , which is against the equity of the former law " . According to records , " upon a motion of Mr Fuller ’ s , the whole committee assented to the striking out of the title and the whole preamble . No man spake for it " . While an MP , Fuller became involved in patents cases , which continued after he left Parliament in 1597 .
Patents were initially intended to provide protection to merchants of new industries , making England an attractive country to conduct business in . The granting of these patents was highly popular with the monarch , both before and after the statute of Monopolies , because of the potential for raising revenue . A patentee was expected to pay heavily for the patent , and unlike a tax raise ( another method of raising Crown money ) any public unrest as a result of the patent was normally directed at the patentee , not the monarch . Over time , this became more and more problematic : instead of temporary monopolies on specific , imported industries , long @-@ term monopolies came about over common commodities , including salt and starch . These " odious monopolies " led to a showdown between the Crown and Parliament , in which it was agreed , on 28 November 1601 , to turn the power to administer patents over to the common law courts ; at the same time , Elizabeth revoked a number of the more restrictive and damaging monopolies . One of the monopolies capable of being addressed at the common law was that over playing cards , which was granted to Edward Darcy on 13 June 1600 . Darcy , in 1602 , began proceedings against a Mr Allen for infringing on this patent .
The Crown was represented by Sir Edward Coke , then Attorney @-@ General for England and Wales , while George Croke and Fuller appeared for Allen . Coke argued that the Crown had the right to restrict " games of common good " , while Croke said that the free trade principles of the City of London rendered the patent invalid . Fuller , however , " stole the show " . He stated that only a new trade , or " a new engine tending to the furtherance of a trade that never was used before ; and that for the good of the realm , the King may grant him a monopoly patent for some reasonable time until the subjects may learn the same , in consideration of the good that he doth bring by his invention , otherwise not " . In this he accurately predicted the attitude taken by the Statute of Monopolies two decades later .
= = = Leader of the opposition = = =
Fuller did not stand for election to the Commons in 1597 ; after its dissolution , he was returned for the City of London in the 1604 Parliament of James I. He was highly active in opposing the government , to the point where academics consider him the " leader of the opposition " , although this was not a formal title at the time . During his first year , Fuller opposed the impositions on currants , the patent on blue starch , presented a petition on economic grievances ( which delayed the passage of the subsidy bill ) , supported the restoration of removed ministers and further attacked the powers of the Court of High Commission .
In 1606 , the government announced plans for a formal union between England and Scotland . This project was treated with great suspicion in the House of Commons , and Fuller took the lead in opposing it . Although he used racist language , saying in December 1606 that " the Scots in other countries are more like pedlars than merchants " , this was aimed at drumming up support from xenophobic elements , and Wright concludes he was not himself a xenophobe . His main concern , rather , was over economic issues . Fuller argued that the Scottish merchants would undercut and impoverish English ones , and that the markets could not handle such an influx , saying that it was " fit that we seek room to place them in before we admit them " . There was also a legal and constitutional element . The proposal was to allow all Scottish citizens , born before or after the union , to become English citizens , exercisable through the Royal Prerogative . Fuller argued that this right was only exercisable by Parliament , and believed that the extension of the Royal Prerogative would lead to future encroachment on the civil liberties of English citizens .
= = Fuller 's Case and the Case of Prohibitions = =
In 1607 , Fuller began challenging the Court of High Commission yet again , an ecclesiastical court established by the monarch with near unlimited power . The High Commission was vastly unpopular amongst both common lawyers and Members of Parliament , as the idea of " prerogative law " challenged both authorities . The appointment of Richard Bancroft as Archbishop of Canterbury in 1604 caused the issue to grow in importance ; Bancroft 's zeal and strictness " could hardly fail to produce an atmosphere in which principles and issues would crystallize , in which logic would supplant reasonableness " . The judges , particularly Sir Edward Coke , began to unite with Parliament in challenging the High Commission . The High Commission tried people for heresy , based on their internal thoughts and private beliefs , in " a trap to catch unwary or ingenuous men - ' an unlawful process of poking about in the speculation of finding something chargeable ' " .
In what became known as Fuller 's Case , Fuller had several clients fined by the High Commission for non @-@ conformity , and stated that the High Commission 's procedure was " popish , under jurisdiction not of Christ but of anti @-@ Christ " . For this , Fuller was held in custody for contempt of court . The Court of King 's Bench argued that this was a lay matter , while the High Commission claimed it fell under their jurisdiction . In the end Fuller was convicted by the High Commission , although of heresy rather than contempt , and sent to Fleet prison . On 6 November 1608 , the common law judges and members of the High Commission were summoned before the King and told that they would argue and allow him to decide . Unable to even argue properly , instead " [ standing ] sullen , merely denying each other 's statements " , the group were dismissed and reconvened a week later . Sir Edward Coke , speaking for the judges , argued that ecclesiastical courts only had jurisdiction as long as no temporal matters were involved ; once this happened , it became a matter for the common law courts .
At this point the King 's own position in relation to the law , and his authority to decide this matter , was brought up , in what became known as the Case of Prohibitions . James stated that " In cases where there is not express authority in law , the King may himself decide in his royal person ; the Judges are but delegates of the King " . Coke challenged this , saying " the King in his own person cannot adjudge any case , either criminal - as treason , felony etc , or betwixt party and party ; but this ought to be determined and adjudged in some court of justice , according to the Law and Custom of England " . Coke further stated that " The common law protecteth the King " , to which James replied " The King protecteth the law , and not the law the King ! The King maketh judges and bishops . If the judges interpret the laws themselves and suffer none else to interpret , they may easily make , of the laws , shipmen 's hose ! " . Coke rejected this , stating that while the monarch was not subject to any individual , he was subject to the law . Until he had gained sufficient knowledge of the law , he had no right to interpret it ; he pointed out that such knowledge " demanded mastery of an artificial reason ... which requires long study and experience , before that a man can attain to the cognizance of it " . Victorious , Coke freely left , and continued to issue writs of prohibition against the High Commission .
= = Later career and death = =
By 1610 , Fuller was considered an " elder statesman " within Parliament , " although his influence may have been somewhat weakened by the bruising encounters with high commission and star chamber " . He introduced two bills to reform or remove ecclesiastical committees and courts , which passed in the House of Commons of England on 21 May and 20 June , though both were later rejected by the Lords . On 3 November he began campaigning to have customs duties put into a statutory framework , again against the Court of High Commission , which , he claimed , as an unelected and autonomous body could not be trusted , but rather Parliament should be given jurisdiction . In a speech on 23 June 1610 he said that " the laws of England are the most high inheritance of the land , whereby both king and subjects are directed and guided " . Customs were " not at the king ’ s pleasure to be increased without the consent of the subjects " , and " impositions and customs laid on subjects ’ goods and merchandise ... was always done by several acts of parliament " . Wright notes that this was apparently greeted with complete silence , possibly because , while the MPs agreed that civil liberties had been eroded , they felt it was too dangerous to reclaim them . On 23 February 1620 , Fuller died at his home , Chamberhouse , at Crookham in Thatcham , Berkshire and was buried at the village 's parish church on 2 March . Most of his estate was passed to his wife , Sarah ( sister of Samuel Backhouse MP ) , and his eldest son , Nicholas , who died only four months later , leaving a three @-@ year @-@ old son .
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= Night of the Blood Beast =
Night of the Blood Beast is a 1958 American science @-@ fiction horror film about a team of scientists who are stalked by an alien creature , which implants its embryos in an astronaut 's body during a space flight . Produced by exploitation filmmaker Roger Corman and his brother Gene , it was one of the first films directed by Bernard L. Kowalski and was written by first @-@ time screenwriter Martin Varno , who was 21 years old . It starred several actors who had regularly worked with Roger Corman , including Michael Emmet , Ed Nelson , Steve Dunlap , Georgianna Carter and Tyler McVey .
It took Varno six weeks to write the script , the original working title of which was Creature from Galaxy 27 . The story was partially influenced by the real @-@ life Space Race and the Howard Hawks film The Thing from Another World ( 1951 ) . Screenwriters Jerome Bixby and Harold Jacob Smith gave Varno uncredited assistance with the dialogue . With a budget of about $ 68 @,@ 000 , it was shot over seven days at the Charlie Chaplin Studios , Bronson Canyon and a television station on Mount Lee in Hollywood .
The Blood Beast alien costume was also previously used in the Roger Corman film Teenage Cave Man ( 1958 ) , which was filmed just two weeks earlier . Art director Daniel Haller , who built the rocket @-@ ship and other props , slept at the sound stage between work sessions . Following dissatisfaction with his treatment by the Cormans , Varno pursued two successful arbitration cases , one of which was for underpayment . The other was in response to Gene Corman 's original story writing credit , even though Varno claimed to have written the entire story himself .
The film was featured in a 1996 episode of the comedy television series , Mystery Science Theater 3000 .
= = Plot = =
A rocket @-@ ship carrying astronaut John Corcoran ( Michael Emmet ) launches and orbits the Earth , marking the United States ' first manned space launch . Shortly after taking off , the ship is struck by an unknown object , forcing Corcoran to abort the mission and land . However , the equipment cannot handle the fast descent back into the atmosphere and the ship crash lands in the woods , killing Corcoran . Dave Randall ( Ed Nelson ) and Donna Bixby ( Georgianna Carter ) , two technicians from a nearby space agency tracking station , locate the crashed ship and recover Corcoran 's body . They are baffled , however , by what appears to be a giant tear in the side of the destroyed spacecraft and a mud @-@ like substance covering some of the wreckage . Randall and Bixby are joined by lead scientist Dr. Alex Wyman ( Tyler McVey ) , technician Steve Dunlap ( John Baer ) and physician Julie Benson ( Angela Greene ) , who was also Corcoran 's fiancee . Wyman observes that Corcoran 's body exhibits no signs of rigor mortis , and that the blood pooling beside him is not livid as it should be . The team brings the corpse back to their lab to run tests and find further irregularities . Although the body lacks a heartbeat or pulse , it maintains the blood pressure of a living human being . After looking at his blood in a microscope , they find unusual , unidentifiable cells that seem resistant to destruction from human white blood cells .
The team tries to call for further assistance , but find the radio is no longer working . Randall heads outside to check the power transformers , and is attacked by a large creature ( Ross Sturlin ) hiding in the underbrush around the station . Randall fires a few shots at the creature with his pistol and escapes unscathed . Although he did not get a good look at the creature , he describes it to the rest of the team as similar in size to a bear . Later , the team finds the infirmary has been trashed and Corcoran 's body is gone . They initially believe the creature has broken in and stole the corpse , but are shocked to instead find Corcoran has mysteriously regained consciousness . Upon checking his blood again , there is no trace of the mysterious cells from before , but after investigating Corcoran 's body , they find the cells have changed into lizard @-@ like fetuses and entered into his abdominal cavity . The creature later breaks into the lab again , this time beheading Dr. Wyman . Randall and Dunlap are initially suspicious that Corcoran was involved in the death , which he denies , but it appears he has some sort of telepathic connection with the creature . Despite Wyman 's death , Corcoran does not believe the creature is evil , but rather simply misunderstood . He implores the others to give the creature a chance to explain its actions , and asks that they not condemn it as a monster simply because it is different .
As the others plot to destroy the creature with improvised gas bombs and flares , Corcoran flees the station and finds the creature in a nearby cave . After consuming Wyman 's brain , the creature is now able to speak with the scientist 's voice and has absorbed his knowledge . Corcoran asks whether Wyman 's death was needed , but the creature insists it was a necessary sacrifice . The others arrive to destroy the creature , but hesitate because Corcoran will not step aside and let them throw their bombs . The creature insists it is not an evil monster , but an intelligent alien who has come to Earth to save the human race from its own self @-@ destructive tendencies . It explains that Corcoran 's body has been implanted with its embryos , which will allow the alien species to multiply and take over the human race , which the creature claims is the only way to truly save humanity . Upon realizing the creature is forcing the will of its species on the human race , Corcoran concludes the creature is evil after all and commits suicide so its embryos cannot come to fruition . The others then throw their explosives and kill the creature , which in its dying breaths warns that others from his species are waiting in space and will return one day to conquer humanity .
= = Cast = =
John Baer ... Steve Dunlap
Angela Greene ... Dr. Julie Benson
Ed Nelson ... Dave Randal
Georgianna Carter ... Donna Bixby
Michael Emmet ... Maj. John Corcoran
Tyler McVey ... Dr. Alex Wyman
Ross Sturlin ... The Creature
= = Production = =
= = = Writing = = =
Night of the Blood Beast was one of several films produced by B movie filmmaker Roger Corman and his brother , Gene Corman . The two also partnered together in making Hot Car Girl ( 1958 ) , Beast from Haunted Cave ( 1959 ) , Attack of the Giant Leeches ( 1959 ) and The Premature Burial ( 1962 ) . Jerome Bixby , the science fiction screenwriter who wrote It ! The Terror from Beyond Space ( 1958 ) , was originally approached for the job , but Bixby was working on another project and recommended his close friend Martin Varno for the job . Varno , the son of veteran actor Roland Varno , was 21 years old at the time . He met with Roger and Gene Corman , who discussed with him what Varno called " some sort of a weird idea for the picture " . They offered Varno a couple hundred dollars for the job , which was below the minimum compensation rates known as " scale " , but Varno was not part of the Writers Guild of America at the time and did not know about the guidelines . He accepted the offer and signed a contract . Although Varno had a rough idea it would be a low @-@ budget film , he said the Cormans set no specific guidelines for him : " I gave them the impression that I knew pretty much what I was doing , and they sort of got the idea that I wasn 't going to use 50 @,@ 000 extras and things . "
It took about six weeks to write the Blood Beast script . It was written under the working title Creature from Galaxy 27 , which was conceived by Varno , but the Corman brothers later changed it to Night of the Blood Beast . Gene Corman received film credit for conceiving the film 's story , but Varno claimed he wrote the film almost entirely himself and that Corman had little to do with the story : " He had some rambling ideas but they didn 't have very much to do with the movie that became Night of the Blood Beast . " Varno also said of him : " Gene didn 't open his mouth , really , until Roger told him he could . " Varno said he wrote the screenplay alone and showed parts of it to Roger and Gene Corman as he went along . Varno researched medical and aerospace technology at a library in Hollywood near Vine Street . The story , which fictionally portrays America 's manned voyage into space , was heavily influenced by the real life Space Race ongoing between the United States and Soviet Union at the time . Gene Corman said another major inspiration was The Thing from Another World ( 1951 ) , a Howard Hawks @-@ directed science fiction film about a group of soldiers and scientists threatened by an alien creature in a remote Arctic research outpost . He said of the film , " How could you not be [ influenced ] ? We had to be , if only indirectly or subconsciously . That was a classic film then , a classic film today . " However , Varno said any influence from The Thing was only subconscious : " I loved some of the scenes in The Thing and I 'm sure that crept in one way or another , but not overtly . "
Varno said he received uncredited assistance from his friends and fellow screenwriters Jerome Bixby and Harold Jacob Smith , the latter of whom won an Academy Award for Best Original Screenplay for the film The Defiant Ones ( 1958 ) . Varno ran lines and ideas by both men and sought advice . Smith in particular inspired lines for the speech made by the monster at the end of the film , in which the creature discusses how the human characters consider him the embodiment of evil simply because he is different from them . Varno said much of that dialogue from Smith , however , ended up getting cut from the final film . One of the primary themes of the film , as embodied in John Corcoran 's attempts to defend the alien creature , was that simply because someone or something is ugly or different does not necessarily make it evil . However , the script also followed a common trait of most horror films of the 1950s that even somewhat understandable monsters are not entirely sympathetic , and the Blood Beast creature proves itself evil by impregnating Corcoran against his will and pursuing world domination .
= = = Casting = = =
The Cormans cast the film together with director Bernard L. Kowalski , who was 28 years old at the time . Kowalski also directed Roger Corman 's Hot Car Girl . Night of the Blood Beast was one of Kowalski 's first directorial credits and his first science fiction film , although he later went on to direct Attack of the Giant Leeches . For the Blood Beast cast , they mostly selected actors that had worked on other Roger Corman films . Michael Emmet had worked with Kowalski on the Western television series Boots and Saddles , where Kowalski directed most of the episodes Emmet had a major role in and was impressed with the actor 's work ethic . Emmet later starred in the Roger Corman film Attack of the Giant Leeches . Ed Nelson also worked on several Roger Corman films , including Swamp Women ( 1955 ) , Attack of the Crab Monsters ( 1957 ) , Teenage Doll ( 1957 ) and She Gods of Shark Reef ( 1958 ) . When asked what Nelson remembered about the film during a 2003 interview , he admitted , " Not much " , but he said Roger and Gene Corman were very knowledgeable about film and treated the material " light @-@ heartedly " .
= = = Filming = = =
The film was shot over seven days with a budget of about $ 68 @,@ 000 . Both Roger and Gene Corman were present for most of the film 's production and involved creatively as well as financially . Gene was more involved with running the day @-@ to @-@ day operations while the more experienced Roger Corman supervised and provided guidance to both Gene and Kowalski . Martin Varno was also present for shooting . They operated out of the Charlie Chaplin Studios , which was called Kling Studios at the time . Some rewriting was done as the filming progressed , and director Bernard L. Kowalski called it a collaborative process that involved himself , the Cormans and the whole crew . Varno , however , said he was not happy with how the filming process went , and that the Cormans changed dialogue and story elements without his consultation or permission . He said it reached the point where he called his agent and said , " I am not working for these sons of bitches any more ! I am sick and tired of the whole thing ! "
All of the interior scenes were shot at sound stages inside Kling Studios . Most of the exterior shots were filmed as Bronson Canyon , a set of caves at Griffith Park in Los Angeles that was a popular shooting location for low @-@ budget films . The exterior scenes of the tracking station were shot at a television station on Mount Lee , not far from the Hollywood Sign . Varno said it was the first television station built in Los Angeles , but was only being used for emergency broadcasts when Blood Beast was filmed ; it had also been used during World War II to send information and propaganda to the Allied Forces ' overseas allies . Varno secured permission to film there simply by calling the city of Los Angeles and asking permission , something he said nobody else considered trying because they assumed the city would not allow it . Varno was familiar with the station because his father , Roland Varno , appeared in the first dramatic television show released in Los Angeles and it was transmitted from that station . For the Blood Beast shoot , Los Angeles charged a fee of $ 8 per actor to shoot at the station , but the crew could be any size . All shooting took place outside the station and none inside . Most of the station night scenes there were shot during the day , and the film crew often had to find shadows to shoot in or block out the sun to give the impression of nighttime . Gene Corman said of the shooting : " That was one of the more mobile units I 've ever been involved with . Normally , everybody chases the sun ; we were chasing the shadows . "
The alien costume featured in Night of the Blood Beast was the same as the one used in another Roger Corman film , Teenage Cave Man ( 1958 ) . This was done to save money , as the Cormans often tried to incorporate existing sets , costumes and other elements from previous films into new ones for financial savings . Varno said the Corman brothers were so conscious of their spending that " ' cheap ' was the main word in their vocabulary " . The monster costume scenes in Teenage Cave Man and Night of the Blood Beast were shot within about two weeks of each other . The costume was modified slightly for Blood Beast ; Varno claimed somebody on the set said " the nose looks too Jewish " , so it was cut down slightly to more resemble a beak . Ross Sturlin wore the costume for the scenes in both Teenage Cave Man and Night of the Blood Beast . Filming was very difficult for Sturlin because it grew extremely hot inside the costume during the exterior shots . John Mathew Nickolaus , Jr. was director of photography for the film , and Jack Bohrer was the production manager . Daniel Haller , who went on to become a film director himself , worked as art director on Night of the Blood Beast . Haller did much of the manual construction work on the set himself , and brought a trailer in to the sound stage so he could sleep there and between work sessions . Among the props he built was the rocket @-@ ship , the frame of which was made of plywood that had been cut into circles , then covered with a plastic sheet and spray @-@ painted to look metallic . Haller also created blood cells that the characters looked at under a microscope , and the baby aliens ( which resembled seahorses ) they looked at under a fluoroscope . Alexander Laszlo composed the music for the film . Almost the entire crew went on to work on Attack of the Giant Leeches with the Corman brothers and Kowalski .
= = WGA arbitration = =
Martin Varno 's dissatisfaction with the Cormans eventually led him to take them into formal arbitration proceedings . Although Varno was not a member of the Writers Guild of America when he wrote the Blood Beast script , he was encouraged by actor Jay Jostyn to discuss the matter with them . According to Varno , Jostyn claimed several actors and writers had similar problems with the Cormans in the past , but were not taking action because the Cormans provided them continued work in their films . After meeting with the Writers Guild , Varno became a member and filed arbitration papers against the Cormans for not paying him enough . Roger Corman was in the process of editing the film when he received the arbitration notice , and he became so angry he started screaming and throwing things in the cutting room . Varno claims one of the film crew members approached him and promised the Cormans would hire Varno to work on many of their future films if he dropped the matter , but Varno refused .
Varno later filed a second arbitration upon learning that Gene Corman was to receive writing credit for the original story . Varno claimed Corman had nothing to do with the story , and produced large amounts of dated notes he claimed proved he wrote it himself . Varno won both arbitration matters . However , Roger Corman refused to pay Varno , and as a result he was not allowed to use Writers Guild of America members on his films . Corman used non @-@ union writers for several years , but he finally agreed to pay Varno when he wanted to use a union writer on one of his films . Varno said he would have sought more money for the delay , but he was out of the country when Corman paid the money and missed his opportunity . Additionally , despite winning arbitration in the writing credit matter , Gene Corman was given on @-@ screen original story credit in Night of the Blood Beast . When contacted by the distributor , American International Pictures , he was told removing Corman 's credit would mean recalling all of the prints and changing them , which would have cost thousands of dollars , and Varno agreed to allow it remain unchanged .
