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Arminianism | Christian perfection | Christian perfection
Wesley taught that through the Holy Spirit, Christians could achieve a state of practical perfection, or "entire sanctification", characterized by a lack of voluntary sin. "[Entire sanctification is] purity of intention." This state involves embodying the love of God and neighbor. "[Entire sanctification is] loving God with all our heart, and our neighbor as ourselves." It does not mean freedom from all mistakes or temptations, as perfected Christians still need to seek forgiveness and strive for holiness. Ultimately, perfection in this context is about love, not absolute perfection. |
Arminianism | Preservation and apostasy of man | Preservation and apostasy of man
Wesley believed genuine Christians could apostatize. He emphasized that sin alone does not lead to this loss; instead, prolonged unconfessed sin and deliberate apostasy can result in a permanent fall from grace. However, he believed that such apostasy was not irremediable. |
Arminianism | Corporate election variation | Corporate election variation
The majority Arminian view is that election is individual and based on God's foreknowledge of faith. In the corporate election view, God chose the believing church collectively for salvation rather than selecting individuals.: "[The certainty of salvation] does not rest on the fact that the church belongs to a certain 'number', but that it belongs to Christ, from before the foundation of the world. Fixity does not lie in a hidden decree, therefore, but in corporate unity of the Church with Christ, whom it has come to know in the gospel and has learned to embrace in faith." Jesus is seen as the only person elected, and individuals join the elect through faith "in Christ".: "The most conspicuous feature of Ephesians 1:3–2:10 is the phrase 'in Christ', which occurs twelve times in Ephesians 1:3–14 alone [...] this means that Jesus Christ himself is the chosen one, the predestined one. Whenever one is incorporated into him by grace through faith, one comes to share in Jesus' special status as chosen of God.": "Election in Christ must be understood as the election of God's people. Only as members of that community do individuals share in the benefits of God's gracious choice." This view is supported by Old Testament and Jewish concepts, where identity is rooted more in group membership than individuality. |
Arminianism | Arminianism and other views | Arminianism and other views |
Arminianism | Divergence with Pelagianism | Divergence with Pelagianism
Pelagianism is a doctrine denying original sin and total depravity. No system of Arminianism founded on Arminius or Wesley denies original sin or total depravity; both Arminius and Wesley strongly affirmed that man's basic condition is one in which he cannot be righteous, understand God, or seek God. Arminius referred to Pelagianism as "the grand falsehood" and stated that he "must confess that I detest, from my heart, the consequences [of that theology]." This association is considered as libelous when attributed to Arminius' or Wesley's doctrine, and Arminians reject all accusations of Pelagianism. |
Arminianism | Divergence with Semi-Pelagianism | Divergence with Semi-Pelagianism
Semi-Pelagianism holds that faith begins with human will, while its continuation and fulfillment depend on God's grace, giving it the label "human-initiated synergism". In contrast, both Classical and Wesleyan Arminianism affirm that prevenient grace from God initiates the process of salvation, a view sometimes referred to as "Semi-Augustinian", or "God-initiated synergism". Following the Reformation, Reformed theologians often categorized both "human-initiated synergism" and "God-initiated synergism" as "Semi-Pelagianism", often leading to mistaken belief that Arminianism aligned with Semi-Pelagianism. |
Arminianism | Divergence with Calvinism | Divergence with Calvinism
Calvinism and Arminianism, while sharing historical roots and many theological doctrines, diverge notably on the concepts of divine predestination and election. While some perceive these differences as fundamental, others regard them as relatively minor distinctions within the broader spectrum of Christian theology. |
Arminianism | Similarities | Similarities
Human spiritual condition: Arminians agree with Calvinists on the doctrine of total depravity, but differ in their understanding of how God remedies this human condition. |
Arminianism | Differences | Differences
Nature of election: Arminians believe election to final salvation is conditional on faith, while Calvinists hold that unconditional election is based on God's predeterminism: "By predestination we mean the eternal decree of God, by which he determined with himself whatever he wished to happen with regard to every man. All are not created on equal terms, but some are preordained to eternal life, others to eternal damnation; and, accordingly, as each has been created for one or other of these ends, we say that he has been predestinated to life or to death." making Him the ultimate cause of everything, including human faith.: "It should be conceded at the outset, and without any embarrassment, that Calvinism is indeed committed to divine determinism: the view that everything is ultimately determined by God."
Nature of grace: Arminians believe that, through prevenient grace, God universally restores the individual spiritual ability to choose and that subsequent justifying grace is resistible. Calvinists however, assert that God's effectual call is given only to the elect and that subsequent grace is irresistible.
Extent of the atonement: Arminians, along with four-point Calvinists, advocate for a universal atonement, contrary to the Calvinist doctrine that atonement is limited to the elect. Both sides, excluding hyper-Calvinists, believe the Gospel invitation is universal and should be presented to everyone without distinction.
Perseverance in faith: Arminians believe preservation to final salvation is conditional on faith and can be lost through apostasy. They contend for a present security in Christ, relying on His protection from all external forces. Calvinists, on the other hand, hold to the perseverance of the saints, asserting that the elect will persevere in faith until the end of their lives.: "The Perseverance of the Saints means that all those who are truly born again will be kept by God's power and will persevere as Christians until the end of their lives, and that only those who persevere until the end have been truly born again." However, a believer cannot know with certainty if they are elect until they reach the end.: "[T]his doctrine of the perseverance of the saints, if rightly understood, should cause genuine worry, and even fear, in the hearts of any who are 'backsliding' or straying away from Christ. Such persons must clearly be warned that only those who persevere to the end have been truly born again." This leads to different interpretations on the assurance of final salvation within Calvinist circles.: "John Bunyan's Pilgrim's Progress has blessed multitudes of Christians, but his spiritual autobiography, Grace Abounding to the Chief of Sinners, is disturbing. He recounts how, in his seemingly endless search for assurance of salvation, he was haunted by the question, 'How can I tell if I am elected?: "Calvin, however, has greater confidence than Luther and the Catholic tradition before him that the believer can also have great assurance of his election and final perseverance." |
Arminianism | Divergence with open theism | Divergence with open theism
The doctrine of open theism states that God is omnipresent, omnipotent, and omniscient, but differs on the nature of the future. Open theists claim that the future is not completely determined (or "settled") because people have not made their free decisions yet. God therefore knows the future partially in possibilities (human free actions) rather than solely certainties (divinely determined events). Some Arminians, reject open theism, viewing it as a distortion of traditional Arminianism.. Picirilli actually objects so strongly to the link between Arminianism and open theism that he devotes an entire section to his objections. They believe it shifts away from classical Arminianism toward process theology. Others view it as a valid alternative perspective within Christianity, despite not aligning it with Arminian doctrine. |
Arminianism | See also | See also
Apostasy in Christianity
Covenant theology
Decisional regeneration
Free will in theology
Grace in Christianity
Justification
Order of salvation
Salvation in Christianity
Sovereignty of God in Christianity
Substitutionary atonement
Satisfaction theory
Penal theory
Governmental theory
Synergism |
Arminianism | Notes and references | Notes and references |
Arminianism | Citations | Citations |
Arminianism | Sources | Sources
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Arminianism | External links | External links
The Society of Evangelical Arminians
Category:17th-century Reformed Christianity
Category:Reformed Christianity in the Dutch Republic
Category:Christian terminology
Category:Christian theological movements
Category:Jacobus Arminius
Category:Methodism
Category:Philosophy and thought in the Dutch Republic
Category:Protestant theology
Category:Seventh-day Adventist theology |
Arminianism | Table of Content | Short description, History, Precursor movements and theological influences, Emergence of Arminianism, Arminianism in the Church of England, Baptists, Methodists, Pentecostals, Current landscape, Protestant denominations, Scholarly support, Theology, Theological legacy, Classical Arminianism, Definition and terminology, God's providence and human free will, Philosophical view on free will, Spiritual view on free will, Extent and nature of the atonement, Conversion of man, Election of man, Preservation of man, Possibility of apostasy, Forgivability of apostasy, Wesleyan Arminianism, Distinctive aspect, Nature of the atonement, Justification and sanctification, Christian perfection, Preservation and apostasy of man, Corporate election variation, Arminianism and other views, Divergence with Pelagianism, Divergence with Semi-Pelagianism, Divergence with Calvinism, Similarities, Differences, Divergence with open theism, See also, Notes and references, Citations, Sources, External links |
The Alan Parsons Project | Short description | The Alan Parsons Project was a British rock band formed in London in 1975. Its core membership consisted of producer, audio engineer, musician and composer Alan Parsons, and singer, songwriter and pianist Eric Woolfson. They shared writing credits on almost all of their songs, with Parsons producing or co-producing all of the recordings, while being accompanied by various session musicians, some relatively consistently.
The Alan Parsons Project released eleven studio albums over a 15-year career, the most successful ones being I Robot (1977), The Turn of a Friendly Card (1980) and Eye in the Sky (1982). Many of their albums are conceptual in nature and focus on science fiction, supernatural, literary and sociological themes. Among the group's most popular songs are "I Wouldn't Want to Be Like You", "Games People Play", "Time", "Sirius", "Eye in the Sky", and "Don't Answer Me". |
The Alan Parsons Project | Career | Career |
The Alan Parsons Project | 1974–1976: Formation and debut | 1974–1976: Formation and debut
Alan Parsons met Eric Woolfson in the canteen of Abbey Road Studios in the summer of 1974. Parsons was assistant engineer on the Beatles' albums Abbey Road (1969) and Let It Be (1970), engineered Pink Floyd's The Dark Side of the Moon (1973), and produced several acts for EMI Records. Woolfson, a songwriter and composer, was working as a session pianist while composing material for a concept album based on the work of Edgar Allan Poe.
Woolfson's idea was to manage Alan and help his already successful production career. It was the start of a longstanding friendly business relationship. He managed Parsons's career as a producer and engineer through a string of successes, including Pilot, Steve Harley, Cockney Rebel, John Miles, Al Stewart, Ambrosia, and the Hollies. Woolfson came up with the idea of making an album based on developments in the film industry—the focal point of the films' promotion shifted from film stars to directors such as Alfred Hitchcock and Stanley Kubrick. If the film industry was becoming a director's medium, Woolfson felt the music business might well become a producer's medium.
