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l establishes policy for Council membership, sets the network rules, manages the platform's treasury of coins, and approves changes to the platform codebase. Our governance model is based on the original model used by National BankAmericard Inc., founded in 1968, which was later renamed VISA. We are designing our governance model in a way that ensures the Governing Members can be trusted to do what is in the best interest of the Hedera platform, and not be unduly influenced by individual Council memb
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Hedera Whitepaper
1,100
l establishes policy for Council membership, sets the network rules, manages the platform's treasury of coins, and approves changes to the platform codebase. Our governance model is based on the original model used by National BankAmericard Inc., founded in 1968, which was later renamed VISA. We are designing our governance model in a way that ensures the Governing Members can be trusted to do what is in the best interest of the Hedera platform, and not be unduly influenced by individual Council memb
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Hedera Whitepaper
1,101
ers or node operators. In addition to Governing Members, Hedera expects to have participating organizations contribute to the Hedera network ecosystem by providing advisory services as appropriate, but such organizations will not have voting privileges. The open consensus model relates to the process by which the nodes join the network and reach a consensus on the order of transactions in the platform. The model is designed to prevent consolidation of power over consensus by encouraging the emergenc
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Hedera Whitepaper
1,102
ers or node operators. In addition to Governing Members, Hedera expects to have participating organizations contribute to the Hedera network ecosystem by providing advisory services as appropriate, but such organizations will not have voting privileges. The open consensus model relates to the process by which the nodes join the network and reach a consensus on the order of transactions in the platform. The model is designed to prevent consolidation of power over consensus by encouraging the emergenc
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Hedera Whitepaper
1,103
e of a decentralized network with, eventually, millions of nodes. It prevents collusion by a few to attack the system such as by counterfeiting the cryptocurrency, modifying the ledger inappropriately, or influencing the consensus order of transactions. We inhibit collusion by weighting the votes within the hashgraph algorithm of a particular node based on the node's stake of coins. Loosely stated, each node casts one vote for each coin of the Hedera native currency (hbars) it owns. Initially, all of
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Hedera Whitepaper
1,104
e of a decentralized network with, eventually, millions of nodes. It prevents collusion by a few to attack the system such as by counterfeiting the cryptocurrency, modifying the ledger inappropriately, or influencing the consensus order of transactions. We inhibit collusion by weighting the votes within the hashgraph algorithm of a particular node based on the node's stake of coins. Loosely stated, each node casts one vote for each coin of the Hedera native currency (hbars) it owns. Initially, all of
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Hedera Whitepaper
1,105
the nodes in the Hedera network will be operated by Council members, so consensus will start on a permissioned basis. As network use grows, the Council will allow new node operators to join the network and be paid for their services in maintaining the hashgraph. The number of nodes is expected to grow large over time, ensuring consensus voting privileges are distributed to many nodes. A full discussion of the staking model is included in the section below. This system of permissioned governance with
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Hedera Whitepaper
1,106
the nodes in the Hedera network will be operated by Council members, so consensus will start on a permissioned basis. As network use grows, the Council will allow new node operators to join the network and be paid for their services in maintaining the hashgraph. The number of nodes is expected to grow large over time, ensuring consensus voting privileges are distributed to many nodes. A full discussion of the staking model is included in the section below. This system of permissioned governance with
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Hedera Whitepaper
1,107
open consensus will build more public trust than a purely closed system. This is essential to the success of a global DLT platform. 2 1G O V E R N A N C E P E R M I S S I O N E D G O V E R N A N C E We designed the Hedera governance model to ensure that the Council can be trusted to govern the network fairly. Council members will have equal governing rights and limited terms, ensuring that governance is decentralized. Deliberation and debate will be open to all Council members and controlled by
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Hedera Whitepaper
1,108
open consensus will build more public trust than a purely closed system. This is essential to the success of a global DLT platform. 2 1G O V E R N A N C E P E R M I S S I O N E D G O V E R N A N C E We designed the Hedera governance model to ensure that the Council can be trusted to govern the network fairly. Council members will have equal governing rights and limited terms, ensuring that governance is decentralized. Deliberation and debate will be open to all Council members and controlled by
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Hedera Whitepaper
1,109
none. The Governing Members will also participate in committees that provide oversight of Hedera operations. Committees will include but are not limited to a Technical Steering & Product Committee, a Finance Committee, and a Legal & Regulatory Committee. The Governing Members are organizations that span a broad range of business sectors, and our objective is that, collectively, the membership will contribute industry-leading representation to the range of Hedera committees. 2 2S TA B I L I T Y
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Hedera Whitepaper
1,110
none. The Governing Members will also participate in committees that provide oversight of Hedera operations. Committees will include but are not limited to a Technical Steering & Product Committee, a Finance Committee, and a Legal & Regulatory Committee. The Governing Members are organizations that span a broad range of business sectors, and our objective is that, collectively, the membership will contribute industry-leading representation to the range of Hedera committees. 2 2S TA B I L I T Y
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Hedera Whitepaper
1,111
Stability The hard forks that Bitcoin and Ethereum have experienced have arguably damaged the network effect of their corresponding currencies, creating confusion and uncertainty in the marketplace. Similarly, the explosion of altcoins (and the dubious legitimacy and value of many of them) does not engender the necessary confidence in businesses and consumers considering adopting cryptocurrencies. Historically, open source software developers have recognized the value of maintaining a single baseline