= = Release = =
= = = Distribution = = =
Night at the Blood Beast was distributed by American International Pictures . It was test @-@ screened for audiences in unadvertised sneak previews , in which audiences attending a different film were surprised with a screening of Blood Beast instead . Coincidentally , Martin Varno attended one of these sneak previews without any advance knowledge of what it was . The screening was also attended by Roger and Gene Corman , who were not pleased by Varno 's presence . It was the first time the screenwriter had seen the completed film , which he did not enjoy , and he said of watching it : " On my left side was sitting Forry Ackerman , and on my right side was sitting Jerry Bixby . And their main job was to keep my hands held down so I wouldn 't cut my throat . " During its theatrical release , Night of the Blood Beast was a double feature co @-@ billed with She Gods of Shark Reef .
= = = Reviews = = =
John L. Flynn , a Towson University English professor who has written extensively about science @-@ fiction film , unfavorably compared Night of the Blood Beast to The Creeping Terror ( 1964 ) , which was also about an astronaut returning from space with a stowaway alien creature . Although Flynn said it lacked the " epic pretentiousness " of that film , he nevertheless said of Blood Beast : " Corman made a career out of making cheap knock @-@ offs of popular films , but he seems to be scraping the bottom of the barrel here " . The Washington Post writer Tom Shales said " it would be hard to find a worse movie " and that the monster " looks like the San Diego Chicken after having been tarred and feathered " . Film critic and historian Steven H. Scheuer said the plot was a good idea but criticized what he called a " sloppy execution " . Literary and film critic John Kenneth Muir said he considered the film a failure because the monster " simply could not live up to expectations once revealed " . Leonard Maltin 's Movie Guide gave the film one @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half out of four stars with the entry : " Well directed , but too low budget to succeed . " Night of the Blood Beast was among several films universally considered terrible that film reviewer Michael Adams watched as part of a book about his quest to find the worst film of all time . However , Adams said he enjoyed it on a B movie level , calling it " cheap but enjoyable and buoyed by its ideas " . John Stanley , who hosted the San Francisco television show Creature Features about science @-@ fiction films , said Night of the Blood Beast deliberately imitated the best scenes from The Thing from Another World .
= = Cultural references = =
Night of the Blood Beast was featured in the seventh season premiere episode of Mystery Science Theater 3000 . It was originally broadcast on November 23 , 1995 as a Thanksgiving special . The film ran along with Once Upon a Honeymoon ( 1956 ) , a short film about a married couple forced to postpone their honeymoon even further so that the husband can write a song for a telephone company and an angel who helps them out . Night of the Blood Beast was one of several Roger Corman @-@ produced or -directed films that were featured on the show , along with It Conquered the World ( 1956 ) , The Viking Women and the Sea Serpent ( 1957 ) , Teenage Cave Man ( 1958 ) , and Attack of the Giant Leeches ( 1959 ) . Night of the Blood Beast was featured along with three other episodes in the DVD box @-@ set " Mystery Science Theater 3000 : Volume XVI " , which was released on December 1 , 2009 .
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= Oscar Pistorius =
Oscar Leonard Carl Pistorius OIB ( / pɪsˈtɔːriəs / ; Afrikaans pronunciation : [ pisˈtɔrjus ] ; born 22 November 1986 ) is a South African sprint runner and convicted murderer . Both of Pistorius ' legs were amputated below the knee when he was 11 months old . He was the first athlete to compete at the Paralympic Games and Olympic Games , competing in sprint events for below @-@ knee amputees in Paralympic events , and in non @-@ disabled sprint events .
After becoming a Paralympic champion , Pistorius attempted to enter non @-@ disabled international competition , over persistent objections of the IAAF and charges that his artificial limbs gave an unfair advantage . Pistorius eventually prevailed in this legal dispute . At the 2011 World Championships in Athletics , Pistorius became the first amputee to win a non @-@ disabled world track medal . At the 2012 Summer Olympics , Pistorius became the first double @-@ leg amputee to participate in the Olympics .
On Valentine 's Day ( 14 February ) in 2013 , Pistorius fatally shot his girlfriend , model Reeva Steenkamp , in his Pretoria home . He claimed he had mistaken Steenkamp for an intruder hiding in the bathroom , but he was arrested and charged with murder . At his trial the following year , Pistorius was found guilty of culpable homicide . He received a five @-@ year prison sentence for culpable homicide and a concurrent three @-@ year suspended prison sentence for a separate reckless endangerment conviction .
In November 2014 , prosecutors asked the sentencing judge for permission to appeal the verdict . Permission was granted in December , and the case was presented to a five @-@ person panel at the Supreme Court of Appeal . He was released on house arrest , and on 3 December 2015 the Appeal Court overturned the culpable homicide verdict and convicted him of murder . Pistorius appeared in court on 13 June 2016 to start the sentence hearing for the murder conviction which concluded on 15 June 2016 after Judge Thokozile Masipa adjourned the sentencing until 6 July 2016 when she sentenced Pistorius to six years imprisonment for murder .
= = Early life = =
Oscar Pistorius was born to Henke and Sheila Pistorius on 22 November 1986 in Sandton , Johannesburg , in what was then Transvaal Province ( now Gauteng Province ) of South Africa . He grew up in a Christian home and has an elder brother , Carl , and a younger sister , Aimée . Pistorius credits his mother , who died at the age of 43 when Pistorius was 15 years old , as a major influence in his life . He is a white South African with Italian ancestry from his mother 's grandfather , an Italian emigrant to Kenya . He is an Afrikaner with Afrikaans as a mother tongue and is also fluent in English .
Pistorius was born with fibular hemimelia ( congenital absence of the fibula ) in both legs . When he was 11 months old , his legs were amputated halfway between his knees and ankles . He attended Constantia Kloof Primary School and Pretoria Boys High School , where he played rugby union in the school 's third XV team . He played water polo and tennis at provincial level between the ages of 11 and 13 . In addition , Pistorius took part in club Olympic wrestling , and trained at Jannie Brooks 's garage gym in Pretoria , South Africa . After a serious rugby knee injury in June 2003 , he was introduced to running in January 2004 while undergoing rehabilitation at the University of Pretoria 's High Performance Centre with coach Ampie Louw , and " never looked back " . His first racing blades were fitted by South African prosthetist Francois van der Watt . Because he was unable to find suitable running blades in Pretoria , Van der Watt ordered some to be made by a local engineer . However , as these quickly broke , Van der Watt referred Pistorius to American prosthetist and Paralympic sprinter Brian Frasure to be fitted for blades by Icelandic company Össur .
Pistorius began studying for a Bachelor of Trade & Commerce ( B.Com. ) in business management with sports science at the University of Pretoria in 2006 . In a June 2008 interview for his University 's website , he joked : " I won 't graduate soon . With all the training I have had to cut down on my subjects . Hopefully I 'll finish by the time I 'm 30 ! " Asked by a journalist for his " sporting motto " , he said : " You 're not disabled by the disabilities you have , you are able by the abilities you have . "
= = Sporting career = =
Pistorius competes in T44 ( single below @-@ knee amputees ) events though he is actually classified in T43 ( double below knee amputee ) . Sometimes referred to as the " Blade Runner " and " the fastest man on no legs " , Pistorius took part in the 2004 Summer Paralympics in Athens and came third overall in the T44 ( one leg amputated below the knee ) 100 @-@ metre event . Despite falling in the preliminary round for the 200 metres , he qualified for the final . He went on to win the final in a world record time of 21 @.@ 97 seconds , beating a pair of American runners both possessing a single amputation , Marlon Shirley and Brian Frasure .
In 2005 , Pistorius finished sixth in the non @-@ disabled South African Championships over 400 metres with a world @-@ record time of 47 @.@ 34 seconds , and at the Paralympic World Cup in the same year , he won gold in the 100 metres and 200 metres , beating his previous 200 @-@ metre world record . At the 2006 IPC Athletics World Championships , Pistorius won gold in the 100- , 200- and 400 @-@ metre events , breaking the world record over 200 metres . On 17 March 2007 , he set a disability sports world record for the 400 metres ( 46 @.@ 56 seconds ) at the South African Senior Athletics Championships in Durban ; and at the Nedbank Championships for the Physically Disabled held in Johannesburg in April 2007 , he became the world record holder of the 100- and 200 @-@ metre events with times of 10 @.@ 91 and 21 @.@ 58 seconds respectively .
Pistorius was invited by the IAAF to take part in what would have been his first international non @-@ disabled event , the 400 @-@ metre race at the IAAF Grand Prix in Helsinki , Finland , in July 2005 . He was unable to attend , however , because of school commitments . On 13 July 2007 , Pistorius ran in the 400 @-@ metre race at Rome 's Golden Gala and finished second in run B with a time of 46 @.@ 90 seconds , behind Stefano Braciola who ran 46 @.@ 72 seconds . This was a warm @-@ up for his appearance at the 400 metres at the Norwich Union British Grand Prix at the Don Valley Stadium in Sheffield on 15 July 2007 . As American Olympic champion Jeremy Wariner stumbled at the start of the race and stopped running , Pistorius took seventh place in a field of eight in wet conditions with a time of 47 @.@ 65 seconds . However , he was later disqualified for running outside his lane . The race was won by American Angelo Taylor with a time of 45 @.@ 25 seconds . Pistorius had ambitions of competing in other non @-@ disabled events . In particular , he had set his sights on competing at the 2008 Summer Olympics in Beijing , China , but was ultimately not selected by the South African Olympic Committee ( see below ) .
= = = Dispute over prosthetics = = =
Pistorius has been the subject of criticism because of claims that his artificial limbs give him an advantage over runners with natural ankles and feet . He runs with J @-@ shaped carbon @-@ fibre prosthetics called the " Flex @-@ Foot Cheetah " developed by biomedical engineer Van Phillips and manufactured by Össur .
On 26 March 2007 , the IAAF amended its competition rules to include a ban on the use of " any technical device that incorporates springs , wheels or any other element that provides a user with an advantage over another athlete not using such a device " . It claimed that the amendment was not specifically aimed at Pistorius . To decide whether he was running with an unfair advantage , the IAAF monitored his track performances using high @-@ definition cameras to film his race against Italian club runners in Rome on 13 July , and his 400 metres in Sheffield on 15 July 2007 , at which he placed last .
In November 2007 , Pistorius was invited to take part in a series of scientific tests at the Cologne Sports University under the guidance of Professor of Biomechanics Dr Peter Brüggemann in conjunction with Elio Locatelli , who was responsible with the IAAF of all technical issues . After two days of tests , Brüggemann reported on his findings on behalf of the IAAF . The report claimed that Pistorius 's limbs used 25 % less energy than runners with complete natural legs to run at the same speed , and that they led to less vertical motion combined with 30 % less mechanical work for lifting the body . In December , Brüggemann told Die Welt newspaper that Pistorius " has considerable advantages over athletes without prosthetic limbs who were tested by us . It was more than just a few percentage points . I did not expect it to be so clear . " Based on these findings , on 14 January 2008 , the IAAF ruled Pistorius 's prostheses ineligible for use in competitions conducted under the IAAF rules , including the 2008 Summer Olympics . Pistorius called the decision " premature and highly subjective " and pledged to continue fighting for his dream . His manager Peet van Zyl said his appeal would be based on advice from United States experts who had said that the report " did not take enough variables into consideration " .
Pistorius subsequently appealed against the adverse decision to the Court of Arbitration for Sport ( CAS ) in Lausanne , Switzerland , and appeared before the tribunal at the end of April 2008 . After a two @-@ day hearing , on 16 May 2008 , the Court of Arbitration for Sport upheld Pistorius 's appeal and the IAAF council decision was revoked with immediate effect . The CAS panel unanimously determined that Dr Brüggemann tested Pistorius 's biomechanics only at full @-@ speed when he was running in a straight line ( unlike a real 400 @-@ metre race ) ; that the report did not consider the disadvantages that Pistorius suffers at the start and acceleration phases of the race ; and that overall there was no evidence that he had any net advantage over non @-@ disabled athletes . In response to the announcement , Pistorius said : " My focus throughout this appeal has been to ensure that disabled athletes be given the chance to compete and compete fairly with non @-@ disabled athletes . I look forward to continuing my quest to qualify for the Olympics . "
= = = Attempts to qualify for 2008 Summer Olympics = = =
To have a chance of representing South Africa at the 2008 Summer Olympics in Beijing in the individual 400 @-@ metre race , Pistorius had to attain the Olympic " A " standard time of 45 @.@ 55 seconds ; the " B " qualifying time of 45 @.@ 95 seconds if no other athlete from his country achieved the faster time did not apply . Each national athletics federation is permitted to enter three athletes in an event if the " A " standard is met , and only one athlete if the " B " standard is met . However , he was eligible for selection as a member of the relay squad without qualifying . His best chance was to try for a time of close to 46 seconds to make the 4 × 400 @-@ metre relay team . However , he said : " If I make the team I don 't want to be the reserve for the relay , I want to be in the top four . I want to bring something to the race and make the relay stronger . " To give him a chance of making the South African Olympic team , selectors delayed naming the team until 17 July .
On 2 July 2008 , Pistorius competed in the 400 metres in the B race of the Notturna International in Milan but was " disappointed " when he failed to achieve the minimum Olympic qualification time , completing the race in fourth place in 47 @.@ 78 seconds . His performance on 11 July 2008 at the Rome Golden Gala was an improvement of more than a second , though his sixth @-@ place time of 46 @.@ 62 seconds in the B race was still short of the Olympic qualification time . Nonetheless , he was pleased with his performance , commenting that he felt he could improve on it .
On 15 July 2008 , IAAF general secretary Pierre Weiss commented that the world athletics body preferred that the South African Olympic Committee not select Pistorius for its 4 × 400 metres relay team " for reasons of safety " , saying that Pistorius could cause " serious damage " and risk the physical safety of himself and other athletes if he ran in the main pack of the relay . Pistorius branded this as the IAAF 's " last desperate attempt " to get him not to qualify , and threatened legal action if the Federation did not confirm that it had no objections to his participation in the relay . The IAAF responded by issuing a statement saying that Pistorius was welcome to seek qualification for the Olympics and future competitions under IAAF rules : " The IAAF fully respects the recent CAS decision regarding the eligibility of Oscar Pistorius to compete in IAAF competitions , and certainly has no wish to influence the South African Olympic Committee , who has full authority to select a men 's 4x400m relay team for the Beijing Olympics . "
Coming third with a personal best time of 46 @.@ 25 seconds at the Spitzen Leichtathletik meeting in Lucerne on 16 July 2008 , Pistorius failed to qualify for the 400 metres at the 2008 Summer Olympics by 0 @.@ 70 seconds . Athletics South Africa later announced that he would also not be selected for the 4 × 400 metres relay team as four other runners had better times . Had Pistorius been selected , he would have been one of the first competitors with a leg amputation to participate in the Olympic Games . Pistorius 's compatriot Natalie du Toit , a swimmer whose left leg was amputated above the knee after a traffic accident , duly became the first athlete with an amputation to qualify for the 2008 Summer Olympics . Asked about the possibility of the IAAF offering him a wild card to take part in the Olympics , Pistorius responded : " I do not believe that I would accept . If I have to take part in the Beijing Games I should do it because I qualified . " He expressed a preference for focusing on qualification for the 2012 Summer Olympics in London , stating that it was a more realistic target as " [ s ] printers usually reach their peak between 26 and 29 . I will be 25 in London and I 'll also have two , three years ' preparation . "
= = = 2008 Summer Paralympics = = =
Pistorius participated in the 2008 Summer Paralympics in Beijing in the 100 , 200 and 400 metres ( T44 ) . On 9 September , in the heats of the 100 metres , he set a Paralympic record with his time of 11 @.@ 16 seconds . Later , following a slow start , he rallied to snatch gold from the United States ' Jerome Singleton in the 100 metres in a time of 11 @.@ 17 seconds , 0 @.@ 03 seconds ahead of the silver medallist . Four days later , on 13 September , the defending Paralympic champion in the 200 @-@ metre sprint won his second gold in the event in a time of 21 @.@ 67 seconds , setting another Paralympic record . He completed a hat @-@ trick by winning gold in the 400 metres in a world @-@ record time of 47 @.@ 49 seconds on 16 September , calling it " a memory that will stay with me for the rest of my life " .
= = = 2011 and qualification for 2012 Summer Olympics = = =
In January 2011 , a slimmer , trimmer Pistorius won three IPC Athletics World titles in New Zealand but was beaten for the first time in seven years in the 100 metres by American Jerome Singleton . He subsequently won the T44 400 metres in 47 @.@ 28 seconds and the 100 metres in 11 @.@ 04 seconds at the BT Paralympic World Cup in May to reassert himself as the world 's leading Paralympic sprinter .
Pistorius competed across a number of non @-@ disabled races in the summer of 2011 and posted three times under 46 seconds , but it was at the 19th Internazionale di Atletica Sports Solidarity Meeting in Lignano , Italy , on 19 July that he set a personal best of 45 @.@ 07 seconds in the 400 metres , attaining the World Championships and Olympic Games " A " standard qualification mark . Pistorius won the 400 @-@ metres event with a posted time that ranked him as 15th fastest in the world .
On 8 August 2011 it was announced that he had been included in the South African team for the World Championships in Daegu , South Korea , and had been selected for the 400 @-@ metre and the 4 × 400 metre relay squad . In the heats of the 400 metres , Pistorius ran in 45 @.@ 39 seconds and qualified for the semifinal . However , in the semifinal , he ran 46 @.@ 19 seconds and was eliminated .
In the heats of the 4 × 400 metres relay , Pistorius ran the opening leg as South Africa advanced to the finals with a national record time of 2 minutes 59 @.@ 21 seconds . However , he was not selected to run in the finals based on having the slowest split time of 46 @.@ 20 . This caused a controversy , as the first leg is normally Pistorius 's slowest since it requires a start from blocks , and he was restricted to the first leg by Athletics South Africa " on safety grounds " . He initially tweeted " Haven 't been included in final . Pretty gutted . " , but later added " Well done to the SA 4 × 400m team . Was really hard watching , knowing I deserved to be part of it . " Pistorius still won the silver medal because he ran in the heats , becoming the first amputee to win an non @-@ disabled world track medal . Reflecting on his World Championship debut , Pistorius said : " I really enjoyed the whole experience . I ran my second fastest time ever in the heats and was really pleased to have reached the semifinals . In the relay I was unbelievably chuffed to have broken the South African record , and hopefully my name will stay on that for a long time to come . "
On 4 July 2012 , the South African Sports Confederation and Olympic Committee ( SASCOC ) announced that Pistorius had been included in the Olympic team for the 400 @-@ metre and the 4 × 400 metres relay races .
= = = 2012 Summer Olympics = = =
At the 2012 Summer Olympics on 4 August 2012 , Pistorius became the first amputee runner to compete at an Olympic Games . In the 400 metres race , he took second place in the first heat of five runners , finishing with a time of 45 @.@ 44 seconds ( his best time of the season so far ) to advance to the semifinals on 5 August . He ran in the second semifinal , where he finished eighth and last with a time of 46 @.@ 54 seconds .
In the first semifinal of the 4 × 400 metres relay race on 9 August , the second runner of the South African team , Ofentse Mogawane , fell and was injured before reaching Pistorius , who was to have run the third leg . South Africa was passed into the final on appeal to the IAAF , due to interference by Vincent Kiilu , the Kenyan athlete who downed Mogawane . The South African relay team eventually finished eighth out of the field of nine in the final on 10 August . However , it established a season 's best time for the team of 3 minutes 3 @.@ 46 seconds , with Pistorius running the final leg in 45 @.@ 9 seconds . Pistorius was chosen to carry the South African flag for the closing ceremony .
= = = 2012 Summer Paralympics = = =
Pistorius also carried the flag at the opening ceremony of the 2012 Summer Paralympics on 29 August . He entered the T44 classification men 's 100 metres , 200 metres and 400 metres races , and the T42 – T46 4 × 100 metres relay .
In the 200 @-@ metre competition , Pistorius established a new T43 world record of 21 @.@ 30 seconds in his heat on 1 September , but he was defeated in the final the next day by Alan Oliveira of Brazil . Pistorius took silver , and then created a controversy by complaining about the length of Oliveira 's blades . He later apologised for the timing of his remarks , but not the content of his complaint . The IPC confirmed the length of Oliveira ’ s blades were proportional to his body , with all the finalists measured before the race . The IPC also confirmed that Pistorius had raised the issue of blade length with it six weeks prior to the race . SASCOC issued a statement welcoming Pistorius 's apology for his outburst and declared their full support for him and promised to assist him in discussions with the IPC about the issue of lengthened prosthetics after the conclusion of the Games . The IPC expressed willingness to engage with Pistorius about the issue . Australian runner Jack Swift , USA runner Jerome Singleton , and other athletes also expressed support for Pistorius 's position .
Pistorius won a gold medal on 5 September running the anchor leg as part of the South African 4 × 100 metres relay team . The team set a world record time of 41 @.@ 78 seconds . He was unsuccessful in defending his Beijing Olympics 100 @-@ metre title when he came fourth with a season 's best time of 11 @.@ 17 seconds , and the race was won by Great Britain 's Jonnie Peacock . On 8 September , the last full day of competition , Pistorius won gold in the T44 400 metres with a time of 46 @.@ 68 seconds , breaking the Paralympic record .
= = Achievements = =
= = = Disability sports events = = =
= = = Non @-@ disabled sports events = = =
= = = Other awards and accolades = = =
In 2006 , Pistorius was conferred the Order of Ikhamanga in Bronze ( OIB ) by the President of South Africa for outstanding achievement in sports . On 9 December 2007 , Pistorius was awarded the BBC Sports Personality of the Year Helen Rollason Award , which is conferred for outstanding courage and achievement in the face of adversity .