Recalling his earlier Edgar Allan Poe material, Woolfson saw a way to combine his and Parsons's talents. Parsons produced and engineered songs written and composed by the two, and the first Alan Parsons Project was begun. The Project's first album, Tales of Mystery and Imagination (1976), released by 20th Century Fox Records and including major contributions by all members of Pilot and Ambrosia, was a success, reaching the Top 40 in the US Billboard 200 chart. The song "The Raven" featured lead vocals by the actor Leonard Whiting. According to the 2007 re-mastered album liner notes, this was the first rock song to use a vocoder, with Alan Parsons speaking lyrics through it, although others such as Bruce Haack pioneered this field in the previous decade. |
The Alan Parsons Project | 1977–1990: Mainstream success and final releases | 1977–1990: Mainstream success and final releases
Arista Records then signed the Alan Parsons Project for further albums. Through the late 1970s and early 1980s, the Project's popularity continued to grow. The Project was always more popular in North America, Ibero-America, and Continental Europe than in Parsons' home country, never achieving a UK Top 40 single or Top 20 album. The singles "I Wouldn't Want to Be Like You", "Games People Play", "Damned If I Do", "Time" (the first single to feature Woolfson's lead vocal) and "Eye in the Sky" had a notable impact on the Billboard Hot 100. "Don't Answer Me" became the Project's last successful single in the United States; it reached the top 15 on the American charts in 1984.
After those successes, the Project began to fade from view. There were fewer hit singles, and declining album sales. 1987's Gaudi was the Project's final release, though it had planned to record an album called Freudiana (1990) next. |
The Alan Parsons Project | The musical ''Freudiana'' | The musical Freudiana
Even though the studio version of Freudiana was produced by Parsons (and featured the regular Project session musicians, making it an 'unofficial' Project album), it was primarily Woolfson's idea to turn it into a musical. While Parsons pursued his own solo career and took many session players of the Project on the road for the first time in a successful worldwide tour, Woolfson went on to produce musical plays influenced by the Project's music. Freudiana, Gaudi, and Gambler were three musicals that included some Project songs like "Eye in the Sky", "Time", "Inside Looking Out", and "Limelight". The live music from Gambler was only distributed at the performance site in Mönchengladbach, Germany. |
The Alan Parsons Project | ''The Sicilian Defence'' | The Sicilian Defence
In 1979, Parsons, Woolfson, and their record label Arista, had been stalled in contract renegotiations when the two submitted an all-instrumental album tentatively titled The Sicilian Defence, named after an aggressive opening move in chess. Arista's refusal to release the album had two known effects: the negotiations led to a renewed contract, and the album was not released at that time.
In interviews he gave before his death in 2009, Woolfson said he planned to release one track from the "Sicilian" album, which in 2008 appeared as a bonus track on a CD re-issue of the Eve album. Sometime later, after he had relocated the original tapes, Parsons reluctantly agreed to release the album and announced that it would finally be released on an upcoming Project box set called The Complete Albums Collection in 2014 for the first time as a bonus disc. |
The Alan Parsons Project | Parsons's and Woolfson's solo careers | Parsons's and Woolfson's solo careers
Parsons released titles under his name: Try Anything Once (1993), On Air (1996), The Time Machine (1999), A Valid Path (2004), The Secret (2019) and From the New World (2022). Meanwhile, Woolfson made concept albums titled Freudiana (1990), about Sigmund Freud's work on psychology, and Poe: More Tales of Mystery and Imagination (2003), continuing from the Alan Parsons Project's first album about Poe literature.
Tales of Mystery and Imagination (1976) was re-mixed in 1987 for release on CD, and included narration by Orson Welles recorded in 1975, but delivered too late to be included on the original album. For the 2007 deluxe edition release, parts of this tape were used for the 1976 Griffith Park Planetarium launch of the original album, the 1987 remix, and various radio spots. All were included as bonus material. |
The Alan Parsons Project | Sound | Sound
The band's sound is described as progressive rock, art rock, progressive pop, and soft rock. "Sirius" is their best-known and most-frequently heard of all Parsons/Woolfson songs. It was used as entrance music by various American sports teams, notably by the Chicago Bulls during their 1990s NBA dynasty. It was also used as the entrance theme for Ricky Steamboat in pro wrestling of the mid-1980s. In addition, "Sirius" is played in a variety of TV shows and movies including the BBC series Record Breakers, the episode "Vanishing Act" of The Adventures of Jimmy Neutron: Boy Genius and the 2009 film Cloudy with a Chance of Meatballs.
Vocal duties were shared by guests to complement each song. In later years, Woolfson sang lead on many of the group's hits, including "Time", "Eye in the Sky", and "Don't Answer Me". The record company pressured Parsons to use Woolfson more, but Parsons preferred to use polished proficient singers; Woolfson admitted he was not in that category. In addition to Woolfson, vocalists Chris Rainbow, Lenny Zakatek, John Miles, David Paton, and Colin Blunstone are regulars. Other singers, such as Arthur Brown, Steve Harley, Gary Brooker, Dave Terry a.k.a. Elmer Gantry, Vitamin Z's Geoff Barradale, and Marmalade's Dean Ford, recorded only once or twice with the Project. Parsons sang lead on one song ("The Raven") through a vocoder and backing on a few others, including "To One in Paradise". Both of those songs appeared on Tales of Mystery and Imagination (1976). Parsons also sings a prominent counter melody on "Time".
A variety of session musicians worked with the Alan Parsons Project regularly, contributing to the recognizable style of a song despite the varied singer line-up. With Parsons and Woolfson, the studio band consisted of the group Pilot, with Ian Bairnson (guitar), David Paton (bass) and Stuart Tosh (drums). Pilot's keyboardist Billy Lyall contributed. From Pyramid (1978) onward, Tosh was replaced by Stuart Elliott of Cockney Rebel. Bairnson played on all albums, and Paton stayed almost until the end. Andrew Powell appeared as arranger of orchestra (and often choirs) on all albums except Vulture Culture (1985); he was composing the score of Richard Donner's film Ladyhawke (1985). This score was partly in the APP style, recorded by most of the APP regulars, and produced and engineered by Parsons. Powell composed some material for the first two Project albums. For Vulture Culture and later, Richard Cottle played as a regular contributor on synthesizers and saxophone.
alt=|thumb|275x275px|Alan Parsons Live Project, Congress Centrum, Ulm Germany in 2017
The Alan Parsons Project played live only once under that name during its original incarnation because Woolfson and Parsons held the roles of writing and production, and because of the technical difficulties of re-producing on stage the complex instrumentation used in the studio. In the 1990s, musical production evolved with the technology of digital samplers. The one occasion the band was introduced as 'the Alan Parsons Project' in a live performance was at The Night of the Proms in October 1990. The concerts featured all Project regulars except Woolfson, present behind the scenes, while Parsons stayed at the mixer except for the last song, when he played acoustic guitar.
Since 1993, Alan Parsons continues to perform live as the Alan Parsons Live Project to be distinct from the Alan Parsons Project. The current line up consists of lead singer P.J. Olsson, guitarist Jeffrey Kollman, drummer Danny Thompson, keyboardist Tom Brooks, bass guitarist Guy Erez, vocalist and saxophonist Todd Cooper, and guitarist and vocalist Dan Tracey. In 2013, Alan Parsons Live Project played in Colombia with a full choir and orchestra (the Medellin Philharmonic) as 'Alan Parsons Symphonic Project'. A 2-CD live set and a DVD version of this concert were released in May 2016. |
The Alan Parsons Project | In popular culture | In popular culture
In Austin Powers: The Spy Who Shagged Me (1999), Dr. Evil devised a plan to turn the moon into a "Death Star" using a "laser" invented by Dr. Alan Parsons. He called this "The Alan Parsons Project".
The opening theme song for the Chicago Bulls has been the song "Sirius" since 1984. |
The Alan Parsons Project | Members | Members
Official members
Alan Parsons – production, engineering, programming, composition, vocals, keyboards, guitars (1975–1990)
Eric Woolfson – composition, lyrics, piano, keyboards, vocals, executive production (1975–1990; died 2009)
Notable contributors
Andrew Powell – composition, keyboards, orchestral arrangements (1975–1996)John Miles, Laurence Cottle, Ian Bairnson, Contributed to The Alan Parsons Project
Philharmonia Orchestra
Ian Bairnson – guitars (1975–1990; died 2023)
David Pack – guitars (1976, 1993), vocals, keyboards (1993)
Richard Cottle – keyboards, saxophone (1984–1990)
David Paton – bass (1975–1986), vocals (1975–1986, 1990), acoustic guitar (1990)
Stuart Tosh – drums, percussion (1975–1977)
Stuart Elliott – drums, percussion (1977–1990)
Mel Collins – saxophone (1982–1984)
Geoff Barradale – vocals (1987)
Phil Kenzie – saxophone (1978)
Andy Kanavan – percussion (1993)
Dennis Clarke – saxophone (1980)
Colin Blunstone – vocals (1978–1984)
Gary Brooker – vocals (1985; died 2022)
Arthur Brown – vocals (1975)
Lesley Duncan – vocals (1979; died 2010)
Graham Dye – vocals (1985, 1998)
Dean Ford – vocals (1978; died 2018)
Dave Terry ("Elmer Gantry") – vocals (1980, 1982)
Jack Harris – vocals (1976–1978)
The Hollies – vocals
John Miles – vocals, guitar (1976, 1978, 1985, 1987, 1990; died 2021)
Chris Rainbow – vocals (1979–1990; died 2015)
Eric Stewart – vocals (1990, 1993)
Peter Straker – vocals (1977)
Clare Torry – vocals (1979)
Dave Townsend – vocals (1977, 1979)
Lenny Zakatek – vocals (1977–1987)
The English Chorale – choir (1976, 1977, 1982, 1987)
P. J. Olsson – vocals (2004–) |
The Alan Parsons Project | Discography | Discography
Tales of Mystery and Imagination (1976)
I Robot (1977)
Pyramid (1978)
Eve (1979)
The Turn of a Friendly Card (1980)
Eye in the Sky (1982)
Ammonia Avenue (1984)
Vulture Culture (1985)
Stereotomy (1985)
Gaudi (1987)
The Sicilian Defence (2014) |
The Alan Parsons Project | References | References |
The Alan Parsons Project | External links | External links
www.The-Alan-Parsons-Project.com
The official Eric Woolfson website
The Alan Parsons Project albums to be listened as stream at Spotify.com
Category:British male musical duos
Category:British progressive rock groups
Category:British soft rock music groups
Category:Arista Records artists
Category:Charisma Records artists
Category:British rock music duos
Category:Progressive pop groups
Category:Soft rock duos |
The Alan Parsons Project | Table of Content | Short description, Career, 1974–1976: Formation and debut, 1977–1990: Mainstream success and final releases, The musical ''Freudiana'', ''The Sicilian Defence'', Parsons's and Woolfson's solo careers, Sound, In popular culture, Members, Discography, References, External links |
Almost all | Short description | In mathematics, the term "almost all" means "all but a negligible quantity". More precisely, if is a set, "almost all elements of " means "all elements of but those in a negligible subset of ". The meaning of "negligible" depends on the mathematical context; for instance, it can mean finite, countable, or null.