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Hedera Whitepaper
1,112
Stability The hard forks that Bitcoin and Ethereum have experienced have arguably damaged the network effect of their corresponding currencies, creating confusion and uncertainty in the marketplace. Similarly, the explosion of altcoins (and the dubious legitimacy and value of many of them) does not engender the necessary confidence in businesses and consumers considering adopting cryptocurrencies. Historically, open source software developers have recognized the value of maintaining a single baseline
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Hedera Whitepaper
1,113
of code and ensuring that the best ideas from the community are included for the benefit of the whole. However, when combining an open source project with a cryptocurrency, the traditional incentive structure is turned upside down. The distributed ledger technologies that have been most widely adopted are also those that have split the most. This dynamic causes chaos in the industry, and directly impedes the adoption of public ledgers by mainstream markets. Hedera technical and legal controls ensur
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Hedera Whitepaper
1,114
of code and ensuring that the best ideas from the community are included for the benefit of the whole. However, when combining an open source project with a cryptocurrency, the traditional incentive structure is turned upside down. The distributed ledger technologies that have been most widely adopted are also those that have split the most. This dynamic causes chaos in the industry, and directly impedes the adoption of public ledgers by mainstream markets. Hedera technical and legal controls ensur
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Hedera Whitepaper
1,115
e the platform will not fork into a competing platform and cryptocurrency. 2 3S TA B I L I T Y Technical controls S I G N E D S TAT E P R O O F S All nodes maintain a copy of the state. For instance, each node knows the balances of all network participants' crypto accounts. At the end of each round of the algorithm, each node calculates the new state by processing all transactions that were received in that round and before. Each node then digitally signs a hash of that shared state, puts it i
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Hedera Whitepaper
1,116
e the platform will not fork into a competing platform and cryptocurrency. 2 3S TA B I L I T Y Technical controls S I G N E D S TAT E P R O O F S All nodes maintain a copy of the state. For instance, each node knows the balances of all network participants' crypto accounts. At the end of each round of the algorithm, each node calculates the new state by processing all transactions that were received in that round and before. Each node then digitally signs a hash of that shared state, puts it i
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Hedera Whitepaper
1,117
n a transaction, and gossips it out to the network. Then it collects those signatures from all other nodes. When a client requests some aspect of the state, all nodes will be able to construct and return a small file carrying the collected signatures and other cryptographic material to prove to the client (or another party) that the returned data is indeed the true, consensus state. The state is organized as a Merkle tree, so a third party can be given a proof that consists of a small part of the st
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Hedera Whitepaper
1,118
n a transaction, and gossips it out to the network. Then it collects those signatures from all other nodes. When a client requests some aspect of the state, all nodes will be able to construct and return a small file carrying the collected signatures and other cryptographic material to prove to the client (or another party) that the returned data is indeed the true, consensus state. The state is organized as a Merkle tree, so a third party can be given a proof that consists of a small part of the st
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Hedera Whitepaper
1,119
ate, plus the path from there to the root of the Merkle tree (including siblings of those vertices in the tree), plus the signatures, and an address book history for the public keys. The diagram below represents how a third party will be confident that the state it receives from one of the nodes does indeed represent the consensus state of the full network. 2 4S TA B I L I T Y L E D G E R I D The proof will also include an "address book", which is a list of the public keys of all the nodes, along
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Hedera Whitepaper
1,120
ate, plus the path from there to the root of the Merkle tree (including siblings of those vertices in the tree), plus the signatures, and an address book history for the public keys. The diagram below represents how a third party will be confident that the state it receives from one of the nodes does indeed represent the consensus state of the full network. 2 4S TA B I L I T Y L E D G E R I D The proof will also include an "address book", which is a list of the public keys of all the nodes, along
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Hedera Whitepaper
1,121
with each node's stake. A third party will need this address book in order to check the signatures on the state (or portion of the state). The proof must also include an "address book history." This is a sequence of address books, where each address book is signed by nodes from the previous address book. Any given address book must be signed by a set of nodes that control more than 2/3 of the stake of the platform's coins, according to the network's list of nodes and their stake from the previous ad
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Hedera Whitepaper
1,122
with each node's stake. A third party will need this address book in order to check the signatures on the state (or portion of the state). The proof must also include an "address book history." This is a sequence of address books, where each address book is signed by nodes from the previous address book. Any given address book must be signed by a set of nodes that control more than 2/3 of the stake of the platform's coins, according to the network's list of nodes and their stake from the previous ad
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Hedera Whitepaper
1,123
dress book. This chain of address books extends back to the genesis address book, which was signed by the initial nodes that created the ledger. The hash of the genesis address book is important. It serves as a unique identifier of the ledger. It is the "name" of the ledger. H A N D L I N G F O R K S If a small number of nodes wants to split off from the network and create a new ledger that is a fork of the current one, these nodes have the technical ability to do so, and can even create the initial
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Hedera Whitepaper
1,124
dress book. This chain of address books extends back to the genesis address book, which was signed by the initial nodes that created the ledger. The hash of the genesis address book is important. It serves as a unique identifier of the ledger. It is the "name" of the ledger. H A N D L I N G F O R K S If a small number of nodes wants to split off from the network and create a new ledger that is a fork of the current one, these nodes have the technical ability to do so, and can even create the initial