In May 2008 , Pistorius made the " Time 100 " – Time magazine 's annual list of the world 's most influential people – appearing third in the " Heroes & Pioneers " section . Erik Weihenmayer , the first blind person to climb Mount Everest , wrote in an essay that Pistorius was " on the cusp of a paradigm shift in which disability becomes ability , disadvantage becomes advantage . Yet we mustn 't lose sight of what makes an athlete great . It 's too easy to credit Pistorius ' success to technology . Through birth or circumstance , some are given certain gifts , but it 's what one does with those gifts , the hours devoted to training , the desire to be the best , that is at the true heart of a champion . " In 2012 he made the list again .
In February 2012 , Pistorius was awarded the Laureus World Sports Award for Sportsperson of the Year with a Disability for 2012 . On 22 August 2012 , he was honoured with the unveiling of a large mural depicting his achievements in the town of Gemona , Italy .
On 9 September 2012 , Pistorius was shortlisted by the IPC for the Whang Youn Dai Achievement Award as a competitor " who is fair , honest and is uncompromising in his or her values and prioritises the promotion of the Paralympic Movement above personal recognition " . According to director Craig Spence , he was nominated by an unnamed external organisation from South Korea . The award went to two other athletes .
After the 2012 Summer Paralympics , the University of Strathclyde in Glasgow announced they would confer on Pistorius , among others , an honorary doctorate .
= = Sponsorship and charitable activities = =
Pistorius has sponsorship deals worth US $ 2 million a year with Össur , BT , Nike , Oakley and Thierry Mugler . In 2011 , Pistorius participated as a model in an advertising campaign for a Thierry Mugler fragrance called A * Men .
In 2008 , Pistorius collaborated in the release of a music CD called Olympic Dream . Produced in Italy , it consists of disco remixes of music pieces that Pistorius finds inspirational , and two tracks written for him , " Olympic Dream " and " Run Boy Run " , for which he provided voiceovers . Part of the CD 's proceeds of sale went to charity . Pistorius also actively supports the Mineseeker Foundation , a charity that works to raise awareness for landmine victims and has a support programme to provide prosthetics for victims .
On 21 February 2013 , after previously suspending adverts that featured Pistorius and the line " I am the bullet in the chamber " in the wake of his shooting of Reeva Steenkamp , sportswear manufacturer Nike suspended its contract with Pistorius . A company spokesperson stated : " We believe Oscar Pistorius should be afforded due process and we will continue to monitor the situation closely . "
= = Personal life = =
Pistorius has two visible tattoos . The dates of his mother 's birth and death ( " LVIII V VIII – II III VI " – 8 May 1958 – 6 March 2002 ) are tattooed on the inside of his right arm . The other tattoo , which is on his back , is the Bible verse 1 Corinthians 9 : 26 – 27 which begins , " I do not run like a man running aimlessly . " He used to own a house in South Africa which was sold in June 2014 , and used to train for the European season in Gemona del Friuli , Italy . Aside from running , his interests include architecture , motorbiking , and breeding race horses .
Pistorius 's autobiography , Dream Runner , was published in Italian in 2008 with Gianni Merlo , a journalist with La Gazzetta dello Sport . An English version entitled Blade Runner was released in 2009 . In 2010 , Pistorius appeared on L 'isola dei famosi , an Italian version of Celebrity Survivor . On 7 January 2012 , he appeared as a special guest on the Italian version of Dancing with the Stars called Ballando con le Stelle at Auditorium Rai in Rome , where he danced a tango with Annalisa Longo to ABBA 's " The Winner Takes It All " . On 9 October 2012 , Pistorius appeared on The Tonight Show with Jay Leno . He was also scheduled to appear on Piers Morgan Tonight and the Larry King Now show at later dates .
In February 2009 , Pistorius was seriously injured when he was thrown from a boat in an accident on the Vaal River near Johannesburg . He was airlifted to Milpark Hospital , where he underwent surgery to repair broken facial bones including his nose and jaw . There were initial concerns about his fitness , but he recovered fully . However , the accident affected his training and running schedule for that year .
Pistorius was scheduled as an amateur golfer in the 2012 Alfred Dunhill Links Championship held at St Andrews , Carnoustie and Kingsbarns in Scotland . Pistorius has a 21 handicap in South Africa , but played off an 18 handicap for the Championship . In 2010 he played in the Laureus World Sports Awards Golf Challenge at the Abu Dhabi Golf Club in Abu Dhabi , United Arab Emirates and the Help @-@ net Fund Celebrity Charity Golf Day .
= = Murder of Reeva Steenkamp = =
In the early morning of Thursday , 14 February 2013 , Pistorius shot and killed South African model Reeva Steenkamp at his home in Pretoria . Pistorius acknowledged that he shot Steenkamp , causing her death , but said that he mistook her for a possible intruder .
Pistorius ' trial for murder began on 3 March 2014 in Pretoria . On 20 May 2014 , the trial proceedings were adjourned until 30 June to enable Pistorius to undergo psychiatric evaluation to establish whether he could be held criminally responsible for shooting Steenkamp . Judge Thokozile Masipa agreed to a request for the evaluation by prosecutor Gerrie Nel after forensic psychiatrist Merryll Vorster testified for the defence that she had diagnosed Pistorius with generalized anxiety disorder . On 30 June 2014 , the trial resumed after the evaluation reports which said Pistorius could be held criminally responsible . The state prosecutor was quoted as saying , " Mr. Pistorius did not suffer from a mental illness or defect that would have rendered him criminally not responsible for the offence charged " . The defence closed its case on 8 July and closing arguments were heard on 7 and 8 August .
On 12 September , Pistorius was found guilty of culpable homicide and one firearm @-@ related charge , of reckless endangerment related to discharging a firearm in a restaurant . He was found not guilty of two firearm @-@ related charges relating to illegal possession of ammunition and firing a firearm through the sunroof of a car . On 21 October 2014 , he received a prison sentence of a maximum of five years for culpable homicide and a concurrent three @-@ year suspended prison sentence for the separate reckless endangerment conviction .
= = = Prison term = = =
Pistorius ' brother Carl told a South African weekly that his brother did not receive any special privileges during his first six weeks in prison . He was incarcerated for 17 hours per day in his cell and was allowed one hour of outdoor exercise and one hour in the weight room daily . He did not have a private bathroom , but was given a stool to use in the communal shower room . According to his brother , Pistorius advised inmates in the hospital wing about exercise , and wanted to initiate a prison basketball program .
In June 2015 , Pistorius was recommended for early release as early as August . South African Commissioner of Correctional Services Zach Modise told the BBC of the decision by the case management committee at the Kgosi Mampuru II prison in Pretoria , where Pistorius was being held : " Under South African law he is eligible for release under ' correctional supervision ' having served a sixth of his sentence . "
After Pistorius served approximately one @-@ sixth of his prison term , his release date to house arrest was announced for 21 August 2015 . This release was based on good behavior and the fact that he was not considered a danger to the community . Pistorius was expected to remain under house arrest and correctional supervision , and was expected to perform community service as part of his continuing sentence . Regardless of his release from prison , Pistorius could not return to official athletic competition until the whole five years of his sentence was complete . On 19 August 2015 , his release was unexpectedly blocked by South Africa 's Justice Minister Michael Masutha . According to Masutha , the parole board 's decision for early release was " premature . " Legal experts noted that the move was likely due to political pressure and had implications for other cases of pending early release . He was released from prison on 19 October 2015 .
= = = Case appeal = = =
On 4 November 2014 , prosecutors applied to the sentencing judge for permission to appeal the culpable homicide verdict , stating that the five @-@ year prison term was " shockingly light , inappropriate and would not have been imposed by any reasonable court " . Judge Thokozile Masipa ruled on 10 December 2014 that the prosecution could challenge her ruling of acquitting Pistorius of premeditated murder and the lesser charge of culpable homicide . However , she ruled that the state could not appeal the length of the sentence . The case was then set for appeal in front of a five @-@ person panel at the Supreme Court of Appeal .
The date for prosecutors to submit court papers outlining their arguments was set for 17 August 2015 , and the date for the defense team 's response was set for 17 September 2015 . The date for the appeal hearing was set for November 2015 . The prosecutors ' argument rested on Judge Masipa 's application of the legal principle of dolus eventualis ( whether an accused did actually foresee the outcome of his actions , rather than whether he or she should have ) , and that the judge made an error in concluding Pistorius had not foreseen that by firing four shots through the closed door of the toilet cubicle , he would kill or injure whoever was behind the door .
The appeal was heard on 3 November 2015 , in the Supreme Court of Appeal , Bloemfontein . The matter was heard before 5 Supreme Court judges . By a unanimous decision , the court overturned Pistorius ' culpable homicide conviction and found him guilty of murder in the death of Reeva Steenkamp . Judge Eric Leach read the summary of judgment . The panel of five judges found for the prosecutor 's argument that Pistorius must have known that someone would die if he fired through the closed door into a small toilet cubicle . In the words of Judge Leach , " Although he may have been anxious , it is inconceivable that a rational person could have believed he was entitled to fire at this person with a heavy @-@ calibre firearm , without taking even that most elementary precaution of firing a warning shot , which the accused said he elected not to fire as he thought the ricochet might harm him . "
According to the judgement , the person who Pistorius thought was in the cubicle had nothing to do with the results of his actions . The culpable homicide verdict was replaced with a murder conviction , and the case was referred back to the trial court for a sentencing hearing when it reconvenes on 18 April 2016 .
On 8 December 2015 , it was announced Pistorius would continue to remain free on bail but under house arrest pending his appeal to the Constitutional Court . On 3 March 2016 it was announced Pistorius had been denied his right to appeal , and will next be due in court on 13 June 2016 to begin a 5 @-@ day sentencing hearing for the murder conviction , concluding on 17 June 2016 .
On 15 June 2016 , the sentencing was adjourned by Judge Thokozile Masipa until 6 July 2016 .
= = = Second prison term = = =
On 6 July 2016 Pistorius was sentenced to six years imprisonment for murder by Judge Thokozile Masipa ; once again he was incarcerated on the hospital wing at the Kgosi Mampuru II jail . It is anticipated that Pistorius will be eligible for release on parole after serving between 2 – 4 years of his sentence .
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= Battle for Henderson Field =
The Battle for Henderson Field , also known as the Battle of Henderson Field or Battle of Lunga Point by the Japanese , took place from 23 – 26 October 1942 on and around Guadalcanal in the Solomon Islands . The battle was a land , sea , and air battle of the Pacific campaign of World War II and was fought between the Imperial Japanese Army and Navy and Allied ( mainly United States ( U.S. ) Marine and U.S. Army ) forces . The battle was the third of the three major land offensives conducted by the Japanese during the Guadalcanal campaign .
In the battle , U.S. Marine and Army forces , under the overall command of Major General Alexander Vandegrift , repulsed an attack by the Japanese 17th Army , under the command of Japanese Lieutenant General Harukichi Hyakutake . The U.S. forces were defending the Lunga perimeter , which guarded Henderson Field on Guadalcanal , that had been captured from the Japanese by the Allies in landings on Guadalcanal on 7 August 1942 . Hyakutake 's force was sent to Guadalcanal in response to the Allied landings with the mission of recapturing the airfield and driving the Allied forces off of the island .
Hyakutake 's soldiers conducted numerous assaults over three days at various locations around the Lunga perimeter , all repulsed with heavy Japanese losses . At the same time , Allied aircraft operating from Henderson Field successfully defended U.S. positions on Guadalcanal from attacks by Japanese naval air and sea forces .
The battle was the last serious ground offensive conducted by Japanese forces on Guadalcanal . After an attempt to deliver further reinforcements failed during the Naval Battle of Guadalcanal in November 1942 , Japan conceded defeat in the struggle for the island and evacuated many of its remaining forces by the first week of February 1943 .
= = Background = =
= = = Guadalcanal campaign = = =
On 7 August 1942 , Allied forces ( primarily U.S. ) landed on Guadalcanal , Tulagi , and Florida Islands in the Solomon Islands . The landings on the islands were meant to deny their use by the Japanese as bases for threatening the supply routes between the U.S. and Australia , and to secure the islands as starting points for a campaign with the eventual goal of isolating the major Japanese base at Rabaul while also supporting the Allied New Guinea campaign . The landings initiated the six @-@ month @-@ long Guadalcanal campaign .
Taking the Japanese by surprise , by nightfall on 8 August , the 11 @,@ 000 Allied troops — under the command of then Major General Alexander Vandegrift and mainly consisting of U.S. Marine Corps units — had secured Tulagi and nearby small islands , as well as an airfield under construction at Lunga Point on Guadalcanal . The airfield was later named " Henderson Field " by Allied forces . The Allied aircraft that subsequently operated out of the airfield became known as the " Cactus Air Force " ( CAF ) after the Allied codename for Guadalcanal . To protect the airfield , the U.S. Marines established a perimeter defense around Lunga Point .
In response to the Allied landings on Guadalcanal , the Japanese Imperial General Headquarters assigned the Imperial Japanese Army 's 17th Army — a corps @-@ sized command based at Rabaul and under the command of Lieutenant @-@ General Harukichi Hyakutake — with the task of retaking Guadalcanal from Allied forces . On 19 August , various units of the 17th Army began to arrive on Guadalcanal with the goal of driving Allied forces from the island .
Because of the threat by CAF aircraft based at Henderson Field , the Japanese were unable to use large , slow transport ships to deliver troops and supplies to the island . Instead , the Japanese used warships based at Rabaul and the Shortland Islands to carry their forces to Guadalcanal . The Japanese warships , mainly light cruisers or destroyers from the Eighth Fleet under the command of Vice Admiral Gunichi Mikawa , were usually able to make the round trip down " The Slot " to Guadalcanal and back in a single night , thereby minimizing their exposure to CAF air attack . Delivering the troops in this manner , however , prevented most of the soldiers ' heavy equipment and supplies , such as heavy artillery , vehicles , and much food and ammunition , from being carried to Guadalcanal with them . These high speed warship runs to Guadalcanal occurred throughout the campaign and were later called the " Tokyo Express " by Allied forces and " Rat Transportation " by the Japanese .
The first Japanese attempt to recapture Henderson Field failed when a 917 @-@ man force was defeated on 21 August in the Battle of the Tenaru . The next attempt took place from 12 – 14 September , with the 6 @,@ 000 soldiers under the command of Major General Kiyotake Kawaguchi being defeated in the Battle of Edson 's Ridge . After their defeat at Edson 's Ridge , Kawaguchi and the surviving Japanese troops regrouped west of the Matanikau River on Guadalcanal .
Hyakutake immediately began to prepare for another attempt to recapture Henderson Field . The Japanese navy promised to support Hyakutake 's next offensive by delivering the necessary troops , equipment , and supplies to the island , and by stepping @-@ up air attacks on Henderson Field and sending warships to bombard the airfield .
As the Japanese regrouped , the U.S. forces concentrated on shoring up and strengthening their Lunga defenses . On 18 September , an Allied naval convoy delivered 4 @,@ 157 men from the U.S. 7th Marine Regiment to Guadalcanal . This regiment had previously formed part of the 3rd Provisional Marine Brigade and was fresh from garrison duty in Samoa . These reinforcements allowed Vandegrift , beginning on 19 September , to establish an unbroken line of defense completely around the Lunga perimeter .
General Vandegrift and his staff were aware that Kawaguchi 's troops had retreated to the area west of the Matanikau and that numerous groups of Japanese stragglers were scattered throughout the area between the Lunga Perimeter and the Matanikau River . Vandegrift , therefore , decided to conduct a series of small unit operations around the Matanikau Valley .
The first U.S. Marine operation against Japanese forces west of the Matanikau , conducted between 23 and 27 September 1942 by elements of three U.S. Marine battalions , was repulsed by Kawaguchi 's troops under Colonel Akinosuke Oka 's local command . In the second action , between 6 and 9 October , a larger force of U.S. Marines successfully crossed the Matanikau River , attacked newly landed Japanese forces from the 2nd ( Sendai ) Infantry Division under the command of generals Masao Maruyama and Yumio Nasu and inflicted heavy casualties on the Japanese 4th Infantry Regiment . The second action forced the Japanese to retreat from their positions east of the Matanikau .
In the meantime , Major General Millard F. Harmon , commander of U.S. Army forces in the South Pacific , convinced Vice Admiral Robert L. Ghormley , commander of Allied forces in the South Pacific Area , that U.S. Marine forces on Guadalcanal needed to be reinforced immediately if the Allies were to successfully defend the island from the next expected Japanese offensive . Thus on 13 October , a naval convoy delivered the 2 @,@ 837 @-@ strong 164th U.S. Infantry Regiment , a North Dakota Army National Guard formation from the U.S. Army 's Americal Division , commanded by Colonel Robert Hall , to Guadalcanal .
Mikawa 's ships continued nocturnal deliveries of men and materiel to Guadalcanal . Between 1 and 17 October , Japanese convoys delivered 15 @,@ 000 Japanese troops , comprising the remainder of the 2nd Infantry Division and one regiment of the 38th Infantry Division , plus artillery , tanks , ammunition , and provisions , to Guadalcanal . One of these — on 9 October — landed General Hyakutake on the island to personally lead the Japanese forces in the planned offensive . Mikawa also sent heavy cruisers on several occasions to bombard Henderson Field . On the night of 11 October , one of these bombardment missions was intercepted by U.S. naval forces and defeated in the Battle of Cape Esperance .
On 13 October , in order to help protect the transit of an important supply convoy to Guadalcanal that consisted of six slower cargo ships , the Japanese Combined Fleet commander Isoroku Yamamoto sent a naval force from Truk — commanded by Vice @-@ Admiral Takeo Kurita — to bombard Henderson Field . Kurita 's force — consisting of the battleships Kongō and Haruna , escorted by one light cruiser and nine destroyers — approached Guadalcanal unopposed and opened fire on Henderson Field at 01 : 33 on 14 October . Over the next 83 minutes , they fired nine hundred and seventy @-@ three 14 in ( 360 mm ) shells into the Lunga perimeter , most of them falling in and around the 2 @,@ 200 m ² area of the airfield . The bombardment heavily damaged the airfield 's two runways , burned almost all of the available aviation fuel , destroyed 48 of the CAF 's 90 aircraft , and killed 41 men , including six CAF aircrew .
Despite the heavy damage , Henderson personnel were able to restore one of the runways to operational condition within a few hours . Over the next several weeks , the CAF gradually recovered as Allied forces delivered more aircraft , fuel , and aircrew personnel to Guadalcanal . Observing the Japanese deliveries of troops and supplies to the island , American forces were expecting an imminent offensive by Japanese ground forces , but they were not sure where and when it would take place .
= = = Troop movement = = =
Because of the loss of their positions on the east side of the Matanikau , the Japanese decided that an attack on the U.S. defenses along the coast would be prohibitively difficult . Thus , after observation of the American defences around Lunga Point by his staff officers , Hyakutake decided that the main thrust of his planned attack would be from south of Henderson Field . His 2nd Division ( augmented by one regiment from 38th Division ) , under Lieutenant General Masao Maruyama and comprising 7 @,@ 000 soldiers in three infantry regiments of three battalions each was ordered to march through the jungle and attack the American defences from the south near the east bank of the Lunga River . The 2nd Division was split into three units ; the Left Wing Unit under Major General Yumio Nasu containing the 29th Infantry Regiment , the Right Wing Unit under Major General Kiyotake Kawaguchi consisting of the 230th Infantry Regiment ( from the 38th Infantry Division ) , and the division reserve led by Maruyama comprising the 16th Infantry Regiment . The date of the attack was set for 22 October . To distract the Americans from the planned attack from the south , Hyakutake 's heavy artillery plus five battalions of infantry ( about 2 @,@ 900 men ) under Major General Tadashi Sumiyoshi were to attack the American defenses from the west along the coastal corridor . The Japanese estimated that there were 10 @,@ 000 American troops on the island , when in fact there were about 23 @,@ 000 .
At this time , the Lunga perimeter was defended by four American regiments comprising 13 infantry battalions . The 164th Infantry Regiment guarded the easternmost sector . Extending from the 164th south and west across Edson 's Ridge to the Lunga River was the 7th Marine Regiment . Covering the sector west of the Lunga to the coast were the 1st and 5th Marine Regiments . Defending the mouth of the Matanikau for the Americans were two battalions under the command of Lieutenant Colonel William J. McKelvy : the 3d Battalion , 1st Marines , and the 3d Battalion , 7th Marines . McKelvy 's force was separated from the Lunga perimeter by a gap that was covered by patrols .
= = Battle = =
= = = Prelude = = =
On 12 October , a company of Japanese engineers began to break a trail , called the " Maruyama Road " , from the Matanikau towards the southern portion of the U.S. Lunga perimeter . The trail traversed some 15 mi ( 24 km ) of the most difficult terrain on Guadalcanal , including numerous rivers and streams , deep , muddy ravines , steep ridges , and dense jungle . Between 16 and 18 October , the 2nd Division began their march along the Maruyama Road , led by Nasu 's unit and followed in order by Kawaguchi and Maruyama . Each soldier had been ordered to carry one artillery shell plus his pack and rifle .
Early on the morning of 20 October , Maruyama reached the Lunga River . Believing that his units were about 4 mi ( 6 @.@ 4 km ) south of the airfield , he ordered the left and right wing units to advance abreast of each other parallel to the Lunga north towards the American lines and set the time of the attack for 18 : 00 on 22 October . Maruyama , however , was mistaken . He and his troops were actually 8 mi ( 13 km ) south of the airfield . By the evening of 21 October , it was clear to Maruyama that his units would not be in position to attack the next day , so he postponed the attack to 23 October and put his men on half rations to conserve their dwindling food supply . At nightfall on 22 October , much of the 2nd Division still remained strung out along the Maruyama Road , but Maruyama ruled out any postponement of the attack .