In contrast, "almost no" means "a negligible quantity"; that is, "almost no elements of " means "a negligible quantity of elements of ". |
Almost all | Meanings in different areas of mathematics | Meanings in different areas of mathematics |
Almost all | Prevalent meaning | Prevalent meaning
Throughout mathematics, "almost all" is sometimes used to mean "all (elements of an infinite set) except for finitely many". This use occurs in philosophy as well. Similarly, "almost all" can mean "all (elements of an uncountable set) except for countably many".
Examples:
Almost all positive integers are greater than 1012.
Almost all prime numbers are odd (2 is the only exception).
Almost all polyhedra are irregular (as there are only nine exceptions: the five platonic solids and the four Kepler–Poinsot polyhedra).
If P is a nonzero polynomial, then P(x) ≠ 0 for almost all x (if not all x). |
Almost all | Meaning in measure theory | Meaning in measure theory
thumb|right|250px| The Cantor function as a function that has zero derivative almost everywhere
When speaking about the reals, sometimes "almost all" can mean "all reals except for a null set". Similarly, if S is some set of reals, "almost all numbers in S" can mean "all numbers in S except for those in a null set". The real line can be thought of as a one-dimensional Euclidean space. In the more general case of an n-dimensional space (where n is a positive integer), these definitions can be generalised to "all points except for those in a null set" or "all points in S except for those in a null set" (this time, S is a set of points in the space). Even more generally, "almost all" is sometimes used in the sense of "almost everywhere" in measure theory, or in the closely related sense of "almost surely" in probability theory.
Examples:
In a measure space, such as the real line, countable sets are null. The set of rational numbers is countable, so almost all real numbers are irrational.
Georg Cantor's first set theory article proved that the set of algebraic numbers is countable as well, so almost all reals are transcendental.
Almost all reals are normal.
The Cantor set is also null. Thus, almost all reals are not in it even though it is uncountable.
The derivative of the Cantor function is 0 for almost all numbers in the unit interval. It follows from the previous example because the Cantor function is locally constant, and thus has derivative 0 outside the Cantor set. |
Almost all | Meaning in number theory | Meaning in number theory
In number theory, "almost all positive integers" can mean "the positive integers in a set whose natural density is 1". That is, if A is a set of positive integers, and if the proportion of positive integers in A below n (out of all positive integers below n) tends to 1 as n tends to infinity, then almost all positive integers are in A.
More generally, let S be an infinite set of positive integers, such as the set of even positive numbers or the set of primes, if A is a subset of S, and if the proportion of elements of S below n that are in A (out of all elements of S below n) tends to 1 as n tends to infinity, then it can be said that almost all elements of S are in A.
Examples:
The natural density of cofinite sets of positive integers is 1, so each of them contains almost all positive integers.
Almost all positive integers are composite.
Almost all even positive numbers can be expressed as the sum of two primes.
Almost all primes are isolated. Moreover, for every positive integer , almost all primes have prime gaps of more than both to their left and to their right; that is, there is no other prime between and . |
Almost all | Meaning in graph theory | Meaning in graph theory
In graph theory, if A is a set of (finite labelled) graphs, it can be said to contain almost all graphs, if the proportion of graphs with n vertices that are in A tends to 1 as n tends to infinity. However, it is sometimes easier to work with probabilities, so the definition is reformulated as follows. The proportion of graphs with n vertices that are in A equals the probability that a random graph with n vertices (chosen with the uniform distribution) is in A, and choosing a graph in this way has the same outcome as generating a graph by flipping a coin for each pair of vertices to decide whether to connect them. Therefore, equivalently to the preceding definition, the set A contains almost all graphs if the probability that a coin-flip–generated graph with n vertices is in A tends to 1 as n tends to infinity. Sometimes, the latter definition is modified so that the graph is chosen randomly in some other way, where not all graphs with n vertices have the same probability, and those modified definitions are not always equivalent to the main one.
The use of the term "almost all" in graph theory is not standard; the term "asymptotically almost surely" is more commonly used for this concept.
Example:
Almost all graphs are asymmetric.
Almost all graphs have diameter 2. |
Almost all | Meaning in topology | Meaning in topology
In topology and especially dynamical systems theory (including applications in economics), "almost all" of a topological space's points can mean "all of the space's points except for those in a meagre set". Some use a more limited definition, where a subset contains almost all of the space's points only if it contains some open dense set.
Example:
Given an irreducible algebraic variety, the properties that hold for almost all points in the variety are exactly the generic properties. This is due to the fact that in an irreducible algebraic variety equipped with the Zariski topology, all nonempty open sets are dense. |
Almost all | Meaning in algebra | Meaning in algebra
In abstract algebra and mathematical logic, if U is an ultrafilter on a set X, "almost all elements of X" sometimes means "the elements of some element of U". For any partition of X into two disjoint sets, one of them will necessarily contain almost all elements of X. It is possible to think of the elements of a filter on X as containing almost all elements of X, even if it isn't an ultrafilter. |
Almost all | Proofs | Proofs |
Almost all | See also | See also
Almost
Almost everywhere
Almost surely |
Almost all | References | References |
Almost all | Primary sources | Primary sources |
Almost all | Secondary sources | Secondary sources
Category:Mathematical terminology |
Almost all | Table of Content | Short description, Meanings in different areas of mathematics, Prevalent meaning, Meaning in measure theory, Meaning in number theory, Meaning in graph theory, Meaning in topology, Meaning in algebra, Proofs, See also, References, Primary sources, Secondary sources |
Aromatic compound | short description | thumb|class=skin-invert-image|2D model of a benzene molecule. The carbon "ring" is what makes benzene "aromatic".
Aromatic compounds or arenes are organic compounds "with a chemistry typified by benzene" and "cyclically conjugated."
The word "aromatic" originates from the past grouping of molecules based on odor, before their general chemical properties were understood. The current definition of aromatic compounds does not have any relation to their odor. Aromatic compounds are now defined as cyclic compounds satisfying Hückel's rule.
Aromatic compounds have the following general properties:
Typically unreactive
Often non polar and hydrophobic
High carbon-hydrogen ratio
Burn with a strong sooty yellow flame, due to high C:H ratio
Undergo electrophilic substitution reactions and nucleophilic aromatic substitutions
Arenes are typically split into two categories - benzoids, that contain a benzene derivative and follow the benzene ring model, and non-benzoids that contain other aromatic cyclic derivatives. Aromatic compounds are commonly used in organic synthesis and are involved in many reaction types, following both additions and removals, as well as saturation and dearomatization. |
Aromatic compound | Heteroarenes | Heteroarenes
Heteroarenes are aromatic compounds, where at least one methine or vinylene (-C= or -CH=CH-) group is replaced by a heteroatom: oxygen, nitrogen, or sulfur.IUPAC. Compendium of Chemical Terminology, 2nd ed. (the "Gold Book"). Compiled by A. D. McNaught and A. Wilkinson. Blackwell Scientific Publications, Oxford (1997). Online version (2019-) created by S. J. Chalk. ISBN 0-9678550-9-8. https://doi.org/10.1351/goldbook. Examples of non-benzene compounds with aromatic properties are furan, a heterocyclic compound with a five-membered ring that includes a single oxygen atom, and pyridine, a heterocyclic compound with a six-membered ring containing one nitrogen atom. Hydrocarbons without an aromatic ring are called aliphatic. Approximately half of compounds known in 2000 are described as aromatic to some extent.
class=skin-invert-image|thumb|168x168px|Electron flow through p orbitals for the heterocycle furan
class=skin-invert-image|left|thumb|142x142px|Line bond structure of the heterocycle pyridine
class=skin-invert-image|center|thumb|142x142px|Line bond structure of the heterocycle furan |
Aromatic compound | Applications | Applications
Aromatic compounds are pervasive in nature and industry. Key industrial aromatic hydrocarbons are benzene, toluene, xylene called BTX. Many biomolecules have phenyl groups including the so-called aromatic amino acids. |
Aromatic compound | Benzene ring model | Benzene ring model
class=skin-invert-image|thumb|182x182px|Line bond structure of benzene
class=skin-invert-image|thumb|168x168px|Electron flow through p orbitals showing the aromatic nature of benzene
Benzene, C6H6, is the least complex aromatic hydrocarbon, and it was the first one defined as such. Its bonding nature was first recognized independently by Joseph Loschmidt and August Kekulé in the 19th century. Each carbon atom in the hexagonal cycle has four electrons to share. One electron forms a sigma bond with the hydrogen atom, and one is used in covalently bonding to each of the two neighboring carbons. This leaves six electrons, shared equally around the ring in delocalized pi molecular orbitals the size of the ring itself. This represents the equivalent nature of the six carbon-carbon bonds all of bond order 1.5. This equivalency can also explained by resonance forms. The electrons are visualized as floating above and below the ring, with the electromagnetic fields they generate acting to keep the ring flat.
The circle symbol for aromaticity was introduced by Sir Robert Robinson and his student James Armit in 1925 and popularized starting in 1959 by the Morrison & Boyd textbook on organic chemistry. The proper use of the symbol is debated: some publications use it to any cyclic π system, while others use it only for those π systems that obey Hückel's rule. Some argue that, in order to stay in line with Robinson's originally intended proposal, the use of the circle symbol should be limited to monocyclic 6 π-electron systems. In this way the circle symbol for a six-center six-electron bond can be compared to the Y symbol for a three-center two-electron bond. |
Aromatic compound | Benzene and derivatives of benzene | Benzene and derivatives of benzene
thumb|170x170px|class=skin-invert-image|Substitution nomenclature of benzene
Benzene derivatives have from one to six substituents attached to the central benzene core. Examples of benzene compounds with just one substituent are phenol, which carries a hydroxyl group, and toluene with a methyl group. When there is more than one substituent present on the ring, their spatial relationship becomes important for which the arene substitution patterns ortho, meta, and para are devised. When reacting to form more complex benzene derivatives, the substituents on a benzene ring can be described as either activated or deactivated, which are electron donating and electron withdrawing respectively. Activators are known as ortho-para directors, and deactivators are known as meta directors. Upon reacting, substituents will be added at the ortho, para or meta positions, depending on the directivity of the current substituents to make more complex benzene derivatives, often with several isomers. Electron flow leading to re-aromatization is key in ensuring the stability of such products.