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Hedera Whitepaper
1,125
state of their new ledger to be identical to the old ledger. So it is a fork. However, they will not be able to create an address book history reaching back to the genesis address book, with the nodes of each address book signing the next one, because the majority of nodes (who are not forking) will not sign the address book for the minority of nodes who are forking. This forces the new fork to have a new genesis address book, and therefore a new unique identifier, and therefore a new name. Consequen
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Hedera Whitepaper
1,126
state of their new ledger to be identical to the old ledger. So it is a fork. However, they will not be able to create an address book history reaching back to the genesis address book, with the nodes of each address book signing the next one, because the majority of nodes (who are not forking) will not sign the address book for the minority of nodes who are forking. This forces the new fork to have a new genesis address book, and therefore a new unique identifier, and therefore a new name. Consequen
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Hedera Whitepaper
1,127
tly, those creating the fork will be unable to fool anybody into thinking the fork is the legitimate ledger. When a client submits a transaction to a node to send to the ledger, the client will receive in response from the node the cryptographic proof that their transaction has affected the shared state correctly. When Alice transfers cryptocurrency to Bob, both of them will be able to receive a cryptographic proof that the transaction succeeded. This proof includes the signatures reaching back to th
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Hedera Whitepaper
1,128
tly, those creating the fork will be unable to fool anybody into thinking the fork is the legitimate ledger. When a client submits a transaction to a node to send to the ledger, the client will receive in response from the node the cryptographic proof that their transaction has affected the shared state correctly. When Alice transfers cryptocurrency to Bob, both of them will be able to receive a cryptographic proof that the transaction succeeded. This proof includes the signatures reaching back to th
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Hedera Whitepaper
1,129
e genesis address book. So they not only verify that the transfer occurred, they verify that it occurred on the correct ledger. If a ledger forks, no client will ever be confused about which ledger they are dealing with because only one ledger at a time can have that name. Furthermore, if the network's stake of hbars were to split 50/50 between two groups of nodes, neither group of nodes would be able to prove a connection to the genesis address book. Rather than a fork, it would be the complete deco
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Hedera Whitepaper
1,130
e genesis address book. So they not only verify that the transfer occurred, they verify that it occurred on the correct ledger. If a ledger forks, no client will ever be confused about which ledger they are dealing with because only one ledger at a time can have that name. Furthermore, if the network's stake of hbars were to split 50/50 between two groups of nodes, neither group of nodes would be able to prove a connection to the genesis address book. Rather than a fork, it would be the complete deco
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Hedera Whitepaper
1,131
nstruction of one ledger and the creation of two new ones. This would greatly reduce the value of the ledger to the nodes, because they would no longer be able to earn fees from the clients who want to access the original ledger. And all of the original cryptocurrency would, in a very real sense, cease to exist. This creates an enormous disincentive to forking. In this way, it is impossible to effectively create a deceptive fork of the Hedera ledger that would confuse users. Even if dishonest nodes c
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Hedera Whitepaper
1,132
nstruction of one ledger and the creation of two new ones. This would greatly reduce the value of the ledger to the nodes, because they would no longer be able to earn fees from the clients who want to access the original ledger. And all of the original cryptocurrency would, in a very real sense, cease to exist. This creates an enormous disincentive to forking. In this way, it is impossible to effectively create a deceptive fork of the Hedera ledger that would confuse users. Even if dishonest nodes c
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Hedera Whitepaper
1,133
reate a forked copy of the Hedera ledger in order to try to deceive users into thinking the copy is the legitimate ledger, users would know that ledger isn't valid because those nodes hosting the illegitimate fork would not be able to provide a valid state proof. And there is little incentive for nodes to openly create a forked copy, because there is unlikely to be much demand from users to shift to using an invalid version. So there are strong incentives to avoid forks, even aside from any legal ince
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Hedera Whitepaper
1,134
reate a forked copy of the Hedera ledger in order to try to deceive users into thinking the copy is the legitimate ledger, users would know that ledger isn't valid because those nodes hosting the illegitimate fork would not be able to provide a valid state proof. And there is little incentive for nodes to openly create a forked copy, because there is unlikely to be much demand from users to shift to using an invalid version. So there are strong incentives to avoid forks, even aside from any legal ince
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Hedera Whitepaper
1,135
ntives. The cryptographic proofs and unique identifiers that prevent forks are also critically important for secure sharding. They allow shards to send each other messages, with assurance that the message from a given shard was truly the consensus of that shard. 2 5S TA B I L I T Y Legal Controls and Transparency The Hedera codebase will be governed by the Hedera Governing Council. Version 1.0 of the codebase, which is expected in 2020, will be "open review," meaning that anyone will be able to r
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Hedera Whitepaper
1,136
ntives. The cryptographic proofs and unique identifiers that prevent forks are also critically important for secure sharding. They allow shards to send each other messages, with assurance that the message from a given shard was truly the consensus of that shard. 2 5S TA B I L I T Y Legal Controls and Transparency The Hedera codebase will be governed by the Hedera Governing Council. Version 1.0 of the codebase, which is expected in 2020, will be "open review," meaning that anyone will be able to r
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Hedera Whitepaper
1,137
ead the source code, recompile it, and verify that it is correct. No license will be required to use the Hedera platform. No license will be required to write software that uses the services of the Hedera platform. No license will be required to build smart contracts on top of the Hedera platform. Applications built upon the Hedera platform can be open source or proprietary. They do not require any license or any approval from Hedera. Software developed using the platform APIs will not be encumbere