During this time , Sumiyoshi prepared his command to attack the American forces from the west . On 18 October , he began shelling Henderson Field with 15 150 mm ( 5 @.@ 9 in ) howitzers . What remained of the 4th Infantry Regiment under Colonel Nomasu Nakaguma began to gather openly near Point Cruz ( on the coast just west of the Matanikau ) . On 19 October , Colonel Akinosuka Oka led the 1 @,@ 200 troops of his 124th Infantry Regiment inland across the Matanikau and began moving up the east bank towards high ground east of the river .
On 23 October , Maruyama 's forces struggled through the jungle to reach the American lines . Kawaguchi , on his own initiative , began to shift his right wing unit to the east , believing that the American defenses were weaker in that area . Maruyama — through one of his staff officers — ordered Kawaguchi to keep to the original attack plan . When he refused , Kawaguchi was relieved of command and replaced by Colonel Toshinari Shoji , commander of the 230th Infantry Regiment . That evening , after learning that the left and right wing forces were still struggling to reach the American lines , Hyakutake postponed the attack to 19 : 00 on 24 October . The Americans remained completely unaware of the approach of Maruyama 's forces .
On this day , the Japanese 11th Air Fleet under Jinichi Kusaka based at Rabaul sent 16 Mitsubishi G4M2 " Betty " bombers and 28 A6M2 Zero fighters to attack Henderson Field . In response , 24 F4F @-@ 4 Wildcats and four P @-@ 400 Airacobras from the CAF ( Cactus Air Force ) rose to meet them , resulting in a large aerial battle . The Japanese appeared , to Allied observers , to lose several aircraft in the day 's engagements , but their actual losses are unknown . The CAF lost one Wildcat to battle damage but the pilot was uninjured .
= = = Nakaguma 's attack on the Matanikau = = =
Sumiyoshi was informed by Hyakutake 's staff of the postponement of the offensive to 24 October , but was unable to contact Nakaguma to inform him of the delay . Thus , at dusk on 23 October , two battalions of Nakaguma 's 4th Infantry Regiment and the nine tanks of the 1st Independent Tank Company launched attacks on the U.S. Marine defenses at the mouth of the Matanikau .
Nakaguma 's tanks attacked in pairs across the sandbar at the mouth of the Matanikau behind a barrage of artillery . Marine 37 mm ( 1 @.@ 46 in ) anti @-@ tank guns and artillery quickly destroyed all nine tanks . At the same time , four battalions of Marine artillery , totalling 40 howitzers , fired over 6 @,@ 000 rounds into the area between Point Cruz and the Matanikau , causing heavy casualties in Nakaguma 's infantry battalions as they tried to approach the Marine lines . Nakaguma 's attacks ended by 01 : 15 on 24 October , inflicting only light casualties on the Marines and gaining no ground .
Partly in response to Nakaguma 's attacks , on 24 October the 2nd Battalion , 7th Marines under Lieutenant Colonel Herman H. Hanneken deployed to the Matanikau . After Oka 's forces were sighted approaching the Marine Matanikau positions from the south , Hanneken 's battalion was placed on a ridge facing south which formed a continuous extension of the inland flank of the Marine 's horseshoe @-@ shaped Matanikau defenses . A gap , however , still remained between Hanneken 's left ( east ) flank and the main perimeter .
= = = Maruyama 's first attacks on the perimeter = = =
With the redeployment of Hanneken 's battalion , the 700 troops of 1st Battalion , 7th Marines under Lieutenant Colonel Chesty Puller were left alone to hold the entire 2 @,@ 500 yd ( 2 @,@ 300 m ) line on the southern face of the Lunga perimeter east of the Lunga River . Late on 24 October , Marine patrols detected Maruyama 's approaching forces , but it was now too late in the day for the Marines to rearrange their dispositions .
At 14 : 00 on 24 October , Maruyama 's left and right wing units began to deploy for their attacks . Maruyama 's troops had very little artillery or mortar support for their upcoming assault , having abandoned most of their heavy cannons along the Maruyama Road . Between 16 : 00 and 21 : 00 , heavy rain fell , delaying the Japanese approach and causing " chaos " in the Japanese formations , already exhausted from the long march through the jungle . Shoji 's right wing force accidentally turned parallel to the Marine lines , and all but one battalion failed to make contact with the Marine defenses . Shoji 's 1st Battalion , 230th Infantry Regiment " stumbled " into Puller 's lines about 22 : 00 and were driven off by Puller 's men . For unknown reasons , Maruyama 's staff then reported to Hyakutake that Shoji 's men had overrun Henderson Field . At 00 : 50 on 25 October , Hyakutake signaled Rabaul that , " A little before 23 : 00 the Right Wing captured the airfield . "
At about this time , Nasu 's left wing battalions finally began to reach the Marine defenses . At 00 : 30 on 25 October , the 11th Company of Nasu 's 3rd Battalion under Captain Jiro Katsumata found and attacked Company A of Puller 's battalion . Katsumata 's attack was impeded by heavy barbed wire in front of the Marine line and then hit heavily by American machine gun , mortar , and artillery fire . By 01 : 00 , the Marine fire had killed most of Katsumata 's company .
Further west , the 9th Company of Nasu 's 3rd Battalion charged straight into Puller 's Company C at 01 : 15 . Within five minutes , a Marine machine gun section led by Sergeant John Basilone killed almost every member of the 9th Company . By 01 : 25 , heavy fire from the Marine divisional artillery was falling into Nasu 's troop assembly and approach routes , causing heavy casualties .
Recognizing that a major Japanese attack was underway , Puller requested reinforcement . At 03 : 45 , the 3rd Battalion , 164th Infantry , commanded by Lieutenant Colonel Robert Hall and being held in reserve , was fed piecemeal into Puller 's line . In spite of the darkness and intermittent heavy rain , the Army National Guard troops were placed in Puller 's defences before daybreak .
Just before dawn , Colonel Masajiro Furimiya , the commander of the 29th Infantry , with two companies from his 3rd Battalion plus his headquarters staff , was able to penetrate the Marine artillery fire and reach Puller 's lines about 03 : 30 . Most of Furimiya 's troops were killed during their assault , but about 100 broke through the American defenses and carved a salient 150 yd ( 140 m ) in width and 100 yd ( 91 m ) deep in the center of Puller 's line . After sunrise , Furimiya 's 2nd Battalion joined in the assault on Puller , but were thrown back . At 07 : 30 , Nasu decided to withdraw most of the remainder of his troops back into the jungle and prepare for another attack that night .
During the day of 25 October , Puller 's men attacked and eradicated the salient in their lines and hunted small groups of Japanese infiltrators , killing 104 Japanese soldiers . More than 300 of Maruyama 's men in total were killed in their first attacks on the Lunga perimeter . At 04 : 30 , Hyakutake rescinded the message announcing the capture of the airfield , but at 07 : 00 declared that the results of Maruyama 's attack were unknown .
= = = Naval and air attacks = = =
The Japanese 8th Fleet had task units ready to support the Army 's attacks on Guadalcanal . Upon receipt of Hyakutake 's message declaring success at 00 : 50 on 24 October , the task units went into action . The light cruiser Sendai and three destroyers patrolled west of Guadalcanal to interdict any Allied ships that tried to approach the island . A First Assault Unit with three destroyers and a Second Assault Unit with the light cruiser Yura and five destroyers approached Guadalcanal to attack any Allied ships off the island 's north or east coast and to provide gunfire support for Hyakutake 's forces .
At 10 : 14 , the First Assault Unit arrived off Lunga Point and chased away two old U.S. destroyers converted to minesweepers — Zane and Trevor — which were delivering aviation fuel to Henderson Field . The Japanese destroyers then sighted and sank the U.S. tugboat Seminole and patrol boat YP @-@ 284 before beginning their bombardment of the U.S. positions around Lunga Point . At 10 : 53 , a Marine shore gun hit and damaged the destroyer Akatsuki , and all three Japanese destroyers withdrew while being strafed by four CAF Wildcat fighters .
As the Second Assault Unit approached Guadalcanal through Indispensable Strait , it was attacked by five CAF SBD @-@ 3 Dauntless dive bombers . Bomb hits caused heavy damage to Yura , and the unit reversed course to try to escape . More CAF air attacks on Yura throughout the day caused further damage , and the cruiser was abandoned and scuttled at 21 : 00 that night .
Meanwhile , 82 Japanese bombers and fighters from the 11th Air Fleet and from the aircraft carriers Junyō and Hiyō attacked Henderson Field in six waves throughout the day and were engaged by CAF fighters and Marine anti @-@ aircraft guns . By the end of the day , the Japanese had lost 11 fighters , two bombers , and one reconnaissance aircraft along with most of the aircrews in the downed aircraft . Two CAF fighters were destroyed in the day 's fighting but both pilots survived . The Japanese air attacks caused only light damage to Henderson Field and the American defenses . The Americans later referred to this day as " Dugout Sunday " because the continuous Japanese air , naval , and artillery attacks kept many of the Lunga defenders in their foxholes and shelters throughout the day .
= = = Maruyama 's second attacks on the perimeter = = =
Throughout the day of 25 October , the Americans redeployed and improved their defences against the Japanese attack they were expecting that night . In the west , Hanneken and the 5th Marines closed the gap between their two forces . Along the southern portion of the perimeter , Puller 's and Hall 's troops disentwined and repositioned . Puller 's men fortified the western 1 @,@ 400 yd ( 1 @,@ 300 m ) of the sector and the 164th soldiers took the eastern 1 @,@ 100 yd ( 1 @,@ 000 m ) segment . The division reserve , the 3rd Battalion , 2nd Marine Regiment was placed directly behind Hall 's and Puller 's positions .
Maruyama committed his reserve force , the 16th Infantry Regiment , to Nasu 's left wing unit . Beginning at 20 : 00 on 25 October , and extending into the early morning hours of the 26th , the 16th and what remained of Nasu 's other units conducted numerous , unsuccessful frontal assaults on Puller 's and Hall 's lines . U.S. Marine and Army rifle , machine gun , mortar , artillery and direct canister fire from 37 mm anti @-@ tank guns " wrought terrible carnage " on Nasu 's men . Colonel Toshiro Hiroyasu , the commander of the 16th , and most of his staff as well as four Japanese battalion commanders were killed in the assaults . Nasu was hit by rifle fire and mortally wounded , dying a few hours later . A few small groups of Nasu 's men broke through the American defenses , including one led by Colonel Furimiya , but were all hunted down and killed over the next several days . Shoji 's right wing units did not participate in the attacks , choosing instead to remain in place to cover Nasu 's right flank against a possible attack in that area by U.S. forces that never materialized .
= = = Oka 's attack = = =
At 03 : 00 on 26 October , Oka 's unit finally reached and attacked the Marine defenses near the Matanikau . Oka 's troops assaulted all along an east @-@ west saddle ridge held by Hanneken 's battalion but concentrated particularly on Hanneken 's Company F , which defended the extreme left flank of the Marine positions on the ridge . A Company F machine gun section under Mitchell Paige killed many of the Japanese attackers , but Japanese fire eventually killed or injured almost all the Marine machine gunners . At 05 : 00 , Oka 's 3rd Battalion , 4th Infantry succeeded in scaling the steep slope of the ridge and pushed the surviving members of Company F off of the crest .
Responding to the Japanese capture of part of the ridgeline , Major Odell M. Conoley — Hanneken 's battalion executive officer — quickly gathered a counterattack unit of 17 men , including communications specialists , messmen , a cook , and a bandsman . Conoley 's scratch force was joined by elements of Hanneken 's Company G , Company C , and a few unwounded survivors from Company F and attacked the Japanese before they could consolidate their positions on top of the ridge . By 06 : 00 , Conoley 's force had pushed the Japanese back off of the ridge , effectively ending Oka 's attack . The Marines counted 98 Japanese bodies on the ridge and 200 more in the ravine in front of it . Hanneken 's unit suffered 14 killed and 32 wounded .
= = Aftermath = =
= = = Retreat = = =
At 08 : 00 on 26 October , Hyakutake called off any further attacks and ordered his forces to retreat . Maruyama 's men recovered some of their wounded from near the American lines on the night of 26 – 27 October , and began to withdraw back into the deep jungle . The Americans recovered and buried or burned as quickly as possible the remains of 1 @,@ 500 of Maruyama 's men left lying in front of Pullers 's and Hall 's lines . Said one U.S. Army participant , John E. Stannard , of the scene after the battle , " The carnage of the battlefield was a sight that perhaps only the combat infantryman , who has fought at close quarters , could fully comprehend and look upon without a feeling of horror . One soldier , after a walk among the Japanese dead , said to his comrade : ' My God , what a sight . There 's dead Japs stretched from the Corner back along the edge of the jungle for a half a mile . ' "
Maruyama 's left wing survivors were ordered to retreat back to the area west of the Matanikau River while Shoji 's right wing was told to head for Koli Point , east of the Lunga perimeter . The left wing soldiers , who had run out of food several days before , began the retreat on 27 October . During the retreat , many of the Japanese wounded succumbed to their injuries and were buried along the Maruyama road . One of Maruyama 's men , Lieutenant Keijiro Minegishi , noted in his diary , " I never dreamed of retreating over the same mountainous trail through the jungle we crossed with such enthusiasm ... we haven 't eaten in three days and even walking is difficult . On the up hill my body swayed around unable to walk . I must rest every two meters . "
Leading elements of the 2nd Division reached the 17th Army headquarters area at Kokumbona , west of the Matanikau on 4 November . The same day , Shoji 's unit reached Koli Point and made camp . Decimated by battle deaths , combat injuries , malnutrition , and tropical diseases , the 2nd Division was incapable of further offensive action and would fight as a defensive force for the rest of the campaign . Later in November , U.S. forces drove Shoji 's soldiers from Koli Point back to the Kokumbuna area , with a battalion @-@ sized Marine patrol attacking and harassing them almost the entire way . Only about 700 of Shoji 's original 3 @,@ 000 men ultimately returned to Kokumbuna .
= = = Battle of the Santa Cruz Islands = = =
At the same time that Hyakutake 's troops were attacking the Lunga perimeter , Japanese warships under the overall direction of Isoroku Yamamoto moved into a position near the southern Solomon Islands . From this location , the Japanese naval forces hoped to engage and decisively defeat any Allied ( primarily U.S. ) naval forces , especially carrier forces , that responded to Hyakutake 's ground offensive . Allied naval carrier forces in the area , now under the command of William Halsey , Jr. who had replaced Ghormley , also hoped to meet the Japanese naval forces in battle .
The two opposing carrier forces confronted each other on the morning of October 26 , in what became known as the Battle of the Santa Cruz Islands . After an exchange of carrier air attacks , Allied surface ships were forced to retreat from the battle area with the loss of one carrier sunk and another heavily damaged . The participating Japanese carrier forces , however , also retreated because of high aircraft and aircrew losses and significant damage to two carriers . Although an apparent tactical victory for the Japanese in terms of ships sunk and damaged , the loss of many irreplaceable , veteran aircrews by the Japanese provided a long @-@ term strategic advantage for the Allies , whose aircrew losses in the battle were relatively low .
= = = Later events = = =
Although the Japanese Army 's attack on the Allied Lunga perimeter was decisively defeated in this battle , the Japanese were not yet ready to give up the struggle for Guadalcanal . The Japanese Army and navy made immediate plans to move the rest of the 38th Division to the island , along with the 51st Infantry Division , to try a further offensive against Henderson Field in November 1942 .
The Japanese again planned to bombard Henderson Field with battleships in order to allow a convoy of transport ships to deliver the 38th 's troops and heavy equipment . In contrast , however , to what occurred on 14 October , this time the U.S. Navy moved to intercept the battleship forces sent by Yamamoto from Truk to shell the airfield . During the ensuing Naval Battle of Guadalcanal from 13 – 15 November , Allied naval and air forces turned back two Japanese attempts to bombard Henderson Field and almost completely destroyed the transport convoy carrying the remainder of the 38th Division . After this failure to deliver significant additional troops to the island , the Japanese commanders finally conceded defeat in the battle for Guadalcanal and evacuated most of their surviving troops by the first week of February 1943 . Building on their success at Guadalcanal and elsewhere , the Allies continued their island @-@ hopping campaign against Japan , ultimately culminating in Japan 's defeat and the end of World War II .
= = = Print = = =
Dull , Paul S. ( 1978 ) . A Battle History of the Imperial Japanese Navy , 1941 – 1945 . Naval Institute Press . ISBN 0 @-@ 87021 @-@ 097 @-@ 1 .
Frank , Richard ( 1990 ) . Guadalcanal : The Definitive Account of the Landmark Battle . New York : Random House . ISBN 0 @-@ 394 @-@ 58875 @-@ 4 .
Gilbert , Oscar E. ( 2001 ) . Marine Tank Battles in the Pacific . Da Capo . ISBN 1 @-@ 58097 @-@ 050 @-@ 8 .
Griffith , Samuel B. ( 1963 ) . The Battle for Guadalcanal . Champaign , Illinois , USA : University of Illinois Press . ISBN 0 @-@ 252 @-@ 06891 @-@ 2 .
Jersey , Stanley Coleman ( 2008 ) . Hell 's Islands : The Untold Story of Guadalcanal . College Station , Texas : Texas A & M University Press . ISBN 1 @-@ 58544 @-@ 616 @-@ 5 .
Lundstrom , John B. ( 2005 ) . First Team And the Guadalcanal Campaign : Naval Fighter Combat from August to November 1942 ( New ed . ) . Naval Institute Press . ISBN 1 @-@ 59114 @-@ 472 @-@ 8 .
Miller , Thomas G. ( 1969 ) . Cactus Air Force . Admiral Nimitz Foundation . ISBN 0 @-@ 934841 @-@ 17 @-@ 9 .
Morison , Samuel Eliot ( 1958 ) . The Struggle for Guadalcanal , August 1942 – February 1943 , vol . 5 of History of United States Naval Operations in World War II . Boston : Little , Brown and Company . ISBN 0 @-@ 316 @-@ 58305 @-@ 7 .
Rottman , Gordon L. ( 2004 ) . US Marine Corps Pacific Theatre of Operations 1941 – 43 . Dr. Duncan Anderson ( consultant editor ) . Oxford : Osprey . ISBN 1 @-@ 84176 @-@ 518 @-@ X.
Rottman , Gordon L. ( 2005 ) . Japanese Army in World War II : The South Pacific and New Guinea , 1942 – 43 . Dr. Duncan Anderson ( consultant editor ) . Oxford and New York : Osprey . ISBN 1 @-@ 84176 @-@ 870 @-@ 7 .
Smith , Michael T. ( 2000 ) . Bloody Ridge : The Battle That Saved Guadalcanal . New York : Pocket . ISBN 0 @-@ 7434 @-@ 6321 @-@ 8 .
= = = Web = = =
Anderson , Charles R. ( 1993 ) . Guadalcanal . The U.S. Army Campaigns of World War II . United States Army Center of Military History . CMH Pub 72 @-@ 8 . Retrieved 2006 @-@ 07 @-@ 09 .
Cagney , James ( 2005 ) . " The Battle for Guadalcanal " ( javascript ) . HistoryAnimated.com. Retrieved 2006 @-@ 05 @-@ 17 . – Interactive animation of the battle
Chen , C. Peter ( 2004 – 2006 ) . " Guadalcanal Campaign " . World War II Database . Retrieved 2006 @-@ 05 @-@ 17 .
Flahavin , Peter ( 2004 ) . " Guadalcanal Battle Sites , 1942 – 2004 " . Retrieved 2006 @-@ 08 @-@ 02 . – Web site with many pictures of Guadalcanal battle sites from 1942 and how they look now .
Hackett , Bob ; Sander Kingsepp . " HIJMS Yura : Tabular Record of Movement " . Imperial Japanese Navy Page ( CombinedFleet.com ) . Archived from the original on 14 May 2006 . Retrieved 2006 @-@ 06 @-@ 14 .
Hough , Frank O. ; Ludwig , Verle E. ; Shaw , Henry I. , Jr . " Pearl Harbor to Guadalcanal " . History of U.S. Marine Corps Operations in World War II . Archived from the original on 27 June 2006 . Retrieved 2006 @-@ 05 @-@ 16 . CS1 maint : Multiple names : authors list ( link )
Miller , John Jr . ( 1949 ) . Guadalcanal : The First Offensive . United States Army in World War II . Washington , D.C. : United States Army Center of Military History . CMH Pub 5 @-@ 3 . Retrieved 2006 @-@ 07 @-@ 04 .
Shaw , Henry I. ( 1992 ) . " First Offensive : The Marine Campaign For Guadalcanal " . Marines in World War II Commemorative Series . Archived from the original on 14 June 2006 . Retrieved 2006 @-@ 07 @-@ 25 .
Zimmerman , John L. ( 1949 ) . " The Guadalcanal Campaign " . Marines in World War II Historical Monograph . Archived from the original on 19 June 2006 . Retrieved 2006 @-@ 07 @-@ 04 .
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= Entoprocta =
Entoprocta , whose name means " anus inside " , is a phylum of mostly sessile aquatic animals , ranging from 0 @.@ 1 to 7 millimetres ( 0 @.@ 004 to 0 @.@ 3 in ) long . Mature individuals are goblet @-@ shaped , on relatively long stalks . They have a " crown " of solid tentacles whose cilia generate water currents that draw food particles towards the mouth , and both the mouth and anus lie inside the " crown " . The superficially similar Bryozoa ( Ectoprocta ) have the anus outside a " crown " of hollow tentacles . Most families of entoprocts are colonial , and all but 2 of the 150 species are marine . A few solitary species can move slowly .
Some species eject unfertilized ova into the water , while others keep their ova in brood chambers until they hatch , and some of these species use placenta @-@ like organs to nourish the developing eggs . After hatching , the larvae swim for a short time and then settle on a surface . There they metamorphose , and the larval gut rotates by up to 180 ° , so that the mouth and anus face upwards . Both colonial and solitary species also reproduce by cloning — solitary species grow clones in the space between the tentacles and then release them when developed , while colonial ones produce new members from the stalks or from corridor @-@ like stolons .