For example, three isomers exist for cresol because the methyl group and the hydroxyl group (both ortho para directors) can be placed next to each other (ortho), one position removed from each other (meta), or two positions removed from each other (para). Given that both the methyl and hydroxyl group are ortho-para directors, the ortho and para isomers are typically favoured. Xylenol has two methyl groups in addition to the hydroxyl group, and, for this structure, 6 isomers exist.
Arene rings can stabilize charges, as seen in, for example, phenol (C6H5–OH), which is acidic at the hydroxyl (OH), as charge on the oxygen (alkoxide –O−) is partially delocalized into the benzene ring. |
Aromatic compound | Non-benzylic arenes | Non-benzylic arenes
Although benzylic arenes are common, non-benzylic compounds are also exceedingly important. Any compound containing a cyclic portion that conforms to Hückel's rule and is not a benzene derivative can be considered a non-benzylic aromatic compound. |
Aromatic compound | Monocyclic arenes | Monocyclic arenes
Of annulenes larger than benzene, [12]annulene and [14]annulene are weakly aromatic compounds and [18]annulene, Cyclooctadecanonaene, is aromatic, though strain within the structure causes a slight deviation from the precisely planar structure necessary for aromatic categorization. Another example of a non-benzylic monocyclic arene is the cyclopropenyl (cyclopropenium cation), which satisfies Hückel's rule with an n equal to 0. Note, only the cationic form of this cyclic propenyl is aromatic, given that neutrality in this compound would violate either the octet rule or Hückel's rule.
Other non-benzylic monocyclic arenes include the aforementioned heteroarenes that can replace carbon atoms with other heteroatoms such as N, O or S. Common examples of these are the five-membered pyrrole and six-membered pyridine, both of which have a substituted nitrogen |
Aromatic compound | Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons | Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons
thumb|Hexabenzocoronene is a large polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon.
Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, also known as polynuclear aromatic compounds (PAHs) are aromatic hydrocarbons that consist of fused aromatic rings and do not contain heteroatoms or carry substituents. Naphthalene is the simplest example of a PAH. PAHs occur in oil, coal, and tar deposits, and are produced as byproducts of fuel burning (whether fossil fuel or biomass)."Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons – Occurrence in foods, dietary exposure and health effects" (PDF). European Commission, Scientific Committee on Food. December 4, 2002. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2022-10-09. As pollutants, they are of concern because some compounds have been identified as carcinogenic, mutagenic, and teratogenic.Scientific Opinion of the Panel on Contaminants in the Food Chain on a request from the European
Commission on Marine Biotoxins in Shellfish – Saxitoxin Group. The EFSA Journal (2009) 1019, 1-76. PAHs are also found in cooked foods. Studies have shown that high levels of PAHs are found, for example, in meat cooked at high temperatures such as grilling or barbecuing, and in smoked fish. They are also a good candidate molecule to act as a basis for the earliest forms of life. In graphene the PAH motif is extended to large 2D sheets. |
Aromatic compound | Reactions | Reactions
Aromatic ring systems participate in many organic reactions. |
Aromatic compound | Substitution | Substitution
In aromatic substitution, one substituent on the arene ring, usually hydrogen, is replaced by another reagent. The two main types are electrophilic aromatic substitution, when the active reagent is an electrophile, and nucleophilic aromatic substitution, when the reagent is a nucleophile. In radical-nucleophilic aromatic substitution, the active reagent is a radical.
An example of electrophilic aromatic substitution is the nitration of salicylic acid, where a nitro group is added para to the hydroxide substituent:
class=skin-invert-image|400px|Nitration of salicylic acid
class=skin-invert-image|right|300px|Aromatic nucleophilic substitution
Nucleophilic aromatic substitution involves displacement of a leaving group, such as a halide, on an aromatic ring. Aromatic rings usually nucleophilic, but in the presence of electron-withdrawing groups aromatic compounds undergo nucleophilic substitution. Mechanistically, this reaction differs from a common SN2 reaction, because it occurs at a trigonal carbon atom (sp2 hybridization). |
Aromatic compound | Hydrogenation | Hydrogenation
Hydrogenation of arenes create saturated rings. The compound 1-naphthol is completely reduced to a mixture of decalin-ol isomers.
class=skin-invert-image|500px|1-naphthol hydrogenation
The compound resorcinol, hydrogenated with Raney nickel in presence of aqueous sodium hydroxide forms an enolate which is alkylated with methyl iodide to 2-methyl-1,3-cyclohexandione:
class=skin-invert-image|600px|Resorcinol hydrogenation |
Aromatic compound | Dearomatization | Dearomatization
In dearomatization reactions the aromaticity of the reactant is lost. In this regard, the dearomatization is related to hydrogenation. A classic approach is Birch reduction. The methodology is used in synthesis.
class=skin-invert-image|none|thumb|356x356px|Dearomatization of benzene through the Birch reduction |
Aromatic compound | See also | See also
Aromatic substituents: Aryl, Aryloxy and Arenediyl
Asphaltene
Hydrodealkylation
Simple aromatic rings |
Aromatic compound | References | References |
Aromatic compound | External links | External links
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Aromatic compound | Table of Content | short description, Heteroarenes, Applications, Benzene ring model, Benzene and derivatives of benzene, Non-benzylic arenes, Monocyclic arenes, Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, Reactions, Substitution, Hydrogenation, Dearomatization, See also, References, External links |
Abbey | Short description | thumb|right|The cloister of Sénanque Abbey, Provence
alt=|thumb|Church of the former Bath Abbey, Somerset
thumb|right|An interior of the Bridgettine's Nådendal Abbey, a medieval Catholic monastery in Naantali, Finland
An abbey is a type of monastery used by members of a religious order under the governance of an abbot or abbess. Abbeys provide a complex of buildings and land for religious activities, work, and housing of Christian monks and nuns.
The concept of the abbey has developed over many centuries from the early monastic ways of religious men and women where they would live isolated from the lay community about them. Religious life in an abbey may be monastic. An abbey may be the home of an enclosed religious order or may be open to visitors. The layout of the church and associated buildings of an abbey often follows a set plan determined by the founding religious order.
Abbeys are often self-sufficient while using any abundance of produce or skill to provide care to the poor and needy, refuge to the persecuted, or education to the young. Some abbeys offer accommodation to people who are seeking spiritual retreat. There are many famous abbeys across the Mediterranean Basin and Europe.
thumb|Abbey of St Catherine, Mount Sinai |
Abbey | Monastic origins of the abbey | Monastic origins of the abbey |
Abbey | Ascetics and anchorites | Ascetics and anchorites
The earliest known Christian monasteries were groups of huts built near the residence of a famous ascetic or other holy person. Disciples wished to be close to their holy man or woman in order to study their doctrine or imitate their way of life.
In the earliest times of Christian monasticism, ascetics would live in social isolation but near a village church. They would subsist whilst donating any excess produce to the poor. However, increasing religious fervor about the ascetic's ways and or persecution of them would drive them further away from their community and further into solitude. For instance, the cells and huts of anchorites (religious recluses) have been found in the deserts of Egypt.
In 312 AD, Anthony the Great retired to the Thebaid region of Egypt to escape the persecution of the Emperor Maximian. Anthony was the best known of the anchorites of his time due to his degree of austerity, sanctity and his powers of exorcism. The deeper he withdrew into the wilderness, the more numerous his disciples became. They refused to be separated from him and built their cells close to him. This became a first true monastic community. According to August Neander, Anthony inadvertently became the founder of a new mode of living in common, Coenobitism. cites Church History, iii. p. 316, Clark's translation. |
Abbey | Laurae and Coenobia | Laurae and Coenobia
At Tabennae on the Nile, in Upper Egypt, Saint Pachomius laid the foundations for the coenobitical life by arranging everything in an organized manner. He built several monasteries, each with about 1,600 separate cells laid out in lines. These cells formed an encampment where the monks slept and performed some of their manual tasks. There were nearby large halls such as the church, refectory, kitchen, infirmary, and guest house for the monk's common needs. An enclosure protecting all these buildings gave the settlement the appearance of a walled village. This layout, known as the laurae (lanes), became popular throughout Israel.
As well as the "laurae", communities known as "caenobia" developed. These were monasteries where monks lived a common life together. The monks were not permitted to retire to the cells of a laurae before they had undergone a lengthy period of training. In time, this form of common life superseded that of the older laurae.
In the late 300s AD, Palladius visited the Egyptian monasteries. He described three hundred members of the coenobium of Panopolis. There were fifteen tailors, seven smiths, four carpenters, twelve camel-drivers and fifteen tanners. These people were divided into subgroups, each with its own "oeconomus". A chief steward was at the head of the monastery.
The produce of the monastery was brought to Alexandria for sale. The moneys raised were used to purchase stores for the monastery or were given away as charity. Twice in the year, the superiors of several coenobia met at the chief monastery, under the presidency of an "archimandrite" (the "chief of the fold" from the word, "miandra" (a sheepfold)) in order to make their reports. Chrysostom recorded the workings of a coenobia in the vicinity of Antioch in Syria. The monks lived in separate huts ("kalbbia") which formed a religious hamlet on the mountainside. They were subject to an abbot, and observed a common rule. |
Abbey | Great Lavra, Mount Athos | Great Lavra, Mount Athos
+ Great Lavra Monastery, Mount Athos(Lenoir, who named it Santa Laura) File:abbey 01.png A. Gateway
B. Chapels
C. Guesthouse
D. Church
E. Cloister
F. Fountain
G. Refectory
H. Kitchen
I. Monks' cells
K. Storehouses
L. Postern gate
M. Tower
The layout of the monastic coenobium was influenced by a number of factors. These included a need for defence, economy of space, and convenience of access. The layout of buildings became compact and orderly. Larger buildings were erected and defence was provided by strong outside walls. Within the walls, the buildings were arranged around one or more open courts surrounded by cloisters. The usual arrangement for monasteries of the Eastern world is exemplified in the plan of the convent of the Great Lavra at Mount Athos.
With reference to the diagram, right, the convent of the Great Lavra is enclosed within a strong and lofty blank stone wall. The area within the wall is between three and four acres (12,000 and 16,000 m2). The longer side is about in length. There is only one entrance, which is located on the north side (A), defended by three iron doors. Near the entrance is a large tower (M), a constant feature in the monasteries of the Levant (Eastern Mediterranean area). There is a small postern gate at L.