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Hedera Whitepaper
1,138
ead the source code, recompile it, and verify that it is correct. No license will be required to use the Hedera platform. No license will be required to write software that uses the services of the Hedera platform. No license will be required to build smart contracts on top of the Hedera platform. Applications built upon the Hedera platform can be open source or proprietary. They do not require any license or any approval from Hedera. Software developed using the platform APIs will not be encumbere
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Hedera Whitepaper
1,139
d in any way. Software developers will have complete ownership and discretion on the licensing they choose for their applications that use the Hedera platform. Swirlds owns the intellectual property rights in the hashgraph consensus algorithm. The Hedera Governing Council has a license from Swirlds to use the hashgraph consensus algorithm and associated technology for the Hedera distributed public ledger platform. In exchange for that license, the Hedera Governing Council will pay Swirlds 10% of netw
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Hedera Whitepaper
1,140
d in any way. Software developers will have complete ownership and discretion on the licensing they choose for their applications that use the Hedera platform. Swirlds owns the intellectual property rights in the hashgraph consensus algorithm. The Hedera Governing Council has a license from Swirlds to use the hashgraph consensus algorithm and associated technology for the Hedera distributed public ledger platform. In exchange for that license, the Hedera Governing Council will pay Swirlds 10% of netw
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Hedera Whitepaper
1,141
ork revenue (with monthly minimums) and Swirlds will own 5% of Hedera coins. Swirlds will continue to require licenses for use of the hashgraph technology in private, permissioned networks, but no license will be required for distributed applications that run on Hedera's public platform. Hedera and Swirlds will use the patent rights associated with the hashgraph algorithm defensively to legally prohibit the forking of the codebase and the creation of a competing platform and currency. Developers are
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Hedera Whitepaper
1,142
ork revenue (with monthly minimums) and Swirlds will own 5% of Hedera coins. Swirlds will continue to require licenses for use of the hashgraph technology in private, permissioned networks, but no license will be required for distributed applications that run on Hedera's public platform. Hedera and Swirlds will use the patent rights associated with the hashgraph algorithm defensively to legally prohibit the forking of the codebase and the creation of a competing platform and currency. Developers are
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Hedera Whitepaper
1,143
free to build distributed applications on top of the Hedera platform with associated native tokens. In summary, Hedera will simultaneously embrace open review of the software code, while bringing stability to the platform and cryptocurrency by controlling the license. In this way, Hedera will provide a transparent codebase, assuring the stability that markets demand for mainstream adoption. 2 6R E G U L AT O R Y C O M P L I A N C E Regulatory Compliance We expect that governments will continue t
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Hedera Whitepaper
1,144
free to build distributed applications on top of the Hedera platform with associated native tokens. In summary, Hedera will simultaneously embrace open review of the software code, while bringing stability to the platform and cryptocurrency by controlling the license. In this way, Hedera will provide a transparent codebase, assuring the stability that markets demand for mainstream adoption. 2 6R E G U L AT O R Y C O M P L I A N C E Regulatory Compliance We expect that governments will continue t
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Hedera Whitepaper
1,145
o extend policy objectives to users, enterprises, and developers utilizing public ledgers and associated cryptocurrencies and tokens. We consider it a fundamental goal that the Hedera network can provide necessary tools for all members of its ecosystem to comply with applicable laws and regulations, including existing regimes such as the European Union's General Data Privacy Regulations (GDPR) and anti-money laundering (AML) obligations. We will continue to work with regulators to enable compliance w
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Hedera Whitepaper
1,146
ith new and changing laws and regulations as well. The sections below outline some of the key elements of the Hedera network that allow for a path to regulatory compliance. S E L F - C U S T O D Y Just like with most other distributed ledgers, all transactions that affect the state of a Hedera account must be signed by the account's private key. This enables end users who retain possession of their private key to have sole control over their accounts and never relinquish custody of any funds to Hede
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Hedera Whitepaper
1,147
ith new and changing laws and regulations as well. The sections below outline some of the key elements of the Hedera network that allow for a path to regulatory compliance. S E L F - C U S T O D Y Just like with most other distributed ledgers, all transactions that affect the state of a Hedera account must be signed by the account's private key. This enables end users who retain possession of their private key to have sole control over their accounts and never relinquish custody of any funds to Hede
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Hedera Whitepaper
1,148
ra, developers, or enterprises. Even cryptocurrency transactions are completely peer-to-peer without intermediaries taking possession of hbars. Developers can either design and build wallets and applications on the Hedera network that utilize self-custody of private keys and funds or choose to host the private keys of their users and comply with the regulatory obligations arising from such custodial relationship. D ATA S E L F - S O V R E I G N I T Y Unlike most other distributed ledgers, the Heder
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Hedera Whitepaper
1,149
ra, developers, or enterprises. Even cryptocurrency transactions are completely peer-to-peer without intermediaries taking possession of hbars. Developers can either design and build wallets and applications on the Hedera network that utilize self-custody of private keys and funds or choose to host the private keys of their users and comply with the regulatory obligations arising from such custodial relationship. D ATA S E L F - S O V R E I G N I T Y Unlike most other distributed ledgers, the Heder
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Hedera Whitepaper
1,150