Fossils of entoprocts are very rare , and the earliest specimens that have been identified with confidence date from the Late Jurassic . Most studies from 1996 onwards have regarded entoprocts as members of the Trochozoa , which also includes molluscs and annelids . However , a study in 2008 concluded that entoprocts are closely related to bryozoans . Recently , the Maotianshan Shales fossil , Cotyledion tylodes , has been reevaluated as being an ancient , sclerite @-@ bearing entoproct ( originally having been identified as a putative carpoid echinoderm ) . This entoproct interpretation of Cotyledion , however , has been questioned by Mark McMenamin , who considers it best interpreted as a stem group echinoderm based on the morphology of its stem sclerites .
= = Names = =
" Entoprocta " , coined in 1870 , means " anus inside " . The alternative name " Kamptozoa " , meaning " bent " or " curved " animals , was assigned in 1929 . Some authors use " Entoprocta " , while others prefer " Kamptozoa " .
= = Description = =
Most species are colonial , and their members are known as " zooids " , since they are not fully independent animals . Zooids are typically 1 millimetre ( 0 @.@ 039 in ) long but range from 0 @.@ 1 to 7 millimetres ( 0 @.@ 004 to 0 @.@ 3 in ) long .
= = = Distinguishing features = = =
Entoprocts are superficially like bryozoans ( ectoprocts ) , as both groups have a " crown " of tentacles whose cilia generate water currents that draw food particles towards the mouth . However , they have different feeding mechanisms and internal anatomy , and ectoprocts undergo a metamorphosis from larva to adult that destroys most of the larval tissues ; their colonies also have a founder zooid which is different from its " daughters " .
= = = Zooids = = =
The body of a mature entoproct zooid has a goblet @-@ like structure with a calyx mounted on a relatively long stalk that attaches to a surface . The rim of the calyx bears a " crown " of 8 to 30 solid tentacles , which are extensions of the body wall . The base of the " crown " of tentacles is surrounded by a membrane that partially covers the tentacles when they retract . The mouth and anus lie on opposite sides of the atrium ( space enclosed by the " crown " of tentacles ) , and both can be closed by sphincter muscles . The gut is U @-@ shaped , curving down towards the base of the calyx , where it broadens to form the stomach . This is lined with a membrane consisting of a single layer of cells , each of which has multiple cilia .
The stalks of colonial species arise from shared attachment plates or from a network of stolons , tubes that run across a surface . In solitary species , the stalk ends in a muscular sucker , or a flexible foot , or is cemented to a surface . The stalk is muscular and produces a characteristic nodding motion . In some species it is segmented . Some solitary species can move , either by creeping on the muscular foot or by somersaulting .
The body wall consists of the epidermis and an external cuticle , which consists mainly of criss @-@ cross collagen fibers . The epidermis contains only a single layer of cells , each of which bears multiple cilia ( " hairs " ) and microvilli ( tiny " pleats " ) that penetrate through the cuticle . The stolons and stalks of colonial species have thicker cuticles , stiffened with chitin .
There is no coelom ( internal fluid @-@ filled cavity lined with peritoneum ) and the other internal organs are embedded in connective tissue that lies between the stomach and the base of the " crown " of tentacles . The nervous system runs through the connective tissue and just below the epidermis , and is controlled by a pair of ganglia . Nerves run from these to the calyx , tentacles and stalk , and to sense organs in all these areas .
= = Feeding , digestion , excretion , circulation and respiration = =
A band of cells , each with multiple cilia , runs along the sides of the tentacles , connecting each tentacle to its neighbors , except that there is a gap in the band nearest the anus . A separate band of cilia grows along a groove that runs close to the inner side of the base of the " crown " , with a narrow extension up the inner surface of each tentacle . The cilia on the sides of the tentacles create a current that flows into the " crown " at the bases of the tentacles and exits above the center of the " crown " . These cilia pass food particles to the cilia on the inner surface of the tentacles , and the inner cillia produce a downward current that drives particles into and around the groove , and then to the mouth .
Entoprocts generally use one or both of : ciliary sieving , in which one band of cilia creates the feeding current and another traps food particles ( the " sieve " ) ; and downstream collecting , in which food articles are trapped as they are about to exit past them . In entoprocts , downstream collecting is carried out by the same bands of cilia that generate the current ; trochozoan larvae also use downstream collecting , but use a separate set of cilia to trap food particles .
In addition , glands in the tentacles secrete sticky threads that capture large particles . A non @-@ colonial species reported from around the Antarctic Peninsula in 1993 has cells that superficially resemble the cnidocytes of cnidaria , and fire sticky threads . These unusual cells lie around the mouth , and may provide an additional means of capturing prey .
The stomach and intestine are lined with microvilli , which are thought to absorb nutrients . The anus , which opens inside the " crown " , ejects solid wastes into the outgoing current after the tentacles have filtered food out of the water ; in some families it is raised on a cone above the level of the groove that conducts food to the mouth . Most species have a pair of protonephridia which extract soluble wastes from the internal fluids and eliminate them through pores near the mouth . However , the freshwater species Urnatella gracilis has multiple nephridia in the calyx and stalk .
The zooids absorb oxygen and emit carbon dioxide by diffusion , which works well for small animals .
= = Reproduction and life cycle = =
Most species are simultaneous hermaphrodites , but some switch from male to female as they mature , while individuals of some species remain of the same sex all their lives . Individuals have one or two pairs of gonads , placed between the atrium and stomach , and opening into a single gonopore in the atrium . The eggs are thought to be fertilized in the ovaries . Most species release eggs that hatch into planktonic larvae , but a few brood their eggs in the gonopore . Those that brood small eggs nourish them by a placenta @-@ like organ , while larvae of species with larger eggs live on stored yolk . The development of the fertilized egg into a larva follows a typical spiralian pattern : the cells divide by spiral cleavage , and mesoderm develops from a specific cell labelled " 4d " in the early embryo . There is no coelom at any stage .
In some species the larva is a trochophore which is planktonic and feeds on floating food particles by using the two bands of cilia round its " equator " to sweep food into the mouth , which uses more cilia to drive them into the stomach , which uses further cilia to expel undigested remains through the anus . In some species of the genera Loxosomella and Loxosoma , the larva produces one or two buds that separate and form new individuals , while the trochophore disintegrates . However , most produce a larva with sensory tufts at the top and front , a pair of pigment @-@ cup ocelli ( " little eyes " ) , a pair of protonephridia , and a large , cilia @-@ bearing foot at the bottom . After settling , the foot and frontal tuft attach to the surface . Larvae of most species undergo a complex metamorphosis , and the internal organs may rotate by up to 180 ° , so that the mouth and anus both point upwards .
All species can produce clones by budding . Colonial species produce new zooids from the stolon or from the stalks , and can form large colonies in this way . In solitary species , clones form on the floor of the atrium , and are released when their organs are developed .
= = Taxonomy = =
The phylum consists of about 150 recognized species , grouped into 4 families :
= = Evolutionary history = =
= = = Fossil record = = =
Since entoprocts are small and soft @-@ bodied , fossils have been extremely rare . In 1977 , Simon Conway Morris provided the first description of Dinomischus , a sessile animal with calyx , stalk and holdfast , found in Canada 's Burgess Shale , which was formed about 505 million years ago . Morris regarded this animal as the earliest known entoproct , since its mouth and anus lay inside a ring of structures above the calyx , but noted that these structures were flat and rather stiff , while the tentacles of modern entoprocts are flexible and have a round cross @-@ section .
In 1992 J.A. Todd and P.D. Taylor concluded that Dinomischus was not an entoproct , because it did not have the typical rounded , flexible tentacles , and the fossils showed no other features that clearly resembled those of entoprocts . In their opinion , the earliest fossil entoprocts were specimens they found from Late Jurassic rocks in England . These resemble the modern colonial genus Barentsia in many ways , including : upright zooids linked by a network of stolons encrusting the surface to which the colony is attached ; straight stalks joined to the stolons by bulky sockets with transverse bands of wrinkles ; overall size and proportions similar to that of modern species of Barentsia .
Another species , Cotyledion tylodes , first described in 1999 , was larger than extant entoprocts , reaching 8 – 56 mm in height , and unlike modern species , was " armored " with sclerites , scale @-@ like structures . C. tylodes did have a similar sessile lifestyle to modern entoprocts . The identified fossils of C. tylodes were found in 520 @-@ million @-@ year @-@ old rocks from southern China . This places early entoprocts in the period of the Cambrian explosion .
= = = Family tree = = =
When entoprocts were discovered in the nineteenth century , they and bryozoans ( ectoprocts ) were regarded as classes within the phylum Bryozoa , because both groups were sessile animals that filter @-@ fed by means of a " crown " of tentacles that bore cilia . However , from 1869 onwards , increasing awareness of differences , including the position of the entoproct anus inside the feeding structure and the difference in the early pattern of division of cells in their embryos , caused scientists to regard the two groups as separate phyla . " Bryozoa " then became just an alternative name for ectoprocts , in which the anus is outside the feeding organ . However , studies by one team in 2007 and 2008 argue for sinking Entoprocta into Bryozoa as a class , and resurrecting Ectoprocta as a name for the currently identified bryozoans .
The consensus of studies from 1996 onwards has been that entoprocts are part of the Trochozoa , a protostome " superphylum " whose members are united in having as their most basic larval form the trochophore type . The trochozoa also include molluscs , annelids , flatworms , nemertines and others . However , scientists disagree about which phylum is mostly closely related to enctoprocts within the trochozoans . An analysis in 2008 re @-@ introduced the pre @-@ 1869 meaning of the term " Bryozoa " , for a group in which entoprocts and ectoprocts are each other 's closest relatives .
= = Ecology = =
= = = Distribution and habitats = = =
All species are sessile . While the great majority are marine , two species live in freshwater : Loxosomatoides sirindhornae , reported in 2004 in central Thailand , and Urnatella gracilis , found in all the continents except Antarctica . Colonial species are found in all the oceans , living on rocks , shells , algae and underwater buildings . The solitary species , which are marine , live on other animals that feed by producing water currents , such as sponges , ectoprocts and sessile annelids .
= = = Interaction with other organisms = = =
Some species of nudibranchs ( " sea slugs " ) , particularly those of the genus Trapania , as well as turbellarian flatworms , prey on entoprocts .
Small colonies of the freshwater entoproct Urnatella gracilis have been found living on the aquatic larvae of the dobsonfly Corydalus cornutus . The ectoprocts gain a means of dispersal , protection from predators and possibly a source of water that is rich in oxygen and nutrients , as colonies often live next to the gills of the larval flies . In the White Sea , the non @-@ colonial entoproct Loxosomella nordgaardi prefers to live attached to bryozoan ( ectoproct ) colonies , mainly on the edges of colonies or in the " chimneys " , gaps by which large bryozoan colonies expel water from which they have sieved food . Observation suggests that both the entoprocts and the bryozoans benefit from the association : each enhances the water flow that the other needs for feeding ; and the longer cilia of the entoprocts may help them to capture different food from that caught by the bryozoans , so that the animals do not compete for the same food .
Entoprocts are small and have been little studied by zoologists . Hence it is difficult to determine whether a specimen belongs to a species that already occurs in the same area or is an invader , possibly as a result of human activities .
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= Castiel ( Supernatural ) =
Castiel / ˌkæstiˈɛl / is a fictional character portrayed by Misha Collins on the CW Television Network 's American television series Supernatural . An Angel of the Lord , he first appears in the fourth season , and is used to introduce the theme of Christian theology to the series . In the series , Castiel brings Dean Winchester back from Hell and frequently helps him and his brother Sam in their battles with various demons and angels along the way . During his travels with the Winchesters , Castiel develops friendships with both men . As an angel , he possesses a number of supernatural abilities , including the ability to kill demons . Initially , the character demonstrates complete devotion to God and little emotion . However , his interactions and experiences with Dean Winchester and Sam Winchester , as well as certain revelations about God and his fellow angels , have a humanizing effect on him . This , despite the stress and harm it causes his character , allows him to develop an independent will as the series progresses and helps the show address topics related to free will .
Unlike the stereotypical portrayal of television angels , Castiel does not always help people , and is willing to kill innocents if needed . Collins originally read for the part of a demon , as series creator Eric Kripke did not want fans to find out that angels were being introduced to the series . Collins prepared for the role by reading the Book of Revelation , and based his portrayal on his younger brother . Critics and fans have responded highly favorably to the character . In response , the show 's creators expanded his role in the series , upgrading him to a main cast member in the fifth and sixth seasons . After being a special guest star in the seventh and eighth seasons , Collins was upgraded once again to regular cast member status for the ninth season .
= = Plot = =
= = = Arrival on Earth = = =
At the end of the third season of Supernatural , main character Dean Winchester is in Hell after being killed by the hellhounds of the demonic antagonist Lilith . In the season four premiere " Lazarus Rising " , the angel Castiel is introduced as the one who brought Dean back from Hell and resurrected him . Because merely perceiving his actual form typically results in blindness , he takes a human host – James " Jimmy " Novak , a " devout man " who prayed for it – to communicate with Dean , and tells him that he has been brought back because God has work for him . Lilith is breaking the 66 seals in order to free Lucifer , and Dean must stop her .
Castiel continues to appear throughout the season , at one point sending Dean back in time and later tasking him and his brother Sam with stopping witches from breaking another seal . He returns with fellow angel Uriel at the end of the episode " I Know What You Did Last Summer " , seeking to kill Anna Milton , a fallen angel with the ability to " hear " the communications between angels . In the following episode , " Heaven and Hell " , Anna uses an ancient Enochian sigil to send the angels away , though they manage to track them down later . Once there , Castiel expresses regret at having to kill Anna . Before they can carry out their duty , however , they are confronted by the demon Alastair and two of his minions . A fight ensues , and Castiel is nearly defeated in the battle by Alastair . He is saved by Dean , and they in turn are rescued when Anna regains her powers . Although Uriel nearly vents his frustration on Dean , Castiel stops him , and the two leave . Castiel later becomes suspicious of Uriel and confronts him in " On the Head of a Pin " . Uriel admits he and certain other angels are now working together to free Lucifer , having grown weary of never hearing from God and jealous of His favoritism for humanity . He asks Castiel to join him , but Castiel refuses and attacks him . Uriel eventually overpowers Castiel , but is killed by Anna before he can strike the finishing blow . During this time , the orders he is getting from Heaven of questionable morality and the influence of Anna cause him to start to have doubts about Heaven 's plans . He later returns in " The Monster At the End of This Book " to explain Chuck 's role as a Prophet and later when Dean calls him to help save Sam . Castiel informs Dean he can 't interfere due to how important Prophets are , but he impresses upon Dean how the archangel protecting a Prophet will intervene if said Prophet is in trouble to secretly let him know a way to save Sam .
= = = Jimmy Novak alone = = =
In " The Rapture " , Castiel enters Dean 's dreams and arranges a meeting to tell him something important . However , when Sam and Dean go to meet him , they instead find Jimmy , Castiel 's vessel , who claims to have little memory of his life as a vessel . Anna theorizes Castiel must have angered his superiors , prompting him to be taken back to Heaven . When Jimmy is shot at the end of the episode trying to save his family from demons , Castiel returns , taking Jimmy 's daughter as his new vessel . After the demons are killed , a dying Jimmy begs Castiel to take him back as a host so his daughter will not have to go through what he did , and the angel acquiesces . Dean then asks him what he needed to tell him , but Castiel coldly replies his loyalty is to Heaven , not to mankind or to him .
= = = Servant of Heaven = = =
In " When the Levee Breaks " , Castiel has Dean take the oath of allegiance to God and His angels , to which Dean agrees under the impression it will keep Sam safe . Later in the episode , Castiel releases Sam , who is on detox from Ruby 's demon blood , from Bobby 's Panic Room . When Anna confronts him about his actions , other angels appear and capture her .
With Sam closing in on Lilith , Castiel and Zachariah imprison Dean within an idyllic waiting room , where he will be made comfortable until the time comes for him to play his role in stopping the Apocalypse . Dean refuses to remain idle , and continually requests to be able to see Sam , which is denied . Once Dean discovers the angels are allowing the Apocalypse to happen , he implores for Castiel to help him stop the final seal from being broken . Though Castiel refuses at first , he returns ready to help not long after . He takes Dean to see the prophet Chuck for information on Sam . Their presence does not fall in line with Chuck 's Gospel , so the Archangel Raphael begins to descend . Castiel sends Dean to Sam , remaining behind to hold back the archangel and any others who might come . He is subsequently killed , with his host 's body being blown to pieces .
= = = Fall to Earth = = =
However , Castiel later returns – still in Jimmy Novak 's body – in the fifth season premiere , " Sympathy for the Devil " , killing two fellow angels in order to save Sam and Dean . He is uncertain as to how he was resurrected , but alludes to Zachariah it may have been God 's doing . After ordering Zachariah away , Castiel carves Enochian sigils into Sam and Dean 's ribs to hide them from all angels , including Lucifer . Castiel later returns to the brothers in " Good God Y 'All ! " , and reveals his plans to find God . He borrows Dean 's amulet , as it burns hot in God 's presence , and departs . He has also been completely cut off from Heaven as a result of his rebellion and has lost some of his powers as a result , including his ability to heal injuries . He remains on Earth hunting for God , although acquires a cellphone so that the Winchesters can call for his aid when dealing with particularly challenging cases , such as their discovery of the Antichrist or their latest confrontation with the Trickster ( who is revealed to be the lost archangel Gabriel ) .
In " Abandon All Hope ... " , Castiel helps the Winchesters retrieve the Colt , and joins them on their hunt for Lucifer . However , he ventures off after discovering hundreds of Reapers are already in the town , hoping to discover what has called them there . He soon becomes imprisoned by Lucifer , who tries to tempt Castiel into joining him , pointing out they are both targets of Heaven , but Castiel refuses . He later manages to free himself , but finds he no longer has the power to kill demons . After Sam and Dean fail in their attempt to kill the Devil , Castiel teleports them to safety . After exhausting most of his remaining power to take Sam and Dean back in time to save their parents from renegade angel Anna , Castiel aids the Winchesters in their battle with Famine , the Horseman of the Apocalypse – the brothers having already defeated War – but his weakened powers render him susceptible to Famine 's influence , Famine attacking Jimmy 's hunger for red meat to make Castiel more interested in eating burgers than actually fighting . When the brothers are killed by vengeful hunters in " Dark Side of the Moon " , Castiel – unable to return to Heaven – briefly communicates with them . He tasks them with finding the angel Joshua , who communicates directly with God . Although Joshua reveals God is alive , he claims He is apathetic to the Apocalypse ; having saved the brothers and Castiel , God feels He has done enough . When relayed to Castiel , his hopes and faith are shattered , leading him to drink heavily in the subsequent episode " 99 Problems " when Sam summons him for answers about the actions of the people in a town . Castiel reveals that they are dealing with the Whore of Babylon and provides the stake that can kill her , but as he is no longer a true servant of Heaven , is unable to do it himself . He gets Pastor Gideon so they can have him do it and tries to hold the Whore in place so the Pastor can stab her . However , she casts a spell that causes him great pain and knocks him out of the fight . In the end , Dean stabs her with the stake , identifying himself as a true servant of heaven .
= = = Powerless = = =
In " Point of No Return , " Castiel helps Sam to keep Dean from becoming Michael 's vessel . He leaves after hearing a signal from the angels , and finds a resurrected Adam Milligan – Sam and Dean 's half @-@ brother who had been previously killed by ghouls . When Dean escapes and tries to contact the angels , Castiel finds him , and angrily attacks him for making Castiel 's rebelling against Heaven worthless . Later , he carves a banishing sigil into his own chest and activates it in the presence of multiple angels in order to clear the way for Sam and Dean to attack Zachariah and save Adam . The effects of the sigil send him onto a fishing boat , now completely human . Despite his lack of power , he is able to defeat the Horseman Pestilence using what appears to be what little is left of his angelic strength , and assists Bobby and Sam in preventing nationwide distribution of the Croatoan virus . In the fifth season finale , " Swan Song " , Castiel loses faith after Sam fails to overpower Lucifer when he possesses him and suggests they get drunk and wait for the end to come . When Dean refuses to give up , Castiel and Bobby follow him and Castiel uses a Molotov cocktail of Holy Fire to temporarily banish Michael to buy Dean time to try to reach Sam . Angry that Castiel attacked his brother , Lucifer obliterates Castiel with a snap of his fingers . After Sam and Dean avert the Apocalypse , Castiel is resurrected once more by God , now more powerful than ever . He heals Dean 's injuries and resurrects Bobby and reminds Dean that he got what he wanted : no Apocalypse , no Paradise , just more of the same . Castiel then heads back to Heaven to restore order and become its new leader , believing it to be in chaos as Sam trapped Michael in Lucifer 's Cage as well .
= = = Post @-@ Apocalyptic alliances = = =
A year after the Apocalypse , Castiel returns to Earth in " The Third Man " to get Sam and Dean 's help to find the Staff of Moses , which , along with many other weapons of Heaven , has been stolen during the war . They soon discover that the angel Balthazar has stolen it and sold pieces of it to people in exchange for their souls . They confront Balthazar , but are interrupted by Raphael . Before Raphael is able to get his revenge against Castiel , Balthazar destroys Raphael 's vessel and sends him back to Heaven . After trapping Balthazar within a ring of ignited holy oil and forcing him to restore the souls he has taken , Castiel sets him free , claiming his debt has been paid off .
In " Family Matters " , Castiel returns to " diagnose " Sam by asking him several questions . Sam , still dizzy and unsure of what is going on after being knocked unconscious by Dean , reveals that he no longer sleeps and has become a better hunter . Castiel has an idea of what 's wrong and decides to read Sam 's soul by reaching inside him , and the truth is finally revealed : that Sam has no soul , and it was locked in the cage with Lucifer . Both Dean and Castiel are unsure whether Sam is still Sam without his soul , but they let Sam go and Castiel heals his wounds from being beaten by Dean .