The enceinte comprises two large open courts, surrounded with buildings connected with cloister galleries of wood or stone. The outer court, which is the larger by far, contains the granaries and storehouses (K), the kitchen (H) and other offices connected with the refectory (G). Immediately adjacent to the gateway is a two-storied guest-house, entered from a cloister (C). The inner court is surrounded by a cloister (EE) from which one enters the monks' cells (II).
In the centre of this court stands the katholikon or conventual church, a square building with an apse of the cruciform domical Byzantine type, approached by a domed narthex. In front of the church stands a marble fountain (F), covered by a dome supported on columns.
Opening from the western side of the cloister, but actually standing in the outer court, is the refectory (G), a large cruciform (cross shaped) building, about square, decorated within with frescoes of saints. At the upper end is a semicircular recess, similar to the triclinium of the Lateran Palace in Rome, in which is placed the seat of the hegumenos or abbot. This apartment is chiefly used as a meeting place, with the monks usually taking their meals in their separate cells. |
Abbey | Adoption of the Roman villa plan | Adoption of the Roman villa plan
300px|thumb|right|The Abbey of Monte Cassino
Monasticism in the West began with the activities of Benedict of Nursia (born 480 AD). Near Nursia, a town in Perugia, Italy, a first abbey was established at Monte Cassino (529 AD). Between 520 and 700 AD, monasteries were built which were spacious and splendid. All the city states of Italy hosted a Benedictine convent as did the cities of England, France and Spain. By 1415 AD, the time of the Council of Constance, 15,070 Benedictine monasteries had been established.
The early Benedictine monasteries, including the first at Monte Cassino, were constructed on the plan of the Roman villa. The layout of the Roman villa was quite consistent throughout the Roman Empire and where possible, the monks reused available villas in sound repair. This was done at Monte Cassino.
However, over time, changes to the common villa lay out occurred. The monks required buildings which suited their religious and day-to-day activities. No overriding specification was demanded of the monks but the similarity of their needs resulted in uniformity of design of abbeys across Europe. Eventually, the buildings of a Benedictine abbey were built in a uniform lay out, modified where necessary, to accommodate local circumstances. |
Abbey | Abbey of St Gall | Abbey of St Gall
thumb|right|250px|The church of the Abbey of St Gall
The plan of the Abbey of Saint Gall (719 AD) in what is now Switzerland indicates the general arrangement of a Benedictine monastery of its day. According to the architect Robert Willis (architect) (1800–1875) the Abbey's lay out is that of a town of individual houses with streets running between them. The abbey was planned in compliance with the Benedictine rule that, if possible, a monastery should be self-contained. For instance, there was a mill, a bakehouse, stables, and cattle stalls. In all, there were thirty-three separate structures; mostly one level wooden buildings.
The Abbey church occupied the centre of a quadrangular area, about square. On the eastern side of the north transept of the church was the "scriptorium" or writing-room, with a library above.
The church and nearby buildings ranged about the cloister, a court about which there was a covered arcade which allowed sheltered movement between the buildings. The nave of the church was on the north boundary of the cloister.
On the east side of the cloister, on the ground floor, was the "pisalis" or "calefactory". This was a common room, warmed by flues beneath the floor. Above the common room was the dormitory. The dormitory opened onto the cloister and also onto the south transept of the church. This enabled the monks to attend nocturnal services. A passage at the other end of the dormitory lead to the "necessarium" (latrines).
On the south side of the cloister was the refectory. The kitchen, at the west end of the refectory was accessed via an anteroom and a long passage. Nearby were the bake house, brew house and the sleeping-rooms of the servants. The upper story of the refectory was called the "vestiarium" (a room where the ordinary clothes of the monks were stored).
On the western side of the cloister was another two-story building with a cellar on the ground floor and the larder and store-room on the upper floor. Between this building and the church was a parlour for receiving visitors. One door of the parlour led to the cloisters and the other led to the outer part of the Abbey.
Against the outer wall of the church was a school and headmaster's house. The school consisted of a large schoolroom divided in the middle by a screen or partition, and surrounded by fourteen little rooms, the "dwellings of the scholars". The abbot's home was near the school.
To the north of the church and to the right of the main entrance to the Abbey, was a residence for distinguished guests. To the left of the main entrance was a building to house poor travellers and pilgrims. There was also a building to receive visiting monks. These "hospitia" had a large common room or refectory surrounded by bed rooms. Each hospitium had its own brewhouse and bakehouse, and the building for more prestigious travellers had a kitchen and storeroom, with bedrooms for the guests' servants and stables for their horses. The monks of the Abbey lived in a house built against the north wall of the church.
The whole of the southern and western areas of the Abbey were devoted to workshops, stables and farm-buildings including stables, ox-sheds, goatstables, piggeries, and sheep-folds, as well as the servants' and labourers' quarters.
In the eastern part of the Abbey there was a group of buildings representing in layout, two complete miniature monasteries. That is, each had a covered cloister surrounded by the usual buildings such as the church, the refectory, the dormitory and so on. A detached building belonging to each contained a bathroom and a kitchen.
One of the miniature complexes was called the "oblati". These were the buildings for the novices. The other complex was a hospital or infirmary for the care of sick monks. This infirmary complex included a physician's residence, a physic garden, a drug store, and a chamber for the critically ill. There was also a room for bloodletting and purging. The physic garden occupied the north east corner of the Abbey.
In the southernmost area of the abbey was the workshop containing utilities for shoemakers, saddlers (or shoemakers, sellarii), cutlers and grinders, trencher-makers, tanners, curriers, fullers, smiths and goldsmiths. The tradesmen's living quarters were at the rear of the workshop. Here, there were also farm buildings, a large granary and threshing-floor, mills, and malthouse. At the south-east corner of the Abbey were hen and duck houses, a poultry-yard, and the dwelling of the keeper. Nearby was the kitchen garden which complemented the physic garden and a cemetery orchard.
Every large monastery had priories. A priory was a smaller structure or entities which depended on the monastery. Some were small monasteries accommodating five or ten monks. Others were no more than a single building serving as residence or a farm offices. The outlying farming establishments belonging to the monastic foundations were known as "villae" or "granges". They were usually staffed by lay-brothers, sometimes under the supervision of a monk. |
Abbey | Benedictine abbeys in England | Benedictine abbeys in England
thumb|right|200px|The remains of the church of Shrewsbury Abbey
Many of today's cathedrals in England were originally Benedictine monasteries. These included Canterbury, Chester, Durham, Ely, Gloucester, Norwich, Peterborough, Rochester, Winchester, and Worcester. Shrewsbury Abbey in Shropshire was founded as a Benedictine monastery by the Normans in 1083. |
Abbey | Westminster Abbey | Westminster Abbey
thumb|right|200px|Cloisters, Westminster AbbeyWestminster Abbey was founded in the tenth century by Saint Dunstan who established a community of Benedictine monks. The only traces of St Dunstan's monastery remaining are round arches and massive supporting columns of the undercroft and the Pyx Chamber.Abbey history Westminster Abbey organisation website.
The cloister and buildings lie directly to the south of the church. Parallel to the nave, on the south side of the cloister, was a refectory, with a lavatory at the door. On the eastern side, there was a dormitory, raised on a vaulted substructure and communicating with the south transept and a chapter house (meeting room). A small cloister lay to the south-east of the large cloister. Beyond that was an infirmary with a table hall and a refectory for those who were able to leave their chambers. At the west entrance to the Abbey, there was a house and a small courtyard for the abbot. |
Abbey | St Mary's Abbey, York | St Mary's Abbey, York
In 1055, St Mary's Abbey, York was built in England's north by the Order of Saint Benedict. It followed the common plan. The entrance to the abbey was through a strong gate on the northern side. Close to the entrance was a chapel. This was for visitors arriving at the Abbey to make their devotions. Near the gate was the hospitium (guest hall). The buildings are completely ruined, but the walls of the nave and the cloisters are still visible on the grounds of the Yorkshire Museum.
The Abbey was surrounded by fortified walls on three sides. The River Ouse bordered the fourth side. The stone walls remain as an excellent example of English abbey walls.St.Mary's Abbey York History organisation. |
Abbey | Reforms at the Abbey of Cluny | Reforms at the Abbey of Cluny
thumb|right|250px|Abbey of Cluny in lights
The Abbey of Cluny was founded by William I, Duke of Aquitaine in 910 AD at Cluny, Saône-et-Loire, France. The Abbey was built in the Romanesque style. The Abbey was noted for its strict observance of the Rule of Saint Benedict. However, reforms resulted in many departures from this precedent. The Cluniac Reforms brought focus to the traditions of monastic life, encouraging art and the caring of the poor. The reforms quickly spread by the founding of new abbey complexes and by adoption of the reforms by existing abbeys. By the twelfth century, the Abbey of Cluny was the head of an order consisting of 314 monasteries.
The church at the Abbey was commenced in 1089 AD by Hugh of Cluny, the sixth abbot. It was finished and consecrated by Pope Innocent II around 1132 AD. The church was regarded as one of the wonders of the Middle Ages. At in length, it was the largest church in Christendom until the completion of St Peter's Basilica at Rome. The church consisted of five naves, a narthex (ante-church) which was added in 1220 AD, and several towers. Together with the conventual buildings, it covered an area of twenty-five acres.
In the Dechristianization of France during the French Revolution in 1790 AD, the Abbey church was bought by the town and almost entirely destroyed. As of 2025, however, fragments of the original Abbey still stand and archaeological excavations have intermittently been conducted over the past century, yielding a massively important and rich source of information. |
Abbey | English Cluniac houses | English Cluniac houses
thumb|right|200px|Interior facing east, Paisley Abbey
The first English house of the Cluniac order was built at Lewes, Sussex. It was founded by William de Warenne, 1st Earl of Surrey in about 1077 AD. All but one of the Cluniac houses in Britain were known as priories, symbolizing their subordination to the Abbot of Cluny. All the Cluniac houses in England and Scotland were French colonies, governed by French priors who travelled to the Abbey of Cluny to consult or be consulted (unless the abbot of Cluny chose to come to Britain, which happened rarely). The priory at Paisley was an exception. In 1245 AD it was raised to the status of an abbey, answerable only to the Pope. |
Abbey | Abbeys of the Augustinian Canons | Abbeys of the Augustinian Canons
thumb|right|200px|The nave of St Botolph's Priory, Colchester
The Augustinian (or "Austin") canons were an order of regular clergy within the hierarchy of the Catholic church. They held a position between monks and secular canons. They were known as "Black canons" because of the colour of their habits. In 1105 AD, the first house of the order was established at St Botolph's Priory, Colchester, Essex.