a network implements controlled mutability. When data is published on the Hedera network the publisher can define an authorization policy for future deletion and/or modification by specifying which keys have those authorizations. This allows developers to build applications that can comply with the "right to erasure" requirement under the GDPR or allow its users to maintain full control of which data is public and for how long. P R I V A C Y M A N A G E M E N T The Hedera network also allows users
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Hedera Whitepaper
1,151
a network implements controlled mutability. When data is published on the Hedera network the publisher can define an authorization policy for future deletion and/or modification by specifying which keys have those authorizations. This allows developers to build applications that can comply with the "right to erasure" requirement under the GDPR or allow its users to maintain full control of which data is public and for how long. P R I V A C Y M A N A G E M E N T The Hedera network also allows users
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Hedera Whitepaper
1,152
to manage their own identities and transaction requirements. By default, accounts are pseudonymous, like most other distributed ledgers. However, the Hedera technology framework can support future implementations that allow users to attach their real identity (as asserted by an accredited party acting as a Certificate Authority) to be logically bound to their ledger account so that, when using that account to move funds, appropriate KYC checks can be performed A counterparty could choose to require
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Hedera Whitepaper
1,153
to manage their own identities and transaction requirements. By default, accounts are pseudonymous, like most other distributed ledgers. However, the Hedera technology framework can support future implementations that allow users to attach their real identity (as asserted by an accredited party acting as a Certificate Authority) to be logically bound to their ledger account so that, when using that account to move funds, appropriate KYC checks can be performed A counterparty could choose to require
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Hedera Whitepaper
1,154
full proof of identity (including full legal name) or specific identity characteristics (such as age) consistent with their compliance program in order to accept a transaction on the network. User remain in control of their personal information and whether to provide proof of identity or characteristics to a counterparty; the counterparty remains in control of meeting compliance obligations before engaging in a transaction. The system is opt-in, in that a user must explicitly choose to avail themse
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Hedera Whitepaper
1,155
full proof of identity (including full legal name) or specific identity characteristics (such as age) consistent with their compliance program in order to accept a transaction on the network. User remain in control of their personal information and whether to provide proof of identity or characteristics to a counterparty; the counterparty remains in control of meeting compliance obligations before engaging in a transaction. The system is opt-in, in that a user must explicitly choose to avail themse
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Hedera Whitepaper
1,156
lves of the mechanism and, if they do not, their account transactions will remain pseudonymous. This choice, however, may prevent them from engaging in certain financial transactions. S E C T I O N 2 7 The system is designed to provide the appropriate balance of: 1. Government visibility 2. Security 3. User privacy Comparable to showing a driver's license when creating a new bank account, the model has a user attach a hash of a digital certificate created by a recognized identity provider to
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Hedera Whitepaper
1,157
lves of the mechanism and, if they do not, their account transactions will remain pseudonymous. This choice, however, may prevent them from engaging in certain financial transactions. S E C T I O N 2 7 The system is designed to provide the appropriate balance of: 1. Government visibility 2. Security 3. User privacy Comparable to showing a driver's license when creating a new bank account, the model has a user attach a hash of a digital certificate created by a recognized identity provider to
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Hedera Whitepaper
1,158
their account. This attachment will take the form of a transaction sent out to the network. This transaction: 1. May need to be signed by both the user's private key and that of the identity provider 2. Can stipulate what parties are authorized to subsequently detach the hash (and so revoke the binding between the identity and the account). As long as the attachment between account and certificate has not been revoked, by either the user or the identity provider, it can be used
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Hedera Whitepaper
1,159
to establish that the account is bound to a known user whenever funds move in or out of that account. If and when appropriate, the identity provider can revoke the binding simply by sending a signed transaction to the network. As an example o
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Hedera Whitepaper
1,160
A Sustainable Reward Mechanism for Block Mining in PoW-Based Blockchain A Sustainable Reward Mechanism for Block Mining in PoW-based Blockchain Feilong Lin, Zhonglong Zheng, Zhiliang Huang, Changbing Tang, Hao Peng, and Zhongyu Chen College of Mathematics, Physics and Information Engineering, Zhejiang Normal University, Zhejiang, P. R. China Email: {bruce lin, zhonglong, zlhuang, tangcb, hpeng, czy}@zjnu.cn Abstract—Blockchain brings a peer-to-peer transaction solu- tion without a trusted third autho
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A Sustainable Reward Mechanism for Block Mining in PoW based Blockchain
1,161
A Sustainable Reward Mechanism for Block Mining in PoW-Based Blockchain A Sustainable Reward Mechanism for Block Mining in PoW-based Blockchain Feilong Lin, Zhonglong Zheng, Zhiliang Huang, Changbing Tang, Hao Peng, and Zhongyu Chen College of Mathematics, Physics and Information Engineering, Zhejiang Normal University, Zhejiang, P. R. China Email: {bruce lin, zhonglong, zlhuang, tangcb, hpeng, czy}@zjnu.cn Abstract—Blockchain brings a peer-to-peer transaction solu- tion without a trusted third autho
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A Sustainable Reward Mechanism for Block Mining in PoW based Blockchain
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rity over the peer-to-peer network. Proof-of-work (PoW), also called 'mining', incents some peers (called miners) to compete for the right of block generation by rewarding a certain mount of cryptocurrency. Hence, PoW undertakes the cryptocurrency creation and block generation in a blockchain based transaction system (BTS). However, in a BTS, the block mining reward (BMR) will be terminated after that the regulated quantity of currency have been minted. Although the voluntarily paid transaction fee is all
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A Sustainable Reward Mechanism for Block Mining in PoW based Blockchain
1,163
rity over the peer-to-peer network. Proof-of-work (PoW), also called 'mining', incents some peers (called miners) to compete for the right of block generation by rewarding a certain mount of cryptocurrency. Hence, PoW undertakes the cryptocurrency creation and block generation in a blockchain based transaction system (BTS). However, in a BTS, the block mining reward (BMR) will be terminated after that the regulated quantity of currency have been minted. Although the voluntarily paid transaction fee is all