In " Caged Heat " , Sam tries to trick Castiel into coming to Earth to help the brothers get Sam 's soul back . When he comes , Sam threatens Castiel saying that if he does not help , then he will hunt him down and kill him . Despite knowing Sam never could , he helps them . Later , while Sam and Dean are doing research , Castiel discovers porn on TV ; when Dean asks why he was watching porn , he replies , " It was there . "
Castiel later discovers Sam and Dean are working with a demon named Meg , whom he refers to as an abomination . When Crowley admits that he cannot get Sam 's soul back , Castiel burns Crowley 's human remains .
At the end of the episode Castiel explains to Sam and Dean that the celestial war is not going well for him and he would rather be on Earth with them , but leaves anyway to continue fighting , but promises to take care of Crowley 's captured monsters first . After acquiring the holy weapons from Balthazar in " The French Mistake " , Castiel suggests that he now has a military advantage in the war . Unfortunately , this advantage seems limited ; he orders Balthazar in " My Heart Will Go On " to save the Titanic , spawning 50 @,@ 000 new souls to empower his side . However , Fate works to undo the impossible births and begins killing them . Once the brothers encounter the string of odd deaths Fate takes this opportunity to eliminate them due to their part of undoing the destined Apocalypse . This forces Castiel to concede the loss and re @-@ sink the Titanic .
In " Frontierland , " Sam and Dean call for Castiel to send them back in time as they have learned that the ashes of a Phoenix can kill Eve and that Samuel Colt killed one in the past with The Colt . Rachel , Castiel 's lieutenant comes instead and berates the boys for only calling for him when they need something of him , but Castiel arrives himself and sends Rachel away . Castiel is able to send Dean and Sam back in time , but warns them that he has to retrieve them in 24 hours or they 'll be stuck in the past forever and tells Bobby to pray for him when the time comes . While waiting , Rachel approaches him about his plans and attacks him . Castiel kills her , but is left weakened by a stab wound she managed to inflict on him first . Castiel manages to teleport to Bobby 's and draws a sigil to hide himself from the other angels before passing out . He wakes in time to retrieve the Winchesters , but his weakened state prevents this so he is forced to draw power from Bobby 's soul . While Dean killed the Phoenix , Castiel brought them back before they could gather the ashes so it all appears for nothing and he lacks the power to send them back . Luckily , Samuel Colt collected the ashes and sent a package with them to be delivered to Bobby 's after the boys return .
In " Mommy Dearest " , it is discovered that there is a possibility Crowley may have faked his death and might still be alive ; suggesting that perhaps Castiel had burned the wrong bones by mistake . Eve reveals this to Sam and Dean when they try to hunt her down . During the hunt , Eve is able to suppress Castiel 's powers as she is older than him . After Dean kills Eve , Castiel 's powers return and he kills all of her monsters with a blast of white light before transporting the group to the home of the uncle of two young boys who were turned into monsters . There , they find them dead , having been killed by demons , and Castiel promises to look into Crowley 's possible survival to find out for sure if he 's dead or not . However , Castiel is instead seen with a very alive Crowley who states that he is " tired of cleaning up after [ Castiel 's ] messes , " implying that Castiel had full knowledge of burning the wrong bones and that both he and Crowley have some sort of agreement between them and / or may be working together as partners .
In " The Man Who Would Be King " , it is revealed that Castiel was the one who partially raised Sam from Hell , though due to the complication of the cage it was impossible to retrieve his soul , and that he has made a deal with Crowley in a desperate attempt to win the war . Sam and Dean also learn of his partnership with Crowley when he slips up and reveals he is spying on them .
In " Let it Bleed , " Castiel is enraged to learn that Lisa and Ben Braeden have been kidnapped by Crowley and tries to get him to reveal where they are to no avail . Castiel saves Dean from a demon and tries and fails to convince him to back off . Later , after Lisa is mortally wounded by a demon possessing her in an attempt to force Dean not to exorcise her , Castiel arrives at the hospital and without being asked , heals her wounds and at Dean 's request , erases all of her and her son Ben 's memories of Dean . He does this as a final act of friendship towards Dean though both admit it doesn 't change the fact that they are now enemies . Castiel also spends the episode one step ahead of Bobby investigating H.P. Lovecraft 's opening of Purgatory in an attempt to find a way to open it himself .
= = = Godhood = = =
In " The Man Who Knew Too Much " , Castiel tricks Crowley and Raphael , eventually absorbing the souls from Purgatory . He demonstrates his new power by killing Raphael with a simple snap of his fingers . While talking to Dean , who unsuccessfully begs him to give up the power , Sam sneaks up behind them and attempts to kill him with an angelic blade by stabbing Castiel in the back , but it has no effect . Castiel removes the blade , explains that he is no longer an angel , declaring himself their new God . He then glances at the three hunters before delivering an ultimatum : to profess their own loyalty and love unto him , or be destroyed .
In " Meet the New Boss " , Castiel begins exacting his new supremacy over the planet , working miracles and punishing religious hypocrites alike . However , when Castiel 's vessel begins to become damaged and he begins to lose control of his power , Death reveals that he also absorbed creatures known as Leviathans from Purgatory . The Leviathans will destroy him if they are not released . Castiel seeks out the Winchesters ' help , and reopens the portal with Death 's assistance . Although the souls are returned , the Leviathans evade reentering Purgatory and take control of Castiel 's vessel . In " Hello , Cruel World " , the vessel begins to quickly break down . The Leviathans are forced to leave , dispersing into the local water supply nearby and leaving behind only Castiel 's trench coat .
= = = Return to madness = = =
In " The Born @-@ Again Identity " , it 's revealed that Castiel survived . After the Leviathans left him , he made his way out of the river , naked , and ran into his future wife Daphne . However , the experience renders Castiel amnesic , but with his angelic powers intact . Going by the name " Emanuel , " Castiel used his powers to heal people , though he didn 't know where that ability and his power to see demon 's true faces came from . After Sam is committed to a mental hospital as a result of the hallucinations of Lucifer he is suffering due to Castiel breaking his " mental wall " , Dean searches for " Emanuel " and kills a demon that is holding his wife hostage . Castiel agrees to help Dean who doesn 't tell him who he really is , but mentions what " Cas " had done to Sam . The two are joined by Meg , but upon reaching the hospital , find demons surrounding the entrance . As Castiel is the only one who can take them all down , Dean is forced to tell him the truth about who he really is and insists he has the power to kill the demons . Castiel manages to summon his power to kill demons and kills all of them , but doing so restores his memories . Castiel shows remorse for his previous actions and initially wants to leave , but Dean is able to convince him to help by giving him back his trench coat . Castiel finds Sam in time to save him from a demon torturing him to death with electro @-@ shock therapy and tries to restore his mental wall , but can 't as it 's completely gone . Feeling sorry for what he had done , Castiel transfers the problem to himself and is haunted by visions of Lucifer like Sam was . Castiel is committed to the mental hospital , but is safe from the demons as only Meg knows he 's alive and she takes a job at the hospital , presumably to look after him . In " Party On , Garth , " Dean calls Meg and she reveals that Castiel 's in the same condition , which Sam feels guilty about .
In " Reading is Fundamental " , Castiel is awakened when the Word of God – a tablet with information inscribed by an angel as dictated by God – is found by Sam and Dean . Although his torment has driven him insane , he explains that taking on Sam 's pain has helped relieve some of his past burdens . He then explains what the Word of God is , but is unable to read it . Two angels from his former garrison arrive in pursuit of Kevin , a prophet who was awakened by the Word of God and drawn to it . The angel Hester tries to kill Castiel out of anger for his past actions , but she is instead killed by Meg . The other angel offers Castiel the chance to return to Heaven with him , but Castiel declines , explaining that he feels he no longer belongs there . The other angel then leaves , taking Kevin away to safety . Castiel comments to the Winchesters that he finds it amazing that he does not know what he is going to do next , and teleports away after giving them his blood .
In " Survival of the Fittest , " after finding his garrison wiped out , Castiel has Meg take him to the Winchesters where he explains what he has discovered . Crowley arrives and is furious to see him , but Castiel no longer has a wish to fight and when Crowley realizes he 's insane , he decides to put off his feud with Castiel for a time when he 's sane again . Crowley , after giving them his blood , disappears but tells them Castiel can help them kill Dick . Castiel refuses to help as he doesn 't want to fight and after he disappears to retrieve a board game , Meg explains that since Castiel had the Leviathans within him , he is able to tell them apart even in their human forms and can pick out the real Dick Roman . Castiel watches as Sam and Dean burn Bobby 's flask and put him at rest and later takes Dean to where he has stored the Impala and agrees to help . Castiel , Sam and Dean infiltrate Sucrocorp thanks to a distraction from Meg and he and Dean confront Dick Roman in the labs . Dick throws Castiel across the room when he tries to attack , but after Dean fails to kill Dick , Castiel holds his head in place from behind allowing Dean to stab Dick through the neck with the weapon , killing him . As a result of this , Castiel and Dean are sucked into Purgatory with Dick 's soul and after letting Dean know this and that they are more likely to die than get out , Castiel disappears , leaving Dean alone .
= = = Out of Purgatory = = =
In " We Need To Talk About Kevin , " Dean escapes Purgatory with the help of the vampire Benny , but Castiel is not with him . He later tells Sam that things got hairy near the end and that Castiel didn 't make it , that he " let go . " While Dean doesn 't elaborate , he is clearly affected by this . In a flashback scene , Dean is shown looking for Castiel in Purgatory , interrogating a vampire for his location . As a result , he meets Benny and only agrees to Benny 's deal to get out if they find Castiel first and help him escape too . Castiel appears in flashbacks in the following episode , where he reveals that he fled Dean to keep him safe from the Leviathans and other monsters that are angry at Castiel , but Dean refuses to leave Purgatory without Castiel . When talking with another angel at an auction for the second Word of God tablet , Dean again states that Castiel did not make it out of Purgatory . He later escapes with the aid of an army of angels sent to rescue him – having initially remained behind as penance for his actions to stop a duo of Leviathans that were trying to attack Dean and Benny as they left Purgatory – but the other angels not only erase his memory that they were responsible for his escape , but also erase his memory of their subsequent ' check @-@ ins ' to discuss the Winchesters ' actions , with Castiel forced to tell them about the Winchesters ' progress in the search for the tablet . Apparently back to full power , Castiel helps the Winchesters save Kevin from Crowley- who has been abducting future Prophets to try to find another means of reading the Word of God tablet- and destroy the tablet to prevent Crowley using it , retaining half of the tablet while Crowley flees with the other half . Afterwards , in " Hunteri Heroici , " Castiel cuts off his ability to listen into the other angels and decides to become a full @-@ time hunter to avoid facing the other angels about what he has done . Castiel proves instrumental in solving the case , using his abilities to enter the mind of a man with reality warping powers , allowing Sam to bring him back to reality with a speech about not running from it . Later , at the request of the man , Fred , Castiel strips him of his powers so he is no longer a danger to anyone though it leaves him mentally damaged . Castiel , having listened to Sam 's speech about running from reality as well as Fred , decides to return to Heaven to try to make up for what he did , but is forbidden by Naomi , the angel who ordered his rescue . Instead , Castiel stays to watch out for Fred for a while , but accepts that he can no longer run from what he has done .
In " Torn and Frayed , " as his penance , Castiel has turned back on his " angel radio " and travels around helping people who have need of help or healing . He demonstrates this by healing a sick infant that won 't stop crying . After getting a distress call from Samandriel , Naomi summons Castiel to rescue the angel . Castiel enlists Dean 's help and repeatedly wonders where Sam is , unaware that Sam and Dean are currently not getting along . After getting the ingredients for a " demon bomb , " Castiel gets Sam as they will need all the help they can get to rescue Samandriel and yells at Sam and Dean for their behavior . At the warehouse , Castiel tells Sam and Dean what symbols to neutralize and where so he can enter and gives Sam his sword so he has a weapon against demons . After Sam and Dean clear the way , Castiel enters , but is weakened by the other sigils in the building . Samandriel 's screams cause him to remember being tied down by Naomi who approaches his eye with a mysterious instrument and is unable to help Sam and Dean in breaking into the room where Samandriel is . After they get in , Castiel frees Samandriel while Sam and Dean deal with the demons guarding him and takes the other angel outside . There , Samandriel begs for Castiel not to return him to Heaven and tries to warn him that " they " are controlling him . Before Samandriel can explain , Naomi forces Castiel to kill him for being a " traitor . " Castiel is horrified by this , but Naomi reveals that Samandriel telling Crowley about the angel Word of God tablet puts all in angels in danger and Castiel is a hero . Under her orders , he claims to Sam and Dean that he was forced to kill Samandriel in self @-@ defense and that he is taking him back to Heaven to put him to rest ( in reality so Naomi can determine just how much he broke ) , but his weird behavior and the fact that his eye starts bleeding arouses Sam and Dean 's suspicions that he is being controlled .
= = = On the run from Heaven = = =
In " Goodbye Stranger , " Castiel has been completely brainwashed by Naomi and has killed thousands of copies of Dean ruthlessly . Castiel is sent to find the angel tablet and tortures and kills the demons also looking for it , drawing Sam and Dean 's attention . Sam and Dean track down someone who knows the location of one of Lucifer 's Crypts where the angel tablet is and in ensuing scuffle , Sam ends up in trouble . Castiel saves Sam and captures one of the demons , claiming under Naomi 's orders that he is searching for the second half of the demon tablet and that the demons are searching for a parchment that will allow them to translate it without a Prophet . Castiel tortures the demon who tells them where to find Meg , but kills her before she can reveal the truth to Sam and Dean . Castiel heads off alone and rescues Meg who explains what the demons really want . While Naomi initially wants her killed to prevent that , Castiel is able to make a case to keep her alive . The group then go to the warehouse where the crypt is and before heading inside with Dean , Castiel reveals that Sam is damaged by his trials on a level that even Castiel can 't fix . Castiel and Dean locate the angel tablet and Castiel has to have Dean get it as it is warded against angels . However , Naomi orders Castiel to kill Dean and though he fights it , he has no control over his actions . As he is about to kill him , Dean manages to break through to Castiel 's heart and he breaks free of Naomi 's influence . He picks up the angel tablet which completely severs Naomi 's connection to and control over him . Castiel heals Dean and explains what happened , but senses that he must now protect the tablet from everyone , even Dean . Castiel is later seen traveling on a bus to an unknown destination with the tablet . Despite losing the tablet , Naomi is somewhat satisfied as according to her , Castiel is doing what he is supposed to be doing . Naomi later comes to Dean . In an attempt to gain his trust , presumably because she knows Castiel is one of his weak spots , she lies to Dean about Castiel and claims that he misinterpreted everything she has done and is still insane . Dean , of course , doesn 't believe her . Despite this , Castiel is eventually captured by Naomi 's forces , but the angel tablet is claimed by Crowley after one of Naomi 's angels betrays their location , although this gives Castiel time to escape and reunite with the Winchesters after killing the angel guarding him .
= = = Metatron 's betrayal = = =
With Heaven in chaos , Metatron ( the Scribe of God , recently rediscovered ) convinces Castiel that they must seal the gates of Heaven to force the angels together to make peace . The first trial is to cut out the heart of a nephilim , the child of a human and an angel , which Castiel is forced to kill when the selected target attacks him . They manage to complete the second trial ( retrieving the bow of a cupid ) , but Metatron subsequently reveals that his true intentions are to exile all the angels from Heaven for forcing him to leave Heaven ages ago . He takes Castiel 's grace from him as the third ingredient for this spell , leaving Castiel human and banished to Earth before the other angels begin to fall as well .
= = = Back to humanity = = =
With the angels expelled from Heaven , many of them begin searching for Castiel , whom they believe is responsible . Castiel decides he wants to help his fallen brethren find " direction " when he encounters an angel named Hale who requests his guidance . When Castiel contacts the Winchesters , however , Dean tells him to leave Hale and make his way the Men of Letters bunker where he will be safe from the angels hunting him . Following this , Castiel attempts to leave Hale behind but is captured by her instead whereby she reveals her plans to possess him . Castiel escapes and kills Hale then continues to make his way to the bunker , abandoning his usual attire along the way . Castiel is nearly caught several times by the angels searching for him and gets a tattoo that will ward him against angels . In response , the angels send freelance Reapers after him and he is eventually caught by one of them . The Reaper tortures Castiel and kills him when the Winchesters show up to rescue him . Dean has the angel secretly possessing Sam heal Castiel and takes him back to the bunker but later asks him to leave when Ezekiel , the angel inside Sam , requests it .
Castiel gets a job at a gas station and attempts to adjust to his new life as a human . He helps Dean hunt a rogue angel that is killing people in emotional pain , but later prays for help when Dean sends him away for the second time on Ezekiel 's orders . Castiel is found by the neutral angel Muriel who heard his prayer . Muriel agrees to provide information but the two are captured by angels that have been trailing Muriel . Castiel and Muriel are taken to the anarchist angel Malachi , the leader of one side of the angel civil war ( the other side being headed by the angel Bartholomew ) , and tortured for information on Metatron . Muriel is killed in the process .
= = = Stolen Grace = = =
Eventually , Malachi leaves Castiel with the angel Theo who tells Castiel he wants to defect to Metatron 's side . Castiel tricks Theo into releasing him and steals his Grace , transforming Castiel into an angel once more and at least restoring his powers . Castiel calls Dean and tells him that while he was held captive by Malachi he learned that the angel Ezekiel is dead and so the angel possessing Sam must be an impostor .
After being contacted by Dean , Castiel , now wearing a new suit and trenchcoat and driving a stolen car as he can no longer teleport , returns to the bunker where he comes up with the plan to have Crowley help expel Gadreel from Sam . Castiel knocks Gadreel out and comforts Dean when the torture they have Crowley perform to bring forth Sam 's mind proves too much for Dean . Castiel is furious to learn that it is Gadreel , blaming him for all the evil in the universe , but Dean calms him down . When Gadreel proves resistant to their efforts to expel him , Dean tries to have Castiel possess Sam to let him know of the situation but he can 't without Sam 's permission . Crowley agrees to do it instead in exchange for his freedom and though Castiel is reluctant , he removes Sam 's anti @-@ possession tattoo . The plan works and Sam expels Gadreel . After leaving Crowley to deal with Abaddon , Castiel heals Sam 's injuries from the torture and informs him he can finish his healing from the Trials over time as Gadreel did most of the job . He remains behind with Sam as Dean leaves on his own .
= = = Facing Metatron = = =
With his angelic powers partially restored , Castiel sets out to try and stop the angelic civil war . Having killed Bartholomew in self @-@ defence , Castiel takes command of most of the Earth @-@ bound angels , but finds himself opposed by Metatron , who is rallying angels to his side with the intention of painting Castiel as the villain of the piece . Although Castiel learns that his stolen grace will kill him eventually , he refuses Metatron 's offer to side with him , eventually convincing Gadreel to ally with him in opposing Metatron 's attempt to stage a coup of Heaven even as Metatron tricks the other angels into follow him by presenting Castiel as a despot willing to destroy everything to win the war , convincing angels to ' suicide bomb ' themselves and claim that Castiel told them to do it . Having gained access to Heaven 's ' back door ' after Gadreel sacrifices himself , Castiel defeats Metatron and throws him into Heaven 's prison .
= = = Lack of Grace = = =
Despite his defeat of Metatron and access to Heaven having been restored , Castiel continues to face challenges on a personal and large scale , as some angels prefer to remain on Earth and his stolen Grace continues to consume him . Although Metatron has hinted that he may be able to help Castiel with a remaining fragment of his original Grace , Castiel has rejected the option of making a deal with Metatron to save his own life . Sam and Dean remain ignorant of Castiel 's fate , although Crowley is aware of Castiel 's condition , at one point killing another angel to transfer her Grace to Castiel so that Castiel could help Sam cure the now @-@ demonic Dean after he was transformed by the Mark of Cain .
When Hannah decides to return to Heaven to give her vessel a chance at returning to her life , Castiel is prompted to look up Jimmy 's daughter Claire , revealing that Jimmy has been ' dead ' and in Heaven ever since Jimmy 's body was destroyed during his first confrontation with Raphael . Although Claire initially resents Castiel 's return to her life , she comes to accept him and the Winchesters after they save her from being sold as a prostitute by a man she believed had been helping her .
= = = Grace restored = = =
Seeking to help Dean find a cure for the Mark of Cain , Castiel breaks Metatron out of Heaven and removes his Grace so that the Winchesters can interrogate him . Although he fails to provide any new information , Metatron is able to lead Castiel to the library where he hid the remaining fragments of Castiel 's Grace . With his powers restored , Castiel helps Claire find her long @-@ lost mother , but although Amelia sacrifices herself to save Claire , Claire accepts that the Winchesters and Castiel meant well , even speculating that she will become a Hunter herself . When Rowena – Crowley 's long @-@ lost mother – casts a spell to remove the Mark , she also casts a spell that causes Castiel to attack Crowley while she escapes , leaving Castiel driven by a greater rage to the point that he kills two angels until Rowena is forced to cure him .
= = = Lucifer 's Vessel = = =
Faced with the threat of the Darkness- revealed over the course of the series to be God 's ' sister ' , sacrificed to create the world- Castiel agrees to act as Lucifer 's vessel when Lucifer claims to be the only one with the power to defeat the Darkness , since God is absent and all other archangels are dead or insane . After killing Rowena , apparently the only person capable of re @-@ opening the Cage , Lucifer spends some time re @-@ establishing his power base in Hell while acting as Castiel to interact with the Winchesters and follow their research into Amara , but his true identity is revealed after the Winchesters attempt to travel back in time to recover a Hand of God from a submarine before it sank in 1943 . Castiel is able to regain control long enough to explain the situation to Sam and stop himself killing his friend , Dean subsequently banishing Lucifer and vowing to find a way to free Castiel from his control . Crowley , forced to act as Lucifer 's slave , is forced on the run after he fails to kill Lucifer with another salvaged Hand of God . The Winchesters manage to get through to Castiel when preparing for a new confrontation with Amara , but Castiel resolves to remain as Lucifer 's Vessel until her defeat , only for the Hand of God to fail against Amara 's power . With Castiel / Lucifer now Amara 's prisoner , she decides to torture an archangel to try and lure God out , leaving the Winchesters to speculate that Lucifer couldn 't use the Hand of God due to the fact that he is a fallen archangel .