The canons built very long naves to accommodate large congregations. The choirs were also long. Sometimes, as at Llanthony Priory and Christchurch, Dorset (Twynham), the choir was closed from the aisles. At other abbeys of the order, such as Bolton Abbey or Kirkham Priory, there were no aisles. The nave in the northern houses of the order often had only a north aisle (this is the case at Bolton, Brinkburn Priory and Lanercost Priory). The arrangement of the monastic buildings followed the ordinary plan. The prior's lodge was usually attached to the southwest angle of the nave.
The Austin canons' house at Thornton, Lincolnshire had a large and magnificent gatehouse. The upper floors of the gatehouse formed the guest-house. The chapter-house was octagonal in shape. |
Abbey | Augustinian abbeys | Augustinian abbeys |
Abbey | Premonstratensians (Norbertians) | Premonstratensians (Norbertians)
The Premonstratensian regular canons, or "White canons", were of an order founded in 1119 AD by Norbert of Xanten. The order was a reformed branch of the Augustinian canons. From a marshy area in the Forest of Coucy in the diocese of Laon, the order spread widely. Even in Norbert's lifetime, the order had built abbeys in Aleppo, Syria, and in the Kingdom of Jerusalem. Of the Abbey of Saint Samuel, Denys Pringle wrote, "The Premonstatensian abbey of Saint Samuel was a daughter house of Prémontré itself. Its abbot had the status of a suffragan of the patriarch of Jerusalem, with the right to a cross, but not to a mitre nor a ring."Pringle, Denys, The Churches of the Crusader Kingdom of Jerusalem: L-Z (excluding Tyre), Cambridge University Press, New York, 1998, p.86 It long maintained its rigid austerity, though in later years the abbey grew wealthier, and its members indulged in more frequent luxuries.
Just after 1140 AD, the Premonstratensians were brought to England. Their first settlement was at Newhouse Abbey, Lincolnshire, near the Humber tidal estuary. There were as many as thirty-five Premonstratensian abbeys in England. The head abbey in England was at Welbeck Abbey but the best preserved are Easby Abbey in Yorkshire, and Bayham Old Abbey in Kent.
The layout of Easby Abbey is irregular due to its position on the edge of a steep river bank. The cloister is duly placed on the south side of the church, and the chief buildings occupy their usual positions around it. However, the cloister garth (quadrangle), as at Chichester, is not rectangular, and thus, all the surrounding buildings are positioned in an awkward fashion. The church follows the plan adopted by the Austin canons in their northern abbeys, and has only one aisle to the north of the nave, while the choir is long, narrow and without an aisle. Each transept has an aisle to the east, forming three chapels.
The church at Bayham Old Abbey had no aisles in the nave or the choir. The latter terminated in a three-sided apse. The church is remarkable for its extreme narrowness in proportion to its length. While the building is long, it is not more than wide. Premonstratensian canons did not care to have congregations nor possessions. Therefore, they built their churches in the shape of a long room. |
Abbey | Cistercian abbeys | Cistercian abbeys
thumb|right|Cistercian Abbey of Sénanque
thumb|right|Cistercian Abbey of Sénanque
thumb|right| Jumièges Abbey, Normandy
The Cistercians, a Benedictine reform group, were established at Cîteaux in 1098 AD by Robert of Molesme, Abbot of Molesme, for the purpose of restoring, as far as possible, the literal observance of the Rule of Saint Benedict. La Ferté, Pontigny, Clairvaux, and Morimond were the first four abbeys to follow Cîteaux's example and others followed. The monks of Cîteaux created the well known vineyards of Clos-Vougeot and Romanée in Burgundy.
The Cistercian principle of rigid self-abnegation carried over to the design of the order's churches and buildings. The defining architectural characteristic of the Cistercian abbeys was extreme simplicity and plainness. Only a single, central tower was permitted, and that was usually very low. Unnecessary pinnacles and turrets were prohibited. The triforium was omitted. The windows were usually plain and undivided, and it was forbidden to decorate them with stained glass. All needless ornament was proscribed. The crosses were made of wood and the candlesticks of iron.
The same principle governed the choice of site for Cistercian abbeys in that a most dismal site might be improved by the building of an abbey. The Cistercian monasteries were founded in deep, well-watered valleys, always standing at a stream's edge. The building might extend over the water as is the case at Fountains Abbey. These valleys, now rich and productive, had a very different appearance when the brethren first chose them as their place of retreat. Wide swamps, deep morasses, tangled thickets, and wild, impassable forests were their prevailing features. Clara Vallis of St Bernard, now the "bright valley" was originally, the "Valley of Wormwood". It was an infamous den of robbers. cites Milman's Lat. Christ. vol. iii. p. 335. |
Abbey | Copts | Copts
The plan of a Coptic Orthodox monastery, from Lenoir, shows a church of three aisles, with cellular apses, and two ranges of cells on either side of an oblong gallery. |
Abbey | See also | See also
Fossanuova Abbey
Clairvaux Abbey
Cîteaux Abbey
Kirkstall Abbey
Loc-Dieu
Rievaulx Abbey
Strata Florida
Abbatial church of Notre-Dame de Mouzon
Gothic cathedrals and churches
List of abbeys and priories
Priory |
Abbey | References | References |
Abbey | Sources | Sources
Attribution
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Abbey | External links | External links
Monastery and abbey index on sacred-destinations.com
Abbeys of Provence, France
Abbey Pages on historyfish.net - info on abbeys and monastic life, images from Photochrom collection
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Abbey | Table of Content | Short description, Monastic origins of the abbey, Ascetics and anchorites, Laurae and Coenobia, Great Lavra, Mount Athos, Adoption of the Roman villa plan, Abbey of St Gall, Benedictine abbeys in England, Westminster Abbey, St Mary's Abbey, York, Reforms at the Abbey of Cluny, English Cluniac houses, Abbeys of the Augustinian Canons, Augustinian abbeys, Premonstratensians (Norbertians), Cistercian abbeys, Copts, See also, References, Sources, External links |
Annales school | short description |
The Annales school () is a group of historians associated with a style of historiography developed by French historians in the 20th century to stress long-term social history. It is named after its scholarly journal Annales. Histoire, Sciences Sociales, which remains the main source of scholarship, along with many books and monographs.See for recent issues The school has been influential in setting the agenda for historiography in France and numerous other countries, especially regarding the use of social scientific methods by historians, emphasizing social and economic rather than political or diplomatic themes.
The school deals primarily with late medieval and early modern Europe (before the French Revolution), with little interest in later topics. It has dominated French social history and heavily influenced historiography in Europe and Latin America. Prominent leaders include co-founders Lucien Febvre (1878–1956), Henri Hauser (1866–1946) and Marc Bloch (1886–1944). The second generation was led by Fernand Braudel (1902–1985) and included Georges Duby (1919–1996), Pierre Goubert (1915–2012), Robert Mandrou (1921–1984), Pierre Chaunu (1923–2009), Jacques Le Goff (1924–2014), and Ernest Labrousse (1895–1988). Institutionally it is based on the Annales journal, the SEVPEN publishing house, the (FMSH), and especially the 6th Section of the École pratique des hautes études, all based in Paris. A third generation was led by Emmanuel Le Roy Ladurie (1929–2023) and includes Jacques Revel,Since 1978, Revel has taught at the École des Hautes Études en Sciences Sociales (Paris), where he is (full professor); he served as president of the École from 1995 to 2004. and Philippe Ariès (1914–1984), who joined the group in 1978. The third generation stressed history from the point of view of mentalities, or . The fourth generation of Annales historians, led by Roger Chartier (born 1945), clearly distanced itself from the approach, replaced by the cultural and linguistic turn, which emphasizes the social history of cultural practices.
The main scholarly outlet has been the journal ("Annals of Economic and Social History"), founded in 1929 by Lucien Febvre and Marc Bloch, which broke radically with traditional historiography by insisting on the importance of taking all levels of society into consideration and emphasized the collective nature of mentalities. Its contributors viewed events as less fundamental than the mental frameworks that shaped decisions and practices. However, informal successor as head of the school was Le Roy Ladurie. Multiple responses were attempted by the school. Scholars moved in multiple directions, covering in disconnected fashion the social, economic, and cultural history of different eras and different parts of the globe. By the time of the crisis the school was building a vast publishing and research network reaching across France, Europe, and the rest of the world. Influence spread out from Paris, but few new ideas came in. Much emphasis was given to quantitative data, seen as the key to unlocking all of social history.One of numerous spin-off journals was (1986– ), devoted to quantitative history. However, the Annales ignored the developments in quantitative studies underway in the U.S. and Britain, which reshaped economic, political, and demographic research. An attempt to require an Annales-written textbook for French schools was rejected by the government.Hunt (1986) By 1980 postmodern sensibilities undercut confidence in overarching metanarratives. As Jacques Revel notes, the success of the Annales school, especially its use of social structures as explanatory forces, contained the seeds of its own downfall, for there is "no longer any implicit consensus on which to base the unity of the social, identified with the real".Jacques Revel and Lynn Hunt, "Microanalysis and the Construction of the Social", in Histories: French Constructions of the Past, ed. by Jacques Revel and Lynn Hunt (1995) 480. The Annales school kept its infrastructure, but lost its .On the decline of Annales, see Hunt (1986); for a summary of the movement, see Burke, French Historical Revolution, 106–107. |
Annales school | The journal | The journal
The journal began in Strasbourg as ; it moved to Paris and kept the same name from 1929 to 1939. It was successively renamed (1939–1942, 1945), (1942–1944), (1946–1994), and (1994– ).
In 1962, Braudel and Gaston Berger used Ford Foundation money and government funds to create a new independent foundation, the (FMSH), which Braudel directed from 1970 until his death. In 1970, the 6th Section and the Annales relocated to the FMSH building. FMSH set up elaborate international networks to spread the Annales gospel across Europe and the world. In 2013, it began publication of an English language edition, with all the articles translated.