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A Sustainable Reward Mechanism for Block Mining in PoW based Blockchain
1,164
owed to support BMR, the stable reward for block mining is no longer guaranteed, and which inevitably destroys the sustainability of BTS. In this work, we propose a sustainable reward mechanism (SRM) for block mining in BTS. Specifically, SRM introduces a mandatory transaction fee mechanism with dedicated fee rate determination algorithm. An on-chain public account (PA), which is trust-free but security-provable, is set to collect the dynamic transaction fees. With transaction fee collection under adapti
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A Sustainable Reward Mechanism for Block Mining in PoW based Blockchain
1,165
owed to support BMR, the stable reward for block mining is no longer guaranteed, and which inevitably destroys the sustainability of BTS. In this work, we propose a sustainable reward mechanism (SRM) for block mining in BTS. Specifically, SRM introduces a mandatory transaction fee mechanism with dedicated fee rate determination algorithm. An on-chain public account (PA), which is trust-free but security-provable, is set to collect the dynamic transaction fees. With transaction fee collection under adapti
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A Sustainable Reward Mechanism for Block Mining in PoW based Blockchain
1,166
ve fee rate setting, PA provides the steady BMR, thus makes blockchain sustainable when the currency creation purposed BMR has been terminated. Numerical results are presented to demonstrate the effectiveness of SRM. Index Terms—Blockchain, block mining, sustainable reward I. INTRODUCTION The development of network technologies encountering the blooming peer-to-peer businesses gave the birth of blockchain, which brought a peer-to-peer transaction solution without the necessitation of a trusted third
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A Sustainable Reward Mechanism for Block Mining in PoW based Blockchain
1,167
ve fee rate setting, PA provides the steady BMR, thus makes blockchain sustainable when the currency creation purposed BMR has been terminated. Numerical results are presented to demonstrate the effectiveness of SRM. Index Terms—Blockchain, block mining, sustainable reward I. INTRODUCTION The development of network technologies encountering the blooming peer-to-peer businesses gave the birth of blockchain, which brought a peer-to-peer transaction solution without the necessitation of a trusted third
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A Sustainable Reward Mechanism for Block Mining in PoW based Blockchain
1,168
authority or central serv- er [1, 2]. Blockchain has attracted much attention from var- ious domains, e.g., sharing financial [3], transparent stock market [4], healthcare intelligence [5], industry security [6], secure internet of things [7, 8], personal data security [9] etc.. Technically, blockchain constructs a distributed ledger consisting of time labeled and ordered data blocks. Over blockchain running network, normally a peer-to-peer network, each block with all of the contained transactio
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A Sustainable Reward Mechanism for Block Mining in PoW based Blockchain
1,169
authority or central serv- er [1, 2]. Blockchain has attracted much attention from var- ious domains, e.g., sharing financial [3], transparent stock market [4], healthcare intelligence [5], industry security [6], secure internet of things [7, 8], personal data security [9] etc.. Technically, blockchain constructs a distributed ledger consisting of time labeled and ordered data blocks. Over blockchain running network, normally a peer-to-peer network, each block with all of the contained transactio
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A Sustainable Reward Mechanism for Block Mining in PoW based Blockchain
1,170
ns must be validated across the network according to predefined rules. Only the successfully validated block can be added to the ledger and locally restored by the nodes. This process is also referred as distributed consensus. Distributed consensus together with time ordered records guarantees the validity and irreversibility of the distributed ledger, i.e., blockchain. Besides, cryptological technologies, such as public key encryp- tion and digital signature, are integrated into the blockchain p
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A Sustainable Reward Mechanism for Block Mining in PoW based Blockchain
1,171
ns must be validated across the network according to predefined rules. Only the successfully validated block can be added to the ledger and locally restored by the nodes. This process is also referred as distributed consensus. Distributed consensus together with time ordered records guarantees the validity and irreversibility of the distributed ledger, i.e., blockchain. Besides, cryptological technologies, such as public key encryp- tion and digital signature, are integrated into the blockchain p
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A Sustainable Reward Mechanism for Block Mining in PoW based Blockchain
1,172
rotocol, which enable the security of private information and cryptocurrency payment during the peer-to-peer transaction. Another cryptography based technology, named proof-of-work (PoW), is used to control the block generation. Specifically, some network nodes, called miners, use their computing power to solve the difficulty-controllable hash puzzle. The miner, who firstly acquires the answer, gains the right to generate a new block by packing all of the collected transactions into it. After that
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A Sustainable Reward Mechanism for Block Mining in PoW based Blockchain
1,173
rotocol, which enable the security of private information and cryptocurrency payment during the peer-to-peer transaction. Another cryptography based technology, named proof-of-work (PoW), is used to control the block generation. Specifically, some network nodes, called miners, use their computing power to solve the difficulty-controllable hash puzzle. The miner, who firstly acquires the answer, gains the right to generate a new block by packing all of the collected transactions into it. After that
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A Sustainable Reward Mechanism for Block Mining in PoW based Blockchain
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the fresh block has been validated cross the network and added to the blockchain, miners start to mine next block and also start the new round of blockchain generation. Block mining reward (BMR), incents the miners working for block mining, thus to keep the steady generation of blocks and makes the blockchain based transaction system (BTS) sustainable. For example, Bitcoin [1], a well known BTS, formulates a cash reward mechanism. When a block is generated, the corresponding miner will get a cert
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A Sustainable Reward Mechanism for Block Mining in PoW based Blockchain
1,175