= = Characterization = =
Castiel typically displays very little emotion and always exhibits an extremely somber disposition . Although it has been suggested angels possibly do not possess the ability to truly feel emotion , Castiel frequently exhibits affection towards Dean . This attachment and growing ability to feel even causes him to be " demoted " , as his superiors fear emotions are clouding his judgment . Throughout his appearances in the fourth season , he also seems to , at the very least , come close to expressing regret , hesitance , and anger several times , and has once quietly laughed at a joke Dean made in " It 's the Great Pumpkin , Sam Winchester " . Actor Misha Collins feels , through Dean , " [ Castiel is ] learning a little bit about humanity and re @-@ learning something about [ his ] own humanity from that exposure . So ... there ’ s a humanizing of Castiel going on . " Castiel begins having an internal struggle between what is right and what is wrong , and whether or not to obey orders from Heaven . Collins feels this is because interactions with Sam and Dean have made the angel " uncertain " and " more fragile " . Collins believes Castiel envies Dean 's decisiveness and desires to emulate him . Having lost his connection to Heaven in the fifth season , Castiel 's humanization seems to have quickened by the episode " Free to Be You and Me " , as he appears extremely anxious while in a whorehouse , is visibly distraught when asking Dean for help , and refers to the Archangel Raphael as " my little bitch " . Despite becoming very arrogant when he becomes the " new God , " Castiel still shows his caring side and ultimately returns the souls to Purgatory and shows remorse for his actions , promising to Dean to find a way to redeem himself in Dean 's eyes , showing that he cares about how Dean views him . After losing his memory , Castiel is more human than ever , but still displays some of his emotionless side . After his memory returns , he shows real regret when he can 't undo the damage he did to Sam and essentially sacrifices himself to save him out of remorse for his actions . After Castiel wakes up from his catatonic state , he is now depicted as insane with tendencies to ramble about random topics . However , parts of Castiel 's original personality are still shown with him still being happy to help Sam and Dean out and still knowledgeable about various supernatural things , but not willing to actually fight anymore even when his life is threatened . Castiel describes himself as " bad luck " and doesn 't believe he should be around the Winchesters as a result . After traveling to Purgatory , Castiel regained his sanity , but still carries a lot of guilt about his previous actions . He is also now less distant from Sam and Dean and more appreciative of human things such as television .
Contrary to depictions of angels in popular culture , Castiel and his peers are not out helping people in need . Contrary to his angel siblings he has a conscience and cares about humanity 's welfare — he finds humans to be " works of art " . Speaking of his character , actor Misha Collins stated , " I think that these angels are at least loosely derived from some Biblical angel stories , and those angels are [ very tough ] . They just destroy . I picked up Revelations , and they destroy , they destroy , they destroy . There ’ s no mention of cherubs and harps or any of that . "
= = Development = =
The character was created for the fourth season to introduce Christian mythology to the series . With series creator Eric Kripke wanting to keep the introduction of an angel a secret , the character was described as a demon during auditions . Once Collins got the part , the main direction Kripke gave him of the character was there is " an otherworldly quality to the character , and that he hasn 't been up close with human beings . He 's been watching human beings from a great distance for the last two thousand years , so angels haven 't been on Earth mingling with human beings for the last two thousand years . So when [ he is ] interacting with human beings , there 's a naive curiosity about their behavior . It 's as if [ he is ] inspecting some sort of alien beings . " As well , director Kim Manners wanted to see a " piousness " to Castiel . Kripke based Castiel 's appearance on the comic book character John Constantine .
To prepare for the role , Collins read the Book of Revelation . As well , Collins has said he somewhat based his character around his younger brother , who has something " angelic about him " , as he " has this way of , very calmly , just staring into someone 's eyes " making one feel " like he can get into your soul . " To avoid the biblically toned dialogue from sounding too " campy " , Collins does his best to " play it as real as possible " . Because Castiel 's true voice shattered windows in his premiere episode , Collins decided to use a " gruff , resonant voice " for the character . However , when portraying the angel 's host Jimmy Novak , he tried to create a distinction between the two characters , providing different physical and personality traits , as well as using a " more boyish kind of sound " for Jimmy 's voice .
Speaking of the fifth season and Castiel 's more frequent interactions with humans , Collins commented , " Obviously the big joke is that he doesn 't understand human beings and how they behave . And there is something inherently funny in that , especially if he 's the straight man . " The actor noted he was a little hesitant at making the character into " the funny guy " , and was apprehensive about some moments in the early episodes of the season . However , he believes the writers have found " the line " , allowing for the jokes to be " more subtle " and " a little more believable " .
= = Reception = =
Critical response to the character has been extremely favorable . Castiel ranked ninth on TV.com 's top ten list of best new supporting characters of 2008 . The staff and voters of TelevisionWithoutPity both agreed Castiel was the 2008 – 2009 Most Welcome New Character on television , and BuddyTV 's John Kubicek listed him as one of the ten " TV Characters Who Deserve Their Own Spin @-@ Offs " . TV Squad ranked him as the top reason to watch the series , noting the " slightly awkward , frighteningly precise angel ... has done an amazing job of selling the underlying menace and vengefulness of God 's most heavenly creatures . "
Karla Peterson of The San Diego Union @-@ Tribune described the concept of Castiel as " genius " and the actor Collins as " fabulous " . Deeming Castiel to be a " fascinating new element " , Diana Steenbergen of IGN ranked Castiel fourth in her list of the " Ten Things We Love About Supernatural " . She posited that Collins plays the role with " somber intensity " , and " brings a sense of curiosity about humans to the character " . The angel 's interactions with Dean were " one of the highlights of the [ fourth ] season " . She especially praised Collins for his dual role as Castiel and the angel 's host Jimmy Novak in the episode " The Rapture " , and wrote , " It is a tribute to Collins 's acting that the audience knows immediately that the person we are seeing is not Castiel . "
Fan response to the character has also been positive . Collins believed that the character would end up being just another role for him , and never expected such a reaction from the fans . According to him , " The enthusiasm that I 've been met with is something new and not something I 'm really prepared for . " The character was originally intended for only a six @-@ episode story arc , but his role was rewritten to continue throughout the rest of the season . Upon Supernatural 's renewal for a fifth season , Collins was promoted to a series regular , something he believes to be mainly due to fan support .
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= 2002 – 03 South Pacific cyclone season =
The 2002 – 03 South Pacific cyclone season was the most active and longest tropical cyclone season since 1997 – 98 , with ten tropical cyclones occurring within the South Pacific basin between 160 ° E and 120 ° W. The season started earlier than normal , with two systems developing before the official start of the season on November 1 , 2002 , while the final system dissipated on June 9 , 2003 , after the season had officially ended on April 30 . During the season , tropical cyclones were officially monitored by the Regional Specialized Meteorological Centre ( RSMC ) in Nadi , Fiji and the Tropical Cyclone Warning Centres in Brisbane , Australia and Wellington , New Zealand . The United States Armed Forces through the Joint Typhoon Warning Center ( JTWC ) , also monitored the basin and issued unofficial warnings for American interests . RSMC Nadi attaches a number and an F suffix to tropical disturbances that occur within the basin , while the JTWC designates significant tropical cyclones with a number and a P suffix . RSMC Nadi , TCWC Wellington and TCWC Brisbane all use the Australian Tropical Cyclone Intensity Scale and estimate windspeeds over a ten @-@ minute period , while the JTWC estimates sustained winds over a one @-@ minute period , which are subsequently compared to the Saffir – Simpson Hurricane Scale ( SSHS ) .
The season began with Tropical Depression 17F on July 3 , several months prior to the official start of the season . In late December , the strongest cyclone of the season , Cyclone Zoe severely affected many islands in the South Pacific , particularly the island of Tikopia . Zoe remains the strongest cyclone recorded in the Southern Hemisphere . Shortly after , in mid @-@ January , Cyclone Ami struck Fiji as a Category 3 cyclone , where it caused US $ 51 @.@ 2 million in damage . Cyclone Erica caused considerable damage to New Caledonia as a Category 4 cyclone , causing numerous power outages . The final storm of the season , Cyclone Gina , formed well outside the bounds of the conventional tropical cyclone season , existing entirely in the month of June and causing some damage to Tikopia . As a result of tropical cyclones in the 2002 – 03 season , US $ 67 @.@ 2 million in damages was caused , along with 20 fatalities .
= = Seasonal forecasts = =
During November 2002 , New Zealand 's National Institute of Water and Atmospheric Research predicted that there would be an eastwards shift in activity during the season , with more tropical cyclones than normal expected to the east of the date line , due to well established weak to moderate El Niño conditions . As a result , the island nations of Wallis and Futuna , Niue , Samoa , Tokelau , and the Southern Cook Islands were predicted to experience a higher than average number of tropical cyclones . The Solomon Islands , Fiji , Tuvalu , Tonga , French Polynesia , New Zealand and the Northern Cook Islands were predicted to experience an average number of tropical cyclones , while Southern Papua New Guinea , Vanuatu and New Caledonia were predicted to experience a reduced number of tropical cyclones . In January 2003 , NIWA issued an updated outlook , listing the Northern Cook Islands and French Polynesia as areas predicted to experience an above average number of tropical cyclones . In contrast , Vanuatu was predicted to experience below average cyclone activity . The Solomon Islands and Tonga were now predicted to experience a reduced number of tropical cyclones , with all other countries expected to face the same risk as the November outlook .
= = Seasonal summary = =
After three seasons of below average cyclone activity , the 2002 – 03 season was slightly above average , featuring ten cyclones and seven severe tropical cyclones . One of the cyclones , Cyclone Erica , originated from the Australian region but later moved into the South Pacific , where it impacted New Caledonia . Throughout the season , a moderately warm El Niño – Southern Oscillation ( ENSO ) generated a shift of cyclone activity away from Australia and towards the open waters of the southern Atlantic . As a result , the Southern Oscillation Index ( SOI ) between November 2002 and June 2003 was negative , averaging -7.2 . Sea surface temperatures ( SSTs ) in the Pacific were above average ; for most of the tropical regions , SSTs were above 29 ° C ( 84 ° C ) . At various times , Madden – Julian oscillation ( MJO ) pulses increased convective activity and thus cyclone development in the basin . Five pulses of the MJO and Equatorial Rossby waves ( ER ) were responsible for most of the cyclone activity during the season . Cyclone Zoe , the strongest cyclone of the season , was the only cyclone with no connection to any identified MJO or ER wave . By April , an easterly trade wind anomaly took place , signifying the end of the El Niño pattern that had persisted for much of the year .
Over the course of the season , cyclones were active for a total of 40 days , and severe tropical cyclones were active for a total of 19 days , both above average . A total of five tropical disturbances formed during 2002 , of which two were cyclones . The first disturbance of the season , Tropical Depression 17F , along with another depression , 01F , formed well before the start of the cyclone season on July 3 and October 21 respectively . Cyclone Yolande was the first cyclone of the season , forming on November 29 , but did not impact any land masses . In December , two disturbances formed , Tropical Depression 03F and Cyclone Zoe . The latter was the season 's strongest cyclone and the strongest cyclone ever recorded in the Southern Hemisphere , affecting areas of the Solomon Islands .
In the first half of 2003 , thirteen disturbances formed , of which eight developed into tropical cyclones ; six intensified further and became severe tropical cyclones . January 2003 featured four disturbances and three cyclones . Cyclones Ami and Beni were both severe tropical cyclones , with the first extensively impacting Fiji . The month of February was less active compared to January ; only two disturbances formed , Cyclone Dovi and Tropical Disturbance 10F , although Dovi would become a Category 5 cyclone on the Australian cyclone scale . March was slightly more active than February ; the month featured three tropical depressions and two severe tropical cyclones , Cyclone Erica and Cyclone Eseta , although Erica originally formed west of 160 ° E. After an easterly wind anomaly arose in April , cyclone activity was suppressed during the month , totalling three tropical disturbances and one cyclone . In June , Cyclone Gina formed as a result of a strong ER wave and later became a severe tropical cyclone , well after the end of the season . Its dissipation on June 9 marked the end of the cyclone season .
= = Storms = =
= = = Tropical Cyclone Yolande = = =
Cyclone Yolande developed on November 29 from a broad area of thunderstorms embedded within a monsoonal trough , originating from a westerly wind burst associated with El Niño conditions ; the same area of disturbed weather would later generate Typhoon Pongsona on December 2 . At the time , the tropical depression was moving towards the southeast , but strong wind shear displaced the cyclone 's strongest winds and convection northeast of its circulation center . Convective activity fluctuated under strong diurnal temperature variation . After moving into an area of less wind shear , the system was able to organize and develop good outflow currents . This was reflected with a slight drop in minimum barometric pressure down to 995 mbar ( 29 @.@ 4 inHg ) . As a result , at 2255 UTC on December 4 , the depression attained cyclone status and was given the name Yolande , east of Tonga . After being named , Cyclone Yolande began to accelerate into an area of strong wind shear , and convection became increasingly displaced from the center of circulation . By 1200 UTC on December 5 , the convection was already sheared 160 km ( 100 mi ) from the northwest of the circulation center , and as such the cyclone was downgraded to depression status . By this time , Yolande had completed a transition into an extratropical cyclone , after interacting with a baroclinic zone to the southwest . Yolande 's extratropical remnants continued to track towards the southeast before dissipating entirely on December 11 , 2700 km ( 1700 mi ) to the southeast of Papeete , French Polynesia . As a result of remaining at sea , Yolande only caused minimal damage .
= = = Severe Tropical Cyclone Zoe = = =
Severe Tropical Cyclone Zoe was the most intense tropical cyclone in the Southern Hemisphere in recorded history , severely affecting areas of the Solomon Islands and Vanuatu . Cyclone Zoe developed from the South Pacific Convergence Zone ( SPCZ ) on January 23 , east of Tuvalu . Initially developing slowly as a tropical depression , the predecessor to Zoe moved toward the west @-@ southwest under the influence of a high pressure area . However , the storm entered an area of very favorable cyclone conditions . After reaching cyclone strength on December 25 , rapid intensification ensued . By the next day , Zoe had already strengthened to a severe tropical cyclone . On December 27 , Zoe attained wind speeds equivalent to Category 5 status on both the Australian and Saffir – Simpson hurricane scales . An upper – level trough of low pressure forced Zoe towards the southwest , moving into the vicinity of the Solomon Islands . The next day , Zoe intensified to a record low barometric pressure of 890 mbar ( 26 @.@ 28 inHg ) , with winds of 290 km / h ( 180 mph ) . However , conditions would deteriorate , and the cyclone would consequently weaken . By January 1 , the storm had already degenerated into an extratropical cyclone , and its remnants dissipated just three days later .
Cyclone Zoe severely impacted the islands of the Solomon island chain , particularly the islands of Tikopia and Anuta . In Anuta , agricultural activities were disrupted . Various fruit trees and crops , especially in gardens on the island 's hills , were destroyed by high winds and heavy rain . In addition , communications with other islands were disrupted . The impact on Tikopia was much greater ; agricultural productivity on the island was said to have been wiped out . Fruit trees were estimated only to begin producing fruit again at least two years after Zoe 's impact . Topsoil was left dry by the cyclone , preventing any immediate replacement of lost crops .
= = = Severe Tropical Cyclone Ami = = =
Severe Tropical Cyclone Ami was one of the worst cyclones ever to affect Fiji . Cyclone Ami developed from a low @-@ pressure area east of Tuvalu on January 12 . The storm moved slowly towards the southwest early in its existence . Influenced by an upper @-@ level trough , Ami slowed down and began moving towards the south and then southeast . The cyclone attained severe tropical cyclone intensity on January 13 . Ami made its first landfall at Vanua Levu , before subsequently making another landfall on Taveuni . Ami reached peak intensity as an equivalent Category 3 cyclone on the Australian cyclone scale on January 14 . Accelerating to the southeast , the cyclone began to cross over cool sea surface temperatures and encountered wind shear . Ami transitioned into an extratropical cyclone the day after .
Cyclone Ami severely impacted parts of Fiji , mainly through flooding . Numerous landslides and power outages were caused by the heavy rains . The damage was particularly severe in Labasa , where the entire city was inundated . Sugar cane production decreased by 15 % , and other crops also suffered heavily . In Tonga , damage was not as severe , but two ships were grounded . Ami caused F $ 104 @.@ 4 million ( US $ 51 @.@ 2 million ) in damages and 14 deaths , primarily on Fiji . Following the deaths and damage , the name " Ami " was later retired .
= = = Severe Tropical Cyclone Beni = = =
Severe Tropical Cyclone Beni was an intense tropical cyclone that affected areas of the southern Pacific Ocean , particularly in New Caledonia . It developed from a tropical disturbance on January 20 south of the Solomon Islands , and at first moved slowly towards the west . On January 25 , the disturbance gained enough strength and organization to be named Beni . It quickly made a clockwise loop , maintaining its intensity , and later headed south . After fluctuating in intensity , Beni entered more conducive conditions and began to strengthen , this time heading southeast . Traveling between Vanuatu and New Caledonia , Beni reached its peak intensity as a Category 5 tropical cyclone on January 29 , the highest rating on the Australian cyclone scale , with winds of 235 km / h ( 146 mph ) . It only maintained this intensity for a short time before an increase in wind shear and less favorable conditions induced its weakening . After nearing Vanuatu , a strengthening ridge forced Beni towards the southwest , away from Vanuatu . The cyclone made its closest approach to the island of New Caledonia on January 30 , but only as a marginal Category 1 cyclone . Continuing to weaken under strong wind shear , Beni was downgraded to a tropical depression the same day . After crossing New Caledonia , Beni exited the South Pacific basin and entered the Australian region .
During Beni 's existence , parts of the Solomon Islands , Vanuatu , and Queensland were affected by the storm . The cyclone caused flooding and a food shortage in the Solomon Islands . An estimated 2 @,@ 000 people were evacuated as a result . Rough seas and storm surge , as well as strong gusts , were the primary effects of Beni on Vanuatu and New Caledonia . New Caledonia was hit by power outages , and Vanuatu mainly suffered beach erosion .
= = = Tropical Cyclone Cilla = = =
Cyclone Cilla affected several islands in the South Pacific . The cyclone developed from a monsoon trough on January 26 northwest of Fiji , and initially moved to the east in conditions unfavourable for cyclones . After wind shear lessened , Cilla reached its peak intensity on January 28 , attaining maximum winds of 75 km / h ( 45 mph ) sustained over 10 minutes . After slightly weakening , Cilla was able to intensify again to match this intensity on January 29 . Strong vertical wind shear conditions then returned , and Cilla transitioned into an extratropical cyclone .
Cilla dropped heavy rainfall over islands along its path . As a depression the storm dropped rain over Fiji , which had already been effected by Cyclone Ami just two weeks earlier . Damage in Tonga was mostly limited to vegetation and fruit trees ; damage to infrastructure was relatively minor . Rain also fell on American Samoa , although no damage was reported . After the season , the name " Cilla " was retired .
= = = Severe Tropical Cyclone Dovi = = =
Cyclone Dovi developed on February 5 from an area of circulation within the SPCZ near the northern Cook Islands . Dovi therefore saw favourable conditions throughout much of its existence . Due to a mid – level ridge to the east , the cyclone progressed on a southward track . Dovi eventually steered to the southwest , and continued to intensify steadily after fluctuating due to diurnal temperature variations , becoming a Category 1 equivalent on the Saffir – Simpson hurricane scale on February 8 . An anticyclone positioned to the west of the system moved closer to Dovi , providing an improved environment . After developing an eye later that day , Dovi attained its maximum wind speeds of 205 km / h ( 125 mph ) sustained over 10 minutes . The cyclone then again steered towards the south , encountering high wind shear and cooler sea surface temperatures . As a result , Dovi quickly weakened as its convection was displaced . While its outflow in its western and southern quadrants remained favorable , elsewhere outflow was deteriorating . On February 10 , Dovi 's minimum barometric pressure was 980 mbar ( 28 @.@ 94 inHg ) as it moved south – southeast at 11 km / h ( 7 mph ) . The weakening Dovi became an extratropical cyclone on February 11 . The remnants continued drifting southwest ; the Meteorological Service of New Zealand in Wellington stopped issuing information on it on February 13 .
Despite its close proximity to islands along its path , Dovi caused only minimal damage . Oceanic swells and storm surge were felt in some coastal areas . Strong winds were reported in the southern Cook Islands and Niue . Damage to banana plantations on Palmerston Island was reported , but Dovi caused no fatalities .
= = = Severe Tropical Cyclone Eseta = = =
Cyclone Eseta developed on March 10 from an area of disturbed weather that originated in the vicinity of Vanuatu . At the time the cyclone was in very favourable conditions , in an area with warm sea – surface temperatures , low wind shear , and with development enhanced by an MJO pulse traversing the area at the time . After convection began to wrap around the center of circulation , the low – pressure area was named Eseta . The Joint Typhoon Warning Center ( JTWC ) began issuing warnings on Eseta at 1200 UTC on March 10 ; Eseta had a minimum pressure of 995 mbar ( 29 @.@ 39 inHg ) at the time . As the cyclone was on the western periphery of a mid – level ridge , it moved in a south – southeastwardly direction , initially at 13 km / h ( 8 mph ) . It then intensified quickly , and the next day developed a ragged eye . As it began to curve around the mid – level ridge , its forward speed increased to 21 km / h ( 13 mph ) . Favorable conditions continued on March 12 , and Eseta underwent rapid intensification , with its barometric pressure falling 40 mbar ( 1 @.@ 2 inHg ) to a minimum of 930 mbar ( 27 @.@ 46 inHg ) . Wind speeds increased to 185 km / h ( 115 mph ) sustained for 10 minutes . However , the cyclone only maintained this intensity for 12 hours before entering an area of strong vertical wind shear . It continued to accelerate in forward speed , but shower activity became elongated and the eye dissipated . The next day , Eseta had a forward speed of 55 km / h ( 35 mph ) . As a result , the cyclone lost tropical characteristics on March 14 . The JTWC issued its last warning on Eseta at 0000 UTC on March 4 as it became extratropical . Eseta was absorbed by a front the next day .