The scope of topics covered by the journal is vast and experimental—there is a search for total history and new approaches. The emphasis is on social history, and very long-term trends, often using quantification and paying special attention to geographySee Lucien Febvre, (1922), translated as A Geographical Introduction to History (London, 1932). and to the intellectual world view of common people, or "mentality" (). Little attention is paid to political, diplomatic, or military history, or to biographies of famous men. Instead the Annales focused attention on the synthesizing of historical patterns identified from social, economic, and cultural history, statistics, medical reports, family studies, and even psychoanalysis. |
Annales school | Origins | Origins
The Annales was founded and edited by Marc Bloch and Lucien Febvre in 1929, while they were teaching at the University of Strasbourg and later in Paris. These authors, the former a medieval historian and the latter an early modernist, quickly became associated with the distinctive Annales approach, which combined geography, history, and the sociological approaches of the (many members of which were their colleagues at Strasbourg) to produce an approach which rejected the predominant emphasis on politics, diplomacy and war of many 19th and early 20th-century historians as spearheaded by historians whom Febvre called Les Sorbonnistes. Instead, they pioneered an approach to a study of long-term historical structures () over events and political transformations.Colin Jones, "Olwen Hufton's 'Poor', Richard Cobb's 'People', and the Notions of the longue durée in French Revolutionary Historiography", Past & Present, 2006 Supplement (Volume 1), pp. 178–203 in Project Muse Geography, material culture, and what later Annalistes called , or the psychology of the epoch, are also characteristic areas of study. The goal of the Annales was to undo the work of the Sorbonnistes, to turn French historians away from the narrowly political and diplomatic toward the new vistas in social and economic history.J.H. Hexter, "Fernand Braudel and the Monde Braudellien", Historians, pp. 61
Co-founder Marc Bloch (1886–1944) was a quintessential modernist who studied at the elite École Normale Supérieure, and in Germany, serving as a professor at the University of Strasbourg until he was called to the Sorbonne in Paris in 1936 as professor of economic history. Bloch's interests were highly interdisciplinary, influenced by the geography of Paul Vidal de la Blache (1845–1918) and the sociology of Émile Durkheim (1858–1917). His own ideas, especially those expressed in his masterworks, French Rural History (, 1931) and Feudal Society, were incorporated by the second-generation Annalistes, led by Fernand Braudel. |
Annales school | Precepts | Precepts
Georges Duby, a leader of the school, wrote that the history he taught:
relegated the sensational to the sidelines and was reluctant to give a simple accounting of events, but strove on the contrary to pose and solve problems and, neglecting surface disturbances, to observe the long and medium-term evolution of economy, society and civilisation.Georges Duby, Le dimanche de Bouvines (1973), forward
The Annalistes, especially Lucien Febvre, advocated a , or , a complete study of a historic problem. |
Annales school | Postwar | Postwar
Bloch was shot by the Gestapo during the German occupation of France in World War II for his active membership of the French Resistance, and Febvre carried on the Annales approach in the 1940s and 1950s. It was during this time that he mentored Braudel, who would become one of the best-known exponents of this school. Braudel's work came to define a "second" era of Annales historiography and was influential throughout the 1960s and 1970s, especially for his work on the Mediterranean region in the era of Philip II of Spain.
Braudel developed the idea, often associated with Annalistes, of different modes of historical time: (the quasi motionless history) of historical geography, the history of social, political and economic structures (), and the history of men and events, in the context of their structures.
While authors such as Emmanuel Le Roy Ladurie, Marc Ferro and Jacques Le Goff continue to carry the Annales banner, today the Annales approach has been less distinctive as more and more historians do work in cultural history, political history and economic history. |
Annales school | {{lang | Bloch's (1924)Translated as The Royal Touch: Monarchy and Miracles in France and England (1990) looked at the long-standing folk belief that the king could cure scrofula by his thaumaturgic touch. The kings of France and England indeed regularly practiced the ritual. Bloch was not concerned with the effectiveness of the royal touch—he acted instead like an anthropologist in asking why people believed it and how it shaped relations between king and commoner. The book was highly influential in introducing comparative studies (in this case France and England), as well as long durations ("longue durée") studies spanning several centuries, even up to a thousand years, downplaying short-term events. Bloch's revolutionary charting of mentalities, or , resonated with scholars who were reading Freud and Proust. In the 1960s, Robert Mandrou and Georges Duby harmonized the concept of history with Fernand Braudel's structures of historical time and linked mentalities with changing social conditions. A flood of studies based on these approaches appeared during the 1970s and 1980s. By the 1990s, however, history had become interdisciplinary to the point of fragmentation, but still lacked a solid theoretical basis. While not explicitly rejecting history, younger historians increasingly turned to other approaches. |
Annales school | Braudel | Braudel
Fernand Braudel became the leader of the second generation after 1945. He obtained funding from the Rockefeller Foundation in New York and founded the 6th Section of the Ecole Pratique des Hautes Etudes, which was devoted to the study of history and the social sciences. It became an independent degree-granting institution in 1975 under the name École des Hautes Études en Sciences Sociales (EHESS). Braudel's followers admired his use of the approach to stress slow, and often imperceptible effects of space, climate and technology on the actions of human beings in the past. The Annales historians, after living through two world wars and incredible political upheavals in France, were deeply uncomfortable with the notion that multiple ruptures and discontinuities created history. They preferred to stress inertia and the longue durée. Special attention was paid to geography, climate, and demography as long-term factors. They believed the continuities of the deepest structures were central to history, beside which upheavals in institutions or the superstructure of social life were of little significance, for history lies beyond the reach of conscious actors, especially the will of revolutionaries. They rejected the Marxist idea that history should be used as a tool to foment and foster revolutions. In turn the Marxists called them conservatives.Olivia Harris, "Braudel: Historical Time and the Horror of Discontinuity". History Workshop Journal (2004) (57): 161–174. Fulltext: OUP. Only Ariès was a true conservative—indeed a royalist.
Braudel's first book, (1949) (The Mediterranean and the Mediterranean World in the Age of Philip II) was his most influential. This vast panoramic view used ideas from other social sciences, employed effectively the technique of the longue durée, and downplayed the importance of specific events and individuals. It stressed geography but not . It was widely admired, but most historians did not try to replicate it and instead focused on their specialized monographs. The book dramatically raised the worldwide profile of the Annales School.
In 1951, historian Bernard Bailyn published a critique of , which he framed as dichotomizing politics and society. |
Annales school | Regionalism | Regionalism
Before Annales, French history supposedly happened in Paris. Febvre broke decisively with this paradigm in 1912, with his sweeping doctoral thesis on . The geography and social structure of this region overwhelmed and shaped the king's policies.
The Annales historians did not try to replicate Braudel's vast geographical scope in . Instead they focused on regions in France over long stretches of time. The most important was the study of The Peasants of Languedoc by Braudel's star pupil and successor Emmanuel Le Roy Ladurie.Emmanuel Le Roy Ladurie, The Peasants of Languedoc, (1966, translated 1977) excerpt and text search The regionalist tradition flourished especially in the 1960s and 1970s in the work of Pierre Goubert in 1960 on Beauvais and René Baehrel on Basse-Provence. Annales historians in the 1970s and 1980s turned to urban regions, including Pierre Deyon (Amiens), Maurice Garden (Lyon), Jean-Pierre Bardet (Rouen), Georges Freche (Toulouse), Gregory Hanlon (Agen and Layrac), and Jean-Claude Perrot (Caen). By the 1970s the shift was underway from the earlier economic history to cultural history and the history of mentalities.Ernst Hinrichs, "Provinzen, Landschaften, Regionen in Der Modernen Französischen Geschichtswissenschaft – Ein Essay", Blätter Für Deutsche Landesgeschichte 1994 130: 1–12. Fulltext: online edition |
Annales school | Impact outside France | Impact outside France
The Annales school systematically reached out to create an impact on other countries. Its success varied widely.Burke, French Historical Revolution (1990) ch 5. The Annales approach was especially well received in Italy and Poland. Franciszek Bujak (1875–1953) and Jan Rutkowski (1886–1949), the founders of modern economic history in Poland and of the journal (1931– ), were attracted to the innovations of the Annales school. Rutkowski was in contact with Bloch and others, and published in the Annales. After the Communists took control in the 1940s Polish scholars were safer working on the Middle Ages and the early modern era rather than contemporary history. After the "Polish October" of 1956 the Sixth Section in Paris welcomed Polish historians and exchanges between the circle of the Annales and Polish scholars continued until the early 1980s. The reciprocal influence between the French school and Polish historiography was particularly evident in studies on the Middle Ages and the early modern era studied by Braudel.Anita Krystyna Shelton, The Democratic Idea in Polish History and Historiography (1989). Even the Marxist journal , founded in 1953, had an Annales flavor.
In South America the Annales approach became popular. From the 1950s Federico Brito Figueroa was the founder of a new Venezuelan historiography based largely on the ideas of the Annales School. Brito Figueroa carried his conception of the field to all levels of university study, emphasizing a systematic and scientific approach to history and placing it squarely in the social sciences. Spanish historiography was influenced by the "Annales School" starting in 1950 with Jaume Vicens Vives (1910–1960).Nil Santiáñez-Tió, "Temporalidad y discurso histórico: Propuesta de una renovación metodológica de la historia de la literatura española moderna". [Temporality and Historical Discourse: Proposal of a Methodological Renewal of the History of Modern Spanish Literature]. Hispanic Review 1997 65(3): 267–290. Fulltext: in Jstor In Mexico, exiled Republican intellectuals extended the Annales approach, particularly from the Center for Historical Studies of El Colegio de México, the leading graduate studies institution of Latin America.
British historians, apart from a few Marxists, were generally hostile. Academic historians decidedly sided with Geoffrey Elton's The Practice of History against Edward Hallett Carr's What Is History? One of the few British historians who were sympathetic towards the work of the Annales school was Hugh Trevor-Roper. Among American academics, founding figure in American history of technology Lynn White Jr. dedicated his seminal and controversial book Medieval Technology and Social Change to Annales founder Marc Bloch. Both the American and the Annales historians picked up important family reconstitution techniques from French demographer Louis Henry.Burke, French Historical Revolution (1990), pp 56, 96–100.
The Wageningen school centered on Bernard Slicher van Bath was viewed internationally as a Dutch counterpart of the Annales school, although Slicher van Bath himself vehemently rejected the idea of a quantitative "school" of historiography.
The Annales school has been cited as a key influence in the development of World Systems Theory by sociologist Immanuel Wallerstein.Wallerstein, Immanuel M. 2004. World-Systems Analysis: An Introduction. Durham, NC: Duke University Press. |
Annales school | Current | Current
The current leader is Roger Chartier, who is Directeur d'Études at the École des Hautes Études en Sciences Sociales in Paris, Professeur in the Collège de France, and Annenberg Visiting professor of history at the University of Pennsylvania. He frequently lectures and teaches in the United States, Spain, Mexico, Brazil and Argentina. His work in Early Modern European History focuses on the history of education, the history of the book and the history of reading. Recently, he has been concerned with the relationship between written culture as a whole and literature (particularly theatrical plays) for France, England and Spain. His work in this specific field (based on the criss-crossing between literary criticism, bibliography, and sociocultural history) is connected to broader historiographical and methodological interests which deal with the relation between history and other disciplines: philosophy, sociology, anthropology.