the fresh block has been validated cross the network and added to the blockchain, miners start to mine next block and also start the new round of blockchain generation. Block mining reward (BMR), incents the miners working for block mining, thus to keep the steady generation of blocks and makes the blockchain based transaction system (BTS) sustainable. For example, Bitcoin [1], a well known BTS, formulates a cash reward mechanism. When a block is generated, the corresponding miner will get a cert
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A Sustainable Reward Mechanism for Block Mining in PoW based Blockchain
1,176
ain cryp- tocurrency from Bitcoin system, i.e., bitcoins (BTC), as the mining reward. It is noted that this systematic reward, the currency creation purposed reward, is exactly the unique origin of the cryptocurrency. That is why the generation process of the block is vividly called as block mining. Specifically, the BMR in Bitcoin system starts at 50 BTC and halves every 210, 000 blocks. Finally, the total BTC will be hold at the level of 21 million [10]. That is because to guarantee the stability
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A Sustainable Reward Mechanism for Block Mining in PoW based Blockchain
1,177
ain cryp- tocurrency from Bitcoin system, i.e., bitcoins (BTC), as the mining reward. It is noted that this systematic reward, the currency creation purposed reward, is exactly the unique origin of the cryptocurrency. That is why the generation process of the block is vividly called as block mining. Specifically, the BMR in Bitcoin system starts at 50 BTC and halves every 210, 000 blocks. Finally, the total BTC will be hold at the level of 21 million [10]. That is because to guarantee the stability
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A Sustainable Reward Mechanism for Block Mining in PoW based Blockchain
1,178
of economic ecosystem, the amount of currency in a BTS are necessary to be limited. In another word, the currency creation purposed reward for block mining in preliminary phase of BTS has to be terminated after that the regulated quantity of currency have been issued. It can be foreseen that a direct consequence of BMR reduction or termination is the collapse of BTS, since that the stable block mining process cannot be maintained. To avoid this consequence, an extensively accepted transaction cos
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A Sustainable Reward Mechanism for Block Mining in PoW based Blockchain
1,179
of economic ecosystem, the amount of currency in a BTS are necessary to be limited. In another word, the currency creation purposed reward for block mining in preliminary phase of BTS has to be terminated after that the regulated quantity of currency have been issued. It can be foreseen that a direct consequence of BMR reduction or termination is the collapse of BTS, since that the stable block mining process cannot be maintained. To avoid this consequence, an extensively accepted transaction cos
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A Sustainable Reward Mechanism for Block Mining in PoW based Blockchain
1,180
t mechanism [10] is introduced into the blockchain. When the miner gains the right to generate a block, he can get reward from transaction fees provided by the payers of transactions. However, there are still several shortages of the existing trans- action cost mechanism. First, transaction fees are voluntarily paid by users, thus the earning of miners is hard to be stably guaranteed. Even if no transaction fee is paid during one block generation period, the miner gains nothing. Second, transaction
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A Sustainable Reward Mechanism for Block Mining in PoW based Blockchain
1,181
occurrence is not periodic or even dramatically fluctuating, and the consequent reward formed by transaction fees cannot protect periodic generation of chain blocks. In this context, the smooth reward of block mining is no longer guaranteed which inevitably destroys the stability of economic ecosystem. Therefore, how to stabilize the BMR after BTS reaching 2018 5th International Conference on Information, Cybernetics, and Computational Social Systems (ICCSS) 978-1-5386-7088-0/18/$31.00 ©2018 IEEE
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A Sustainable Reward Mechanism for Block Mining in PoW based Blockchain
1,182
occurrence is not periodic or even dramatically fluctuating, and the consequent reward formed by transaction fees cannot protect periodic generation of chain blocks. In this context, the smooth reward of block mining is no longer guaranteed which inevitably destroys the stability of economic ecosystem. Therefore, how to stabilize the BMR after BTS reaching 2018 5th International Conference on Information, Cybernetics, and Computational Social Systems (ICCSS) 978-1-5386-7088-0/18/$31.00 ©2018 IEEE
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A Sustainable Reward Mechanism for Block Mining in PoW based Blockchain
1,183
156 Public Account Block mining reward Transaction fees Fig. 1. Public account for transaction fees collection and block mining reward payment in SRM. the regulated currency issuance is an open and significantly important issue. This paper proposes a sustainable rewarding mechanism (S- RM) for BTS. SRM suggests that users in BTS pay a mandato- ry fee for each transaction according to predefined fee rate. In particular, a public account (PA) is set to collect the transaction fees instead of de
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A Sustainable Reward Mechanism for Block Mining in PoW based Blockchain
1,184
positing them to miners account directly. The miner who successfully mines the new block will draw a fixed reward from the PA, e.g., 25 BTC in Bitcoin system. The reliability and security of the PA can be guaranteed by the validity and irreversibility of blockchain. The design of SRM and its security statements are presented in Section II. From economic sense, transaction fee rate is significantly important for economic ecosystem [11]. Rational transaction fee rate setting makes PA neither plunder
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A Sustainable Reward Mechanism for Block Mining in PoW based Blockchain
1,185
positing them to miners account directly. The miner who successfully mines the new block will draw a fixed reward from the PA, e.g., 25 BTC in Bitcoin system. The reliability and security of the PA can be guaranteed by the validity and irreversibility of blockchain. The design of SRM and its security statements are presented in Section II. From economic sense, transaction fee rate is significantly important for economic ecosystem [11]. Rational transaction fee rate setting makes PA neither plunder
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A Sustainable Reward Mechanism for Block Mining in PoW based Blockchain
1,186
superfluous currency nor become tight to pay for the BMR. The mathematical model for SRM running and the optimal determination of transaction fee rate are presented in Section III. The performance validations are presented in Section IV. We summarize the contributions of this work as follows: 1) A sustainable rewarding mechanism (SRM) is proposed. SRM introduces a revenue supported BMR, which can be used to compensate the mining reward when sys- tematic reward is low or replace the currency crea
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A Sustainable Reward Mechanism for Block Mining in PoW based Blockchain