Although Eseta was well offshore of any islands in the Pacific , rains and wind caused some damage . Western regions of Fiji reported heavy rain and flooding as the cyclone passed to its south . As a weakening cyclone , Eseta passed over the Tongan island of Eua , destroying fruit trees and kava crops . No deaths were reported due to Eseta .
= = = Severe Tropical Cyclone Erica = = =
Severe Tropical Cyclone Erica was a powerful cyclone considered the worst to affect New Caledonia since Cyclone Beti . It developed from a monsoonal trough on March 4 just off Queensland in the Australian cyclone region . Once it entered the South Pacific cyclone region on March 12 , Erica steadily intensified in a favourable environment , reaching peak intensity on March 13 as a Category 5 equivalent on the Saffir – Simpson Hurricane Scale . On that day Erica paralleled the coast of New Caledonia , before making landfall on the southern end of the island at L 'Île @-@ des @-@ Pins . At the same time the cyclone entered an area with strong wind shear and thus began to weaken . After passing the island , an extratropical transition began , weakening the cyclone as it moved southeast . On March 15 , Erica completed its transition into an extratropical cyclone and fully dissipated the next day .
Cyclone Erica severely impacted the island nation of New Caledonia , causing intense winds and heavy rain . An estimated 892 families were affected by the cyclone on the island , and two people were killed . As many as 60 % of people on the west coast lost power . On March 17 only seventeen of the sixty @-@ six secondary schools on the island were functioning . After the storm it was feared that the existing dengue fever epidemic on the island would spread . Erica caused US $ 15 million in damages , primarily on New Caledonia .
= = = Tropical Cyclone Fili = = =
Cyclone Fili formed on April 13 from an area of convection northeast of Fiji . As marginal windshear abated , the disturbance began to organise , and cyclonic rotation was noted . A tropical upper tropospheric trough to the southwest helped enhance upper – level divergence in the system . RSMC Nadi began issuing warnings at 0000 UTC on April 14 . Despite forecasts that Fili would merge with an extratropical cyclone , overnight convective organisation improved . Dvorak satellite estimates gave a rating of 3 @.@ 0 , implying winds of 85 km / h ( 55 mph ) . The JTWC issued their only warning on Fili at 0600 UTC on April 14 . RSMC Nadi named the storm Fili at 1800 UTC on the same day , east – southeast of Tongatapu . At the time , Fili was travelling southeast at 35 km / h ( 20 mph ) . During the day a nearby upper – level trough helped accelerate Fili southeast and then southward . However , Fili quickly lost tropical characteristics under intense wind shear , becoming an extratropical cyclone the next day and merging with a cold front by 1200 UTC on March 15 . No damage was reported as a result of Fili due to its distance from land masses .
= = = Severe Tropical Cyclone Gina = = =
A westward @-@ moving tropical disturbance persisted northeast of Vanuatu , with persistent convection extending toward the Solomon Islands . On June 4 , both the JTWC and RSMC Nadi classified the system as a tropical depression . With a ridge to the south , it moved to the west @-@ southwest , quickly intensifying into Tropical Storm Gina by June 5 about 970 km ( 600 mi ) east @-@ southeast of Honiara . By 0000 UTC on June 7 , the JTWC upgraded Gina to the equivalent of a minimal hurricane , after an eye became evident on satellite images . Interaction with the nearby remnants of Tropical Cyclone Epi caused convection to decrease . On June 7 , FMS reported that Gina attained peak intensity as a low @-@ end Category 3 tropical cyclone on the Australian intensity scale , with winds of 140 km / h ( 90 mph ) . The JTWC recorded winds of 170 km / h ( 105 mph ) . A compact cyclone with a well @-@ defined eye , Gina encountered stronger wind shear and cooler waters . After turning southeast and then east @-@ southeast in response to a rapidly approaching trough , Gina quickly deteriorated as the convection became displaced from the centre . By June 9 , the centre became uncertain as Gina stalled to the west @-@ northwest of Port Vila . Winds diminished below gale force the next day .
Gina struck the island of Tikopia that had already sustained catastrophic damage from Cyclone Zoe less than two months previously . The storm brought high winds and torrential rains that triggered landslides . Dozens of homes were damaged and many areas newly re @-@ planted after Cyclone Zoe were devastated again . The impacts of Gina reportedly set back recovery efforts by nearly six months . A total of 112 newly built houses and 128 newly built kitchens were severely damaged , and another 37 homes sustained minor damage . The newly planted winter crop was lost due to sea spray , and 143 bags of rice , given as relief supplies after Cyclone Zoe , were lost . Following the storm , additional relief supplies and food were rushed to residents to ensure their safety . These consisted of local foods , sago and mesh wiring , worth $ 14 @,@ 400 . A ship carrying five people became stranded in the Coral Sea during the storm when their engine failed on June 7 . A mayday signal was put out by the captain but rough seas produced by the storm hampered rescue efforts . The five were safely rescued later that day , but two more people were discovered to be missing .
= = = Other systems = = =
During the opening days of the tropical cyclone year 2002 @-@ 03 , a westerly wind burst occurred and lead to the formation of Typhoon Chataan and Tropical Depression 17F . The system was first noted as a tropical depression during July 3 , while it was located about 800 km ( 495 mi ) to the northwest of Honiara in the Solomon Islands of Guadalcanal . Over the next couple of days the system moved westwards before it was last noted during July 5 . During October 21 , Tropical Disturbance 01F developed about 410 km ( 250 mi ) to the northwest of Port Vila , Vanuatu . It moved southeast and developed into a poorly organised tropical depression . It remained disorganized and accelerated towards the southeast , and was last noted by RSMC Nadi at 1800 UTC on October 22 . On December 10 , RSMC Nadi reported that Tropical Disturbance 03F had developed within a trough of low pressure , about 635 km ( 395 mi ) to the northeast of Pago @-@ Pago on the American Samoan island of Tutuila . The depression drifted towards the south , and was classified as a tropical depression the next day . Further development of the depression was prevented by dry air wrapping into the system and vertical windshear displacing convection . The depression was no longer monitored by RSMC Nadi on December 15 after it had become sheared , but it was briefly referred to as a " weak tropical depression " on December 19 and 20 .
On January 30 , the poorly organised Tropical Disturbance 08F developed within a convergence zone about 325 km ( 200 mi ) to the northeast of Apia on the Samoan island of Upolu . Over the next few days the system remained weak and poorly organized , and was classified as a tropical depression during February 5 . The depression then moved westwards , before dissipating on February 9 . Tropical Disturbance 10F developed on February 15 , about 170 km ( 105 mi ) to the north of the Fijian Dependency of Rotuma Island . The system was poorly defined and disorganised , while convection surrounding the system was mostly confined to the southern and eastern flanks of the low level circulation . Over the next few days the disturbance remained weak and was last noted during February 21 , while nestled within the Solomon Islands . On March 6 , Tropical Depression 11F developed under an upper trough of low pressure about 220 km ( 140 mi ) to the northeast of Nadi , Fiji . Convection surrounding the depression was displaced to the north of the low level circulation center . The depression remained weak over the next couple of days , and was last noted during March 8 . A fairly disorganized tropical disturbance developed during April 6 , within a monsoonal convergence zone , about 236 km ( 145 mi ) to the northeast of Port Vila , Vanuatu . It was initially located within an area of weak vertical windshear , but was expected to move into an area of stronger vertical windshear over the following 24 hours and gradually become extratropical . During the next day , as the disturbance moved southwards , it was assigned the designation 14F , before it was dropped by RSMC Nadi during April 8 , as convection surrounding the system became sheared and displaced . On April 13 , Tropical Disturbance 15F developed within a monsoon trough , about 355 km ( 220 mi ) to the southeast of Apia , Samoa . The system moved towards the south , with convection surrounding it poorly organised , and displaced to the north of the depression 's low level circulation centre . The depression was then last noted , during the next day as Tropical Depression 16F developed into Tropical Cyclone Fili .
= = Seasonal effects = =
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= Vidyasagar Setu =
Vidyasagar Setu ( Bidyasagôr Setu ) , also known as the Second Hooghly Bridge ( Dbitiyô Hugli Setu ) , is a toll bridge over the Hooghly River in West Bengal , India , linking the cities of Kolkata ( previously known as Calcutta ) and Howrah .
With a total length of 823 metres ( 2 @,@ 700 ft ) , Vidyasagar Setu is the longest cable – stayed bridge in India . It was the second bridge to be built across the Hooghly River ; the first , the Howrah Bridge ( also known as Rabindra Setu ) 3 @.@ 7 kilometres ( 2 @.@ 3 mi ) to the north , was completed in 1943 . Named after the educationist reformer Pandit Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar , it cost ₹ 3 @.@ 88 billion to build . The project was a joint effort between the public and private sectors , under the control of the Hooghly River Bridge Commissioners ( HRBC ) .
Initially , under the toll collection regime of the HRBC , daily traffic was recorded to be a minimum of 28 @,@ 000 vehicles and a maximum of 39 @,@ 000 vehicles in 2000 , but fell to a maximum of around 30 @,@ 000 vehicles by December 2002 , when the management of the toll plaza was handed over to a private firm . Subsequently , the daily traffic reached a minimum of 45 @,@ 000 vehicles and a maximum of 61 @,@ 000 vehicles by early 2008 , against a maximum capacity of 85 @,@ 000 vehicles per day . The original management of the toll revenue collection by HRBC was consequently criticized for corruption and significant loss of revenue .
= = History = =
Population and commercial activity grew rapidly after India gained independence in August 1947 . The only link across the Hooghly River , the Howrah Bridge , between Howrah and Kolkata , was subject to much traffic congestion , with over 85 @,@ 000 vehicles every day . This necessitated planning for a new bridge across the river so that it could connect to the major cities of Mumbai ( Bombay ) , Delhi and Chennai ( Madras ) through the national highways located close to the bridge .
The foundation stone for the bridge was laid by Indira Gandhi on 20 May 1972 . The bridge took more than 22 years to complete and cost Indian Rupees 3 @.@ 88 billion , but in seven of those years there was no construction activity . The bridge is named after the 19th @-@ century Bengali educationist reformer Pandit Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar . Work on the cable @-@ stayed bridge started with the construction of the well curb on the Calcutta bank end on 3 July 1979 .
There are three other bridges on the Hooghly River connecting Kolkata with Howrah district : Vivekananda Setu built in 1932 , ( road @-@ cum @-@ rail bridge ) – the first to be commissioned , and which had become old and needed repairs ; Howrah Bridge , a cantilever bridge commissioned in 1943 , now renamed as Rabindra Setu ( since 1965 in honour of the Noble Laurette Rabindranath Tagore ) ; and Nivedita Setu ( named after Sister Nivedita ) , also known as the Second Vivekananda Setu , which is 50 metres ( 160 ft ) downstream of the old Vivekananda Setu and was commissioned on 4 June 2007 .
= = Construction = =
The bridge was designed by Schlaich Bergermann & Partner , and checked by Freeman Fox & Partners and Bharat Bhari Udyog Nigam Limited . Construction was carried out by the consortium of " The Braithwaite Burn and Jessop Construction Company Limited " ( BBJ ) . The Hooghly River Bridge Commission ( HRBC ) was responsible for the commissioning operations of the bridge .
Construction began on 3 July 1979 , and the bridge was commissioned on 10 October 1992 by the Hooghly River Bridge Commission .
= = Architectural features = =
Vidyasagar Setu is a cable @-@ stayed bridge , with 121 cables in a fan arrangement , built using steel pylons 127 @.@ 62 metres ( 418 @.@ 7 ft ) high . With a total length of 823 metres ( 2 @,@ 700 ft ) , Vidyasagar Setu is the longest cable – stayed bridge in India . The deck is made of composite steel @-@ reinforced concrete with two carriageways . The total width of the bridge is 35 metres ( 115 ft ) , with 3 lanes in each direction and a 1 @.@ 2 metres ( 3 ft 11 in ) -wide footpath on each side . The deck over the main span is 457 @.@ 20 metres ( 1 @,@ 500 @.@ 0 ft ) long . The two side spans are supported by parallel wire cables and are 182 @.@ 88 metres ( 600 @.@ 0 ft ) long . Vidyasagar Setu is a toll bridge . It has capacity to handle more than 85 @,@ 000 vehicles in a day .
The design of the bridge differs slightly from other bridges , which are of live load composite construction . The difference is in the dead load design concept adopted for this bridge and concreting of the side spans done with support provided by the intermediate trestle . The deck is designed with a grid structure of girders . One set of girders are at the end and another set in the middle , which are braced by girders spaced on an average at 4 @.@ 2 metres ( 14 ft ) centre to centre .
A deck crane was used for the construction of the main span of the bridge . A specially designed crane of 45 tonne capacity was used to erect the pylons of the bridge . The structural steel used in the bridge weighs about 13 @,@ 200 tonnes . The pylons , which are 128 metres ( 420 ft ) in height , are designed as free standing portals . They are provided with two cross portal members , one at the bottom and another at the top , below the pylon head . The deck is connected to the end piers by bolts embedded in the chambers of the piers . Pylons made of 4 m × 4 m ( 13 ft × 13 ft ) steel boxes of riveted construction were raised on the two side spans of the bridge ; one set is on the Calcutta side and the other is on the Howrah side . The six pylons on the Calcutta side of the bridge were installed using 75 MT and 50 MT cranes , while on the Howrah end , a single 50 MT crane was used . Anchorage of the pylon with the base of piers was effected through Dywidag rods , duly anchored in the piers . Cables were erected from the four pylon heads with the help of 32 MT hoist frames . The hoist frames were mounted on top of each pylon . Sheave blocks , winches and snatch blocks were used to facilitate the lifting , and cables inside the pylons were stressed with jacks . Pressure grouting was performed to fill the voids between the wire and the high @-@ density polyethylene ( HDPE ) tubes . A two tonne tower crane , fixed inside the pylons , lifted the cables into position .
The bridge has been subject to prototype wind tunnel tests at the Indian Institute of Science in Bangalore . Bearings are used in vertical and horizontal directions , with grouted collars in four segments at the two end piers and horizontal bearings at the two middle piers to achieve stability against lateral movement . Maurer Söhne expansion joints were provided to allow for 400 millimetres ( 16 in ) horizontal expansion at the free ends . Fixed end slab seal type expansion joints 115 millimetres ( 4 @.@ 5 in ) were used for horizontal expansion of the joints . Other essential components provided in the bridge structure are the handrails , lightning arresters , crash barriers , gas service support structures , telephone and electric lines , lifts in the pylons , and a maintenance gantry .
= = Post @-@ construction Scenario = =
Over the years , several accidents have occurred on the bridge resulting in traffic congestion , and sometimes closure of the bridge for a few hours . To relieve the heavy traffic congestion at the entry to the bridge , the Hooghly River Bridge Commissioners ( HRBC ) plan to build two one @-@ way @-@ exit and entry – ramps . These are planned with a semi @-@ circular layout in the form of side wings , which will facilitate easy flow of traffic , before the toll plaza , on roads leading to the Howrah railway station . There are also plans to improve the lighting on the bridge by installing LED lamps and search lights covering the four pylons , the bridge spans , cables and under @-@ deck . An electronic toll collection system is scheduled to be introduced by 2014 , to help improve the flow of traffic across the bridge .
The traffic projections for the bridge at the planning stage have not been achieved . A traffic survey carried out for a week during June 2012 recorded traffic of 29 @,@ 000 vehicles over the bridge in comparison to a projected 85 @,@ 000 . A survey conducted during the same period in June 2012 indicated a figure of 31 @,@ 865 vehicles , though it is reported by the concerned traffic and transportation engineer that the rate of increase in traffic has been one percent per year on the basis of traffic surveys carried out from the time of commissioning of the bridge . The reason for the fall in traffic during 2012 is attributed to the peak monsoon effect during the survey period .
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= HM Armed Smack Inverlyon =
His Majesty 's or HM Armed Smack Inverlyon was a fishing smack that was converted to a Q @-@ ship during the First World War . Q @-@ ships served as decoys to lure German submarines near enough so that concealed weapons could be brought to bear and sink the submarines . On 15 August 1915 , Inverlyon succeeded in luring German submarine UB @-@ 4 within range and sinking her with nine shots from her gun . The Royal Navy Gunner in command of the vessel , Ernest Martin Jehan , received the Distinguished Service Cross and members of Inverlyon 's crew shared the bounty offered for German submarines . After Inverlyon 's Q @-@ ship career ended , she returned to fishing , but was sunk by U @-@ 55 on 1 February 1917 .
= = Career = =
Inverlyon was a fishing smack of 59 tons burthen that was a part of the fishing fleet at Lowestoft on the Suffolk coast . The wooden boat had a flush deck , two masts , and no engine . Inverlyon 's sails were fore @-@ and @-@ aft rigged and may have been red ochre in colour , the traditional sail colour for British smacks .
In February 1915 , Germany began its first submarine offensive of the First World War . During this campaign , enemy vessels in the German @-@ defined war zone ( German : Kriegsgebiet ) , which encompassed all waters around the United Kingdom , were to be sunk , and the British fishing fleet was not exempt . In mid @-@ June , for example , the German submarine UB @-@ 2 had sunk six smacks off Lowestoft in a two @-@ day period .
One method devised to deal with U @-@ boat attacks was the decoy or Q @-@ ship , designed to lure submarines that were targeting merchant shipping close enough so that concealed guns or other weapons could sink them . Inverlyon was selected to become a Q @-@ ship , was outfitted with either a 3 @-@ pounder ( 47 mm ) or a 6 @-@ pounder ( 57 mm ) gun , and entered the service of the Royal Navy on 2 August 1915 . Inverlyon 's fishing crew and skipper were all temporarily inducted into the Trawler section of the Royal Naval Reserve . Regular Royal Navy Gunner Ernest Martin Jehan and three other gunners from HMS Dryad — a former torpedo boat operating as a minesweeper out of Lowestoft — were assigned to Inverlyon , with Jehan in command .
On 14 August , the 59 @-@ ton smack Bona Fide was stopped by a U @-@ boat , boarded , and sunk with explosives 35 nautical miles ( 65 km ) east @-@ northeast from Lowestoft . This attack was likely by UB @-@ 4 , because she was operating in that area on her fourteenth patrol . Regardless of the identity of Bona Fide 's attacker , UB @-@ 4 did approach a group of smacks in the vicinity the next day . Unbeknown to UB @-@ 4 's commander , Oberleutnant zur See Karl Gross , one of the fishing vessels was the disguised Inverlyon .
Around 20 : 20 , UB @-@ 4 surfaced near Inverlyon , and Gross , on the conning tower of UB @-@ 4 , began shouting out commands to Inverlyon 's crew in German . Jehan , after waiting until UB @-@ 4 closed to within 30 yards ( 27 m ) of Inverlyon , ordered the White Ensign raised and gave the command to open fire . A burst of three rounds from the Inverlyon 's weapon scored hits on the conning tower , the second shot destroying part of the bridge and sending Gross into the water . UB @-@ 4 , with no one at the helm , drifted behind Inverlyon , and when clear , Inverlyon 's gunner unleashed another six shots into the hull of UB @-@ 4 at point @-@ blank range . All the while , small arms fire from Inverlyon 's crew peppered the submarine . The U @-@ boat began going down by the bow , becoming nearly vertical before disappearing below the surface . Inverlyon 's fishing skipper , a man named Phillips , dived in to attempt the rescue of a crewman from UB @-@ 4 . Phillips was unable to reach him before the crewman went under and met same fate as Gross and UB @-@ 4 's twelve other crewmen .
As UB @-@ 4 went down she fouled Inverlyon 's nets — which had been deployed to keep up the appearance of a real fishing boat — essentially anchoring Inverlyon in place . The Q @-@ ship 's crew , not having a wireless set on board , sent word of the encounter with another smack . This was followed up by releasing messenger pigeons the following morning , requesting instructions on what to do with UB @-@ 4 . The thought of salvaging the snagged U @-@ boat was rejected , so the nets were cut , freeing UB @-@ 4 to sink to the bottom . UB @-@ 4 's wreck lies at position 52 ° 43 ′ N 2 ° 18 ′ E. On 19 November 1915 Jehan was awarded the Distinguished Service Cross ( DSC ) for the sinking of UB @-@ 4 , and the crewmen of Inverlyon split the submarine bounty paid by the Admiralty .
About three weeks after she sank UB @-@ 4 , Inverlyon had the opportunity to sink another U @-@ boat , but was unsuccessful . The U @-@ boat encountered may have been either UB @-@ 2 or UB @-@ 16 , which both sank fishing vessels in the area on 7 and 8 September . By 1916 , Inverlyon had ended her short @-@ lived Q @-@ ship career and returned to being a fishing boat . Jehan , in addition to his DSC , was subsequently specially promoted to lieutenant on 4 January 1916 for his war service ; he retired from the Royal Navy on 29 October 1920 .
On 1 February 1917 , the German submarine U @-@ 55 shelled and sank Inverlyon 15 nautical miles ( 28 km ) from Trevose Head at position 50 ° 47 ′ N 5 ° 5 ′ W ; there were no reported casualties .
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