Chartier's typical undergraduate course focuses upon the making, remaking, dissemination, and reading of texts in early modern Europe and America. Under the heading of "practices", his class considers how readers read and marked up their books, forms of note-taking, and the interrelation between reading and writing from copying and translating to composing new texts. Under the heading of "materials", his class examines the relations between different kinds of writing surfaces (including stone, wax, parchment, paper, walls, textiles, the body, and the heart), writing implements (including styluses, pens, pencils, needles, and brushes), and material forms (including scrolls, erasable tables, codices, broadsides and printed forms and books). Under the heading of "places", his class explores where texts were made, read, and listened to, including monasteries, schools and universities, offices of the state, the shops of merchants and booksellers, printing houses, theaters, libraries, studies, and closets. The texts for his course include the Bible, translations of Ovid, Hamlet, Don Quixote, Montaigne's essays, Pepys's diary, Richardson's Pamela, and Franklin's autobiography. |
Annales school | See also | See also
École des hautes études en sciences sociales
Historiography
Rural history
Nouvelle histoire
Structuralism
Social history
David Nirenberg § Anti-Judaism |
Annales school | References | References |
Annales school | Further reading | Further reading |
Annales school | About the School | About the School
Aurell i Cardona, Jaume. "Autobiographical Texts as Historiographical Sources: Rereading Fernand Braudel and Annie Kriegel", Biography, Volume 29, Number 3, Summer 2006, pp. 425–445 in Project Muse
Bintliff, John L. (ed.), The Annales School and archaeology, Leicester : Leicester University Press (1991),
Burguière, André. L'École des Annales: Une histoire intellectuelle. Paris: Odile Jacob. 2006. Pp. 366. (English edition) Annales School: An Intellectual History. Ithaca NY: Cornell University Press. 2009. Pp. 309
Burke, Peter. The French Historical Revolution: The Annales School 1929–89, (1990), the major study in English excerpt and text search
Carrard, Philippe. "Figuring France: The Numbers and Tropes of Fernand Braudel", Diacritics, Vol. 18, No. 3 (Autumn, 1988), pp. 2–19 in JSTOR
Carrard, Philippe. Poetics of the New History: French Historical Discourse from Braudel to Chartier, (1992)
Clark, Stuart, ed. The Annales School: Critical Assessments (4 vol, 1999)
Crifò, Giuliano. "Scuola delle Annales e storia del diritto: la situazione italiana", Mélanges de l'École française de Rome, antiquité, vol. No. 93, (1981), pp. 483-494 in Persée
Dewald, Jonathan. Lost Worlds: The Emergence of French Social History, 1815–1970 (2006) 250pp excerpt and text search
Dosse, Francois. New History in France: The Triumph of the Annales, (1994, first French edition, 1987) excerpt and text search
Fink, Carole. Marc Bloch: A Life in History, (1989) excerpt and text search
Forster, Robert. "Achievements of the Annales School", The Journal of Economic History, Vol. 38, No. 1, (Mar., 1978), pp. 58–76 in JSTOR
Friedman, Susan W. Marc Bloch, Sociology and Geography: Encountering Changing Disciplines (1996) excerpt and text search
Harris, Olivia. "Braudel: Historical Time and the Horror of Discontinuity", History Workshop Journal, Issue 57, Spring 2004, pp. 161–174 in Project Muse
Herubel, Jean-Pierre V. M. "Historiography's Horizon and Imperative: Febvrian Annales Legacy and Library History as Cultural History", Libraries & Culture, 39#3 (2004), pp. 293–312 in Project Muse
Hexter, J. H. "Fernand Braudel and the Monde Braudellien", Journal of Modern History, 1972, vol. 44, pp. 480–539 in JSTOR
Hufton, Olwen. "Fernand Braudel", Past and Present, No. 112. (Aug., 1986), pp. 208–213. in JSTOR
Hunt, Lynn. "French History in the Last Twenty Years: the Rise and Fall of the Annales Paradigm". Journal of Contemporary History 1986 21(2): 209–224. Fulltext: in Jstor
Huppert, George. "Lucien Febvre and Marc Bloch: The Creation of the Annales". The French Review 55#4 (1982), pp. 510–513 in JSTOR
Iggers, G.G. Historiography in the Twentieth Century: From Scientific Objectivity to the Postmodern Challenge (1997), ch.5
Leroux, Robert, Histoire et sociologie en France: de l'histoire-science à la sociologie durkheimienne, Paris, Presses universitaires de France, 1998.
Long, Pamela O. "The Annales and the History of Technology", Technology and Culture, 46#1 (2005), pp. 177–186 in Project Muse
Megill, Allan. "Coherence and Incoherence in Historical Studies: From the Annales School to the New Cultural History", New Literary History, 35#2 (2004), pp. 207–231 in Project Muse
Rubin, Miri. The Work of Jacques Le Goff and the Challenges of Medieval History (1997) 272 pages excerpts and text search
Moon, David. "Fernand Braudel and the Annales School" online edition
Poirrier, Philippe. Aborder l'histoire, Paris, Seuil, 2000.
Roberts, Michael. "The Annales school and historical writing". in Peter Lambert and Phillipp Schofield, eds. Making History: An Introduction to the History and Practices of a Discipline. (2004), pp 78–92 online edition
Schilling, Derek. "Everyday Life and the Challenge to History in Postwar France: Braudel, Lefebvre, Certeau", Diacritics, Volume 33, Number 1, Spring 2003, pp. 23–40 in Project Muse
Steiner, Frederick. "Material Life: Human Ecology and the Annales School", Landscape Architecture Volume 76, Number 1, pp. 69–75.
Stirling, Katherine. "Rereading Marc Bloch: the Life and Works of a Visionary Modernist". History Compass 2007 5#2: 525–538. in History Compass
Stoianovich, Traian. French Historical Method: The Annales Paradigm, (1976)
Trevor-Roper, H. R. "Fernand Braudel, the Annales, and the Mediterranean", The Journal of Modern History, 44#4 (1972), pp. 468–479 in JSTOR |
Annales school | Major books and essays from the school | Major books and essays from the school
Ariès, Philippe et al. eds, A History of Private Life (5 vols. 1987–94)
Bloch, Marc. Les Rois Thaumaturges (1924), translated as The Royal Touch: Monarchy and Miracles in France and England (1990)
Bloch, Marc. Feudal Society: Vol 1: The Growth and Ties of Dependence (1989); Feudal Society: Vol 2: Social Classes and Political Organisation(1989) excerpt and text search
Bloch, Marc. French Rural History: An Essay on Its Basic Characteristics (1972)
Braudel, Fernand. La Méditerranée et le Monde Méditerranéen à l'Epoque de Philippe II (1949) (translated as The Mediterranean and the Mediterranean World in the Age of Philip II excerpt and text search vol. 1)
Braudel, Fernand. Civilisation Matérielle, Economie et Capitalisme XVe–XVIIIe Siècle (3 vol. 1979) (translated as Capitalism and Material Life; excerpt and text search vol. 1; excerpt and text search vol 3)
Burguière, André, and Jacques Revel. Histoire de la France (1989), textbook
Chartier, Roger. Inscription and Erasure: Literature and Written Culture from the Eleventh to the Eighteenth Century (2007) excerpt and text search
Earle, P., ed. Essays in European Economic History, 1500–1800, (1974), translated articles from Annales
Ferro, Marc, ed. Social Historians in Contemporary France: Essays from "Annales", (1972)
Goubert, Pierre. The French Peasantry in the Seventeenth Century (1986) excerpt and text search
Goubert, Pierre. The Ancien Régime, 1600–1750 (1974)
Le Roy Ladurie, Emmanuel. Montaillou: Cathars and Catholics in a French Village, 1294–1324 (1978) excerpt and text search
Le Roy Ladurie, Emmanuel. The Peasants of Languedoc (1966; English translation 1974) search
Hunt, Lynn, and Jacques Revel (eds). Histories: French Constructions of the Past. The New Press. 1994. (A collection of 64 essays with many pieces from the Annales). |
Annales school | Historiography from the school | Historiography from the school
Bloch, Marc. Méthodologie Historique (1988); originally conceived in 1906 but not published until 1988; revised in 1996
Bloch, Marc. Apologie pour l'histoire ou Métier d'historien (1949), translated as The Historian's Craft (1953) excerpt of 1992 introduction by Peter Burke (historian), and text search
Braudel, Fernand. Ecrits sur l'histoire (1969), reprinted essays; translated as On History, (1980) excerpt and text search
includes Braudel, Fernand. "Histoire et Science Sociale: La Longue Durée" (1958) Annales E.S.C., 13:4 October–December 1958, 725–753
Braudel, Fernand. "Personal Testimony". Journal of Modern History 1972 44(4): 448–467. in JSTOR
Burke, Peter, ed. A New Kind of History From the Writings of Lucien Febvre, (1973)
Duby, Georges. History Continues, (1991, translated 1994)
Febvre, Lucien. A New Kind of History: From the Writings of Lucien Febvre ed. by Peter Burke (1973) translated articles from Annales
Le Roy Ladurie, Emmanuel. The Mind and Method of the Historian (1981)
Le Roy Ladurie, Emmanuel. The Territory of the Historian (1979)
Le Goff, Jacques and Paul Archambault. "An Interview with Jacques Le Goff". Historical Reflections 1995 21(1): 155–185.
Le Goff, Jacques, History and Memory (1996) excerpt and text search
Revel, Jacques, and Lynn Hunt, eds. Histories: French Constructions of the Past, (1995). 654pp
Revel, Jacques, ed. Political Uses of the Past: The Recent Mediterranean Experiences (2002) excerpt and text search
Vovelle, M. Ideologies and Mentalities (1990) |
Annales school | External links | External links
Free access to all issues of the Annales from 1929 to 2002.
Recent issues of Annales: Histoire, Sciences Sociales (2003–present).
Professor David Moon, "Fernand Braudel and the Annales School" (lecture 2005)
Biography of Fernand Braudel.
Detailed bibliographies of major historians.
Histoire et mesure (1986-200 ), articles on quantitative history. Full text of articles.
Category:20th century
Category:Historical schools
Category:Historiography of France
Category:Historiography
Category:Interdisciplinary historical research
Category:History journals
Category:Sociology journals
Category:Academic journals established in 1929
Category:Academic journals published in France
Category:School for Advanced Studies in the Social Sciences |
Annales school | Table of Content | short description, The journal, Origins, Precepts, Postwar, {{lang, Braudel, Regionalism, Impact outside France, Current, See also, References, Further reading, About the School, Major books and essays from the school, Historiography from the school, External links |
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