1,187
tion purposed reward when it is terminated. 2) In particular, a trust-free but security-provable public account is introduced to collect transaction fees and pay for BMR. PA is supposed to collect the random and dynamic transaction fees and output a constant BMR. 3) A transaction fee rate determination algorithm is designed, which integrates the slip-window average method for transaction volume estimation and double- threshold control for PA balance stability and sustain- ability. For reading c
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A Sustainable Reward Mechanism for Block Mining in PoW based Blockchain
1,188
onvenience, the abbreviations used in this paper are listed as follows in alphabetical order: BMR short for block mining reward, BTC short for bitcoin, BTS short for blockchain based transaction system, PoW short for proof-of- work, PA short for public account, SRM short for sustainable rewarding mechanism. II. SRM: A SUSTAINABLE REWARDING MECHANISM FOR BLOCKCHAIN The purpose of SRM is to make the BTS sustainable when the currency creation purposed reward is reduced or terminated. The philosophy
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A Sustainable Reward Mechanism for Block Mining in PoW based Blockchain
1,189
of SRM is to introduce a revenue TABLE I STRUCTURE OF THE GENERATION TRANSACTION INVOLVING PA Field Description Transaction Hash All bits are zero Output Index All bits are ones Coinbase Data Size From 2 to 100 bytes Coinbase Data Arbitrary data • {Balance} The balance of the PA up to this block • {Fee rate} The transaction fee rate in next block generation period Sequence Number Set to 0xFFFFFFFF by setting a transaction cost mechanism to replace the currency creation purposed BMR. SRM sets a PA
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A Sustainable Reward Mechanism for Block Mining in PoW based Blockchain
1,190
to buffer and balance collected transaction fees and BMR payment, as illustrated in Fig. 1. Accordingly, the core of SRM is to set a trust- free but security-provable PA charging for BMR payment, and then make an appropriate transaction fee rate to balance the revenue and expenditure of the PA. This section presents the SRM design and its security statement. The latter issue, determination of the transaction fee rate, will be discussed in the following section. A. Design of SRM The design of SR
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A Sustainable Reward Mechanism for Block Mining in PoW based Blockchain
1,191
M is divided into two parts, i.e., the PA and the associated SRM protocol, which are presented as follows. 1) Design of PA: To support the SRM, the targeted PA is required to : 1) collect transaction fees and pay for BMR at the generation of each block in an transparent way and; 2) work in a decentralized manner since that any central entity is not expected in blockchain. Note that personal account or
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A Sustainable Reward Mechanism for Block Mining in PoW based Blockchain
1,192
How to generate transparent random numbers using blockchain How to generate transparent random numbers using blockchain Yuto Ehara1 Graduate School of Science Chiba University Yayoicho 1-33, Inage, Chiba 263-8522, Japan. Mitsuru Tada Institute of Media and Information Technologies Chiba University Yayoicho 1-33, Inage, Chiba 263-8522, Japan. E-mail: [email protected] Abstract—Nowadays, we can enjoy many internet applications including online lotteries and games. The results of lotteries, c
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How to generate transparent random numbers using blockchain
1,193
ard games, dice throwing and so on, depend upon the values of random numbers generated under some rules. However, we cannot verify the correctness for the given random numbers, that means, we have no means to convince ourselves that the given random numbers have indeed been correctly generated, using a pre-determined algorithm, and without being intentionally per- verted by anyone. We say that such random number generation can provide 'transparency'. It is quite important that random numbers given online
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How to generate transparent random numbers using blockchain
1,194
can convince us that those are correctly generated. In other words, the transparency of online random number generation is quite important. Sako et. al. [5] have given a random number generation scheme applicable to the game 'Backgammon', in which transparency of blockchain enables us to verify the correctness for used random numbers after the game ended. In that scheme, however, the server has to be a trusted party, and it means dishonest generation of random numbers is possible by making one player and
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How to generate transparent random numbers using blockchain
1,195
the server corrupted. In this paper, we present a transparent random number generation scheme. To be sure that a few trusted parties appears in the description of the scheme, but by implementing such trusted ones with public blockchain actually operated, our scheme can generate transparent random numbers without requiring any trusted parties. I. INTRODUCTION Nowadays, random numbers are used in many computer ap- plications. To be sure that random numbers are quite important for the security of encryptio
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How to generate transparent random numbers using blockchain
1,196
the server corrupted. In this paper, we present a transparent random number generation scheme. To be sure that a few trusted parties appears in the description of the scheme, but by implementing such trusted ones with public blockchain actually operated, our scheme can generate transparent random numbers without requiring any trusted parties. I. INTRODUCTION Nowadays, random numbers are used in many computer ap- plications. To be sure that random numbers are quite important for the security of encryptio
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How to generate transparent random numbers using blockchain
1,197
n and digital signature schemes, but here we would like to focus on random numbers used for entertainments such as lotteries and games in a network. Imagine that we enjoy a lottery in a network application, and that we can get various gifts corresponding to the result of the lottery, which is determined according to some random number(s). If we get a good gift or one we aim, then we may be satisfied. But otherwise, we may suspect if the system manager has shown some dishonest result so that we feel we wa
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How to generate transparent random numbers using blockchain
1,198
nt to try again. Again, imagine that we play a match-type card game via network. During the game, we may often pull some cards. If those pulled card are all acceptable for our hand, and if we win, then we may be satisfied. But otherwise, if our pulled cards are entirely unfavorable, and if we lose thereby, we may 1The current affiliation of the first author is: Media Entertainment Japan Inc., THE WORKERS & CO 2F, Higashiazabu 1-4-2, Minato-ku, Tokyo 106- 0044, Japan. E-mail: [email protected] suspect if
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How to generate transparent random numbers using blockchain
1,199